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The impact of COVID-19 and how teachers can intervene to improve student learning

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The impact of COVID-19 and how teachers can intervene to improve student learning

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The Impacts of COVID-19 and How Teachers Can Intervene to Improve Student Learning

Preeti Raheja

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Preeti Raheja 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Preeti Raheja certifies the approval of this Dissertation

David Cash
Darline Robles
Morgan Polikoff, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
Teachers often use interventions in their classrooms to support the needs of their students who
fall behind academically. The goal of implementing interventions in the classroom or a school
campus is to help students grow and perform at grade-level standards over time. To fully
implement a successful intervention program, all members of teacher-staff teams must work
together to help students meet their goals. During the COVID-19 school closures, many teachers
could not provide student interventions, leading to a significant academic gap when students
returned in 2020–2021. Because many more students have struggled post-pandemic,
understanding the interventions used pre- and post-pandemic is critical. The questions for this
study were: What interventions were in place before COVID-19 for students who needed
additional support, and what interventions are in place now to support the needs of the students
at ABC Elementary School? What interventions were teachers utilizing prior to COVID-19 in
their classrooms for students who needed additional support, and what interventions are in place
post-COVID-19 to support the needs of the students? What disparities were there during
COVID-19, and what interventions are in place today to meet the needs of all these students that
need additional support?
Keywords: COVID-19, individualized education program (IEP), intervention, resource
teacher, social emotional learning, school psychologist, student study team (SST), unfinished
learning, virtual online learning

v
Dedication
To my dearest husband, Dharmesh. I could not have achieved this without your love and support.
This was not the easiest journey, yet your encouragement and your dedication to take care of my
boys, along with all the additional support in the house, got me through this journey. Words
cannot express how much I appreciate you. You went out of your way to ensure I had the time to
work on my assignments, projects, and this dissertation. You are the best!

To my dearest Dad. You have been my greatest cheer leader and supporter. Thank you so much
for all your support and taking care of the kids when I was in class or needed time to work on my
projects.

To my dearest Aadi. You never stopped believing in your mom. Your excitement and eagerness
to see mommy be successful pushed me to complete this journey. Also, our walk time during this
time was very productive as we always spoke about those huge vocab. terms and the history of
the Americans.

To Avik, you were only 2 years old when mommy started this journey. Thank you for
cooperating with me when I was taking my classes online, presenting presentations, or needing
the time to work on projects.

To my family. Through your support, I am finally able to accomplish my dreams. This is now
officially off my bucket list now. Off to new beginnings! Thank you again.

vi
Acknowledgements
Thank you Dr. Polikoff for being an amazing Chair. You were very consistent and always
an email away. Your consistency in working quickly, and your support and dedication helped me
get through this dissertation.
My supporting Chairs, Dr. Robles and Dr. Cash, thank you for providing your insight on
my dissertation. You really helped me narrow down my topic and focus on this research. You
both have been amazing.
Lastly, my editor, Dr. Debra Woods, I cannot thank you enough for all your support. You
guided me through areas on my dissertation that needed further information and details. You
have been incredible.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication .................................................................................................................................. v
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ ix
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .......................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ............................................................................................ 1
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................ 2
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................... 3
Significance of the Study ................................................................................................ 4
Limitation and Delimitations .......................................................................................... 6
Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................ 6
Organization of the Study ............................................................................................... 8
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature....................................................................................... 9
Education in School ........................................................................................................ 9
Students’ Online Learning Experiences During the Pandemic ........................................15
Teacher’s Perceptions and Experiences of Online Learning During Pandemic
COVID-19 .....................................................................................................................18
Disparities in Experiences..............................................................................................19
Barriers to Online Learning ...........................................................................................19
In-Person Teaching in Schools During Pandemic ...........................................................22
Pre- and Post-Covid Referrals for Student Interventions ................................................24
Post-Pandemic Intervention to Improve Post-Covid Student Learning Referrals ............24
Chapter Three: Methodology .....................................................................................................29

viii
Research Design ............................................................................................................30
Sample and Population ..................................................................................................31
Instrumentation..............................................................................................................34
Data Collection ..............................................................................................................35
Data Analysis ................................................................................................................37
Chapter Four: Results or Findings .............................................................................................41
Participants ....................................................................................................................41
Results Research Question 1 ..........................................................................................44
Results Research Question 2 ..........................................................................................65
Results Research Question 3 ..........................................................................................72
Chapter Five: Discussion ...........................................................................................................76
Findings ........................................................................................................................76
Implications for Practice ................................................................................................80
Future Research .............................................................................................................82
Conclusions ...................................................................................................................83
References ................................................................................................................................84
Appendix A: Teacher/ RSP/ School Psychologist Interviews .....................................................94
Appendix B: Letter to Teachers Requesting Additional Data/ Information .............................. 100
Appendix C: SST Referral Form Requesting SST Meeting ...................................................... 101
SST Referral Form ...................................................................................................... 101
Appendix D: SST Notes and Action Plan ................................................................................ 105
SST Meeting Notes/ Action Plan ................................................................................. 105

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Participants and Their Characteristics 42
Table 2: Experiences of Third-Grade Participants 56
Table 3: Experiences of the Fourth-Grade Participants 57
Table 4: Experiences of The Fifth-Grade Participants 57
Table 5: Experiences of the Sixth-Grade Participants 58
Table 6: Experiences of the Resource Teacher and School Psychologist
Participants 58
Table A1: Qualitative Interview Questions: Second Through Sixth Grade 94
Teachers
Table A2: Qualitative Interview Questions: Resource Teacher 96
Table A3: Qualitative Interview Questions: School Psychologist 98

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 5
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework 26
Figure 3: Candidates Interviewed and Years of Experience in the Educational
Field 34
Figure 4: Tiers of Student Intervention Support 45
Figure 5: SST Flow Chart 51
Figure 6: Intervention Programs 53
Figure 7: Participants Experience Transitioning from In-school Teaching to
Virtual 55

1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
There are many advantages a student has when attending school in person. Schooling
promotes higher-order thinking skills and college readiness (Agger & Koenka, 2020). Face-to-
face education promotes active engagement (Liem & Chong, 2017) and reduces teen pregnancy
rates, welfare dependency, and criminality (Ceci & Williams, 1997). In-person instruction
exposes students to diversity and social and emotional learning to achieve and accomplish social
tasks (Ferreira et al., 2020).
In addition, students attending school in person can receive resources to benefit them
academically. Morrison et al. (2019) explained that schooling is a development milestone where
students learn cognitive, social, and emotional development. Schools provide additional support.
Teachers can refer students to the student support team ([SST], XYZ Unified School District [a
pseudonym used to hide the identity of the district), 2023), request an assessment for an
individualized education program (IEP), or suggest that students receive further assessments by a
school psychologist to confirm correct student placement.
Throughout the year, teachers collaborate to find ways to support students and work in
privacy in their classrooms to support students using interventions to expand their knowledge
and skills (Rosenfield et al., 2018). Teachers work with students in small group settings, one-on-
one, and offer group work to assist students. When students regress or continue to struggle,
teachers reach out to the support team for additional assistance and have access to programs built
on evidence to achieve effective student outcomes (Rosenfield et al., 2018).
Background of the Problem
During the 2019–2020 school year, the COVID-19 pandemic forced K–12 school closures
nationwide. This unplanned and unprecedented disruption in education changed students’
2

learning experience, and teachers had to quickly transition from in-class to virtual learning
(Kaden, 2020). Although teaching virtually is not a new platform, it was new to many teachers,
and they found challenges in rapidly learning the related concepts while providing meaningful
educational experiences for their students (Kaden, 2020). In addition, teachers had concerns
about students during this process; some students experienced disparities and had barriers to
online learning (Ford et al., 2021).
School closures due to the pandemic have raised crucial concerns about how these changes
may have impacted students' academic performance and created an achievement gap between
students with access to resources and those without them. Schools partially reopened during the
2020–2021 school year, leaving students with less opportunity to learn as in a typical school
year. Dorn et al. (2021) described this as “unfinished learning.” Therefore, it is imperative that
more students may require additional support or intervention support to meet the requirements of
grade level standards and fill in the academic achievement gaps.
Statement of the Problem
Armitage and Nellums (2020) state that during COVID-19, the school closures impeded
learning and created inequalities and disproportionality affecting disadvantaged students. Despite
the global pandemic and the closure of schools, students continued to receive education virtually,
even though some did not have access to online platforms or the resources required for an
optimal learning experience (Chaabane et al., 2021). To understand the nuances of the transition
to virtual learning, parents and teachers needed to motivate students, and students needed to fully
engage in improving academic performance. When students returned to school during the 2021–
2022 school year, teachers had to prepare for what was coming next: focusing on ways to
support the students who regressed during COVID-19 school closures.
3

Purpose of the Study
Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, students received interventions in their classrooms from
their teachers or were referred to resource teachers for additional support. During the COVID-19
school closures, all students transitioned from in-school to virtual learning. However, Kuhfeld et
al. (2020) stated that schooling online may not have been as effective as needed as low-income
families and some minority groups may have lacked materials and access to distance learning.
The goal of this study is to explore the impact of COVID-19 on students’ academic
performance and focus on the interventions teachers continue to utilize in XYZ School district at
ABC Elementary School (a pseudonym has been used to hide the identity of the district and
school name). The selected school site is located in XXX, California (a pseudonym used to hide
the city), where every student on campus receives free meals under the state Universal Meals
program.
A secondary aim is to identify the steps ABC Elementary School is taking to support
students who require interventions outside of the classroom beyond the scope a teacher can
provide. Lastly, the study tangentially identifies ABC Elementary School’s actions if all
interventions fail. The following questions were the basis of my study:
• What interventions were teachers utilizing prior to COVID-19 in their classrooms for
students who needed additional support, and what interventions are in place post-
COVID-19 to support the needs of the students at ABC Elementary School (a
pseudonym used to hide the identity of the school)?
• What disparities, if any, did the students have during virtual learning?
• What is the process utilized at ABC Elementary today to serve the needs of students
who need additional intervention support?
4

Significance of the Study
This study could provide insight into how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted student
learning and school districts' interventions to support students requiring additional support due to
learning disparities exacerbated and created by the pandemic. In addition, this study could
highlight and evaluate how students perform academically post-COVID-19. The study includes
identifying and examining the intervention programs teachers and support staff have utilized in
the past to support struggling students and the programs and interventions they are using in their
classrooms post-COVID-19 to help close the achievement gap.
The methods for this qualitative research project elucidate the shared roles of resource
teachers and school psychologists in providing additional resources or assessments for classroom
placements. Specifically, I interviewed stakeholders who work in school districts and public
schools by conducting focus groups. After analyzing the findings from stakeholder interviews, I
considered the literature as I reviewed data and identified themes or areas where trends emerge.
The results from this study could assist the school in adopting new intervention programs
and incorporating best teaching practices to support all students’ learning needs. Lastly, this
study increased my knowledge, allowing me to support my staff members while continuing my
journey in education.
The conceptual framework is based on the effect of COVID-19 on students’ academic
performance, and the interventions were implemented in classrooms post-COVID-19 (Figure 1).
The pre-pandemic disparities in the academic performance of some student populations have
been exacerbated during and post-pandemic, resulting in a need for more interventions. During
the COVID-19 period, teachers increased interventions to improve academic performance, and
students received in-class support, in-class interventions, and referrals for additional support.
5

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

Throughout the pandemic, the achievement gap increased for students who were non-
White, from low-income backgrounds, attending under-resourced schools in majority low-
income school districts and communities of color (Grant, 2020). Some students experienced a
disparity in virtual learning due to a lack of resources and technology. Many of these students
were from low-income backgrounds and populations of color. In the contemporary or near post-
Covid period, students returned to the classroom and experienced hybrid and virtual learning. As
a result, in-class interventions have increased, as have referrals for additional support and new
interventions to improve students’ academic performance. The conceptual framework is
described in more detail in Chapter 2.
6

Limitation and Delimitations
This dissertation included several limitations, which are factors outside my control. First,
the data depended on interviews conducted at one school site, documents, and artifact analysis.
As Weiss (1994) stated, interview responses cannot be guaranteed or truthful, or a respondent
may create a picture based on their positionality. Thus, the findings relied strictly on the honesty
and integrity of my participants. For example, a teacher may have a different strategy in their
classroom to support the needs of the students who are struggling academically, whereas another
may solely depend on different sources to provide additional support. Additionally, the research
was conducted at one site, and the results might not transfer to other sites.
As a researcher with limited experience with conducting research and my personal bias
are the delimitations of my qualitative research. Another delimitation includes collecting the data
at one school site, and I had limited time to gather data (approximately 2 months) due to the
nature of the graduate program. Thus, I was constrained to research within a specific time frame.
I assumed that the responses to the interview questions would contain the information needed for
sufficient data and to answer my research questions. As stated by Merriam and Tisdell (2016),
triangulating the data by collecting multiple sources such as interviews, documents, and artifacts
allows comparisons and cross-checks of data collected from different sources and participants.
Lastly, the data were collected at a different school site; therefore, I worked around the
participants' timeframe.
Definition of Terms
COVID-19 pandemic is an ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 caused
by severe acute respiratory syndrome (World Health Organization [WHO], n.d.).
7

Individualized education program (IEP) is a written document developed for public
school students eligible for special education services. IEP is a learning plan, along with the
accommodation required by the student, for monitoring, communicating, and documenting
student progress (Kartika et al., 2018).
Intervention: plans for immediate action to improve student achievement based on an evaluation
of achievement data for various groups of students, a comprehensive review of the school
environment and learning experience provided to students, and the identification of specific
barriers to student learning (Sacramento City Unified School District, 2023).
Resource teachers are specialized educators who focus on helping students who need
additional services in reading, writing, and math skills in a regular classroom to support students
with special educational needs (Kirkpatrick et al., 2019)
Social emotional learning (SEL) is the process by which students develop their capacity
to integrate thought, emotion, and behavior to achieve and accomplish important social tasks
(Ferreira et al., 2020).
School psychologist is qualified member of school teams who support students' ability to
learn and teachers' ability to teach. They apply expertise in mental health, learning, and behavior,
to help children and youth succeed academically, socially, behaviorally, and emotionally
(National Association of School Psychologists, n.d.)
Student study team (SST) is a process by which each student develops their capacity to
integrate thought, emotion, and behavior to achieve and accomplish important social tasks
(Ferreira et al., 2020)
Unfinished learning is a circumstance where students were not allowed to complete all
the learning students could have completed in a typical school year (Dorn et al., 2021).
8

Virtual online learning uses online platforms for teaching and learning to continue
education (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021).
Organization of the Study
This study consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 is an overview of the study. Chapter 2 is a
review of the literature. Chapter 3 is the explanation of the study’s methodology. Chapter 4
contains the results. Chapter 5 is a discussion of the findings with recommendations for
interventions and future studies.

9

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
There is burgeoning literature examining the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on
education. The literature concerning the students' experiences is essential to understanding
learning during the pandemic and the unfinished learning experienced when in-person instruction
closed in the spring of 2020. This review includes examining the disparities in students’
academic performance amid the COVID-19 pandemic and how virtual learning experiences
differed for students of color and those not of color. The emphasis is on the quality of education
presented in the in-person classroom versus that of the virtual learning environment. The review
also includes the impacts on students’ academic performance due to changes in instruction
quantity before and during the global pandemic.
The literature review begins with the impacts of learning in school and its importance.
Then the literature review focuses on transitioning from in-class to virtual learning due to the
pandemic and the experiences of teachers’ workloads and teaching styles. Next, the focus shifts
to the disparities in academic achievement during the pandemic and how they differ for different
groups of students. Finally, I conclude the chapter with a discussion of the interventions provided
pre-COVID-19, and those offered post-COVID-19 for those students who require additional
learning support, and what teachers can do to intervene and improve student learning lost to
pandemic school closure.’
Education in School
Impact of Schooling
Mandatory school attendance is the best public education policy because entering formal
schooling is a signature development milestone for children. Starting school represents a crucial
period of cognitive, social, and emotional development (Morrison et al., 2019). In addition,
10

schooling promotes higher-order thinking and learning skills and prepares students for college
readiness (Agger & Koenka, 2020); regular attendance promotes active engagement in school
(Liem & Chong, 2017) and reduces the rates of teen pregnancy, welfare dependency, and
criminality (Ceci & Williams, 1997). Morrison et al. (2019) examined when and how schooling
shapes children’s development by reviewing articles that applied quasi-experimental methods to
study the transition from preschool to early elementary schooling.
Morrison et al. (2019) reached three primary conclusions based on the best available
studies. First, going to school produces notable, unprecedented changes in children’s growth that
are important for learning (Morrison et al., 2019) and, eventually, for college readiness (Agger &
Koenka, 2020). Early schooling contributes to the growth of students’ cognitive and academic
skills needed for success in school. The results of these studies using the school-cutoff method
and a regression-discontinuity design (RDD) focusing on foundational academic skills indicated
that instructional strategies should be tailored to students’ developmental capacities (Morrison et
al., 2019). Morrison et al. (2019) showed that 76 students from pre-K to school age showed a
related effect; studies reveal growth in literacy and math skills. These findings corroborate those
of Connor et al. (2013), who found that children who are reading as they complete second grade
will likely achieve adequate reading skills, supporting cognitive and linguistic development.
Next, the effects of schooling are not universal across all domains and may depend on
instructional and noninstructional influences (Morrison et al., 2019). Morrison et al. (2019)
found that instruction and noninstructional influences depend on children’s language and reading
skills. Connor et al. (2013) showed that child-instruction interactions increase literacy and math
skills growth. In a series of randomized controlled trials through instruction technology
assessment, Morrison et al. (2019) found that students’ math and literacy skills were more
11

significant when instruction was personalized. The effects of literacy accumulated from first to
third grades significantly affect students’ achievements by the end of third grade (Morrison et al.,
2019). The most investigated domain involves reading skills, such as essential letter recognition
and writing, early phonological processing, and advanced comprehension skills. In math,
students’ performance grew from kindergarten to first grade; however, no evidence exists of a
unique schooling effect.
Lastly, schooling impacts cognitive processes not explicitly taught to the students,
including focusing attention, following multi-step directions, and inhibiting inappropriate
behaviors. Morrison et al. (2019) employed RDD to examine the causal impact of classroom
experiences and executive functions. Results from RDD conducted with first-grade students
versus those who completed kindergarten indicated that schooling affects the brain before they
appear in students’ behavior, allowing the detection and diagnosis of learning concerns. Agger
and Koenka (2020) collected data from the study of deeper learning that revealed higher self-
efficacy, mastery goal orientation, and increased academic performance.
Beyond the main conclusions of Morrison et al. (2019), education in school promotes
active engagement, which is critical in fostering student learning and academic success (Liem &
Chong, 2017). Agger and Koenka (2020) asserted that active engagement is goal‐directed,
flexible, constructive, persistent, and focused interactions with the social and physical
environment and includes people, activities, or ideals related to schooling. Liem and Chong
(2017) conducted five studies on student engagement consistent with the meta-construct of
engagement and multidimensionality focused on the relationships between students’ engagement
and their learning environments. Moreover, results indicated that while the studies varied in the
operationalization of engagement, individuals drive to learn, work, and achieve their potential
12

through their motivation to pursue a goal. Roorda et al. (2011) conducted a meta-analysis
investigating student engagement based on 99 studies to validate the results. These studies
included students from preschool to high school; the results indicated the importance of effective
teacher-student relationships for students to achieve academically, especially those at academic
risk due to economic marginalization and students with learning difficulties.
Finally, the benefits of staying in school are pervasive, as school attendance can reduce
teen pregnancy rates, welfare dependency, and criminality (Ceci & Williams, 1997). The United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) states that schooling
provides essential learning that gives children and youth opportunities for growth and
development, free and discounted meals, social contact that helps with learning and
development, and building relationships with teachers. Furthermore, parents with limited
education and resources would struggle to perform teaching tasks and can easily work
(UNESCO, 2020).
Exposure to Diversity
One of the primary functions of schooling in the United States is exposing students to
diversity. The United States is increasingly becoming demographically diverse, and schools
represent this diversity. Meckler and Rabinowitz (2019) stated that the number of children
attending U.S. public schools with students of other races has nearly doubled over the past
quarter-century, and since 2020 White students no longer represent the majority of American
students. This trend of increasing diversity is expected to continue (Shimomura, 2016). Wilson
and Rodkin (2011) stated that the ethnic and racial makeup of U.S. public schools varies by
demographic setting (i.e., urban, suburban, rural) and geographic location. Non-White students
are heavily concentrated in large urban districts; about one-three ethnic and racial minority
13

children are enrolled in the nation’s 100 largest school districts; 75% of total enrollment in these
districts are ethnic and racial minorities (Sable et al., 2011). Data from the National Center for
Education Statistics (2021) showed that from fall 2009 to fall 2018, the Hispanic student
population increased from 22% to 27%, while the percentage of White students in public schools
decreased from 54% to 47%, and Black students decreased from 17% to 15%.
With a multicultural and diverse student body, individuals in school can learn the
perspectives of various groups, which can reduce prejudice. Kauff et al. (2013) studied the
influence of ideology on the relationship between multicultural perspectives and attitudes toward
diversity and immigrants. This study captured the idea and belief that ethnic and racial diversity
is valuable to society (Kauff et al., 2013).
Understanding variation in educational achievement and attainment among immigrant
populations along racial and ethnic lines is crucial as the United States population becomes
increasingly diverse. Kao and Thompson (2003) provided an overview of recent empirical
research on racial, ethnic, and immigrant differences in educational achievement and attainment
and examined current theories that attempt to explain these differences.
In the American Psychological Association’s (2015) top 20 principles for K–12 learning,
Principle 2 includes that students from diverse backgrounds enter classrooms with a wealth of
knowledge based on their lived experiences, social interactions, and how they have been taught
in the past.
Social and Emotional Learning in Schools
Another critical aspect of in-school learning is social and emotional learning, which is
often implemented through programs on character development, building relationships, and
enhancing school climate and culture (Haymovitz et al., 2018). Ferreira et al. (2020) maintained
14

that social emotional learning (SEL) is the process by which students develop their capacity to
integrate thought, emotion, and behavior to achieve and accomplish critical social tasks. More
than ever, schools discuss students’ academics and personal growth (Haymovitz et al., 2018).
SEL is an intervention incorporated into schools’ instructional learning through modeling and
practical application activities supported by the administrators and conducted by teachers inside
and outside classrooms (Ferreira et al., 2020).
SEL focuses on five domains to cultivate school-age children’s personal social and
emotional competencies: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills,
and responsible decision-making (Haymovitz et al., 2018). Extensive research confirms that SEL
skills promote positive development, reduce problem behaviors, and improve students’ academic
performance (Schonert-Reichl, 2017). Through the process of meta-analysis, a statistical method
of synthesizing the effectiveness of a program, results indicate two significant findings regarding
SEL programs. First, students participating in SEL programs showed significantly more positive
outcomes concerning enhanced SEL skills, attitudes, positive social behavior, academic
performance, and significantly lower conduct problems and emotional distress levels. Second,
the higher academic performance of SEL program participants translated into an 11 percentile-
point gain in achievement, suggesting that SEL programs tend to bolster, rather than detract
from, students’ academic success (Mahoney et al., 2018). In a study by Haymovitz et al. (2018),
participants reported that teacher-student relations have improved and feel comfortable
approaching their teachers to ask for support in social situations.
Generally, the purpose of SEL at school is to allow teachers to use evidence of students’
learning to adapt teaching to meet their needs (Ferreira et al., 2020). In addition, SEL programs
15

represent a valuable way to improve students’ social and emotional skills, associated with several
positive behavioral and academic outcomes (Mahoney et al., 2018).
Students’ Online Learning Experiences During the Pandemic
During the 2019–2020 school year, the pandemic disrupted the spring semester of 2020,
causing students to abruptly transition from in-class learning to virtual learning (Education
Week, 2020). Many parents around the country felt the disruption from the school closures
because it interfered with students' social life and learning experiences (UNESCO, 2020). School
schedules suddenly became more fluid, allowing students more choices about when and how
they do their schoolwork. Students had to adapt to being more independent and taking on new
responsibilities for their learning while ensuring they had access to technology and digital
devices, school resources (technology, texts), and parental guidance for support at home.
Early in the pandemic, significant gaps in access to technology existed among students.
Herold (2020) conducted two surveys, and the results showed that in districts with fewer students
from low-income families, one in five education leaders reported in late March that a lack of
basic technology is a critical problem, compared with nearly two-thirds of leaders in districts
where with the highest percentages of students are from low-income families. Tomasik et al.
(2021) described that some students were well-equipped at home and supported by their parents,
while others lacked basics, such as a working computer and desk, or had emotional issues with
dysfunctional family arrangements. The results from a survey conducted by Polikoff et al. (2020)
exposed significant disparities in technology access based on family income. A survey revealed
20% of American households who make $25,000 or less a year, only 63% of school children
have access to computers and the Internet, compared to affluent families whose parents make
$150,000 annually or more.
16

Another relevant factor in the transition from in-class learning to virtual learning was
absenteeism, which led to a loss of instruction time. Herold (2020) showed that teachers in
higher poverty-level schools reported that nearly a third of their students were not logging in or
making contact through other means. Whitney and Liu (2017) found that before the pandemic,
minority and low-income students tended to have more absences and were more likely to be
chronically absent (i.e., missing at least 10% of school days) than their more affluent and
nonminority population peers. Specifically, they studied a large urban school district in
California with students in Grades 6 to 12 from 2007–2008 to 2012–2013; the findings revealed
that Black and Hispanic students are chronically absent compared to other racial and ethnic
groups. Moreover, these student groups dramatically increased absences when entering high
school. For example, in 12th grade, 69.9% of Black students were chronically absent, compared
to only 23.4% of Asian students.
Early in the pandemic, students missed school because they did not have access to high-
speed technology, family support at home, and needed to care for family members (Kuhfeld et
al., 2020). Additionally, Tarkar (2020) found that parents faced issues understanding the new
teaching methodologies, especially those unfamiliar with technology. Regardless of the reasons,
researchers have consistently found that absences during the pandemic adversely affected
students’ end-of-year test scores (Kuhfeld et al., 2020). Burgess and Sievertson (2020) stated that
even a relatively short time in school does this; even a short period of missed school has
consequences for skill growth. School absences take away time for learning new concepts,
receiving appropriate services, and students’ wellbeing.
After a brief period of disorientation, remote teaching became the new norm, and
educators began developing creative ways to facilitate and deliver lessons (Gopalan et al., 2021).
17

Many districts throughout the country started to endorse learning through the distribution of
materials (parent drive-up to collect student materials), virtual synchronous meetings for
discussion using options such as Zoom, GoToMeeting, Google Hangouts, and asynchronous
teaching developed by the instructor or from external sources such as YouTube, institutional
conference/chat functions, and communicating via social media (Gopalan et al., 2021).
Moorhouse and Wong (2021) found that more teachers nationwide began to blend
asynchronous and synchronous instructional approaches to facilitate remote learning. In a
survey, Liao et al. (2021) revealed that teachers emphasized that online instruction for
elementary students was unsuccessful unless teachers engaged them in the learning process.
Moreover, when teaching integrated choices and age-appropriate tools and resources, these
students engaged more with online learning
For efficacious distance learning, teachers require sufficient resources at home and
adequate experience with online instruction. In the spring of 2020, teachers spent less time
providing instruction and more time planning then they did prior to the pandemic. According to
Teaching and Learning International Study (TALIS), an international survey, during the
transition of teaching in class to virtual, teachers in the United States reported working 45 hours
per week on average, but only 27 of those hours were spent teaching. In contrast, the American
Time Use survey (ATUS) revealed that teachers reported working approximately 38 hours per
week during the school year pre-COVID-19 (Jones et al., 2022). United States teachers also
reported spending substantial weekly time on planning, grading, and extracurricular activities.
Jones et al. (2022) reported two of the most notable shifts occurred in instructional and planning
time. On average, instructional time dropped from 198 minutes (about 3.5 hours) per day pre-
pandemic to about 61 minutes after the onset (i.e., instruction decreased from 48% of a teacher’s
18

day to 19%). In contrast, the time teachers spent planning rose from a pre-COVID level of 75
minutes to a post-COVID level of 108 minutes (about 2 hours)—from 18% to 33% of their daily
time (Jones et al., 2022). As virtual learning became the new norm for teaching students during
the pandemic, teachers all over the country transitioned to teaching lessons virtually with the
determination that they could accomplish their academic goals.
Teacher’s Perceptions and Experiences of Online Learning During Pandemic COVID-19
Teacher Concerns
Liao et al. (2021) identified three major themes from teachers' concerns about online
teaching. First, they found scaffolding students’ use of technology challenging, especially the
younger students. As a result, teachers had to spend quality time helping students learn how to
use technology tools or teach them how to access curriculum apps in an online learning
environment. Second, teachers who were new to online teaching or had limited knowledge of the
technology required to support and resources when they encountered technical problems. Lastly,
teachers described that preparing lessons required extensive time (Liao et al., 2021). Rahayu and
Wirza (2020) interviewed teachers who reported that during the COVID-19 pandemic, they had
no means for teaching except online, were confused about how to teach online, and faced
difficulties designing and explaining exciting materials, assessing, and giving immediate
feedback to the students.
In hindsight, teachers lowered their expectations for student learning during the
pandemic. According to the Education Commission of the States (ECS, 2012), teachers’
expectations are essential; these expectations substantially affect students’ expectations of
themselves. For example, various districts in northern California proposed to their school boards
that expectations should be lowered (i.e., teachers should accommodate the grading system by
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reducing the percentage rates for passing a specific subject or grade). The change meant that
rather than 91–100 as the range for an “A” grade, the “A” grade range was lowered to 81–100,
and a “B” became 61–80, and so forth.
Disparities in Experiences
According to nationally representative surveys of the U.S teachers and school district
leaders administered by the EdWeek Research Center, Herold (2020) described the unorderly
transition to remote learning in America’s K–12 education system as a result of the COVID-19
pandemic has been marked by glaring disparities among schools. Due to the school closures
during the pandemic, many inequalities arose, and some pre-existing were exacerbated regarding
educational access. Such inequalities include a lack of technology, services (e.g., mental health,
access to resource staff members, free or reduced-price meals, in-person schooling, and
instructional support (Haderlein et al., 2021). In addition, while some parents had access to
provide sources to support student learning (parent at home helping the student, hiring a tutor or
nanny), others had to work to provide for the families. For example, some parents at XYZ
School district shared their insights into pandemic struggles; in these families, students may have
struggled because they had limited access to learning materials, high-speed Internet, and the
intervention support needed.
Barriers to Online Learning
The gaps in basic technology access for students during the pandemic diverged along
socioeconomic lines. For example, a report from late March after the pandemic onset revealed
that districts with the lowest percentages of students from low-income families had one in five
leaders believed “a lack of basic technology is a major problem,” compared with nearly two-
20

thirds of leaders in districts where the highest percentages of students are from low-income
families (Herold, 2020).
A growing body of survey evidence from parents documents virtual learning during school
closures in the spring of 2020 (Haderlein et al., 2021). Haderlein et al.’s (2021) survey showed
evidence that the amount and quality of virtual learning students received was far less than the
instruction they received before COVID-19 and that the deficiency was most severe for
marginalized groups. Results further revealed disparities in access to technology, instruction and
instructional supports, and services. The spring 2020 survey also indicated that parents were not
receiving the support they needed to help their children with online learning. As a result, they
struggled to keep their children motivated in this new learning environment (Haderlein et al.,
2021). In addition, parents described barriers preventing their children’s full access to online
learning, including special learning needs (e.g., special education needs, or English learner
needs); lack of parent content knowledge; the need for more teacher communication; and lack of
access technology to support learning (Haderlein et al., 2021).
Achievement Gap
Several reasons contributed to why the disruptions caused by the pandemic may increase
income-based achievement gaps. Recently Bailey et al. (2021) described four factors that may
have caused achievement gaps. First, parents in low-income families may be frontline workers,
easily exposed to the COVID-19 virus, and less likely to have access to high-quality healthcare.
These families’ experiences exposed the wide gap between high- and low-income parents’ access
to healthcare while supporting their children. Second, low-income families often have less access
to high-quality Internet service and computers in their homes than higher-income families,
making it more difficult for their children to access online instruction. Third, relative to their
21

more affluent peers, children from low-income families are more likely to attend public schools
that lack the resources to support teachers’ efforts to provide high-quality online instruction.
Fourth, low-income parents are less able to supplement school instruction with private tutoring
and other forms of enrichment (Lee et al., 2023). Moreover, they cannot enroll their children in
private schools if they conclude that public schools’ responses to the pandemic are inadequate
(Bailey et al., 2021). Finally, many parents and students waited that the students may be able to
return to campuses during the 2020–2021 school year, yet they did not foresee the issues that
would arise.
Partial Re-opening of Schools 2020–2021
Schools are an essential part of the infrastructure of communities. They provide safe and
supportive learning environments for students, support social and emotional development,
provide access to critical services, and improve life outcomes (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC], 2021). As the 2020–2021 school year began, about 40% of K–12 students
were in the districts that offered no in-person instruction, while other districts offered various
modes such as in-person, remote, hybrid learning models, and in-person remote (Dorn et al.,
2021). For students to return to in-person learning, schools had to reduce class sizes due to
mandates by the CDC to reduce the spread of the virus in California. CDC recommended
universal indoor masking for students and staff (aged 2 years and older).
Dorn et al. (2021) explained the term unfinished learning to capture the reality that students
were not allowed to complete all the learning they might complete in a typical school year. This
inability to finish the year meant that students who were disengaged during virtual learning then
moved to the next grade unprepared, missing the necessary building blocks for success. Dorn et
al. (2021) emphasized that an accurate assessment of the depth and extent of unfinished learning
22

could best enable districts and states to support students in catching up on the learning they
missed and moving past the pandemic and into a successful future. By the spring of 2021, almost
all the students had access to some form of in-person learning (modified in-school learning
paired with virtual learning or parents opted out for continuous virtual learning), and according
to Dorn et al. (2021), by the end of the 2020–2021 school year, students were on average 5
months behind in math and 4 months in reading.
In-Person Teaching in Schools During Pandemic
As the 2021–2022 school year approached, many educators received their vaccinations to
return to in-person teaching, and students went back to in-class learning, except that some
parents opted out of virtual schooling in the XYZ Unified School District. Upon return, school
staff members had several considerations: Will the last year change how we teach and learn
(Long, 2021)? Did the staff need to create a road map for recovery? What support system, such
as interventions or modified curriculum, would they provide to support student needs?
According to the Long (2021), educators may need time to focus on learning recovery and
students’ social and emotional needs. For example, NEA recommended (Long, 2021) that
schools implement the following:
• Differentiate lessons for individual learning needs.
• Ensure adequate intensity when extending the school day or year, including after-
school activities and reduced class sizes.
• sufficient, highly credentialed staff
• Use the correct assessments for data since standardized tests correlate with students’
socioeconomic background.
23

• Create an equity plan with stated goals and objectives for equitable learning
opportunities for underserved students.
Individualized plans for academic, social, and emotional needs could be essential for each
student upon reentry as educators set specific learning goals, identify SEL needs, and coordinate
interventions with providers and educators (Chiefs for Change and the Johns Hopkins Institute
for Education Policy, 2020). In addition, teachers need to focus on students’ unfinished learning
in the wake of school closures, unequal access to technology, and all other factors that
interrupted learning during the year. This focus could help capture the reality that students were
not allowed to complete all the learning they could have completed in a typical school year
(Dorn et al., 2021). As a result, some students who disengaged from school likely slipped
backward, losing knowledge or skills they once had. Wang (2020) refers to I (Content,
Activities, Facilitation, & Evaluation) as an instructional design model to assist K–12 teachers in
teaching beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. The content component helps teachers systematically
organize instructional content, and the activities focus on designing and developing various
learning activities to meet the needs of students. Facilitation refers to the types of interactions for
learning (learner-content interaction, learner-instructor interaction, and learner-learner
interaction) and evaluations for learning and performance (Wang, 2020).
Although many districts reported that the academic achievement gap worsened with the
pandemic, many offered virtual learning with remote learning plans that included formal
curriculums, assignments, progress and monitoring reports, and access to education resources
(Kuhfeld et al., 2020).
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Pre- and Post-Covid Referrals for Student Interventions
Since the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, many
schools have implemented tiered systems to support all students' academic, behavioral, and
social needs (Royer et al., 2017). Royer et al. (2017) described a three-tiered model, including
academic response to intervention, positive behavior intervention, and students’ social needs,
designed to intervene using systematic data-based decisions making at the first sign of student
difficulty. Prior to COVID-19, many districts in California had some form of protocol in place to
refer students for additional intervention support for students who were struggling academically
or behaviorally. A commonly used intervention in many districts is (SST, a team-oriented
collaborative approach to assist students with school-related performance and experience.
Members of the SST team have distinct roles and responsibilities. The SST members aim to
identify and intervene early to design a support system for students having difficulty in the
general education classroom even after the teachers have implemented classroom interventions
to support student learning.
Post-Pandemic Intervention to Improve Post-Covid Student Learning Referrals
As students returned to on-campus learning for the 2021–2022 school year, many
teachers at ABC Elementary analyzed data, such as the previous Smarter Balanced Assessment
Consortium scores, benchmarks, and previous report cards with teacher comments on incoming
students, to better prepare for the support, skills, and needs of the students. The requirements to
receive additional outside resources for students struggling academically remain as during pre-
COVID-19; however, understanding why and how many students need additional support and
whether these interventions are beneficial require further research.
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During the 2021–2022 school year, students returned to campus learning after
experiencing virtual/hybrid model learning, and teachers had to prepare for what might come
next. According to Kuhfeld et al. (2020), teachers and schools could have benefitted from
knowing how much achievement was lowered before students returned and how variable it could
be. In the Center for Global Development, Dorn et al. (2021) suggested that teachers need new
skills and capacities to support student transitions back to school, ensure safe school
environments, and provide remedial learning activities. Teachers must also focus on collecting
data during the reopening phase to plan for long-term impact on achievement.
Possible Strategies for Recovering Learning Loss Due to School Closures
Dorn et al. (2021) provided a summary of evidence that teachers can use in their
classrooms to support students.
1. Accelerated learning includes interventions to support catch-up efforts, cover core
academic material in less time, and strengthen future learning trends.
2. Teacher-led tutorial programs that occur before and after school.
3. Target intensive programs focused on basic literacy and numeracy, particularly for
those that are the furthest behind academically.
These are just a few examples of strategies that schools may implement; however, to understand
which supports or interventions are needed, research is needed on using new or previous
intervention programs in schools to close the achievement gap due to the pandemic.
The conceptual framework of this study concerns the effect of COVID-19 on students’
academic performance. As shown in Figure 2, the framework focuses on interventions used in
schools pre- and post-COVID-19 to support students who need or continue to need additional
academic support.
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Figure 2
Conceptual Framework

Before COVID-19, when students required less additional support, teachers could
provide interventions in class. When the interventions in class did not work, students were
referred for additional support outside the classroom. During the COVID-19 period, the
achievement gap increased for under-resourced students due to a lack of technology, resources to
support virtual learning, and students lacking support at home due to parents working or parents
who did not know how to support their students. Cachón-Zagalaz et al. (2020) shared that many
families did not know how to undertake the responsibilities even when they tried to educate their
students from a different perspective than the teacher. During this period, the poor academic
performance of students was exacerbated, resulting in intense interventions to support their needs
when students returned to in-person schooling.
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When students returned to in-person learning post-COVID-19, in-class interventions
increased due to learning loss, forgotten learning, and forgone learning (Moscoviz & Evans,
2022). In addition, the learning loss was consistently higher among students with lower
socioeconomic status than those from high- and middle-income families; the pandemic school
closures consistently elevated learning inequalities, disrupting the student’s learning (Moscoviz
& Evans, 2022). These disparities translated to differences in learning losses among various
student populations, which could widen the achievement gaps following the pandemic, and could
persist two or more years after its onset (González et al., 2022).
Now more than ever, schools must focus on interventions in-class to support the needs of
students to close the achievement gap caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Quantifying these
disparities can inform the schools and help allocate the necessary resources to the most
vulnerable students (González et al., 2022). The interventions to remediate should focus on those
students who have fallen behind the most due to learning loss and concentrate on students from
lower-income families (Moscoviz & Evans, 2022).
Summary
Undoubtedly, education conducted in a school setting benefits students. Studies of the
impact of schooling have demonstrated that promoting in-person attendance at school is the best
public education policy because formal schooling helps children’s and adolescents' cognitive,
social, and emotional development (Morrison et al., 2019). Primary functions of schooling in the
United States include exposing students to various populations and diverse people and the
development of social and emotional learning skills.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, social, economic, and political conditions were
intensified, and students transitioned to virtual learning environments. The technology gaps
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disproportionately negatively impacted students of color and those from low-income
backgrounds early in the pandemic (Grant, 2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic and the transition to virtual learning also negatively impacted
teachers. Public school teachers have declared that for distance learning to be successful,
teachers require sufficient resources at home and professional development support with online
instruction (Moorhouse & Wong, 2021).
With the social and economic conditions worsened by the pandemic, in-school
interventions have proven beneficial in the COVID-19 and post-COVID-19 environments, as
students’ academic performance benefits from additional support. Therefore, this study aimed to
identify how teacher interventions impacted students’ performance.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter focuses on the qualitative approach, data collection, and methods utilized for
the study. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, students received interventions in their classrooms
from their teachers or were referred to resource teachers for additional support. During COVID-
19 school closures, all students moved from in-school to virtual learning. While it is vital to
recall that remote learning had been used in many schools, Kuhfeld et al. (2020) found that
schooling online may not have been as effective as projected, as low-income families and
minority students may have lacked materials and access to distance learning. The goal of this
study is to discern the impact COVID-19 had on students’ academics and focus on interventions
that are currently in place in schools to support students’ needs. A secondary aim is to identify
the steps schools are taking to support students who require interventions outside of the
classroom beyond the scope of what a teacher can provide. Lastly, the study focused tangentially
on identifying what schools do for students if all interventions fail. The following questions were
the basis of my study:
• What interventions were in place before COVID-19 for students who needed
additional support, and what interventions are in place now to support the needs of
the students at ABC Elementary School?
• What disparities, if any, did the students have during virtual learning?
• What is the process utilized at ABC Elementary today to serve the needs of students
who need additional intervention support?
This chapter contains five sections. The first section concerns the reasoning behind the
decision of a qualitative study. Next, I discuss the sample and population for my proposed case
30

study. Then I transition into explaining the data collection methods. Moreover, I explained the
data analysis plan and ended by discussing the study’s limitations and delimitations.
Research Design
A qualitative case study research method was used for this study because the approach
allowed me to interpret personal experiences and construct their worlds, as suggested by
Merriam and Tisdell (2016), and explore the meanings they attribute to their experiences. The
research questions concerned exploring the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on students and
the interventions teachers are utilizing to support the needs of struggling students.
The interview data consisted of verbatim statements from the interviewees about their
experiences, opinions, feelings, and knowledge (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) explained that qualitative researchers are interested in interpreting people’s experiences
and how they attribute their experiences. This study concerned how teachers are intervening in
classrooms to support students who are academically behind due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
After conducting interviews with the staff members, I collected the names of the apps and
intervention programs teachers used in their classrooms to support student needs. I also collected
forms the participants used when requesting additional support from the school. The results
revealed the interventions teachers are utilizing in classrooms for those students who fell
academically behind due to COVID-19 and how they support student success.
In the data analysis, I explored the interventions utilized pre- and post-COVID-19 and the
student referral process for further interventions. In addition, I identified interventions the school
is currently employing to support students and close the achievement gap exacerbated by the
pandemic. Finally, using these interviews, I sought information regarding students’ virtual
31

learning experience and its impact on students’ academics while focusing on interventions
provided to students.
Sample and Population
Selecting a School Site
The study site was in Northern California. The superintendent of the district oversees 52
school sites, including 32 elementary schools, six middle schools, seven high schools, and seven
other sites (Independence School, Technical Academy, Adult School, Digital Academy, School
readiness and Preschool, Turner Academy, and Valley Robotics Academy). The selected school
site serves 780 students with varying socioeconomic statuses (low to middle class). In addition,
student demographics show diversity; the student body was 36% Hispanic, 15% Asian, 14.1%
White, 14% Black, 5% Filipino, 5.5% two or more races, 1% Pacific Islander, < 1% Native
American, and 4% Unspecified.
This research aimed to collect data from one elementary school from XYZ Unified school
district (the school district’s identity). The selected school had students who received free or
reduced-cost lunches. In addition, the school must have programs and interventions utilized in
the classroom pre- and post-COVID-19.
This location was appropriate for data collection because this school is emblematic of those
most affected by the pandemic due to its location and student population of students served,
including working-class families, students in foster care, and families with low and high
incomes. In addition, the study took place in an inner-city school with a diverse student
population as it may offer answers to challenges faced during the COVID-19 pandemic and how
students were affected by the school closures.
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Selecting Participants
The purpose of this mixed method study is to collect assessment data and interview third
through sixth-grade teachers, a resources teacher, and a school psychologist to compare how
students at this school were performing academically pre-COVID-19 and what student data
reveal post-pandemic. For the interview portion of the case study, the goal was a minimum of 12
to 16 elementary school teachers at the third to sixth-grade levels and student support staff,
including the resource teacher and the school psychologist. There are four specific categories of
teachers included in the sample. First, I interviewed first-year teachers from the 2021–2022
school year to collect their experiences as first-year teachers of a class exposed to online learning
for 18 months. Next, I interviewed veteran teachers, teachers with 2 or more years of experience,
so that they could share their pre- and post-COVID-19 experiences in the classroom. Third, I
interviewed one resource specialist teacher (RSP) who had worked at ABC elementary school
since 2019–2020 and could share the interventions currently in place at the site and explain the
process for referring students for interventions. This participant could also describe the
intervention programs outside the school for additional support. Lastly, I interviewed the school
psychologist to explore the number of referrals made pre- and post-COVID-19 for IEP, including
the number of assessments given to students this school year for additional support. Finally, staff
members were asked to share how they are intervening to guarantee all students receive the
support they need in class before referring them to the SST.
Teachers were given the option to volunteer their time for the interview, and as a token of
appreciation, they received a $25.00 digital Amazon gift card 7 days after the interview. In
addition, a sign-up sheet was provided to the staff during their staff meeting, and slots for grade-
level signups were limited to ensure I recruited the volunteers needed for the study.
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Analyses of Research Questions
This qualitative study was conducted in one of the elementary schools using one-on-one
interviews with credentialed teachers and support staff (a resource teacher and a school
psychologist). The participants currently work at this school site and have differing years of
experience with various grade levels. A research interview sign-up sheet for staff members
teaching third to sixth grades and slots for a school psychologist and a resource teacher was
provided during the staff meeting. Because the site is a large elementary school with more than
four teachers per grade level, I allowed the teachers to sign up on a first-come, first-serve basis.
Of the 14 available interviews, I recruited 11 members to participate, along with one resource
teacher and a school psychologist. Figure 3 contains information about the staff's work
experience and depicts the participants’ number of years of experience in education.

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Figure 3
Candidates Interviewed and Years of Experience in the Educational Field

Note: The graph shows the responses of the candidates who met the research criteria.

Table 1 contains participants' descriptions and characteristics. All participants work at the
same school in this district. They are all certificated, fully credentialed staff, and their teaching
experience ranges from 5–30 years. They all enjoy working with students; some have been in the
same district since starting their careers. Unfortunately, I could not locate any participants new to
teaching or between 11–20 years of experience.
Instrumentation
Creswell and Creswell (2018) explained that qualitative researchers collect data by
examining documents and interviewing participants. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described that a
researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. To gain insights into how
students are performing academically post-COVID-19, I collected data using one-on-one
35

interviews and requested that the participants share the names of apps or programs utilized in
their classrooms pre- and post-COVID-19 to support the needs of the students (Maxwell, 2013).
Data Collection
Interviews
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) state that a research interview is a vehicle that guides the
researcher and the subject to engage in a conversation to interpret the researcher’s questions. For
this study, I conducted one-on-one interviews at their school site. The participants were
interviewed one-on-one based on their availability. I scheduled a 90-minute one-on-one
interview. To respect their time, I offered the flexibility to be interviewed at their convenience,
before or after school, or a one-on-one phone interview in the evening or at the weekend. A one-
on-one interview was conducted with the resource teacher and the school psychologist. The
interview format was semi-structured, where the questions were flexibly worded, or a mix of
more or less structured questions was used (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Using this semi-
structured approach, the interviews focused on questions based on case study protocols (Yin,
2009). I confirmed that the questions were straightforward without using acronyms or language
that might have confused the interviewees. Follow-up probes were utilized if further information
was needed for additional data or clarity to unclear responses.
I used an interview protocol consisting of questions to gather information about students’
academics and intervention programs utilized at the Title 1 school. The complete interview
protocols are presented in the Appendix A. In addition, I used Patton’s (2015) approach of
experience and behavior questions in the interviews to gain insight into participant experiences
of teaching students pre- and post-COVID-19. Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework, a
visual representation of expected relationships among the characteristics or properties of the
36

study, along with interview questions for teachers, the resource teacher, and the school
psychologist; these questions were presented to all the participants.
Conceptual Framework
The protocol also contains pedagogical questions regarding how teachers intervene in their
classrooms to support their students. I followed Patton’s (2015) use of knowledge questions to
elicit participants’ factual knowledge of a phenomenon. I used Patton’s knowledge questions in
the academic support and interventions section. I prompted the participants to explain their
process when providing additional support to students outside the classroom while asking them
to elaborate on how they support students in class while waiting for additional support. In the
best teaching practices/referral for further interventions section, I asked the participants to share
the current interventions they are utilizing in their classrooms to support the students while
painstaking how it benefits them. For example, participants were asked to share details of a
program designed to assist academically behind students, using resources other than teacher-
student one-on-one work, and how they know when students need a referral for additional
support.
The interview design ensured the questions elicited responses about teachers’ experiences
with in-person and virtual teaching. I encouraged participants to share what, if any, disparities
students encountered academically due to virtual learning and what support, or interventions are
in place more recently at the site to close students’ academic achievement gap compared to
previously utilized interventions.
Documents and Artifacts
Documents refer to a wide range of written, visual, or physical material, whereas artifacts
are things or objects in the environment (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I collected documents from
37

the interviewees containing the names of the apps or programs utilized in the classroom as
interventions (See Appendix:). This app must be an intervention program for students who are
struggling academically and as a support for learning. I analyzed the data from intervention
programs to explore responses concerning the intervention and student learning outcomes in the
classroom.
Data Collection
I contacted each participant via email or phone to specify an appointment in the school’s
conference room. This room is a place where participants likely felt comfortable as it is used for
meetings. At the beginning of the meeting, I reviewed the consent forms with the participants
until they felt comfortable signing the agreement. I then ask the participants if I may have
permission to audio record the interview. Additional clarification or follow-up questions were
asked if further information was needed regarding any specific questions. Each interview lasted
no longer than 90 minutes. Any additional instruments or data used in the participants' classroom
that they were willing to share were collected for data analysis.
Data Analysis
The interview responses were analyzed with the goal of answering the research questions
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For this qualitative study, data were contained in transcripts from the
interviews conducted with third to sixth-grade teachers, one-on-one with the resource teacher,
and one-on-one with the school psychologist, and a list of interventions used. As Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) recommended starting data analysis early in the process creates an active process
that continuously builds upon itself. Therefore, I kept journal entries to recall what I was
revealing regarding the student achievement gap and how the teachers are intervening to support
the needs of the students.
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I began the analysis by writing reflective notes in the journal. After the interviews, I
transcribed the notes mixed method immediately to read over and annotate for data analysis.
Through open coding, I focused on empirical and a priori codes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
conceptual framework was a lens to identify words and phrases from the data. Alternatively, I
kept notes concerning information I did not anticipate from the methods perspective.
Using data collected from teacher interview notes, and programs utilized in class for
interventions, the classroom intervention support was charted and graphed to see the patterns,
such as the increasing numbers of students receiving additional intervention support, and
comparison between the interventions utilized pre- and post-COVID-19. In addition, the data
collected and charted revealed patterns in the regression of students' academics relative to the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Once the data were transcribed, I utilized Corbin and Strauss’s (2008) analysis to identify
the patterns in the data. Strategies such as making comparisons, focusing on terms from the
interview, and drawing on my personal experiences were used to avoid standard ways of
thinking. The goal was to ensure that I did not make predictions and was looking for evidence
that could contradict my inclinations based on thorough and rigorous evidence from reviews.
Using the data, I revealed which interventions work well for the students in classrooms, and as a
leader, I can focus on additional intervention programs that the students may require to reduce
their academic achievement gaps.
Limitations and Delimitations
This dissertation included several limitations, i.e., factors outside my control. First, the
data depended on interviews conducted at one school site, documents, and artifact analysis. As
Weiss (1994) stated, interview responses cannot be guaranteed or truthful, or a respondent may
39

create a picture based on their positionality. Thus, the findings relied strictly on the honesty and
integrity of my participants. For example, a teacher may have a different strategy in their
classroom to support the needs of the students who are struggling academically, whereas another
may solely depend on different sources to provide additional support. Additionally, the research
was conducted at one site, and the results might not transfer to other sites.
As a researcher with limited experience with conducting research and my personal bias
are the delimitations of my qualitative research. Another delimitation includes collecting the data
at one school site, and I had limited time to gather data (approximately 2 months) due to the
nature of the graduate program. Thus, I was constrained to research within a specific time frame.
I assumed that the responses to the interview questions would contain the information needed for
sufficient data and to answer my research questions. As stated by Merriam and Tisdell (2016),
triangulating the data by collecting multiple sources such as interviews, documents, and artifacts
allows comparisons and cross-checks of data collected from different sources and participants.
Lastly, the data were collected at a different school site; therefore, I worked around the
participants' timeframe.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated that research is valid to the extent that it is conducted
ethically, including rigor in carrying out the study. Validity and reliability can be addressed by
conceptualizing the study and how the data were collected, analyzed, and interpreted. To address
the validity and reliability of my study, I developed an interview instrument, a journal to record
the results, that provided sufficient data and artifacts to analyze together. Another step I
implemented was monitoring my biases through intuitive, critical reflection as the primary
instrument of data collection and analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To begin, I am aware that I
40

am a woman of color, an immigrant, and that my success results from my hard work. I have seen
failures and have been discriminated against by others. I know that my educational practices
reflect the awareness of the White privilege that shapes my mythologies designed to perpetuate
the status quo.
To ensure the credibility of my research, I clarified and provided the participants with a
brief synopsis of my professional and personal background, including my experience growing up
in another country. Lastly, before conducting the interview, I ensured that my interview
questions were thoroughly reviewed.
Ethics
Because this research was conducted with individuals outside my setting, no harm should
result for the participants involved (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). My goal in conducting the study was
to ensure it was guided by the ethical guidelines set forth by the University of Southern
California’s Institutional Review Board. Before the interview, the participants received an
explanation about the purpose of the study that was communicated honestly, and they were asked
to sign a statement indicating informed consent. Before the interview, participants were
reminded that they could opt out of the interview process at any time, refuse to answer questions
or request not to be recorded. Participants were well advised that all information discussed was
confidential using pseudonyms and all data will be destroyed after 5 years (Rubin & Rubin,
2012). Lastly, as Creswell and Creswell (2018) stated, reflective notes and analytic memos can
support accurate findings.

41

Chapter Four: Results or Findings
This chapter contains the results from thematic analysis to analyze interview responses
regarding the impact of COVID-19-related school closings and the effect on students' academics.
The analysis includes the interventions employed in the classrooms by the teachers to support
their needs. This study answers the following research questions:
1. What interventions were teachers utilizing at ABC Elementary School (a pseudonym
for the study site) prior to COVID-19 in their classrooms for students who needed
additional support, and what interventions are in place post-COVID-19 to support the
needs of the students at ABC Elementary School?
2. What disparities, if any, did the students have during virtual learning?
3. What is the process utilized at ABC Elementary today to serve the needs of students
who need additional intervention support?
Participants
The characteristics and descriptions of participants are given in Table 1. They all work at
the same school and district. These teachers are all certificated and fully credentialed, with
experience ranging from 5–30 years; some have been in the same district since beginning their
careers. All participants stated that they enjoy working with students. None of these participants
are new to teaching or have 11–20 years of experience.

42

Table 1
Participants and Their Characteristics
Participant
(gender)
ethnic/race
Current
position
Previous experience What do they enjoy most about
their career?
Ana (F)
Italian
Third-
grade
teacher
25 years in the same district.
Fifth grade for 8 years,
sixth for a year, and the
rest have been third grade.
Seven of those years were
taught at a Title I school.
One of the things she enjoys about
her career is working with
students and seeing their
excitement when they learn new
concepts.
Jenna (F)
White
Third-
grade
teacher
26 years of teaching
experience working in the
same district. Has taught

first grade for a couple of
years, second grade for
several, and third grade for
the last 7 years.
She is very proud to be in this
career because she enjoys
building relationships with
students and their families on a
personal level and creating
special memories. She cares
about individual students and
celebrates their success.
Won (F)
Chinese
Third-
grade
teacher
30 years in the same district.
Has taught second and
fifth/sixth combo, and in
third for 21 years. She has
also been an instructor at
the teacher’s College of
San Joaquin/SJCOE
Project Impact for the past
24 years.
The best part of teaching is the
positive relationships with staff
and students.

Allison (F)
White
Fourth-
grade
teacher
26 years of experience in two
different districts. Has
taught third/fourth combo,
fourth/fifth combo, fourth
,
and sixth grade. All
teaching has occurred in
public schools.
Enjoys watching the growth in
students, their faces that lights
up when they officially obtain
the concepts taught, and loves
making an impact in a life daily.
Rebecca (F)
Mexican
Fourth-
grade
teacher
22 years in public schools.
Has taught in

third,
,
fourth,
and sixth grades but enjoys
working with fourth grade
the most.
The best part about her work is
when she notices that the
students in her class get that
“light bulb” moment when they
understand a new skill. “Their
excitement is very rewarding.”
Suzie (F)
White
Fourth-
grade
teacher
3 years in Title 1 public
school and 1 year in a
Charter School. She
Enjoys helping students, building
confidence, and seeing them
have the “Aha” moment.
43

Participant
(gender)
ethnic/race
Current
position
Previous experience What do they enjoy most about
their career?
started her career in 2019,
6 months before the
COVID-19 pandemic and
school closures.
Ian (M)
White
Fifth-
grade
teacher
23 years of teaching
experience in the current
district. Has taught K–1,

fourth, fifth, and Grades 4
to 6 due to being drafted
by another employee.
Enjoys communicating with the
students, entertaining, getting
them to read at grade level, and
teaching them how to become
creative writers.
Bill (M)
White
Fifth-
grade
GATE
teacher
26 years teaching fifth grade
only. Two years in another
district and the rest in this
district. Taught Gifted and
Talented Education
(GATE) for 10 years. Prior
to his education career, he
was part of a Punk Rock
Band in Seattle,
Washington.
Enjoys interconnectivity of the
curriculum and making that
connection with the students.
Tan (M)
Filipino
Sixth-
grade
GATE
teacher
9 years of teaching
experience in public
schools. Prior to becoming
a full-time teacher, he was
a substitute. He has taught
pre-K (immigrant
students) through sixth
grade.
Enjoys watching students grow
and progress through their
formal education (seeing them
struggle at first and then
overcoming the hurdles).
Megan (F)
White
Resource
teacher
10 years in this field working
with sixth-grade students
in public schools and 4
months of student-teacher
experience at a Grade 6
t
to
10 Charter School.
Most rewarding part of her job is
to watch students
overcome/make growth with
their academic or behavioral
challenges.
Alex (F)
Samoan/
Mexican
School
psych
10 years working in public
school with the current
district.
She enjoys being a part of the team
that helps support parents to
understand their child’s needs in
a school setting. “While it can
be a very challenging time for
the parents, it is very rewarding
to support them and help them
understand the process.”

44

Note. Participant names are pseudonyms to protect their identities. School psych = school
psychologist, F = female, M = male, Ethnic/race = ethnicity or race.

Survey Analysis
To identify the intervention provided to students pre- and post-COVID-19 and additional
student support provided, participants responded to a series of questions to share their teaching
experience pre- and post-COVID-19. They also shared the interventions they previously utilized
in their classrooms to support the needs of the students who were academically struggling due to
COVID-19 school closure and what new programs the school has adopted to support them.
Results Research Question 1
What Interventions Were Teachers Utilizing Prior to COVID-19 in Their Classrooms for
Students Who Needed Additional Support?
Pre-COVID-19 Interventions
In this section, I discuss the interventions provided to students. Then, I present the results
by category of respondents.
Third Grade Interventions
Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the school provided interventions to students based on
their individual learning needs. Allison shared that the teachers instructed students in three tiers
(shown in Figure 4), Read Naturally, 2023). Tier I was the whole class instruction provided by
the teacher. Teachers utilized Tier II for students who needed small group support or at-risk
students. Finally, Tier III interventions were designed for teachers to work with students one-on-
one (Read Naturally, 2023).

45

Figure 4
Tiers of Student Intervention Support

Note. From Read Naturally. (2023).Tiers of the RTI pyramid. Response to intervention.
https://www.readnaturally.com/rti/description-of-tiers

One of the programs that Ana and Won utilized in their classrooms to support at-risk and
Tier III students was System 44, a foundational reading program designed for Tier III students,
which they implemented in their classrooms. Ana shared that while not all staff members
incorporated this intervention program in their classrooms, this program is designed for students
who are significantly behind in reading or have learning challenges. She also shared that this is
an individualized intensive intervention and a supportive learning environment that most
challenged readers urgently need. In contrast, Won shared that the students’ access to this
software app on their Chromebooks during small group-work intervention sessions to receive the
one-on-one individualized support based on their reading level.
Teachers noted that System 44 was generally adequate for their struggling students. For
instance, Won said, “This program is very rigorous, personalized, and engaging for the
46

individual student, and the app allows the readers and the staff to track their learning progress as
they accelerate in reading.” She also stated that it was easy to monitor the student’s progress, and
we could see students engaged while they showed growth in reading. According to Won’s data,
few students leveled up in reading by one grade level by the middle of the school year. Ana
agreed, noting that “through the System 44 program, students’ reading improved, and they
developed comprehension skills while building vocabulary.” Thus, the third-grade participants
shared that this program was adequate for those struggling and who needed additional
intervention support.
Another intervention program that the lower elementary teachers utilized was Systematic
Instruction in Phonological Awareness, Phonics, and Sight Words (SIPPS, Collaborative
Classroom, n.d.). According to Jenna, this program aims to help students develop word
recognition strategies and become confident, independent readers and writers. She also shared
that while the district had purchased this program, it was the teacher’s discretion whether or not
to incorporate this intervention program in their classrooms. Jenna said:
SIPPS is designed for students who need additional phonological support placed in Tier II and III
intervention support. Unfortunately, this program was not utilized by many staff members
because they were not trained, nor did the team implement it with fidelity.
Aside from System 44 and SIPPS intervention programs, Ana conducted after-school
interventions to support low Tier II and Tier III students. Jenna stated:
Ideally, I would form small groups in class based on students’ performance and ability
per subject was how I best met the needs of my students. Also, collaborating with grade l
level staff determined the areas of improvement that needed to be addressed to meet the
needs of the students.
47

They also had Homework Interventions support after school, math tutoring, and a resource
teacher was available. The school also provided counseling, mental health support, speech, and a
parent liaison was available for students.
To ensure meeting students’ needs, the teachers in this grade level implemented System
44 and SIPPS program, along with after-school interventions. These programs were effective, as
teachers mentioned that students progress over time.
Fourth Grade Participants
The fourth-grade participants, Allison and Rebecca, shared that they used the Read 180
intervention program in their classrooms to support the needs of Tier II and III students. Rebecca
explained: “This program is designed to meet the needs of the students who are reading below
grade level because it addresses the needs of individuals through their reading skills.” Although
the Read 180 intervention was available, Allison described:
There were minimal interventions offered for intermediate students. Read 180 was
conducted during the day, but the process of starting up the program was slow as the year began
the year, which resulted in gaps. The growth the students should have experienced from the
program was not coming to fruition.
When Read 180 was in place, Rebecca conducted after-school tutoring sessions in groups
of no more than six students, providing support in math and reading.
While this grade included Read 180 program, despite time constraints and lack of
training, these teachers attempted to use this program as much as possible Along with this
program, they also offered small group sessions after school to help close the academic
achievement gap.
48

In contrast, teacher Suzie shared that she was at another district before COVID-19 school
closures. Suzie remarked:
While that district also offered after-school tutoring sessions in math and reading, they
also had a “fathers and families” mentor club that supported students who needed
emotional support. The students’ fathers volunteered on-campus [to] work with other
students who needed additional emotional support. They were great mentors and role
models for others and were always motivating students to strive by sharing their personal
experience while growing up. It was always a pleasure to watch these fathers playing
sports or doing activities with students during students’ recesses.
Clearly, students at Suzie’s previous school had academic learning gaps, but their focus
was geared towards social-emotional learning first before teaching them academics in class.
Fathers and Families was an influential mentor club; the club helped students gain emotional
support, and they could focus on themselves when working with supportive fathers and families.
Fifth-Grade Participants
Ian, a

fifth-grade teacher, mentioned using Read 180 frequently in the classroom. The
program appeared to work well for students who were academically behind in reading. However,
this teacher also noted that he also accessed from an aide. Ian shared that besides Read 180, he
often worked with students receiving services from the Resource Specialist Program (RSP).
These students worked with an aide in small groups as needed. He stated,
I would have an aide that would push-in the classroom that would come in to support the
RSP students, and sometimes the aide would push out (take those students into another
room to provide additional time and support to complete their work).
49

Using the aide’s support, Ian provided other students with small interventions at least two to
three times a week.
In contrast, Bill had a unique perspective regarding interventions in his class. He firmly
believes in the Best First Instruction (BFI). He shared, “I used the strategy of exposing materials
to students in multiple ways repeatedly.” He also described that those students who needed
additional support attended homework club, an after-school intervention program I conducted to
help them with math and reading homework. Bill’s focus was not only to support the Tier II or
III students but to provide all students with the opportunity to receive the support needed.
The fifth-grade participants adopted different strategies for students. While Ian received
support from the aide and worked in small groups with students, Bill was focused on BFI and
after-school support for all. Although both teachers had different approaches and perspectives,
they ensured that students were exposed to some form of intervention with teachers.
Sixth Grade Participants
Tan, the only participant from this grade level, shared that the sixth-grade team, himself,
and his grade-level teacher employed the Read 180 for language arts support. Aside from the
Read 180 program, he described offering after-school math tutoring. He said, “asides from these
interventions, I recall that the school also offered speech services to students, and the speech-
language pathologist (SLP) worked with students in small groups outside the classroom to treat
speech-related disorders.”
While Read 180 was accessible for all staff members to incorporate into their classrooms.
Notably, teachers were also conducting after-school intervention sessions for students.
Resource Teacher
50

When interventions in the class failed, teachers referred Megan, the school’s resource
teacher. She provided additional intervention strategies or determined whether the student
needed a referral for an SST. According to Megan, the school did not have many additional
intervention programs; therefore, she conducted small group support in her classroom, where she
and her aides revisited System 44, SIPPS, and the Read 180 program to provide additional
support to the students. Megan said, “additionally, I also conducted RSP groups through the
support from my aides where students received small group or one-on-one support as stated in
their IEPs.” Megan also shared that she had an open lab policy on Fridays, meaning that students
were welcome to come to the lab to complete their assessments, especially those who needed a
quieter environment or assistance with reading questions aloud. This free lab period was
designed to give students additional time to complete their work with minimal distractions.
When all else failed, Megan requested teachers to fill out SST forms for additional intervention
support through the SST team.
Process for Additional Intervention Support
According to the interview responses, teachers shared that when all interventions failed in
the classroom, they requested an SST meeting. Megan remarked, “Through the process of SST,
the team worked together to develop a plan to meet the challenges of the student. Figure 5 shows
the SST process flow chart the school followed for further intervention support, as provided by
Megan.

51

Figure 5
SST Flow Chart

The resource teacher, Megan, shared that the staff followed the SST process flow chart to
request an SST for the student to receive further intervention support. The first step of the SST is
to request a student study team meeting for a student identified for additional support. Next, the
teacher identifies student concerns (academics, behavior, speech, etc.) and shares previously
attempted interventions and accommodations. Finally, the teacher completes the SST request
form and then submits it to the administrator for review to determine if appropriate interventions
have been utilized before requesting a meeting (Appendix C).
Secondly, the administrator reviewed the form: Completion, attempted interventions and
parent communication, consistency: was the student struggling in just one subject, or many?
Were there any behavioral concerns? Once the review was completed, whether the request was
appropriate for an SST meeting was determined. Then a date and time would be scheduled for
the meeting. The teacher communicated the meeting date, time, and location to parents/guardians
52

via phone or email, and the parent would receive an invitation letter through the mail if unable to
locate the parent. If the meeting was not confirmed or parents could not be reached, the
administrator would decide whether to pursue the meeting with the team.
Third, the team prepared for the SST meeting. The administrator (or designee) collected:
a copy of the SST request form, a cumulative folder, a printout of students’ attendance records
and grades, and a class schedule. The classroom teacher would compile student work samples
and assessments to share with the team. During the SST meeting, the concerns of the student
were summarized and discussed with the team (including parents) to develop an action plan with
academic or behavioral interventions that would be utilized to support the needs of the student.
The team discussed quantitative and qualitative data to help develop an action plan.
Fourth, the team developed a plan, and the administrator scheduled a follow-up meeting
with the team to meet within 6 to 8 weeks to discuss student progress. Lastly, an action plan is
provided to all parties involved with the student (see Appendix D). This action plan included
using strategies with fidelity for 6 to 8 weeks. Finally, a follow-up SST meeting was conducted
after the student was given 6 to 8 weeks of intervention. During this meeting, the team decided to
either continue with the intervention and discuss the progress the student was making, or the
team would offer other alternatives to intervention. If the student had made the bare minimum or
no progress, they received a referral for an IEP assessment that addressed the student’s unique
learning concerns.
Post-SST Intervention Programs
Post-SST meetings, a case manager would be assigned to the students for the additional
intervention support discussed during the SST meeting. At ABC Elementary school, the
interventions assigned to students took place in the resource teachers' room in a small group
53

setting or the classroom. According to Megan, intervention programs utilized before COVID-19
at ABC Elementary included SIPPS, System 44, Read 180, and Positive Behavioral Interventions
and Supports (PBIS shown in Figure 6; Center for Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports,
n.d.).

Figure 6
Intervention Programs

54

Further Support: School Psychologist
The school psychologist, Alex, shared that she assessed students in intense (2 sessions)
six-to-eight-week support in the classroom and with the RSP teacher. When the student showed
little to no growth academically, Megan referred the student to Alex for assessment. During this
process, Alex shared that she used a variety of standardized assessments depending on the
referral concern for the student. Alex remarked, “I would collect background information,
including health concerns about the student, their educational history, and collect multiple data
from teachers, resource teacher, parent, and student reports.” Through data collection and
assessments, she could identify the specific learning needs of the students. After data collection,
if a learning disability was identified, she and the team presented the results to parents in an IEP.
The IEP also included goals to focus the team on helping the student succeed. Students were
often referred to a special day class (SDC) for a more restrictive learning environment.
Transition From In-Class to Virtual Learning
During the interview, participants shared their experiences transitioning from in-class
learning to virtual teaching during school closure. In addition, eight of 11 participants discussed
the challenges of sharing these experiences. Figure 7 shows the responses shared by the
participants during the transition.

55

Figure 7
Participants Experience Transitioning from In-school Teaching to Virtual

The transition from in-school learning to virtual was not easy for the participants (see
participant responses, Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6); however, some had less knowledge about the
technology and could not implement their technical skills and adjust to online teaching. As eight
participants stated, implementing the COVID-19 emergency online instructional model was
complicated as no one was prepared to teach virtually. For instance, Won said, “Transitioning
from in-class to virtual learning model was a struggle. It seemed like no one was prepared, and
the guidelines given were mostly minutes we needed to spend online.” Although the staff knew
they were supposed to meet specific criteria for fulfilling the minutes they met with the students,
lack of support and knowledge of a new virtual program challenged many.
Alternatively, some participants indicated that after they understood the concept of using
Zoom, an online platform to conduct meetings and chat, they conducted grade-level
collaboration, and the staff supported each other. They also guided each other on how to
56

maneuver google classroom. Ian described this well, indicating that he worked with his grade
level team, and fortunately, he had a staff familiar with google classroom. He described,
“Through support from my grade level team members, I was able to finally get students to start
using Zoom and Google meet.” With support from other teachers and staff, the participants
shared that they eventually became more comfortable teaching virtually.
While all the participants shared that although they had finally learned how to make use of
technology, teaching virtually is not the route they would choose first for teaching. Rebecca
clarified this by saying, “I need to have my students in person to support their needs and be able
to interact with them in person without any distractions.”

Table 2
Experiences of Third-Grade Participants
Participant Response
Ana “Teaching was easy to get hang of. I conducted my classroom as if I were in
person. Initially it was a challenge with the online instruction, but once the
school required online instruction, it ran smoothly.”
Jenna “It certainly was not ideal, however, at our school, we were given the
professional consideration to produce a plan that worked best for ourselves and
our students. It was immensely helpful to collaborate with colleagues at my grade
level to share ideas, plans, resources, and feedback as we navigated through this
challenging time.”
Won “Transitioning from in-class to virtual learning model was a struggle. It seemed
like no one was prepared and the guidelines given were mostly minutes we
needed to spend online. Luckily, my grade level team worked together to gather
online materials and resources to create units for students to complete in the
Google Classrooms.”

57

Table 3
Experiences of the Fourth-Grade Participants
Participant Response
Allison “This transition was “hard.” Nobody knew what to expect, and my grade level
was struggling to implement online teaching as we had no prior experience. I
was focused on getting students to get one-on-one support which took hours,
and I was not able to meet the students any more than one times a week. Some
days, the students would not even log on. I also tried creating breakout rooms
with more student participants, but that was a failure too.”
Rebecca “Virtual teaching was tough. I had no idea how to use Zoom or find a lot of
online apps to be able to teach my students. It was also tough to not be able to
interact with the students in person.”
Suzie “The transition was terrible, ineffective, and stressful. I had to figure out how to
utilize Zoom and find ways to get students engaged. Once I learned the concept
of Zoom, I followed my bell schedule to teach as I would during the normal
school year, but that was a disaster too.”

Table 4
Experiences of The Fifth-Grade Participants
Participant Response
Ian “It was a major struggle. I had no idea how or what app to incorporate to
support the students. I worked with my grade level team and luckily, we had
a staff that was familiar with the google classroom. Through support from
my grade level team members, I was able to finally get students to start
using Zoom and Google meet. I had to personally call all the parents of my
students to explain to them how the apps worked, the time we would meet,
and explained to the students regarding their assignments.”
Bill “It was all too sudden and a horrifying experience. I panicked as I was not
fluent in tech. I was never provided with any previous professional
developments on how to present numerous ways of teaching through Zoom
or google classroom. I felt ineffective and disturbed as if I could no longer
instruct my students.”

58

Table 5
Experiences of the Sixth-Grade Participants
Participant Response
Tan “Implementing online teaching model was quite easy and I did not mind teaching
virtually. I knew how to utilize Zoom, and Google Classroom was something we
used frequently in my class; therefore, my students already knew how to
maneuver through the apps.”

Table 6
Experiences of the Resource Teacher and School Psychologist Participants
Participant Response
Resource
teacher
“This was a challenging experience. I had to work with my team quickly to learn
how to utilize Zoom to hold small group sessions with my students, which was
extremely challenging. I had to transition to a one-on-one meeting which took
several hours during the day to meet my students’ mandated IEP minutes.
School
psych

“The transition was challenging because conducting assessing for my students
became difficult. I had to call parents and request them to bring students to
campus multiple times to make sure there was the least amount of exposure.
Many times, parents were unable to bring the students, which delayed services
that the students needed.”

59

Resources Provided to the Students During COVID-19 School Closure
On March 13, 2020, the President declared a state of emergency, and the schools were
immediately closed to protect the students from COVID-19, as press released by the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (2020). Beyond the interventions described above, schools also
provided specific resources to students during school closures. Jenna explained that the school's
administrators communicated and worked quickly with the district staff to ensure that the school
was prepared to provide the necessary resources to the students. Furthermore, Ian described that
they were fortunate their district had sufficient Chromebooks and Hot Spots in their warehouse,
which were distributed to students after the district declared virtual learning. It was imperative
during this time that we all work together and provide the resources that the students needed.
Allison described this well when she said that ensuring all students received materials and
resources required teachers to work together and create a schedule for parents to pick up
students’ learning materials, such as packets and grade-level textbooks. Meanwhile, the teachers
collaborated and educated themselves on online teaching tools and resources.
As the teachers self-educated regarding online teaching platforms, the team transitioned
from packets to virtual learning. The district added intervention apps for students on
Chromebook for additional support. Megan used these Apps to work with students in RSP. She
noted it was challenging to meet the needs of all the students; therefore, to better support the
students in small groups during virtual learning, the school hired an intervention teacher who
worked with students in small groups virtually using the Read 180, System 44, and SIPPS App.
The purpose of hiring an intervention teacher was to continue supporting general education
students in reading, especially those falling behind drastically due to a lack of motivation or
needing emotional support. These apps were accessible for the teachers to utilize in small groups
60

during virtual learning, stated Ian, who also shared that his students were already utilizing one or
more of these programs before COVID-19.
To meet the needs and effectively support RSP students, Megan created a virtual
schedule to work one-on-one with the students who required them to attend after hours to ensure
they received their services as per their IEP goals. She also created packets for the students and
provided tools and materials that could be utilized at home. Additionally, she conducted mirrored
screens to model what she wanted the students to see while seeing their screens while they
worked on assignments.
Allison focused on the school counselor’s involvement and availability for students.
Jenna shared was glad that the counselor was checking in with students regularly via Zoom and
that when other students needed emotional support, she was available to speak with them.
Lastly, Alex shared that she held her assessments for students on campus. In addition, she
scheduled time during the day for the parents to bring their students to school for short periods to
limit exposure to the virus. Once all assessments were completed, she conducted IEP meetings
with the parents and staff via Zoom or Google Meetings.
Interventions During Virtual Learning
Third Grade Participants
Before COVID-19 school closures and virtual learning, students received intervention
support in school from teachers, resource teachers, and apps on their computers. The participants
shared that teaching students in a classroom allowed them to provide the support they needed.
Ana described this by stating that this included small group work, one-on-one support, and after-
school math and English Language Arts (ELA) interventions. During the COVID-19 school
closure, Ana added that she provided interventions through the System 44 app to support
61

students' reading during virtual school hours. She further explains that she employed the SIPPS
intervention app, but it was difficult due to the required one-on-one or small group sessions with
students, which were time-consuming. Working with the students one-on-one after school was
the only other method to provide additional intervention support. As a result, she stopped using
SIPPS but continued to support students during synchronous times with small groups. During
this time, she supported math and language arts students who had fallen behind.
In contrast, Jenna shared that she did not provide additional after-school online support;
she continued working in small groups and one-on-one, when possible, during the asynchronous
day. She also indicated that her RSP students received RSP services with Megan during their
scheduled time. Won mentioned that she accommodated interventions using online apps such as
Dreambox, an adaptive game-based math program aligned to state standards. Furthermore, he
used the Think Central website, which allows teachers and students to access digital materials
associated with Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (HMH, n.d.) programs, and Accelerated Reader (AR)
for small group sessions during the asynchronous time. Additionally, Won created fun games for
students such as Kahoot, Boom Cards, Math Mysteries, Mystery Science, YouTube for brain
breaks, and Songs/Instructional videos to teach concepts. She clarified that her goal was to
expose students to core subjects as often as possible to understand concepts and standards. Aside
from the interventions she provided her students in her classroom, students with IEP received
services from the resource teacher.
The third-grade teachers continued to provide services to students during virtual learning,
whether in class using various strategies or after school, to ensure academic success. Although
providing interventions during virtual learning was challenging, teachers at the third-grade level
tried various apps and resources.
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Fourth Grade Participants
Regarding virtual intervention, Suzie shared that teaching virtually was time-consuming
and required many hours to prep for one lesson. Her best option was to target and support Tier II
and 3 students. She said, “I conducted small groups, one-on-one, and relied heavily on my
iReady math data.” Suzie explained that support was provided when students were working
independently. Rebecca regularly scheduled Tier II and 3 students to meet in small groups.
During this time, she retaught math and ELA lessons, provided additional work via google
classroom for them to practice, and also made copies for students who could not access work
online. Apart from these interventions in the classroom, Rebecca held office hours after school,
allowing parents and students to check in with their questions or concerns. Overall, Allison used
small group sessions, one-on-one during the asynchronous time, and various apps to support the
students. She said:
I had a sign-up set up in the google classroom for students who had questions or needed
additional support after school. I even allowed parents to sign up and join with their
student to be able to support them at home. Allowing parents to be a part of the student's
education helped them better support the students at home.
The fourth-grade team employed many apps to support students. They taught Tier I
students together while ensuring additional support to their Tier II and 3 students. This process
was done through data collection and working in small groups or one-on-one. Most importantly,
they allowed parents to ask follow-up questions about virtual learning so they could participate
better with students at home.
Fifth- and Sixth- Grade Participants
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Ian's intervention consisted of providing student support during the synchronous time. He
explained that losing RSP aide support was a challenge; however, he mentioned that the students
met with Megan for additional support. He added, “I continued to utilize the Read 180 App for
Tier II and 3 students; however, managing and supporting them was difficult due to many
absences and technical issues as per student’s families.” Bill mentioned making the students
accountable for their work and grades, stating, “I taught as a whole group and utilized various
strategies to teach the concepts.” He then described working in small groups during the
asynchronous time and using office hours for students who needed one-on-one support. The
small group work included homework club, an activity his students were accustomed to before
COVID-19. Lastly, Tan discussed that he taught his class virtually like a regular school year. He
stated, “I taught all my students the concepts they needed to acquire, did small group sessions
with my Tier II students, and one-on-one with Tier III students during synchronous time.” He
further explained that because these were GATE students, they were responsible, completed their
assignments, and held themselves accountable for their grades.
The fifth- and sixth-grade teachers initially taught their students in a group setting. Then
they supported Tier II and 3 students during the asynchronous time. Lastly, the main goal was to
hold students accountable for grades and work while providing office hours after school if
parents and students needed support or clarification.
Resource Teacher
The resource teacher, Megan, explained that she regularly checked in with her RSP
students. She explained the difficulties with working with students via Zoom because she could
not see their work; therefore, she made copies and requested parents to pick them up from the
office. She said, “this way, I was able to see the work the students produced weekly, and I was
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able to see the areas they needed support in.” When students resumed on Zoom, Megan shared
that she could show their errors and help them correct them. Over time, she learned to mirror
their screens to see their work as they worked on their assignments. In addition, she stated, “I
was in touch with the teachers of these students to ensure they I was providing support in areas
that needed additional support.” She also stated that the students using the Read 180 intervention
were now getting support from the newly hired intervention teacher, who conducted small
reading groups with the third to sixth-grade students daily. Megan also explained the need to
refer the students to the counselor for emotional support. Along with the counselor, she
collaborated closely with the school psychologist to ensure that students were assigned to
appropriate interventions based on their needs, and when a student was showing no real
improvement, she was obliged to refer them for an assessment.
While Megan continued with the same programs as before COVID-19, she carefully
provided these to students with fidelity. For example, with the support from the new intervention
teacher, Megan continued to work with students in small groups and referred them for
counseling; when a student consistently showed little progress, she referred them to Alex for
further assessments.
Findings
While it is evident from the research that the school had intervention programs in place,
teachers were not trained to implement interventions in their classrooms. Few staff members
utilized the programs in their classrooms, while others referred students to SST for additional
support. Lastly, due to COVID-19 school closure, every participant shared that they were no
longer able to provide students with interventions. Some even tried meeting students after
school, but they were unsuccessful.
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Results Research Question 2
What Disparities, If Any, Did the Students Have During Virtual Learning?
Disparities Learning Virtually
While the COVID-19 pandemic posed unprecedented challenges within the educational
setting, ABC Elementary took necessary actions to ensure continued student learning. Due to
school closures, the school adopted the new normal for teaching students: teaching with virtual
learning. However, transitioning from in-class to virtual learning led to disparities while
implementing online classes. While the school planned to implement virtual learning, the
teachers quickly became aware of the disparities as they started to teach virtually.
The third-grade team described these disparities, indicating that although the students
were provided with online learning tools, they did not have access to a quiet learning
environment at home, creating challenges. These barriers included families with multiple
siblings struggling with sharing their home’s bandwidth, leading students to drop out of Google
Meet during the lessons. There were constant delays with students logging on as their screens
froze, and students could not work with some sites because the district had blocked certain
websites. This team shared that they tried to involve the parents in the students' learning but were
often unsuccessful. While teachers were teaching virtually, many parents worked more hours to
make ends meet; these parents were in an intense struggle to raise their families and get through
a difficult time. Many of these working families relied on their older siblings for support. Thus,
online students were not focused on learning because they knew no one was at home to monitor
their activities while their older siblings focused on other things. Won described this well,
indicating that the most significant disparity she experienced and believes contributed to the
learning gap today was the parent and family enforcement, involvement with the students
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learning, and accountability to ensure students were logged in and taking part in instruction. She
also shared that language was a barrier with some families, and being unable to translate affected
my English Learners.
While the third-grade team was equipped with materials to teach and eventually had
enough experience to lead online teaching, some parents could not provide the support students
needed at home. As mentioned, school closures had differing impacts on students depending on
the structure of their home environment.
Alternatively, while the fourth-grade team faced similar disparities, their most significant
challenge was keeping students focused and encouraging them to log on daily. An example was
shared by Allison, who explained that in addition to technical issues with logging on, she could
sometimes see them sleeping or lying on their beds when they were online. She also shared that
some students left their cameras off during Zoom sessions, and some would not return to zoom
sessions after breaks. Lastly, she described, “I could clearly hear and see TV blaring in the
background, siblings talking in their Zoom sessions, parents making noises in their kitchen, and
babies crying. It was a mess!” While the team was working hard to engage students, students
were facing challenges at home beyond the control of the teachers.
While many disruptions at home affected the students learning, Rebecca remarked that
some students had difficulty logging on daily. For example, some families had no access to the
Internet and required hotspots to log on. Even with hotspots available for pickup at school, some
families refused to have the adults exposed to COVID-19; therefore, they refused to pick them
up from campus. Lastly, Rebecca shared that aside from the students having difficulty accessing
the Internet, a few students never logged on even after she contacted the parents. She provided
the families with a laminated cheat sheet, directions to help their students log in, troubleshoot the
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process, see students’ daily schedules, view the apps they used throughout the semester, and a
Zoom link. She commented that Zoom learning was a nearly complete failure even after trying to
bring parents on board at home. Based on participant responses, the results show that parental
support was not fulsome enough for online students to succeed at home.
The fifth- and sixth-grade staff noted all the above disparities, but their primary concern
was ensuring student support and the difficulties some students faced when accessing support
staff on campus. Ian, who most always had an aide in his classroom to support RSP students, no
longer had an aide logging on to provide support. He shared an example by stating that even
though the students had access to Chromebooks, the aide never logged on to support his students.
Ian conjectured that the aide quit her job due to the increased workload and virtual learning. He
continued sharing that when students needed emotional support, some had inadequate access to
the school counselor and the speech therapist. These students had to make appointments with the
support staff and await a response.
Then students needing ELA support had minimal access to READ 180 intervention
support teacher who only worked with students requiring extra support in reading. According to
Ian, the Read 180 teacher only worked with students performing far below grade level. The
resource teacher was only available to work with students with an IEP. With limited access to
school staff support, the students were no longer provided with small group support or English
language support. Without the support, students were falling further behind in academics.
Lastly, Tan, who taught GATE students, frequently struggled to hold students
accountable for their assignments and work. While he constantly communicated with parents,
they were often surprised when he informed them that their children were falling behind or not
following the virtual learning protocols. When he would share this with the parents, they would
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respond to him, stating that they could hear someone talking on the computer in their child’s
room. Tan said, “I truly believe that parents were not paying enough attention to schedules and
the voices of what they were hearing in their child’s room.” Hence, the team tried their best to
engage and provide support directly to students, but they failed with some due to the lack of
support from other staff and families.
The resource teacher and the school psychologist noted other disparities. Megan worked
with the students with IEPs. Her primary concern was students with disabilities who needed
visual support to access the curriculum. While visuals were available online, students did not
always have access to some web pages because the district did not provide access to all. She
found difficulties showing and modeling for students while teaching virtually. The most
significant disparity for Alex’s students was the inability to assess students for IEP. Having
parents bring students to campus multiple times during the week was tiring for everyone, but
these multiple meetings supported the least exposure to others. This process was laborious,
especially for parents, as they were working during that time, and collecting data and providing
them with assessment results took longer than anticipated.
Overall, participants’ responses suggested many disparities between the students’
academics and the support they needed at home and school. While the teachers collaborated with
their grade-level team members and strategized to support the students, many students continued
to fail due to a lack of support at home. For this reason, many students lost ground academically
when they returned to school in person.
Post COVID-19: School Year 2021–2022
As schools opened their doors for the students to return to on-campus learning,
participants noted that all who entered the campus were required to mask up, and sanitizing
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hands frequently was the new norm. Won shared that when students were sent home due to
positive COVID-19 results or were exposed to a student with a positive COVID-19 test, then
many students were sent home to quarantine. The removal from school led to students missing
about 10 days of learning. This transition was tough because students were now falling further
behind academically. Won further explained that teachers were no longer teaching virtually to
assist the students at home.
All participants found that the only way to ensure that the students had more regular
exposure to their work was through Google documents, where some teachers continued
uploading assignments and other curriculum-related apps. The goal was always to have some
work available for quarantine students, so they had access to education. Allison shared that
teaching was challenging when as many as eight to 10 students could be absent simultaneously.
She stated that even though she uploaded essential work for the students to complete at home,
they were not receiving direct instruction; therefore, many students fell further behind after their
return to school.
Ian added that he had pre-prepared packets for students, which he handed out or left in
the office for parent pickups when students were absent due to COVID-19 illness or exposure.
He said he did not provide any recent work because students could not do the work without
direct instruction first. The packets included essential practice work to keep them busy. Tan went
on to share how he lucked out. Since Ian taught GATE students, these students knew they had to
be accountable for missed work. He said, “my students reached out to me personally via Zoom
after school if they needed support with assignments.” He shared that he did have a few students
who needed additional support, therefore conducted one-on-one or small group support with no
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more than three students at a time to ensure they understood the concepts of the grade level
standards.
The RSP teacher, Megan, found challenges in meeting the required IEP minutes when
students missed school due to COVID-19 illness or exposure. She expressed:
On the other hand, my caseload of students assigned to me drastically started to increase
as more teacher’s referred them for interventions and assessments for additional support.
I struggled to meet the needs of the students as I did not have enough staff to be able to
provide the services individual students needed. The school had to quickly work on hiring
new aides to help me support these students.”
The school psychologist shared:
While students were academically behind, I knew that they needed intense
interventions. I never hesitated to work alongside the teachers and provide them with
additional tools and services. I also suggested to many staff members the importance of
monitoring and collecting data on the student’s progress or regressions. Through this
process I was better able to enlist services students would require once referred for an
IEP assessment.
Post COVID-19 Concerns
Many concerns were voiced regarding students’ academics post-COVID-19. The most
significant concern that the participants shared was the gap in student academics. Students had
academically fallen behind a minimum of one to three grade levels. They had lost touch with
interacting and socializing with their classmates and were not following classroom or school
norms. Their attention span was lower than pre-pandemic, leading teachers to reteach lessons.
Won shared a notable example of students who were struggling with reading. She stated, “some
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students missed the foundations of reading, such as letter sounds and blending; therefore, they
were having difficulties transitioning from learning to read to reading to learn. In math, many did
not master the basic math facts.” Due to learning gaps, teachers had to modify lessons and teach
the basic skills first that were the prerequisite for the grade level standard.
To ascertain if students’ performance did not regress due to school closure and during
virtual learning, the participants compared students’ current level of performance with their skills
prior to COVID-19. This process was done by glancing at the students’ cumulative record
folders. In addition, Rebecca shared that she could quickly identify students who may have had
parental involvement versus those who did not base on the previous and current student grades.
Lastly, to support the academic and social needs of the students, the school needed to hire
additional staff. Megan said, “my biggest concern was not having enough staff to be able to
support the needs of the students. My caseload increased and the school was struggling to hire
credentialed teachers and paraeducators.” The impact of virtual learning did not affect every
student, but more than ever, students needed additional support, and the school could not find
enough support staff to hire.
Findings
It is evident that there were many disparities during COVID-19 school closures.
Participants shared that they were very concerned about the students’ academics, however, it was
difficult to hold students and parents accountable. All participants shared that due to disparities,
some students fell behind academically. Due to many disparities students faced, students lost
ground of academics and social life when they returned to school in person. All participants
shared that they had to modify lessons, pre-teach previous lessons, and work with students
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utilizing Tier II and 3 intervention support. When all else failed, they referred then students to
SST.
Results Research Question 3
What Interventions Are in Place Post-COVID-19 to Support the Needs of the Students at
ABC Elementary School?
Post-COVID-19 Interventions in Class
The school has continued using the same intervention programs as before COVID-19,
SIPPS, System 44, Read 180, PBIS, in-class support (small groups, one-to-one), RSP, push-in-
push-out aides, and after-school tutoring. However, according to Megan and all other
participants, the number of referrals for additional intervention support has increased compared
to previous years. While these programs have been previously available on campus, staff
members were not mandated for all staff members to incorporate the intervention programs in
their classrooms, shared Ana. Many participants also shared that they were never trained in using
these programs; therefore, they were not motivated to incorporate them into teaching. Some
participants found it easier to refer the students to SST than they are referred for additional
support in the RSP classroom.
Post COVID-19, Rebecca shared that due to an increase in the number of students
referred for intervention, only those who qualify for additional support with the Read 180
intervention teacher during school hours are those with a reading level “far below” grade-level
reading, a Lexile between 1–99. Rebecca remarked, “Due to increase numbers and only one
teacher to teach the intervention class, students are getting turned down for additional support.
Currently, teachers are pulling some of the academically behind students into smaller groups to
provide additional classroom support. The participants also shared that working with students in
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small groups is time-consuming. Many participants also shared that they are signing up for
professional development and learning to implement Read 180, SIPPS, and System 44 in their
classrooms.
Aside from the previous interventions, such as after-school tutoring and supporting
students in the class (whole class instruction, small group, one-on-one), third-grade participants
shared that they now implement SIPPS and System 44 in their classrooms during ELA and
workshop time to allow students additional practice in ELA. Ian frequently depends on the aides
who come to the class to support the RSP and a few students with SST goals. The aide works
with the students in small groups, supporting them in ELA and math. Bill firmly believes in
working with his students; therefore, he also provides after-school interventions three times per
week.
In contrast, some participants shared that there are no teacher-led interventions for
students in Math; however, they can use the iReady math app, which provides students of all
ages with differentiated instruction and supports them on their paths to success. One of the most
common interventions all teachers employ for math is Dreambox, which is incorporated with
fidelity. This app adapts to students’ academic levels and learning needs, ensuring they are
appropriately challenged while obtaining basic math skills. In addition, this process helps
students perform at their math level without the teacher modifying work for all students. Thus,
this program is self-regulated by the students and modified to meet the needs of individual
students.
When asked what happens when interventions in class are ineffective, all participants
shared that after implementing various interventions and if the student shows no progress or
prolonged growth, they reach out to the school’s administrators. Tan stated, “We request[ed] a
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student study team (SST) meeting to discuss student progress and create a plan to offer support
that is beyond what a teacher can offer in the classroom.” The purpose of this meeting is to
provide additional support to the students while letting the team implement more intensive
support to accomplish the goals targeted for students’ individual needs.
Process for Additional Intervention Support/Referral for SDC
The school had a pre-COVID-19 referral process that they continue to use to support
students. For example, after multiple SST meetings have been conducted and a student continues
to show little or no progress, Megan shared that the team then refers them to Alex for an
assessment. According to Alex, “anyone can refer a student for testing, but to follow up with the
assessment, there has to be a suspected area of eligibility.” Therefore, to identify a learning
disability assessment, staff must present students’ attendance data showing they attended school
regularly, were provided with general education interventions, and were referred for an SST
before an assessment.
Participants discussed that although the school continued to use the pre-COVID-19
intervention processes, the number of students referred for additional support has increased.
Megan shared the crucial factor in this process, her pre-pandemic student caseload was typically
no higher than 28 students, but more recently is 65. Unfortunately, the impact of COVID-19 has
caused staff shortages, contributing to students' lack of support similar to that received prior to
COVID-19.
Findings
Unfortunately, the school continues to use the same intervention programs on campus as
pre-COVID-19. The district is trying to provide the staff with professional development for these
interventions so that teachers can provide the support in their classrooms. According to the
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participants, fully implementing these interventions with fidelity will take years before all
teachers can utilize this program in their classrooms. In the meanwhile, the participants are in
hopes that the school may hire additional support staff to meet the needs of the students.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact of COVID-19 on student
academics and analyze interventions utilized pre- and post-COVID-19 to support their needs. In
addition, the aim was to answer the following questions:
1. What interventions were teachers utilizing prior to COVID-19 in their classrooms for
students who needed additional support, and what interventions are in place post-
COVID-19 to support the needs of the students at ABC Elementary School (a
pseudonym used to hide the identity of the school)?
2. What disparities, if any, did the students have during virtual learning?
3. What is the process utilized at ABC Elementary today to serve the needs of students
who need additional intervention support?
Findings
Summary of Findings
Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the staff at ABC Elementary were using SIPPS, Read
180, System 44, and PBIS to support the needs of the students. However, with these
interventions in place, teachers were not utilizing them with fidelity. Ana shared that teachers
were not professionally trained while these programs were available. Rebecca also shared that
they had no opportunity to attend professional development to learn how to implement these
intervention programs in class; therefore, they could not fully implement them. However, she
employed the components of the intervention in small groups when possible. When students
showed no growth in learning, the teachers referred those students to SST, and team members
could obtain RSP support based on student learning goals set during the meeting.
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During the pandemic, the teachers attempted various interventions in their classrooms;
however, due to the increased workload and the time needed to learn online teaching
components, teachers found it challenging to implement interventions for students needing
support. Ana invited students to attend interventions after school, but students typically did not
show up. Thus, she stopped using teaching interventions altogether and taught students
asynchronously and synchronously as needed. Allison also shared the difficulties in motivating
students to log on and attend school. When students did engage, there were distractions: loud
TV, babies crying, parents talking, and student cameras off. Due to disparities during school
closure, teachers were unsuccessful in implementing interventions.
Currently, the school continues using the same interventions as before the pandemic.
However, according to Rebecca, the district now has a specialized intervention teacher who
works with students performing below grade level in reading. In addition, the district offers
professional development for the staff targeted to implement SIPPS, Read 180, and System 44 to
apply these interventions in their classrooms. The school has also adopted a new math program,
iReady math, to help close student gaps in math.
Barrier 1: Professional Development for Intervention Programs
Because the school continues to provide the same intervention programs as before the
pandemic, all staff must gain exposure to these interventions. Notably, the programs the school
made available before the pandemic were not implemented with fidelity. Many staff members
were never trained to use SIPPS, System 44, and Read 180. Instead, they sought support from the
RSP teacher to provide intervention support for the students who have been academically behind.
However, post-COVID-19, the referrals to additional support have increased, yet there
are not enough staff members to support the needs of the students. Megan shared, “The school
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needs to focus on providing professional development to all staff members so they can start
implementing the support in their classrooms.” Varghese et al. (2021) described the critical need
for teachers to supplement instructions and classwork for students who are considered at-risk or
those that need additional support. Through professional development, teachers have more
intervention exposure and enhance the outcomes of students’ requisite skills.
ABC Elementary is grappling with creating a system to provide supplemental instruction
(Tier II and III intervention) for students struggling to meet academic expectations. Since the
school continues to utilize pre-COVID-19 intervention programs, the staff must fully utilize the
interventions in their classrooms. Ana shared in the interview that while the programs for the
interventions have been available, the programs have strictly been utilized based on teacher
discretion.
Barrier 2: Family-Related Disparities
Some teachers are providing after-school interventions to their students who need
additional support that is entirely voluntary, and parents can sign up if they agree to send their
students for extra support. While some students can attend the tutoring sessions after school,
parents working with no access to transportation cannot sign their students up for support. Jenna
indicated that these students commute to school on the bus, and the school does not offer
additional transportation after school if they remain for teacher tutoring. Thus, once again, even
with the support on campus, the students do not have access to intervention.
However, many parents work, so when students go home, they do not have a structure
and do other activities rather than homework. When teachers contact the parents regarding
incomplete work or assignments, Rebecca shared that she often heard parents state their child
had no homework. When students are referred for SST, the parents are also held accountable for
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doing certain activities with the students at home. However, the parents often continue the usual
routine of little or no support for their students at home, even with a plan.
Barrier 3: Lack of Staff Support
According to the participants, students in their classes faced an unprecedented
interruption of schooling during the COVID-19 school closure. Interviews further support the
argument that there were barriers to online learning which led to increasing academic gaps.
Although the school employs one intervention teacher to support the students, the number of
students who need the support is growing; thus, providing support to all who need it is infeasible.
The school site should focus on budgeting for support staff. The participants described
having one support staff member on campus but firmly expressed a need for another full-time
support person to support the neediest students. Rebecca added, “With the additional support
staff in place, the teachers were able to refer other students who are also in need of support.”
Thus, she suggested that the school should hire additional support staff.
Barrier 4: Implement Current Intervention With Fidelity
Participants in this study had one common and consistent response: ABC Elementary has
interventions in place. According to Megan, these intervention programs are only if the entire
team works together and implements it with fidelity, and expose the program to everyone as a
Tier I support. According to Suzie, the school is working alongside the district officials to expose
all staff members to professional development for these interventions based on grade levels (K to
third, fourth, and sixth

grades). Those staff members who know how to use the programs need to
begin implementing them, if they have not, using small groups in their classrooms–before
requesting additional support through SST. For example, Ana knows how to use the program but
cannot work with students in small groups using these programs because some students are very
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far behind academically than others. She provides Tier I and II support but cannot work with
students who are two or more grade levels behind. For her, the best outcome is to refer students
to an SST for additional support outside the classroom.
These intervention programs currently in place are evidence-based. According to HMH
(n.d.), Read 180, SIPPS, and System 44 are designed to benefit struggling students and allow
teachers to do what they do best: teach with confidence and purpose (Hmhco.com). If all
students have access to these interventions, then the students may be more successful
academically, shared Ian. In addition, these programs can support the needs of the academically
behind students due to the COVID-19 school closure.
Limitations
This study was conducted in one school site, and the findings may not generalize to other
schools. However, this research aimed not to generalize but to deeply understand the
interventions and supports offered in a single school site. Another limitation of this research was
the small sample size and insufficient staff member participation, especially from the sixth-grade
team. Because only one of the sixth-grade team agreed to an interview, the results for that grade
have less support. However, the high degree of consistency of responses across all respondents
suggests that an additional sixth-grade teacher would not have provided substantially different
information. Lastly, this study consisted of voluntary participation, and the possibility exists that
participants were atypical compared to the larger target population.
Implications for Practice
Recommendation 1: Reevaluate the Current Intervention Program and Research Best
Practice Intervention Programs
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Although more students are receiving referrals for additional intervention support, the
school should reevaluate its current intervention program and focus on implementing the
interventions in the classrooms as Tier I and II supports. In addition, students in this school will
likely require more comprehensive interventions of greater intensity to accelerate their academic
progress to read at grade level and become prepared for middle and high school.
The school should collaborate with the curriculum committee and reevaluate its
intervention programs. Further research might be needed to determine if newer intervention
programs exist to serve their students better and reach out to nearby districts to learn what works
for them. If the school has sufficient funding, administrators could also reach out to programs
such as Achieve 3000, an online program containing an instruction-based assessment system
tailored to students' reading levels. They can also research the i-Ready Reading program. This
program is designed to provide personalized lessons based on students’ performance on the i-
Ready diagnostic assessment. The program also includes tools for instruction, which are lesson
plans provided to teachers and meant to address specific student learning gaps.
Recommendation 2: Hiring Additional Support Staff to Provide Support for Students who
Are Academically Behind
Although more students obtain referrals for interventions outside of the classroom, school
faculty and staff should work as a team to analyze student assessment data and focus on hiring
additional staff to meet the needs they find. As Rebecca mentioned in her interview, the lack of
staff prevents her from referring students for additional support from the intervention teacher
because that teacher only works with students who are significantly behind academically.
Through the support from another staff, the students have received additional intervention
services that the teachers cannot provide students in class. According to Allison, the school has
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funding to hire another staff, and the job for this position has been posted on the web for days;
however, they cannot find a candidate.
Recommendation 3: Parent/Teacher Communication to Close The Achievement Gap
The school must focus on a plan to benefit the students and parents. A consistent
communication plan should exist for teachers and parents. This plan should include connecting
with the parents regularly–weekly, biweekly, monthly–via emails, phone calls, progress reports,
and weekly letters to parents. Through communication and reports to students’ homes from the
teacher, the parents can become aware of their students’ progress and areas of concern. Using
these communications, teachers can share strategies that parents can use at home in parallel with
those teachers use in their classrooms. Furthermore, this communication process gives parents
knowledge of when and how to request additional support (e.g., SST) if the student continues to
show little progress.
Future Research
The purpose of this study was to understand the intervention support students were
receiving pre/post-COVID-19 for the students who were struggling academically. Further
research could lead to a deeper understanding of the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on
students’ academic progress, including focusing on interventions and programs used in schools.
Another suggestion is to study a larger population or focus on a specific population of students at
a school site. Finally, although this research focused on a mixed group of individuals, additional
insight could be gained if future research focuses on specific groups of students, educators, or
administrators.
83

Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to understand the intervention support students have been
receiving at ABC Elementary school pre- and post-COVID-19. For decades, researchers have
argued the importance of providing additional intervention support, especially for academically
behind students. During the COVID-19 school closure, the staff and students encountered many
challenges, which caused many students not to receive the additional support students needed.
During COVID-19 school closure, the staff and students encountered many challenges which
caused many students not to receive the additional support causing students to fall further behind
academically. The problem at this school site is that regardless of the school’s interventions, they
have implemented the same programs for years. They have not offered any other additional
intervention programs to support the students, however, it is imperative that every staff member
on campus must receive professional development to utilize the intervention in their classrooms
with fidelity. Finally, the parents must come on board to provide support at home, while the
school should hire additional support staff to support the students that are academically behind
two or more grade levels.

84

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94

Appendix A: Teacher/ RSP/ School Psychologist Interviews

Table A1
Qualitative Interview Questions: Second Through Sixth Grade Teachers
Topics/questions Conceptual framework
Participant background information
1. How long have you been teaching?
What grade levels have you taught?
What kind of schools have you taught at
(private, Charter, public, etc.)?
2. What do you enjoy the most about your
career?

General background information/ getting to
know the participant and create a
welcoming environment.
Virtual teaching experience during COVID-
19 pandemic school closures
3. How was your experience teaching
virtually?
What was your experience
implementing COVID-19
“emergency” online instructional
model?
What, if any, disparities such as student
performance, access to materials and
technology did you observe during
virtual learning?
What resources were provided to
students to accommodate virtual
learning?
How were parents involved in
supporting students at home (Virtual
meetings with teacher to clarify
concerns, helping students at home to
complete assignments, phone
conferences with the teacher)?

Virtual learning and disparities
Post COVID-19: School year 2021–2022
4. What does teaching and learning look
like in your classrooms since schools
have reopened this fall in the face of the
pandemic?
5. What effect has COVID-19 had on the
academic achievement of students in
XYZ Elementary School?

Post COVID-19/in-class learning
95

Topics/questions Conceptual framework
6. What are some challenges that
principals and teachers are facing this
school year?
7. How are principals and teachers as a
team addressing these challenges?
Academic intervention support for students
8. What are the short and long-term effects
of the COVID-19 pandemic on the
academic trajectories of students?
9. What are your plans for addressing the
negative effects of COVID on student
learning?
10. How are interventions being
personalized to meet the individual
needs of the students?

Post COVID-19 interventions
Best teaching practices/ referral for further
interventions
11. Can you share what interventions
(programs) were in place prior to
COVID-19 at XYZ school?
12. What interventions (if any) are there in
place for students right now?
13. What strategies do you utilize in your
classroom to support the needs of the
students?
14. What is the referral process for further
interventions if the interventions in-
class are not effective?
Referrals for additional intervention support
Closing
15. Is there any other information you
would like to share that I may benefit
from which I may not have asked
during this interview?

I want to thank you all for volunteering your
time and willing to participate in my study.

Any further information the participant is
interested to share regarding their
experiences pre- and post- COVID-19.

96

Table A2
Qualitative Interview Questions: Resource Teacher
Topics/questions Conceptual framework
Participant background information
1. How long have you been a resource
teacher?
What grade levels of students have you
worked with (Elementary, Middle, High
School)?
What kind of schools have you taught at
(private, Charter, Public, etc.)?
2. What do you enjoy the most about your
career?

General background information/ getting to
know the participant and create a
welcoming environment.
Virtual resource challenges and support for
students during COVID-19 pandemic
school closures
3. What was your experience like when
supporting students virtually?
What was your experience with
implementing COVID-19
“emergency” online support for
students?
What challenges did you face working
remotely?
What, if any, disparities, such as access
to materials and technology did you
observe during virtual support?
What resources were provided to
students to accommodate virtual
learning?
How were parents involved in
supporting students at home (Virtual
meetings with teacher to clarify
concerns, helping students at home to
complete assignments, phone
conferences with the teacher)?
How resources or materials were you
utilizing to meet the goals for
individual students?

Virtual learning and disparities
Post COVID-19: School year 202–022
4. Has the number of students referred for
resources support increased since
COVID-19 school closures?

Post COVID-19/In-class learning
97

Topics/questions Conceptual framework
5. What does providing additional support
in your classroom look like since
schools have reopened for in-person
instruction?
6. What, if any, challenges are you facing
at your work environment this school
year as a resource teacher (lack of
resources, not enough support from
team members, not enough staff
members to support the students, too
many students, etc.)?
7. How are the principals and the teachers
addressing these challenges at ABC
elementary school?
Academic intervention support for students
8. What support are you providing to the
students now that is different from what
you were doing before pandemic?
9. How are interventions personalized to
meet the individual needs of the
students?

Post COVID-19 interventions
Intervention support and referral for
additional testing
10. What is the referral process for students
to receive additional support outside of
their classrooms?
11. Can you share what interventions
(programs) were in place prior to
COVID-19 at ABC elementary school?
12. What interventions programs are there
in place for students this school year?
13. What strategies do you utilize to
identify the needs of the individual
students?
When do you refer students to the
school psychologist for additional
testings for change of classroom
placement (e.g., SDC classes), or
create an IEP?

Referrals for additional intervention support

Closing
14. Is there any other information you
would like to share that I may not have
asked regarding intervention support for
the students?

Any further information the participant is
interested to share regarding their
experiences pre- and post- COVID-19.

98

Table A3
Qualitative Interview Questions: School Psychologist
Topic/question Conceptual framework
Participant Background Information
1. How long have you been a school
psychologist?
2. In your career?

General background information/ getting to
know the participant and create a
welcoming environment.
Virtual resource challenges and testing
students during covid-19 pandemic school
closures
3. How was your experience conducting
assessments and meetings during
COVID-19 school closure?
What were your greatest challenges
working remotely?
What accommodations did you have in
place for the students who needed to
be tested for additional services?
How were parents involved in
supporting you (Virtual meetings
with teacher to clarify concerns,
helping students at home to complete
assignments, phone conferences with
the teacher)?

Virtual learning and disparities
Post COVID-19: School Year 202–022
4. Has the number of students referred for
assessments increased this school year?
If yes, by what percentage compared
to ?
5. What, if any, challenges are you at your
work environment facing this school
year (lack of resources, not enough time
to accomplish tasks, not enough staff
members to support the students, too
many students' referrals, etc.)?
6. How are the principals and the teachers
addressing the needs of the students
before referring them to you?

Post covid support
Intervention support and referral for
additional testing
7. What is the referral process for students
to get tested for any academic support?
8. When are you referred for additional
testing's or when a staff member feels

Referrals for additional intervention support

99

Topic/question Conceptual framework
that there needs to be a change in
classroom placement for a student (e.g.,
SDC classes, or create an IEP)?
9. Can you share what interventions
(programs) were in place prior to
COVID-19 at XYZ school?
10. What interventions programs are there
in place for students this school year?
11. What program or testing do you utilize
or conduct to identify the needs of the
individual students?
Closing
12. Is there any other information you
would like to share that I may not
have asked regarding assessment
protocols and procedures?

Any additional information the participant
may be interested in sharing regarding their
experiences pre- and post- COVID-19.

100

Appendix B: Letter to Teachers Requesting Additional Data/ Information

101

Appendix C: SST Referral Form Requesting SST Meeting
This appendix contains a form developed for alerting SST groups for the need for
referrals.
SST Referral Form

102

103

104

105

Appendix D: SST Notes and Action Plan
This appendix contains the form used by teams to conduct meetings and develop plans.

SST Meeting Notes/ Action Plan

Lodi Unified School District
Manlio Silva Elementary Student Success Team (SST) Meeting
Student Name

DOB:

Grade:

Today’s date

Individuals present at the meeting:
Administrator: Parent:
Teacher: Psychologist:
Speech Pathologist: Read 180: RSP:

Student Strengths/interests
Teacher Parent

Student Background Information
Briefly describe and provide background information; health & family history
Pregnancy:
Weight:
Walking:
Talking:
Medical concerns:
Medications:
Siblings:
Any other information:

106

Parent and Teacher Concerns

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Teachers often use interventions in their classrooms to support the needs of their students who fall behind academically. The goal of implementing interventions in the classroom or a school campus is to help students grow and perform at grade-level standards over time. To fully implement a successful intervention program, all members of teacher-staff teams must work together to help students meet their goals. During the COVID-19 school closures, many teachers could not provide student interventions, leading to a significant academic gap when students returned in 202–021. Because many more students have struggled post-pandemic, understanding the interventions used pre- and post-pandemic is critical. The questions for this study were: What interventions were in place before COVID-19 for students who needed additional support, and what interventions are in place now to support the needs of the students at ABC Elementary School? What interventions were teachers utilizing prior to COVID-19 in their classrooms for students who needed additional support, and what interventions are in place post-COVID-19 to support the needs of the students? What disparities were there during Covid-19, and what interventions are in place today to meet the needs of all these students that need additional support?

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Raheja, Preeti Shiro (author)

Core Title The impact of COVID-19 and how teachers can intervene to improve student learning

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 05/16/2023

Defense Date 04/05/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag COVID-19 pandemic,individualized education program (IEP),intervention,OAI-PMH Harvest,resource teacher,school psychologist,social emotional learning,student study team (SST),unfinished learning,virtual online learning.

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Polikoff, Morgan (committee chair)

Creator Email praheja@usc.edu,prety4u@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113127161

Unique identifier UC113127161

Identifier etd-RahejaPree-11856.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-RahejaPree-11856

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Raheja, Preeti Shiro

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230516-usctheses-batch-1045 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu