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Beyond ESL: exploring noncredit ESL student pathways to certificate programs

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Beyond ESL: Exploring Noncredit ESL Student Pathways to Certificate Programs

Caroline DePiro

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Caroline DePiro 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Caroline DePiro certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Darline Robles
Kathy Stowe
Eric Canny, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023
iv
Abstract
This study explores the reasons for the low completion rates of noncredit English as a Second
Language (ESL) students in certificate earning courses and identifies changes needed to increase
participation and completion. The qualitative study was conducted at a mid-sized community
college with a large noncredit program, and seven advanced English Language Learners (ELLs)
were interviewed. The study’s findings revealed a need for tailored services for highly educated
ELLs, programs leading to gainful employment opportunities, and graduate school admission
support. Burke and Litwin’s (1992) causal model of organizational performance and change,
combined with William Perry’s (1970) theory of intellectual and ethical development, were used
to analyze the findings in relation to the organization’s mission and vision. The study found a
disconnect between the mission of the organization and the unique needs of the student
population. The recommended changes include a shift in mission prioritization, a full-scale
onboarding program, and tailored services for highly educated ELLs to support them in finding
gainful employment opportunities. Further research is suggested in this area.

v
Dedication
To my husband Wayne and my two daughters, Nala, and Sadie. Without your tireless support,
encouragement, and willingness to cover for me in countless ways when I had to study, I could
never have done this.

vi
Acknowledgments
I need to thank my dissertation chair Dr. Eric Canny. I couldn’t have been assigned a
better advisor. I never felt judged, pressured, or stressed about the dissertation process because of
Dr. Canny’s kind and respectful attitude that always left me feeling like a peer, rather than a
student. Dr. Canny empowered me to believe in my research capabilities and my ability to tell a
story that needed to be told. I also would like to thank my co-chairs, Dr. Darline Robles and Dr.
Kathy Stowe who brought me to tears (in a good way) as they so readily shared my passion for
supporting immigrant students. I felt humbled by the attention they gave to my work and tried
my best to absorb their feedback. I also need to thank the many phenomenal teachers in the EDL
program who inspired me to develop my skills and understanding of human rights education,
especially Dr. Joelle Greene, and Dr. David Cash. I must also thank my fellow student Roberta
Krauss who was willing to work beside me as we wrote our dissertations in tandem, both
studying similar topics and pushing each other to get our work done. Thank you, Roberta for
countless hours of Zoom study sessions and a never-ending stream of text messages urging me to
get back to the computer and work. I would also especially like to thank my cohort who also
pushed me along, many with countless hours spent studying together. I learned so much from all
of you and I made friends I will treasure for years to come. Finally, my mentor in life, Daisaku
Ikeda must be acknowledged for providing the impetus for me to challenge myself to overcome
all obstacles to achieve my dream.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .......................................................................................... 7
ESL Programs ..................................................................................................................... 8
Vocational Education for ELLs ........................................................................................ 12
Community College and ELLs ......................................................................................... 14
ESL Programs ................................................................................................................... 17
Vocational Education for ELLs ........................................................................................ 19
Community College and ELLs ......................................................................................... 22
Brain Waste of Highly Skilled ELLs ................................................................................ 25
Upskilling for Employment That Is Coming: The Fourth Industrial Revolution ............. 31
The Future of Community Colleges ................................................................................. 35
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 44
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 52
Need for Jobs .................................................................................................................... 57
Jobs Utilizing Prior Education and Skills ......................................................................... 59
Perceptions Surrounding ESL and Vocational Needs at ECC .......................................... 61
Supporting ELLs to Enter Certificate Programs ............................................................... 64
Support Needed for Entering Graduate School ................................................................ 66
viii
Avoid Starting Over From the Bottom-Up ....................................................................... 68
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations......................................................................... 71
Need for Jobs .................................................................................................................... 72
Jobs Utilizing Prior Education and Skills ......................................................................... 73
Perceptions Surrounding ESL and Vocational Needs at ECC .......................................... 75
Supporting ELLs to Enter Certificate Programs ............................................................... 76
Support Needed for Entering Graduate School ................................................................ 78
Avoid Starting Over From the Bottom-Up ....................................................................... 80
Recommendation 1: Establish a Comprehensive Onboarding Process for All
Levels of ELL Students at ECC ........................................................................................ 84
Recommendation 2: Enhance Vocational Training for ELLs at ECC Through a
Content-Based ESL Approach .......................................................................................... 89
Recommendation 3: Establish a Center Like the Welcome Back Initiative at ECC
With Tailored Services for Highly Educated ELLs .......................................................... 91
Recommendation 4: Graduate School Support ................................................................. 94
Recommendation 5: Create a Culture to Better Support ELLs by Updating ECC’s
Noncredit ESL Program Mission and Vision to Emphasize Employability ..................... 96
References ................................................................................................................................... 102
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 117

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Study Findings and Recommendations 83

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 40

xi
List of Abbreviations
ECC Eastland community college (pseudonym)
ELLs English language learners
ESL English as a second language
TOEFL Test of English as a foreign language
USC University of southern California
USC CAC University of southern California college advisory corps
CCCCO California community college chancellor’s office
SCFF Student-centered funding formula
WBI Welcome back initiative

1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Community colleges have multiple purposes and provide different opportunities for
diverse groups of students, as not all students enroll in community college as young adults with
the same set of needs (Rosenbaum & Rosenbaum, 2013). Nontraditional students, especially
those who are career-age adults and seeking financial stability, have unique needs that are often
understudied or not well understood (Novotny & Smith, 2019). Within this group of
nontraditional students, immigrant students, including English Language Learners (ELLs) in
noncredit programs, are frequently understudied (Summers & Zhao, 2018). Despite many having
advanced education and years of career experience from their countries of origin, immigrant
students often face challenges in accessing support for entering graduate school programs or
certificate programs that would lead to suitable job opportunities in their area of expertise (Beam
et al., 2019). This is primarily due to the fact that noncredit English as a Second Language (ESL)
programs primarily focus on language instruction (Beam et al., 2019). Additionally, community
colleges often focus on transferring students to 4-year institutions (Calcagno & Long, 2008;
Jenkins & Cho, 2012; Shulock & Moore, 2013), which may not necessarily align with the needs
and goals of immigrant students.
According to data from the Migration Policy Institute, there were approximately 44.9
million immigrants in the United States in 2018, making up 13.7% of the total population
(Migration Policy Institute, 2020). Within this population, English proficiency is a major factor
in determining success and stability in the United States, as studies have shown that immigrants
who speak English well are more likely to be employed and earn higher wages than those who
do not (Jensen, 2019). However, according to Baran et al. (2018), Baranik et al. (2018), Barkan
(2010), and Higgins and Misawa (2021), while learning English is essential for immigrant ELLs,
2

finding gainful employment is equally crucial, as many immigrants in the United States live in
poverty within 10 years after resettlement.
Importance of the Study
It is important to explore why so few ELLs in noncredit ESL programs complete
certificate earning courses. Additionally, it is imperative to identify what changes may be needed
to increase participation and completion, considering the positive impact that certificates have on
earnings and employability (Xu & Trimble, 2016). Studies by Baran et al. (2018), Baranik et al.
(2018), and Barkan (2010) have shown that access to employment that allows for financial
stability is the most critical need among immigrant ELLs, and that while learning English is
essential it is only one step towards achieving this goal. Given that the majority of immigrants in
the United States live in poverty within the first decade of resettlement, achieving financial
stability is of paramount importance (Higgins & Misawa, 2021).
Noncredit ESL programs represent a significant portion of the noncredit student
population in California community colleges, with more than 58% of noncredit students being
ESL students with an average age of 35 years (Beam et al., 2019). While literature emphasizes
the importance of preparing ELLs in noncredit ESL programs to transfer to credit-earning
courses (Beam et al., 2019), the research on student needs (Baran et al., 2018; Baranik et al.,
2018; Barkan, 2010) raises questions about who benefits from the transfer system and who does
not. If the primary need of ELLs in noncredit ESL programs is financial stability (Baran et al.,
2018; Baranik et al., 2018; Barkan, 2010), addressing this need should take precedence. The
current research aimed to explore the interplay between institutional goals and evolving student
needs, which is a critical aspect of this theme.
3

Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to contribute to the research regarding the needs of ELLs
in noncredit ESL programs by exploring the reasons why there are not more ELLs in noncredit
ESL programs completing certificate earning courses at Eastland Community College (ECC) as
well as what changes may be needed at ECC to increase participation and completion.
The research questions that guided the study were as follows:
1. What are the needs of ECC’s ELLs in noncredit ESL programs versus their
perception of ECC’s services offered?
2. What are the transformational and transactional components needed to increase the
number of ELLs from the noncredit ESL program participating in ECC’s certificate
earning courses?
Organizational Research Setting
To protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants, a pseudonym was used in this
study, which examines ECC’s noncredit ESL program as a representative example of
comparable programs in the United States. The use of pseudonyms is a widely accepted and
standard practice in academic research to ensure ethical principles are upheld and the identity of
participants is protected (American Psychological Association, 2020). This section provides
background information on the problem. ECC is a sizable institution with approximately 20,000
credit students and a variable number of noncredit students ranging from 3,000 to 5,000 students
depending on the year. ECC has a faculty and staff of around 1,200 and a budget of
approximately $115 million. The typical noncredit student at ECC is 35 years old, with about
80% not specifying their immigration status and around 50% having dependent children. ECC
offers a free noncredit ESL program to the public, allowing students to enroll or leave at any
4

time during the semester. Registration for the program does not require immigration
documentation or identification. Upon taking a placement test, students enter the noncredit ESL
program at various levels of English proficiency and are placed in courses that range from
beginner literacy to advanced college-level ESL. According to the program’s website, its primary
objective is to assist ELLs in achieving language proficiency to transfer to credit-earning courses
at ECC.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
According to Lochmiller and Lester (2017), the establishment of a conceptual framework
is of utmost importance in connecting theory, literature, and practical knowledge to address
research problems. This study was designed to address the deficiency of ECC’s noncredit
program in supporting students to connect with gainful employment that is aligned with their
unique areas of expertise through means such as certificate programs or graduate school
admission support. To accomplish this goal, the study incorporated the key components of Burke
and Litwin’s (1992) causal model of organizational performance and change and William Perry’s
theory of intellectual and ethical development (1970).
By utilizing these models, the study provided insights into how noncredit programs can
better assist students in meeting their vocational needs. Specifically, the study sought to examine
the ways in which noncredit programs can better support students in connecting with lucrative
employment opportunities that align with their unique skill sets.
By adopting a systematic approach that considered the transactional components of
student needs in relation to the organizational structure, the study aimed to identify the most
promising areas for transformation. Additionally, the study also considered the transformational
layers of mission and outcomes and explored how they can work together to lead towards the end
5

goal of transformation. In doing so, the study worked to provide recommendations that will
result in resource pathways and nuanced services for students in noncredit programs.
Finally, the study employed a qualitative research methodology that sought to interpret
and understand the experiences of participants through a humanistic lens (Lochmiller & Lester,
2017). The research conducted interviews with seven students to gather information that would
support the study’s purpose of contributing to research on the needs of ELLs in noncredit ESL
programs. The interviews aimed to explore the reasons why there are not more ELLs in noncredit
ESL programs completing certificate-earning courses at ECC, as well as what changes may be
needed at ECC to increase participation and completion.
Definition of Terms
The following definitions are intended to make this research study more understandable.
The operational definitions of key terms are listed in alphabetical order:
 Brain waste refers to the underutilization of highly skilled immigrants’ expertise and
qualifications due to challenges in accessing job opportunities that match their
qualifications (Preston, 2010).
 Financial stability is the ability to maintain a steady income, predominantly by means
of gainful employment that covers the cost of living.
 Gainful employment is steady employment that covers the cost of living.
 Refugee is a person who was required to leave their nation to escape conflict,
persecution, or calamity (Oxford Languages, 2022).
Organization of the Study
The dissertation is divided into five chapters, each with a specific purpose. Chapter One
provides an overview of the study, including the context, research questions, the significance of
6

the study, the theoretical framework, and a definition of terms. Chapter Two reviews the
literature on the history of ESL programs, vocational and community college education for
ELLs, the issue of the brain waste of highly skilled immigrant ELLs, and possibilities for the
future. It also explores conceptual frameworks based on Burke and Litwin’s (1992) causal model
of organizational performance and change and William Perry’s (1970) theory of intellectual and
ethical development. Chapter Three explains the qualitative research methodology used in the
study, including the sample selection process and data collection procedures. Chapter Four
summarizes the findings obtained from the interviews conducted with noncredit ELLs enrolled in
advanced Level 4 ESL courses. Finally, Chapter Five discusses the study’s findings in detail and
offers recommendations based on the research. The chapter concludes with the study’s
implications for practice and suggestions for future research.

7

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This chapter explores the relevant literature to contribute to research on the needs of
noncredit English Language Learners (ELLs) in the English as a Second Language (ESL)
program at Eastland Community College (ECC). The chapter also incorporates the conceptual
frameworks of organizational change theory (Burke & Litwin, 1992) and the theory of
intellectual and ethical development (Perry, 1970).
In the first section of this chapter, I dive into the literature on the history of ESL
education in the United States, specifically from 1880 to 1999, in relation to workforce education
and community colleges. The second section reviews the changes that have occurred in ESL
programs, vocational education, and certificate programs in community colleges as they have
evolved in the 21st century. The third section explores possibilities for change in ELL education,
including a focus on the unique challenges that ELLs face, such as “brain waste” among highly
skilled immigrants who are unable to work in their area of expertise in the United States. This
section also examines literature on vocational programs that may benefit ELLs in the future,
using an International Medical Graduate (IMG) program in Los Angeles as a successful example
of a workforce readiness program that helps ELLs retool and work in their field, combatting
brain waste among others. After that, I explore the academic needs versus job preparation and
workforce needs of ELLs in noncredit community college programs, as the world shifts towards
the fourth industrial revolution. Lastly, I address the role community colleges could play in
upskilling for projected employment trends.
The second section of this chapter concentrates on ECC’s noncredit ESL program and
how it can be transformed to meet the needs of immigrant ELLs and help them become
employable. The section utilizes Burke and Litwin’s (1992) model of organizational performance
8

and change, as well as William Perry’s (1970) theory of intellectual and ethical development, to
understand the current state of the organization and the necessary steps to achieve
transformation. The focus is on comprehending ECC’s organizational structure and how it aligns
with the needs of ELLs, particularly the transactional and transformational layers.
The conceptual framework section suggests that ECC go beyond its current language-
focused programs to offer comprehensive assistance, including support for financial stability.
Additionally, the organization should consider external factors that impact organizational
performance, such as government policies and funding. Lastly, the conceptual framework section
recommends that ECC move from Perry’s theory’s first category, dualism, to the second
category, multiplicity, to drive change.
Education for ELLs in the United States 1880–1999
The following section reviews the programs that historically existed for adult ELLs in the
United States between 1880 and 1999 including the history of English as a Second Language
(ESL) programs, vocational education programs, and the role community colleges historically
played in these programs during this time.
ESL Programs
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the United States experienced a significant
influx of immigrants. From 1880–1924, over 25 million immigrants entered the country and
joined the workforce (Barrett, 1992; Rumbaut & Portes, 2001). The average age of immigrants
during this period was 38 years old, indicating a mid-life demographic (Age Distribution of
Immigrants to United States: 1870–Present, 2015).
To succeed in America, immigrants needed to learn English. Consequently, ESL
education programs were established for adult immigrants. However, during this time, these
9

programs tended to have a nationalistic civics-focused approach (Eyring, 2014). Private entities
and individual companies also sought to “Americanize” their immigrant workforce by teaching
English and instilling what they believed were American values (Barrett, 1992; Crawford, 2004).
For instance, the Ford Motor Company was known for suppressing the foreign identities of its
workers and transforming them into a singular nationality: “American” (Barrett, 1992). To
demonstrate this, the company held a ceremony where graduates of its English language program
entered a large pot, shed their old identity and culture, and emerged as “American” (Barrett,
1992).
In the late 19th century, efforts to “Americanize” immigrants through English as a
Second Language (ESL) education aimed to suppress foreign languages and cultural influences.
However, educated European and Asian immigrants managed to maintain their native languages
while also learning English (Terrell et al., 2018). Some communities even established schools
where students were taught in their families’ native European languages (Terrell et al., 2018).
Not all non-English speaking groups, however, had the same opportunities to maintain
their language and cultural identity. Native Americans suffered under an oppressive system that
demanded assimilation into a White western cultural identity, including the learning of English,
with the threat of annihilation for noncompliance (Ahern, 1976; Crawford, 2004). The
expectation that immigrants learn English and assimilate into American culture was not
universal, and different groups faced distinct challenges in this process.
From the early 1900s until at least the middle of the 20th century, ESL programs
exhibited a prejudiced mentality intended at suppressing various non-White and non-English
speaking languages and cultures. This can be seen in the nearly 150 Native American boarding
schools that were intended to force assimilation (Little, 2017). The federal government’s
10

assimilation efforts in these schools prohibited Native American children from speaking their
own language or using their own names (Little, 2017). Instead, they were given White names and
forced to abandon their way of life because it was considered inferior to White culture (Little,
2017). Such forced assimilation had a detrimental impact on many children (Lajimodiere, 2014).
By 1931, boarding schools housed 29% of all Native American children in the United States, and
the conditions were so terrible that one in 25 students died while studying there (Little, 2017;
Lajimodiere, 2014).
In the mid-twentieth century, ESL programs for immigrants shifted, moving away from
being predominantly run through the K–12 public school system (California Community
Colleges & Walker, 2016; National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition, 2008).
Community colleges began creating noncredit programs for adult education, while other districts
chose to keep adult education part of the K–12 system (California Community Colleges &
Walker, 2016).
ESL education programs also shifted their focus from a nationalistic civics approach to
include family literacy classes, workplace education instruction, and basic leveled ESL courses
(Eyring, 2014; National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition, 2008). However,
providing equitable educational opportunities for immigrant English learners remained a
challenge due to anti-immigrant sentiment (Crawford, 2004; Terrell et al., 2018). Although
American nationalistic attitudes had somewhat decreased, they still persisted beyond the 1950s
(Crawford, 2004; Terrell et al., 2018). Furthermore, there was still an ethnocentric view that
White American English was the correct way of speaking and knowing instead of one of many
ways of speaking and knowing (Terrell et al., 2018).
11

According to the Migration Policy Institute, the number of immigrants in the United
States increased rapidly in the late twentieth century, with the foreign-born population growing
from about 10.4 million in 1950 to 25 million in 1999. This represents an increase of
approximately 140% over that time period (Migration Policy Institute, 2020). This increase in
immigration contributed to the need for effective and holistic ESL programs and language
acquisition policies and programs that could accommodate and support immigrant English
learners (Eaton, 2000; Terrell et al., 2018). However, as noted, providing equitable educational
opportunities for these learners remained challenging due to various cultural and social factors,
including anti-immigrant sentiment and ethnocentric attitudes towards language and culture
(Crawford, 2004; Terrell et al., 2018).
The United States experienced a large influx of immigrants from 1880–1924 (Rumbaut &
Portes, 2001). During this time, efforts were made to “Americanize” these immigrants through
ESL education, often with a nationalistic focus aimed at suppressing foreign languages and
cultures (Crawford, 2004). However, some communities maintained their native languages while
also learning English, while others, such as Native Americans, suffered under oppressive
assimilation efforts that demanded the learning of English and the abandonment of their culture
(Crawford, 2004). In the mid-twentieth century, ESL education programs shifted with funding
extending to community colleges (National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition,
2008). Programs expanded to include family literacy, workplace education, and basic leveled
ESL courses (National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition, 2008). However, anti-
immigrant sentiment and an ethnocentric view of language and culture persisted (Crawford,
2004), highlighting the importance of providing culturally responsive and equitable educational
opportunities for all learners.
12

Vocational Education for ELLs
During the 19th century, immigrants in the United States needed more than
Americanization and English language instruction; workforce education and job placement
programs also became necessary (O’Banion, 2019). Vocational education began with
apprenticeship models, but by the late 1800s, more formal programs emerged to train workers.
Programs established in places like Teachers College in Columbia University in New York are
considered the predecessors to today’s vocational and technical schools (O’Banion, 2019).
Workforce education shifted towards an industrial focus after the turn of the century. In 1906,
advocacy groups such as the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education formed
in every state and worked with the federal government to secure funding for workforce education
programs (O’Banion, 2019).
Funding increases in workforce education came about after an ideological shift in large
part due to John Dewey’s work, Democracy and Education, which posited an important
philosophical statement about education in 1916 as it related to workforce readiness (DeFalco,
1992). Dewey believed that education should be practical and support learners in their futures,
and that education for culture and vocational education were not mutually exclusive but rather
should be seen as one whole (DeFalco, 1992). One year after John Dewey’s work on education
was published, the Smith-Hughes Act was passed in 1917 to confirm federal funding for
vocational education, and community colleges became part of the workforce education
movement as their purpose expanded from solely preparing students for transfer to 4-year
institutions to including terminal programs that prepared students to go directly into the
workforce (O’Banion, 2019).
13

By the mid-19th century, the political landscape included a focus on immigration issues,
while discussions about the mission of community colleges were divided between the importance
of liberal arts and the need to prepare students for the workforce (O’Banion, 2019). Despite
debates about the mission of community colleges being split between the importance of liberal
arts versus the need to help students join the workforce, a movement to centralize the role of
community colleges in vocational education training began in the 1960s (O’Banion, 2019). By
the 1970s, community colleges adopted the additional mission of lifelong learning, and by the
1980s, they were working with local businesses and federal funding to help workforce
development in hopes of improving the economy (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006). As a result, the
number of noncredit students enrolled in workforce education courses at public 2-year
institutions was almost 90% of the number of students enrolled for credit by 1995 (Jacobs &
Dougherty, 2006).
The movements of the 1980s and 1990s, along with governmental support for education
to help educate the workforce, played a significant role in the development of Career and
Technical Education programs in secondary educational settings (Dougherty & Lombardi, 2016).
For instance, Information Technology certification programs were available at more than 90% of
community colleges by the end of the 1990s (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006).
Over almost a century, the federal government has provided funding to states to support
the use of education to develop a workforce that can meet current and emerging labor needs of
industry (Dougherty & Lombardi, 2016). This support has been critical in ensuring that
community colleges play a central role in vocational education and workforce training in the
United States.
14

Overall, the development of vocational education and workforce training in the United
States evolved over time to meet the needs of immigrants and the economy (O’Banion, 2019).
Vocational education began as apprenticeship models and evolved into more formal programs in
the late 1800s (O’Banion, 2019). The mission of community colleges shifted to include
workforce education in the 1960s, and by the 1980s, they were working with local businesses
and federal funding to help workforce development (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006). The federal
government has provided funding to states for almost a century to promote the development of a
workforce that could fill the current and emerging labor needs of industry (Dougherty &
Lombardi, 2016). These efforts have been significant in ensuring that community colleges play a
central role in vocational education and workforce training in the United States (Dougherty &
Lombardi, 2016).
Community College and ELLs
Community colleges were established in the United States in 1901 (Mellow, 2000) in
large part as a result of the Morrill Act of 1862, which granted land for the establishment of
higher education institutions, hence increasing the availability of education to the people
(Vaughan, 2006). The Morrill Act ensured that in addition to traditional liberal education,
practical and job-related studies were also taught (Boone, 1997). Initially, community colleges
were formed with the intention that high schools and junior colleges would teach the first 2 years
of a 4-year curriculum. The objective was also to allow community colleges to offer degrees or
certifications in fields that did not require additional years of school to be successful (Vaughan,
2006).
For the most part, community colleges were originally intended to be comparable to
higher education institutions; however, the addition of workforce training created a perception
15

that the faculty and courses at community colleges were of a lower caliber (Pedersen, 1997).
Critics argued that community colleges diverged from the mission of 4-year institutions and
would limit employment opportunities for students without transfer options or programs (Clark,
1963; Karabel, 1972; Zwerling, 1976). Conversely, proponents of community college contended
that low-cost education available to all increased access and opportunity for individuals who
would not otherwise be able to attend college (Pedersen, 1997). In addition, the introduction of a
community college into a community provided economic growth and advancement for the area
(Pedersen, 1997). This resulted in the establishment of around 275 community colleges in the
United States between 1900 and 1940 (Pedersen, 1997).
Government-supported education programs were greatly expanded for community
colleges during the mid-20th century. The passage of the GI Bill in 1944, which financed the
education of veterans, made higher education more accessible than ever before (Mellow, 2000).
Thus, almost 8 million veterans benefitted from the GI Bill during its first 7 years of existence
(United States Department of Defense, 2019). In only 50 years, the number of Americans with
advanced degrees increased by almost 20% (United States Department of Defense, 2019). After
the passage of the GI Bill, the community college system expanded to serve millions of people
previously denied access to higher education (Mellow, 2000).
In 1946, the Truman Commission Report was released which recommended that
community colleges charge low or free tuition, serve as community cultural centers, provide
adult education, be administered by local governments, and be part of the nation’s public higher
education network (Vaughan, 2006). Key recommendations of the Truman Commission’s report
focused on access to education for all who could benefit from it (Gilbert & Heller, 2013). This
would be achieved by the federal government increasing the amount of funding it contributed to
16

higher education and was intended to keep costs down for those who could not afford to go to
school (Gilbert & Heller, 2013). What’s more, the commission advanced the idea that college
should be accessible for all people regardless of race, gender, immigration status, or religion
(Gilbert & Heller, 2013).
According to the Commission, increased access did not imply that everyone who wished
to attend college should receive the same education. Instead, the Commission proposed that
students should have access to various levels of higher education based on their abilities,
readiness, and capacities when they entered college (Gilbert & Heller, 2013). The Commission
emphasized that college should not be reserved exclusively for the wealthy and that the United
States should never become a class barrier society. Also, it was noted that investing in
educational access for all would benefit the economy (Gilbert & Heller, 2013).
Since the 1950s, community colleges have provided a bridge to higher education for
millions of Americans and an increasing number of immigrants to the United States (Mellow,
2000). In 1999, nearly 10.5 million students attended community colleges, with undergraduates
comprising 45 percent of the student body (Mellow, 2000). In 1999, 40% of all Asian/Pacific
Islander students, 50% of all Native American students, 55% of all Latino/a students, and 42% of
all African American students enrolled in higher education were community college students
(Mellow, 2000). Prior to the turn of the century, community colleges increasingly functioned as a
means for millions of diverse Americans and an expanding number of immigrants from around
the world to enroll in higher education (Mellow, 2000).
Community colleges in the United States began in 1901 with the goal of offering the first
2 years of a 4-year education, as well as practical and job-related subjects (Mellow, 2000;
Pedersen, 1997). Despite some criticism, government-supported education programs, such as the
17

GI Bill, greatly expanded access to higher education, including community colleges, resulting in
millions of Americans benefiting from low-cost education (Boone, 1997; Mellow, 2000;
Pedersen, 1997; Vaughan, 1980). The Truman Commission Report of 1946 recommended that
community colleges charge low or free tuition, serve as community cultural centers, provide
adult education, be administered by local governments, and be part of the nation’s public higher
education network (Gilbert & Heller, 2013; Vaughan, 2006). Since then, community colleges
have continued to act as a bridge to higher education for millions of diverse Americans and a
rising number of immigrants, making up a significant proportion of the students in higher
education programs (Mellow, 2000). Programs for adult ELLs in the United States, including
ESL, vocational education, and community college programs grew between 1880 and 1999 and
continue to transform.
Education for ELLs in the United States 2000–2022
In the following section, I will discuss the evolution of ESL programs for adult ELLs in
the United States during the 21st century, how this relates to changes in vocational education
programs and certificate programs, and the role that community colleges have played in these
programs during this time.
ESL Programs
In the early 21st century, immigration in the United States underwent a significant
expansion. According to the Migration Policy Institute, between 2000 and 2020, the foreign-born
population increased by approximately 27%, from about 31.1 million to over 44 million (2021).
By 2005, ELLs in noncredit ESL programs, primarily immigrants and refugees from various
ethnic backgrounds, accounted for over 40% of the more than three million adults receiving
federal funding to attend adult school (Cronen et al., 2005). This led to the development of an
18

increased number of adult ESL programs in community colleges and adult schools across the
nation (Eyring, 2014).
Adult ESL programs face several unique challenges such as overcrowded classrooms, a
lack of institutional support, unpredictable funding, and changing student demographics.
Additional issues include low pay, part-time work, and limited professional development for
faculty (Cronen et al., 2005).
Like other adult ESL programs, ELLs in noncredit ESL programs in community college
programs are a diverse group of individuals, varying in age, religion, background, employment
history, and level of education. While these students tend to be motivated and successful, the
diversity can be challenging for teachers, who may have to instruct students ranging from
teenagers to senior citizens and with varying levels of education, including those who have had
little or no education before enrolling in the program (Cronen et al., 2005; Eyring, 2014).
Although the primary focus of community college noncredit ESL programs is on English
language instruction, evidence suggests that many ELLs in noncredit ESL programs have
vocational goals. In fact, a study by Razfar and Simon (2011) found that less than 10% of ESL
students were enrolled in transfer courses, while 36% were taking vocational courses and 44.1%
had vocationally oriented goals. Adding to that, Jensen (2019) found that English proficiency
plays a crucial role in determining success and stability among immigrants in the United States,
as studies demonstrate that those who have a good command of the language are more likely to
secure employment and receive higher wages than those who do not. While many noncredit ESL
programs may only offer English language instruction, some community college ESL programs
have vocational components that prepare students for service jobs or skilled labor positions, or to
transfer to credit programs leading to 4-year institutions (Eyring, 2014).
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The landscape of immigration in the United States underwent significant changes in the
early 21st century, resulting in an expansion and shift in the number of ELLs in noncredit ESL
programs who received federal funding to attend adult school. By 2005, over 40% of the three
million adults receiving federal funding were ELLs in noncredit ESL programs, leading to an
increased number of adult ESL programs in community colleges and adult schools (Cronen et al.,
2005; Eyring, 2014). However, ESL programs face several unique challenges, such overcrowded
classrooms, limited resources, a lack of institutional support, unpredictable funding, changing
student demographics, and low pay with limited professional development for faculty (Cronen et
al., 2005). ELLs in noncredit ESL programs in community college programs are a diverse group,
ranging in age, religion, background, employment history, and level of education, which can be
challenging for teachers (Cronen et al., 2005; Eyring, 2014). Although the primary focus of
community college noncredit ESL programs is on English language instruction, many ELLs in
noncredit ESL programs have vocational goals, and some programs offer vocational components
that prepare students for service jobs, skilled labor positions, or transfer to credit programs
leading to 4-year institutions (Eyring, 2014; Razfar & Simon, 2011).
Vocational Education for ELLs
The divide in higher education between those who believe that education should focus on
well-rounded personal development and those who prioritize vocational training for employment
has persisted into the 21st century (O’Banion, 2019). However, this argument does not reflect the
reality of community college students, as more than half of those in credit programs are pursuing
vocational education (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006). These programs are popular due to their
affordability and accessibility for students (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006). Moreover, for ELLs in
noncredit ESL programs, the reality of the need for direct vocational readiness is even more
20

apparent as the Migration Policy Institute reported that in 2018, 29% of immigrant workers (18
and older) in the United States had a bachelor’s degree or higher, but were working in low-wage
jobs, compared to 19% of workers born in the United States (Kandel & Krogstad, 2020).
According to Jacobs and Dougherty (2006), more than six million students in community
college credit programs take vocational courses. Furthermore, over three-fifths of these students
are enrolled in workforce related programs, which are typically closer to their homes and low
cost. Redline and Rosenbaum (2010) found that institutional job placement programs are
effective, with 61.3% of students who requested and received job placement support acquiring
full-time jobs through workforce development programs. Those who were hired for jobs that
were relevant to their studied skills earned 9% more than their peers (Redline & Rosenbaum,
2010). Rutschow et al. (2019) noted that new models of integrated programs combining
foundational skills training with workforce and college preparedness training, such as those for
business, information technology, health sciences, consumer services, protective services,
computer information sciences, engineering technicians, marketing, and legal services, have the
potential to improve academic and employment outcomes, especially for low-skilled individuals.
These programs do not only have the potential to help those with lower skill levels, but also
immigrants with prior education to retrain and enter the workforce. For example, a report by the
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine found that while immigrants overall
have higher rates of entrepreneurial activity than individuals born in the United States,
immigrants with high levels of education are more likely to be overqualified for their jobs than
their counterparts born in the United States (NAS, 2017).
Into the 2000s, the divide continued in higher education between those who prioritize
vocational training and those who emphasize well-rounded personal development (O’Banion,
21

2019). However, Jacobs and Dougherty (2006) argue that this debate does not reflect the reality
of community college students, as over half of those in credit programs pursue vocational
education and are popular due to their affordability and accessibility for students (Jacobs &
Dougherty, 2006). Redline and Rosenbaum (2010) found that institutional job placement
programs are effective, with 61.3% of students who requested and received job placement
support acquiring full-time jobs through workforce development programs. Moreover, new
models of integrated programs combining foundational skills training with workforce and
college preparedness training have the potential to improve academic and employment outcomes,
particularly for low-skilled individuals (Rutschow et al., 2019). Dougherty and Lombardi (2016)
emphasized that workforce development programs require more support, as economically
disadvantaged students, students who have not finished high school, and disabled students are
most affected by inadequate support for these programs.
As vocationally related programs gained and continue to gain popularity, there remains a
lack of awareness of the usefulness of certificates (Carnevale et al., 2013). Currently, those who
have only completed their high school education earn 20 percent less compared to those who
hold a certificate (Carnevale et al., 2013). However, a certificate’s value depends on the field of
study and the certificate holder’s gender, race, and ethnicity (Carnevale et al., 2013). According
to Rosenbaum and Rosenbaum (2013), schools that focus on certificate completion such as
private vocational colleges have 20% higher completion rates, more immediate, and overall
better results, particularly for nontraditional and low-income students.
The research also shows that community colleges require more than 60% of their students
to take remedial courses with the intention of converting everyone into traditional academic
students, which rarely works (Rosenbaum & Rosenbaum, 2013). One thing that occupational
22

certificate programs do very differently than community colleges is that they are able to override
some of the academic requirements to certificate completion. For example, early high school
math and English skills are all that are needed to be successful in many mid-skilled jobs
(Rosenbaum & Rosenbaum, 2013). In the coming years, certificates are likely to become more
important in the postsecondary education system in the United States (Carnevale et al., 2013).
This section looks at the usefulness of certificates in vocationally related programs.
Carnevale et al. (2013) suggest that there is a lack of awareness of the value of certificates, and
those who hold a certificate generally earn more than those with only a high school education.
However, the value of a certificate depends on the field of study and the certificate holder’s
demographic characteristics. Rosenbaum and Rosenbaum (2013) suggest that private vocational
college certificate programs have better completion rates and outcomes, particularly for
nontraditional and low-income students. In contrast, community colleges often require remedial
courses and focus on converting students to traditional academic paths, which may not work for
everyone. Occupational certificate programs differ from community colleges in that they can
override some academic requirements, making them more accessible for certain students. In the
future, certificates are likely to become increasingly important in postsecondary education in the
United States (Carnevale et al., 2013).
Community College and ELLs
Moving into the 21st century, community colleges may be well placed to help support the
trend toward vocational and certificate programs because, unlike other colleges and universities,
they have a history of changing with the times and community needs (Mellow, 2000). What’s
more, community colleges can serve multiple roles well beyond the traditional view of
community colleges as transfer centers (Mellow, 2000). Today’s community colleges in the
23

United States combine elements of high schools and 4-year universities while maintaining their
own distinct character. (Vaughan, 2006). However, community colleges are still engaged in
efforts to clarify and preserve the distinction that practical and job-related subjects should also be
taught instead of only a traditional liberal education (Boone, 1997). While community colleges
tout access for all, those that do not ensure that programs are available for socioeconomically
disadvantaged students and minorities to gain entrance to economic advancement opportunities
are guilty of providing access to something of lesser value than those schools that offer career
pathways (Bastedo & Gumport, 2003).
Summers and Zhao (2018) highlight that immigrant students in noncredit ESL programs
at community colleges are often understudied and underserved. The authors argue that these
students have unique needs and face multiple barriers to educational access and success,
including language proficiency, financial constraints, and lack of information about available
resources (Summers & Zhao, 2018).
According to California Community Colleges and Walker (2016), California’s
community colleges serve the most students of any higher education system in the United States,
and the enhanced funding received in 2015–2016 allows for more courses to be offered that are
not explicitly for transfer, providing basic training needed for students to secure jobs.
Additionally, noncredit students receive equivalent funding to credit students in the community
college setting, allowing noncredit programs to hold equal financial status on campus and
offering opportunities for lifelong learning and economic improvement (California Community
Colleges & Walker, 2016; Mellow, 2000).
Community colleges in the United States have a long history of adapting to changing
times and community needs, which makes them well-placed to support the trend toward
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vocational and certificate programs (Mellow, 2000). While community colleges are still engaged
in efforts to ensure that practical and job-related subjects are taught alongside traditional liberal
education (Boone, 1997), they serve the most students of any higher education system in the
United States (California Community Colleges & Walker, 2016). Recent funding changes in
California have allowed for more courses to be offered that provide basic training needed for
students to secure jobs, and noncredit students now receive equivalent funding to credit students,
providing opportunities for lifelong learning and economic improvement (California Community
Colleges & Walker, 2016; Mellow, 2000). However, immigrant students in noncredit ESL
programs at community colleges face unique barriers to educational access and success,
including language proficiency, financial constraints, and lack of information about available
resources (Summers & Zhao, 2018). Thus, having discussed the evolution of ESL and vocational
education programs for adult ELLs in the United States, and the role of community colleges in
these programs in the 21st century, it becomes necessary to explore potential avenues for change.
Possibilities for Future Changes in Education for ELLs in the United States
In the following section, I will explore the possibilities and reasons for future changes in
adult ESL education in the United States. I will cover several topics such as the issue of “brain
waste” among highly skilled ELLs and the future of vocational education and job placement
programs for ELLs. I will also discuss a successful workforce readiness program for ELLs that
aims to tackle brain waste and the importance of upskilling for employment in the upcoming
Fourth Industrial Revolution. Lastly, I will discuss the future of community colleges, including
the need to embrace vocational education.
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Brain Waste of Highly Skilled ELLs
For ELLs in noncredit ESL programs, finding employment is crucial in achieving
stability after resettlement (Razfar & Simon, 2011). However, it can be challenging for
immigrant ELLs to access job opportunities that match their qualifications (Rumbaut, 2008).
Many immigrant ELLs in noncredit ESL programs have advanced degrees and experience in
fields like engineering, physics, and medicine, but are unable to use their skills in the United
States (Rumbaut, 2014). According to Dowling and Bholat (2012), there were 38 million
immigrants in the United States as of 2012, and nearly 1.3 million of them had a bachelor’s
degree or higher but were working in low-skilled jobs (Dowling & Bholat, 2012). This
underutilization of highly skilled immigrants’ brainpower and expertise costs the government
billions of dollars in missed tax income that could be used to fund public services (Batalova &
Bachmeier, 2016). These challenges faced by highly skilled immigrants not only affect
immigrant ELLs personally, but also have significant financial consequences for the United
States economy (Batalova & Bachmeier, 2016). Further, the Center for American Progress
reported that nearly 2 million college-educated immigrants in the United States were
unemployed or underemployed in 2018, which represents a waste of their skills and education
(Gonzalez & Shulman, 2019).
Additionally, Mattoo et al. (2008) found that immigrants with the same level of education
from different countries have varying chances of finding work in their prior field after
immigrating. This often results in immigrants from certain countries having their skills
underutilized, especially highly skilled immigrants from Latin America and Eastern Europe, who
are less likely to get jobs in their trained fields than immigrants from Asia and other industrial
nations. As a result, immigrants who were professionally trained in their home countries at great
26

cost often end up in menial jobs in the United States without making use of their learned skills
(Mattoo et al., 2008). This issue not only means that highly skilled immigrants bring home less
money than they could have, but also represents a missed opportunity for the United States to use
already trained professionals in areas where they may be desperately needed (Batalova &
Creticos, 2008). For instance, the Association of American Medical Colleges (2021) projects a
need for more than 124,000 doctors by 2034, but many highly skilled immigrants trained in
medicine may end up in low-skilled jobs.
Batalova and Creticos (2008) note that research has found two components that
contribute to the underutilization of highly skilled immigrants. First, the United States does not
recognize degrees and credentials from all countries equally, and second, some countries offer
more English language instruction in their basic curriculum, making the language acculturation
process easier for immigrants from those countries. Additionally, a unique issue specific to ELLs
is noted by Lee and Rice (2007) and Park (2013) where they add that immigrant and
international students in higher education often conceal their prior education in the process of
navigating the financial aid system and accessing resources because our system is not set up to
support them.
To address these issues, Lee and Rice (2007) recommend a change in the financial aid
rules while Batalova and Creticos (2008) suggest setting standards for validating credentials
from other countries, promoting an international accreditation system, and evaluating credentials
from other countries as part of the immigration process. Other solutions include combining ESL
programs with workforce development programs and adjusting the size of work-related programs
based on market demand (Riddick & Fancher, 2016).
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According to Batalova and Bachmeier (2016), the underutilization of highly skilled
immigrants’ skills is a significant problem in the United States that has financial and personal
consequences. Immigrant ELLs in noncredit ESL programs often struggle to find employment
that matches their qualifications, and as of 2012, nearly 1.3 million highly skilled immigrants
were working in low-skilled jobs, costing the government billions in missed tax income
(Batalova & Bachmeier, 2016; Dowling & Bholat, 2012). According to MPI research,
immigrants with a bachelor’s degree had twice the unemployment rate of individuals born in the
United States with the same degree (Fix & Zimmermann, 2001). The problem is compounded for
immigrants from certain countries, such as Latin America and Eastern Europe, who have lower
chances of finding work in their trained fields than immigrants from Asia and other industrial
nations (Mattoo et al., 2008). These challenges can be addressed by setting standards for
validating credentials from other countries, promoting an international accreditation system,
evaluating credentials from other countries as part of the immigration process, and adjusting
work-related programs based on market demand (Batalova & Creticos, 2008; Riddick &
Fancher, 2016).
An example of a program that makes use of already trained immigrants in an area where
they are desperately needed, is the International Medical Graduate (IMG) Program at the
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). The IMG program prepares unlicensed Hispanic
international medical graduates (IMGs) for family medicine residency programs and helps them
obtain licenses (Dowling & Bholat, 2012). The program is tuition-free, pays for all school
expenses, and provides a modest stipend in exchange for the IMGs’ pledge to work in an
underserved community for 2–3 years after graduation (Dowling & Bholat, 2012). The program
successfully addresses the issue of wasting the expertise of highly skilled immigrants by
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providing them with the tools needed for licensure to practice. A bill was passed into law
allowing internationally trained medical professionals to participate in clinical courses in
California to make the IMG program possible (AB-1533 Medicine, Bill).
Since its first class graduated in 2007, the IMG Program has put a total of 128
participants into Family Medicine residency programs in California, all of which are in medically
underserved areas, and as of 2015, more than 10% of all California medical school graduates
who were accepted into Family Medicine residency programs were UCLA’s IMG Program
graduates (The International Medical Graduate Program (IMG) - UCLA Department of Family
Medicine, 2021).
The IMG program successfully prepares highly skilled ELLs for jobs in the medical field
in the United States. The program is privately supported and ranges from 4 to 21 weeks in
enrollment due to its full-time nature (Dowling & Bholat, 2012). The result is a group of board-
certified family doctors who can help bridge language and cultural barriers to care for people
who came from the same Latin American countries they did. Not doing so would be a missed
chance to use trained professionals in areas where they are desperately needed (Dowling &
Bholat, 2012).
The IMG program represents a niche example of a successful initiative that addresses the
problem of “brain waste” or underutilizing highly skilled immigrants’ expertise for Spanish
speaking immigrants in the medical field. The program prepares unlicensed Spanish speaking
IMGs for family medicine residency programs, provides them with the tools needed for licensure
to practice, and ensures that they pledge to work in underserved communities for 2–3 years after
graduation. The program helps bridge language and cultural barriers to care for patients in
underserved communities, making use of the expertise of trained professionals in areas where
29

they are desperately needed (Dowling & Bholat, 2012). The IMG program is an excellent
example of a practical and effective initiative that prepares highly skilled immigrants for the
workforce.
Other notable programs that are implementing innovative approaches for ELLs that
address brain waste are, for example, the City University of New York’s School of Professional
Studies offers a program called New York City Welcome Back Center, which assists immigrant
healthcare professionals in obtaining licensure and finding employment in their field (New York
City Welcome Back Center, n.d.). Additionally, the Immigrant Workforce Program at the City
College of San Francisco provides career training and job placement services for immigrants and
refugees (City College of San Francisco, n.d.). These types of programs aim to bridge the gap
between noncredit ESL programs and employment opportunities, helping immigrant students
achieve stability and success in the United States.
Overall, the UCLA IMG program is an initiative that helps combat brain waste by
providing highly skilled Spanish-speaking medical professionals with the necessary tools for
licensure to practice medicine the United States. Other notable programs that are implementing
innovative approaches for ELLs that address brain waste are the City University of New York’s
School of Professional Studies and the Immigrant Workforce Program at the City College of San
Francisco.
The Future of Vocational Education for ELLs
The philosophy of John Dewey regarding education and workforce readiness provides
valuable insight for the future of workforce education and job placement programs (DeFalco,
1992) like the example discussed in the previous section. Dewey believed that education should
be practical and help learners prepare for their future employment (DeFalco, 1992). Today,
30

Dewey’s ideals continue to impact and influence modern vocational education (DeFalco, 1992)
and should be considered a model for the future.
As Dougherty and Lombardi (2016) ask whether education should be geared towards
preparing students for the workforce or educating them for their own sake, vocational education
at the community college level is being redefined for the future. According to data from the
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), the number of students enrolled in occupational
certificate programs, which typically focus on providing specific vocational skills, increased
from 583,000 in 2000 to 962,000 in 2018. This represents a growth of over 65% in just 18 years
(NCES, 2021). Additionally, a report by the Georgetown University Center on Education and the
Workforce found that by 2020, 65% of all jobs in the United States will require some form of
postsecondary education or training beyond high school, with vocational certificates and
associate degrees being the most commonly required credentials (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl,
2013). These statistics suggest that vocational education programs at the community college
level are becoming increasingly important for workforce readiness and job placement.
According to Dougherty and Lombardi (2016), economists are recognizing that we need
to change our perception of education and consider how the education we offer can help ensure
that those who are less fortunate or less able to pursue higher education still have a chance at
stability and gainful employment through substantial workforce education. In fact, Garcia-Pérez
et al. (2021) found that a lack of skills needed for the current job market correlated with a 36%
unemployment rate. Technological skills were identified as the most needed skills for
employment, accounting for 29% of the required skills (Garcia-Pérez et al., 2021). Furthermore,
a study by the Community College Research Center found that vocational education programs at
community colleges have a significant impact on earnings and employment outcomes. Graduates
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of occupational certificate programs earn 25% more than those who only have a high school
diploma, and graduates of associate degree programs earn 34% more (Jacobson et al., 2005).
According to the research, vocational education at the community college level is crucial
for workforce readiness and job placement (Dougherty & Lombardi, 2016; Garcia-Pérez et al.,
2021; Jacobson et al., 2005; NCES, 2021). John Dewey’s philosophy of practical education
continues to influence vocational education today and should be considered a model for the
future (DeFalco, 1992). With an increasing number of jobs requiring postsecondary education or
training, vocational certificates and associate degrees are becoming the most commonly required
credentials (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2013). Economists are recognizing that vocational
education can help provide stability and gainful employment to those who may not be able to
pursue higher education (Dougherty & Lombardi, 2016). The importance of technological skills
in the job market has also been identified, with a lack of these skills correlating with a high
unemployment rate (Garcia-Pérez et al., 2021). Vocational education programs at community
colleges have been shown to have a significant impact on earnings and employment outcomes,
demonstrating their importance for individuals and the workforce as a whole (Dougherty &
Lombardi, 2016; Garcia-Pérez et al., 2021; Jacobson et al., 2005; NCES, 2021).
Upskilling for Employment That Is Coming: The Fourth Industrial Revolution
The increasing demand for vocational education at the community college level and the
need to prepare students for the future job market are becoming more pressing concerns (De
Brey et al, 2021; Dougherty & Lombardi, 2016; Garcia-Pérez et al., 2021; Jacobson et al., 2005).
As the job market continues to evolve and transform due to automation and digitization, it is
crucial to provide students, including ELLs, with the skills and training necessary to succeed in
the Fourth Industrial Revolution (World Economic Forum, 2020; Garcia-Pérez et al., 2021).
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According to the University of Oxford, over 47% of the workforce will no longer be employed
by 2025 (Garcia-Pérez et al, 2021). As automation and digitalization become mainstream, a new
class of skilled employees will need to evolve to understand and manage the new issues and
challenges that arise as a result of these technological breakthroughs (Garcia-Pérez et al, 2021).
Ushering in the coming changes, the structure of schooling for the Information
Technology (IT) profession has dramatically changed in the last several years (Ramakrishnan &
Rahim, 2017). For instance, academic programs based on online certifications for the training of
engineers are now provided by the technology sector (O’Connor, et al., 2021). Some of these
programs operate in conjunction with a university to provide specialized training to a diverse
range of students (Doan, 2021). Additionally, according to a report by the International Data
Corporation, by 2025, more than half of the global GDP will be driven by digitally enabled
enterprises and their products, up from roughly 45% in 2020 (IDC, 2020). The COVID-19
pandemic accelerated cloud adoption in the education sphere, which historically has been slower
to accept it (Doan, 2021). This is significant because as cloud technologies continue to transform
how businesses operate globally, people with the right skills will continue to be in high demand.
For example, by 2020, cloud computing had become one of the most sought-after capabilities in
the job market (Doan, 2021; O’Connor, et al., 2021).
Looking ahead, it is expected that at least half of the workforce will need to acquire new
skills in the next few years due to the “double disruption” caused by the pandemic’s impact on
the economy and the increasing technological modifications in various professions (Whiting,
2021). Fortunately, there are opportunities to retrain and improve the skills of a large number of
workers, set up support systems to prevent the displacement of obsolete workers, and create
tailored job programs to help them transition to the jobs of the future (Whiting, 2021). To
33

achieve this, universities would need to incorporate cloud computing into their curricula, as
economic forums and the tech industry demand (Doan, 2021). Amazon Web Services (AWS)
Academy and similar programs have already taken steps to prepare students for the fourth
industrial revolution by offering a free, ready-to-teach cloud computing curriculum that prepares
students for in-demand cloud-related jobs and offers industry-recognized certifications (Doan,
2021).
The importance of career pathways in promoting economic mobility and preparing
individuals for in-demand jobs has been emphasized by the United States Department of Labor
(2019). The United States Department of Education has initiatives in progress that support the
creation of pathways for students to enter careers that will be needed in the future (Guide, 2016).
According to the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA), a career pathway consists
of intensive and high-quality education, training, and other services that match expertise with
current industry needs. This includes apprenticeships, counseling, shortened duration education
with workforce preparation and training for a specific occupation, offering a diploma and
credential, and assistance with obtaining a job (Guide, 2016). In the future, it may be worthwhile
to align these initiatives with cloud-related certification programs. However, for this to happen, it
will require a commitment from multiple partners to work together towards transparency,
alignment, and systemic change in integrating career and technical education programs with
Career Pathways Systems (Guide, 2016).
As technology becomes increasingly valuable, some skills or professions are becoming
obsolete. However, there are certain things that are unique to human beings that artificial
intelligence and technology systems cannot replicate (Garcia-Pérez et al., 2021). According to a
study by McKinsey Global Institute (2017), the future job market will require social and
34

emotional skills such as empathy, communication, and collaboration, alongside technical skills.
The National Governors Association (2018) emphasizes the importance of integrating industry-
recognized credentials into career pathways to ensure that individuals are acquiring skills that are
valued by employers. To prepare students for the jobs of the future, we should look to these
arenas.
To determine the most needed areas, Garcia-Pérez et al. (2021) suggest looking at the
current market, which shows that technology management is the expertise in highest demand.
However, as we move towards more sophisticated technologies, other areas need to be
considered. For instance, emotional intelligence (EI) is not something machines are likely to
learn, making it an important area for workers of the future (Garcia-Pérez et al., 2021). Creativity
is another essential component to focus on for future workers, as AI cannot achieve true
creativity (Garcia-Pérez et al., 2021).
In addition, understanding and respecting cultural differences and diversity will be
another critical skill for the future, as AI is not very effective at this. Finally, the high-level
thinking skills required to make sense of data and decide the best course of action with the
information technology uncovers will be best handled by human beings, making it another area
where future workers will be needed (Garcia-Pérez et al., 2021).
To ensure the future stability of students, including ELLs in noncredit ESL programs, it
may be necessary to go beyond traditional academic education and focus on preparing students
for the fourth industrial revolution. This revolution is centered on automation and digitization
and is already underway. It is set to transform the job market, with the majority of new jobs
requiring skills related to technology and digitalization. Cloud computing, in particular, is in high
demand and should be incorporated into university curricula to meet this demand. Initiatives that
35

promote career pathways and align education with industry needs should also be pursued. While
technical skills will be necessary, social and emotional skills such as empathy, communication,
and collaboration will also be in demand, as they cannot be replicated by machines. Therefore,
education should also focus on developing skills in areas such as emotional intelligence and
creativity.
The Future of Community Colleges
This last section of the literature review will look at the potential that community colleges
could have in the future to help facilitate a movement toward training students for the fourth
industrial revolution. According to the McKinsey Global Institute report titled “Jobs lost, jobs
gained: Workforce transitions in a time of automation” (2017), the 2020s may witness the
biggest upheaval in the American economy since the Industrial Revolution with the potential of
between 39 million and 73 million United States jobs disrupted by automation technologies by
2030. In order to succeed in the future, a highly skilled workforce with the latest skills and
knowledge that employers need to stay competitive on a global scale is crucial (Improving Non-
College Pathways to Skills and Successful Careers, 2019). It is essential for higher education to
acknowledge the need for continuous education to prevent our workforce from becoming
obsolete.
In responding to the changing needs of the workforce, community colleges are well-
positioned to play a significant role (Boone, 1997; Erisman & Lichtenstein, 2013). Historically,
the mission of community colleges has been to address community problems through
engagement with local industries and organizations (Boone, 1997). To effectively address these
issues, it is important for community colleges to proactively develop strategic alliances with
36

industry partners to ensure that their curriculum meets the needs of the job market and supports
job placement (Boone, 1997).
According to a recent survey of the higher education landscape (Education Dynamics,
2021), the issuance of alternative credentials in higher education will grow quickly and become
more significant as our nation’s economic recovery in response to the COVID-19 pandemic will
depend heavily on short-term credentials. Community colleges are ideally situated to become a
central location for students of the future to obtain these qualifications (Mellow, 2000). In order
to ensure that students are not only well-rounded and broad-minded but also highly employable,
higher education institutions of the future should be open to working with companies like
Google, Microsoft, AWS, and others (Doan, 2021). However, community colleges, which are
well-positioned to train students for the fourth industrial revolution, may need to shift their focus
away from transferring to 4-year institutions to meet these changing workforce needs (Boone,
1997; Erisman & Lichtenstein, 2013). A change in focus of this magnitude would require a
discussion on the purpose of community colleges.
The purpose of higher education and specifically community college education has been
debated since the creation of the 2-year model, with one side arguing that it should benefit
individuals as a whole while the other emphasizes job opportunities and the economy (Jacobs &
Dougherty, 2006; Lucas, 2006; O’Banion, 2019; Pedersen, 1997). Although there is value in
both approaches, the community college mission has shifted towards a holistic approach of
transferring to 4-year institutions rather than focusing on the employability of graduates over
time (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006; O’Banion, 2019; Pedersen, 1997).
Conversely, there have been efforts in workforce development within community
colleges aimed at creating a space for those who may benefit more from employability than
37

academic achievement. However, these vocational programs have not been made a central
component of the community college mission, as shown by marginalization and lack of focus on
job placement (Dougherty & Lombardi, 2016; Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006; O’Banion, 2019).
This lack of focus on job placement has a particularly detrimental effect on non-traditional
students, who often face economic disadvantages or other barriers to transferring to a 4-year
institution (Redline & Rosenbaum, 2010; Rutschow et al., 2019). In a study by Novotny and
Smith (2019), They argue that nontraditional students, including those who are older and seeking
financial stability, face challenges that may not be well understood or addressed by higher
education institutions and that community colleges, in particular, have a responsibility to serve
the needs of nontraditional students and must do more to support them. For instance, ELLs in
noncredit ESL programs, who are mainly adult immigrants and refugees, have demonstrably
different needs than traditional students and require stable financial situations more than holistic
betterment (Baran et al., 2018; Baranik et al., 2018; Barkan, 2010; Higgins & Misawa, 2021;
Vanek et al., 2020).
The potential for community colleges to play a significant role in training students for the
fourth industrial revolution has been investigated in this section of the literature review.
McKinsey Global Institute (2017) reported that automation technologies have the potential to
disrupt between 39 million and 73 million United States jobs by 2030. In response to the
changing needs of the workforce, community colleges are well-positioned to proactively develop
strategic alliances with industry partners and ensure that their curriculum meets the needs of the
job market (Boone, 1997). However, the community college mission tends to focus on a holistic
approach of transferring to 4-year institutions, rather than focusing on the employability of
graduates (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006; O’Banion, 2019; Pedersen, 1997). To meet changing
38

workforce needs, community colleges may need to shift their focus away from transferring to 4-
year institutions and towards vocational programs and strategic alliances with industry partners
to better serve the needs of students in the future (Dougherty & Lombardi, 2016; Jacobs &
Dougherty, 2006; O’Banion, 2019).
In conclusion, this section delved into the potential changes that may take place in adult
ESL education in the United States. It covered various topics, such as “brain waste” among
highly skilled ELLs, the future of vocational education and job placement programs for ELLs,
and a successful workforce readiness program for ELLs that aims to address brain waste and
upskill them for employment in the upcoming Fourth Industrial Revolution. Additionally, the
section highlighted the significance of community colleges and their need to embrace vocational
education to meet the evolving needs of the workforce.
Conceptual Framework
To understand how Eastland Community College’s (ECC) noncredit ESL program can
transform their organization, I used Burke and Litwin’s (1992) casual model of organizational
performance and change, as well as William Perry’s theory of intellectual and ethical
development (1970). These frameworks help me discover the current state of the organization
and the next steps needed to meet the needs of ELLs in noncredit ESL programs, enabling them
to become readily employable.
Lochmiller and Lester (2017) suggest that using a conceptual framework is key to
understanding both the problem and potential solutions. The problem in this case is that ECC’s
noncredit ESL program is not adequately meeting the needs of students to connect to certificate
programs, graduate programs, and jobs utilizing the immigrant ELLs’ unique areas of expertise.
39

To address this problem, I used the transactional component of student needs from Burke
and Litwin’s (1992) model to understand how the transformational layers consisting of
environmental factors, leadership, mission, and outcomes can work together to lead towards
transformation. Additionally, I used Perry’s (1970) theory to pinpoint where ECC lands in
relation to Perry’s categories and positions of development, which refer to the developmental
stages of institutions and organizations rather than individual students’ development.
It is important to note that, according to the literature, there is an ideological divide
between a community college’s purpose to create well-rounded individuals versus highly
employable ones. This ideology has the power to determine the direction of a school, programs,
and ultimately the direction that students are funneled (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006; Lucas, 2006;
O’Banion, 2019; Pedersen, 1997). By using these frameworks, I hoped to bridge the gap between
literature, practical knowledge, and conceptual theory to identify potential solutions to ECC’s
problem.
Using the adapted model in Figure 1, my goal was to look at ECC’s transactional layer
and transformational layers and reflect on what changes would be possible if ECC was to
develop beyond the category of dualism into the category of multiplicity.

40

Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

Note. Adapted from Perry’s Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the college Years:
A Scheme (1970) and Burke and Litwin’s “A Causal Model of Organizational Performance and
Change” (1992).

The transactional layer describes how different parts of an organization work together
towards its goals and mission, through communication, relationships, and implementation (Burke
& Litwin, 1992). In this context, the focus is on meeting the needs of students, which is at the
heart of the conceptual framework. The question then is whether the organization’s values and
actions align with what individual students consider important, worthwhile, and valuable (Burke
& Litwin, 1992).
41

Research has shown that for immigrant ELLs, learning English is critical for their
survival in the United States (Baranik et al., 2018; Barkan, 2010), which aligns with the target
audience of the noncredit ESL program offered at ECC. This is also supported by the California
Community College (CCC) system, which considers it important and worthwhile to teach
English to ELLs in noncredit ESL programs (California Education Code, 2019). However,
financial stability is also a significant need for many ELLs in such programs (Baranik et al.,
2018; Barkan, 2010). It appears that there is a disconnect between what ELLs in noncredit ESL
programs require beyond language education and what ECC is equipped to deliver. This may
stem from a tradition within the community college system that prioritizes transferring students
to other institutions rather than helping them achieve financial stability directly (Pedersen, 1997).
Drawing on Perry’s model of intellectual development theory, it can be argued that ECC
appears to be situated in the first category, dualism, where knowledge and perspectives are
concrete when it comes to supporting ELLs in noncredit ESL programs (Intellectual and Ethical
Development, 2022). This would be true if the administration believed that providing English
language education to immigrant ELLs is the only way to support them. While focusing on
English language instruction has validity, it is important to consider ways in which ECC can
move beyond language support to offer more comprehensive assistance in helping ELLs
transition to high-paying jobs.
To achieve this transformation, ECC needs to move beyond its current language support
programs and include more robust opportunities for financial stability. Burke and Litwin’s
(1992) organizational change model offers insights into external factors that influence
organizational performance, including student demographics, government policies, and funding
(Burke & Litwin, 1992). To meet the needs of ELLs in the noncredit ESL program and help
42

them find pathways to financial stability, external factors at the state funding level may need to
be considered. For instance, the CCC student-centered funding formula offers considerably more
funding for successful transfers than certificate completion or job attainment (CCCCO, 2022).
As an organization, if ECC believes it lacks the local authority to change the focus of their
program due to external authority surrounding state funding, Perry’s (1970) model would place
them in category one, dualism, position two, multiplicity pre-legitimate, where they recognize
that some entities have more authority than others (Intellectual and Ethical Development, 2022).
Therefore, utilizing Perry’s (1970) theory of student development adapted to
organizational development in conjunction with Burke and Litwin’s (1992) levels of
transactional and transformational layers, it appears that ECC’s program for ELLs in noncredit is
currently situated in category one of Perry’s theory (Intellectual and Ethical Development, 2022).
To drive change, according to Perry’s theory, it is crucial for the organization to progress to the
second category of multiplicity where ECC can acknowledge that while state authority and
regulations are intricate, diverse groups of students have unique needs that cannot be met by
following the state’s rules alone. Instead, the rules must be scrutinized, and efforts must be made
to break free of historical barriers and promote innovation.
Conclusion
This chapter explored the history and evolution of ESL education in the United States.
The first section covered changes in ESL programs, vocational education and certificate
programs, and explored possibilities for change in ELL education. The section also highlighted
the unique challenges ELLs face, such as “brain waste,” and presented successful programs that
support highly skilled ELLs like the IMG program. The chapter also addressed the role of
43

community colleges in upskilling for projected employment trends and provided insight from the
literature into the future of ESL, vocational, and community college education for ELLs.
The second section of the chapter, the conceptual framework, utilized Burke and Litwin’s
model of organizational performance and change (Burke & Litwin, 1992), along with William
Perry’s theory of intellectual and ethical development (Perry, 1970), to assist in understanding
the current state of ECC’s organization and the steps required to achieve transformation. The
section highlighted the importance of comprehending ECC’s organizational structure and
aligning it with the needs of ELLs, especially the transactional and transformational layers
considering external factors such as government policies and funding. Finally, the section
recommended that ECC should move from Perry’s theory’s first category, dualism, to the second
category, multiplicity, to drive change.

44

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to contribute to the research regarding the needs of English
Language Learners (ELLs) in the noncredit English as a Second Language (ESL) program at
Eastland Community College (ECC) by exploring the reasons why there are not more ELLs in
noncredit ESL programs completing certificate earning courses at ECC as well as what changes
may be needed at ECC to increase participation and completion (Chapter One).
This chapter illustrates the methodology of the study including the research questions, the
overview of the design, the setting, information about the researcher, the participants, data
sources, the instruments used, data collection procedures, analysis, validity, ethics, and
limitations.
The research questions that guided the study were as follows:
1. What are the needs of ECC’s ELLs in noncredit ESL programs versus their
perception of ECC’s services offered?
2. What are the transformational and transactional components needed to increase the
number of ELLs from the noncredit ESL program participating in ECC’s certificate
earning courses?
Overview of Design
The study used a qualitative research methodology focused on interpreting and
understanding the participants’ experiences through a humanistic lens (Lochmiller & Lester,
2017). To gather information regarding the needs of ELLs in the noncredit ESL program and to
explore the reasons why there are not more ELLs from the noncredit ESL program completing
certificate earning courses, I utilized qualitative interviews to gather deeper and more meaningful
data (Mertens, 2012). According to Merten, qualitative interviews represent a dialogue between
45

the researcher and the participants, allowing the data to become symbiotic rather than static
(Mertens, 2012). Combining existing data with qualitative interviews helped to create a holistic
picture of who the ELLs in noncredit ESL programs are, what they need, and whether their needs
are being met.
Research Setting
My research was focused on ECC’s noncredit ESL program, which primarily serves adult
immigrant ELL students. The purpose of the study was to contribute to the research regarding the
needs of ELLs in noncredit ESL programs by exploring the reasons why there are not more ELLs
in noncredit ESL programs completing certificate earning courses at ECC as well as what
changes may be needed at ECC to increase participation and completion.
ECC is a college located in a suburban area of a major California city. The college has a
large student body of approximately 20,000 credit students and 5,000 noncredit students, and it
employs around 1,200 people, including nearly 800 faculty members. However, the majority of
faculty members are White, which is worth noting.
The college has an annual budget of almost $115 million. The demographics of the credit
and noncredit student populations are quite different. The majority of credit students are White,
and their average age is 25. Most of these students are United States citizens, and fewer than
15% of them have dependent children.
Conversely, the noncredit student population has a different set of characteristics. The
average age of noncredit students is 35, and approximately 80% of them do not have
immigration status listed on their registration documents. Furthermore, almost half of the
noncredit student population has dependent children.
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The Researcher
For this study, I recognize that there may be resources available to ELLs in noncredit
ESL programs that I may be unaware of. Additionally, I acknowledge that students have the
option to receive academic and career counseling and that this study did not evaluate the
limitations or effectiveness of ECC’s counseling services.
In research, it’s crucial to acknowledge and reflect on one’s positionality to determine
what to investigate and why (Ravitch & Carl, 2021). As the researcher of this study, I have over
20 years of experience teaching ELLs in noncredit ESL programs. Through this role, I’ve
encountered students with diverse needs beyond what’s provided in traditional noncredit ESL
courses. For instance, some students have shared their struggles with finding suitable
employment opportunities in the United States, despite their prior professional experience and
education. Witnessing these stories firsthand, I recognize that my personal experiences and
biases may influence my observations and analysis as a researcher. Furthermore, I acknowledge
that I am an American-born English-speaking woman who has never directly experienced the
issues faced by immigrant students.
As an instructor and representative of the target language and culture, I also hold a
position of power over the study participants. Participants may view me as someone who cannot
entirely relate to their concerns. Therefore, to bridge this gap, I spoke in the participants’ first
language whenever possible and respected cultural differences and norms that made them more
comfortable, so as not to create a sense of complete separation.
As Maxwell (2012) points out, clarity of purpose and goals is critical for the success of a
study. While my experiences may introduce some bias into the research, my positionality as a
47

long-standing noncredit ESL instructor also helped define the study’s practical and
straightforward goals.
Participants and Data Source
For the qualitative interviews, I interviewed 7 ELLs who were students in an advanced
Level 4 noncredit ESL class at ECC. The interview population were all advanced ESL Level 4
students who responded to an email sent from their ESL Level 4 instructor.
Instrumentation
For data collection in this study, semi-structured interviews were conducted using Burke
and Litwin’s conceptual framework on organizational change (Burke & Litwin, 1992). At the
start of each interview, I explained the study’s purpose and asked questions about the
participant’s background. For Questions 2–5, which aligned with the transactional layer of
student needs, the interview questions aimed to determine whether there was a match between
the student’s perception of importance and ECC’s mission and services (Burke & Litwin, 1992).
Questions 6–10 focused on the transactional layer of structure, which is interconnected with the
transformational layer of mission, as reflected in RQ2. The questions aimed to evaluate whether
different organizational structures at ECC worked together to meet student needs and ECC’s
mission, as well as identifying changes that could be made to increase participation in ECC’s
certificate earning programs by ELLs in noncredit ESL programs (Burke & Litwin, 1992). For
the full interview questions, see Appendix A.
Data Collection Procedures
For the semi-structured interview portion of the study, my goal was to interview five to
10 ELLs in noncredit ESL programs from ECC. As Merriman and Tisdell (2016) recommend,
the sampling for qualitative interviews should be small and purposeful (Merriam & Tisdell,
48

2016). Email functioned as the primary recruitment tool. An email was sent to advanced ESL
instructors teaching Level 4 and Level 5 asking them if they would be willing to send an email to
their students inviting them to participate in the study. The students who responded indicating
that they would like to participate provided their email to be contacted.
An email was then sent to interested students inviting them to participate in a 45-minute
interview. The email included the purpose of the study, the criteria for participation, my contact
information, and how to become involved. Consent forms were included as an e-mail attachment.
Additionally, the waiver and consent form stipulated that the students name and information
would be kept confidential and that information about the students would not be shared with any
other persons but the researcher.
During the interview, I began by reviewing the purpose of the study including
clarification of the meaning of certain words, concepts, and ideas that helped to explain the
study’s intent. As English was not the native language of the participants, it was necessary to
open with an initial clarification to ensure comprehension regarding the motivation for the study.
Once participants were clear about the rationale for the study, I began by asking participants to
share as much of their backstory as they would like. The questions that followed then explored
the reasons why there were not more ELLs in noncredit ESL programs completing certificate
earning courses at ECC as well as what changes may be needed at ECC to increase participation
and completion. Since ECC’s noncredit ESL program was mostly remote at the time the study
took place, interviews were conducted and recorded on the Zoom platform and transcripts from
Zoom were downloaded. All interviews were completed by December of 2022.
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Data Analysis
The data was categorized and sorted after the interviews were recorded and transcribed
(Creswell & Creswell, 2017). For the interviews:
Method 1
Open coding was done first, followed by searching for both generalizable and unique
themes and codes were applied based on the previously mentioned conceptual framework.
Method 2
These topics were then combined and arranged according to analytical codes.
Method 3
The study next concentrated on the trends and topics that emerged from the interviews.
review.
Validity and Reliability
As the researcher, I tested for validity by collecting rich data through intensive interviews
with ELLs in noncredit ESL programs; respondent validation was conducted with the ELLs in
noncredit ESL programs that ensured there was no researcher bias in interviews with the
participants (Maxwell, 2012).
Ethics
In this section, I reflect on the ethical considerations related to my proposed study.
Particularly, I reflect on my role in relation to the participants, what harm could be caused as a
result of the research, whether the topics under discussion may be sensitive to participants, and
what strategies were used to reduce any potential harm that could have been caused.
To begin, one ethical consideration is the role of the faculty who forwarded the email to
their students. Due to their role as ESL teachers, students may have felt obligated into
50

participating in the interviews. For this reason, I explained multiple times that the interviews
were optional and voluntary.
Although the research aimed to investigate why there are few ELLs completing
certificate earning courses at ECC’s noncredit ESL programs, the study may not directly benefit
the interviewed students. As Tuck and Yang (2014) emphasized, we must consider the power
dynamics and scrutiny involved in research and how it may impact individual participants.
Therefore, I should acknowledge that the student needs discovered during the interviews will not
necessarily be addressed by the current noncredit ESL programs. Other than listing student needs
and recommendations at the conclusion of the study, there will be little to no direct impact on the
student participants who indicated currently having unaddressed needs.
It is also important to note that the systemic barriers in state funding for certificate programs
targeting ESL students (Gandara & Maxwell-Jolly, 2016), systemic barriers in programming
priorities (Gonzalez & Salinas, 2015) in schools like ECC, and the language barrier and
prejudices that ELLs in noncredit ESL programs may face upon trying to enter the workforce
with an earned certificate (Beckett, 2018) were not addressed in the study.
A further ethical component that was considered centers around the topic and how it may
have been received by some participants. For example, the noncredit ESL program population at
ECC contains a significant percentage of ELL students who are classified as refugees or have
fled their country of origin. As refugees, many have left behind careers, homes, and beloved
family members and may be unable to return (UNHCR, 1951). Taking this into consideration, in
my opinion, questions surrounding issues regarding the roadblocks faced when trying to find
pathways to financial stability in some cases could have produced emotionally charged
conversations.
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As a researcher, a strategy I was prepared with to help navigate and support students in
this environment was to help participants connect with counselors if they wanted to talk further. I
also offered students links to available services. To further reduce harm to participants, I
received the USC and ECC Institutional Review Board approval before proceeding with the
study. I sought each participant’s consent and refrained from sharing any participant’s
identifying information in any way. Each of these steps were taken to minimize unethical
research practices.

52

Chapter Four: Findings
By exploring the experiences, needs, perceptions, and ideas for transformation of students
in the noncredit English as a Second Language (ESL) program at Eastland Community College
(ECC), this study sought to uncover some of the reasons why there are not more ELLs in
noncredit ESL programs completing certificate earning courses at ECC. Qualitative methodology
was used to conduct the research as data alone cannot provide an appropriate explanation for this
phenomenon.
The research questions that guided the study were as follows:
1. What are the needs of ECC’s ELLs in noncredit ESL programs versus their
perception of ECC’s services offered?
2. What are the transformational and transactional components needed to increase the
number of ELLs from the noncredit ESL program participating in ECC’s certificate
earning courses?
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven participants. The participants were
ELLs in an advanced noncredit ESL course at ECC titled Level 4.
Participants
Of the interviewees, four immigrated to the United States within the last 2 years from
Armenia, two immigrated from Japan, and one from Venezuela. All participants were enrolled in
advanced English as a Second Language (ESL) classes in the noncredit program at ECC for 14
hours per week. Two were enrolled in additional noncredit courses: one in a certificate earning
course and another in an advanced ESL conversation class. Pseudonyms were used to keep the
identities of the participants confidential.
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Artak was a male in his mid-30s from Armenia. In Armenia, he was an orthopedic doctor
and he mentioned that his wife was a pediatrician. He and his family had only been in the United
States for a little more than a year at the time of the interview. Artak mentioned coming to
United States for economic reasons, stating that the economy in Armenia was so bad that there
was no future for his family there, even as physicians. Artak enrolled in noncredit ESL classes
with no background in English and progressed through the noncredit ESL program from Level 2
through Level 4. He explains, “One years ago, I can’t speak [English], but I can speak now. I
take 2 levels, but it really helped. I, myself, changed my social media, everything in English. I
was watching movies by watching only in English. So great. Every time in English. I’m improve
my English.”
Hermine was a female in her early 30s from Armenia. She said she came to the United
States because of the war near her home. She felt it was safer for her family and they would have
a better life if they moved to the United States. In Armenia, she said that she had completed a
master’s degree in Educational Psychology. She describes,
I am coming from Armenia … I studied at a pedagogy university. Was a good university
where I learn the psychology of education. I for 6 years study and I have master’s degree.
I graduated with red diploma and learned very well.
Hermine worked initially as a Kindergarten instructor and then later worked for the
transportation ministry of her country. She explains, “After graduated university, I worked in a
company called the Special Connect. It’s a different job, and it is also a very important,
interesting job, and it is part of transportation Ministry of Armenia.” Hermine had lived in the
United States for 5 months at the time of the interview and repeatedly mentioned that she did not
54

yet have a green card disqualifying her from certain services. Hermine attributed her advanced
English level to years of studying English in Armenia.
Yoko was a female in her late 30s from Japan. In Japan, she said she had earned a degree
in computer science and worked at a trading company for 10 years. She said, “I studied computer
science. It feels like because it was a few years ago, it is not useful now.” Yoko left her job after
she got married and focused on raising children. She explains further, “Before the married, I had
a career, but I finished my career because in Japan usually women is always stay at home to do
the housework stuff after married.” Yoko had lived in the United States for 4 years at the time of
the interview and said that her family immigrated to Southern California so that her husband
could pursue acting in Hollywood. She describes what happened,
Four years ago, suddenly, my husband asked me to go to U.S. to change his career
because he want to be a actor in Hollywood. So, I said, okay … he want to try because
we have 2 boys, he want to show them how to do any new things.
Nora was a female in her late 20s from Venezuela. In Venezuela, she said she had
finished 7 years of higher education to become a general medical practitioner. She then worked
in the Dominican Republic as a physician’s assistant for 3 years. In her words, “I left my country
because all of the problems there, I leave. And then for 3 years I live in the Dominican
Republic.” Regarding her classes at ECC, she explains, “I have living in Los Angeles for 1 year.
I found Eastland College from Google. I just make a research Google where I can find free
classes English. Online is good for me because ECC is far from here close Long Beach, so I just
go online.”
Liza was a female student in her mid-30s from Armenia where she said she had earned
her Master’s degree in foreign language studies and educational pedagogy. She states, “So, I fell
55

in love with the foreign languages when I was still a child at the school, and till now I’m still in
love with languages.” Liza worked as an English and Russian language tutor but was more
focused on raising her small children. In her words, “I could not go to work too much because
my children were well, very little, and I did not have an opportunity to make both things go
together.” At the time of the interview, Liza had lived in the United States for 4 months. She
shared,
Then, somehow, I realized that there were no future for me in Armenia. There was not
future there for my children, and I understand that I need something more. So, we in my
family decided to try to come here and to start from the new page.
Mihoko was a female student from Japan in her forties and had lived in the United States
for nearly twenty years at the time of the interview. In Japan, she had finished a degree in early
childhood education and worked as a preschool teacher. She explained,
I was for 2 years the lead teacher. I really like to my job. But suddenly I was the
interested in English. So, after I decided to move to the U.S., I was married and after I
have a three kids. So, I was too busy to work.
As Mihoko’s children are now growing up, she decided to return to school to further her
education and enrolled in noncredit ESL as her first step. In her words, “I think now, I know that
I have to use English and Speak English. It really help me to take ESL classes.” When speaking
about her goals for the future, she said,
Now, maybe, I thinking after they [my children] are the big enough, they don’t need my
help, I am thinking about studying about the children and education in this country. I can
study and work in anything related for children.
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Ulga was a female student in her mid to late 30s from Armenia. She said she came to the
United States about a year prior to the interview because her home was near the war happening
between Armenia and Azerbaijan. She said,
We recognize after war start to come here. Because until that time, all is okay. There was
okay… but after my brother living here, and there was a war, I came for them, for my
children because in Armenia I couldn’t see future.
Ulga earned a Master’s degree in economics from Yerevan University and worked for many
years at a bank until she reached a senior level role. Of her job, she said, “I liked so much my job
and the payment is so good for Armenia.” Ulga started at ECC’s noncredit program in Level 2 as
she had some prior knowledge of English and was a Level 4 student at the time of the interview.
Findings
In the interviews with the participants, there were six themes that arose surrounding
employment, program needs, and continued education. The common threads were uncovered
through coding, categorizing, and sorting interview transcripts for both generalizable and unique
trends and topics.
The following three themes emerged from Research Question 1:
 need for jobs
 jobs utilizing prior education and skills
 perceptions surrounding ESL and vocational needs at ECC
The following three themes emerged from research question two:
 supporting ELLs to enter certificate programs
 support needed for entering graduate school
 avoid starting over from the bottom-up
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Findings Research Question 1
The first research question asked what the needs of ECC’s ELLs in noncredit ESL
programs were versus their perception of the services offered by ECC revealing a need for
expedient employment as well as a desire to apply prior education, experience, and skills. While
participants praised ECC’s exceptional ESL program, they also perceived a lack of vocational
opportunities offered.
Need for Jobs
Five out of seven participants stressed the need to find work to survive as the highest
priority in their lives at this stage in their resettlement. In one case, a participant named Artak
said that he had to work to feed his family regardless of his prior education and professional
pedigree as an orthopedist but lamented the loss. He stated,
I feel like I am stuck in a bigger problem. The problem also is we are starting again. I am
the breadwinner. I come to this country with the family. Most of us coming to this
country with the family. So, I have to work. I must work. This is the dilemma; if I do it
more studying to improve my level, to have a good job possibilities, then I can’t feed my
family. That is the problem. You have to work. They have to earn money. You have to
feed your family…and you have no enough time to improve your English, to improve
your education, and that’s what you have. But I am a specialist, I am a professional, but
in America it is hard, I think. I have to face the reality of working right now.
Despite his circumstances, Artak recognized that the sacrifices he makes will contribute towards
creating a better future for his family. Similar to Artak, other participants spoke often of the need
for income driving them to do whatever it takes to find work. Ulga talked about wanting to find
work at a bank if possible so that she could showcase her skills, but repeatedly acknowledged
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that any job was better than no job and that she needed to find a way to make money soon. She
said, “I really will like bank job, but I happy with any good job right now.” While her preference
would be a career in banking, she was open to pursuing any good job opportunity. Another
participant, Hermine, talked about how her husband had been a lawyer in their home country, but
that he is now working as an Uber driver because having any job that earns enough income to
meet basic needs is more important than anything else right now. In her words, “So, my main
need is steady job for my husband now and for me in future too.” She also added, “I need job.
But I don’t know how college can help me.” Hermine talked about trying to access support at
ECC for additional income but said that students without green cards do not qualify for those
services. She asked, “If you resident, what you can do? How you can know about program for
student with no green card?” She continued by explaining the first few years for an immigrant
are the hardest and when they need the most support to get a job. Hermine recognized the
importance of securing a steady job for both herself and her husband in the future but was unsure
of how ECC could assist her in this endeavor.
The interviews revealed that finding work to support their families was a top priority for
ELLs in the noncredit program. As a result, the need for jobs, emerged as the first theme in the
study’s findings. Despite their professional backgrounds, the participants recognized the need to
take any job that would provide enough income to meet basic needs. However, they faced
challenges such as a lack of support for immigrants without green cards and the difficulty of
balancing work with improving their education or language skills, which could lead to better job
opportunities. The interviews underscored the importance of connecting ELLs in the noncredit
ESL program with employment opportunities. This will be further discussed in Chapter Five as a
transactional change that drives transformational change.
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Jobs Utilizing Prior Education and Skills
All seven participants had completed some form of higher education prior to immigrating
to the United States. Two of the seven participants reported that they had a bachelor’s degree,
three had a master’s degree, and two indicated that they had a doctoral degree. Six of seven
participants expressed a desire to use their prior education and experience in some way towards
improving their job prospects.
Ulga described how difficult it is to have advanced education and experience but not feel
that there is an avenue available to her where she can make use of those skills. She stated, “I
wish the college will help me find certificate program or other program where I can use my
education and find a job that makes the more money possible.” As was related in the section
describing participants, Ulga graduated with a master’s in economics and had a lucrative role in a
major bank in her home country. She repeatedly expressed that she does not know how to make
use of her experience and training now that she lives in the United States, but she would like to
find a way to do so. Like Ulga, Hermine stated that she had a master’s degree in her country of
origin and had worked in an important field she enjoyed. Hermine had worked for the
transportation ministry of her country, but now she is not sure which way to go. She stated,
“Maybe ECC can helping me find the easy job at first, but this not the kind of job I want.”
Hermine’s statement highlights her desire for finding, not a low-paying job, but one that provides
financial stability. Nora, a medical professional from Venezuela, mentioned that there may be
services at ECC that could help students find service jobs at fast food restaurants, for example,
but she felt that she would be wasting her time and years of education if she went that route.
Nora acknowledged that she does not have dependents at this point in her life, so she wants to
work hard to become a doctor again in the United States.
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All participants indicated wanting to use their prior education but were unsure how. In
response to the question, “What could ECC’s career services do to support you now?” Five out
of seven stated they would like the opportunity to volunteer in their field of expertise. Hermine
said she would like to volunteer and learn by interacting in English naturally. She said, “I can
volunteering is good. I learn more English this way and get best experience.” Artak added,
Even they make us to work, even after residency with little pay or in bad area, it will be
ok. It will be good because we can be sure that we can have work and a good position
after certain amount of time. Honestly, I wish there was some way that we can maybe
volunteer. I mean for free, for no pay. I would do that with great pleasure to show them
what I know. And I can learn from American doctors. I wish they can just let us to work.
I can work for helping rehabilitation with patients or something. It would be better for
everyone if our skills are not wasted.
Despite facing obstacles in accessing job opportunities that align with his medical background,
Artak remained determined and willing to work hard to build a better future. He recognized the
value of gaining experience and building connections, even if it would mean volunteering or
working for free. Nora also expressed that she would like to “maybe try for unpaid internships”
as a way to get started again in the medical field. Yoko stated, “Maybe if English is get better, I
can help and volunteer in classroom. I want to do it.” Mihoko added, “In my case, if I can
volunteer, I be so happy. Volunteer in daycare on ECC campus. I will learn more this way. I use
my education. I was preschool teacher in Japan.” Yoko and Mihoko saw volunteering as an
opportunity to give back to the community as well as to improve their English.
Based on the interviews, it was found that participants wanted to utilize their education
and skills in their future employment. This led to the emergence of a theme regarding finding a
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job that matches their prior knowledge and abilities. Prior to immigrating to the United States, all
seven participants had completed some form of higher education, with the majority holding a
master’s or doctoral degree. Five of the participants expressed their interest in volunteering in
their field of expertise to gain experience and improve their English skills. Despite their
education and expertise, six out of seven participants were uncertain about how to effectively use
their skills to enhance their job prospects in the United States. The interviews highlighted the
importance of recognizing that many ELLs in the noncredit ESL program have a higher
education background and require support that reflects this fact. This idea will be discussed in
Chapter Five with recommendations for transactional changes to drive transformational change
in this area.
Perceptions Surrounding ESL and Vocational Needs at ECC
All seven participants spoke highly of the noncredit ESL program at ECC. Artak said, “I
actually love the noncredit program English class in Garfield.” Hermine said, “For what I need
right now, learning English, Garfield program is helping me improve. I have learned a lot.” Yoko
said, “The English classes are very good. I, for culture, love the classes.” Liza said, “[Noncredit
ESL class] is a great opportunity for me to get English.” Mihoko stated, “Finally I am in ESL
classes and I found many friends from all different places.” Nora said, “I really appreciate the
ESL classes.” Ulga also added, “Yes, they teach me English very well, which is something I
needing so much now.” The participants were unanimous in their praise for the noncredit ESL
program at ECC. As Artak, Hermine, Yoko, Liza, Mihoko, Nora, and Ulga all attested, the
program is instrumental in helping them improve their English skills and providing them with a
valuable opportunity to connect with other learners from diverse backgrounds.
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Participants further spoke of the importance of the classes being free and how, without
that, they would not have been able to attend college. Nora said she searched the internet for free
English classes and found ECC even though it is not very close to her home. She mentioned how
pleased she was that so many classes are offered synchronously online. Hermine also mentioned
how the synchronous online classes at ECC allow even someone with small children and no car
to study and improve their English language skills.
Mihoko talked about the quality of the instructors and how much experience they have.
She said, “They veteran teachers a lot of experience. In ESL level one and every level, each
teacher help us so much.” She also said she felt so fortunate to take high-quality courses for free,
something she said she would never have been able to do in her home country. Artak also spoke
about the noncredit ESL program at ECC, saying that it is the perfect place to learn English and
that everyone he knew recommended it. He also proudly shared how much English he had
learned in such a short period of time thanks to the classes at ECC.
When asked what learning English will do for them, all of the study participants said that
improving their English language fluency would help them become more employable, among
other things. Artak said, “I have to learn English here [because it is] important help me to get a
job.” Hermine said, “If I will learn English very well, I can get interesting and good job.” Nora
said, “Learn English will help me a lot to get a job here.” They emphasized the importance of
improving their English language skills to enhance their employability. However, when asked if
they believe ECC has the services they need beyond ESL, six out of seven participants expressed
that they were unaware of how to accomplish their goals at ECC other than to improve their
English language skills. None mentioned entering certificate programs as an option towards
attaining their stated goals.
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Further exploration revealed that six of the seven study participants had the perception
that ECC could not provide them with the vocational preparation they required. Participants
indicated that they chose ECC because it would help with learning English, but it did not seem
clear that ECC would be able to help with anything else. Nora wondered, “Where can I find a job
or where can I apply the certificates they [ECC] provide me?” Some openly assumed that what
they needed was not available at ECC. Artak shared his sentiment on this topic, “We are lawyers,
doctors, teachers, nurses, economist. ECC cannot give us certificate for that. I wish they can help
us find jobs in our specialty, but I don’t know how they can do it. They are doing their best.”
While recognizing the challenges of finding work in his field through ECC’s services, Artak
remained appreciative for the ESL program.
The interviews revealed a positive perception of the quality of ECC’s ESL program, but
also exposed a lack of awareness regarding the institution’s vocational services resulting in this
topic emerging as a prominent theme in the study. Chapter Five will discuss transactional
recommendations for increasing communication with ELLs in the noncredit ESL program
regarding vocational opportunities at ECC that can help to create transformational change.
Findings for Research Question 2
The second research question centered on what transformational and transactional
components are needed to increase the number of ELLs in noncredit ESL programs participating
in ECC’s certificate-earning programs. The participants responded with ideas for programs or
certificates for ELLs including those with advanced degrees which became a theme. Another
theme centered around services to help ELLs move ahead into graduate-level programs, and a
third theme indicated that the ELLs wanted to avoid having to start their education over.
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Supporting ELLs to Enter Certificate Programs
When asked what ECC could do to help ELLs in noncredit ESL programs enroll in
certificate earning courses, Artak said,
We need some kind of program. … I wish there was something here similar to in
Germany. For immigrant, in German, you need learning language and then program takes
1 year and 8 months. If you pass your tests, you can be doctor again and work.
Artak believes that having a similar program in place for ELLs in the noncredit program would
greatly benefit him and other immigrants in the United States. Similarly, six out of seven study
participants responded that ECC could help them by creating certificates or other programs that
help students get jobs using their previous education and experience. Not all participants were
sure how this could be accomplished, but each expressed the need for certificates and programs
specifically designed to meet the needs of ELLs with prior advanced education. Yoko said if
there were certificates that would help her find work in her field, she felt that would be the best
option. Ulga affirmed the need for programs, stating that “ECC could have a program that shows
people how to find a job in our career in the fastest way.” Ulga’s statement reflects a common
sentiment among the study participants, who expressed a need for certificates or other resources
at ECC targeted to support ELLs to find work in their field of expertise.
Nora explained that she completed medical training in Venezuela and wanted to find
certificates or programs that could help her work in the United States in the medical field, but she
encountered many obstacles finding services to help her. She also stressed that she appreciates
the medical certificate offerings, like the front office certificate, medical billing certificate, and
medical terminology courses that she has been able to find at ECC but would like additional
options that are more likely to produce lucrative job prospects. For example, Nora suggested, “If
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you have more options for different kinds of certificates. One important part of the medical field
is electronic health record. Yes, that will be awesome.” Nora’s proposal centers on ECC
providing more vocational opportunities for ELLs by offering new certificates in growing
medical fields. Artak, another international medical graduate, mentioned that he was looking for
a certificate where he could make money in an area near his field of expertise but couldn’t find
one at ECC. Then he learned about a massage therapist certificate at a private institution from his
friend. In his words,
After 4 or 5 months, I can get the massage therapist certificate, and then I can work as a
manual therapist. Is better than Uber, or moving, or something like that. It is closer what I
study before. At least I can helping patients with back pain and knee pain. It is what I can
do.
Artak emphasized the significance of networking and exploring all employment training options
available to ELLs during his interview. Although the massage therapist certificate he discovered
may not be directly related to his area of expertise, he believes that it presents him with an
opportunity to utilize his prior training to help others while also earning a living.
Other ideas that participants offered when asked what ECC could do to help them enroll
in certificate programs included wanting more academic and career counseling sessions. Yoko
said she would like to bring all her education and experience with her to a counselor to talk about
what options there are for her now. Ulga said she had met with an academic counselor but
wanted to meet with him or her more often. She was unclear about what certificates might meet
her needs and still had many unanswered questions. In her words, “I talked to a good counselor.
So, I know some things. Oh, I know medical billing or a front desk something, but I don’t know
that if they have accounting. I don’t know which certificates are offering.” While she felt the
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counseling she received was very helpful, she wanted more counseling. Additionally, Nora and
Ulga suggested there could be counseling opportunities readily available that connect students to
certificates, volunteer work, jobs, and graduate school.
Another participant suggested having speakers from different certificate programs give
presentations to lower-level ESL classes as well as advanced classes to help students connect
with future pathway options from the beginning. Nora suggested that students find out about
their options as soon as they enter the lowest levels of ESL. She said, “Right from the beginning
at least if you understand a little bit about how can you become helpful and have purpose in this
country. Then everyday you will wake up and start your English class with purpose.” Nora
emphasized the significance of providing ELLs with access to resources that facilitate the
planning of their future lives in the United States in a consistent and timely manner from the
outset of their ESL coursework.
In the interview participants expressed many ideas that could help more ELLs enroll in
certificate earning courses which became the theme for this section. The participants proposed
various suggestions, including the development of specialized certificates or programs for highly
educated ELLs to secure employment in their respective fields. They also recommended repeated
academic and career counseling sessions along with helping ELLs prepare for their future in the
United States from the beginning of their ESL coursework. Chapter Five will delve into
transactional recommendations that consider these suggestions, aiming to bring transformational
change to support more ELLs in attending and successfully completing certificate courses.
Support Needed for Entering Graduate School
More than half of the study participants shared that they could use support transitioning
into graduate-level programs. When participants were asked, “Do you believe ECC has services
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to meet your needs in all areas and explain why you believe this?” Four participants said they
need support with the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), which they said is
required for entering graduate school. All seven participants repeated that they would like the
opportunity to transition into a level of education that would allow them to continue to some
extent from where they left off in their country of origin. For example, Yoko earned a bachelor’s
degree in Japan and would like to know if there is a way to continue nearer to where she left off.
All participants had a bachelor’s degree or higher, so in many cases, they indicated that graduate
school would be the next step. However, participants were unsure about the logistics and
possibility of attending graduate school and expressed a desire for support in that area. Hermine
stated, “I don’t know I can start graduate school. Nobody tell me this. If ECC teach me step by
step how I can apply graduate school, that will help. I think many student need help with this.”
Hermine’s comments emphasized her desire for assistance and support with navigating the
complex process of applying to graduate school. Artak suggested forming partnerships with
graduate school programs so that students with advanced degrees could transfer right away after
reaching a certain level of English language proficiency.
As part of the graduate school admission process, Artak, Ulga, Nora, and Hermine
suggested that ECC help ELL students evaluate foreign degrees and transcripts. Most
participants acknowledged that it is difficult and expensive to get transcripts evaluated. As Artak
suggests,
Right now, anyone who has education from another country needs spend money for a
company who can do evaluating foreign diplomas. If ECC helped noncredit students
doing that and helping them know what is it they can to do with the foreign education, it
will help so much.
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Artak points out that by providing resources to help evaluate foreign degrees and transcripts,
ECC can help alleviate the financial burden associated with this process and provide students
with a better understanding of how their foreign education can be utilized.
The participants in the interviews called for support in transitioning into graduate-level
programs which led to the formation of this theme. All participants held a bachelor’s degree or
higher and expressed a need for assistance with the logistics of entering graduate school.
Participants requested TOEFL test prep, proposed bridging noncredit ESL with graduate
programs, suggested offering step-by-step instruction on the application process, and suggested
aid with evaluating foreign degrees and transcripts. In order to effect transformational change,
Chapter Five will examine transactional recommendations that may help ELLs to apply to
graduate school.
Avoid Starting Over From the Bottom-Up
At least three participants expressed that the system of moving from noncredit to credit
and then on to an AA degree before transferring to a 4-year school seemed unreasonable and
impractical because of their prior education, but they didn’t know of an alternative pathway
forward. The sentiment was repeated often among six out of seven participants that they would
like to avoid having to start their education over again from the bottom. As Artak explained,
“Nobody want to start again from the bottom.” Artak expressed a strong desire to avoid
duplicating his prior education solely due to his credentials having been earned outside of the
United States. Yoko affirmed this idea, saying she wishes there was some way to draw a path
forward that wouldn’t take too long. She spoke of wanting to return to school to continue her
education. However, she already has a degree from Japan and wonders if she would be required
to start from the beginning and repeat her university education. Yoko asked, “Do I need to go up
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from bottom again? I know America is different from Japan in terms of age. Right? There is no
limit of age if I want to study and then go work after my children are older, right?” Ulga stated
something similar, “I don’t know how many years we need study for any certificate for
accounting. Does any my education in economics count in accounting certificate? Is a certificate
enough to work or do I need to study very long time start again to finish a new diploma or
degree?” Nora also expressed this feeling, “It will be obviously so helpful for immigrants if there
is someone some program who was teaching you and help you to not start again from a scratch.”
Nora’s words highlight the challenges she faces because she does not know how to avoid having
to repeat her education in the United States.
Five participants mentioned that friends had advised them to conceal their prior education
because they would lose their chance to receive financial aid if it became known that they had
obtained degrees abroad. As Hermine pointed out, “Many students thought that if the college
know that they have degree or diploma, the government didn’t pay for education.” Yoko stated
that she would be happy to take classes again and go back to school, but she would need to
understand how she could get financial aid even if she already has a degree. Other students
expressed similar sentiments.
The participants’ expressed frustration with the traditional education system, which
requires them to start from the bottom and obtain noncredit and credit degrees before transferring
to a 4-year school. They wished for an alternative pathway and wanted to avoid starting their
education from scratch which became the basis for this theme. Some participants even
considered hiding their prior education to receive financial aid. Five out of seven participants
said that while continuing their education is important, finding gainful employment without
having to start over completely is more important. Chapter Five will look at transactional
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suggestions with the goal of transformative change to help ELLs avoid needing to repeat their
education to work in their field.
Summary
The study aimed to investigate the needs and perceptions of ELLs in the noncredit ESL
program at ECC, with the first research question comparing the needs of ELLs to their
perceptions of the services offered and the second exploring ways to increase ELL participation
in certificate-earning programs. Six themes emerged from participant interviews. The first theme
included the need for quick job opportunities; the second, a desire to utilize prior education and
skills in future employment; the third addressed the participants’ perception of ECC’s stellar
ESL program that conversely lacks a tangible connection to the ELLs’ vocational needs. Theme
four centered around supporting ELLs to enter certificate courses; theme five focused on the
participants’ desire for support to enter graduate-level programs, and theme six was about ELLs
wanting to avoid starting over. These themes formed the basis for the discussion of the findings.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
The purpose of the study was to explore why there are not more English Language
Learners (ELLs) in the noncredit English as a Second Language (ESL) program completing
certificate-earning courses at Eastland Community College (ECC). This chapter interprets the
qualitative data collected and suggests practical applications to improve the noncredit ESL
program at ECC.
The research questions that guided the study were as follows:
1. What are the needs of ECC’s ELLs in noncredit ESL programs versus their
perception of ECC’s services offered?
2. What are the transformational and transactional components needed to increase the
number of ELLs from the noncredit ESL program participating in ECC’s certificate
earning courses?
This study utilized an exploratory and descriptive qualitative methodology (Creswell,
2017). Interviews were conducted to gather information about the needs of ELLs in ECC’s
noncredit ESL program, their perceptions of the services offered, and the reasons behind the low
enrollment rate in ECC’s certificate programs. The researcher conducted interviews with seven
students who were currently enrolled in advanced noncredit ESL level 4 courses at ECC. The
interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed to collect data.
Discussion of Findings
The discussion of the findings is based on the themes that emerged from the interviews.
The study aimed to understand the needs and perceptions of noncredit ESL students at ECC. The
first research question focused on comparing student needs with their perceptions of the services
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offered, while the second question explored ways to increase participation in certificate-earning
programs.
Through participant interviews, six themes emerged. The first theme highlighted the
importance of the need for jobs, while the second focused on the desire to utilize prior education
and skills in future employment. The third theme addressed the disparity between ECC’s
excellent ESL program and the lack of tangible connection to the vocational needs of ELLs. The
fourth theme centered on ways to support ELLs in entering certificate courses, while the fifth
focused on helping ELLs gain access to graduate-level programs. Finally, the sixth theme was
about helping ELLs avoid starting over.
Need for Jobs
According to this research, five out of seven participants stated that finding work was the
highest priority for ELLs in ECC’s noncredit ESL program. The initial need for jobs was urgent,
with participants seeking immediate job opportunities for survival. The long-term goal, however,
was to secure steady and higher-paying jobs after learning English through the noncredit ESL
program. These findings are consistent with previous literature on the subject.
Razfar and Simon (2011) noted that finding gainful employment is the most important
objective for immigrants to achieve stability in resettlement. Barkan (2010) also emphasized the
importance of work to immigrant populations and how their experiences in the labor market
shape their lives. Jacobs and Dougherty (2006) focused on the economic and social integration of
adult immigrant ELLs, including their labor market experiences, and found that finding work is a
top priority for immigrants, particularly in the first few years after resettlement.
Based on these findings, employment is a critical part of the resettlement process for
adult ELLs in ECC’s noncredit ESL program, especially in the first few years. The study showed
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that the ELLs in ECC’s noncredit ESL program are highly motivated to find work quickly which
underscores the importance of providing support and resources to ELLs so they may find
employment, as it can greatly impact their economic and social integration.
To address this issue, transactional changes in the institution’s procedures and structure
are imperative to establish an effective means of connecting students with existing services.
Consistent communication with each student is essential to ensure that information about
available job opportunities is relayed, resulting in transformative measures that enable all ELLs
enrolled in ECC’s noncredit program to have access to employment. Participant responses
highlight the significant role that ECC can play in assisting ELLs in achieving their career
aspirations and enhancing their socioeconomic status. The participants’ experiences emphasize
the need for providing resources and support for ELLs ensuring that such services are accessible
to ELLs at all proficiency levels. In the recommendation section I will discuss organizing and
training volunteer ELLs from the noncredit ESL program to undertake onboarding as advisors
equipped with information about currently available employment options as a remediation to
address this issue.
Jobs Utilizing Prior Education and Skills
All seven participants had completed some form of higher education prior to immigrating
to the United States. Of those seven participants, six expressed a desire to use their prior
education and experience to improve their job prospects. However, all participants also indicated
that they were unsure how to utilize their skills and education to achieve this goal and suggested
volunteering as a first step.
This study’s findings show that highly educated ELLs encounter difficulties when trying
to apply their skills and knowledge in the job market. This is a widespread problem faced by
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many highly educated immigrants in the United States (Dowling & Bholat, 2012; Fix &
Zimmermann, 2001; Razfar & Simon, 2011; Rumbaut, 2008). According to a report by the
Migration Policy Institute, immigrants with higher education are more likely to be unemployed
or underemployed than workers born in the United States with the same level of education,
leading to a loss of potential economic benefits (Fix & Zimmermann, 2001). This difficulty in
finding work that utilizes their education and skills is not unique to the participants in this study.
In the literature, Dowling and Bholat (2012) found that at least 1.3 million highly educated
immigrants in the United States are working in menial jobs below their skill level.
This issue requires attention, as underutilizing the skills and education of highly educated
immigrants not only affects individuals’ professional lives but also results in a waste of human
capital with significant economic consequences (Batalova & Bachmeier, 2016; Gonzalez &
Shulman, 2019). Addressing this issue requires a multi-faceted approach, including training and
educational programs, expanding job search networks, and ensuring that credentials earned
abroad are recognized in the United States.
This study revealed that ELLs in the noncredit ESL program at ECC possess a wealth of
knowledge and are eager to contribute to society and make a better life for themselves and their
families. However, their potential often goes untapped, and they encounter difficulties accessing
opportunities to utilize their skills, as noted by participants’ quotes and supported by the
literature. To address this issue, resources and support are needed to help ELLs in the noncredit
ESL program find opportunities that match their qualifications and utilize their skills, even if it is
through volunteer work initially. Such opportunities would not only allow ELLs to make
meaningful contributions and develop their professional abilities but also enhance their language
proficiency and cultural competence.
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In the recommendation section, I propose a transactional shift of organizing and training
volunteer ELLs from the noncredit ESL program to serve as advisors. Eventually, ECC could
transition to employing these highly educated ELLs full-time advisors. This could lead to
transformational change and would enable ELLs to address the desire to utilize prior education
while also improving their skills.
Perceptions Surrounding ESL and Vocational Needs at ECC
The findings from the study show that the noncredit ESL program at ECC is highly
valued by the participants for improving their English language fluency. This is consistent with
the literature, which suggests that community college ESL programs are highly valued by adult
immigrant students, who see these programs as a critical resource for learning English and
improving their job prospects (Razfar & Simon, 2011). Reasons cited for why participants chose
to enroll in the noncredit ESL program included the fact that courses are free and that remote
options are available. Further, this study confirmed that, for ELLs, the noncredit ESL program is
at ECC is effective, robust, and has high quality instructors. However, findings also highlighted a
perceived gap in vocational preparation at ECC beyond ESL. The majority of the participants
expressed the belief that ECC could not provide them with the vocational training they needed,
indicating a lack of awareness of available programs and services.
This perception is consistent with existing literature that suggests that workforce training
can be difficult for adult immigrant and refugee students to access (Rutschow et al., 2019). The
community college mission, which often prioritizes transferring to 4-year colleges and
universities, may be a contributing factor to the lack of access (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006;
O’Banion, 2019; Pedersen, 1997).
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Participants indicated that although the noncredit ESL program at ECC is highly
regarded, there is a need to increase awareness and access to vocational training for ELLs in the
program. Addressing this issue can help ECC better support these students in achieving their
vocational goals and enhancing their employability. Providing more information and resources to
help ELLs in the noncredit ESL program understand the vocational training opportunities
available to them is one way to address this issue. Additionally, diversifying the offerings to
include a more comprehensive vocational component is essential. To facilitate improved
communication of services, the onboarding and advisory core recommended in the previous
sections can be utilized.
As a form of vocational training, in the recommendation section, at the transactional
systems level, I recommend that the noncredit ESL program organize ELLs into small clusters to
audit select credit classes based on their career goals. This will enable ELLs to begin preparing
to use vocabulary specific to their field of expertise. This approach could include transactional
policy and structural changes which could potentially result in transformation in the form of
increased enrollment in credit classes and enhance noncredit offerings by providing a more
comprehensive “content-based ESL” track (Friedman, 2002).
Supporting ELLs to Enter Certificate Programs
The findings showed that ECC has a particularly high percentage of ELLs in its noncredit
ESL program with higher education and degrees earned prior to resettlement in the United
States. When asked what ECC could do to help noncredit ESL students enroll in a certificate
program, the study participants expressed a desire to enroll in certificate programs that align with
their previous education and experience. ECC should provide more opportunities and resources
for highly skilled ELLs in the noncredit program at ECC to enhance their education and training
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so they may enter the workforce at a level that matches their qualifications. Doing so can help
unlock the potential of this population and contribute to the overall growth of certificate
programs and student success at ECC. However, there are few certificate options or programs
that directly support highly educated immigrants; instead, according to the literature, almost all
noncredit ESL programs focus on instrumental support rather than long-term sufficiency (Baran
et al., 2018).
As the research suggests, the underutilization of the expertise and brain power of highly
skilled immigrants leads to a loss of billions of dollars in tax income each year (Batalova &
Bachmeier, 2016). Additional research supports the need to provide services and support for
highly educated immigrants. According to a report by the Migration Policy Institute, immigrants
with higher education and professional skills face significant barriers to employment and often
experience underemployment or unemployment due to the lack of recognition of their
qualifications and limited access to opportunities that match their skill set (Fix & Zimmermann,
2001). It is important to address the gaps in services and provide support for highly educated
immigrants to fully utilize their skills and education in the job market.
The findings of the study shed light on the obstacles that international medical graduates,
for example, encounter when seeking employment opportunities in their field. One participant
who sought vocational programs at ECC settled instead for a short-term remedy through a
private institution that confers certificates in massage therapy. It is less than ideal that ELLs
enrolled in ECC’s noncredit program should have to resort to social connections or private
entities to avail themselves of necessary services. This information ought to be readily accessible
and integrated into the ESL program’s framework. The narratives from the interviews underscore
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the significance of networking and comprehensive exploration of all options for vocational
training for ELLs at ECC.
To take a concrete step towards supporting ELLs to enter ECC’s certificate programs, it
is imperative that we offer the types of certificates and training that they need. In the
recommendation section, I propose that ECC contact the Welcome Back Initiative in order to set
up an initial meeting with the goal of creating a program that offers tailored job readiness
services for highly educated ELLs (Welcome Back Initiative, 2023). The Welcome Back
Initiative (2023) is an organization that works to address the barriers that foreign-trained
healthcare professionals face when trying to re-enter their fields in the United States.
Support Needed for Entering Graduate School
The findings of the study suggest that many ELLs in the noncredit ESL program at ECC
aspire to pursue higher education beyond the associate’s degree level as they would prefer to
continue their education from where they left off in their country of origin rather than starting
over. This is consistent with findings from previous research, such as Baran et al. (2018) and
Jacobs and Dougherty (2006), which highlight the importance of supporting immigrant ELLs in
pursuing higher education beyond the ESL program level. The participants cited needing support
to transition into graduate-level programs, including assistance with TOEFL preparation,
transcript evaluation, and navigating the application process.
The study’s participants reported a sense of confusion regarding their options, often
withholding their academic backgrounds due to a dearth of information and a lack of open
discussion on the matter of financial aid and graduate school opportunities which appears in the
literature as well as this study (Lee & Rice, 2007). The participants were not fully aware of
whether individuals with bachelor’s or master’s degrees from foreign countries could take the
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TOEFL, apply to graduate school directly, and potentially receive financial aid. It was
disheartening that such essential information was not communicated or facilitated by their ESL
program. This sentiment is consistent with previous research findings, which suggest that
immigrant ELLs often face challenges in transitioning to higher education in the United States
due to a lack of recognition of their prior education and experience (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006).
The fact that the participants of this study were resigned to the notion that their options were
limited underscores the urgency of addressing this significant issue among the ELL population.
Despite being highly educated ELLs, they are restricted by language and information barriers
that impair their ability to establish themselves in the United States (Garcia, 2013). While the
noncredit ESL program at ECC can effectively aid in teaching English, more needs to be done to
enable ELLs to reestablish themselves in the United States by, for example, supporting them to
pursue graduate studies so they may obtain a degree commensurate with their knowledge level
that can be leveraged anywhere in the United States.
Additionally, the interviews revealed that ELLs at ECC would benefit from having access
to aid in evaluating their foreign degrees and transcripts. Batalova and Creticos (2008) suggest
evaluating credentials from other countries as part of the immigration process. After these
documents are translated, ELLs could consult with counselors to obtain information about their
options and gain a better understanding of how their foreign education can be leveraged. In the
absence of these translations, any career plans or goals would be based on speculation rather than
concrete reality. The participants expressed a need for support in alleviating the financial burden
associated with this process.
In the recommendation section, I suggest that ECC communicate with California’s
Community College Chancellor’s Office (CCCCO) to ask if under the Student-Centered Funding
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Formula (SCFF), community colleges can receive funding for successfully transitioning
qualified students into graduate programs. If not, then ECC should, through various means,
petition the CCCCO to consider an update to the SCFF that would include graduate school
transfers. Another recommendation would be to utilize the ELL volunteer advisors mentioned in
previous sections to support qualified ELLs with the graduate school application process.
Avoid Starting Over From the Bottom-Up
The study findings reveal a common sentiment among participants regarding the
difficulty of navigating the assumed community college pathway from noncredit to credit to an
associate’s degree and then to a 4-year college. Participants expressed frustration with the idea of
starting their education from the bottom despite their prior degrees, which they felt was
impractical and unreasonable. This feeling was reinforced in the literature with the study of
“brain waste” which refers to host countries not taking full advantage of the education and
expertise of the immigrant population (Batalova & Bachmeier, 2016; Dowling & Bholat, 2012).
The literature also highlights the difficulties faced by nontraditional and immigrant students in
accessing higher education opportunities in the United States that coincide with their prior
education as discussed in studies by Barkan (2010) and Jacobs and Dougherty (2006).
Moreover, the participants expressed concerns about losing their chance to receive
financial aid if their prior education was discovered which demonstrates the need for increased
awareness and education on how to access financial aid for ELLs with prior education. The
literature supports this finding, as studies by Lee and Rice (2007) and Park (2013) report similar
sentiments among immigrant and international students. This highlights the importance of
providing accurate and accessible information on financial aid opportunities and addressing the
barriers faced by ELLs in accessing financial aid.
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While the students may have proposed the creation of a program or center for highly
educated ELLs, such a solution may not be practical. Instead, it would be more beneficial to
provide resources and information directly to the classrooms where ELL students are situated
which may be supported through an ELL advisory group like that suggested in previous sections.
Overall, the findings of this study highlight the necessity for community colleges and
ECC to acknowledge and find solutions to support the ELLs they serve. The goal of transferring
students to credit-earning courses (Mecom, 2014; Ramirez, 2014) should not be the primary
focus if it does not align with the needs and desires of the students. To better support students
and increase enrollment in certificate-earning courses, it is essential to recognize the population
of students served and consider their needs. The average age of ELLs in the noncredit ESL
program at ECC is 35, with most having dependent children. Regardless of their education level,
employment was the main goal cited by participants. To better serve students, the underlying
objective of the noncredit ESL program should shift towards enabling ELL students to become
employable in high-paying jobs as quickly as possible while providing them with English
instruction. By prioritizing helping students become gainfully employed, ideas for services, new
certificates, and programs will naturally follow.
In the final section of Chapter Five’s recommendation, I will propose that ECC align its
vision and mission of the noncredit ESL program to include helping all students gain
employment, and add a goal centered on building a bridge between highly educated ELLs and
employment in their area of expertise. The hope would be to generate transformation by shifting
the culture of the noncredit ESL program to focus not only on teaching English but also on
ensuring that all of its students receive more comprehensive vocational support that would help
ensure no ELL would have to start over from scratch.
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Recommended Program Changes
The interviews provided valuable insight into the needs of ELLs in ECC’s noncredit ESL
program. The study also explored why so few ELLs participate in ECC’s certificate programs.
Central to the study was a recognition that ELLs are concerned with establishing their lives in the
United States by learning English, finding first expedient employment, and then working towards
establishing a more stable future in the United States. While ECC excelled in providing language
instruction to ELLs, the study found that there was a disconnect between ECC and ELLs when it
came to finding expedient employment, which was the next step in the ELL trajectory. To bridge
this gap, the study recommends connecting ELLs with vocational certificates and job
opportunities within ECC’s network. The study also found that a considerable number of ELLs
in the noncredit ESL program at ECC were highly educated, creating a disconnect. The
disconnect stems from the idea that a noncredit community college supports students in
transferring to credit, obtaining an AA degree, and then transferring to 4-year schools. However,
the majority of ELLs in the noncredit program already possess undergraduate degrees or above,
resulting in a significant gap between their needs and ECC’s services.
To meet the unique needs of ECC’s ELLs in the noncredit ESL program change is
needed. My recommendations employ Burke and Litwin’s (1992) conceptual framework of
organizational performance and change. The framework identifies the transactional changes
required for this purpose which encompass organizational structure, systems, and policies. These
changes, in turn, contribute to the larger, transformational changes that are necessary to improve
the organization’s mission and outcomes.
In Table 1, immediate recommendations are those that can be done right away (within 12
months) while longer-term recommendations (24 months or longer) reference long-term goals,
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potential outcomes, and ideas for potential large-scale services. The following recommendations
address transformational changes that may be achieved through transactional program
development.

Table 1
Summary of Study Findings and Recommendations

Theme Immediate
recommendations
Longer-term
recommendations
Need for jobs: Jobs utilizing
prior education
and skills
Organize and train noncredit
ELL student volunteers to
do onboarding, to be
advisors with information
about expedient
employment opportunities
that already exist. ELLs
meet individually with
advisors during placement
and at key intervals during
the semester in the
classrooms of all ESL
levels.
Transition the onboarding
advisor team from
volunteers to paid full-time
advisors by learning from
USC’s College Advisory
Corp’s funding model.
Perceptions surrounding ESL
and vocational needs at
ECC
As a form of vocational
training, organize ELLs to
audit select credit classes
based on career goals in
small clusters to begin
preparing ELLs to use
vocabulary specific to their
field of expertise.
Long-term goal would be to
find a way to capture
average daily attendance
for noncredit ESL students
auditing credit classes as if
they were in a noncredit
pass/fail cohort.
Goal to increase enrollment in
credit classes and improve
noncredit vocational
offerings by offering a
more robust “content-based
ESL” track.
Supporting ELLs to enter
certificate programs
Contact the Welcome Back
Initiative to set up an initial
meeting.
Work with the Welcome
Back Initiative to set up a
program at ECC that offers
tailored job readiness
services for highly
educated ELLs.
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Theme Immediate
recommendations
Longer-term
recommendations
Support needed for entering
graduate school.
Communicate with the
CCCCO to ask if under the
SCFF, community colleges
can receive funding for
successfully transitioning
qualified students into
graduate programs. If not,
petition for consideration
through various means.
The goal would be for ECC to
receive funding under the
SCFF for supporting highly
educated ELLs to enter
graduate programs. This
would incentivize helping
this group.
ECC utilize the volunteer
advisor team mentioned
above to support qualified
ELLs with the graduate
school application process.
Avoid starting over from the
bottom-up.
Align the vision and mission
of the noncredit ESL
program to include helping
all students become
gainfully employed as well
as add a goal that centers
around building a bridge
between ELLs and
employment in their area of
expertise.
Long-term goal would be a
culture shift in the
noncredit ESL program that
centers its mission on not
only teaching English but
on ensuring all of its
students receive more
comprehensive vocational
support.

Recommendations
This section offers recommendations based on the findings and focuses on a need for a
change in noncredit ESL onboarding, communication with ELLs through advisors, vocational
offerings for ELLs, tailored services for highly educated ELLs, and a shift in the noncredit ESL
mission.
Recommendation 1: Establish a Comprehensive Onboarding Process for All Levels of ELL
Students at ECC
In response to the findings that showed that ELLs need expedient jobs and would like
opportunities to use their prior education and skills, I recommend establishing a transactional
change that ultimately could lead to transformational change (Burke & Litwin, 1992) through the
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establishment of a comprehensive onboarding process for new students in the noncredit ESL
program that aligns with ECC’s noncredit objective of supporting the community.
Currently, prospective ELLs navigating the noncredit website will encounter two large
buttons labeled “Getting Started” and “Live Help,” which will guide them toward registration
support. However, after completing the registration steps, students are directed to a placement
test and course options. For students to access detailed information regarding certificates and
services beyond their ESL level placement they would need to consult with an academic
counselor. However, the findings showed that the ELLs did not understand their academic and
career counseling options. Moreover, the findings uncovered that ELLs want and need
opportunities to communicate regularly about ECC’s services offered and about setting goals
right from the beginning of the ESL program.
Immediate Recommendation: Organize and Train Volunteer ELLs As Onboarding Advisors
To establish an immediate change that would help ELLs connect on an individual level
with the services offered at ECC and the potential pathways available to them, the noncredit ESL
program can organize and train noncredit ELL student volunteers to do individualized
onboarding. These ELL volunteers could serve as advisors furnished with information about
expedient employment opportunities that already exist, be able to explain educational and career
pathway options, and list courses required to achieve the varied goals of the ELL population.
To begin, a training team made up of key counselors and ESL faculty could be
established that would meet before an ELL volunteer advisor team could start. The team would
need to set up clear parameters and materials for what the ELL volunteer advisors would cover
when meeting with other students. Next, messages would need to go out to the advanced ESL
course instructors requesting names of potential ELL volunteers with a clear list of the criteria
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the team would be looking for in a potential ELL volunteer advisor. The team would need to
meet with and select a team of ELL volunteer advisors and schedule training during either the
summer or winter intersession so that advisors would be ready to meet with students onboarding
in the fall and spring.
Ultimately, the ELL volunteers would act as a bridge to ECC’s counseling services and
help students set up necessary appointments to create a plan. However, the role of the ELL
volunteer advisor could serve additional needs because they come from the same countries and
backgrounds as the ELLs they would be supporting and would be able to use their first language
to introduce the necessary information. The ELL volunteer advisors could meet with ELLs more
often than only during onboarding and ESL placement, as they could be organized to visit all
ESL leveled classrooms at key intervals during the semester. This level of change can help move
ECC towards the multiplicity category of development, driving transformation and better serving
the community (Burke & Litwan, 1992; Perry, 1970).
The ELL student population is the perfect group to act as advisors because they come
from the same backgrounds and speak the same languages as the ELLs they would be serving.
This work could also serve as a valuable vocational training resource for the ELL volunteers.
According to the literature, volunteering is a means for highly skilled immigrants to put their
skills and expertise to use during the integration process (Lee, 2018). Volunteering can help
immigrant ELLs create a social network, provide an opportunity to practice English, and help
psychologically with a sense of belonging and well-being (Lee, 2018).
The study’s findings show that ECC’s ELLs may be qualified in more ways than one to
serve as volunteer advisors. All seven of the participants had completed at least a bachelor’s
degree before resettling in the United States. Moreover, they expressed a desire to utilize their
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prior education but lacked clarity on how to do so. Of the seven, five participants specifically
mentioned their interest in volunteering in areas that aligned with their educational background
and skill set to contribute to the community. Three out of seven participants had educational
backgrounds that, if given the opportunity to serve in an advising role at ECC, would allow them
to get meaningful experience working in their field in the United States. By giving the ELLs
from advanced ESL levels an advisory role, ECC could better fulfill its goal of supporting the
community beyond English language instruction.
Longer-Term Recommendation: Transition Volunteers to Paid Advisors by Exploring an
Effective Model
ECC should explore alternative programs that create personalized services tailored to
meet the unique needs of students. While the recommendations of a comprehensive
individualized onboarding program and dedicated services and programs for highly educated
ELLs may only be viable at the outset by using unpaid volunteers (Mitra, 2019), there is a
possible model that ECC can consider that could do more: The University of Southern
California’s College Advising Corps (USC CAC). This grant-based program provides large-
scale, individualized support to underserved students by hiring recent college graduates from
underserved communities with little to no experience to work as full-time advisers to high school
students (Dougherty & Jacobs, 2017). To ensure success, the USC CAC invests heavily in
training its advisors, resulting in significantly increased college enrollment from high schools
with traditionally low enrollment numbers (Dougherty & Jacobs, 2017). By adopting similar
strategies, ECC could offer personalized support to students to better meet their needs.
The USC CAC program is built on the theoretical foundation established by the
Promoting At-Promise Student Success (PASS) Project, which has demonstrated the
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effectiveness of additional support for underrepresented, first-generation, and low-income
students, as well as identified the most effective services (Promoting At-Promise Student
Success, n.d.). USC CAC advisors provide comprehensive care and support to students,
including peer mentoring, direct college access support, training, and assistance with the
application process, among other elements outlined in the framework. Additionally, advisors
receive training to support specific populations. As a result, USC CAC has supported over
63,000 students in enrolling in college over the past 9 years through one-to-one and group
meetings, based on the framework (Dougherty & Jacobs, 2017; Promoting At-Promise Student
Success, n.d.).
To better support its noncredit ESL program students, ECC could consider adopting a
program model similar to USC CAC, with an emphasis on individualized onboarding for each
new student. ECC could move beyond the volunteer model and hire advisors from its pool of
ELLs in the noncredit program, which would offer several benefits. For instance, the program
could hire advisors who speak multiple languages, providing direct first-language support to
noncredit ELLs. Additionally, an advisory corps could serve as vocational training and work
experience for ECC’s ESL program students, addressing more than one of the stated needs of the
study participants. By leveraging the talents of its own student body, ECC could provide
targeted, personalized support while also investing in the professional growth of its own
students.
ECC’s advisors could receive extensive and ongoing training, similar to USC’s advisory
corps, to better support students (Dougherty & Jacobs, 2017). Although implementing such a
program could be costly, grants are available, as USC has demonstrated by securing continuous
grant awards for more than nine years (Dougherty & Jacobs, 2017). Beyond onboarding, ECC’s
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noncredit ELL advisors could assist students in finding targeted employment and volunteer
opportunities. The advising corps could also expand to offer transcript evaluation services,
support with the graduate school application process, transparent information about financial aid
opportunities for ELLs with prior education, and information about expanded certificate options
that would benefit and support highly educated immigrants. By offering these additional
services, ECC’s advisory program could become a more comprehensive and holistic support
system for its noncredit ESL students.
Recommendation 2: Enhance Vocational Training for ELLs at ECC Through a Content-
Based ESL Approach
The findings show that while the noncredit ESL program at ECC is highly regarded, there
is a need to increase access to vocational training for ELLs. To address this, ECC should provide
more information and resources on vocational training opportunities and diversify its offerings to
make them more tailored to ELLs. To aid in improved communication of services, ECC can
utilize the onboarding and advisory core recommended earlier. However, to enhance the
vocational offerings and better support ELLs in achieving their vocational goals and
employability, I recommend that ECC organize small cohorts of ELLs to audit select credit
classes based on the ELL’s career goals as a form of vocational training. According to research
by Friedman (2002), offering content-based ESL instruction can improve the employability of
ELLs. Additionally, increasing access to vocational training can enhance the career opportunities
available to ELLs (Crandall, 1995). This approach can help ELLs to begin preparing to use
vocabulary specific to their field of expertise (Choi & Lee, 2013), potentially resulting in
increased enrollment in credit classes and more comprehensive noncredit offerings.
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Immediate Recommendation: Organize Targeted Career-Focused Auditing
To immediately improve ECC’s vocational offerings for ELLs, particularly for ELLs who
have degrees in specific areas but lack the necessary English vocabulary to apply for jobs and
work in their field, ECC can help these students identify subjects where the vocabulary and
content would be most useful. Organizing small groups to audit and attend these courses could
bridge the gap between the ELLs, as identified in this study, who remain exclusively in noncredit
ESL program courses and those who venture into other certificate or credit-earning classes.
To begin, the ESL program could draft a survey asking ELLs to identify sub-sets of the
English language that would be helpful to them towards their future career aspirations in the
United States with multiple choice options. The survey would need to include the instructor’s
name and an option for the student to opt to be contacted via email if interested in participating
in courses on the selected topics. This kind of survey could help pinpoint areas where ELLs
could use vocational vocabulary support. Next, a task force made up of key counselors, ESL
faculty, and other campus leaders could meet to identify a list of key courses that would work
best for this venture. For example, if a few ELLs indicated an interest in animation and language
used in that sphere, there may be an animation course open that has not filled that could work as
a test run for this model. The ESL program could then contact the animation instructor to gauge
their interest and if the instructor is willing, the ESL program could contact the ELL instructors
of interested students to give them information about the cohort audit plan and ask if the ELL if
they would like to participate.
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Longer-Term Recommendation: Maximize the Potential of Content-Based ESL As Vocational
Training: Increase Enrollment by Capturing Noncredit Attendance
A long-term goal would be to explore potential strategies for capturing the average daily
attendance of the noncredit ESL students that have been organized to audit credit classes. This
approach would not only offer noncredit ESL students the opportunity to improve their language
skills in a more authentic and relevant context but would also allow them to access credit classes
for free, which may remove one of the barriers to enrollment cited in the findings. Furthermore,
this approach can benefit the institution by increasing enrollment in credit classes and enhancing
noncredit offerings, as the transactional policy and structure changes required to implement it
can pave the way for a more comprehensive and effective “content-based ESL” approach
(Friedman, 2002).
By adopting this approach, GCC can leverage the knowledge and expertise of its
noncredit ESL students to enrich the learning experience of all students in credit classes, while
also providing a more inclusive and supportive environment for ELLs. This can help GCC to
better serve the needs of its diverse student population and improve the employability of ELLs.
Recommendation 3: Establish a Center Like the Welcome Back Initiative at ECC With
Tailored Services for Highly Educated ELLs
Based on the study findings, ECC has many highly skilled ELLs in its noncredit ESL
program, but there is a lack of programs that support these individuals at ECC. More
opportunities and resources should be provided to enhance their education and training.
Partnering with the Welcome Back Initiative (WBI) could be a potential solution to create a
program tailored to the needs of foreign trained medical professionals, for example (Welcome
Back Initiative, n.d.). The WBI aims to bridge the gap between internationally trained health
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workers residing in the United States and underserved communities in need of linguistically and
culturally competent health services (Welcome Back Initiative, n.d.). This program aims to
improve healthcare accessibility for underserved communities by creating a connection between
these two groups.
The underutilization of the skills and expertise of highly skilled immigrants results in a
loss of billions of dollars in tax income annually (Dowling & Bholat, 2012; Batalova &
Bachmeier, 2016). Further, the California Community College Chancellor’s Office aims to
improve the economy through noncredit programs (California Community Colleges Chancellor’s
Office, 2019). By unlocking the potential of highly skilled ELLs in the noncredit program
through providing more opportunities and resources, ECC can contribute to economic growth.
Addressing the challenges faced by highly educated immigrant ELLs in utilizing their education
and skills in the job market is essential to achieving transformational change (Burke & Litwan,
1992) in ECC’s organization. Supporting highly skilled ELLs in the noncredit program at ECC
can help unlock the potential of this population and contribute to the overall growth of certificate
programs and student success. ECC should work with community partners like the WBI to
provide support for highly educated immigrants to fully utilize their skills and education in the
job market, not only for their benefit but also for the community’s benefit (Dowling & Bholat,
2012; Batalova & Bachmeier, 2016).
Immediate Recommendation: Contact the Welcome Back Initiative
I recommend that ECC take action to contact the Welcome Back Initiative to schedule an
initial meeting to learn more about how the program works and to find out if it could be a good
fit for the ECC community (Welcome Back Initiative, n.d.). During that meeting, next steps for
possible implementation could be established. The WBI is a national nonprofit organization
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specializes in training staff members to operate centers and can help ECC assess the viability of
setting up a program to support highly educated ELLs at ECC. They can assist with identifying if
there is a local population that will benefit, determine the necessary involvement from the
college, state-licensing boards, and the community, and work with ECC to establish a plan for
financial sustainability (Welcome Back Initiative, n.d.). As a college grounded in the
community, partnering with the WBI could be a valuable step towards unlocking the potential of
highly skilled ELLs in ECC’s noncredit program and contributing to economic growth.
Longer-Term Recommendation: Develop a Welcome Back Initiative Program at ECC
As a future goal, ECC could work towards developing a WBI center at ECC in
partnership with local healthcare organizations, similar to the twelve other successful examples
of colleges across the United States that have collaborated with WBI to establish centers. For
instance, the Chicago Welcome Back Center at Richard J. Daley College, established in the
summer of 2022, provides an example of the creation of a successful WBI center (Chicago
Welcome Back Center, n.d.). The center partnered with the Chicago Bilingual Nurse Consortium
to assist foreign-trained professionals in obtaining licensure or alternative career options in the
United States. Funding for this project was provided by the Walder Foundation, supplemented by
state funds for ESL classes (Chicago Welcome Back Center, n.d.). This program is particularly
essential in addressing healthcare staffing shortages in the Chicago area.
The findings of the study highlighted an issue: the difficulty medical ELLs face in finding
employment resources through the noncredit ESL program. It is evident that there is a gap in the
current system that needs to be addressed, and ECC may have the potential to make a significant
impact. I recommended that ECC consider collaborating with a program like the WBI or another
similar organization that can provide medical ELLs with the necessary support to find jobs in
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their respective fields. By partnering with such programs, ECC can create a more inclusive and
supportive environment that empowers the wealth of diversity among the ELLs it serves to
succeed.
Recommendation 4: Graduate School Support
ELLs having a need for assistance in applying to graduate school is consistent with what
researchers such as Baran et al. (2018) and Jacobs and Dougherty (2006) have observed, which
is that it is important to assist immigrant ELLs in attending college after completing an ESL
program. Additionally, according to data from the Migration Policy Institute, in 2019,
approximately 30% of newly arrived immigrants to the United States aged 25 and older had a
bachelor’s degree or higher. The findings from this study were consistent with the literature as it
found that all participants had earned a bachelor’s degree or higher before resettling in the
United States and that they expressed a desire to continue their education as closely as possible
to where they had left off. Many of them aimed to pursue graduate studies but were unsure if.
Participants in this study expressed the need for TOEFL preparation and transcript evaluation.
Therefore, to meet the needs of highly educated ELLs in the noncredit ESL program who aspire
to pursue higher education beyond the associate’s degree level, the ECC needs to establish
support to help them apply.
Utilizing Burke and Litwin’s (1992) model of organizational performance and change,
along with Perry’s theory (1970) of intellectual and ethical development, could provide a model
to help drive this change. Providing support to help highly skilled ELLs navigate the graduate
application process can enable them to achieve their higher education goals and fully utilize their
skills and education in the job market. This approach can address challenges highlighted in
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previous research studies such as Baran et al. (2018), Jacobs and Dougherty (2006), as well as
this study.
Immediate Recommendation: Communicate With the CCCCO
One immediate recommendation would be for ECC to communicate with the California
Community College Chancellor’s Office (CCCCO) to inquire about the possibility of receiving
funding under the Student-Centered Funding Formula (SCFF) for successfully transitioning
qualified community college students, including noncredit ELLs, into graduate programs
(California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office [CCCCO], 2023). If the SCFF does not
currently allow for this, ECC should petition the CCCCO to update the funding model to include
graduate school transfers under the transfer category. If the CCCCO is unwilling to consider this
change, ECC should reach out to local lawmakers for support. Regardless of funding incentives,
ECC could still demonstrate success by reporting the number of ELLs who have been accepted
into graduate school and claim a smaller portion of the SCFF funding pot (CCCCO, 2023).
While it may be more difficult to measure success and have lower financial incentives compared
to counting graduate school transfers among the students who transfer to 4-year universities, it
would still be a significant achievement and would help incentivize supporting ELLs to enter
graduate school.
Longer-Term Recommendation: California’s Community College Student Centered Funding
Formula Include Graduate School Transfer
If the CCCCO formally recognizes the efforts from the immediate recommendation to
establish the necessity of assisting students in transferring from community college to graduate
school, particularly under the financially advantageous “transfer” category in the SCFF, it would
be a remarkable initiative toward changing the perception of the role of ELLs at ECC. This could
96

help to change the trajectory of ELLs at ECC by providing a more tailored approach that aligns
with their unique needs. ECC should make efforts towards creating this shift regardless of
whether the SCFF model is adapted for highly educated ELLs.
Additionally, a practical recommendation to meet the needs of ELLs, as reported in the
study findings, is to help their direction with the process of applying to graduate school. ECC
could leverage the ELL advisory team described in Recommendation 1 to accomplish this goal.
The advisory team could be divided into groups with specialized training in different areas to
better support ELLs. One group could focus on supporting qualified ELLs in the graduate school
application process, including navigating financial aid and evaluating foreign transcripts.
Recommendation 5: Create a Culture to Better Support ELLs by Updating ECC’s
Noncredit ESL Program Mission and Vision to Emphasize Employability
Based on the study findings, it is recommended that ECC addresses the common
sentiment among participants regarding the difficulties associated with navigating the assumed
community college pathway. The participants expressed frustration with the impracticality and
unreasonableness of starting their education from the bottom despite possessing prior degrees.
This sentiment is reinforced in the literature by the concept of “brain waste,” which refers to the
underutilization of the education and expertise of the immigrant population by host countries
(Batalova & Bachmeier, 2016; Dowling & Bholat, 2012). Moreover, studies by Barkan (2010)
and Jacobs and Dougherty (2006) highlight the challenges faced by nontraditional and immigrant
students in accessing opportunities in the United States that align with their prior education.
To address this, I recommend making a change to the mission of the noncredit ESL
program. A mission statement is essential to any organization, serving as its foundation by
defining its purpose, values, and goals (Burke & Litwin, 1992). In recognizing this, the Burke-
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Litwin model identifies the mission as a key internal factor driving change, as it provides clear
direction for the organization’s activities (Burke & Litwin, 1992). By understanding the
importance of the mission statement and its interdependence with other factors within the
organization, the Burke-Litwin model can serve as a valuable framework for effectively
managing change and achieving desired outcomes (Burke & Litwin, 1992). Recommendations
one through four support this transformational culture shift through the implementation of
transactional levers that would support such a cultural shift.
More specifically, if the mission and vision of ECC’s noncredit program are altered to
add more emphasis on addressing employability, then it could serve as an underlying support to
drive a cultural shift leading to a substantive change in outcomes (Burke & Litwin, 1992). While
the noncredit program aims to provide education and services to the community, including
continuing education, workforce training, and college preparation, this study suggests that the
proportional focus of these three objectives may not meet the needs of ELLs as the study
revealed that employment is the students’ most fundamental need. The findings are reflected in
the literature that highlights employment as the most central need of immigrant students as well
as the struggles they face in accessing employment and workforce training opportunities
(Barkan, 2010; Razfar & Simon, 2011; Rutschow et al., 2019).
Prior research indicates that noncredit programs at community colleges have been
gradually pushed towards prioritizing transferring students to credit programs, which could be
the reason for the lack of focus on employment and workforce development (Mecom, 2014;
Ramirez, 2014). This focus on transfer may not be the best approach for ELLs in ECC’s
noncredit ESL program as study participants indicated that transferring to credit ESL classes,
attaining an AA degree, and transferring to a 4-year school were not their priority.
98

The ESL program’s welcome letter emphasizes the program’s commitment to supporting
English language learning and providing instruction tailored to student needs. It follows then,
that to better align with the needs of ELLs, the noncredit program should shift its mission’s focus
towards employability through such things as providing vocational training opportunities, for
example, reducing its emphasis on transferring ELLs to credit programs.
I strongly recommended that ECC align its vision and mission of the noncredit ESL
program to encompass a broader objective of assisting all students in securing gainful
employment. Additionally, incorporating a specific goal aimed at bridging the gap between
highly educated ELLs and employment in their area of expertise could pave the way for
transformative change. By shifting the culture of the noncredit ESL program to place a greater
emphasis on providing comprehensive vocational support, ECC can help to ensure that no ELL
is required to start their education from scratch.
Limitations and Delimitations
One limitation of the study was that not all noncredit ESL students could be interviewed
due to the constraints of the study. As the study was conducted only in English, beginning and
intermediate level students who may not be fluent in English were excluded from the study.
Furthermore, the study was limited to Level 4 students for qualitative interviews, resulting in a
relatively small sample size. The percentage of beginning level students with advanced degrees
was not studied and may differ from those in advanced levels. Although only seven ELLs were
interviewed, it is unclear whether additional interviews would have produced significantly
different findings.
The study’s delimitations include the decision not to interview non-ESL students the
same questions as the ESL students to determine any significant differences in their responses.
99

Additionally, faculty, staff, and administrators were not interviewed to provide a more
comprehensive perspective. Finally, a survey was not included to validate the findings and
ascertain students’ needs. These limitations and delimitations should be taken into consideration
when interpreting the study’s results.
Future Research
This study contributes to the existing literature on the needs of ELLs in noncredit ESL
programs, such as the one offered at ECC. The study explores the reasons why there are not
more ELLs in noncredit ESL programs completing certificate earning courses at schools like
ECC as well as what changes may be needed to increase participation and completion. Future
research may expand on these findings by exploring the experiences of beginning and
intermediate level ELLs in their native languages, rather than only studying advanced ELLs in
English. Moreover, future research can examine other community college noncredit ESL
programs to investigate differences in research outcomes based on varying immigrant
demographics. Additionally, conducting interviews with faculty and administrators may provide
valuable insights into the topic. It is also important to note that this study did not explicitly
address the impact of not having a Green Card on the lack of immigrant ELLs enrolling in
certificate-earning courses, despite it being a recurring theme in the interviews. Therefore,
further research is required to explore this issue in greater depth.
Conclusions
In this study, the reasons behind why so few ELLs in the noncredit ESL program at ECC
complete certificate earning courses were investigated. The study also proposes changes that
could boost participation and completion. The study highlights the essentiality of financial
stability for refugees (Baran et al., 2018; Baranik et al., 2018; Barkan, 2010; Higgins and
100

Misawa, 2021), which the participants in this study also identified as their most pressing need.
This investigation was significant as previous research has established a positive correlation
between earning certificates and improved earnings, as well as increased prospects of securing
employment (Carneval et al., 2016). The study also revealed that all participants were highly
educated, with most having a master’s degree or higher. Further, the findings and the literature
indicated that learning English is not adequate to attain financial stability (Barkan, 2010). The
combination of the need for expedient employment and the desire to avoid starting from the
bottom in terms of their education and experience to eventually secure a job in their field of
expertise was a significant finding that emerged from the research.
As an educator in a noncredit ESL program, I was motivated to undertake this study due
to the struggles I have observed among ELLs who are unable to fully utilize their previous
training and degrees (Batalova & Zong, 2018). The topic of immigrants’ cultural capital is often
overlooked, primarily due to the language barrier that prevents them from communicating
effectively. However, failing to recognize the invaluable knowledge and experience that
immigrants bring to the community is a missed opportunity for growth and development. As
community leaders and members, we should strive to ensure better access to this wealth of
cultural capital. The frustration and helplessness that these students experience is unmistakable,
and I am not alone in feeling powerless to assist them. Other faculty members have reached out
to me in hopes that my findings can help their students find work in their respective fields.
Additionally, I have seen a notable uptick in the number of highly educated students, some of
whom possess advanced degrees, enrolling in ESL courses, even at the introductory level
(Batalova et al., 2019). Failing to address the needs of these individuals is a persistent issue that
will only continue to worsen. This is especially true given that access to education is improving
101

in countries where it was previously difficult for women to obtain education, which is translating
to a growing population of highly educated immigrant ELLs in ESL classrooms in the United
States (World Bank, 2019). Consequently, discovering ways to leverage the skills and
knowledge of these highly trained professionals is crucial, not only for the immigrant students’
successful resettlement, but also for the country as a whole, which stands to gain significantly
from the wealth of talent and expertise that these individuals possess.
Although the literature demonstrates that community colleges prepare ELLs in noncredit
ESL programs to transfer to credit-earning courses (Mecom, 2014; Ramirez, 2014), as educators,
it is our responsibility to ensure that our programs are designed to serve the unique needs of all
of our students. By transforming our noncredit ESL programs to prioritize the employment needs
of our ELLs, we can create real change in the lives of our students and the community, which is
a fundamental responsibility of a community college. A college that is willing to prioritize the
utilization of immigrants’ cultural capital would serve as an exemplary model for other
institutions to follow.

102

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Interview introduction: Hello and thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I
appreciate you taking the time to answer my questions. As I said the last time we talked, our
interview should take about an hour, is that still ok for you?
Before we get started, I want to remind you about the details of this study. Just so you
know, all the information is in the Study Information Sheet I sent to you. But also, I am happy to
answer any questions you have about any of this including the study itself, or the interview.
Please feel free to ask; do you have any questions?
I am a doctoral student at USC. I am conducting a study about the needs of noncredit
ESL students beyond learning English. I am particularly interested in understanding how
Eastland Community College can better help its noncredit ESL students complete more
certificate programs. I am talking to many different ESL students to learn more about this.
I want to make sure you feel comfortable, and I want you to know that 100%, today, I am
only a researcher. Today, I am a student who wants to learn from you. This means that any
answer you give is okay. There is no good or bad answer. I will not judge you or think anything
negative because of what you say. I only want to help find out what the students need. I want to
understand your perspective. You don’t have to answer any question you do not want to, and you
can stop the interview at any time.
In the Study Information Sheet that I gave you, you will see that this interview is
confidential. This means that your name will not be shared with anyone outside the research
team. I will not share with or tell any other teachers, managers, or students the name of anyone
who says anything in these interviews. The data or information for this study will be put
together/compiled into a report. In that report, I will use some of what you say as direct quotes,
118

but I will not give any names or information about you. I will use a pseudonym (a fake name) to
protect your confidentiality and will try my best to make any of the information you shared not
something that anyone can tell is from you in any way. If you are interested, I would be happy to
give you a copy of my final paper when it is done.
The last note about this from the Study Information Sheet is that all the information you
shared will be kept in a password protected computer and destroyed after 3 years.
Do you have any questions about the study before we get started? I will be recording this
Zoom meeting today so that I can correctly catch all the things you share with me. The
recording is only for me to best catch everything you have to say and will not be shared with
anyone outside the research team. May I have permission to record our conversation?
Setting the Stage: I’d like to start by asking you some background questions about you.
1. First, tell me about your path to Eastland Community College?
RQ1_TranA_NeedE
2. In your opinion, what will learning English do for you?
RQ1_TranA_NeedE
Heart of the Interview: Now, I would like to ask you some questions about ESL student
employment needs as well as job support programs.
3. Tell me what your main needs are today/since arriving in the United States.
RQ1_TranA/S_NeedJ
4. Do you believe ECC has services to meet your needs in all areas and explain why you
believe this? Probe: academic, English, Career.
RQ2_TranA_NeedE/J
119

5. If you could choose any career to have in the future in the United States, what would
you want to do?
RQ1_TranA/S_NeedJ
6. What could career services do to support you now?
RQ2_TranA/S_NeedJ
7. What would it look like if ECC was helpful to you in quickly securing a job?
RQ1/2_TranA/S_NeedJ
7. Can you tell me about the certificate programs offered at ECC? [If applicable] How
did you find out about this information?
RQ2_TranS
9. What could ECC do to help you enroll in a certificate program?
RQ2_TranA/S

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study explores the reasons for the low completion rates of noncredit English as a Second Language (ESL) students in certificate earning courses and identifies changes needed to increase participation and completion. The qualitative study was conducted at a mid-sized community college with a large noncredit program, and seven advanced English Language Learners (ELLs) were interviewed. The study’s findings revealed a need for tailored services for highly educated ELLs, programs leading to gainful employment opportunities, and graduate school admission support. Burke and Litwin’s (1992) causal model of organizational performance and change, combined with William Perry’s (1970) theory of intellectual and ethical development, were used to analyze the findings in relation to the organization’s mission and vision. The study found a disconnect between the mission of the organization and the unique needs of the student population. The recommended changes include a shift in mission prioritization, a full-scale onboarding program, and tailored services for highly educated ELLs to support them in finding gainful employment opportunities. Further research is suggested in this area.

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Asset Metadata

Creator DePiro, Caroline Marie (author)

Core Title Beyond ESL: exploring noncredit ESL student pathways to certificate programs

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 05/17/2023

Defense Date 04/14/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag brain waste,community college,completion,employment,English as a second language,English language learners,financial stability,noncredit,OAI-PMH Harvest,participation,refugee,Resettlement,transfer,vocational education

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Canny, Eric (committee chair), Robles, Darline (committee member), Stowe, Kathy (committee member)

Creator Email cmdepirothomas@gmail.com,depiro@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113131575

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