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New school counselor's perception of preparedness

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New school counselor's perception of preparedness

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New School Counselor’s Perception of Preparedness

by

Willa Marissa Flax

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2023

© Copyright by Willa Marissa Flax 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Willa Marissa Flax certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Bradley Ermeling
Cheryl Holcomb-McCoy
Rufus Spann
Marsha Boveja Riggio, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
School counselors in training receive support from their preparation programs; upon graduation,
the expectation is that novice school counselors have the necessary tools to meet the needs of
their students and the schoolwide community. Understanding the collective experience of school
counselors is crucial in determining if and how they were sufficiently prepared to meet the
demands of their role. The purpose of this qualitative study was to gain insight into the
perceptions of preparedness of new school counselors. In addition, this study attempted to
identify the emergent challenges resulting from being underprepared and determine how new
school counselors envision transformational change in the preparation experience. This study
sought to expand upon and highlight the unique challenges and needs of the novice school
counseling population. Coding and analyses identified nine emergent themes: the enmeshment of
graduate programs, the acquisition of internship and practicum placements, prior experience,
student behaviors, other assigned duties, the only school counselor, administration, elementary
school counselors, and special education. Implications for school counseling graduate programs
and best practices for supporting school counselors in training are discussed.
Keywords: counselor trainees, pre-service counselors, counselors in training, novice
school counselor, school counseling program, school counselor, school counseling, social
cognitive theory, phenomenology, school district, graduate school, university, preparedness
program, self-concept, self-efficacy, New York, New York State, New York State School
Counseling Association, and NYSSCA

v
Dedication
To the little girl who always believed she could be anything she set her mind to:
All of your dreams can and have come true because
you made them a reality.

To my loving family who have always supported all of my dreams and ambitions.

For my father whose words of wisdom and strength inspired this journey.

vi
Acknowledgments
Four people have guided me throughout this process. Their support, insight, critical
reflection, commitment to education, and collaborative partnership means the world to me. You
have my utmost gratitude. Thank you to Dr. Marsha Riggio, dissertation chairperson, and my
dissertation committee members: Dr. Bradley Ermeling, Dr. Cheryl Holcomb-McCoy, and Dr.
Rufus Spann.
To my cohort members of the Ed.D. program: Through personal and professional
circumstances, an unrelenting pandemic, and a full-time graduate program, we have overcome
and succeeded. It has been an opportunity of a lifetime to collaborate with some of the most
exceptional change agents, locally and globally. Together, I know that we will make the world a
better place for everyone.
To my participants: Thank you for taking a leap of faith and coming on this journey with
me. Your courage and experiences were central to this research paper and are essential as we
rethink educational preparation and trigger systemic change.
Last but not least, my family and friends: Thank you for your love and unwavering
support throughout the past 3 years. From the late nights, the many assignments, and the
much-needed vent sessions, words will never truly capture how lucky I am to have you in
my life. You have and will always hold a special place in my heart.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study ...........................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................2
Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................................4
New School Counselors ...........................................................................................4
School Districts ........................................................................................................8
University Counseling Programs ...........................................................................10
Purpose and Research Questions .......................................................................................11
Research Questions ................................................................................................12
Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................12
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology ...................................................13
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................14
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations ....................................................................16
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................18
Chapter Two: Literature Review ...................................................................................................20
Search Description .............................................................................................................21
Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................21
Social Cognitive Theory ........................................................................................21

viii
Systems Approach of School Counseling ..........................................................................24
Preparedness Issues ................................................................................................25
School Counselors .................................................................................................26
School Counselor Demographics ...........................................................................27
American School Counselor Association ..............................................................30
The History of School Counseling .........................................................................34
Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs ......40
New York State School Counseling Mandates ......................................................41
Present State of New York State School Counseling ............................................45
Analyzing the System Approach of School Counseling ....................................................46
School Counselor or Guidance Counselor? ...........................................................47
Coronavirus Pandemic ...........................................................................................48
Chapter Three: Methodology .........................................................................................................51
Research Design .................................................................................................................51
Research Questions ............................................................................................................52
Research Setting.................................................................................................................53
Participants .........................................................................................................................53
Target and Accessible Population and Sample ......................................................53
Sampling Method ...................................................................................................54
Recruitment ............................................................................................................54
Data Collection ..................................................................................................................56
Demographic Survey .............................................................................................56
Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................56

ix
Procedures ..............................................................................................................57
Confidentiality Parameters .....................................................................................58
Data Management ..................................................................................................58
Dissemination of Findings .....................................................................................59
Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................59
Descriptive Analysis ..............................................................................................60
Thematic Content Analysis ....................................................................................60
Reliability ...............................................................................................................61
Validity ..................................................................................................................62
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................62
Chapter Four: Research Findings ...................................................................................................64
Findings..............................................................................................................................67
Analysis of Research Question One ..................................................................................70
The Enmeshment of Graduate Programs ...............................................................70
The Acquisition of Internship and Practicum Placements .....................................71
Prior Experiences ...................................................................................................73
Analysis of Research Question Two ..................................................................................76
Student Behaviors ..................................................................................................76
Other Assigned Duties ...........................................................................................78
The Only School Counselor ...................................................................................82
Analysis of Research Question Three ................................................................................85
Administration .......................................................................................................85
Elementary School Counselors ..............................................................................88

x
Special Education...................................................................................................90
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................93
Chapter Five: Conclusions, Discussion, and Suggestions for Future Research ............................94
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................95
Discussion ..........................................................................................................................95
Graduate Curriculum .............................................................................................96
Practicum and Internship .......................................................................................97
Suggestions for Future Research .....................................................................................102
Recommendations ................................................................................................103
References ....................................................................................................................................108
Appendix A: IRB Approval .........................................................................................................127
Appendix B: Social Media Recruitment Message .......................................................................128
Appendix C: Demographic Survey and Interview Contact Form ................................................129
Appendix D: Informed Consent ...................................................................................................131
Appendix E: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................134

xi
List of Tables
Table 1. Respondent Race/Ethnicity ..............................................................................................28
Table 2. Respondent Age ...............................................................................................................29
Table 3. Years in the Profession ....................................................................................................30
Table 4. Theme Development ........................................................................................................65
Table 5. Demographic Survey Results ...........................................................................................69

xii
List of Figures
Figure 1. NYSSCA & University Partnership .............................................................................106

1

Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
The counseling profession is one that is constantly evolving (Blake, 2020; Cholewa et al.,
2020; Cinotti, 2014; Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2001; Lambie & Williamson, 2004;
McAllister, 2013; Patton, 2019; Smith, 2011). The traditional counselor was known as a
vocational counselor (Cinotti, 2014; Hartung, 2010; Lambie & Williamson, 2004). Their job was
to help navigate the postsecondary student experience into the workforce (Gysbers, 2001;
Hartung, 2010). Today these counselors would be referred to as career counselors (Lambie &
Williamson, 2004), or those who disseminate advice regarding academic trajectories in the hopes
of matching a student’s interests and talents to their scholastic and professional ambitions
(Gysbers, 2001; Lee & Elkstorm, 1987, as cited in McAllister, 2013).
Over the course of the 20th century, the roles of school counselors magnified with each
decade (Goodman-Scott, 2013; Lambie & Williamson, 2004). The earlier part of the century
included themes of evaluation, vocational guidance, and educational placement. Mid-century
saw the advent of socio-personal counseling with a focus on analyzing student development
through a holistic lens. The close of the century noted services in special education,
coordination-type responsibilities, in addition to measures for accountability (Lambie &
Williamson, 2004). Counselors also address needs and concerns including school violence,
substance use, and mental health challenges, in addition to changing family dynamics (Gysbers,
2001).
The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) developed a National Model that
provides foundational programming for counselors to support and refine student achievement
(ASCA, 2019a; Fye et al., 2022). This National Model aims to elucidate counselors on their
roles, responsibilities, and best practices, to meet the needs of their students (Fye et al., 2022).
2

Despite expanding roles and purposes (Blake, 2020; Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2001;
Lambie & Williamson, 2004; McAllister, 2013; Smith, 2011), school counselor responsibilities
have not narrowed in focus. Counselors have taken on the role of advisor to their students, in
addition to a plethora of personal, institutional, and professional necessities. On any given day,
the expectation is to counsel, educate, supervise, research, advocate, and lead (Harrichand et al.,
2021). Given the ever-evolving school counseling dynamics and the breadth of responsibilities,
counselors, especially new school counselors, face stress, in the forms of role ambiguity, role
conflict, and the sentiment of feeling overloaded (Blake, 2020; Dahir et al., 2019; Fye et al.,
2022; Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2010; Kim & Lambie, 2018; Lambie & Williamson,
2004; Patton, 2019; Savitz-Romer et al., 2021; Villares et al., 2022).
Background of the Problem
The field of school counseling is ever-changing. Due to the continuous expansion of and
lack of consistency across counselor roles and responsibilities, challenges have inadvertently
emerged in the field of school counseling. Historically, problems in the field center around three
areas: school counselor practice, school districts, and university counseling programs. First,
school counselors traditionally have held equivocally large roles and responsibilities (Kozlowski
& Huss, 2013), in part due to an expanse in job function (Blake, 2020; Cholewa et al., 2020;
Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2001; Lambie & Williamson, 2004; McAllister, 2013; Smith,
2011). As a result of increased job demands, school counselors face a multitude of challenges
(Goodman-Scott, 2013; Kim & Lambie, 2018; Trolley, 2011) as they adapt and progress into
their careers (Goodman-Scott et al., 2020). While there is a limited amount of research about
novice school counselors (Bledsoe et al., 2021), it is clear that there is a disparity between the job
3

requirements and what the actual job expectations are of a school counselor (Goodman-Scott,
2013). Inconsistencies between what is expected and the totality of the school counselor role are
such that it has the potential to create stress and burnout (Blake, 2020; Goodman-Scott, 2013;
Kim & Lambie, 2018; Lambie & Williamson, 2004; Mullen et al., 2018, 2021; Patton, 2019).
Secondly, upon receiving a job within the K–12 counseling profession, novice counselors
may not receive the support needed from district personnel to acclimate into the workplace
(Curry & Bickmore, 2012). District-level supervisors are the individuals who can clarify the role
of the counselor, which oftentimes remains unclear (Trolley, 2011). Administrators can also
provide the support needed to streamline the school counselors’ adjustment to their new careers.
While counseling district leaders can play a significant role in this pivotal transition, research is
sparse surrounding their point of view (Goodman-Scott et al., 2020; Robertson et al., 2016) and
the counselors' resulting experience (Bledsoe et al., 2021). Where practicum and internship
experiences may have provided opportunities for school counselors in training to consult and
discuss student cases, without the guise of a supervisor, counselors no longer have similar
opportunities before they are required to make certain decisions (Bledsoe et al., 2021; Fye et al.,
2020). Interestingly, from a historical standpoint, professional development opportunities have
largely been based on the administrator’s principles and beliefs, as opposed to the novice
counselors’ hopes and intentions (Bledsoe et al., 2021; Mason & Perera-Diltz, 2010). As a result,
uncertainty on the part of the counselor has the potential to emerge due to the inconsistencies
between the role of the counselor, the lack of support offered by the district, and the insufficient
training received by graduate school programs (Goodman-Scott, 2015).
Thirdly, school counselors, therefore, rely heavily on their graduate preparedness
programs to help meet the needs of 21st-century students (Kozlowski & Huss, 2013). A
4

challenge remains for preparedness programs to provide the foundation for counselors in training
to gain exposure to relevant topics vis-à-vis graduate courses that address the subject matter
about the evolving K–12 student population. However, the research shows that graduate
programs, for example, are not uniformly infused with elements of multiculturalism, military
culture, spirituality, and sexual identity education (Barrio Minto & Hightower, 2020; La Guardia,
2021). Counselors in training are also not always learning about issues around substance use
disorder (SUD) and behavioral/process addiction (BPA; Holman et al., 2019; La Guardia, 2021),
antiracist pedagogy, critical race frameworks (Wilson et al., 2021), and ethical decision-making
skills coupled with student morals, integrity, and reflective practices (Levitt et al., 2019).
Graduate school cannot completely mimic the contextual experiences that a fully immersed
counselor will encounter in the field (Goodman-Scott, 2013) as the role of a school counselor
and their daily duties do not align with their graduate-level training (Blake, 2020; Patton, 2019).
However, school counseling students should be educated in graduate-level programs to prepare
them to become leaders, supporters, and change agents in academic institutions through the
implementation of comprehensive school counseling programs (American School Counselor
Association [ASCA], 2020; Goodman-Scott et al., 2020).
Statement of the Problem
The impact of school counselors not being prepared in the counseling field centers
around three areas: new school counselors, school districts, and university counseling programs.
New School Counselors
Counselors need to understand the rising mental-health challenges youth are facing today.
By identifying students who may be struggling, counselors can provide them with short-term
counseling and/or local community resources. Without these skills, counselors may not
5

understand struggles students have around performing academically, involvement in
extracurricular activities, experiencing bullying, having suicidal ideation, feeling the pressure of
social media, and other issues. Most recently, one of the most controversial topics is around
gender dynamics. For example, transgendered children experience a host of challenges that vary
widely among schools, districts, and states. While each state has differing governances,
counselors that cannot clarify these policies for students cannot ensure that a school is a safe and
welcoming environment for all, and a place where each student feels respected and valued
(Roberts, 2017).
Given this, new school counselors may not always collaborate with families and the
community and in turn, not connect them with local resources to ensure student support and
safety. In addition, a difficult topic for many students to discuss is immigration. Counselors may
not be able to support students whose families may be impacted by their immigration status or
potential deportation. By not familiarizing themselves with and providing community resources
to students and their families, counselors are not supporting these students by making sure they
feel safe and connected to the schoolwide community. When counselors cannot ensure students
are connected to the school and staff, racial teasing, intimidation and/or bullying issues may
result from other students.
Another challenge that new school counselors face is addressing the inequities (e.g.,
racial, economic, single v. two parent households, resources, etc.) between affluent students and
their low socio-economic counterparts in regard to post-high school opportunities. Especially,
but not limited to, post-secondary educational, vocational, or professional opportunities,
counselors are not necessarily collaborating with local companies, businesses, communities, and
6

faith-based organizations to provide students and families with opportunities to create equitable
opportunities for all students to be competitive post-high school graduation (Roberts, 2017).
Counselors are also required to assist students in planning for life post-graduation. Ill-
prepared counselors that are not having conversations earlier with students about finances,
careers, educational opportunities, and other areas, are contributing to them not being prepared
for their future. As part of their overarching role, ASCA (2021a) maintains that school
counselors are to deliver programs to their students encompassing three domains: academic,
social/emotional, and career development. Each component affects the others, and its
recommended to start working on these programs as early as kindergarten and pre-K so that all
students feel supported in each domain (ASCA, 2021a). Students who are not given guidance in
these areas may experience the need for remediation and may not be knowledgeable about or
prepared to engage in post-secondary career opportunities (ASCA, 2021a).
Additionally, a growing challenge for counselors is being able to ensure a balanced
social, emotional, and academic life for students. Creating balance goes hand-in-hand with
ensuring that counselors are able to offer social-emotional and academic support within the
district’s comprehensive school counseling program. Counselors may not always feel
empowered to provide class-based teacher support within classrooms and offer small group
counseling or individual sessions. When lacking this empowerment, students suffer because their
motivation can diminish. Moreover, it can cause a decline in the performance of tasks and
assignments. Learning gaps can also emerge. In addition, challenges can become evident for
students causing social withdrawal from peers and teachers, pervasive negativity or irritability,
and decreased attendance.
7

Recently, the U.S. Surgeon General, Vivek Murthy, highlighted the surge in mental
health needs of children during the annual State of the Union address, referring to it as “the
defining public health crisis of our time” (Peetz, 2023). During a crucial time when adolescents
are in the process of developing their self-identities and becoming more self-aware of the
surrounding world, social media is adversely impacting the mental health of children globally
(Langreo, 2023). The growth of social media usage has resulted in greater sensations of
seclusion, tension, and inadequacy as children and adolescents continue to measure themselves
against others (Langreo, 2023). While an important topic to discuss societally, it has been
recommended that the mental health needs of our students, including (but not limited to) the
growing number of children exhibiting signs of mental health challenges such as anxiety and
depression, should be addressed within schools, as they have been flagged as critical (Peetz,
2023). Given the enormity of this assignment, when considering the plethora of additional
responsibilities incumbent upon school counselors, there is a need to increase mental health
support and to hire more school counselors who can provide individual and group counseling to
students, as well as classroom-wide interventions. Counselors may not necessarily be adequately
prepared through their training programs to support an initiative of this degree. Unfortunately,
the current pace of hiring school counselors falls short of what is required to address an issue of
this magnitude, which adds to the workload of existing school counselors. This, in turn, can
create additional stress and may contribute to counselor burnout.
Lastly, counselor burnout has the propensity to cause exhaustion and shorten tenures
within the counseling profession. This is arguably due to the increased caseloads that counselors
experience. Where ASCA recommends a caseload of 1:250, many counselors support close to
500+ students. Unfortunately, administrators do not always understand the role and
8

responsibility of the counselor as the job has changed tremendously over time. As a result, the
lack of communication and collaboration inhibits student success when counselors are burnt out
(Roberts, 2017). Hence, counselors are struggling to provide adequate support to the schoolwide
communities they serve.
School Districts
There are notable differences in the perceptions and opinions of instructional leaders
relating to the priority of school counselors, frequency of activities employed, and expectations
for what the school counselor role entails (Dahir et al., 2019). Because the job role may be seen
as ambiguous or unclear, oftentimes counselors wind up receiving the added responsibility of
performing non-counseling-based duties and assignments (Greene & Stewart, 2016; Howell et
al., 2017). When collaborative efforts do not exist between the school counselor and the district
personnel, there is a lack of understanding of where the counselor's role fits in within the school's
vision and mission. Moreover, administrative and counseling parties have a gap in
communication, an inability to problem-solve the vague elements of counseling responsibilities,
and minimal hopes of rectifying assignments of non-counseling-based tasks (Greene & Stewart,
2016). Along similar partnership-based lines, without supervision, consultation opportunities for
novice counselors do not exist. An uninvolved or informed district supervisor cannot aid and
guide novice counselors as they navigate school-based counseling (Goodman-Scott et al., 2020).
The lack of opportunity to incorporate supervision for novice counselors, whether a clinical or
administrative supervisor (Holman et al., 2019), only ensures that support and advocacy
structures are not in place. Without this, the knowledge acquired by counselors from their
graduate programs and experiential learning on the job remains dormant.
9

Additionally, school districts are not always seizing opportunities to provide workshops,
conferences (Trolley, 2011; Walley & Grothaus, 2013), and additional graduate-level
coursework to supplement a school counselor’s knowledge base and graduate education (Trolley,
2011). Without school-generated professional development opportunities, there is missed
potential to support a counselor's identity, sharpen their advocacy skills, and aid in the use of
data (Robertson et al., 2016). Moreover, due to the intricacies and high demands of the school
counselor’s job, counselors not receiving extensive training are not going to be successful
(Howell et al., 2017). It seems administrators in counseling are not being responsible to
themselves and to their departments by not partaking in professional development themselves.
When disseminating relevant professional development training, the appropriate support is not
being clearly communicated to all counselors within the district (Page, 2021).
Districts are also not regularly reassessing the number of school counselors allotted to
each school. ASCA recommends a 250:1 ratio; however, the most recent research indicates that
the counselor caseloads are much higher (American School Counselor Association, n.d.; Havlik
et al., 2019; Minter, 2021; Mullen et al., 2021; Page, 2021), with a national average of 415:1
(American School Counselor Association, n.d.). When caseloads are larger, counselors are not
able to sustain relationships with their students, and in turn, are not able to support their social,
emotional, post-secondary (Mullen et al., 2021) and academic needs.
Along similar lines, the inability to contribute to the allocation of the budget is important,
especially when considering how to benefit the social, emotional, and academic needs of all
students district wide. When additional counselors are not hired, there is no propensity to
mitigate burnout, there is no support in the progression of student rapport building, and lack of
deliverance of the district's comprehensive counseling program (Page, 2021). Hence, when
10

school counselors are not supported, there is inconsistent administrative understanding and
inadequate allocation of resources to the counseling department (Dahir et al., 2019).
University Counseling Programs
University counseling programs are where counselors are trained to become
professionals. However, research suggests that school counselors perceive themselves as not
being adequately prepared to meet the needs of the counseling role and its demands (Cholewa et
al., 2020; La Guardia, 2021). While the field has begun to develop innovative methods to
emphasize skills development, proficiency, and a method of learning that encompasses the
diverse range of needs of all educators and practitioners (La Guardia, 2021), preparation
programs are not setting counselors in training up for success as each pre-service counselor is
receiving a vastly different educational experience from that of their counterpart. As a result,
counselors-in-training are not strategically benefiting from the wisdom, experience, and support
of their site supervisors; as a result, the experiences gained from practicum and internship
experiences are lacking in rigor (Kozlowski & Huss, 2013).
The challenge to graduate programs lies in their ability to mimic the practical experiences
that a professional school counselor can anticipate on the job, as currently, this is not the case
(Goodman-Scott, 2013), since the school counselor role and the host of responsibilities do not
align with the preparation received from graduate programs (Blake, 2020; Patton, 2019). While
there are practices in a school counselor’s training that are important like internship
requirements, role-playing, and the recording and analyzing of tapes, it is still considered largely
unclear how school counselors in training are being prepared (Cholewa et al., 2020).
To that end, research suggests that there is a growing need for preparation programs to
support counselors in training through incorporating subject matter that is germane to the 21st
11

century student population (Kozlowski & Huss, 2013). Through an increased focus within the
field on equity, data, and research, a pervasive need exists to determine what information from
recent publications has been and continues to be disseminated to professional counselors and
those in training (Johnsen et al., 2021) through their preparation programs. Moreover, research
from a recent meta-analysis has detailed that over the last 20 years, nearly 25% of all published
articles from a well-known counseling publication have consistently indicated and highlighted
the need for improvements in graduate programs (Johnsen et al., 2021). If school counselors are
encouraged to actively integrate into schoolwide communities as the change-makers, leaders, and
advocates for implementing comprehensive school counseling programs (ASCA, 2020;
Goodman-Scott et al., 2020), then school counselors must receive an extensive and complete
educational experience from their graduate training programs to set them up for success.
Purpose and Research Questions
The purpose of this research focused on three areas. The first was school counselors, the
second was with school districts and administration, and the third was with graduate school.
With limited research surrounding the perception of novice school counselors, a gap exists
within the school counseling community. First, this qualitative study sought to gain insight into
the perception of newly graduated school counselors and their experiences surrounding the
transition from a graduate school student to the school counselor, and to a fully immersed
member of the school community.
Secondly, an area of opportunity exists for the novice counselor to gain a better
understanding of district-based roles. More specifically, counselors are in a unique position to
learn about district-level support, including collaboration, supervision, professional development,
and supplementary training. Thus, the research sought to learn more about how well counselors
12

feel prepared to work and collaborate with their administration. Lastly, I sought to gain
awareness of the impacts and challenges counselors exhibit resulting from their graduate school
experiences. The aim was to understand school counselors’ perceptions of their graduate-level
programs and what recommendations exist that can benefit the next generation of future school
counselors.
Research Questions
1. How do new school counselors describe their preparation experience?
2. What challenges can emerge as a result of being underprepared?
3. How do new school counselors envision improvements in preparedness?
Significance of the Study
This study is unique as it explored new school counselors and their perceptions of post-
graduate preparedness, challenges, and the advent of counseling advancements. Firstly, through
the results of this study, counselors in training, counselors, counselor advocates, and counselor
educators, will be able to gain awareness of the perception of novice counselors and how best to
support them when they transition to a school-based clinical setting. In school settings,
counselors need to be able to provide the tools to help mitigate feelings of pressure and anxiety.
Additionally, counselors also need to be able to identify those who have been targeted and those
who exhibit bullying-like behavior to ensure the emotional well-being of all students. Especially
in recent years, a growing issue for counselors is that of suicide. Counselors must make every
effort to familiarize themselves with and take immediate action on the students whose behaviors
may be indicative of self-harm (Roberts, 2017).
13

Secondly, the findings of this study have the ability to broaden the foundation for school-
based and district-wide administrators and provide implications for an increase in mental health
awareness to better serve new school counselors and the schools and student populations they
serve. Moreover, this study seeks to bring awareness to school districts, directors of guidance,
pupil personnel supports, and administrators for the need to increase communication and
collaboration surrounding supervision, the addition of workshops, courses, and additional
professional development offerings to confront the gaps in academic preparedness.
Lastly, the feedback gained from this study aims to support counselor preparation
programs in rebuilding their training curriculum. In paving the way to transform the school
counseling field, new school counselors need to feel empowered to become the change agents
that will make a difference in the lives of many. Through the provision of foundational
coursework and the practical aspects of what the counseling job entails, preparedness programs
can ensure the success of new school counselors. Moreover, it aspires to provide a frame of
reference for the development of graduate-level counseling programs and calls for district-based
awareness of necessary interventions.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The theoretical framework for this study was grounded in Albert Bandura’s Social
Cognitive Theory (SCT). Bandura (1977) posited that learning occurs from observations,
imitation, and the modeling of others. Similarities can be drawn from Bandura’s (1978) social
cognitive learning theory (SCLT) and the symptomatology experienced in burnout. Bandura
(1978) offered that within SCLT, learning occurs from observing one another (Minter, 2021).
The core concepts of this theory also take into consideration the interactions between the person,
environment, and behavior (Bandura, 1986). In conjunction with self-concept, the belief an
14

individual holds about their confidence in completing a given task, especially if there has been
past success (Bandura, 1977), these theories help to shed light on the dichotomy between the
counselor that is experiencing challenges on the job, such as burnout, versus the counselor that is
prospering. This research study will utilize the overall framework of SCT to examine the
perception of individual preparedness, educational experience, and self-efficacy among school
counselors.
Definition of Terms
The following terms are used in this study:
504 plan
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, specifically Section 504, requires public schools to offer
accommodations for eligible students with disabilities through what is commonly known as a
504 plan. This plan is designed to guarantee equal and fair treatment for students with disabilities
while they are attending school (New York City Department of Education, n.d.-a).
Burnout
A significant level of fatigue resulting from physical, mental, or emotional job-related
exhaustion that has been untreated or is unresolved (Maslach & Leiter, 2016).
Individual education plan (IEP)
In order to receive special education and related services, students must have an
Individualized Education Program (IEP). The IEP provides a platform for all stakeholders
involved, including the teaching team, parents, school administration, special education and/or
related services staff, and the student (if applicable), to work together and improve academic
outcomes for children with disabilities by assessing and periodically reviewing each child's
specific needs (U.S. Department of Education, 2019).
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New school counselors
New school counselors are recent graduates from counselor preparation programs. These
novice counselors are currently administering face-to-face counseling with students enrolled in
K–12 schools and are within the first 5 years of master’s completion (Epstein & Van Voorhis,
2010).
Phenomenology
A type of research found in qualitative studies that places an emphasis on understanding
and interpreting the way individuals make sense of the experiences they have encountered
(Moustakas, 1994).
Preparedness
The degree of confidence in the skills and aptitude acquired to be successful, such as
when transitioning from graduate school to a full-time counseling position (Martin, 2002).
Role ambiguity
The absence of a clearly defined set of role guidelines or expectations. This can
contribute to confusion due to differing notions conveyed by the school-based position and the
graduate counselor training program (Pearson, 2008).
Role conflict
When expectations for a role are different than expected between the counselor and their
administrator (Blake, 2020).
School district
A collection of primary and secondary public schools in a geographic location, run by
elected members of a school board (Alsbury, 2003).

16

Self-efficacy
The belief in your ability to do what is needed to meet a goal or target. Our level of
confidence impacts how we think, act, and feel. Our beliefs about ourselves determine how
motivated we are to achieve and succeed (Pajares, 2003).
Social cognitive theory (SCT)
People learn from observing others and from their own personal experiences. This theory
also takes into consideration three influences: the individual and their personal factors,
action/behavior, and environmental factors (Schunk, 2012).
Supervisory support
Refers to the assistance or advice given by the school counselor’s administrative or
clinical supervisor; this varies vastly from school to school and district to district (Dollarhide &
Miller, 2006).
Systems approach of school counselors
Within this dissertation, the systems approach of school counselors defines and examines
the school system in three distinctive areas: the perspective of the school counselor, the school
and district level, and the university viewpoint (Carns & Carns, 1997).
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
This qualitative study had delimitations that restricted its scope to school counselors who
have social media accounts, are active members of the New York State School Counselor
Association (NYSSCA), work and are actively certified within New York State, have graduated
within the past 2-5 years, saw the invitation to participate, and accepted the invitation to
participate; therefore, the findings of this study may not be generalizable to all newly graduated
school counselors in New York State, nationally, or globally.
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Assumptions, attitudes, and perceptions are often critical elements in understanding
people's beliefs and behaviors. In the context of this study on school counselors, while the
assumptions, attitudes, and perceptions derived from this research may not fully represent all
school counselors, the findings of this study provide valuable insights and suggestions for future
investigations. In addition, this research provides guidance and direction for directors of
guidance, pupil personnel support, administrators, school districts, and graduate programs on
how to enhance instructional and curricular support to benefit new school counselors.
Positionality is an important aspect to consider in research. A researcher's prior
experience with and knowledge of a given subject can impact how they conduct research with
their participants; it can influence the type of information participants share with the researcher
(e.g., perception of the researcher as a member within the same field) and it can also affect how
the researcher makes sense of and analyzes the resulting data (Chew-Graham et al., 2002; Wilson
et al., 2022). Therefore, it is beneficial to the integrity of the research, and thus the research
community at large, when the investigator is transparent and willing to shed light on their
background and positionality. I am a nationally certified school counselor and licensed
professional counselor approaching 10 years of experience supporting students in grades K–12 in
all aspects of their schooling, in addition to adolescents and adults in a clinical setting. My initial
motivation to become a school counselor was to assist rising juniors and seniors as they gain
insight into their post-secondary options and ensure a successful transition. As someone who
remembers feeling overwhelmed after leaving their junior class post-secondary presentation, I
never want any student, parent, guardian, or family member - whether in general education or
special education - to feel overwhelmed at any point during schooling as they navigate the
18

intricacies of the educational system. I grew up on Long Island, New York, attending college and
graduate school in New York City. I began and subsequently completed my graduate training
during a years’ long hiring freeze within the New York City Department of Education. As a
result, my experience suggests that finding a school counselor position in the tri-state area for
many new school counselors was, and currently remains, challenging. While my preparation
experience was positive, I believe some changes, topically and programmatically, would have
further supported me for all that lay ahead, thus better situating me for the totality of the school
counselor role. This thought process made me wonder how other new school counselors felt
about their preparation experiences, and it ultimately contributed to the conceptualization of this
doctoral research. Consistently throughout the research process, I was cognizant of my
positionality, and I did my best to ensure that the research presented, and the supporting narrative
were as objective as possible. To monitor my own bias, I repeatedly asked myself questions such
as "How does this read?" "Does this sound skewed?" and "Is my perspective conveyed and
supported appropriately?" I also consulted with colleagues, my dissertation committee, and chair
as needed. While the focus of this study included the sampling and interviewing of new school
counselors and their post-graduate experiences (see Methodology section), the results may have
been influenced by response bias due to social desirability, in which interviewees provided
socially acceptable answers. Additionally, despite my efforts to discipline my subjectivity, it is
possible that my bias shielded me from arriving at additional observations or conclusions.
Conclusion
This study is organized into five chapters. The first chapter introduced the perception of
new school counselors through the presentation of the background of the problem, the
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significance of the study, the purpose of the study, research questions, assumptions,
delimitations, limitations, and the definition of key terms. The second chapter highlighted a
synthesis of the literature regarding the history of school counseling and how it related to
existing literature surrounding new school counselors and their perceptions of preparedness,
challenges, and opportunities for improvement. The third chapter consisted of the methodology
employed to conduct the research study; this included participant descriptions, data collection,
procedures, and instruments utilized for data collection. The fourth chapter encapsulated the
research findings through the establishment of emergent themes. The fifth chapter provided
recommendations for school counselors, school districts, and graduate school programs.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
This study sought to explore New York State school counselors new to the field of
counseling, their perceptions of academic preparedness garnered from post-secondary
institutions, and how it has impacted them as professionals in their position. While there is
research analysis on school counselors, there is insufficient research on novice school
counselors. In attempting to investigate this phenomenon, this literature review synthesizes
research and provides relevant historical context to the school counselor and their role. The
beginning of this chapter highlights the search strategy used to arrive at the periodicals
contributing to the literature review. One of the goals of this literature review was to contain
relevant research to be as current as possible; therefore, most research cited falls within the past
5-10 years while also drawing upon the data and discourse of prominent researchers from within
the school counseling field. Next, there is an examination of Bandura’s (1977) SCT as the
theoretical framework or the lens by which this study is guided.
The first section of the literature analysis discusses the systems approach to school
counseling. More specifically, this section details the issues in preparedness while also
addressing the school counselor role and demographic trends across the profession. There is an
in-depth discussion of the history of school counseling and the present state of the field,
including the advent of the American School Counselor Association and acccredidating
standards. Subsequently, there are two sections on New York State, one on state-based
counseling mandates and the other addressing school counseling presently. The last section of
this review details an analysis of the systems approach of school counseling, highlighting several
challenges. This section discusses “school counselor” versus “guidance counselor,” what the
21

terminology means, and how it makes a difference. In addition, there is a discussion on the
coronavirus pandemic and graduate programs with different accreditations.
Search Description
The analysis of literature for this research was extensive, searching for and targeting
relevant dissertations and peer-reviewed articles through the following databases: Academic
Search Premiere, APA PsycNET, EBSCOhost, ERIC, Gale, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
Global, SAGE Journals, ScholarWorks, SpringerLink, Taylor and Francis, Wiley Online Library.
The Internet was used to access the websites of professional organizations including ACA,
ASCA, NYSSCA and CACREP. Keywords and terms used include counselor trainees, pre-
service counselors, counselors in training, novice school counselor, school counseling program,
school counselor, school counseling, social cognitive theory, phenomenology, school district,
graduate school, university, preparedness program, self-concept, self-efficacy, New York, New
York State, New York State School Counseling Association, and NYSSCA.
Theoretical Framework
Most dissertations utilize a theoretical framework. A theoretical framework is a way to
understand how research is structured or organized. More specifically, it is the perspective or
point of view that the researcher brings, grounded in theory, to gain clarity around and make
sense of the topic they hope to study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). With that said, this study sought
to explore the lived experience of novice school counselors through the lens of Bandura’s (1977)
SCT.
Social Cognitive Theory
Originally known as the Social Cognitive Learning Theory (SCLT) and adapted and
referred to as the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), the overarching goal of SCT is to determine
22

how behaviors emerge, how they persist, and how they change (Atwood, 2021; Bandura, 1977).
SCT suggests that a person's behaviors result from three reciprocal influences, those that are:
personal (e.g., cognitions, skills, beliefs, attitudes, expectations), behavioral (e.g., individual
choices, decisions, verbal expressions), and the physical and social environment (e.g., physical
settings, other people, decision-based consequences). Each factor impacts and influences the
other, creating mutual relationships, or what is known as reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 1977,
1978, 1986). For example, a novice school counselor who receives positive, negative, or no
feedback from those in their environment, can experience a change in personal factors,
resembling shifts in self-worth and self-efficacy. Additionally, behaviors contributing to a
counselor's degree of resolve, motivation, and learning, depend upon personal and social
influences within their environment (Woolfolk, 2007).
According to SCT, the idea of acquiring knowledge or learning relates directly to the
process of observing a model (Zhou & Brown, 2017). The development of behavior requires the
modeling of and the subsequent imitation of that behavior. Individuals, therefore, learn by
watching others. While learning can ensue through direct facilitation, such as teaching, it is also
necessary to provide opportunities to observe the skills actively demonstrated and modeled (Ayre
& Krishnamoorthy, 2021), thus producing observational learning (Woolfolk et al., 2020; Zhou &
Brown, 2017). Observational learning occurs when behaviors emerge that were otherwise
unknown before the introduction to the model (Bandura, 1969). More specifically, it is the ability
to learn something new through observing and imitating others (Woolfolk et al., 2020).
Observational learning is likely to occur when pre-service school counselors attend to the
component of practicum and internship opportunities within their graduate training programs.
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Through hands-on opportunities, counselors in training can apply the acquired theoretical and
practical teachings to real-life experiences.
While many can acquire skills and techniques through observing others, on occasion,
inspiration and encouragement are the motivating factors needed to produce the desired task.
Three types of reinforcement can support observational learning. The first is direct
reinforcement, or receiving verbal praise when generating the desired behavior. An example is
overcoming a challenging semester by receiving recognition from a professor for studying hard,
improving grades, and doing a job well done. The second type of reinforcement is vicarious
reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement is where an onlooker observes an action of another that
is acknowledged or reinforced. As a result, the onlooker mimics the action, incorporating the
reinforced behavior. For example, a newcomer to a job may learn the office expectations by
observing colleagues around them and choosing to emulate praiseworthy behaviors. The last type
of reinforcement is self-reinforcement. Self-reinforcement is the selection of supports, different
for everyone, to help meet the overarching goal or objective. While some are motivated by
gratification, others may look towards an external reward to help boost their motivation and
complete the task at hand (Woolfolk et al., 2020). Thus, through observational learning, in
helping to shape the professional identity of preschool counselors, practicum and internship
components are crucial supports as they provide the foundational groundwork for developing
counselors’ self-efficacy.
Another construct of significance associated with SCT is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is an
individual’s belief in their ability to do what is needed to achieve a goal or objective. More
specifically, the ability to take control over their personal, behavioral, and physical and social
environment (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). In addition, the beliefs held by an individual can
24

impact how they think, feel, act, and the degree to which they are motivated (Bandura, 1994). An
individual’s level of self-efficacy can determine how they tackle assignments, objectives, and
complicated tasks. Those with a higher level of self-confidence may believe that they can attack
issues of a challenging nature, having a higher level of motivation and an increased level of
resilience. At the same time, those with lower levels of self-efficacy may have less confidence in
their ability to succeed, are less motivated, or have the propensity to avoid tasks they deem
complex or too perplexing (Zhou & Brown, 2017). Crucial to their ability to complete
challenging assignments and support the counseling of all students, school counselors of a self-
efficacious nature exhibit the dedication, persistence, and perseverance needed to achieve their
highly set overarching goals (Bardhoshi & Um, 2021). It is through incentives, social, material,
and those that are self-appraised, that help to attain the motivation and performance-based
accomplishments that connect to our personalized and personally set standards (Bandura, 2005).
Systems Approach of School Counseling
School counselors make multiple connections and utilize those collaborations to be
successful on the job. Whether intra-school with social workers, special and general education
teachers, administrative and district representatives, etc., or external partnerships with
community organizations, adjacent schools and districts, or colleges and universities, etc., there
are many working and interrelated components necessary to execute the responsibilities of a
school counselor. Throughout a school counselor’s professional trajectory, school counselors
will define and examine the confines of the overarching school system in three distinct areas: the
purview of the school counselor, the school and district perspective, and the university stance.
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Preparedness Issues
One of the biggest challenges surrounding the world of school counseling is the ability to
prepare school counselors to address and support the essential needs of a diverse student body
(Holcomb-McCoy, 2004). In our global communities, there are lingering and persistent issues
where school counselors do not all possess extensive training; these are pressing matters that
student populations depend on their counselors for, their knowledge and proficiency. Research
suggests that gaps exist in school counselor skill sets between ASCA-trained and non-ASCA-
trained counselors (Zyromski et al., 2019). In addition, school counselors may also be less adept
in their use of data when recording student success (Astramovich et al., 2013) and may be less
informed on current issues and the evidence-based industry standard practices within the school
counseling field (Wilczenski et al., 2010). Even within CACREP-accredited programs, graduate
schools have the latitude by which to address each standard (Honderich & Lloyd-Hazlett, 2015)
thus producing graduates with varying degrees of understanding on key concepts. Along similar
lines, when comparing graduates from CACREP and non-CACREP-accredited programs, there
is also a disparity when considering the training of school counselors and the extent of
knowledge attained on fundamental issues. Some of these pertinent issues include trauma
informed practices, assessments, diagnoses, restorative justice, social justice, bullying, suicidal
ideation, and substance abuse, to name a few. While professional development supports a new
school counselor's repertoire with successful tools and techniques and can boost knowledge of
current trends to enhance overall work performance, research indicates that new school
counselors have experienced challenges surrounding finding quality continuing education
opportunities (Curry & Bickmore, 2012). While not consistently taking advantage, school
districts can support this endeavor by providing relevant workshops and conferences (Trolley,
26

2011; Walley & Grothaus, 2013). In addition, they can offer suitable graduate-level courses to
supplement counselors' knowledge and education (Trolley, 2011). When professional
development is relevant and meaningful, it can support the novice counselor's individual and
professional growth as they seek to meet the needs of their students and other stakeholders
(Curry & Bickmore, 2012) while also supporting the counselor's identity, their advocacy skills,
and their practice through the use of data (Robertson et al., 2016).
School Counselors
According to the American School Counseling Association (ACSA), “school counselors
design and deliver school counseling programs that improve student outcomes. They lead,
advocate, and collaborate to promote equity and access for all students by connecting their
school counseling program to the school’s academic mission and school improvement plan”
(ASCA, 2021c). In addition, school counselors support their students through disseminating
strategies geared towards academic achievement, mitigating student emotions, educating and
encouraging interpersonal skill usage, and supporting students as they navigate postsecondary
options (ASCA, 2021c; ASCA, 2021d). Through the school counseling program, school
counselors work to disburse social-emotional learning (SEL) development and career-based
opportunities to all students within the community (ASCA, 2021c). Additionally, school
counselors work to ensure that their school advances a culture of success that provides an
accessible, inclusive, and equitable educational experience for all their students (ASCA, 2021c,
2021d). School counselors are data-driven leaders who determine, address, and support student-
based problems, issues, or needs as they arise. Moreover, they are change agents that advocate
for student success through collaborative efforts and partnerships with families, other school-
based team members, and administrators (ASCA, 2021c).
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School Counselor Demographics
According to ASCA (2021a), a state-of-the-profession survey was distributed to ascertain
information about the demographics of school counselors nationwide. Its intent was to garner
insight into the role, responsibilities, and job-based challenges (e.g., whether incurred by virtual
learning as propelled by COVID-19, systemic school-based challenges such as racism on
campus, or obstacles surrounding professional development, etc.) of those active within the
occupation. Survey results (see Table 1) suggest that school counselors are approximately 80%
White and 10% Black or African American. Five percent of respondents identified as Latinx, 3%
as bi-racial or multi-racial, and 1% are Asian. Less than 1% of school counselors self-identify as
American Indian, Alaskan Native, Native Hawaiian, and Other Pacific Islanders. Four percent
opted out of providing their race or ethnicity (ASCA, 2021b).

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Table 1
Respondent Race/Ethnicity
Respondent Race/Ethnicity Representation in Study
White
Black or African American
Latinx
Prefer not to say
Two or more races
Asian
77%
10%
5%
4%
3%
1%
Note. Adapted from 2020 State of the Profession by ASCA, 2021b, p. 4. Copyright 2021 by
ASCA.
The report also assessed that school counselors are predominantly female (87%), with
males (11%), non-binary/third gender (1%), and those preferring not to say (2%) in the minority.
As far as the perceived age of school counselors (see Table 2), nearly 40% of school counselors
identified as less than 40 years old, a third of respondents fell between the ages of 41 and 50
years, approximately a quarter identify as 51-60 years of age, and less than 10% identified as
over the age of 60 (ASCA, 2021b).

29

Table 2
Respondent Age
Respondent Age Representation in Study
Less than 40
41-50
51-60
60+
38%
31%
24%
6%
Note. Adapted from 2020 State of the Profession by ASCA, 2021b, p. 4. Copyright 2021 by
ASCA.
Lastly, the report details the amount of time respondents have reportedly spent thus far in
the school counseling profession (see Table 3). Twenty-two percent (22%) of school counselors
have been working in the profession for 6-10 years, 20% for 5 years or less, 18% have 11-15 and
20+ years of tenure in the school counseling profession, while 14% of respondents have 16-20
years of experience in the educational system (ASCA, 2021b).

30

Table 3
Years in the Profession
Years in the Profession Representation in Study
5 or fewer
6-10
11-15
16-20
20+
20%
22%
18%
14%
18%
Note. Adapted from 2020 State of the Profession by ASCA, 2021b, p. 4. Copyright 2021 by
ASCA.
Therefore, in extrapolating the data, the school counseling profession is predominantly
comprised of White women (ASCA, 2021b; Holcomb-McCoy, 2021) less than 40 years of age
with approximately 6-10 years of practical experience (ASCA, 2021b). When evaluating
information from this dataset, it is necessary to highlight that this survey intended to capture the
response rate of nearly 74,500 school counselors, including those with and without ASCA
membership (ASCA, 2021b). The current assessment of school counselor data is representative
of only a small sample of school counselors nationally, as the response rate for the survey was
less than 10% (ASCA, 2021b).
American School Counselor Association
While the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) came to fruition in 1952
(Fye, 2016; Gysbers, 2020; Lambie & Williamson, 2004), it was not until 2003 that ASCA
developed its National Model (ASCA, 2019a; Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers, 2017). The National
Model is a comprehensive blueprint providing transformative tools for school counselors, school
counseling programs, and school districts to support student outcomes through the disbursement
31

of a developmentally age-appropriate curriculum (ASCA, 2012, 2019a; Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers,
2017). Creating a comprehensive program was a mechanism to highlight and define the school
counselor's role and responsibilities (ASCA, 2012, 2019a; Cinotti, 2014). In addition, ASCA
reaffirmed its presence in the school counseling community by featuring the 'one vision, one
voice' framework to develop its National Model and support student educational goals by
addressing their social-emotional, academic, and career-based needs (ASCA, 2019a; Fye et al.,
2020; Gysbers, 2017; Kozlowski & Huss, 2013). The framework is rooted in data-based
decision-making (ASCA, 2019, 2022a; Cinotti, 2014; Fye, 2016; Goodrich et al., 2020), rigor,
and equitable access, to be disseminated to all students while promoting discipline, attendance,
and the success of each child (ASCA, 2022a; Goodrich et al., 2020; McKaig-Phillips, 2019).
ASCA has been pivotal in addressing the difficulties faced by school counselors; this is evident
through the multiple adaptations of the ASCA National Model, whose ideologies are grounded in
research and theoretical concepts emphasizing and advocating for the school counselor’s role and
the extent of their responsibilities in the school environment.
ASCA’s first iteration of the National Model presents four interconnected parts as
vehicles to produce and sustain comprehensive school counseling programs: accountability,
foundation, management system, and delivery system. The emphasis was on the interrelatedness
of the four emergent concepts. Through theme elaboration, the National Model offered in-depth
facts and research about how each theme correlated to the overall parts of the model (ASCA,
2012; Camelford, 2014). The National Model, revised in 2019, is currently in its fourth edition
(Gysbers, 2020).
In the fourth adaptation, while ASCA (2019a) utilizes different terminology for its
National Model, the crux of ASCA’s vision and goals from prior versions remain intact,
32

promoting four individual yet interrelated components: define, manage, deliver, and assess.
Similar to earlier publications, each quadrant possesses tools to support counseling program
development while further delineating the role and responsibilities of school counselors.
In the define category, three sets of school counselor-based standards guide and interpret
the school counseling profession. Whether veteran or novice school counselors, these standards
aim to support the assessment, development, and implementation of school counseling programs
(ASCA, 2019a, 2022a), hoping to improve student success. This section includes a collection of
mindset and behavioral student standards to help support K–12 college- and career-readiness
(ASCA, 2019a, 2022a). In addition, it supplies school counselors with the professional and
ethical standards that uphold the profession (ASCA, 2019a, 2022a). School counselors of all
experiential levels would benefit from exploring these competencies to gain additional clarity on
ASCA standards regarding career-based expectations.
To effectively deliver a school counseling program and support a wide array of student
needs in the process, the manage component of the model provides the program focus and
planning instruments needed to create and execute a results-driven curriculum through data
(ASCA, 2019b, 2022a). With an emphasis on addressing student-specific needs within each
school, counselors can use this part of the model to initiate action plans that can organize and
prioritize the administration of developmentally appropriate services, activities, and programs
(ASCA, 2019b, 2022a). In addition, this section provides reflective-based tools, lesson plan
templates, and calendars that can support and measure the appropriate use of time through direct
and indirect student services (ASCA, 2019a, 2022a).
The third domain, deliver, addresses how the school counseling comprehensive program
disburses direct and indirect services to the student community (ASCA, 2019a, ASCA, 2022a).
33

Through its dissemination, program delivery can cultivate and support student mindsets and
behaviors, as outlined by ASCA, to boost their school-based attendance, discipline, and
academic achievement (ASCA, 2019a; ASCA, 2022a). Finally, the fourth and last component of
the National Model is assess. This category encourages school counselors to regularly evaluate
their comprehensive program to gauge its effectiveness, modify and improve as needed, and
aggregate data regarding student changes or growth due to program implementation (ASCA,
2019a, 2022a). In addition to the evaluative measures taken to appraise the counseling program,
school counselors can self-examine and reflect on their performance, as well, with a trained
administrator (ASCA, 2019a, 2022a). Furthermore, the school counseling department can present
its findings to communicate to school-based stakeholders the impact of the school counseling
comprehensive program on student achievement (ASCA, 2019a, 2022a).
By refining the school counselor role, ASCA has sought to improve upon counselor-
based challenges brought on by role conflict and role ambiguity by providing professional
directives (ASCA, 2019a). With the inclusion of pertinent professional learning and development
opportunities, student-driven advocacy, and strategically collaborative partnerships with
stakeholders, to name a few, ASCA seeks to equip school counselors with the knowledge, skills,
support, and resources to foster the achievement of all students (ASCA, 2021a, 2022d).
One additional aspect worth noting that ASCA has advocated for is cultural
responsiveness. Many school counselors hope to work well with each and every student. One
way in which to try and accomplish this task is through cultural responsiveness. To utilize
responsive counseling in practice requires the ability to identify and employ the cultural
strengths of our students, to recognize and honor our students’ unique identities such that they
feel supported and respected throughout their educational journey (Adolescent Health Initiative,
34

2022; Rutledge, 2019). A practice like this has the propensity to boost positive outcomes, and it
starts by developing relationships with our students (Rutledge, 2019). Every person has
preconceived opinions, some conscious, others subconscious, which they then make judgments
that stem from those beliefs (ASCA, 2016). Some of us do not intentionally project prejudice or
bias; however, at one time or another, we have inadvertently said something that has
consequences of which we might not be aware. Having the ability to self-reflect on our personal
beliefs, actions, and practices can provide counselors with an opportunity to develop a sense of
self-awareness, as well as help counselors who work with students from different cultures
(ASCA, 2016; Rutledge, 2019). ASCA (2016) says that our goal should not be “to learn every
characteristic of every culture but simply to be aware that some behaviors or attitudes of students
may be attributed to their culture, and therefore, we as educators need to be sensitive to their
cultural identity.” It is important to be mindful of and work to ensure change occurs, such that
systemic and conventional biases do not coincide with equitable access to educational services
for all students (Adolescent Health Initiative, 2022; Rutledge, 2019).
The History of School Counseling
The Early Years
The inception of what is now known as school counseling began more than 100 years
ago. At the onset of the 20th century, members of the profession were called vocational guidance
counselors (Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014; Hartung, 2010; Lambie
& Williamson, 2004). Vocational guidance materialized as a response to the economic,
educational, and social challenges that adolescents might encounter on the job, both
professionally and situationally (Gysbers, 2001; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014). Frank Parsons,
one of the founding members of the vocational guidance movement, has often been referred to as
35

“the father of guidance” (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). He and others focused on supporting
individuals from school to procure jobs and occupations based on their distinctive potential and
abilities (Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers, 2001; Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014; Lambie &
Williamson, 2004). At the same time, educators, for the most part, fulfilled this role as an
additional duty due to the insufficient hiring of specialized school-based personnel (Cinotti,
2014; Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014). As a result, challenges surfaced, including
inadequate teacher preparation (Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers, 2010; Gybsers & Henderson, 2014), the
lack of a cohesive plan to develop and implement, and insufficient resources (Gysbers, 2010;
Gysbers & Henderson, 2014). While there was a lack of institutional uniformity (Gysbers, 2010),
questions emerged during this period regarding whether vocational guidance should become an
additional classroom-based service or a differentiated service-based offering having unique goals
and objectives (Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014). The position and role of vocational
guidance counselor were in question (Gysbers, 2010).
Notable shifts transpired within the guidance and counseling fields, such as the
adjustment in terminology due to cultural changes, as counselors became more prominent in
schools across the country (Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014). There was a realization
that the profession was grounded in education to support adolescents for career placement, as
well as college preparation and the promotion of lifelong learning (Gysbers & Henderson, 2014).
During this time, the primary focus was on the individual, emphasizing problem-solving and
attending to psychological and personal challenges (Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers & Henderson,
2014). Simultaneously, inquiries continued to circulate regarding the counselor's role and
responsibilities; however, at this juncture, administrators largely dictated and defined the
purview of school counselors (Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers, 2010). Nonetheless, this was an era where
36

counselors began to think about how child and adolescent needs fit into guidance, coinciding
with the ability to offer counseling services on the elementary level (Gysbers, 2010).
Mid-20th Century
The middle of the 20th century saw shifts and advances in the counseling profession,
including the establishment of ASCA in 1952 (Fye, 2016; Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2010;
Lambie & Williamson, 2004), stimulating the growth of preparation programs, a more
comprehensive curriculum, and the option to obtain certification and master's degrees
(Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014). Furthermore, in response
to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic’s Sputnik launch, the United States (U.S.) passed the
National Defense Education Act (NDEA) in 1958. It served as a mechanism to advance student
learning in mathematics and science programs, intending to promote future advancements in
both fields (Fye, 2016; Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014;
Lambie & Williamson, 2004; McKaig-Philips, 2019). Simultaneously, the NDEA recognized the
school counseling field (Blake, 2020; Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2001, 2010; Gysbers &
Henderson, 2014; Lambie & Williamson, 2004) through the provision of funding to prepare and
train additional school counselors (Fye, 2016; Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers &
Henderson, 2014; Lambie & Williamson, 2004).
During this time, the counseling profession nestled itself with other support-based
helping occupations under the broader context of the movement known as pupil personnel
services (Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014). At this point, the primary
services offered by counselors were counseling individuals and groups; secondary
responsibilities included parent and teacher-generated discussions, student-based assessments,
the dissemination of information, placing, and following up with students (Gysbers, 2010;
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Gysbers & Henderson, 2014). Within the counseling community, similar to ASCA, professional
organizations like the American Counseling Association (ACA), which had also recently
established, attempted to standardize (Bobby & Urofsky, 2012, as cited in Goodman-Scott, 2013)
and collaborate to improve counselor preparation programs (Goodman-Scott, 2013; Lambie &
Williamson, 2004).
In 1960, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) began a 5-
year deep dive into counselor education standards; they endeavored to establish a methodology
to assess preparation programs for secondary counselors (Gysbers, 2010). Overall, the 1960s saw
increased funding to support counselors in identifying gifted students at the elementary level
through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (Fye, 2016; Lambie &
Williamson, 2004). Moreover, grants were allocated to counselors through the Vocational
Education Act of 1968 to support career-based guidance programs for all students, including
disadvantaged youth and children with disabilities, starting at the elementary level (Lambie &
Williamson, 2004). In addition to questions about the role and function of counselors, concern
emerged with the name of the profession; with multiple names used (e.g., counselor, guidance
counselor, guidance worker, school guidance worker, school counselor, etc.), it became
challenging to determine the identity of an unclear entity (Gysbers, 2010).
Late-20th Century
The ideology behind a comprehensive school counseling program was crystalized during
the 1970s and continued to expand throughout the rest of the century (Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers &
Henderson, 2014). Professionals began to develop a new concept, a program geared toward a
student's developmental age (Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014). Unfortunately, it
would take several decades for these ideas to come to fruition as the bleak circumstances of the
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1970s created conditions that caused a decrease in school enrollment and financial constraints,
leading to the reduction of guidance counselors nationwide (Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers, 2010;
Lambie & Williamson, 2004). Partially due to the change in cultural climate, school counselors
encountered additional tasks, including administrative-based assignments (Cinotti, 2014). As a
result, the guidance counselor position adapted due to the allotment of roles better suited for
teachers (Cinotti, 2014). The absence of a clearly defined role and responsibilities essentially
gave administrators the power to assign tasks as they saw fit. A growing need emerged to
reorient the field from service-based to one that addressed the student's social-emotional,
academic, and career goals (Gysbers, 2001; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014).
The 1980s and 90s saw an acknowledgment of guidance leaders on both local and state
levels (Cinotti, 2014; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014; Lambie & Williamson, 2004), paving the
way for the development and implementation of comprehensive guidance and counseling
programs (Gysbers, 2010). In 1981, the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Educational Programs (CACREP) came to fruition to support school counseling educators in
obtaining the curriculum, knowledge, and skills necessary to become successful practitioners
(Gysbers, 2010). Shortly thereafter, in 1983, the National Commission of Excellence in
Education released A Nation at Risk, depicting the downfall of the achievement of American
children; simultaneously, it presented a list of reforms to mitigate and remedy the educational
challenges (Cinotti, 2014; Lambie & Williamson, 2004). In response, accountability and the
testing movement were ignited and significantly impacted the role of guidance counselors
(Lambie & Williamson, 2004). Awareness centered on the issues of the role and responsibility of
counselors, discipline, the occurrence of additional tasks, and the duration of time spent on
assignments (Gysbers, 2010).
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At the end of the 20th century, ASCA made the push in 1990 to create a shift in
terminology and transition from “guidance counselor” to “school counselor” as a way to clarify
the extensive services and skills required of counselors to provide students (Lambie &
Williamson, 2004). Moreover, ASCA played an active role in developing the national standards
for student competencies (in the academic, personal/social development, and career domains)
and subsequently in providing recommendations for how best to enact the guidelines ( Gysbers,
2010).
2000s - Present
Throughout its history, the school counseling profession has endured uncertainty and
challenges surrounding professional identity, roles, and responsibilities (Blake, 2020; Dahir et
al., 2019; Fye et al., 2022; Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2010; Kim & Lambie, 2018; Lambie
& Williamson, 2004; Patton, 2019). How should school counselors best support students; should
it be from a mental-health perspective, or instead focus on working to close the achievement
gap? (Gysbers, 2010). ASCA attempted to address some of the growing concerns within the
field. They built upon their national standards to address prevalent concerns by creating a
national school counseling program model called the National Model in 2001 (Cinotti, 2014;
Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers & Henderson, 2014). Across the nation, schools and districts started
developing and implementing school counseling programs (Gysbers, 2010). Shortly thereafter,
researchers assessed perceptions and beliefs surrounding the job satisfaction of counselors
implementing comprehensive guidance and counseling programs. Findings indicated that
satisfaction was higher when performing preferred tasks and lower with the provision of
additional duties and obligations (Gysbers, 2010).
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The 21st-century direction of school counseling has focused on data usage, student
advocacy, leadership, and the drive to aid students in the pursuit of high levels of academic
achievement (Dahir et al., 2019). Important topics of the most recent decade include student-to-
counselor ratios, the evaluation of comprehensive school counseling programs and accountability
measures (e.g., from an individual perspective, comprehensive school-based guidance and
counseling program effectiveness, and leaders needed to implement accountability) (Gysbers,
2010).
Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs
Nationally, challenges have emerged such that certification requirements can vary from
state to state and from program to program within the same state, in addition to institutional
differentiation of student preparation to meet graduate requirements (Gysbers & Henderson,
2014). The Council for Accreditation Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP)
came to fruition in 1981; it is an accreditation body seeking to address this challenge and support
graduate programs as they prepare counseling novices to enter the counseling profession. While
CACREP is a voluntary accreditation that universities can seek, CACREP promotes high
standards that are relevant to counseling education and training programs (Kozlowski & Huss,
2013; Lambie & Williamson, 2004). It believes in a growth mindset, a willingness to change,
and collaboration through promoting and disseminating standards that reflect and respect a
diverse society (CACREP, 2022a). The most recent version of CACREP standards were
published in 2016 and have six content areas: (a) The Learning Environment, (b) Professional
Counseling Identity, (c) Professional Practice, (d) Evaluation in the Program, (e) Entry-Level
Specialty Areas, and (f) Doctoral Standards for Counselor Education and Supervision (CACREP,
2021). While CACREP requires incorporating all content areas into counseling curriculums,
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graduate programs can choose the desired emphasis given to each component (CACREP, 2021).
To ensure the quality of counselor education programs, CACREP reviews its accreditation
standards systematically and comprehensively every 7 years to reflect the needs of an ever-
changing society (CACREP, 2021, 2022b). Students completing a CACREP-accredited program
can expect to gain a “strong professional counselor identity,” specialize in multiple content areas,
acquire and demonstrate academic and professional knowledge and skill (CACREP, 2021).
There has been debate in the counseling community surrounding whether CACREP-
accredited programs can sufficiently prepare school counseling students based on its standards.
Research indicates that students from CACREP-accredited programs performed significantly
better than students attending non-CACREP-accredited programs on the National Counselor
Examination (NCE; Adams, 2006; Wilson et al., 2017). In addition, perhaps in part due to the
standards they were taught as students, research indicates that CACREP-accredited graduates are
less likely to receive sanctions due to ethical violations when compared to counselor graduates
from non-CACREP-accredited programs (Evan & Robinson, 2013; Wilson et al., 2017).
New York State School Counseling Mandates
Within recent years, state policies regarding the school counseling profession have
expanded. Notably, in 2017, the New York State Education Department (NYSED) instituted its
first legislative policy change since 1978. Nearly 40 years later, school districts statewide have
now been mandated to deliver a data-driven and comprehensive school counseling program
(Cinotti et al., 2022; Feirsen et al., 2021; NYSED, 2017b). The approved changes, starting in the
2019-2020 school year and directly geared toward all K–12 students, requires them to receive a
comprehensive developmental school counseling/guidance program based on ASCA’s National
Model (Feirsen et al., 2021; NYSED, 2017b, 2018). While needed restructuring can benefit the
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over 2.5 million public school students in the state, challenges can arise for school counselors
and leaders when federal or state directives are the driving mechanisms for change. Without the
provision of professional learning opportunities to gain further knowledge and insight on the best
practices to reconceptualize the formative guidance model and change it to become a
comprehensive school counseling program (Feirsen et al., 2021), the motivation and aptitude to
drive a change of this magnitude could have implications when considering the success of
program development.
The NYSED Commissioner’s Regulation 100.2(j) stipulates that “all students” enrolled
within school districts across the state are to have access to guidance programs and
comprehensive developmental school counseling (NYSED, 2017a, 2018). New York State
mandates that public school students in grades 7-12 should have: (a) an annual individualized
progress review to discuss academic and career-based trajectories, (b) annual instruction by the
counselor or in collaboration with the classroom teacher, opportunities to discuss careers and
career planning, and (c) access to the school counseling comprehensive curriculum by which to
provide additional opportunities to develop and hone postsecondary and/or career-based plans, in
addition to the provision of support for students who face challenges in the areas of attendance,
academics, or those who exhibit behavioral or adjustment-based problems and encourage
familial involvement and support (NYSED, 2018).
Before the 2019–2020 school year, there was no state mandate for school counselors to
engage in K–6 programming and planning. These students, however, were to be provided a
curriculum to be used in collaboration with the school-based teaching staff to ensure that they
would be productive in their current and future academic trajectories, in addition to being offered
support in instances of concern regarding academics, attendance, and adjustment or behavior
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challenges (NYSED, 2017a, 2018). Moreover, it was on the onus of the staff to educate on the
subject of sexual abuse while also encouraging parental involvement (NYSED, 2017a, 2018).
The start of the 2019–2020 school year brought change such that every K–12 student finally had
access to a certified school counseling professional (NYSED, 2017a, 2018) that was to support
the whole student community.
In addition to statewide school counseling curricular changes, the NYSED changed
certification pathways for in-state novice counselors seeking entry into the profession, starting in
early 2023 (NYSED, 2017b, 2019; Office of Teacher Initiatives, New York State Education
Department, 2023b). Amendments proposed in May 2017 and adopted in July 2017,
recommended that New York State would revise the ways in which counselor educators obtained
certification, specifically regarding:
(a) certification terminology: moving away from provisional and permanent, to initial and
professional;
(b) credit hours: requiring 48 graduate credits, up from the prior 30 credits, to qualify for
the new initial certification; and
(c) instituting objectives to accomplish in practicum and internship: where there had
previously been 100 hours of practicum and 600 hours of internship experience to
complete as an intern, new regulations seek to ensure that students are gaining “direct
student contact,” (such as through offering group and individual counseling, and
providing “school counseling core curriculum lesson delivery”), in addition to
“developing, implementing, and evaluating key school counseling program elements,”
(e.g., curriculum, address IEPs and student-needs, responsive services, collaborate with
staff in support of students, action plans, time management, scheduling, data analysis,
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assessing school-based counseling program objectives, advisory groups, assemblies and
committees) while also gaining exposure to the entirety of the K–12 spectrum, with one
300 hour internship in a K–8 setting, and the other in a 9–12 high school setting
(NYSED, 2019, p. 10; Office of Teacher Initiatives, New York State Education
Department, 2023a).
With this new legislation, school counseling departments can apply to the state to offer
one of the following: 1) a 48-credit master’s degree guiding students to initial certification, 2) a
60-credit master’s degree [which students will eventually require to transition from initial to
professional certification], and 3) a 12-credit advanced certificate program to bridge the gap
between initial and professional certification (NYSED, 2019). Interestingly, before this change in
program requirements, school counseling preparation programs statewide had minimal guidance
apart from completing 30 higher education credits (The State Education Department, 2013), and
thus, nominal information pertaining to the career development of counseling novices (Busacca
& Wester, 2006). The need for change stems from a lack of continuity across school counseling
programs from one school to the next across the state, such as through variation in the number of
credit and internship hours offered by a given institution, in addition to inconsistency in the
program model utilized (The State Education Department, 2013). As part of the new application
process, universities need to specify how they plan to ensure that their program meets the new
practicum and internship requirements (NYSED, 2019). In addition, New York State school
counseling programs still require the completion of the following workshops: Child Abuse, the
Dignity for all Students Act (DASA), and School Violence Intervention and Prevention.
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Present State of New York State School Counseling
While state-based mandates have served to propel the school counseling profession
forward to better align states like New York with ASCA guidelines to support the overarching
occupation, areas of opportunity exist to create additional advancements to benefit school
counselors. One of ASCA’s recommendations is to have a school counselor-to-student ratio of
1:250 (ASCA, n.d., 2019a, 2019b, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2021d, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2022d).
On a national scale, data suggests that during the 2021-2022 school year, the counselor-to-
student ratio had decreased to 1:408 (ASCA, 2022c; Prothero, 2023); however, when
extrapolating the facts and figures, New York State counselor caseloads increased from 1:350 in
the 2020–2021 school year to a ratio of 1:460 the following school year (ASCA 2022b, 2022c;
Shen-Berro, 2023).
Simultaneously, a recent report surveying the NYDOE, the largest public school system
in the nation servicing nearly one million students, recommended finding ways in which to
“maintain appropriate mental health professional (including school counselors) staffing levels at
all schools,” as Department of Education (DOE) schools “do not have the recommended number
of mental health professionals to address their students’ mental health-related needs” (Office of
the New York State Comptroller, 2022, p. 3). In addition, while nearly 94% of schools in the
DOE provided at least one school counselor per school, 64% of schools superseded ASCA’s
1:250 school counselor-to-student ratio, and nearly 10% of schools reported having no school
counselor present on campus (Office of the New York State Comptroller, 2022, pp. 14–15).
Unfortunately, the lack of available school counselors, especially in New York, is not
surprising. Not too long ago, the disbursement of school counselors had been cited as
insufficient; some scholars, including first-generation, low-socioeconomic background, and
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students of color, have no access to a school counselor in middle or high school, crucial
transition periods when students are considering their futures (Rotunda, 2020). There seems to be
unequal access to school counselors, whether based on schools, school districts, or their
geographical location (Joint Public Hearing; 2021, Rotunda, 2022). In addition, compared to
school counselors at the secondary level, there is a great need to staff elementary schools as the
average caseload of a given school counselor at this juncture is approximately 1:1000 (Joint
Public Hearing, 2021; Rotunda, 2022). Recently, NYSSCA (New York State School Counselor
Association) disseminated surveys to school counselors, school counseling leadership, and
district superintendents to ascertain funding information. Over 60% of superintendents and
school counselors reported no additional counseling positions for the 2021–2022 school year
(Joint Public Hearing, 2021). Moreover, while some superintendents cited a lack of qualified
applicants or having hired personnel in prior school years, New York State school counselors
expressed a desire for additional counselors, the concern that their districts lack the funds or
report a lack in funding to hire new counselors, and concern over sustaining positions after the
expiration of federal funding (Joint Public Hearing, 2021).
Analyzing the System Approach of School Counseling
When taking into consideration school counselors and the work that they’re doing to
support their students and the various stakeholders throughout the schoolwide community, there
are many challenges that have the propensity to interrupt the flow and prevent the necessary
work from getting done in a timely manner. Using the overarching system approach of school
counseling in the same three areas, the level of the school counselor, from the district vantage
point, and from the university perspective, problems can arise having the proclivity to cause
interferences.
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School Counselor or Guidance Counselor?
School counselor or guidance counselor? What’s the difference? Due to the scope of the
profession and the evolution of the role, in 1990, ASCA officially changed the name “guidance
counselor” to “school counselor” (Lambie & Williamson, 2004; Zyromski et al., 2019).
Surprisingly, now over 30 years later, some people and places still use the terms interchangeably,
including members of the counseling profession (ASCA, 2017; Baker et al., 2021; Zyromski et
al., 2019). The recommendation to switch titles was a way to recognize members of the career by
acknowledging their expertise, abilities, and professional responsibilities, in addition to boasting
the validity of the professional title (Baker et al., 2021; Zyromski et al., 2019). A guidance
counselor is seen as reactive, offers services to a portion of the schoolwide community, works in
seclusion, supports the improvement process, and has an impact assessed through sentiments and
perceptions (ASCA, 2017). On the other hand, a school counselor relies on data and operates
proactively, inclusive of all students, has an impact measured by academic attainment, student
attendance, and behavior data, is pivotal in the schoolwide improvement operation, is seen as
school leader, and is involved in all aspects of development, management, and evaluation of the
comprehensive school counseling curriculum (ASCA, 2017). When the term ‘guidance
counselor’ is used to emphasize the nature of the position of the school counselor, it can
influence the public’s understanding of the role and create a narrative where the public is less
likely to regard school counselors as having the appropriate mindset, expertise, essential
knowledge, or the capacity to fulfill the position of the school counselor (Baker et al., 2021).
Furthermore, this has the propensity to create misunderstandings surrounding school counseling
responsibilities. As a result, school counselors can incur non counseling roles and assignments,
thus leading to feelings of role ambiguity, role confusion, occupational stress, and burnout, all
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having the ability to impact familial perceptions of whether school counselors are an appropriate
resource, credible, or competent (Baker et al., 2021).
Coronavirus Pandemic
Referred to as “the biggest disruption in the history of American education,” compared to
the Great Depression and World Wars I and II, nothing has come close to the changes that youth
in the United States (US) endured resulting from the coronavirus pandemic (Levinson &
Markovits, 2022). The coronavirus pandemic negatively impacted both public and private
schools nationwide. As a result, nearly 95% of public and private schools closed during the
spring of 2020, having vast implications for about 97% of the student population in the US
(Budget Cuts and Lost Learning, 2020, p. 8). Education has the potential to provide opportunities
for students to achieve success(es) beyond the school doors. The pandemic highlighted the
“inadequacy of the status quo” for supplying students with the tools needed to thrive (Budget
Cuts and Lost Learning, 2020, p. 10). While COVID-19 has been harmful globally, its impact
will be felt disproportionally, especially to children living impoverished, disadvantaged, and in
vulnerable circumstances (UNICEF, 2022). According to UNICEF, approximately one in three
school-aged children, 463 million children worldwide, could not access virtual or remote
learning opportunities when schools were closed, conceivably due to a lack of technology or
access to the internet, a deficit in skills, or a paucity of parental support (UNICEF, 2022).
Research indicates that amidst the coronavirus, school counselor needs were unmet as far
as available and pertinent professional development opportunities, involvement in school
planning, and scant guidance and direction (Savitz-Romer et al., 2021). Counselors received both
spectrums of administrative leadership, an “all or nothing approach,” where administrators either
did not offer any guidelines or were extremely restrictive; both avenues contributed to a decrease
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in time spent with students (Savitz-Romer et al., 2021). The pandemic required flexibility on the
part of the school counselor. Having counselors fulfilling non counseling roles, whether to
complete attendance duties or being positioned in the classroom to fill in for absent teachers, for
example, supports existing data that school leadership uses counselors to assume administrative
tasks and responsibilities (Blake, 2020; Savitz-Romer et al., 2021). Acquiring assignments
outside of a school counselor’s purview had the propensity to cause multiple modalities of stress,
whether stemming from role ambiguity, role confusion and conflict, or role overload (Blake,
2020; Dahir et al., 2019; Fye et al., 2022; Goodman-Scott, 2013; Gysbers, 2010; Kim & Lambie,
2018; Lambie & Williamson, 2004; Patton, 2019; Savitz-Romer et al., 2021; Villares et al.,
2022). Occupational stress also had the potential to emerge, linked to a perceived stressful work
environment and the challenges surrounding an inability to manage personal and professional
responsibilities (Kim & Lambie, 2018; Villares et al., 2022), in addition to burnout (Fye et al.,
2020; Holman et al., 2019; Kim & Lambie, 2018; Villares et al., 2022).
Despite these workplace challenges, counselors overcame the role adjustment, by holding
onto their professional autonomy and continuing to problem-solve, create action plans, seek
professional learning opportunities, and support educational programming (Savitz-Romer et al.,
2021). While advocating for mental health support and services for students is a fundamental
responsibility of school counselors, the American Counseling Association’s (2019) ethical
standards advance the notion that school counselors are responsible for continually assessing
their thoughts and feelings regarding burnout in the hopes of being proactive and maintaining
psychological homeostasis, as burnout has the proclivity to interfere when providing professional
counseling services to students and additional stakeholders (Kim & Lambie, 2018).
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In the pre-pandemic world, school counselors wore many hats as they were involved in
educating students on social-emotional learning, academic advising, mediating challenges,
liaising with the schoolwide community and the general community at large, providing mental
health support, and more (Meyers, 2020). Among the copious challenges resulting from the
COVID-19 pandemic, many wondered how the pandemic would affect students and their
scholastic achievement, social-emotional welfare, and mental health (Savitz-Romer et al., 2021;
Strear et al., 2021; Villares et al., 2022) in the long-term. With no one sure when or if a sense of
normalcy would return, stress and inundation reverberated across the globe. School counselors
have been at the forefront, through balance and flexibility, and by utilizing their knowledge and
skills to support their communities in a solution-focused manner. Professional school counselors
continue to check in and confer with students and their families, provide referrals to community
services and mental health providers for those in need and crisis, and offer support to the
schoolwide staff, in addition to the social-emotional learning, academic support, and aid given to
students who are dealing with a myriad of personal and school-related challenges (Meyers,
2020). While school counselors are able to support their schoolwide communities at large, it is
still a challenge, personally and professionally, when a counseling role is adjusted to meet the
needs of others. Moreover, while school counselors are flexible, a change in role can impact a
school counselor’s ability to practice in and fulfill the obligations of the role in which they were
trained.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this qualitative study was to focus on new school counselors’ perceptions
using a SCT (Bandura, 1977) lens that learning occurs from observing, imitating, and modeling
others. This study sought to explore three lines of inquiry into learning more about the
perceptions of novice school counselors. The first line of inquiry focused on gaining insight into
their understanding of academic preparedness. The second line of inquiry attempted to evaluate
the obstacles associated with a lack of preparation. The third line of inquiry endeavored to
determine potential changes to the current system of academic preparation.
This chapter details the methods and procedures used to carry out this study. The
following describes the research design, research questions, setting, participants, data collection,
and data analysis as a way to gain further insight into the experiences of novice school
counselors.
Research Design
For this study, I chose to use a phenomenological methodology. Conceived by Edmund
Husserl (Moustakas, 1994), the study of phenomenology seeks to gain insight into socially
constructed experiences. One of the best ways to do this is by attempting to make meaning from
human actions, interactions, and lived experiences (Creswell, 2005). In addition, the author says
that gaining knowledge and insight about a given phenomenon requires researchers to understand
the specific experiences of those individuals we hope to study. The phenomenological approach
is a way for the researcher to uncover various layers of shared experiences on both conscious and
unconscious levels (Patton, 2015). This approach allowed for an in-depth investigation of the
impact of post-graduate preparedness on novice school counselors.
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Qualitative researchers attempt to determine how individuals make sense of their
experiences while seeking to understand the significance we ascribe to those experiences
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In other words, qualitative research attempts to investigate and
explain social phenomena while seeking to learn how people encounter and rationalize these
worldly experiences (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). This can be achieved
through the use of participant observations in the hope of garnering themes that have the
propensity to answer our research questions (Creswell, 2005). Where quantitative research
typically attempts to investigate numerical data to form a deductive analysis or work from a set
of assumptions to establish a broader conclusion, qualitative research seeks an inductive
approach having the researcher careful select data (e.g., words, text) to examine in the hopes of
gaining additional clarity on the phenomenon of interest (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Therefore,
to explore school counselors’ post-secondary experiences and level of preparedness, qualitative
research using an SCT (Bandura,1977) lens of learning is the best fit.
In addition to utilizing qualitative methods to conduct research, researchers have the
propensity to also use a framework, or a larger theory, in which to better understand concepts.
Maxwell (2013) defines the framework of the study as “the concepts, assumptions, expectations,
beliefs, and theories that support and inform our research” (p. 39). The framework of the study is
considered the framing or scaffolding of the research. Within this structural foundation lies the
concepts or theories that the researcher chooses to inform their study (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, this approach allowed for an in-depth investigation of the impact of
post-graduate preparedness on novice school counselors.
Research Questions
1. How do new school counselors describe their preparation experience?
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2. What challenges can emerge as a result of being underprepared?
3. How do new school counselors envision improvements in preparedness?
Research Setting
The setting for this research was virtual for ease of the study. The Zoom platform was
utilized for all video interview communications. Due to the inability to conduct interviews face-
to-face with participants as a result of geographical differences in location, interviews were
conducted through the use of video conferencing software, Zoom (Zoom Video
Communications, Inc., 2022). One strength of online interviews was that there were no
geographic constraints; therefore, interviewing can occur in any location. Additionally, all parties
were able to see each other throughout the meeting; thus, the researcher had the opportunity to
examine both verbal and non-verbal cues (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Participants
Target and Accessible Population and Sample
Two distinguishable aspects of research studies are the target population and the
accessible population. A target population is a large group of people being studied comprised of
characteristics that a researcher seeks to know more about (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).
Lochmiller and Lester (2017) furthered that the researcher then collects a sample from this
population based on their accessibility to participants. This is known as the accessible
population. Within this study, the target population was active, credentialed school counselors
within the U.S. who were 2 to 5 years post master’s completion. The accessible population was
active, credentialed school counselors in the Northeastern U.S. who were 2 to 5 years post
master’s completion. After researchers have selected a group of participants to participate in their
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research, those participants willing to be interviewed, observed, or studied are known as the
sample population (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). The sample for this study was 12 active,
credentialed school counselors in New York who were 2 to 5 years post master's completion.
Sampling Method
Using the convenience methodology, this research utilized a sample from New York.
More specifically, this is used when the researcher has access to a sample of convenience,
whether that sample is based on finances, time, specific location, accessibility of participants, to
name a few (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, this study sampled new school counselors
from New York State. This research used purposive sampling within the first three weeks, or a
sampling method that attempted to uncover, comprehend, glean insight from, and utilized a
sample where the most knowledge could be gained (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Recruitment
I obtained prior approval from the University of Southern California’s IRB Committee to
conduct this study (see Appendix A). Social media was utilized to recruit individuals for
interviews through specified groups through announcements posted within subgroups. The social
media groups are school based with an emphasis on school counselors. During my research, I
took into consideration the elements involved in collecting data about people through social
media and networking sites, which include determining an appropriate and effective informed
consent process, ensuring voluntary participation, protecting privacy and confidentiality, and
minimizing the risks of research participants (Cornell University Office of Research Integrity
and Assurance, 2013). Moreover, participants were given the opportunity to provide consent
before the interview process, and no information was collected from individuals who declined to
participate in the study (Cornell University Office of Research Integrity and Assurance, 2013).
55

In addition to the social media groups, the social media recruitment message (see
Appendix B) was also sent to the New York State School Counseling Association (NYSSCA) to
try to gain a larger audience for the research being conducted and to attempt to recruit new
school counselors with NYSSCA membership. The social media recruitment messages were sent
out (see Appendix B) periodically over the course of a 3-week timeframe. Interested individuals
were able to click a link in the recruitment message which took them to the demographic survey
and interview contact form (see Appendix C). A letter to solicit informed consent (see Appendix
D) was given to all participants before the interview process. I asked participants if they agreed
to the use of an electronic consent format. Within the informed consent document (see Appendix
D), participants were given information pertaining to the purpose of research, method of data
collection, associated anonymity, and how to rescind consent at any time. A part of the informed
consent offered individuals the option to opt out of research collection and not partake in this
study. With participant consent, to capture all shared information, video communication was
recorded while also allowing for the inclusion of handwritten notes. Having the ability to record
exchanges allowed for the ability to utilize collected data for subsequent analysis (Lochmiller &
Lester, 2016; Maxwell, 2013).
I understood that the individuals in the respondent population were not completely within
my control and could forward recruitment-based materials otherwise not intended for that pool of
participants. Therefore, recruitment measures ensured that social media allowed for an equitable
pool of participants. Safeguards were put in place to ensure that the participant population
chosen for the study met the criteria for this study and therefore had been purposely chosen for
the study. Consideration for the terms and conditions in the use of the social media website was
56

taken into consideration upon conducting research. At the time of this study, there were no
research-related restrictions.
All participants partook in a preliminary Demographic Survey (see Appendix C) which
was conducted before the Interview Protocol (see Appendix E). During the interview,
interviewees answered a series of questions based on the identified study research questions. The
interview took approximately 1 hour to complete.
Data Collection
There were two points of data collection for this study. One was the data collected by the
demographic survey (see Appendix C) which gathers information about the participants studied.
Through this, we can draw themes. Additionally, it helped to better understand the individuals
being studied. The second point of data collection was the interview protocol (see Appendix E)
which was conducted by interview. Interviews serve as a method to comprehend and explore
participants' thoughts and opinions, experiences, and perceptions.
Demographic Survey
The demographic survey (see Appendix C) included questions about participant race
(Harvard School of Public Health, n.d.), age, school level, and year of graduation. Demographic
information was helpful when researching as it sheds light on the participants. Such data are
valuable as it aids researchers in determining whether or not the participants in the study were
part of a sample that was representative of the target or intended population (Salkind, 2010).
Interview Protocol
This study used a semi-structured format, having an interview template with 16 open-
ended questions (see Appendix E). Based on the research questions, the interview protocol was
open-ended to encourage participants to share what they felt was meaningful as they reflected on
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their graduate school experiences, their role and responsibilities as a school counselor, and their
perception of preparedness. Semi-structured interviewing, most commonly found in qualitative
research studies, is less structured, allowing for flexibly worded questions of an open-ended
nature while having the propensity to investigate a variety of subject areas and maintaining
continuity across interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Procedures
After following the aforementioned sampling and recruitment methodology, the 12
individuals selected for this study clicked on a link to the Demographic Survey and Interview
Contact Form (see Appendix C). The interview contact portion of the form asked for two pieces
of information: the participant’s email address and the days of the week and times during the day
that were most convenient to participate in the interview. Upon successful completion of the
document, the researcher contacted participants and scheduled a time to interview. After
interviews were scheduled, participants were asked to complete the Informed Consent Form (see
Appendix D). Interviews were conducted via Zoom (Zoom Video Communications, Inc., 2022)
over 8 weeks, to provide as much flexibility as possible, should participants needed to cancel and
reschedule their interviews. Using participant email addresses, email reminders were sent out
requesting and reminding participants of their interview participation that were the most
convenient for them to conduct the interview. All interviews were conducted on the Zoom
platform (Zoom Video Communications, Inc., 2022).
On the day of the interview, participants were reminded of the interview’s recording and
assured that their reflections would be kept anonymous through the inclusion of a self-selected
pseudonym. The interview was conducted utilizing the semi-structured interview protocol (see
Appendix E). The interview utilized new school counselors as the primary source of data
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collection. Questions were asked about perceptions of being prepared, level of preparedness,
challenges experienced, and understanding what can be done to improve them. After participants
completed the interview, they were entered into a drawing to receive one of three $20 gift cards.
Confidentiality Parameters
My research was conducted by the University of Southern California’s IRB standards.
The principles of beneficence, fidelity, and non-maleficence were upheld. This study believed in
the principles of ‘do no harm.’ Participation in this study was completely voluntary and
participants had the opportunity to withdraw at any time without penalty. At no point in time
were participants coerced to participate. Interviews were conducted via Zoom (Zoom Video
Communications, Inc., 2022) in a private location, my home, to ensure that participants felt
secure when discussing issues of a confidential manner. Since identifying information was
included in the data collection process, identities were kept anonymous using a pseudonym
chosen by the participant and were coded for data analysis to maintain participant anonymity. All
participants received a statement of confidentiality (see Appendix D). Information about
confidentiality was included in the Informed Consent (see Appendix D). All data, including
scanned notes, recordings, and interview transcriptions, were stored on a Google Drive (see Data
Management Section). Additionally, my computer has been password protected to add a layer of
security to the research data. Affiliated materials resulting from this study will be deleted after a
period of three years. The risks associated with participation in this study are perceived to be
minimal (see Data Management Section).
Data Management
I was familiar with the most up-to-date cybersecurity and safe computer practices through
reading current technological articles and ensuring automatic updates for MAC OS. Concerning
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security and system authentication, I ensured the use of strong passwords, locking computer
access when walking away from the computer, and restricting user permissions to the files being
used. Additionally, data were encrypted as an added layer of security to ensure the protection of
confidential research data. Regardless of where the data were utilized, the data are and will
remain encrypted. All communications, in addition to all the data collected from the Informed
Consent and Demographic Survey, are and will remain confidential. It has all been encrypted
through the Google platform.
Dissemination of Findings
Upon completion of the study, the data were aggregated and analyzed. A synopsis of the
results has been made available to those participants who requested a copy.
Data Analysis
Qualitative research involves collecting rich and in-depth data through interviews,
observations, and other methods that aim to capture the experiences and perspectives of
participants (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The value of this data is
contingent on its effective analysis and interpretation. Data analysis is a crucial component of
qualitative research, as it allows researchers to identify themes and patterns within the data that
can provide insights into the research question(s) being investigated.
Once all the necessary information is collected, the next step in this study was to analyze
the data (Maxwell, 2013). In qualitative research, data analysis involves interpreting and making
sense of the collected data, in this case, from interviews. This process often involves identifying
themes, patterns, or codes within the data to gain additional insights into the research question(s).
Qualitative researchers often use qualitative description analysis, which involves characterizing
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the surrounding world or a given phenomenon through the identification of emergent patterns in
data that answer questions surrounding who, what, where, when, and to what extent (Loeb et al.,
2017).
Descriptive Analysis
Loeb et al. (2017) suggests that one way to simplify data is through a process known as
descriptive analysis. This is an important contributor to the research as the descriptive analysis
summarizes the data and can present a clearer picture of the findings (Lochmiller & Lester,
2017) through the identification of recurrent patterns (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Additionally, to
better understand the surveyed sample population, demographic data in the form of demographic
questions are utilized to learn more about the characteristics of the individuals in the study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Descriptive analysis has been done with the demographic data and
descriptive data collected from the Thematic Content Analysis (TCA).
Thematic Content Analysis
One way to gain clarity when analyzing the data was through TCA. TCA can be defined
as a method of analyzing data in terms of emergent themes (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Themes
can then develop into categories; this is important as “in thematic analysis, categories bring
together various coded passages and assign meaning about their relationships, differences,
similarities, or interactions” (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017, p. 289). TCA then emerges from the
transcription of the semi-structured interviews conducted from the research sample. I used
NVivo transcription tools (QSR International, 2020) to aid in the process of transcription and
analysis. During the analysis phase, I diligently studied the data to determine emergent themes,
topics, concepts and/or viewpoints that were discussed with frequency. While there were a
variety of methods used to conduct TCA, I utilized the following six-step process:
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familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and
writing up.
Using TCA, I systematically analyzed the qualitative data and identified themes and
patterns that may not have been initially apparent. The findings of this study were then structured
around each of the three research questions. From here, I selected quotes from the interview
transcripts that best reflected the findings as they pertained to these questions.
Reliability
When considering research, reliability is the ability of a study to be replicated and
achieve the same consistent results every time (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Robinson & Leonard, 2019). A part of reliability is dependability which seeks to
determine the continuity, trackability, and rationale of the study's design and procedure
(Samkian, 2021). Samkian (2021) furthered that confirmability seeks to determine whether the
data collected (e.g., observations, notes, and interviews) can be traced to their primary sources. I
anticipated this research to be reliable in the following ways. Firstly, by asking each person the
same structured questions. Secondly, I sought to conduct all interviews within a one-hour time
frame. Additionally, once I received participant contact information, I intended on being
consistent in connecting with each participant within one week of when contact information was
shared. Fourthly, I anticipated following all procedures for the collection of consent in the same
manner. In addition, I planned to address any contextual changes that arose within the research
and its potential resulting impact on the study. Lastly, I intended to conduct all interviews on the
Zoom platform (Zoom Video Communications, Inc., 2022).
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Validity
The validity, on the other hand, is the ability to determine whether the study measures
what it intended to measure (Robinson & Leonard, 2019). Therefore, if the research and findings
presented by the researcher are considered reasonable, credibility is sought to determine whether
or not the study and its results were convincing and factually based (Samkian, 2021). Samkian
(2021) discussed another element of validity, which is transferability; this sought to determine
whether the study’s results could be generalized and applied to other contexts and situations. I
anticipated this research to maintain validity in the following ways. Firstly, I intended to
highlight key points derived from the research in the discussion section. In doing this, I hoped to
offer readers and researchers guidance on important factors to consider. Secondly, there may be
themes or conclusions that can be generalized to other settings or contexts. Additionally, this
study used research methods that were well-established in the field of qualitative research. This
is important to note, as the methods used and how the data were collected and analyzed were
comparable to that of other successful and respected research projects. Lastly, this research
project sought to secure participant trust through encouraging questions, ensuring only actively
interested participants participate in data collection, and offering participants the opportunity to
opt out of the study.
Conclusion
The methodology chapter provided an overview of the methods to be used in this
research study. This study utilized a research design grounded in qualitative research, more
specifically phenomenological. The sample population used in this study consisted of actively
certified and practicing school counselors, 2 to 5 years post-master completion in New York.
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Interviews were the method of data collection from the sample population. The following chapter
details the findings from the research questions.

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Chapter Four: Research Findings
This qualitative study sought to explore and understand the perception of preparedness of
new school counselors certified in New York State using a SLC lens of learning (Bandura,
1977). One of the aims of this study was to allow newly graduated students to examine their
graduate school preparation experiences in their transition from a counselor-in-training to a
professional school counselor. Another objective was to discern any apparent or unsuspected
impacts/challenges that might have emerged. The last goal of this study was to assess the
possible ways to improve school counselor preparation. The data collected informs the following
three research questions: How do new school counselors describe their preparation experience?
What challenges can emerge as a result of being underprepared? How do new school counselors
envision improvements in preparedness?
After the interviews were complete, the next phase was data analysis. Data analysis calls
for deciphering and synthesizing participant feedback with factual data and theoretical concepts;
the hope is to elicit meaning from the data and arrive at answers to the research questions
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). When all 12 interviews were complete, using NVivo and TCA, each
conversation was transcribed and subsequently color-coded by theme, paying attention to how
each response correlated to and supported the study’s overarching objective. Nine themes (see
Table 4) are presented in this chapter and were instrumental in answering the overarching
research questions, they include, the enmeshment of graduate programs, the acquisition of
internship and practicum placements, prior experience, student behaviors, other assigned duties,
the only school counselor, administration, elementary school counselors, and special education.

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Table 4
Theme Development
Theme Development Final Themes
Administration Enmeshment of Graduate Programs
Behaviors Acquisition of Internship and Practicum Placement
Burnout Prior Experience
Caseload Student Behaviors
Counselor Role Other Assigned Duties
Covid Only School Counselor
Crisis Counseling Administration
Elementary School Elementary School Counselors
Internship/Practicum Special Education
Mental Health
Mentorship/Supervisory
Other Assigned Duties
Parents/Guardians
Preparation Experience
Recommendations
Teacher Collaboration

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In the beginning stages of analysis, I selected open coding as it allowed me to develop a
categorical system for choosing the most appropriate codes based on the data that I thought were
important (Maxwell, 2013). Assigning codes to various parts of the data is where I began to build
my initial set of categories. Starting with the first transcript, I then applied these codes to
subsequent transcripts to determine if the selected codes emerged, and if they did, it would help
me see if patterns emanated. Data analysis is an intense process, and as the researcher, it is my
responsibility to ensure that the findings presented are trustworthy and credible (Lochmiller &
Lester, 2017). As a certified professional school counselor, it was important for me to ensure that
in all steps of this process, I was aware and reflective of my assumptions, positionality, and
outlook to present an objective perspective to this study.
Through the use of my coding strategy, data were analyzed, helping to highlight
emergent themes from interview responses. To accomplish this task, I reviewed the notes I had
taken during the interview process. I paid particular attention to terms, ideas, or phrases that
stood out or were frequently mentioned by multiple participants. Once the interviews were
completed and the notes were compiled, I listened to each recording multiple times to ensure
objectivity in my analysis. This was an iterative process, involving the repetition of steps. In
addition, I reviewed previous interviews to determine if the identified patterns were present
across multiple participants or were pronounced throughout the spectrum of participants. The
codes used for developing themes (see Table 4) were derived from an aggregate list of codes
obtained from participant interviews. It is worth noting that the research findings included in this
chapter were deemed relevant if they were expressed by at least half of the participants. Based on
this criterion, I revisited my notes and listened to the interviews again to see if I could further
expound on the emergent codes expressed by at least half of the participant population. Quotes
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were selected from the coded interview responses to support the findings, resulting in a list of
nine final themes (see Table 4). The findings are presented in the form of a qualitative narrative,
which focuses on how they address the research questions.
Findings
This researcher interviewed 12 school counselors across New York State. All 12
participants are actively certified and currently working as full-time school counselors in New
York, having 2 to 5 years of professional experience post master’s completion. Ten participants
identified as female, and two identified as male. Most respondents, 75%, completed CACREP-
affiliated graduate school counseling programs. Eight participants attended private institutions,
including: Canisius College, Capella University, Long Island University, Manhattan College,
New York University, Russell Sage College, and St. Lawrence University. Four participants
attended public institutions, including: City University of New York Brooklyn College, City
University of New York Hunter College, State University of New York Brockport, and State
University of New York Oswego. Three school counselors fulfilled their graduate coursework
through online programs. In addition, two participants attended the same academic institution,
and two respondents moved away from home to find an initial position to begin their careers
post-graduation. Five participants, at the time of enrollment, were located in the New York
Metropolitan area (i.e., Long Island, New York City, and Westchester County). Ten participants
are currently working in the public school system, with one participant employed in a charter
school and another in a private school setting.
There were eight Demographic Survey questions that each participant was asked to
complete as a way to gain additional insight into the population being studied (see Table 5). The
questions were used to determine age range, graduation year, the number of post-graduate years
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of experience, race/ethnicity, the student population served, and if participants attended
CACREP affiliated graduate programs. The data showed that the average age of participants was
evenly split, six participants were between the ages of 21 and 29, and the other six were between
30 and 39. Seventy-five percent (75%) of participants identified as White, and the remaining
25% identified as Hispanic/Latino/a/x, Spanish. In addition, there was a relatively equal
distribution of school counselors represented across the elementary school (ES), middle school
or junior high school (MS/JHS), and high school (HS) spectrum. There was also an equal
distribution of postgraduate experience, four participants each having 1-2, 2-3, and 3-4 years of
experience. Moreover, the graduation year of school counselors was more pronounced in 2019
and 2020. Lastly, 75% of respondents attended CACREP affiliated graduate programs.
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Table 5
Demographic Survey Results
Participant
Pseudonyms
Age
Range
Graduation
Year
Post-graduate
Years of
Experience
Race/Ethnicity Student
Population
Served
CACREP
Program
Christian
Emily
Jaclyn
Jenny
John
Laura
LR
Mallory
Megan
Monica
Nicole
Raymond
21-29
21-29
30-39
30-39
21-29
30-39
30-39
21-29
21-29
30-39
21-29
30-39
2021
2020
2019
2020
2021
2020
2019
2019
2020
2019
2021
2018
1-2
2-3
3-4
2-3
1-2
2-3
3-4
2-3
1-2
3-4
1-2
3-4
White
White
Hispanic/Latino/a/x, Spanish
Hispanic/Latino/a/x, Spanish
White
White
Hispanic/Latino/a/x, Spanish
White
White
White
White
White
HS (9–12)
ES (K–5)
ES (K–5)
MS/JHS (6–8)
Intermediate (4–8)
HS (9–12)
HS (9–12)
ES (K–5)
HS (9–12)
K–8
MS/JHS (6–8)
ES (K–5)
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
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Analysis of Research Question One
This section introduces the findings that address the following research question: How do
new school counselors describe their preparation experience?
The Enmeshment of Graduate Programs
Eight respondents discussed the uniformity of their school counseling programs. Of those
eight, two respondents felt as though there was minimal integration of their graduate program
with other concentrations. Monica felt that her program was “completely separate.” She said,
“there were probably one or two [overlapping] classes that you were required to take in both
programs, but one or two that aligned. That was it.” Emily echoed similar sentiments suggesting
that her program consisted of “only school counselors.”
The remaining six respondents discussed their sentiments pertaining to how their
graduate courses were heavily integrated with students from other preparation programs (e.g.
rehabilitation counseling, and mental health counseling). One participant reported a positive
experience resulting from the enmeshment of courses and programs. She felt as though having
integrated classes across multiple graduate domains contributed to a more robust educational
environment and thus educational experience. Mallory says that her cohort was interlaced with
other students from mental health counseling as well as from the marriage and family therapy
program. An outlier in her reply, Mallory felt “it was really helpful to be around mental health
counselors too and learn from them.” She further suggested that “there is definitely an advantage
to knowing the other parts of the other fields too.”
The other five respondents expressed a different sentiment when discussing the
overlapping of course curricula with other graduate programs. This group reported
disappointment with the dearth of school counselor-specific coursework. For example, Nicole
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expressed that her program was intertwined with both mental health and school psychology
tracks. She estimates that her cohort shared nearly 80% of the same classes, with only 20%
solely focused on school counseling. As a result, Nicole credits her strength in the mental health
subject area to the overlapping of courses she took in her preparation program. She said, “I think
my skills are phenomenal in mental health because I’m completely close to having a mental
health counseling degree….[but] I think it [our program] should have been a little bit more
school counseling focused.”
Similarly, Jenny shared that as a result of the entanglement of courses and programs, “if
the majority of students are mental health and rehab, chances are they’re [professors] going to be
asking about adults or the language that they use [is different than what a school counselor would
use], your patient, your client.” Jenny felt as though her program was also too generalized and
not specific enough. Laura echoed a comparable experience where in class, “I remember having
to specify, I am a school counseling student and others would have to specify what they were
doing... [My program] was all mental health counseling….that other piece, college, career, and
academic piece, I was lacking in.” Lastly, Raymond felt as though when school counseling and
mental health counseling programs were grouped together, his belief is that “something is lost in
translation when they try to combine them [school counseling and mental health counseling]…
[as a result,] I would say I have more training as a mental health counselor than I do as a school
counselor.”
The Acquisition of Internship and Practicum Placements
Arguably, one of the most sought-after components of graduate school for school
counselors is the hands-on knowledge gained in the practicum and internship components of the
program. The fieldwork aspect of the program is an opportunity for counselors in training to take
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the theoretical foundational knowledge they have received and translate it to real-world, practical
experiences. Half of the participants reported receiving no help or support from their graduate
programs in securing a placement to fulfill their mandatory practicum and internship hours. The
process was described as arduous and difficult. LR felt as though the process of finding a
placement was challenging. She articulated that she and her cohort “had to figure it out [by]
find[ing] our own schools [and] contact[ing] the schools ourselves.” Along similar lines, Monica
did not feel as though her graduate program was supportive regarding field placements. She said
that her graduate program was “not good, not helpful… [the process of securing field sites] was
very much figure it out. Here’s the paperwork, figure it out.” Likewise, Nicole shared, “one thing
that I almost wish they did for us is to assign us an experience, assign the internship, or at least
give us something to choose from that we know will [guarantee] an internship.”
On the other hand, several participants, less than half, had opposing experiences where
they felt as though their graduate programs were helpful in the process of finding field
placements. Megan says that her program supports counselors in training annually. “Every
semester they’re always looking for counselors in the field to take their students. And so the
program has pre-established relationships with certain districts and certain counselors.” This
experience was on par with Jenny’s program. She explained that her graduate program “hosts
information sessions at the beginning of the school year. They give you a list of schools, an
extensive list of schools that you can reach out to.” Jaclyn’s experience was comparable. She
describes her program as being “very supportive.” She further elaborates by saying,
I didn’t have to look for the sites. There was another department that looked up and gave
me options for the sites, and they set up the interviews. For my internship, I didn’t even
have to interview, pretty much. It was just, hey, this is your internship site-- the
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principal’s excited to meet you, just go. And I met the principal like a week after I
started… I know there are lots of other experiences that people have in other programs,
but mines was on it.
There was a third minority subset of school counselors in training that emerged under the
umbrella of practicum and internship placement. In this grouping, two participants were able to
allocate the hours from their current full-time positions toward their fieldwork requirements.
Each participant felt differently about their experience. Regarding how helpful John felt as
though his graduate program was in supporting the process of the practicum and internship
experience, “not very.” He elaborated by saying, “I was in a position where I was working [full
time], [and I] was actually partnered with where I was doing my graduate program. So, they just
kind of said, it’ll be easier for you to do your practicum and internship there.” John was able to
do both his practicum and internship at the same location, the K–6 he was working in. He feels
as though this was disadvantageous to him because he feels as though he has now been
pigeonholed in a K–6 role, and he “missed that boat” to gain exposure within middle and high
school settings. Emily, however, had a different perspective. She realizes that not many school
counselors have the opportunity to utilize their worksite as their internship placement. As a
result, Emily is “forever grateful for it.” Further elaborating on the experience, Emily said, “it
was amazing. I felt more prepared than most had… that in combination with grad school
[practicum/internship classes], I felt 100% supported [by my program].”
Prior Experiences
Through discourse about the school counseling profession, a topic that emerged was prior
experiences. More than half of the participants noted that their formative endeavors, whether
using transferable skills from an initial career, networking with colleagues from other jobs, or the
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practical experience ascertained from an additional degree, were necessary for them to complete
graduate school and earn their school counseling certification. LR articulated that her program “it
did prepare me in regard to more of the background stuff, like how to treat, how to have
empathy, how to work with students that have disabilities, how to gather and prepare for parent
meetings.” At the same time, LR continued by saying “but I also feel like my prior experience
really prepared me.” LR’s former career involved her working in the non-profit foster care
system. As a result of this career trajectory, LR came to graduate school with a basic
understanding of IEP meetings and how to conduct parent meetings, to name several exposures
that were beneficial to her. LR further elaborated:
If I didn’t have that [prior] experience I’m not so sure how prepared I would feel in terms
of working in a school setting, collaborating with administrators, meeting with teachers,
what types of questions to ask teachers in regard to student success, gauging student
interest and motivation, having those type of conversations. I’m not so sure how prepared
I would’ve been. So, I personally feel like I was prepared, yes, because of my graduate
program and also my prior experience.
Raymond believes that his external job was crucial for his educational success as it
provided him with a network of colleagues to support him when he needed it the most in his
academic journey; without it, he might not have graduated. Raymond says:
I already had a job in the community working as a youth worker for a non-profit...if I
didn’t have those established relationships beforehand from my job, I don’t think I
would’ve been able to find a placement [fieldsite] that would have attracted me enough to
have graduated...I had dropped out of my program about halfway through just because I
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didn’t feel confident that it was going to prepare me for any kind of actual work to get a
real job. I really didn’t have faith in the program at all.
Raymond’s amassed connections from what he calls “relationship building” provided the
necessary tools to help him find field placements. With an agenda, Raymond chose to return to
his program shortly thereafter with his intentions set on mental health counseling. He furthers:
Yeah, I went back to finish. I had half of the credits and I thought that if I finished the
school counselor [program] at least I could go on and get those [additional] credits for the
mental health counselor piece that would make me more marketable.
Prior to entering her graduate program for a degree in school counseling, Monica had
obtained a master's degree from the same school in mental health counseling. Due to her prior
graduate experience, Monica was familiar with the program and some of the professors as there
was some overlap between school and mental health counseling. Monica elaborated further,
stating:
I had a great foundation already developed because of my first-time masters in mental
health. And I feel like that program was a huge help in getting through the school
counseling piece and prepared me for the type of school counseling that I do now, which
is unique, I think, to a traditional school counselor… I am in a lot of ways, not a
traditional school counselor. I think I’m more in a position right now where school
counseling is headed, and if I can think back and separate those two master's degrees, the
mental health counseling, and the school counseling, I don’t think that I would feel nearly
as prepared in my setting if I didn’t have both.
While the job she currently has is a combination of mental health and school counseling, Monica
says the following:
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I landed as a special education school counselor and I didn’t know that it even existed. I
had no idea that this was under the umbrella or the spectrum of school counseling, no
clue…I do not do a lot of the things that I felt I was trained to do or educated in when I
was in the school counseling program…Overall, [my counseling program] they didn’t
[entirely] prepare me for where I am now…My mental health experience and degree,
they prepared me.
Analysis of Research Question Two
This section offers the findings which address the following research question: What
challenges can emerge as a result of being underprepared?
Student Behaviors
While participants addressed a host of situations where they felt underprepared, one area
that came up several times was student behaviors. Half of the respondents addressed student
behaviors as a growing challenge in their school communities and uncertainty about how to
approach it.
While unclear if student behaviors came ahead due to the covid pandemic, Christian
acknowledges that Covid brought on atypical behaviors, which she believes are a large-scale
issue. Apart from her internship placement which she spent focusing on delivering SEL lessons
to her elementary students, Christian says that student behaviors were unexpected and one of her
biggest challenges as a new professional counselor.
A lot of the behaviors that I saw at the elementary level were not what I expected, even
from my experiences [graduate school/field sites] just really, really extreme behaviors I
was not ready for….We had a student who would throw chairs at their classmates, and
when a shutdown would happen, it was just danger[ous] to others and themselves. And I
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think the immediate response to that was something that I wasn’t completely sure of the
right way to handle it…I almost felt like my hands were tied a little bit because I
wouldn’t touch the student, obviously, or be the person to restrain without the training to
do that. So, I was really just a human shield trying to prevent the student from harming
themselves or others.
Christian states that she feels as though this subject area, behaviors, is one that is not only a
challenge for new school counselors but for veterans as well. She says, “I don't even think very
skilled, experienced school counselors [are] like, oh yeah, we got this.” Regarding student
behaviors, Christian believes that this is one area her graduate program could have touched on a
little more to further set her up for success.
Jaclyn echoed similar sentiments regarding her students, “[they have] a lot of behavioral
problems.” She feels as though her educational experience did not provide her with adequate
tools to be able to handle or address “behavioral outbursts.” Jaclyn shares:
I feel like it wasn’t until I physically got into the role and I was doing it hands-on, and
I’m like, oh my goodness, am I doing a good job? Am I not doing a good job? At the
beginning, like, you’re always hesitant to ask questions because you’re not sure if the
staff is there to support you, or the staff may look at you in a certain way or feel that
you’re just inexperienced with the [behavioral] situation.
Jaclyn feels that her graduate program could have prepared her better if they had given her more
insight into how to support her student population and manage their needs in times of crisis.
Megan believes that the topic of behavioral challenges was not only left out of her
training, she felt unprepared for how to address these challenges in younger children. She
expands on this further by saying:
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Behaviors? Behaviors in a school setting, [my] grad program doesn’t prepare you to
handle [this kind of situation]. What do you do when a kid elopes from the classroom?
What do you do when a kid is throwing chairs? What do you do when a kid is refusing to
do their work or [isn’t] listening to a teacher? There’s so many different behavior
interventions that are specific to the situation that I was not prepared for. College did a
really great job at training us to be mental health counselors….I could have one through
largely the same program, but gotten a degree as a licensed mental health therapist….I
learned how to do mental health and a lot of that too is with other adults, we really didn’t
do a lot of work with how to do counseling for kids. And I think that even teenagers, you
can kind of get away with that, talking to them like an adult. [I] definitely was lacking
preparation with working with kids specifically with the behavior aspect. It’s no longer,
just tell me more about that, it’s this kid is throwing things and wrecking your classroom.
So that, I felt very underprepared for.
Megan wishes she knew how to better navigate students when they exhibit behavioral
challenges, especially younger children of elementary age. Had her preparation program offered
some guidance on the subject matter, she feels as though it would have been extremely
beneficial.
Other Assigned Duties
A majority of the participants talked about the pervasive topic of the expansive role of
school counselors. Tasked with additional roles and responsibilities, respondents discussed their
experience with non-counseling-based assignments. While some participants expressed that their
graduate programs clearly outlined the school counselor position, respondents felt unprepared for
how to circumnavigate an environment where they have other assigned duties.
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John opened up about his feelings of preparedness and whether he feels able to manage
the role and responsibilities of a school counselor. John’s background is solely in school
counseling; however, his position has him functioning as both a school counselor and social
worker, something he admits he was not prepared for.
I was not fully prepared. So, when I did get the job, I was told this is what the
expectations were, but then every single day there was something else that was kind of
just tacked on. So sometimes it felt like my roles were constantly shifting and that
flexibility was really necessary…. I am also responsible for writing case notes, for
writing IEP goals, for writing lessons in addition to lesson plans [this is all] in addition to
social histories [as well as] a lot more [concerning] making family contact. So I feel like
I’m doing the job of both a social worker in addition to a counselor, but that’s only
because that’s largely because that’s what I was told [on the job], oh that’s what
counselors do. Whereas my counselor ed program specifically said like, oh, these are the
responsibilities of a psychologist or the social worker… but they kind of blend [our
positions] in after a while. There’s nothing I can really do about it.
In attempting to find out additional information pertaining to whether or not John feels
comfortable advocating for a delineation between the roles he has been tasked with, he
responded with the following:
It’s my job, it just kind of is what it is, and I think it’s just because that’s how it has been
for so long. It’s been tough to push back and say, like oh, we need someone else for this,
or we need someone else for that because they don’t or might not have the resources.
Along similar lines, Laura also was surprised to have received unexpected administrative
responsibilities attached to her position. She says:
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I wasn’t prepared for how many admin responsibilities I would have. I kind of went into
it thinking I was going to be more on the teacher level, and now I am realizing that the
teachers almost view me more as an admin. I do have a lot of admin responsibilities that I
do not feel I was prepared for, nor did I particularly want. I really did not want to be a
school administrator, I wanted to be a school counselor.
In asking Laura to elaborate, she tells me that among her other assignments, she is in charge of
creating the master schedule. Laura then receives the blowback when the school staff is not on
board with her choices. She explains:
I would have to make calls that would put a target on my back because I make the master
schedule, which is not an ideal school counselor role, that was what I learned in my
[graduate school] curriculum, but that’s what I do. I make the schedule, and who gets
lunch duty, who gets detention, who gets ISS; I have to make those calls… When it
comes down to the master schedule and making those calls and having to not be
everybody’s friend, I guess, I was not quite prepared for that.
Christian did not expect to be a disciplinarian upholding the dress code for the female
students in school. She shares:
Another kind of non-counselor role that I’ve been tasked with this year is having
conversations with female students about dress code. So again, just another kind of
uncomfortable [conversation], I shouldn’t really be the one having this conversation
because I’m not here to discipline you for a two-strap rule.
I asked Christian about her perceived expectations versus the reality of the school counselor
position. She provided two examples of how her preconceived notions of the additional
responsibilities she was tasked with did not align with what she had anticipated. Christian did not
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expect to be monitored more so for the non-counseling-based tasks she had been assigned, as
opposed to the school counselor job she was hired for.
An example, being the school counselors, I guess I had just assumed that they [the
administration] were going to put more emphasis on the school counseling portion and be
monitoring that more. But a lot of the time, the things that they monitored were things
that weren’t even supposed to be my job in the first place… Me and my co-worker at the
time were responsible for organizing all of parent pickup. So they [administration] would
often be like, so how is parent pickup going? Is that going okay? Is everyone organized?
Is everyone being quiet in the gym? And I didn’t really ever get asked about my SEL
lessons. That’s one example….I think I was almost a bit prepared for the fact that I was
going to be asked to do non-counseling duties, but I think what did not prepare me for my
first professional job was how to be a fill-in administrator. That, I was not prepared
for…Another example would be sometimes admin would have these admin meeting days
where they would be out of the school for the entire day, and the only other people in the
main office were myself, [and] sometimes [it was] only me and the other school
counselor…So anytime there were admin meetings, it would essentially be me holding
down the fort for the entire day. And there were a lot of check-ins about those days and
whether or not I was able to have conversations with students when there were concerns
on those days, but it was just harder for me to define my role in those instances and be
like, I am not a disciplinarian. I should not even be put in this situation… it’s just hard
having those conversations as a counselor because you want to be so far separated from
any level of discipline that it was tough on those days.
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The Only School Counselor
Two-thirds of the participants broached the subject of being the only school counselor.
Whether expressing apprehension over potentially being the sole school counselor and what the
totality of a role of that magnitude might entail or having to fulfill the positions' commitments
and being the only member in the counseling department to do it, both groups expressed concern
over getting the job done.
Mallory highlights how important it is to her to have the support of a counseling team.
She believes the collaborative piece is instrumental in problem-solving challenges that arise as
well as her overall success as a school counselor. In attempting to identify any additional pieces
of information that she felt would be important to share she said:
I think the importance of a supportive counseling team is, I don’t think I would’ve been
able to be as successful as I am if I didn’t have the support of the other counselors
because they were such mentors to me…So I think just feeling supported and feeling like
you can ask dumb questions to any of the counselors on your staff or a majority of the
counselors on your staff is so important because there’re so many times that situations
come up that no one’s ever dealt with before, and you need a sounding board. So, I think
not underestimating that support is really important.
After Mallory highlighted the reason why she feels as though the collaborative piece was crucial
to her overall development as a school counselor, she had the following to add, “I could not
imagine going from grad school to being the only school counselor in school. I would not have
succeeded in that.”
Jenny also expressed trepidation about being a sole counselor. Jenny had been discussing
boundary setting in graduate school and the do’s and don’ts of the counselor role with her
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professors. Jenny articulated that she and her peers were constantly trying to shift the focus to
learn how to advocate for an accurate school counseling role. Not having received a clear
answer, Jenny is still trying to navigate this terrain:
But how do you do this [advocate] in a school, where, in my case, I don’t have a clinical
supervisor. I am the sole school counselor at my school. I am [also] the first school
counselor at my school. So how do you prepare for that?... What happens if you don’t
have your supervisor or [there is a] lack of clinical supervision? You are not getting your
questions answered [and are not being supported]. Where else can you go? [What do you
do when you] don’t feel like you have anyone you can ask, what then?
Jenny believes that preparation programs are responsible for ensuring that all school counselors
are successful in their role, this includes those that are solo counselors within a building or those
working independently on a particular assignment. In asking her about what her experience was
transitioning to a professional school counselor, she conveyed that school counselors need to be
better equipped to be the sole school counseling representative on campus.
I think one thing that schools need to do better is equipping you and preparing you to be
the only school counselor. And it doesn't mean that you're the sole school counselor at
your school. But what if you are the only school counselor dedicated to that part?
Oftentimes, I feel that my conversations with other school counselors is, yes, I have other
school counselors in my school building, but it still feels very much separated in what we
do. So how to reach out, how to ask for help, how to form collaboration with, and if not
school counselors, what are other school-based professionals that you can work closely
with? Yes, teachers? Yes, my principal and my assistant principal. But how do you forget
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those relationships? I feel like that's really important, but we could only hear from that if
we're exposed to more school counselors in our training.
John is the only school counselor in his school building. In asking him if there are any
obstacles preventing him from being successful in his role, John had the following to say.
[Being the sole counselor] it requires that flexibility, so it’s tough. Sometimes it's very
tough for me to establish a routine because then I’m also the only counselor available [on
campus.] I’m also supposed to respond to crises, which with our students happens a lot.
So, it’s tough to do my job, at least what is expected through teaching and that, whereas
[its challenging] doing a lot of the teaching stuff and a lot of the formal counseling
because I am constantly putting out fires and I feel like it’s a lot more than I used to.
Like John, Laura is also the only school counselor in her school. In asking Laura to
describe the process of transitioning from graduate student to school counselor, this is what she
said:
I guess I had expected, you know coming from [being a] graduate student [and going] to
a full-time position, I guess I had expected more mentorship, if that makes sense. So, I
kind of felt a little like, okay, I'm kicked out of the nest like, okay, you're in the real
world now. You don't figure it out. I didn't have a ton of mentorship or anyone. I mean, at
least for my pre-K–12 experience, I was the only school counselor in that entire building.
So, I was the one for everybody. And I definitely felt like I was kicked out of the nest,
that I was an island. I definitely was hoping it would be kind of a softer transition through
mentorship.
Laura added that she joined ASCA and NYSSCA and felt as though, at the time, there were
minimal resources available for new school counselors. In addition, she expressed that in this
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position as the sole counselor at her school K–12 role, Laura was “in this constant state of
anxiety,” having only “5% confidence” in herself and her ability to be successful.
Analysis of Research Question Three
This section supplies the findings which address the following research question: how do
new school counselors envision improvements in preparedness?
Administration
Two-thirds of participants identified administration as a topic they believe preparation
programs could reconceptualize when seeking to support school counselors in training. When
addressing administrative concerns during graduate school, participant recommendations
included inviting administrative personnel to engage with students during the theoretical
component of the program, the type of supervision received at field sites, and a system for
bidirectional evaluations at field sites.
LR feels as though one of the biggest challenges and the area she felt most unprepared for
was how to work with the administration.
I think that what I didn’t expect was to have that resistance from administration, honestly,
for them to know that we [school counselors] know how to advocate for students. We
know based on what they’ve [the students] shared, we know what’s best for them,
because they know what’s best for them. And I did not expect the resistance from
administration at all.
LR feels that there is a way graduate counseling programs can set their students up for success
concerning how best to engage and interact with school-based administrators.
[Graduate school could have prepared us] I feel like maybe if they would’ve collaborated
with administration. So what I mean by that [is], let’s say, if we would have [had] a guest
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speaker, bringing in an actual principal [to engage with] and… [having the opportunity to
know] their train of thought [on a variety of subjects] so that we could, by the time that
we were in the field and we were talking to [and collaborating with] principals, we would
know how to maneuver those situations.
LR’s proposal of integrating administrative figures into the graduate curriculum to learn
from their perspective is similar to a post-graduate course that Mallory took to qualify for her
permanent certification.
I do feel like I took a class, and this was actually for my advanced certificate that I took. I
forgot what the class was called, but it was something about the higher ups
[administrators] in school. So, it was more leader oriented and learning about [the]
different leadership styles and how to address different leadership. It was taught by the
superintendent of a school, so it was really helpful to know how he has dealt with things
that he not necessarily agreed with.
From a different vantage point, Christian feels as though the evaluation process during
the fieldwork component of graduate programs should be bidirectional, where not only do
administrators in supervisory roles have the ability to assess students, but students also have the
opportunity to provide feedback to their supervisors as well. Christian envisions a more
conscientious practicum and internship experience where learning and growth occur, an
endeavor without retaliation or future-orienting consequences.
So, I think that’s one thing I wish was done differently was almost like we get evaluated
as school counselors to be in our program, which I think is amazing and that we should
be evaluated and feedback is really important. But I almost wish there was a way to give
an evaluation of our supervisors. I mean that more in the sense that I think it’s important
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that it’s a little bit more of an equitable relationship….and even if there wasn’t a way to
evaluate my supervisor, at least having an open and honest discussion about my
experience without fear of what that would mean for my future because I think a school
counselor in the field should be in a position of always learning new things because
education has obviously changed from the time that even I went to school, I’m sure. So I
think that it’s almost not fair for anyone to come from the perspective that they are
always going to be in the right of your evaluation. And it’s [the student practicum and
internship evaluation] not two-sided whatsoever… I would want to be evaluated if I was
someone’s supervisor so that they can also talk to me about what I could do differently to
be better.
Nicole shares that she feels as though “working with administration can be a challenge.”
She expressed that the one area where she felt that her school could have done more to support
her was in the area of working and collaborating with administration.
The data point that administration has to strive for. I mean, they have a goal in mind, and
I get that, but I think a lot of times we’re working towards different things [goals and
objectives]. I’m working towards a long-term successful student. They’re working
towards [something] short-term. Great, they did good on math today. I really, really,
really struggle when they [the administration] think that the math point is better than
them [the student] being successful as an adult. [In addition to] there’s just toxicity in
administration sometimes, and it’s really difficult to navigate.
Nicole proposes a more intense vetting process for graduate programs where supervisors are
selected to guide counselors in training can present a holistic and honest portrayal of the role and
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responsibilities of a school counselor. Together they can collaborate on the best ways to
approach the intricacies and more challenging facets of the counselor's role.
Teach the nitty gritty of what we [school counselors] need to do every day and not [just]
glazing over [or sugar coating it by saying] yeah, everything’s going to be great. Tell me
what I’m going to have to do and be real with me. And that’s where I think my program
could have been better in choosing supervisors that are going to be really real with you
and upfront, and [actually] get you to do the things that you are going to need to do every
day. That would have been huge.
Elementary School Counselors
More than half of respondents mentioned how underprepared they felt and would feel if
they were to work in an elementary school. These participants expressed a gap in their
preparation and suggested that their programs either did not discuss or minimally elaborated on
the subject of elementary counseling.
Raymond wishes that his program would have covered the totality of the school
counseling role, which includes elementary and middle school ages. He says, “I think my
program would’ve better prepared me… if it [the program] were split where you’re learning
about only elementary and then you’re only learning about high school” so that you are
addressing all angles of the school counseling spectrum. In asking Raymond how he feels
programs could achieve this objective, he believes they can by having courses taught by a school
counselor with experience in that particular school level, one for each school level.
If we had somebody who was specifically a high school counselor that could handle one
aspect [of high school counseling], if we had the elementary counselor…they might be
able to come up with another approach that was more suitable [to elementary
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counseling]...And that's the other part too, whether you're elementary, middle, or high
school counselor, these jobs are all very, very different. And to put us all in the same
program, it makes sense, but it doesn't work out as well as you think it would [when you
don’t prepare us to address kids of all ages].
Jenny did not have many opportunities in her graduate experience to gain exposure to
learning about and working with younger children. For example, Jenny’s graduate counseling
program overlapped with rehabilitation counseling. Her practicum class, taught by a
rehabilitation counselor, while it was child-focused, left her feeling “very unsupported” since
there was minimal alignment between the experiences of school counselors and elementary
school students. She feels that “there are several areas of improvement that are needed.” Jenny
has two program recommendations that she feels her school could offer counselors in training to
prepare them to work with elementary kids. The first program is related to developing child-
based interventions surrounding the student and their family.
I guess [I wish we had] more child focused interventions, having more child focused
skills and interventions. We did have a class on family dynamics which is important. But
again, [I am referring to a new for] family style, family interventions… I had a class
called group counseling, and part of that was in the group setting. So having [a similar
type of child-focused program] but mirrored with a family, having the parent or the
guardian or having those types of conversations and having that supervised and [either] a
recording, [or] a fake family counseling [session] or [a] family conversation, [or a] family
intervention, that would've been a lot more helpful [in supporting the process of how to
work with kids].
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Jenny’s other conceptualization also centers around the idea of working with elementary
aged children. In this instance, she wants to see a class that can revisit competencies and
interventions. Moreover, Jenny would like an opportunity for counselors in training to refine
these recently acquired tools and techniques and have the chance to demonstrate these skills in a
supported graduate environment.
I wish that I had one semester dedicated to refining my skills and interventions. So for
example, I'm very much a CBT person, so if I decided that CBT was the way to go for
me, how would CBT work with a child? So, having an independent study on how would
these interventions work with a (younger) student… Semesters are, what, 14 weeks? In
those 14 weeks, you (trainees) get to practice what it's like setting up a goal with
students…but it'll be with a peer…. (counselors in training) will be practicing what it's
like to follow through and keep a chart…making room for it (for counseling programs) to
be more hands-on or practically focused is something that is much needed.
Special Education
The last emergent theme that participants highlighted when discussing how they envision
improvements in preparedness is special education. Respondents in this category felt that their
graduate program should have incorporated, and not as an elective, at least one course as part of
the curriculum dedicated to special education.
Jaclyn wishes she had been taught more about special education and feels it should have
been a part of the counseling curriculum. She says, “I don’t feel that the program itself touched
on ... autism and even behavioral outbursts [associated with children with disabilities].” Jaclyn
would have wanted to know how to support students with autism and behavioral outbursts, the
nuances of IEPs and 504 plans, ways to identify student resources, and additional pathways to
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aid counselors in this endeavor. Jaclyn would like to see a course or workshop offered by
graduate programs so that counseling students can gain clarity on special education-related
topics.
Offering [as part of the curriculum] those classes [on special education and providing
strategies], even if it's kind of like an option, an alternative [elective] for us to take it,
even if it's a workshop perhaps that's given, that's optional but at least having an option
for us to do it. I feel like they [my graduate program] didn't have it and they didn't have
anything else to offer. And then that's it [my colleagues and I walked away without any
background knowledge on special education]. Because I do recall asking especially about
the autism part and there was really nothing available [and special education services are
important].
Laura says that “every day something that I could not prepare for, do not know how to
handle, falls into my lap.” One aspect that Laura felt she was unprepared for was the intricacies
of special education. While she feels as though her program did discuss 504s and IEPs, Laura
was unsure of how to differentiate her programming for her special education students due to it
not being offered in her preparation program.
I knew that 504’s and IEP’s were discussed [in our program], but as far as counseling
techniques or designing curriculum or lesson plans for the [special education] students, as
far as I know, that course wasn't offered, [I’m not sure] if it was an elective that I didn't
choose or something along those lines. But yeah, [I don’t think so] not that I'm aware of.
It [special education] wasn't built into the main curriculum.
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Like Jaclyn, Laura wants to see special education courses built into the school counseling
curriculum. Having this course offered would have given Laura more insight into the dedicated
special education department, the type of work they do, and the ways to collaborate.
If I could go back and do it again, things that I'd want to take, I think honestly, the special
education process. I think there should be a whole class on it, because I kind of went in, I
recognized some of the vocabulary and who people are, like oh, there's a chairperson, and
that's the psychologist. But I didn't really understand what the whole process was [for
example], RTI and things like that. I didn't quite understand how everything worked. So
that was a lot of trial and error [that could have been avoided].
Lastly, Monica is a special education school counselor who says, “there’s no way of
getting around it… if you’re a school counselor, you’re going to interact with special education
students. And the spectrum of special education can mean physical disability, and it can mean
mental health differences and disabilities.” Monica alludes to the fact that special education
school counseling does not have a separate certification; a school counselors responsibility is to
support both populations, whether general education or special education, as school counselors
can also accept positions in alternative settings.
I think the reality is that when you go to school for school counseling, there is also this
subset field that doesn't get discussed. It isn't identified, we aren't educated on it. We
aren't trained on it, but you can just as easily be assigned this subset of students that
needs this level of care.
Monica shares similar sentiments to both Jaclyn and Laura in that she feels as though her
graduate program did not do enough to include learning about special education. Not only does
she not feel as though her program did not discuss anything pertaining to 504 or IEP
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accommodations, Monica feels there is a need to create programs that shed light on the special
education population. She explains:
I’d like to see programs developed that take into consideration that this [special education
population] is part of the [school counseling] field and there are ways to prepare
us…Special education is a huge opportunity. It’s a field that needs teachers and
counselors in any type of support position. But it [really] needs counselors [who are able
to support special education students].
Conclusion
Twelve school counseling participants in this study were all open to sharing their
experiences navigating their graduate school programs and detailing recent professional
encounters. Each narrative was thoughtfully and insightfully crafted and provided thought-
provoking responses to all questions asked. Upon reflection, counselors described their
preparation experiences as challenging when discussing the enmeshment of their graduate
program, the acquisition of their internship and practicum placement, and in conjunction with
their prior experiences. In addition, counselors discussed feeling underprepared when being the
only school counselor, having other assigned duties, and surrounding student behaviors. Lastly,
respondents offered feedback to improve the preparedness of school counselors by making
changes in the areas of elementary school counseling, special education, and school-based
administrators.

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Chapter Five: Conclusions, Discussion, and Suggestions for Future Research
School counselors are vital members of the schoolwide community. While counselors
have many responsibilities, they primarily include supporting the social-emotional, academic,
and career needs of all students. This study intended to contribute research to the growing body
of literature on school counselor perceptions, specifically, to assess their thoughts of
preparedness, identify challenges resulting from a lack of preparation, and reconceptualize
advancements to preparation systems using a SLC lens of how individuals learn (Bandura,
1977). This chapter will present a discussion of the major findings and conclusions, while also
offering recommendations and suggestions for future research.
This study used a phenomenological methodology to collect qualitative data through
participant interviews. As a methodology, phenomenology seeks to glean insight into socially
formulated experiences. One way to do this is by seeking to elicit meaning from social
engagements, actions, and lived experiences (Creswell, 2005). Using the phenomenological
approach while also using a social learning framework (Bandura, 1977), I was able to gain
further knowledge and awareness of each individual's distinctive educational and professional
experience. This study was composed of 12 certified school counselors, who work in the K–12
educational sector throughout New York. The data were coded, analyzed, and arranged
according to the research questions. The conversation with research participants contributed to
the analyses, conclusions, and future recommendations. Three research questions guided this
study:
RQ1: How do new school counselors describe their preparation experience?
RQ2: What challenges can emerge as a result of being underprepared?
RQ3: How do new school counselors envision improvements in preparedness?
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Conclusions
While each of the 12 participants encountered a unique academic trajectory and set of
professional experiences, interview data produced overlapping themes, beliefs, and perceptions
based on their social learning, observations, and relationships. In describing their experiences of
preparedness in graduate school, most respondents highlighted challenges surrounding the
enmeshment of graduate programs, the acquisition of internship and practicum placements, and
(being dependent upon) prior experiences to be successful in their school counseling program.
Concerning counselors feeling underprepared, a majority of respondents highlighted student
behaviors, other assigned duties, and (being) the only school counselor as situations they were or
would be uncomfortable addressing in a professional setting after completing graduate school.
All research participants offered feedback concerning recommendations for how to improve
preparation experiences. Most participants felt that curricular changes could be made such that
graduate programs could provide programming that would include the topics of administration,
elementary school counseling, and special education.
Discussion
This study’s results help to promote a greater recognition of the experiences of new
school counselors and their perceptions of preparedness. The findings resulting from New York
counselors, suggest two points of discussion that will lead this narrative. This section will
highlight the theoretical framework, SCT, which suggests that learning occurs through
observation, while also taking into consideration the relationship between the person,
environment, and behavior (Bandura, 1978, 1986).
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Graduate Curriculum
Throughout all 12 interviews, participants discussed varying aspects of their academic
coursework, a topic that was inherent in the interview questions. The only viewpoint that all
participants had in common was their willingness to provide feedback on how graduate programs
could improve. Each respondent was reflective in their analysis of their graduate program and
took the time to thoroughly and thoughtfully consider each question. Interviewees contemplated
courses taken, the experiences encountered throughout the program, the quality of the teaching
staff, the level of preparedness experienced resulting from their graduate program, and if they
felt they could be successful as a professional school counselor, among others. While some
participants highlighted the internship and practicum component (see Practicum and Internship
Section) as a focal point in their curriculum, others addressed the elements they felt were missing
or insufficiently addressed in their training. The participants emphasized four areas they did not
or would not feel prepared to handle: student behaviors, special education, elementary school
counselor, and administration.
Based on responses, the participants expressed varying degrees of exposure to and
familiarity with special education and related services (e.g., knowledge of 504 and IEP plans).
One identifiable conclusion is that the amount of time spent on this subject (i.e., special
education), or any subject, contributes to the depth of the conversation; the more time allotted,
the propensity for a deeper conversation and for knowledge to be shared. The same applies to the
other participant-identified subjects (i.e., student behaviors, elementary school counseling, and
administration) or any other topic. The literature supports this viewpoint as graduate programs
have a degree of latitude to pick and choose how deep or surface-level their curriculum will
delve into a particular topic. Since CACREP does not specify courses that graduate programs are
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required to offer (CACREP, 2021), and New York also does not have a standardized curriculum
for school counseling programs, it should not be a surprise that students are graduating from their
programs with varying levels of preparation, knowledge, and experiences around a variety of
disciplines within the school counseling field.
Looking to our framework, SCT would support this notion suggesting that learning
occurs through observation; if the content has not been adequately taught, challenges and gaps in
knowledge can arise for school counselors-in-training. Moreover, school counselors and their
ability to successfully fulfill their role and responsibilities, in part, will result from the varying
degrees of preparedness they experienced in their graduate training programs.
Participant sentiments expressed include feeling ill-equipped and generally unprepared to
tackle the aforementioned content areas stem from insufficient exposure. This is on par with the
literature which suggests that school counselor delivery is in part dependent upon how school
counselors were trained by their preparation programs (Cholewa et al., 2021). Currently, it is still
relatively unclear how pre-service counselors are prepared to collaborate with families, teachers,
or administrators to support the overall wellbeing of the child (Cholewa et al., 2021). It has also
been recommended that program development be addressed when considering how best to
support the training of school counselors, as there are a variety of clinical challenges that school
counselors need to be able to address and support (Kozlowski & Huss, 2013), such as those
highlighted by the new school counselor participants.
Practicum and Internship
It is an exciting time during graduate school to get to the point in the curriculum where
students can apply their foundational knowledge and gain practical experience during their
practicum and internship. The hope for many, and the subtext during participant interviews, was
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to have an opportunity to gain hands-on experience with a knowledgeable supervisor or mentor
who can share all aspects of the counseling role with counselors in training. During interviews
participants suggested that not all courses, including practicum and internship classes, are being
instructed by school counseling professionals. This notion coincides with what most research
participants indicated, suggesting that school counseling graduate programs have overlapping
courses with other counselor adjacent programs. Therefore, it seems likely that if counseling
students are enmeshed with students from other programs, counselors in training may be subject
to taking these courses with instructors from those programs too. This has the ability to cause
some challenges for a few participants and did, where professors were instructing classes that
seemed more geared towards clinical settings with patients, as opposed to school classrooms
with students. Given all of this information, it seems understandable that several participants felt
as though they had a strong(er) mental health counseling background.
Half of the research participants reported needing to find and secure their own internship
and practicum placements. The underlying sentiment resulting from needing to fulfill this task
was a combination of anxiety and frustration. New York is a relatively large state, with most
research participants not local to the New York Metropolitan area. This is important to note for a
few reasons. First, the NYCDOE is the largest school district in the country. With a large school
district comes many schools and, therefore, more opportunities within a concentrated area to
contact school counseling professionals to try and connect for interning and supervision. Second,
in a large city like New York City, with five boroughs, and many surrounding counties and
school districts, the likelihood of procuring a placement, while seemingly daunting, presents
favorable odds.
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On the other hand, once you leave the metropolitan area, school districts are fewer and
further apart. Comparatively speaking, school counselors are not as plentiful as the school staff
in the building. Not only are counseling students competing with other local or semi-local school
counselor preparation programs for the same placements, but they may also be competing with
students taking their preparation program online in the same geographic area(s). Depending on
where they reside, if students need to interview and procure their field sites, the professional
school counselor they are looking to partner with may have little to no practical experience as a
supervisor. An inexperienced supervisor may not necessarily provide school counselors-in-
training with the needed tools to be successful as professional school counselors.
Every student wants to gain exposure to a host of diverse experiences from both
theoretical and practical experiences so they are familiar with situations that might arise. The
benefit of the internship and practicum component is to provide students with hands-on training
first and foremost; however, it also exposes trainees to practical situations that they might
encounter, and have only, at this point, learned about. The opposing viewpoint might argue that
not every placement is a good learning experience and that the assignments given to novices are
not always the best representation of what school counselors typically encounter. Whether due to
a clashing of personalities or perhaps working with inexperienced supervisors who are not able
to delegate appropriate assignments, a situation like this inherently minimizes the hands-on
experiences that trainees have to work directly with students. It is particularly challenging if
graduate programs are hands-off, or students are not comfortable advocating for reasonable and
appropriate changes in their field sites or placements.
Interestingly enough, in early 2023, a decade in the making, New York State regulations
changed regarding the pathways in which school counselors can obtain certification. While there
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are still no specific or standardized guidelines, only broad competency areas, surrounding the
types of courses New York State encourages school counselors to take in their preparation
programs, there are regulations concerning practicum and internship experiences school
counselors need to have (Office of Teacher Incentives, New York State Education Department,
2023b). For practicum experiences, of the 100 hours, 40 must be allocated towards direct student
services and the remaining 60 allotted towards developing, executing, and assessing elements of
the comprehensive school counseling program (Office of Teacher Incentives, New York State
Education Department, 2023a). As far as internship experiences are concerned, changes have
also been implemented such that students are required to spend 300 hours working in a K–8
setting, and the other 300 hours must be in a 9–12 environment (Office of Teacher Incentives,
New York State Education Department, 2023a). At the same time, internships have parameters
too. Students are to spend 240 hours engaging in direct student services, with the remaining 360
hours towards developing, implementing, and evaluating central elements of the comprehensive
school counseling program (Office of Teacher Incentives, New York State Education
Department, 2023a). The hope is that once placed in a field site, the new state changes can
ensure school counseling novices will receive diversified experiences and gain exposure to all
aspects of K–12 counseling, including the hands-on experience they need by working directly
with students. Perhaps too, as a result of these new changes, graduate programs will understand
the importance of using qualified and certified school counselors as guiding members for their
instructional team.
When considering the overarching framework, SCT (Bandura, 1977) takes into
consideration observations as well as direct experiences. Therefore, the process of social learning
can influence graduate students and how they hope to practice their craft in the profession. If
101

graduate students feel sufficiently prepared from both the theoretical and hands-on aspects of
their school counseling programs, they may feel more confident in their ability to perform. As a
result, their expectations to fulfill the role and responsibilities of the job is likely high. The
converse, however, is true too. If graduate students do not feel well-versed in foundational
knowledge and experiential learning components from their counseling program, they may not
feel secure in their ability to perform. As a result, they may not feel confident in meeting their
obligations or succeeding in their role.
The overarching findings of this research study align with SCT as school counselors'
observations and experiences have the potential to influence their behavior, or the lack thereof.
The self-efficacy of a school counselor is a significant concept because it has the potential to
predict how school counselors perceive their ability to perform specific tasks and the probability
of overcoming obstacles that could hinder them from achieving or completing those tasks in a
school environment (Holcomb-McCoy et al., 2008). Thinking and feeling that you are unable to
persevere can lead to a minimization of assignments or complete avoidance of the task at hand.
At the same time, if school counselors have not had experience in certain areas, they will
not feel as though they can perform the necessary tasks in a school setting. Whereas, the
counselor with a high level of self-efficacy exhibits a greater persistence in pursuing specific
goals and tends to believe their actions and future actions will yield a higher degree of positive
outcomes. Counseling self-efficacy has been shown in studies to have a positive correlation with
the level of counselor training and supervision, their self-concept as a counselor, their overall
professional development, and the expectations for counseling outcomes (Holcomb-McCoy et
al., 2008).
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Suggestions for Future Research
This study sought to add to the limited amount of research on the lived experiences of
school counselors to assess their perception of preparedness, the challenges that can emerge
when feeling unprepared, and determine how they hope the preparation experience can improve.
The researcher recommends additional studies to narrow the literature gap on school counselors
in New York. It would be beneficial to replicate this study, either on the same scale or a larger
scale, to hear from a more diverse perspective, both ethnically/racially and geographically, on the
school counseling experience so that the field can have a clearer picture of the perception of
preparedness of all school counselors. In addition, this research study assessed emergent themes
that met a threshold of at least 50% of participants. Future studies could address minor themes or
subthemes that material at a lower limit, as they, too, are crucial to understanding the totality of
school counselors, their perceptions, and their experiences.
Future research would also benefit from two additional perspectives, veteran school
counselors and newly enrolled school counselors beginning their school counseling journey
starting during the fall semester of 2023. It would be interesting to hear the perspective of
veteran counselors to determine how they feel as though their training experiences align with
their current roles and responsibilities. At the same time, with the new certification changes and
field site parameters in New York going into effect in February 2023, future studies could
address, perhaps in a longitudinal study, whether or not counselors believe these modifications
were beneficial to their overall perception of preparedness.
Future studies could also address fieldwork placements. Research is needed to determine
the relationship between graduate programs that assign students to their experiential learning
103

placement versus those that self-select, and the degree of preparedness experienced from these
experiences.
Recommendations
This researcher partnered with participants to present recommendations based on the
findings, analysis, and conclusions of the present study.
1. To develop their skills, school counselors should take a proactive approach by
seeking mentorship opportunities from senior counselors within their own school or
district. If such opportunities are not available, counselors can turn to former
professors, contacts in neighboring districts, or engage with colleagues during
professional development sessions.
2. School counselors need to advocate for themselves, particularly regarding their roles
and responsibilities. This entails having transparent conversations with members of
the administration, seeking help and support when needed, and requesting
modifications to their assignments as necessary.
3. Engaging with the local chapter of their school counseling association would benefit
school counselors in gaining access to keep up to date on trends and best practices,
collaborating with professionals in their area, and building a network of colleagues.
4. School districts should assess their current professional development offerings to
determine the relevance to school counselors. Exempt counselors from attendance
when the offerings are not applicable.
5. Where possible, school districts would benefit from allocating funds to the
professional development (e.g., workshops, conferences, continuing education
credits) of school counselors. Counselors benefit from collaboration, honing their
104

skills, assessing regional and national trends, discussing best practices, identifying
new and pertinent strategies, and building confidence.
6. School districts can implement policies regarding professional development
opportunities to ensure that each school counselor in the department has a specific
amount of time during the school year to pursue additional learning and growth
opportunities.
7. School districts should compensate school counselors annually for their accolades
including but not limited to board certification and licensure.
8. School districts could benefit from establishing supervision and mentorship programs,
allowing school counselors to observe successful counselors in action and
demonstrate mastery experiences.
9. Graduate programs should engage with current students at least twice a semester,
once in the middle and once at the end of the semester, to ascertain information on the
instructor, the course content, relatability, and relevance.
10. Graduate programs should connect with recent graduates to assess program
satisfaction, ascertain curriculum-based recommendations by addressing potential
gaps in the curriculum, and re-evaluate relevant coursework.
11. Graduate programs would benefit from instituting a bi-directional evaluation system
for internship and practicum placements. School counselors, regardless of tenure in
the industry, are lifelong learners. Whether novice, veteran, counseling or guidance
department chair, or supervisors, we all have room to learn and grow. Counselors-in-
training should receive needed feedback to learn the essentials of the position. At the
same time, counseling students should have the opportunity to critique their
105

supervisor and experience without fear of reprisal and without fear of a bad
recommendation having the propensity to cause challenges for future job prospects.
12. Graduate programs should consider annual programming for new alumni, whereby
new school counselors can reconnect with classmates and professors to discuss the
nuances of their counseling positions and refine their counseling skills.
13. Half of the participants reported challenges surrounding the acquisition of their field
sites, whether practicum or internship. Creating a New York State graduate program
and NYSSCA partnership (see Figure 1) is a way to support all school counseling
students and, by extension, professional school counselors, counseling supervisors,
graduate programs, school districts, and local NYSSCA chapters across the state. A
partnership like this can support the overall school counseling infrastructure by
creating a cohesive network supporting students and graduate schools seeking field
sites, professional school counselors and counseling supervisors within districts
seeking interns, increasing NYSSCA visibility through collaboration with local
graduate programs while also supporting NYSSCA’s mission through outreach and
networking.

106

Figure 1
NYSSCA & University Partnership

NYSSCA provides universities with members who have volunteered to be field site
supervisors, from networking and outreach. Universities can place students into neighboring and
local school districts where NYSSCA members work to gain better insight into and hands-on
experience in the counseling profession. School counselors in training can gain exposure to their
local NYSSCA chapter and a more in-depth understanding of local resources while developing a
network that supports them as they transition to professional school counselors. At the same
time, NYSSCA gains visibility and can grow its network.
In conclusion, this study aimed to explore the lived experiences of new school counselors
by applying Bandura's (1977) SCT as a framework. The findings revealed that the majority of
participants reported feeling inadequately prepared to fulfill their role and responsibilities as
school counselors. As a result of their preparation experiences, new school counselors reported
feeling unprepared to handle all of their assigned roles and responsibilities for three main
reasons. First, new school counselors were not or would not be comfortable if they were assigned
as the only school counselor in the school. Second, they expressed a lack of preparedness
surrounding non-counseling positions or other assigned duties. Third, new school counselors
107

expressed feeling uncertain regarding how best to address a range of student behaviors. All of the
research participants were able and willing to provide recommendations regarding how they
believed graduate programs could support future students in addressing gaps in preparation.
They believe that preparation programs would benefit from incorporating additional content into
the curriculum on three different topics: elementary school counseling, special education, and
school-based administrators.

108

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Appendix A: IRB Approval

128

Appendix B: Social Media Recruitment Message
Hello School Counselors!
I am a doctoral candidate through the University of Southern California who has been
IRB approved (UP-22-00599) to research new school counselors’ perceptions of preparedness. I
hope to gain insight into your understanding of counselor readiness, the impacts and challenges
you've experienced, and recommendations for improvement.
To qualify, you must meet the following requirements:
- Currently certified as a school counselor in New York State.
- Currently working as a school counselor in New York State.
- Graduated from a graduate program within the last 5 years.
- Have at least 1 year of post-graduate counseling experience.
- Able to participate in a zoom interview lasting approximately 1 hour.

Participants who successfully complete the interview will be entered into a drawing with a
chance to win one out of three $20 gift cards.
If interested, please fill out this confidential contact form:
https://usc.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_e8NGVw402bQRXzo

129

Appendix C: Demographic Survey and Interview Contact Form
1. Are you interested in being interviewed via Zoom for approximately 45 minutes about
your experiences thus far as a new school counselor?

☐ Yes
☐ No

2. Are you currently certified as a school counselor in New York State?

☐ Yes
☐ No

3. Are you currently working as a school counselor in New York State?

☐ Yes
☐ No

4. What year did you graduate from your master’s level preparation program?

☐ 2017
☐ 2018
☐ 2019
☐ 2020
☐ 2021
☐ Other: ____________

5. How many years of experience do you have working as a certified school counselor?

☐ Less than 1 year
☐ 1-2 years
☐ 2-3 years
☐ 3-4 years
☐ 4-5 years
☐ Other: ____________

6. What is your race/ethnicity?

☐ Black or African American
☐ White
☐ Hispanic, Latino/a/x, Spanish
☐ American Indian or Alaskan Native
☐ Asian
130

☐ Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
☐ Some other race, ethnicity, or origin
☐ Prefer to self-describe: _____________________________
☐ Prefer not to say

7. What is your age range?

☐ 21-29
☐ 30-39
☐ 40-49
☐ 50+
☐ Prefer not to say

8. Please identify the student population that you serve:

☐ Elementary (K–5)
☐ Intermediate (4–8)
☐ Middle School/ Junior High (6–8)
☐ K–8
☐ High School (9–12)
☐ K–12

9. Was your graduate program CACREP accredited?

☐ Yes
☐ No

10. What is a frequently checked email address?

11. What days of the week are most convenient to participate in the interview?

☐ Monday
☐ Tuesday
☐ Wednesday
☐ Thursday
☐ Friday
☐ Saturday
☐ Sunday

12. What times during the week are the most convenient to participate in the interview?

131

Appendix D: Informed Consent
Introduction
You are being invited to contribute to a research study entitled “New School Counselor’s
Perception of Preparedness,” conducted by Willa Flax, a doctoral student in the Rossier School
of Education at the University of Southern California. This consent form has important
information to help you make an informed decision regarding whether to participate in this
research study. While this document will be explained in depth, I highly encourage you to ask
questions at any point in time if something is not clear. Your participation in this study is
voluntary. If at any point you no longer wish to participate in this study, you may withdraw your
participation without fear of penalty or reprisal.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to understand new school counselor’s perceptions of
preparedness as it relates to counselor readiness, the impacts, challenges, and recommendations
for improvement.
Research Activities
All research will be conducted using the Zoom platform. Before the interview takes
place, participants will be asked eight multiple choice demographic questions. The purpose is to
add non-descript contextual information about the individuals partaking in the study. Upon
completion, the interview will consist of 16 semi-structured questions which should take
approximately 1 hour to complete. Responses will be kept anonymous and remain accessible to
only the principal investigator and dissertation committee members supporting this study.

132

Risks
The risks associated with this study are minimal and do not intend to cause harm. All
collected data (e.g., notes, recordings, interview transcripts, etc.) will be stored using Google
Drive. As an additional layer of security, results will be kept in a password-protected hard drive
that only the principal investigator and supporting dissertation committee members will have
access to. In the summary and analysis of interview responses and demographic data, there will
be no identifying information included. All data pertaining to this study will be permanently
deleted after a period of 3 years.
Benefits
Participation in this study can illuminate and inform school counselors, school districts,
and graduate programs on the areas of preparedness; the strengths, limitations, and areas of
future opportunity. There is the possibility that some participants may not directly benefit from
participating in this research study; however, the knowledge acquired may benefit others.
Compensation
As a token of my appreciation for your time in supporting this research, you will be
entered into a drawing for one out of three $20 gift card.
Contact Information
Any questions or concerns can be directed to Willa Flax, xxxxx@xxx.edu or Dr. Marsha
Riggio, xxxxxx@xxx.edu. If you have questions pertaining to your rights as a research
participant, or wish to discuss them with someone who is not a member of the research team,
please contact:
University of Southern California IRB
3720 S. Flower Street, Suite 325
133

Los Angeles, California 90089
(xxx)xxx-xxxx
xxxx@xxx.edu
Research Subject
I have read and taken into consideration the information detailed in this form. My
signature below confirms that I willingly and voluntarily give my consent to participate in this
research study. I understand that I am able to withdraw my participation at any time.
☐ Yes, I agree to participate
☐ No, I do not wish to participate
Please enter your full name below (this constitutes your electric signature for agreeing to
participate in this research study).

134

Appendix E: Interview Protocol
Welcome! I appreciate your willingness to participate in my study. With your permission,
I would like to audio record our conversations today. I have brought a recording device today so
that I can accurately capture what you share with me. The recording is solely for my purposes to
best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone outside the research team.
May I have your permission to record our conversation?
After the completion of the interview, all recordings will be transcribed. All
transcriptions will be kept on a password-protected computer for a period of 3 years which only I
will have access to. Nothing you say will ever be identified with you personally. To maintain the
confidentiality of this interview, a pseudonym is recommended. Would you like to think of one
now? Additionally, any other personal identifiers, such as proper names, will be removed from
interview transcripts. Your confidentiality allows me to take the data collected from our
interview and use it in my dissertation which can include the use of direct quotes. Do you have
any questions?
I would also like to highlight a few elements that were listed in the informed consent
document. (1) all information shared will be held in confidence, (2) your participation in this
study is voluntary. You may stop at any point if you feel uncomfortable or unable to continue.
You do not need to give a reason and there will be no negative consequences, and (3) this
interview does not intend to cause any harm. Do you have any questions?
The time allotted for this interview is approximately 60 minutes. Please let me know if
this is still doable for today. As we move throughout this interview, if you have any questions
about what is being asked, please do not hesitate to stop me or ask me to clarify. Before we begin
135

our interview, do you have any questions about the interview process or any of the forms that
you have signed?
Introduction
Thank you for taking the time to participate in this interview. You have been selected to
participate in this study as you have been identified as a school counselor that: has active
certification in New York State, is currently working in New York State, has recently graduated
within the past 5-years from a school counseling program, and has at least one year of school
counseling-based experience. The purpose of this interview and my study is to gain insight into
the perception of new school counselor preparedness, learning about what has impacted them,
challenged them, and their beliefs surrounding how graduate programs can improve. My hope is
to gain a better understanding of your unique experiences and perceptions.
The idea behind the first set of questions is to gain insight into your perception of
preparedness. Preparedness can be defined as the degree of confidence in the skills and aptitude
acquired to be successful, such as when transitioning from graduate school to a full-time
counseling position.
Question 1: How well do you feel your graduate program prepared you for your role as a school
counselor? (RQ1)
Probe: What are the most relevant elements of training, were there any surprises, were
there situations that made you feel as though you were prepared/unprepared?
Question 2: How do you feel your training experience(s) aligned with the actual role of a school
counselor? (RQ1)
Question 3: Can you describe the process of transitioning from graduate student to school
counselor? (RQ1)
136

Probe: Perceived expectations v. reality
Question 4: Can you describe your feelings of preparedness in being able to manage the role and
responsibilities of a school counselor? (RQ1)
Question 5: Is being a school counselor what you expected it to be? (RQ1)
Probe: What helped you prepare for the role? How does the counseling role not meet
your expectations of what you had anticipated it to be?
The second set of questions seeks to delve into your perceptions of the school counselor role
and determine the challenges that can emerge when feeling underprepared.
Question 6: Describe a specific example of a student interaction where you felt unprepared.
(RQ2)
Question 7: What are some school or district-based challenges you have experienced as a new
school counselor? (RQ2)
Probe: Do you feel something is missing from your current position that can make you
more successful as a school counselor? If so, what?
Question 8: Thus far, what has been the most significant challenge you have faced a school
counselor? (RQ2)
Probe: How did you address it? Who, if anyone, supported you through this?
Question 9: What challenges impede your ability to successfully execute your job? (RQ2)
Probe: What strategies/people have been helpful in addressing these challenges? Have
there been personal or professional challenges hindering your counseling success?
Question 10: Have you ever experienced feelings of disillusionment in your role as a school
counselor? (RQ2)
Probe: What caused this to occur? How were you able to address it?
137

The last set of questions hopes to gain insight into how graduate school preparedness could
be improved.
Question 11: What challenges in your graduate program, if any, might you have experienced
while in attendance? (RQ3)
Probe: What was your experience like navigating through your school’s curriculum?
What was your experience with the professors in the counseling department? What was
the rigor associated with your school counseling program?
Question 12: How helpful was your graduate program in supporting the process of your
practicum/internship experience(s)? (RQ3)
Probe: What was the process like when collaborating with your professor to ensure that
you received an adequate practicum/internship placement experience? Did you feel as
though you received a sufficient amount of hands-on experience?
Question 13: What training do you wish you had as a graduate student? (RQ3)
Probe: What additional coursework, if any, do you feel would have been beneficial for
you to have?
Question 14: How could your graduate training better prepare you to address the challenges you
discussed with me earlier? (RQ3)
Question 15: Overall, how successful do you feel your graduate school was in developing its
school counselor program? (RQ3)
Probe: Do you feel as though the coursework taken was relatable to the experiences you
have encountered thus far as a school counselor?
Question 16: Is there anything else you would like to share regarding your experiences
transitioning from a school counselor in training to a novice school counselor?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract School counselors in training receive support from their preparation programs; upon graduation, the expectation is that novice school counselors have the necessary tools to meet the needs of their students and the schoolwide community. Understanding the collective experience of school counselors is crucial in determining if and how they were sufficiently prepared to meet the demands of their role. The purpose of this qualitative study was to gain insight into the perceptions of preparedness of new school counselors. In addition, this study attempted to identify the emergent challenges resulting from being underprepared and determine how new school counselors envision transformational change in the preparation experience. This study sought to expand upon and highlight the unique challenges and needs of the novice school counseling population. Coding and analyses identified nine emergent themes: the enmeshment of graduate programs, the acquisition of internship and practicum placements, prior experience, student behaviors, other assigned duties, the only school counselor, administration, elementary school counselors, and special education. Implications for school counseling graduate programs and best practices for supporting school counselors in training are discussed.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Flax, Willa (author)

Core Title New school counselor's perception of preparedness

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 05/15/2023

Defense Date 03/20/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag counselor trainees,counselors in training,Graduate School,New York,New York State,New York State School Counseling Association,novice school counselor,NYSSCA,OAI-PMH Harvest,phenomenology,preparedness program,pre-service counselors,School Counseling,school counseling program,school counselor,school district,self-concept,self-efficacy,social cognitive theory,University

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Riggio, Marsha (committee chair), Ermeling, Brad (committee member), Holcomb-McCoy, Cheryl (committee member), Spann, Rufus (committee member)

Creator Email wflax@usc.edu,willa.flax@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113126799

Unique identifier UC113126799

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Legacy Identifier etd-FlaxWilla-11854

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

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