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Examining teacher pre-service/credential programs and school site professional development and implementation of culturally relevant teaching of BIPOC students
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Content
Examining Teacher Pre-Service/Credential Programs and School Site Professional
Development and Implementation of Culturally Relevant Teaching of BIPOC Students
by Arielle Miller
The USC Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2023
© Copyright by Arielle Miller 2023
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Arielle Miller certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Morgan Polikoff, PhD Chair
Christopher Ikeanyi, EdD Committee Member
Artineh Samkian, PhD Committee Member
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact teachers have on BIPOC student
achievement and the culturally relevant and professional development teachers receive to
educate these students in urban environments. Many studies examine the way teachers impact
student achievement and conclude that teacher training and ongoing professional development
can better prepare teachers and sustain them in the education of BIPOC urban youth. This study
aimed to examine the level of preparedness teachers felt their pre-service teacher credentialing
programs sufficed in giving them the tools to navigate urban school systems, teaching BIPOC
youth while addressing issues such as positionality, culturally responsive pedagogy, and
exploring whiteness/white supremacy as it may apply to them and systemic, structural inequities.
The population for this study were early career teachers with 0-5 years of teaching
experience who successfully completed a teacher credentialing program prior to entering the
classroom and are educating BIPOC students in urban settings. Teachers were interviewed and
asked to reflect on their teacher credentialing programs. Also, teachers were asked to reflect on
their experiences at their school sites through the on-going professional development they
receive and the level of support and relevancy of these trainings in facilitating their professional
teaching practice to support BIPOC learners. The statistics and data analyzed were qualitative in
nature and provided valuable insight and information into what teacher’s perceptions are
regarding their abilities to be able to teach BIPOC students in urban environments, juxtaposed
with the ongoing support they receive at their school sites via professional development.
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to the voice in my head that told me to keep going, to not give
in to the trauma, to feel and push past it, to be more than many others might have thought me to
be. Here is to the uniqueness that has brought power and perspective to the classrooms and
schools I have influenced. Here is to the job that made me be more, so that I did not pass onto the
next generation the doubt that was served to me. I know that this process of growth, that has been
my career and education, has ensured that the young people I have guided know that not
everyone has to be the same and that talent comes in all forms. Here is hoping I instilled enough
bravery in those I have met that they too can find their own power, in their own process. I thank
them for supporting me on my journey too.
Ultimately this dissertation is dedicated to US.
May we never relinquish who we are, forsake our morals, diminish our capabilities and
self-worth, lose our dignity, and never, ever, minimize or shrink ourselves because being who we
are makes others uncomfortable. Together we are stronger, and together we shall remain
disruptors of that which no longer serves us.
Table of Contents
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem......................................................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 4
Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 5
Conceptual Framework & Significance of the Study .................................................................. 5
Limitation and Delimitations ...................................................................................................... 6
Definition of Terms ..................................................................................................................... 7
Organization of the Study ........................................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 11
The Racial Mismatch between Teachers and Students ............................................................. 11
The Effects of Racial Mismatch ................................................................................................ 12
The Effects of Teacher Expectations on BIPOC Student Achievement ................................... 13
Teacher Diversity ...................................................................................................................... 15
Improving the White Teaching Force ....................................................................................... 16
Pre-Service Teaching Programs ................................................................................................ 17
Ongoing, Relevant Professional Development at School Sites................................................. 20
Critical Race Theory (CRT) ...................................................................................................... 23
Understanding Racism & Privilege Through the White Lens................................................... 24
Culturally Responsive & Relevant Curriculum ........................................................................ 25
Anti-Racist Teaching Practices ................................................................................................. 26
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 28
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 31
Chapter Three: Methods ............................................................................................................... 33
Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 33
Sample and Population .............................................................................................................. 34
Site Selection ............................................................................................................................. 35
Participant Selection .................................................................................................................. 36
Instrumentation and Data Collection Procedures ...................................................................... 37
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 43
Credibility & Trustworthiness ................................................................................................... 44
Ethics ......................................................................................................................................... 46
Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 46
Delimitations ............................................................................................................................. 47
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 48
Chapter Four: Findings and Results .............................................................................................. 49
Participant Profile ...................................................................................................................... 50
Results ....................................................................................................................................... 52
Convenience of Pre-Service Teaching Program ....................................................................... 53
Proximity ............................................................................................................................... 53
Cost ........................................................................................................................................ 56
Pre-Service Teacher Program Quality and Effectiveness ......................................................... 59
Online Teaching Credential Programs .................................................................................. 59
In-Person Teaching Credential Programs .............................................................................. 62
Discussions Centered Around Educating BIPOC Youth .......................................................... 64
Real-life Application of Learning ............................................................................................. 68
Summary of Results for Research Question 1 .......................................................................... 70
What School Site PD is Being Offered & ................................................................................. 71
What Types of PD Teachers Would Like to Receive ............................................................... 71
Predominant focus of Professional Development at School Sites ............................................ 76
Professional Development Teachers Would Like to Receive ................................................... 79
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 80
Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 82
Findings ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Research Question One: How, if at all, have pre-service/credential courses prepared educators
to teach BIPOC students in urban areas? .................................................................................. 83
Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 86
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................................... 87
Future Research ......................................................................................................................... 91
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 93
References ..................................................................................................................................... 94
List of Table
Table 1: Interview Questions and Conceptual Framework alignment .................................... 46
Table A: Participants ………………………………………………………..………………. 56
Table B: Outline of Teacher Professional Development ……………………………………. 78
1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
People emphasize the importance of quality teachers and the many factors that contribute
to a student’s academic performance, including individual characteristics, family, and
neighborhood experiences. Among school-related factors, hiring and retaining quality teachers
directly impacts a student’s academic achievement and educational experiences (Gershenson &
Papageorge, 2018). While we know that there are differences in the quality of teachers, there is
little dispute that teachers are impactful agents in students’ educational pursuits. The U.S.
Department of Education defines effective teachers as those who can generate acceptable student
achievement outcomes, at least one grade level of student growth in an academic year (Kaplan,
2013). But effective teachers produce more than high student test scores; they have long-term
personal impacts. Having an effective teacher can dramatically alter students’ educational
outcomes (Adnot et al., 2016).
Closing the achievement gap for students of color continues to be challenging for
educators across America, including in urban centers. Having diverse educators in our school’s
classrooms benefits all students and helps to prepare them to succeed in our multicultural society
(U.S. Department of Education, 2016). Many indicators suggest that a diverse teacher workforce
benefits Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) (defined below) students through
congruence in teacher-student relationships and prepares all students for successful democratic
and economic participation in a diverse global society (Sleeter, 2011). Further, research on social
justice-oriented teacher education and culturally responsive teaching shows the connection
between teacher effectiveness and the positive impact teachers of color have on students’
academic and social-emotional development (Ladson-Billings, 2000).
2
Public school students of color overall now make up slightly more than 50% of all school
enrollment; yet, our teacher workforce is more than 80% white and female (Goldring et. al.,
2013). In many of America’s urban schools, more than 80% of the students are of color, with
70% being Latino/a and Black students (Geiger, 2018). The data from Pew Research Center via
Geiger (2018) suggests that our minority students need more educator representation in their
schools. For minority students, having a diverse teaching staff provides a familiar and relatable
learning environment.
According to the U.S. Department of Education: The State Of Racial Diversity In The
Educator Workforce (2016) experiences and perspectives foster intellectual growth for minority
students. Students can see role models who reflect their identities while breaking down negative
stereotypes and preparing students to live and work in a multiracial society in our urban schools.
While teachers from all backgrounds are needed across education, Latino/a and Black students
need to see themselves represented in their teachers (Geiger, 2018). The need for more Latino/a
and Black educators has never been greater. Latino/a and Black educators are underrepresented
in education throughout American urban schools. The lack of Latino/a and Black educators is a
disservice to students of color, and those teachers are needed to close the educational gap among
minority students.
Background of the Problem
Latino/a and Black teachers remain underrepresented in education. In public schools
today, minority students are no longer the minority. According to the National Center for
Education Statistics (Goldring, et. al., 2013), 51% of the public school student population is non-
white. This percentage is expected to increase for years to come, with predictions of the BIPOC
student population growing to 60% by 2030. Latino/a and Black educators remain
3
underrepresented in urban schools. In spite of this growth and change in student demographics;
according to The Pew Research Center (2021) via Schaeffer, about eight-in-ten U.S. public
school teachers (79%) identified as non-Hispanic white. Based on the statistics of the changing
student demographics and responsiveness of urban youth to minoritized teachers, there is an
urgency for BIPOC educators. Decentering racial stereotypes and barriers set for Latino/a and
Black teachers are necessary to pursue equitable educational systems for BIPOC students. So,
why does it matter if the majority of BIPOC students have white teachers?
Teaching diverse learners is a complex task with high demands for teachers’ proficiency
(Ladson-Billings, 2011). Weinstein, et al., (2004) indicated that teachers must differentiate
instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners. When planning for instruction, educators can be
aware of their students’ readiness to learn, their interests, and their learning profile, which
includes learner preferences, strengths, and challenges. Every individual’s background and
experiences (in and out of the classroom) shape the learner. For instructional planning to truly
make a difference for all learners, educators have to consider how students’ differences affect
learning and align pedagogies that effectively address those differences.
In order for educators to hone their craft and best serve their BIPOC learners in urban
communities, they need consistent, meaningful, relevant professional development with time to
collaborate with peers. Smith and Lindsay (2016) as cited in Postholm (2018), conducted a study
where it was found that teachers need to be able to have the space to articulate their own learning
needs and the opportunities to have the supports to meet those needs. To truly change teacher
practice which will in turn positively impact student learning, specific to BIPOC achievement;
professional development at school sites has to occur on-going. There must include training,
practice, and feedback. Teachers need structured time allocated for reflection, feedback, and
4
follow-up support. Ultimately, the best kinds of professional development for teachers will be
those that directly mirror best practices from learning activities used with their own students
(Phetla & Newman, 2020).
Purpose of the Study
This study aims to examine if pre-service/credential courses prepared teachers to educate
BIPOC students in urban areas, and whether those teachers have support systems to create and
sustain culturally responsive teaching practices for their students. This study is interested in the
types of professional development being offered to teachers at their school sites and how it
informs their teaching practices, specifically in the realm of cultural relevancy to meet the needs
of their students. While most districts and schools have pre-existing policies to address diversity,
the subsequent professional developments (PD) vary from site to site based on leadership. A lack
of targeted and consistent PD centered around meeting the needs of the diverse urban student
population will not help teachers hone their craft, reach their full potential, and impact student
achievement. Ambler (2016), as cited in Postholm (2018), discusses the importance of creating
learning opportunities for teachers. Ambler’s (2016) study shows that teachers need to be able to
talk and thus put words to their daily work; in short, they need to work with others during the
school day to learn from their everyday practices.
Teacher PD and its associated courses are designed for teachers to improve their teaching
skills, innovation; and according to the Department of Higher Education as cited in Phetla &
Newman (2020), PD develops the teacher’s skills, knowledge, expertise and other professional
behavior. Currently, prevailing PD models are one-off, ‘top-down’ in nature, and focus on
interventions as opposed to proper teacher development. According to Phetla & Newman (2020),
5
many teacher PD programs are ineffective and will continue to remain as such because these
PD’s do not take into account teachers needs but two additional crucial factors:
1. What motivates teachers to engage in professional development and
2. The process by which change in teachers typically occurs (p. 3).
By examining teacher interviews, this study aims to better understand the training
educators received in their pre-service teaching programs, how it informed their teaching of
BIPOC youth, and the ongoing training they may receive at their school sites to support
culturally relevant practices aligned to their student population.
Research Questions
1. How, if at all, have pre-service/credential courses prepared educators to teach
BIPOC students in urban areas?
2. What professional development opportunities do teachers have to create and
sustain culturally relevant teaching practices for BIPOC students?
Conceptual Framework & Significance of the Study
The conceptual framework for this study examines two major factors at the K-12 school
site: external and internal. BIPOC student achievement is being examined through the lens of
teacher pre-service programs and culturally relevant in-service training/curriculum. There are
other factors that can affect student achievement in urban communities. These factors can be,
though not limited to, the neighborhood context, systemic racism, and educational policies that
can and will frame the teacher’s experiences. There is a need for research, as this study will
provide insight into how teacher pre-service programs and credential courses prepare educators
to teach BIPOC students in the urban setting. This study will add to the literature by highlighting
the support systems teachers need in order to create and sustain culturally responsive teaching
6
practices for BIPOC students. The objective is to examine the role credentialing programs play
in the development of teachers’ capacity to support BIPOC students through culturally
responsive teaching practices. The results of this study can assist districts, school sites, and
teacher credentialing programs in evaluating current curricula/training and applicability given the
changing landscape of students in American public schools. It is then possible to ensure that
teacher induction programs are more effective training grounds for educators who can support a
diverse student population.
Limitation and Delimitations
The sample for this study is composed of early career teachers located in urban school
districts located in Southern California. As a result, their experiences may vary differently from
teachers located in other parts of the United States and internationally; therefore, the results may
not be generalizable in other US states and countries.
In Chapter Three, the interviews I conduct are based upon the perceptions of early career,
public school educators. The perceptions of their credentialing programs and culturally relevant
in-service training may be different than those with more years of experience, not in the public
sector, or located elsewhere beyond Southern California. Due to the intimate nature of
interviews, teachers may withhold information, misrepresent, or misspeak regarding topics they
have heard about, but may not be well-informed for fear of being embarrassed. It is also a
possibility that teachers may not recall the specifics of their teacher credentialing programs;
therefore, affecting their ability to discuss their experiences at length.
7
Definition of Terms
Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC): According to Smith of Greatist (2021),
BIPOC is, essentially, a political term used to categorize and display solidarity between Black
people, Indigenous people, and people of color in the United States:
BIPOC has developed as a term to highlight the fact that, in North America, Black and
Indigenous folks have a specific relationship to racism and white supremacy. “Black” denotes
the hypervisibility of Black people in American society, while “Indigenous” is included to
highlight the erasure of Indigenous people. Many people prefer BIPOC to POC due to the belief
that POC has been watered down by white institutions. BIPOC is also more often used by
activists and organizers, who are more cognizant of the language that they use. This is why we
emphasize that BIPOC is a political term, along with a categorical one. It’s important to
emphasize that BIPOC is a US-centric term, although Canada also has a similar history
concerning its Black and Indigenous populations.
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: As defined by the California Department of Education
(2022), Culturally Relevant Pedagogy is a theoretical model that focuses on multiple aspects of
student achievement and supports students to uphold their cultural identities. Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy also calls for students to develop critical perspectives that challenge societal
inequalities. Gloria Ladson-Billings proposed three main components of Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy: (a) a focus on student learning and academic success, (b) developing students’
cultural competence to assist students in developing positive ethnic and social identities, and (c)
supporting students’ critical consciousness or their ability to recognize and critique societal
inequalities. All three components need to be utilized.
8
Culturally Responsive Teaching: Culturally responsive teaching has been defined as “the
process of using familiar cultural information and processes to scaffold learning, emphasizes
communal orientation, focused on relationships, cognitive scaffolding, and critical social
awareness” (Hammond, 2015, p. 156).
Educational Equity: Educational equity means that each child receives what he or she
needs to develop to his or her full academic and social potential.
Working towards equity involves:
● Ensuring equally high outcomes for all participants in our educational system;
removing the predictability of success or failures that currently correlates with any social or
cultural factor
● Interrupting inequitable practices, examining biases, and creating inclusive
multicultural school environments for adults and children
● Discovering and cultivating the unique gifts, talents, and interests that every
human possesses (National Equity Project).
Equality: Equality is described by the Equality and Human Rights Commission (2018) as
ensuring that every individual has an equal opportunity to make the most of their lives and
talents. It is also the belief that no one should have poorer life chances because of the way they
were born, where they come from, what they believe, or whether they have a disability. Equality
recognizes that historically certain groups of people with protected characteristics such as race,
disability, sex, and sexual orientation have experienced discrimination.
Transformative Research Paradigm: Set of assumptions and procedures used in research:
● Underlying assumptions that rely on ethical stances of inclusion and challenging
oppressive social structures.
9
● An entry process into the community that is designed to build trust and make
goals and strategies transparent.
● Dissemination of findings that encourage the use of the results to enhance social
justice and human rights (Creswell, 2013, p. 71).
Urban Community/Setting: As defined by Rutledge, et al. (2022) in National Geographic,
“An urban area is the region surrounding a city. Most inhabitants of urban areas have non-
agricultural jobs. Urban areas are very developed, meaning there is a density of human structures
such as houses, commercial buildings, roads, bridges, and railways”.
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters.
Chapter One introduces the problem, outlines the purpose of the study and its importance
in education, and defines the research problem that guided the study.
Chapter Two summarizes the literature examining the teacher-diversity gap in America
by specifically looking at the importance of teachers and their impact on students. It also
highlights both the need for culturally responsive teaching practices and the connection between
teacher effectiveness and the positive impact teachers have on BIPOC students’ academic and
social-emotional development.
Chapter Three presents the research methods that were employed in this qualitative study.
It describes the research design, population and sampling, and instrumentation that will be used
during the study. The procedures for data collection and analysis are also covered and address
issues of maintaining credibility, trustworthiness, and ethics during the study.
Chapter Four presents the results of the study.
Chapter Five discusses the findings with recommendations and future studies.
10
11
Chapter Two: Literature Review
This dissertation will look specifically at teachers and their preparedness via their pre-
service credential programs to educate BIPOC students in urban communities. More specifically,
the literature review will examine the changing demographics of urban schools in the United
States and how teacher expectations and race impact the achievement of students of color.
First, I will review the literature on the racial mismatching of teachers and students in
America. Then, I will explore diversity in the teaching force and how teachers’ expectations
impact BIPOC student achievement. Next, I will present information on how the teaching force
is not diversifying rapidly enough to match the student demographics of America. I will explore
and present ways to improve the white teaching force as well as discuss anti-racist teaching
practices and Critical Race Theory (CRT). Pre-service teacher programs will also be closely
examined as well as how culturally responsive curriculums and one’s teaching practices
contribute to the achievement of BIPOC students. Lastly, I will discuss the need for culturally
responsive teaching practices and review ongoing, relevant professional development at school
sites.
The Racial Mismatch between Teachers and Students
White people remain complicit in upholding the status quo due to not understanding
themselves and their students as racial beings in a racialized society to go beyond the surface
tools provided in teaching programs and trainings (DiAngelo, 2012). The racial identities of
teachers and students are significant issues. As evidenced by Utt and Tochluk (2020), the
research profoundly supports the negative consequences of having a primarily white teaching
force with little critical understanding of race and racism. According to the National Center for
Education Statistics (2020), the majority of teachers were white in schools where a majority of
12
students were Hispanic (54%), Black (54%), Asian (60%), or American Indian/Alaska Native
(61%). That is, a larger percentage of teachers were white than of the same race/ethnicity as the
majority of students. Conclusively, this data indicates that the racial and ethnic diversity of the
teaching force is considerably less than the nation as a whole (Geiger, 2018).
The Effects of Racial Mismatch
Gladwell (2017) cites the University of Duke’s Behind the Veil in asserting that Black
students did better in school when they had Black teachers. Gladwell (2017) also states that
schools that employ BIPOC teachers have a positive impact on white students. Research suggests
that the pairing of a given student with a teacher of the same racial or ethnic background known
as “racial matching” points to the same conclusion: all things being equal, there are resoundingly
positive outcomes for Black students shrinking the educational achievement gap (Rosen, 2018).
Edmonds (2022) asserts that education researchers across the social sciences, notably in the past
two decades, have established and furthered results showing gains in achievement for students in
classrooms with demographically-congruent teachers. As research on these same-race teacher
effects expands, so, too, do questions about the underlying causes (p. 6). Racial matching affects
much more than student achievement; Black students who have just one Black teacher in
elementary school are more likely to graduate and more likely to enroll in college – and
significantly more likely if they have two Black teachers (Camera, 2018). One such explanation
is role model effects. Specific to student achievement, Edmonds (2022) continues that one such
explanation is role model effects, specific to that of student achievement.
BIPOC students benefit greatly by having racial representation in their teachers.
However, seeing as the teaching force is white-dominated, white teachers can elevate their
practice to improve educating urban youth. For example, research shows that effective white
13
teachers pay careful attention to their own racial identity as well as their students. Utt & Tochluk
(2020) add that, “'whiteness’ is a racial discourse, whereas the category ‘white people’ represents
a socially constructed identity, usually based on skin color…whiteness is not a culture but a
social concept” (p. 127). When white teachers understand and recognize that certain behaviors
undercut their abilities to successfully transform into culturally responsive, anti-racist people,
they can then start to adopt practices in order to successfully educate diverse student populations.
The Effects of Teacher Expectations on BIPOC Student Achievement
The data is clear on disparities in expectations that teachers have for students of different
races (Gershenson & Papageorge, 2018). Gershenson and Papageorge (2018) have found that
there is a large, statistically significant bias when it comes to white teachers’ expectations for
Black students, and almost none for white students. They also found that these biases were
slightly more pronounced for Black male students than for Black female students (p. 67). White
students received more optimism than their Black classmates, and while Gershenson and
Papageorge (2018) state that “all teachers are optimistic” (p. 69), this means that white teachers’
low expectations for Black students are selectively applied in a manner that places Black
students at a disadvantage.
Gershenson (2016) found that teachers who had the greatest effects on children's
behavior did not always have large effects on children's test scores, suggesting that focusing only
on teachers’ effects on test scores, effective teachers may be misclassified as ineffective, and
vice versa. The Center for American Progress study titled America’s Leaky Pipeline for Teachers
of Color (Ahmad & Boser, 2014), reports that minority teachers have higher expectations of
minority students, provide culturally relevant teaching, develop trusting relationships with
students, and confront issues of racism through teaching, and become advocates and cultural
14
brokers. Teachers must recognize that emotional support requires the creation of a positive
climate, with agreeableness and sensitivity to students’ needs, such as being warm and helpful
(Kim et al., 2018). Kim et al., (2018) examined various occupational areas, including teachers,
and reported that personality is associated with job performance and job satisfaction. The meta-
analyses further discovered that the characteristics of effective teachers are largely personality-
based, including respect for students, ability to challenge students, and having both
organizational and presentation skills (Kim et al., 2018). Kim et al., (2018) found that a teacher’s
personality may be more important for student socio-emotional outcomes than academic
achievement. Teacher personality characteristics such as conscientiousness, agreeableness, and
emotional stability, led to students feeling academically and emotionally supported, as well as
having higher expectations for their academic performance. Teaching is inherently a social
practice requiring interpersonal interactions. As a result, these factors all play a role in BIPOC
student achievement.
In summary, teacher expectations influence outcomes for their students, but this is far
more amplified for our urban BIPOC youth population. Gershenson and Papageorge (2018)
outline several steps to combating teacher expectations. The first is asking policymakers and
school administrators to expand efforts to increase diversity in the teaching force. At present, the
field is not diversifying rapidly enough to align to the student demographic data, i.e. BIPOC
learners. Gershenson and Papageorge (2018) cite that doing so requires both increasing the racial
diversity of new entrants into the teaching pipeline and retaining more teachers of color. The
second builds off on the first, stating that:
While creating a more diverse teaching force is clearly a long-term goal, there are steps
schools and districts can take right away to reduce teacher bias and support positive expectations
15
for all students. Schools can improve pre-and in-service training on expectations and
bias…Programs that encourage empathy and cross-cultural understanding, for example, may
help reduce bias-driven disparities in expectations for student outcomes (p. 70).
Teacher Diversity
Diversity in the teaching force is not occurring rapidly enough. The U.S. Department of
Education: The State Of Racial Diversity In The Educator Workforce (2016) report found
students of color are expected to make up 56 percent of the student population by 2024, while 82
percent of the teacher workforce, in both elementary and secondary sectors, will be identified as
white. Moreover, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2020), estimates that the
elementary and secondary student populations will continue to become less white and more
diverse, further supporting that diversity in schools, including racial diversity among teachers,
can provide significant benefits to students. Students who have a teacher to whom they can relate
become more engaged, which engenders effort, interest, and confidence—benefits that can
enhance student performance (Ahmad & Boser, 2014). In Miss Buchanan’s Period of
Adjustment, a podcast episode of Revisionist History with Malcolm Gladwell (2017), Gladwell
addresses the significance of BIPOC students having a teacher from their community and the
long-reaching effects it can have on their long-term success,
If you’re Black, having a Black teacher makes a difference and not just for getting into
gifted programs. Having a Black teacher raises the test scores of Black students, it changes the
way Black students behave, and it dramatically decreases the chances a Black male student will
be suspended.
A group of social scientists recently went over the records of 100,000 Black students in
North Carolina over a 5 year period. They found that having even one Black teacher between the
16
third and fifth grade reduced the chance of an African-American boy would later drop out of
high school. By how much? By 39%. One Black teacher.
Now does this mean that White teachers are diabolical racists trying to hold down Black
students? No, this is not conscious discrimination. The point is that teachers have power, they are
gatekeepers, they control the classroom, they decide who gets recommended for prizes like
gifted programs and who does not, they decide who stays and who gets suspended. By directing
their attention to a child, a teacher can inspire. By ignoring another or sending him more often
the principal’s office, teachers can discourage. Most importantly, BIPOC students are not
exposed to and/or instructed by teachers that look like them, sound like them, and know the
culture. Therefore, there is a need for Latino/a and Black teachers in America’s urban schools.
Systemic social and racial inequalities will persist if Latino/a and Black educators are not
in our classrooms. Teacher diversification is important because ‘good’ multicultural practices, as
defined by Carrim (1998) would overtly confront questions about the power dimensions of
racism and cultural differences among all people, including those within radicalized groups,
which would receive equal attention. This is of particular importance because it suggests and
requires teachers to embrace their intersectionality and whiteness whilst juxtaposing them
against their teaching practice (p.316).
Improving the White Teaching Force
The general lack of attention paid to teachers’ impacts on students’ character skills is
surprising. Identifying effective teachers is hugely important, and there is a growing consensus
that providing high-quality teachers to all students plays a prominent role in closing achievement
gaps between students of different demographic and socioeconomic backgrounds (Harris 2011;
Rivkin el al., 2005). As evidenced in Crenshaw (1993), white educators with an intersectional
17
identity acknowledge that each person’s various identities interact with one another on multiple
levels and over time. White identity development simultaneously has to include a commitment to
anti-oppressive identity development with feminist analysis, class-consciousness, and anti-
heterosexist practices (Utt & Tochluk, 2020, p. 139).
Ultimately, many white educators attempt to connect with students of color by sharing
how they grew up in poverty too, but this still does not address race and issues concerning racism
and systemic inequality. White teachers often frame identity through every lens other than race
such as gender, religion, sexual orientation, etc. (Utt & Tochluk, 2020). Self-reflection and
authentic dialogue is imperative to the white teacher improving their practice. Also, developing
the knowledge of systems of oppression, privilege, inequity, and identity without situating the
self in relation to those systems often characterizes an initial step in developing an anti-racist
teaching practice (Utt & Tochluk, 2020). However, hooks, 1999 asserts as stated by Utt &
Tochluk (2020) that whites often focus entirely upon people of color and do little to investigate
“what’s going on with Whiteness”. The inward work of the white educator, steeped in anti-racist
practices, can reshape and redefine white identity. Further, it is important to note that white
identity analysis may also include and recognize the patriarchy and capitalism which intersect
with whiteness which complicates being a white person in the United States which in turn
impacts how students of color are educated in America.
Pre-Service Teaching Programs
At present, pre-service teacher programs are not aligned with the diversifying needs of
the educational profession and changing demographics of future educators. Many teacher
education programs reveal that respect for diversity is typically superficial and not supported by
practices, instruction, curriculum, policies, and teacher dispositions (Brown, 2014). Further,
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research on social justice-oriented teacher education and culturally responsive teaching suggests
that teacher preparation programs have led to the neglect of the needs of teachers of color and
show the connection between teacher effectiveness and the positive impact that teachers of color
have on students’ academic and social-emotional development (Ladson-Billings, 2000).
Teacher preparation programs and school districts across the United States face
tremendous challenges in helping teachers gain the skills needed to teach all students effectively.
Teacher preparation programs are seen as a contributing factor to the increasing teacher-diversity
gap. Pre-service teachers need strong master teachers while being supervised in the field to
provide the critical support that novice teachers need (Ahmad & Boser, 2014) and teacher
candidates need better clinical field experiences throughout their undergraduate careers and
student teaching.
Sleeter et al. (2014) studied teacher preparation programs and found programs that are
designed to recruit and prepare teachers of color often operate in isolation, specifically the
geographical location of recruitment and preparation programs for teachers of color. Boyd et al.,
as cited in Sleeter et al. (2014) found that most teacher candidates prefer to teach close to home,
while the available teacher education programs are disproportionately located outside of urban
areas. Additionally, for teachers seeking their first job, the importance of distance plays an
important role in their decision-making (Sleeter et al., 2014). Most prospective teachers search
their hometowns and in regions that are similar to those where they grew up (Sleeter et al.,
2014). For example, Boyd et al., as cited in Sleeter et al., (2014) states teacher candidates coming
from suburban or rural teacher program experiences do not equip and sustain teachers of color
for the challenges they face.
Currently, pre-service teaching programs do not support the kind of learning future
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educators need to be successful in urban environments. Milner (2007) found that traditional
curricula, assessments, and pedagogical practices overlook alternative approaches and
perspectives to advance the common dominant interests in the preparation of teachers (as cited in
Gist, (2017). Additionally, teachers who stay in suburban and/or rural areas might not embrace
inclusive teaching approaches such as bicultural and bilingual experiences or critical views of
learning. Districts fall short of the number of positions being filled in urban school districts
because distance from what the teacher’s life experience is important with teachers’ preferences,
combined with fewer teachers whose hometown is in an urban area (Sleeter et al., 2014).
Teacher preparation programs further the teacher diversity gap as contemporary teachers
of color are often placed in a constricting double bind, which is described as a tension between
personal ties for the teachers of color to teach for educational justice and systemic ties in schools
that devalue the critical pedagogical and culturally responsive instructional approaches that
attract teachers of color to the profession in the first place (Gist, 2017). The work of teacher
education programs must strategically center the voices and perspectives of teachers of color,
and as Gist (2017) discusses, focus on the types of institutional policies, pedagogical practices,
and affinity groups are often ignored to advance a one-size-fits-all curriculum with homogeneous
views of teacher learning and ignoring cultural and linguistic differences in the classroom (Gist,
2017).
In a study conducted by Jackson and Kohli (2016), it was found that many teacher
preparation programs, districts, and schools are working to focus their efforts on recruiting
teachers of color, but there are still many barriers to having a diverse teaching force. The study
further found that in U.S. Public schools, teachers of color had lower pass rates on credential
entrance tests, are not supported within teacher education programs, and leave the field at a rate
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24% higher than their white counterparts each year (Jackson & Kohli, 2016). Additionally,
evidence shows that once teachers of color enter the profession, there are key factors in the
pushout of teachers of color including the racialization of working in a predominately white
profession, lack of mentorship, working at schools with limited resources, less stability, and
higher teacher turnover rates (Jackson & Kohli, 2016).
To increase the number of teachers of color in our schools, teacher preparation programs
can develop students' sociopolitical and critical consciousness to disrupt the inequities
experienced for themselves and their communities (Tandon et al., 2014). The growing concerns
are with the continued diversification of the student population. Ultimately, how do pre-service
teaching programs effectively diversify the teaching force, support teachers of color, and keep
them in the profession?
Ongoing, Relevant Professional Development at School Sites
Day (1999) as cited in Newman & Phetla (2020) explains that professional development
(PD) as all-natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which are
intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to the individual, group, or school and which
contribute, through these, to the quality of education in the classroom (p.1). Traditional
approaches to professional development include workshops, seminars, and conferences that
adopt a technical and simplistic approach to teaching and believe that teachers’ knowledge and
skills can be improved through the use of experts from outside the school system (Newman &
Phetla, 2020).
Huberty & Newborn (2004) as cited in Newman & Phetla (2020) add that the problem
with this approach is that it is ineffective at changing teachers’ subject knowledge or pedagogical
skills which is why it is believed that teacher PD programs in actuality do not lead to the
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improvement of teaching and learning. As per Phetla & Newman (2020), effective PD must be
structured learning that leads to drastic changes in teachers’ knowledge and practices and
improvement and learning outcomes. Moreover, these PD opportunities must lend themselves to
a change in teachers’ beliefs and attitudes. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (2005) as cited by Phetla & Newman (2020) defines effective PD as ongoing,
includes training, practice, and feedback, and provides adequate time and follow-up support.
In an article published online by Prodigy Education: 5 Ways to Make Teacher
Professional Development Effective [with examples] (2019), it discusses in order to make PD
relevant for teachers at school sites, that administrators and other instructional leaders simply
survey and ask teachers for suggestions on what they would like to learn, how they want to grow,
and areas in which they need support. Harris (2019) as quoted by Reist (2021) stated that
teachers wanted strategies, resources, and/or materials that can easily and immediately be
implemented into their classrooms in a meaningful way. Also, teachers also wanted strategies
that are specific to the needs of their students. When PD strategies seemed too time-consuming
or were not presented in plain language, teachers did not feel as compelled to use them in their
lessons (Robinson & Smith, 2020).
Bayar (2014) discusses that an important component of any effective professional
development activity is a design that allows the participants to engage in active participation
during the activities. In Bayar’s (2014) study in Turkey, the researcher randomly visited 18
elementary schools and asked teachers to report the number of professional development
activities in which they had participated over the past 12 months. The study indicated that
individuals need and want to learn by doing - using the same skills as practitioners being asked
of students. Also, individuals in the study mostly complained that they did not have any
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opportunity for active engagement with the materials because of time limitations. They
complained about being forced to sit and listen to instructors drone on and on. Equivalently, the
experience of the Turkish educators mirrors much of the current construct of PD approaches
implemented at school sites. As a result of the one-sided nature of PD presentation and
implementation, it leads to general displeasure and disinterest amongst teachers; ultimately
hindering the amount of internalization of said skills and strategies being presented.
At its core, student achievement should be the ultimate goal of any teacher professional
development and its associated activities. Teacher professional development should be aimed at
encouraging teachers to be active participants in their own learning, and ensures that students
and teachers alike are eager to learn. When school sites provide learning and support for
teachers, it communicates that the school community values the work that teachers do and wants
them to grow. Thus, it is imperative to get teachers invested in the learning process through
engagement and systematically ongoing processes that embed the PD into the teaching process.
Harris (2019) as quoted by Reist (2021) discusses that for PD to be effective, research
mandates that it has to be consistent for at least one semester with a minimum of 20 contact
hours. Teachers wanted to be able to process, plan, and reflect on PD sessions—all of which
takes time. Quick-fix PD can often overwhelm teachers and is just a band-aid solution for
ongoing issues (Alber, 2011). Teachers who participated in continuous PD noted feeling more
confident in the classroom when using acquired strategies and resources from PD sessions
(Robinson & Smith, 2020). Furthermore, successful programs involve teachers in learning
activities that are similar to ones they use with their students and encourage teachers to develop
professional learning communities such as PD aligned to the needs identified in teacher
evaluation, directly support improvements in student achievement, and happen over an extended
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period of time in high-value forms such as coaching or teacher collaborations (Ahmad & Boser,
2014).
Critical Race Theory (CRT)
Brown (2014) outlines the challenges that pre-service teachers of color face in their
preparation programs hinging upon three Critical Race Theory (CRT) constructs: counter-
storytelling, whiteness as property, and interest convergence. Counter-stories reveal an image of
teacher education as one that is alienating and ineffective for pre-service teachers of color,
particularly with regard to giving them what they need to develop into socially just teachers
(Brown, 2014). Further adding to the obstacles is an overwhelming culture of whiteness that
pervades teacher education programs where a culture of whiteness frames how pre-service
teachers of color are recognized and treated in their programs (Brown, 2014).
Tichavakunda (2019) asserts that CRT analysis centers on race and racism, but also
engages with how race intersects with other identities and forms of subordination (Solorzano &
Yosso, 2002 as cited by Tichavakunda, 2019). This concept assumes that Black students, for
example, are not all the same, and have varying experiences depending on their unique mutually
constitutive identities of gender, class, sexuality, and other identities (Crenshaw, 1991 as cited by
Tichavakunda, 2019). Beyond centering race and racism, however, a CRT analysis also operates
under racial realism, which is often understood as an acceptance of the permanence of racism in
society and education.
CRT provides us with a healthy reminder that racism is alive and well in this country and
functions at a level that is often invisible to most individuals. It reminds us that the only way we
will make advances in dealing with the problem of racism is if we take the time to see and
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understand how it operates, recognize it within ourselves, highlight it within our field, and take
brave steps to do something about it.
Understanding Racism & Privilege Through the White Lens
For many white educators, the cultural loss resulting from trading ethnic traditions for the
privileges available in a white supremacist system complicates the ability to develop a positive,
anti-racist identity and an effective anti-racist teaching praxis (Tochluk & Utt 2020, p. 135).
Interrogating one’s relationship to systems of whiteness and white culture allows one to make
conscious choices about relating to it. Consequently, white educators struggle to identify and
align themselves with any specific culture, resulting in not having any sense of belonging and
cultural identity.
Investigating ethnic and familial roots allows one to find a more meaningful cultural
grounding. Together, they help white people regain a sense of rootedness that avoids prompting
an escape from the reality of one’s continuing connection to whiteness and complicity with
systemic oppression (Giroux, 1997). When white teachers in urban schools cannot hold this
tension of recognizing one’s connection to whiteness and white culture while working to regain
an ethnic or supportive cultural grounding, they enact many troubling behaviors (Tochluk & Utt,
2020, p. 135).
Lopez (2003) contends white educators and white educational leaders do not have a
thorough enough understanding of racism in its many manifestations, nor do they comprehend
how they are perpetuating white racism in their schools. According to Utt & Tochluk (2020),
“proselytizing or distaining,” limits anti-racist teachers from becoming influential on their school
campuses regarding the merits of employing a culturally responsive and/or anti-racist teaching
pedagogy” (p. 142). Furthermore, Lopez (2003) explains that this approach requires a new set of
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tools, mindsets, and dispositions than what is commonly taught in leadership [and teacher]
preparation programs. White teachers can learn how to recognize damaging enactments of
microaggressions, privilege, emotional reactions, or unexamined issues in the classroom and on
campus. Lopez (2003) cautions that if changes are not made, these programs will only continue
to produce primarily white, middle-class educators with little understanding of or interest in the
institutionalized system of white privilege, oppression, and racism. Lopez (2003) states that we
[teachers and other educators] have to know and raise questions about race and racism in society,
as well as an ethical responsibility to interrogate systems, organizational frameworks, and
leadership theories that privilege certain groups and/or perspectives over others.
Culturally Responsive & Relevant Curriculum
Ladson-Billings (1998) addresses the dysfunction of the American classroom curriculum
and its lack of innovation and how it adds up to poor performance on traditional assessments.
These assessment measures—crude by most analyses—may tell teachers what students do not
know based on the test but fail to illustrate what students know and can do. To further illustrate:
A telling mismatch between what schools’ measure and what students know and can do is that of
a 10-year-old African American girl who was repeatedly told by the teacher that she was a poor
math student. However, the teacher was unaware that the girl was living under incredible stresses
where she was assuming responsibilities her drug-addicted mother could not. To ward off child
welfare agents the child handled all household responsibilities, including budgeting and paying
all the household bills. Her ability to keep the household going made it appear that everything
was fine in the household. According to the teacher, she could not do fourth-grade math, but the
evidence of her life shows she was doing just fine at ‘adult’ math (p. 20)!
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Tuck, (2013) covers “the ‘browning’ of curriculum studies is a move that deliberately
seeks to uncover and highlight the myriad of complicated ways in which white supremacy and
colonization constantly manifest themselves in the curriculum… (p. 83).” To continue:
“Browning proceeds by bringing attention to these practices, interrupting the dominant narrative
by rudely inserting itself, reclaiming academic space, and calling the names of those who have
been replaced (p. 83). Browning, like pan-searing brings out the flavor through charring. It aims
to make the curriculum messy, to show how it is dirty and stained, refusing to romanticize
creation stories and fort pedagogies.
Douglas & Nganga (2015) state that teachers who engage in critical pedagogical
approaches are always informed about current issues pertaining to injustices and intentional
about contextualizing and connecting issues to the past” (p. 6). Similarly, changes to the pre-
existing curricula can be integrated through counter stories to draw attention to the educational
practice of white teachers, especially those who proclaim to employ culturally responsive
practices while teaching students of Color (Matias, 2013).
Anti-Racist Teaching Practices
Love (2018) reasons that teachers who disregard the impact of racism on Black children’s
schooling experiences, resources, communities, and parent interactions will harm children of
color. Self-work is necessary because few white teachers come from the communities in which
they serve. White teachers are told to be “culturally sensitive” but white teachers in urban
environments are not able to discuss institutionalized racism and its nuances. The lens of the
white teacher with respect to race is often misunderstood. White teachers need more support in
how to construct anti-racist pedagogies (Tochluk & Utt, 2020).
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Often, white teachers in urban schools are instructed to turn their focus from implied
deficits of students of color in the “achievement gap” toward the impact that their white identity
has on their craft as educators. For white teachers, this concept is not only abstract but without
the proper support system, an impossibility. A positive, anti-racist white racial identity supports
white teachers in being more effective, culturally responsive, and rooted in anti-racist teaching
practices (Tochluk & Utt, 2020) and this can only occur in an environment where uncomfortable
discourse regarding race, positionality, and privilege are addressed.
Simmons (2019), states that we cannot afford to wallow in our discomfort regarding
issues of race and equity. Simmons (2019) elaborates that an anti-racist teaching practice
includes white people or those who are perceived as white to recognize they have more privilege
and fewer barriers to resources than Black people and other people of color. Regular self-
reflection and inquiry into how privilege manifests are necessary to interrupt subconscious
enactments of microaggressions. This allows for the modification of personal behavior,
improved relationships with students of color, and lessons learned to be shared with colleagues.
Thus, committing to analyzing how privilege distorts perception and shapes attitudes and
behaviors is essential (Tochluk & Utt, 2020, p. 134).
To further illustrate this, a white teacher shared the following: “I struggle with learning
people’s names, and learning 175 students’ names was tough. But, while I knew the names of all
my lightest-skinned students, I had far more trouble learning my darkest-skinned students’
names…” (p. 133). This observation was only possible as a result of reflection, which ultimately
highlighted the teacher’s subconscious ways his privilege manifested. Anti-racist teachers
engage in vigilant self-awareness, recognizing power, and leveraging it towards anti-racism.
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Constant reflection means it enhances our ability to disrupt white privilege when we see or enact
it.
Love (2018) asks teachers, “Do you love all children?” and then states that teachers in
urban schools must be prepared for the challenges and beauty of teaching in an urban
environment. Love calls for white teachers to examine how they contribute to structural racism,
imploring that they must want to have this conversation while fighting for immigration justice,
food justice, queer and trans justice, labor justice, Black and Brown children, and above all, fight
for humanity.
bell hooks (2014) acknowledges an empirical problem is that professors or teachers are
not self-actualized and are not committed to actively promoting their own self-actualization.
Furthermore, hooks observed that “far from being self-actualized…those who are smart in book
knowledge…might be otherwise unfit for social interaction” (p.16) and in turn cannot be
vulnerable and empowering with their students. Teachers and professors who embrace the
challenge of self-actualization are better equipped to create and develop pedagogical practices
that engage students, providing them with ways to enhance their students’ capacities to live fully
and deeply. Accountability, according to Tochluk & Utt (2020), in the form of accountable
action in the community is critical to building relationships that offer support and critical
feedback that comes from people of color. Also, it is essential to build relationships with other
white anti-racist people committed to their own development.
Conceptual Framework
This section will be dedicated to the conceptual framework, which is the foundation of
this study. This conceptual framework focuses on the relationship between external K-12 school
site factors such as pre-service teacher programs and teacher diversity; the ongoing internal
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support for educators via professional development, the culturally relevant curriculum they
implement within their classrooms, and how all of these factors contribute to BIPOC student
achievement. The conceptual framework will be used to answer the following questions:
1. How, if at all, have pre-service/credential courses prepared educators to teachers to teach BIPOC
students in urban areas?
2. What professional development opportunities do teachers have to create and sustain culturally
relevant teaching practices for BIPOC students?
This framework incorporates four significant factors that support BIPOC student
achievement. Pre-service teacher programs, teacher diversity, on-site professional development,
and culturally responsive teaching are core features supporting and informing BIPOC student
achievement. A diverse teaching force has positive effects on students, but this is most evident in
our BIPOC learners. Hence why it is crucial to recruit BIPOC teachers and keep them in the
profession. There are several explanations for the positive effects of teachers of color on
educational outcomes for students of color. Wilkins, et al., (2014) examined how the beliefs and
aspirations of individual minority students were linked to the overall representation of Latino/a
30
and Black teachers in their schools. First, since school connectedness has been tied to improved
outcomes for students, the presence of minority teachers was examined to see if it increased how
‘connected’ minority students felt to their school. Second, the data tested whether the
representation of minority teachers improved a minority student's expectations for the future. The
data tested two possible explanations for why minority students may perform better when
minority teachers are well-represented at their schools. This positive result and association are
likely due to the teacher serving as a role model for the students; thus, influencing the choices
that students made about their future in turn positively impacting their success.
Professional development is a top priority for improving instruction, which is why it is
featured in this conceptual framework; along with its direct impact on student achievement. PD
needs more focus and attention on supporting teachers in their ongoing professional growth.
Teachers understand the need for PD, but often feel unfulfilled by the experience due to its
delivery and irrelevance (Reist, 2021).
In the conceptual framework, the essential concepts that support BIPOC student
achievement are pre-service teacher programs, teacher diversity, and the on-site support teachers
receive while imparting a culturally relevant curriculum. These ideas encompass the continuous
development of teachers, becoming reflective, and responsive to their own teachings whilst being
aware of their positionality while simultaneously exploring their implicit bias. The framework
begins with teachers who are in pre-service programs and this framework also acknowledges that
teacher diversity directly can affect BIPOC student achievement. Research suggests that when a
student has at least one teacher of color who looks like them, the students of color do better
(Camera, 2018).
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Contextually, other factors that can affect student achievement as connoted in the
framework are neighborhood context, systemic racism, and educational policies. All three
independent variables influence the success of BIPOC students if successful structures are put
into place to support teachers before they enter the classroom and during. Additionally, the
independent variables will continue to close the achievement gap for BIPOC students if things
not represented in the framework like racial matching of teachers and CRT are integrated into the
external and internal features of this framework.
Additionally, this framework recognizes how teacher in-service training informs the
growth of educators and supports them in delivering meaningful, culturally relevant instruction.
These factors, in conjunction with the ways students’ neighborhoods, policy, and systemic
racism also play a direct role in the achievement of BIPOC students. The conceptual framework
maps out the need for more adequate teacher training and supports to educate BIPOC urban
youth.
Conclusion
This chapter provided the research that BIPOC student achievement is informed by the
teachers that educate them. The research suggested that if BIPOC students have at least one
teacher who looks like them, they have a greater likelihood of success in their own education.
Additionally, the research calls for white educators to be reflective and aware of their
positionality in the education of minority urban youth. Additionally, if continuous support
systems are in place for teachers, they are more likely to be effective in providing culturally
responsive and relevant teaching strategies.
As previously noted, teachers, white teachers, in particular, may not have the cultural
knowledge to teach historically marginalized BIPOC students. Nonetheless, through teacher
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programs that recruit and focus on teacher diversity and development in tandem with consistent
ongoing school site support aimed to drive culturally relevant instruction, the correlation
between enhanced BIPOC student achievement is evident.
The conceptual framework aligns the literature with the need for teacher preparation
programs to reflect the changing demographic of students and continuous support systems for
teachers to support BIPOC students. The teacher's personal investment in their BIPOC students
as a result of their pre-service and ongoing PD will enable them to invest in culturally relevant
classroom practices. Teachers could then use their knowledge of BIPOC students and cultures to
deliver meaningful content, thus improving student achievement.
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Chapter Three: Methods
This chapter outlines the qualitative approach, instrumentation, and data collection
methods I will use to conduct this study. The following research questions are the basis of my
study:
1. How, if at all, have pre-service/credential courses prepared educators to teachers
to teach BIPOC students in urban areas?
2. What professional development opportunities do teachers have to create and
sustain culturally relevant teaching practices for BIPOC students?
This chapter includes five sections. First, I will discuss the reasoning behind the decision
to conduct a qualitative case study. Second, I will describe the sample and population I propose
for this case study. Third, the data collection methods will be explained. Fourth, the planned
analysis of the data will be explained and finally, I will discuss the credibility, trustworthiness,
limitations, delimitations, and ethics of this study.
Research Design
This research study will use a basic qualitative methodological approach in the form of
multiple case studies to investigate how pre-service/credential courses prepared educators to
teach BIPOC students in urban areas. For this study, qualitative methods are the most appropriate
approach because they will enable me to explore how teachers interpret their experiences from
their pre-service programs, and what meaning they attribute to their experiences (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) discuss qualitative research as uncovering the
meaning of the perceived experiences of phenomena. The phenomenon is the teacher’s
experience in their pre-service teaching program.
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This research focuses on whether teachers are prepared to deliver effective instruction in
a culturally responsive classroom in an urban setting. The units of analysis for this study are
twelve elementary and secondary teachers working in an urban school setting, who have
successfully completed a credential program with less than five years of teaching experience;
thereby creating two bounded systems (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews will be used as
they represent a first and second-hand account of the phenomenon respectively and will allow
me to triangulate findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Also, the interviews will provide insight
into the participants' thoughts, perspectives, and intentions. The following sections explain how I
intend to learn more about this phenomenon.
Sample and Population
The focus of my study is to acquire an understanding of teachers’ perceptions by
examining how their pre-service teacher program prepared them to work with BIPOC students in
an urban school. For the purposes of this research study, the sampling technique is non-
probability and purposeful. This qualitative methodological approach does not aim to generalize
to a population; therefore probability sampling is not justifiable (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As a
result, it is essential to purposefully seek out participants who are the most qualified to answer
the research questions, as the researcher wants to discover, understand and gain insight, and
therefore must select a sample of respondents from whom the most can be learned (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016)
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggest deciding on a set of criteria that are fundamental in
choosing the respondents and the sites to be studied in order to obtain thorough information that
directly reflects the purpose of the study. I will discuss the criteria necessary for my site and
participant selections.
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Site Selection
Milner et al. (2015) developed a framework that defines urbanism by population density,
diversity of peoples, and availability of resources along a continuum of intensive, emergent, and
characteristic. According to their framework, an urban district will reside in an area that has a
population either close to or exceeding one million. There will also be a wide range of student
diversity in terms of racial, ethnic, linguistic, and socio-economic composition (Milner et al.,
2015). Urban school districts in the southern California region were selected using these
criterion.
The selection criteria for the sites are schools within urban Southern California with a
high level of diversity in its student population (i.e., Black, Latino/a, Asian, bi-racial). These
sampling criteria identify relatively heterogeneous, diverse schools within an urban school
district that is demographically diverse. Schools in which teachers instruct and participate in this
study were selected based on the school and district’s publicly released demographic data.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) state that a typical or a model sample “describes how typical the
program, event, or individual is compared with others in the same class, so that users can make
comparisons with their own situations” (p. 257-258). I use the word “typical” here to describe
the school’s environment with respect to any active agendas or district initiatives to implement or
dissuade culturally responsive curriculum and instructional practices, not to explain ethnic,
racial, or Socio-Economic Status (SES) demographics as there is no “typical” school in that
respect.
Criterion 1: The first criterion for my study is the district. I will be using urban school
districts in Southern California that implement regular (weekly) professional development.
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Criterion 2: The second criterion is related to the school site selection. The schools
selected in my study are public K-12 schools located in large urban school districts within
Southern California. The schools selected for my study are neither: a) actively pursuing an
agenda to implement culturally responsive curriculum/instructional practices, b) affected by such
an initiative that is underway at the district level, nor c) actively discouraging any culturally
responsive curriculum and instructional practices.
Participant Selection
Purposeful network sampling will be used to determine the participants. Seeing as
purposeful sampling is based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover and gain
an in-depth understanding of a specific issue, this criterion-based selection is fitting to garner the
best results from the teachers in the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Lester and Lochmiller
(2017) state that the ideal sample in a qualitative research study is one that enables researchers to
make sound interpretations of the data and to have sufficient data to ground and produce an in-
depth report of their findings. Patton (2002) discussed that we interview people to find out from
them those things we cannot directly observe. Therefore, to better understand the issues of
teacher pre-service programs and ongoing professional development at school sites aimed at
meeting the needs of BIPOC students; Twelve teachers will be sampled for this study. Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) suggest that for qualitative studies, it is important to have a large enough
sample to cultivate new information, but not too many at which saturation of information is
exceeded. Since the focus of my study are early career teachers instructing BIPOC students in
urban areas, it is necessary to select only those teachers who fit the criteria. The following
criteria will be used to select the twelve teachers:
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Criterion 1. The first criterion is that respondents must be currently employed as K-12
public school teachers in a general education classroom in an urban area of Southern California.
The reason for seeking K-12 public school teachers, in particular, is because the focus of this
study is to examine teachers’ perceptions of how prepared they are to work with BIPOC students
based on the coursework in their credential programs.
Criterion 2. The second criterion is teacher selection. Specifically, teachers with 0-5 years
of teaching experience who are able to discuss and reflect upon the work completed in their pre-
service/credential programs. Since I seek to understand the ways that teachers feel their pre-
service/credential programs and school site professional development have and continue to
prepare them to instruct BIPOC students through a culturally responsive curriculum; the teacher
piece is crucial to this study.
Criterion 3. The third criterion is that respondents must be currently physically teaching
on a school campus, as opposed to in an online environment. For the purpose of this study, I am
interested in teachers’ in-person experiences and perceptions around delivering effective
culturally responsive classroom pedagogy.
Instrumentation and Data Collection Procedures
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), qualitative research uses words and data
collected in various ways. More specifically, the use of questions via interviews will provide the
researcher with an understanding regarding the participants’ experiences in the preparedness of
their pre-service teaching programs to plan and deliver culturally responsive lessons for BIPOC
students in an urban setting. The literature on contemporizing pre-service teacher programs
shows that teachers and their teaching practices are ineffective and lack core values in their
classrooms aligned to that of their students and communities (Hollins, 2015). Interviews are an
38
appropriate data collection method to gather information about participant perspectives and
experiences which seek to understand meaning-making which would further explore professional
development opportunities provided for teachers (Maxwell, 2013). The following sections will
present additional information about the purpose and content of each instrument.
This study will examine the ongoing and relevant professional development at school
sites and teacher preparedness to educate BIPOC students and how teacher positionality, and
implicit bias, in conjunction with the aforementioned pre-service programs, and ongoing
professional development affect the achievement of BIPOC students. Each participant will be
interviewed on their personal experiences in their pre-service teacher programs with respect to
their preparation for education BIPOC students and their continued professional development
and learning to offer culturally relevant teaching to urban students. The interview questions will
be open-ended questions based on my conceptual framework. Interviews will occur on Zoom
based on a predetermined time. Interviews will last approximately 1-hour in duration and will be
recorded and transcribed for later analysis.
Table 1: Interview Questions and Conceptual Framework Alignment
Opening:
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set
aside to answer my questions. As I mentioned when we last spoke, the interview should take about
an hour, does that still work for you?
Before we get started, I want to remind you about this study, the overview for which was
provided to you in the Study Information Sheet and answer any questions you might have about
participating in this interview. I am a student at USC and am conducting a study on pre-service
teacher programs and ongoing professional development at school sites and how they prepare
educators to teach students of color in urban environments. I am particularly interested in
understanding how pre-service teacher and credentialing programs impact instructional practices to
support students of color, in conjunction with ongoing professional development at school sites to
support the learning of teachers and how their pre-service teaching programs affect their likelihood
of remaining in the profession. I am talking to multiple teachers to learn more about this all within
five years of earning their teaching credential.
39
I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher today. What this means is
that the nature of my questions are not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments on how you
are performing as a teacher. My goal is to understand your perspective.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet I provided to you previously, this interview is
confidential. What that means is that your name will not be shared with anyone outside of the
research team. I will not share them with other teachers, the principal, or the district. The data for
this study will be compiled into a report and while I do plan on using some of what you say as direct
quotes, none of this data will be directly attributed to you. I will use a pseudonym to protect your
confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify any of the data I gather from you. I am happy to
provide you with a copy of my final paper if you are interested.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet, I will keep the data in a password-protected
computer and all data will be destroyed after 3 years.
Might you have any questions about the study before we get started? I have brought a
recorder with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. The recording is
solely for my purposes to best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone outside
the research team. May I have your permission to record our conversation?
*Opening protocol and questions adapted from Dr. Artineh Samkian
Interview Questions Systems/Concept from CF Type of Question
Transition: I’d like to start by asking you some background questions about yourself.
Introduction: Setting the Stage
1. First, tell me about your
background in education.
a. How did you become
interested in the field of
education?
b. How long have you worked
in the field?
c. What roles or positions
have you held?
2. What subject(s) do you teach?
a. Tell me about your role
in the program/school.
Meaning-making
Meaning-making
Background/Demographics
(Patton, 2002)
Background/Demographics
(Patton, 2002)
[Pre-service teachers in credential programs/Reflecting on pre-service credential program]
Transition:
Thank you for sharing about your background and journey into education. Now, I’d like to ask you
to think about your current credentialing program.
40
Heart of the Interview:
3. First, tell me about where you
earned your teaching credential.
a. Probes: What factors did
you consider while
selecting your pre-
service/credentialing
program?
4. Tell me about a class, specific
professor, or experience in your pre-
service teaching program that has
resonated with you.
a. Probes: Tell me about
some of the positive
elements of your pre-
service teaching
program.
b. Discuss some areas of
your pre-service
teaching program that
you feel could be
improved.
3. Discuss how your pre-service
teaching program incorporated
contemporary issues such as, but not
limited to, discussions of race, Critical
Race Theory, systemic inequality, and
more.
a. Probes: I’d like to know
more about the courses
in your pre-service
program. What types of
classes were you
required to take?
b. Were any required
courses exclusively
dedicated to teaching in
urban communities?
4. How did your pre-service
teaching program prepare you for
Pre-service Teacher
Programs
Pre-service Teacher
Programs
Culturally relevant
curriculum
Establishes practical
application of pre-service
teaching programs
Pre-service Teacher
Programs
Experience & Behavior /
Feeling (Patton, 2002)
Experience & behavior /
Feelings / Opinion (Patton,
2002)
Experience & Behavior
(Patton, 2002)
Ideal position (Strauss et al.,
1981)
Experience & behavior /
Feelings / Opinion (Patton,
2002)
41
educating youth in urban
environments?
Transition: I’d like to start by asking you about your teaching and practices in your classroom.
5. Tell me about a time when
something you learned in your pre-
service/credentialing program carried
over into your classroom.
Pre-service Teacher
Programs
Ideal Position (Strauss et al.,
1981)
BIPOC: BIPOC is an acronym that connotes Black Indigenous People of Color
6. Can you tell me about the
discussions you had in your credential
program about educating BIPOC
students, if any?
Pre-service Teacher
Programs
Experience & Behavior /
Knowledge (Patton, 2002)
Culturally Responsive Teaching:
Culturally responsive teaching has been defined as “the process of using familiar cultural
information and processes to scaffold learning, emphasizes communal orientation, focused on
relationships, cognitive scaffolding, and critical social awareness” (Hammond, 2015, p. 156).
7. Tell me how equipped you feel
you are to teach BIPOC students.
8. What does culturally
responsive teaching mean to you?
a. How would you
describe to someone
what a culturally
responsive classroom
may look, sound, and
feel for both students
and the teacher/s.
9. Tell me about the support you
receive as a teacher to teach in ways
you just described, if any?
a. What would be more
helpful to you?
Culturally relevant
curriculum
Culturally relevant
curriculum
Professional Development
Opinion & Values (Patton,
2002)
Feelings (Patton, 2002)
Ideal position (Strauss et al.,
1981)
Transition: Now, I’d like to ask you some questions about how these practices are promoted at your
school.
10. Think about a professional
development you found meaningful,
Professional Development
Ideal Position (Strauss et al.,
1981)
42
tell me about it.
11. In the last year, tell me about
the kinds of professional development
offered at your school site.
a. How have these
professional
developments
supported your teaching
and the students in your
classroom?
12. Please describe any
professional learning opportunities you
have received in the last year related to
culturally responsive teaching and
learning conditions, if any.
a. How were you
informed about
this/these professional
learning opportunities?
b. What were some
reasons you decided to
attend?
13. Ideally, what kind of
professional development would you
like to receive?
a. What are some specific
things you are hoping
to gain that would be
particularly useful to
you and your students?
Professional Development /
Culturally relevant
curriculum
Professional Development
Professional Development
Ideal Position (Strauss et al.,
1981)
Experience / Knowledge /
Opinion & Feelings (Patton,
2002)
Opinion & Values (Patton,
2002)
Conclusion:
14. What other insight would you
like to share about how pre-service
teacher credentialing programs impact
instructional practices to support
BIPOC students that I might not have
covered, if any?
15. Is there anything else that you
would like to share regarding what
we’ve spoken about?
NA NA
43
Closing Comments:
Thank you so much for sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate your time and
willingness to share. The information you shared is really helpful for my study. If I find myself with
a follow-up question, can I contact you, and if so, is email ok? Again, thank you for participating in
my study. As a thank you, please accept this small token of my appreciation (gift card, school
supplies, etc. if appropriate).
Through my questions, I will seek evidence to provide insight into the participants’
experiences in their pre-service teacher programs and beliefs. Specifically, about how adequately
they felt prepared to endeavor to educate BIPOC students in urban schools. I will also probe into
their professional practice to determine what their beliefs are regarding the types of professional
development they are receiving at their school sites and how interconnected and related it is to
their student demographics and cultural relevancy. Finally, my questions will inquire about the
types of professional development teachers would like to receive at their school sites as a means
to better grow their craft and serve their students.
Data Analysis
This study utilized qualitative data from interviews. Data from this qualitative study
included interview transcripts from the teachers in the study, field notes, and all memos written
during the study. The research questions guided the data analysis for this study. Bowen (2009)
suggests that data analysis is a systemic procedure for reviewing a qualitative study. Data
analysis is the process of giving meaning to the data by identifying and looking closely at its
various components to realize their relationship with each other (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). As I
collected data from the interviews, I wrote separate reports documenting my findings,
categorizing thematic patterns in the data. The interviews existed in a social context. Seidman
(2013) suggests that interviewing is both a research methodology and a social relationship that
must be nurtured, sustained, and then end gracefully. After each interview, I transcribed the
44
audio recordings and field-coded transcripts accordingly, then I coded and sorted the data.
According to Stuckey (2015), one of the more practical uses of memos is to record how I
developed the codes and made decisions about coding. This enhanced the audit trail to
demonstrate how decisions were made, and conclusions were reached. When memos were
written, I decided to combine or split codes and wanted to write conceptual notes about how the
codes told the storyline or the context in which a certain code could be applied.
Adhering to a strict and consistent data analysis allowed me to find patterns of words or
ideas that emerged from the interviews. These concepts and ideas presented themselves as I
explored the data. Then, I wrote separate reports documenting common themes among the
participants. The analysis was developed from the information supplied by the participants. In
addition, I compared and contrasted the ideas and themes of the teachers being interviewed. This
allowed me to gain a better understanding of the teacher's pre-service programs and the students
they serve. As I continued to analyze the data, I wrote a qualitative narrative that presented my
findings as it related to my research question and conceptual framework.
Credibility & Trustworthiness
Maxwell (2013) implies the existence of any objective truth to which an account can be
discovered and measured in qualitative research is notwithstanding. However, Maxwell (2013)
suggests the idea of objective truth is not essential to a theory of validity that does what most
researchers want it to do, which is to give them some grounds for distinguishing accounts that
are credible from those that are not. I took the necessary steps to maintain validity throughout the
data collection. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggest that it is important to establish rigor and
trustworthiness in qualitative studies through ethical practices often associated with terms of
validity and reliability. As the interviewer, I maintained validity for the interviewees. Seidman
45
(2013) suggests the interviewer might attempt to isolate the interviewing relationship from the
context and make it unique to the interviewer and participant, the social forces of class, ethnicity,
race, and gender, as well as other social forces of class, ethnicity, race, and gender, as well as
other social identities, impose themselves. Understanding my positionality as I interviewed and
collected data was vital to the research.
To begin, I am a former secondary English teacher. At the core of the material we studied
when I was a classroom teacher, the literature was diverse and carefully selected to align with the
cultural pluralities of my students. I led my classroom and school site as a leader, sitting on
various leadership committees, and championing funding and equity for my students. However, I
am a cis-gendered white woman. Constant self-reflection, awareness of my positionality and
privilege, as well as seeking to listen to the voices of systematically marginalized populations is
crucial to my continued work in education. I operate under the assumption that all teachers,
regardless of their race and background, consider their students’ culture and race in planning,
lesson implementation, and interactions with students. While I am aware that as a researcher and
teacher, I possess implicit biases--classroom teachers do too. With my interviewees, I strived for
equity because it is not only an ethical imperative, it is also a methodological one (Siedman,
2013). In remaining open and constantly engaging in dialogue to grow, I came into my study
with my participants with an open mind; yet awareness of implicit biases that may yet be
unearthed and/or addressed.
In addition, throughout the study, I made every effort that there was strong validity and
reliability by observing Patton’s (2002) belief that it is vital that the study be carried out with
intellectual rigor, professional integrity, and methodological competence. Multiple steps were
followed to promote validity and reliability throughout the study such as triangulation of the
46
data, member checking, adequate time spent collecting the data, researcher self-reflecting on any
assumptions, worldviews, and/or biases, peer review, audit trail, and purposefully seeking
variation in the sample selection (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
Research ethics involves practitioner-scholars acting in a responsible and fair way, while
continually keeping in mind the interests, needs, and protection of current and/or future research
participants (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). It was my responsibility as a researcher to act ethically
and clearly communicate the data. Additionally, the purpose of this study was transparent and
clearly communicated to the participants. Additionally, participants were asked to sign a
statement indicating they were informed. While conducting the interview, participants were
reminded that they can rescind their participation at any time, refuse to answer any particular
question, or ask for the audio recording to be stopped. I maintained confidentiality by only using
pseudonyms in the findings presented and all data (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Utilizing Patton’s (2015) checklist, I continuously explained the purpose of the questions
and methods I used as I introduced the data being collected from the teachers. I continued to
follow all Institutional Review Board (IRB) protocols, guidelines, and requirements for
protecting the participants in the study. In addition, as questions arose, I contacted my committee
chair for guidance. During the execution of the study and data collection, I strove to conduct
myself ethically.
Limitations
Limitations to this study are factors outside my control. The results and/or interpretation
of the study may have been impacted by generalizability, truthfulness, and credibility. The study
is generalizable only to the teachers and their classrooms that are the units of study. The study
47
also relied on the trustworthiness and the truthfulness found in the interviews of the participants
which cannot be controlled. With the limitation of openness and truthfulness of the participants,
the interviewees’ responses cannot be guaranteed to be truthful during the interviews (Weiss,
1994). Respondents may try to paint a particular picture based on their own positionality (Weiss,
1994).
For example, I interviewed a variety of teachers at different schools. They may have
shared how they deliver effective culturally responsive instruction in a limited way due to the
sensitive nature or the desire for privacy. Lastly, participants may not have been forthcoming in
their responses due to the insider/outsider status that may be perceived. I assumed that the data
acquired during interviews was indeed true to each teacher’s actual perceptions of effective
culturally responsive instruction and their choices regarding curriculum and pedagogy. The
reliability of this study depends upon this assumption. Finally, the data collected for this
dissertation was limited to twelve case studies. The findings as well as the generalizability and
transferability to similar school contexts were constrained to the phenomenon studied of the
twelve teachers in my study.
Delimitations
Delimitations are factors within the researcher's control that may affect the interpretation
of the data and the results of the study. As with all qualitative research where the researcher is
the primary instrument, my limited experience with conducting research and my personal biases
are delimitations. My biases may have influenced the questions I asked, how I read, and then
made meaning of the data. Secondly, as a novice, I am unfamiliar with the art of research in
terms of building a participant relationship through interviews and probing appropriately in order
to seek more information. Thus, resulting in the possibility that markers and cues from
48
interviewees may have been missed which may have posed opportunities to ask probing
questions. Lastly, I had a limited time in which to gather data. Data was collected over the course
of approximately two months during one semester of school in the spring of 2023. Any
information obtained through the interviews provided only a glimpse of the phenomenon present
at teacher’s school sites and from their pre-service credential programs.
Conclusion
This chapter focused on the design and implementation of this qualitative study where I
engaged in systematic inquiry to gather data and how I looked for patterns in the data that helped
me understand this phenomenon. The purpose of the research was to examine the ways in which
pre-service/credential courses prepared teachers to educate BIPOC students in urban areas as
well as the support that teachers need to instruct BIPOC students in urban areas. I interviewed
twelve general education elementary and secondary teachers who work at diverse school sites in
urban school districts located in the Southern California region. Data was collected through
semi-structured interviews and the gathering of documents and artifacts. I was aware of my
positionality, limitations, biases, and how these represented the constraints of this study. I
implemented strategies to increase the validity and reliability of my methods and data collection.
I made ethical decisions throughout the dissertation process from the beginning to the final
presentation of the findings that emerged from the data. Finally, my conceptual framework
served as the foundation for my work and guide the data analysis.
49
Chapter Four: Findings and Results
In this chapter, thematic analysis was used to analyze teachers' responses to the interview
questions regarding their pre-service credentialing program, the preparedness they felt their
programs provided to educate BIPOC youth in urban environments, and their views and opinions
regarding culturally relevant professional development and support at their school sites to
support their student demographic. This study answers the following research questions: (1)
How, if at all, have pre-service/credential courses prepared educators to teach BIPOC students in
urban areas? (2) What professional development opportunities do teachers have to create and
sustain culturally relevant teaching practices for BIPOC students?
According to Braun and Clarke (2006, p. 82) via Kiger and Varpio (2020), a theme is a
‘patterned response or meaning’ derived from the data that informs the research question. Using
the conceptual framework stated in Chapter Two in conjunction with thematic analysis and
research questions, interview data was interpreted. The framework states that BIPOC student
achievement can be influenced by pre-service teacher programs, the professional development,
and culturally relevant curriculum teachers receive at their school sites and are expected to
implement. Other contributing factors to BIPOC student achievement are neighborhood contexts,
systemic racism, and educational policies.
Given the nature of qualitative research, participant voice and experience are pivotal
factors in the research. Participant narratives are gathered by using a variety of methods, but they
may also be represented in various ways (Trahar, 2009). To continue, Trahar (2009) discusses
that narrative inquiry is based firmly on the premise that, as human beings, we come to
understand and give meaning to our lives through stories. Seeing as qualitative research involves
the gathering of narratives—written, oral, visual—focusing on the meanings that people ascribe
50
to their experiences, seeking to provide insight into the complex lives and experiences of
humans; narrative inquirers strive to attend to the ways in which a story is constructed (p. 2). The
narrative inquiry’s goal is to critically examine the stories gathered and unearth for whom, why,
as well as the cultural discourses in which they are drawn upon (Trahar, 2009), giving voice to
the individuals' experience and their meaning-making of said experiences.
In this chapter, the findings from twelve interviews of teachers currently educating
BIPOC youth in the Southern California region will be presented. This chapter will begin with a
brief participant profile, then explore common themes that arose in the interviews, suggesting the
impact of pre-service credentialing programs and ongoing, culturally relevant school site
professional development on teachers’ abilities to effectively educate BIPOC youth.
Participant Profile
All twelve participants were interviewed over Zoom from January - February 2023. All
participants reside and teach in Southern California. The study aimed at seeking a diverse body
of teacher participants to speak to their experiences in their pre-service programs and regarding
the ongoing culturally relevant professional development in which they receive at their school
sites. It was important to select participants with 0-5 years of experience, post credential program
to ensure they were able to recall their programs in detail and for relevancy rooted in
contemporary topics, issues, and pedagogy. There was no targeted grade level or discipline in
participant selection; however, it was important to this study that participants reflected an array
of experiences from all over the urban landscape of Southern California. The participants in this
study are described and presented in the table below by pseudonyms to protect their anonymity.
Table A: Participants
Participan
t
Gender Race Years
teaching
Current Teaching Assignment and
School Site Role/s
Year of
Credential
51
Pseudony
m and
Pronouns
Completio
n
Charlie
he/him
M White 2 4th grade
Department Chair
2021
Harold
he/him
M White 1 7th grade Science and Health 2022
Amber
she/her
F Latina 1 Advanced Placement (AP) Literature,
AP Language, 11th grade English
Club Advisor: Pride Club
Participant: Mariachi Club
2022
Raquel
she/her
F Latina 2 11th grade English
Club Advisor: As needed
2016
Felicia
she/her
F Latina 1 10th grade World History and 9th grade
AP Human Geography
2022
Jose
he/him
M Latino 5 High School Technical Theater, Middle
School Video Production, Career
Technical Education (CTE)
2018
Matt
he/him
M Armenian 5 2nd grade 2015
Jennifer
she/her
F Latina 5 7th grade Design and Modeling and
Automation and Robotics
8th grade Green Architecture and
Aerospace Engineering
Supervises 8th grade Linked Learning
portfolio defense
2018
Cassie
she/her
F Asian
American
2 ½ 2nd grade 2019
Lupe
she/her
F Latina 5 8th grade dual immersion Science and
Social Science, ELD, & English Only
(EO) Social Science
2008
Laura
she/her
F Latina 1 4th/5th grade combination
Robotics coach
2020
Mary
she/her
F Black 2 6th grade Math and Science
Black Student Achievement (BSA)
coordinator at school site
2021
52
Results
Participants were asked to discuss their experiences while participating in a pre-service
teaching program and how prepared they felt they were to apply their learning to their classroom
practice. This information is important to this study and the field of education because it closely
examines the programs that prepare educators to teach BIPOC youth and the applicability and
relevance of these programs. Additionally, participants were asked to reflect on the professional
development they receive at their school sites and its cultural responsiveness to their learners.
The information gleaned from these interviews shows a need for alignment between teacher
credential programs and school sites in supporting teachers entering the profession and during
their instructorship to offer learning experiences and approaches consistent with the needs of
urban BIPOC students.
Interview data collected provided valuable insight into participant perception of how
prepared they felt to impart instruction in urban environments to BIPOC youth; and how their
teaching practice is continually evolving and developing by way of their school site PD. The data
showed the reasons participants selected their pre-service credential programs, which were based
on two crucial factors: proximity and cost. The data also yielded what participants learned in
their programs and what they felt they wished they had learned in their programs in hindsight
once being in the classroom. In the opinion of the participants in this study, the data indicated
that pre-service programs spent far too much time on research and theory and lacked
development and emphasis on the real-life application teaching, especially when related to the
topics of teaching BIPOC students. These findings align with what Brown (2014) discussed
regarding pre-service teaching programs not being comprehensive enough to reflect the real and
true demands of life in the classroom. Other blind spots the participants indicated their
53
credentialing programs lacked were how to navigate the true challenges of being an urban
schoolteacher, and how to teach and deliver culturally relevant, rigorous, standards-based
instruction for their BIPOC learners. Resoundingly, all respondents interviewed in this study
stated that they did not feel prepared to educate BIPOC youth in urban settings.
Teachers interviewed in this study indicated that the types of PD they receive at their
school sites were disjointed and fragmented with an attention on quantity over quality, an over-
emphasis on testing and data, and not enough time to plan, collaborate and practice what they are
being taught in their PD’s. Overwhelmingly, most participants do not receive regular PD
designed at and targeting the creation and sustainability of culturally responsive teaching
practices. Only three respondents in this study indicated that they have received some trainings at
their school sites about how to culturally engage with curriculum and practices for BIPOC
students. Through these narratives, the interviews unearthed four major themes: (1) Convenience
of Pre-Service Teaching Program, (2) Pre-Service Teacher Program Quality and Effectiveness,
(3) Real-life Application of Learning, (4) What School Site PD is Being Offered & What Types
of PD Teachers Would Like to Receive.
Convenience of Pre-Service Teaching Program
Proximity
The interviews sought to understand the participants’ rationale for selecting their pre-
service programs. First off, 11 out of 12 of the participants interviewed for this study stated that a
key factor in the selection process for their pre-service program was convenience. While
participants indicated their social justice preferences in a program and expressed a desire that
they wish they learned more about teaching BIPOC students in their programs, the chief reason
each teacher chose their program was based on proximity to their homes and/or school sites. This
54
finding directly correlates to that of Sleeter et al., (2014) which demonstrated that distance does
indeed play a central role in teacher’s decision-making process. To continue, this finding further
reinforces that most new or emerging teachers aim to teach close to him which is usually close to
their pre-service university programs.
Additionally, most participants then added that their program came highly recommended,
was reputable, they heard it was “good”, and/or that it would help them get a job. But above all,
all but one participant stated that convenience was a driving factor in their program selection.
More specifically, this related to how quickly they could complete the degree while minimizing
their commuting. Based on the data collected from these interviews, the quality of the program
was a secondary factor, sometimes tertiary, for educators as convenience was the main reason for
program selection.
Most of the participants interviewed indicated proximity and the ease by which they
could complete the program. For example, Jose selected the online version of his program due to
its convenience, flexibility, and a 2-year timeline for completion. More specifically, he said that
the short, 5-week courses, and ability to take classes at a university outside Los Angeles without
needing to commute was convenient and really appealed to him and his lifestyle. Maatuk, et al.,
(2022) discuss that because of e-learning, participants can save time and effort for living in
distant places from universities where they are registered, so, many scholars support online
courses.
Jose added that in order to enter the teaching field after his undergraduate studies where
he majored in an unrelated field, selecting his program was “a means to end if I [he] wanted to
enter the classroom and that’s why I went private.” Jose indicated that the cost of his program
was significantly higher than he wanted to spend, but he felt the convenience, expedited process
55
for completion, and the ease of how the program blended with his life far outweighed the price.
Again, Jose did not select his pre-service teaching program due to its reputation or ability to
prepare him to teach BIPOC students in urban environments. He sought out a program that
aligned with his schedule and ability to complete it quickly.
Another participant who chose to attend a private university program was Raquel. She
stated that her in-person program was “close to her home," which was a driving factor in the
selection of her university program. Matt also selected his private university program based on
the fact it was a hybrid program mostly online, stating that he:
Looked at other programs but they were all on campuses, and I [he] didn’t want to
commute. The off-site program met once a month for a week at a satellite location, then weekly
and it was just more conducive to my [his] schedule.
Nearly all participants surveyed opted for local programs, close to where they resided
and/or worked. There was a repeated theme amongst the teachers regarding the importance of
being able to access their universities with ease without having to commute over long distances.
All but one participant interviewed based the selection of their pre-service program based on
proximity and convenience by which their programming meshed with their work/life schedule
and commuting distance and time. Ultimately, proximity and convenience resulted in more than
half of participants choosing private, high-cost institutions due to their flexibility, expedited
programming, and/or blending of a master’s and teaching credential programming.
As evidenced by the interviews, people's choices in the selection of their credential
programs were predicated on the commonality around time, not quality or preparedness to
instruct BIPOC students in urban communities. Halonen (2020) notes that people’s behaviors are
56
affected by their use of time and that part of most adults’ daily schedules are determined by their
work including time spent working and commuting to the workplace.
Cost
Cost was another common theme in the participant interviews. Affordability was a
desirable characteristic in program selection among several participants interviewed for this
study. Surprisingly though, more than half of the participants in this study willingly sought out
and selected to attend private universities despite the substantial price tag associated with
attending their respective schools. Matt shared that the primary reason he selected his program
was because it combined a credentialing program with a master’s degree in about a year’s time
period. He said, “I didn’t want to spend extra time and money to get it done. And since I was
going to get a master’s anyway; other programs that didn’t offer combined programs weren’t
attractive.” While Matt opted to attend a high-profile university to complete his pre-service
program, this was not a factor in his selection. Nor was seeking out a program to prepare him to
educate BIPOC youth in urban schools or the quality of the program. Matt elected for a program
that would afford him a master’s degree and teacher credential simultaneously and expeditiously.
Amber also elected to pursue privatized pre-service credential programs. Amber stated
that her “program was really expensive and predicated upon electing to go into debt” in order to
complete her studies. Of all the participants, she was the sole interviewee who stated she selected
her credentialing program intentionally. She cited the selection of her university based on it
being social justice oriented and its location juxtapositioned to educate low-income students.
Amber’s conscious decision to attend a university whose philosophy was aligned to her social
justice beliefs reflects a blossoming and slow-moving trend in pre-service teaching programs. As
evidenced by Ladson-Billings (2000), research suggested that teacher preparation programs lack
strong leanings in social justice teachings which would be reflective of a need and teacher
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effectiveness in urban communities. Despite the financial burden, Amber said she willingly
accepted to attend her university, Amber did indicate that she felt her pre-service courses helped
her in feeling comfortable educating BIPOC youth. She attributed much of this to her program
providing pathways for her and her classmates to reflect on their privilege meaningfully and the
ability to translate how their privilege impacts their BIPOC students. She added that she felt her
program armed her to authentically get to know students and their whole selves, to see the
student for the iceberg beneath the water.
Similar to Amber, Felicia, who also attended a pre-service credentialing program at a top
private university added that her tuition was “prohibitively expensive.” Felicia selected her Los
Angeles-based university so she could relocate to LA and have an easy commute to and from the
university. She wanted an easy drive to a reputable university, despite the expensive tuition.
Felicia stated that she felt her credential program did equip her to teach BIPOC students because
her program integrated courses each semester that centered on race and equity with quality
professors facilitating discussions. While Felicia noted her pre-service program’s racial diversity
of those in her cohort, she did say that she felt the cost of tuition “did not provide a pathway for
BIPOC teachers looking to enter the field.”
Of all the participants interviewed, Mary was the only interviewee who choose to attend
her private university for a combined master’s and teaching credential because “[The university]
is in her family blood.” She added that her long-time family history with the university provided
her with valuable insight into the quality of education she would receive and stated being very
impressed with graduates from the university. When asked about how prepared Mary felt she
was to educate BIPOC learners in urban areas as a result of her education at her university, she
said:
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I feel equipped to teach BIPOC youth because of what I learned at my university. They
used materials and books in the program that we had to read and interact with which were
culturally responsive, aimed specifically at marginalized populations with the goal to build
relationships with students - especially those of color.
Only two of the twelve participants interviewed stated cost as a secondary reason for
selecting their pre-service program. Laura’s reasoning for selecting her credentialing program
was because “it was close to home and the university offered me a generous financial aid
package. Also, they offered an abundance of classes which was appealing to me.” It was
important to Laura that her program was close to home and based on her research, she believed
the school had a good education program with quality professors. Upon reflection on her
program and experiences, Laura noted that she enjoyed her professors; but felt the program was
severely lacking in addressing the circumstances surrounding urban communities, specifically
when it came to BIPOC learners. She indicated that she did not feel her program adequately
prepared her to teach BIPOC students, citing brief references to the BIPOC community reduced
merely to an occasional lecture. Laura indicated that she generally felt that urban communities
were largely omitted and ignored from her program. These findings echo what Milner (2007)
found in studying the traditional practices present in teacher preparation programs - that the
materials and coursework being presented to teacher candidates does not advance the learning of
would-be teachers in the manner in which it should. Overall, participants in this study felt that
the programs they selected based on proximity for their pre-service teaching programs did not
provide them with the mechanisms necessary to educate BIPOC urban students.
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Pre-Service Teacher Program Quality and Effectiveness
The interviews in this study yielded interesting results regarding how the participants
received their schooling and whether they felt the delivery of instruction was effective.
Respondents fell into two main categories: online teaching credential programs and in-person
teaching credential programs. This is of particular interest and noteworthy because 100% of
participants who attended online teaching credential programs felt ill-prepared for the realities of
instructing urban BIPOC students. Additionally, the interviews highlighted a huge discrepancy in
participants’ lexicon, comfort level, and ease by which they could discuss BIPOC students and
cultural relevance based on their respective institutions. Respondents who attended private,
seemingly progressive universities in nature were far more likely to recall vivid discussions of
race, systemic inequality, CRT, and more in their pre-service programs when contrasted to those
interviewed who attended smaller public instructional institutions. Seemingly, larger, more
prestigious universities appeared to render participants more prepared to discuss the issues as
mentioned earlier and more confident in their abilities to instruct BIPOC youth; however, all
participants did indicate in their interviews that overall they did feel unprepared by their
programs to meet the demands of teaching BIPOC students in urban areas.
Online Teaching Credential Programs
The unexpected closure of educational institutions as a result of the emergence of
COVID-19 prompted the authorities to suggest adopting alternatives to traditional learning
methods in emergencies to ensure that students are not left without studying and to prevent the
epidemic from spreading (Maatuk, et al., 2022). Since the Covid-19 pandemic illuminated virtual
learning as a necessity, the in-person and virtual debate for educational approaches moved to the
forefront of research and debate. Both Jose, Harold, and Matt’s credentialing programs were
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online. To clarify, Jose and Matt’s programs were always intended to be entirely online and for
these reasons, they opted for the online versions. Contrarily, Harold started his credentialing
journey in the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic and as a result, despite his program being
intended for in-person instruction, it was online for the entire first year.
When reflecting on his learning in his credentialing program, Jose said “learning online
makes it difficult to connect and have those immersive experiences that are needed to be a
classroom teacher, especially relating to classroom management and assessing students.” Jose
also spoke of his online credentialing program as being “short and sweet”. He added that it
provided him with a foundational knowledge of the teaching profession but it felt pre-packaged
and almost canned due to its streamlined nature. Jose indicated that he appreciated the simplicity
of the programming and courses, but emphasized that the coursework was very basic and almost
like survey-type courses where classes talked about portfolios, rubrics, and organization of a
class with some strategies for being successful in the classroom. Consequently, Jose did not feel
that his online educational experience was thorough enough to meet the needs and demands of
in-person instruction, but specifically he did not feel prepared to teach BIPOC youth. While
online courses may have the potential to differentiate coursework to meet the needs of students
with weaker incoming skills, current online courses, in fact, do an even worse job of meeting the
needs of these students than do traditional in-person courses (Bettinger & Loeb, 2017).
The success of e-learning depends on many factors, including accessibility, usage of
appropriate methods, course content, and assessment criteria. E-learning, like any method of
teaching, has its advantages and disadvantages for both students and teachers (Bączek, et. al.,
2021). Similar to Jose, Harold shared the same sentiments about the portion of his credentialing
program that occurred online. He said, “the most crucial thing I learned in my program was
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student teaching, and thankfully, that occurred in person. But the online version of my program -
that was definitely not successful nor helpful at all.” Harold felt unprepared for the demands of
in-person teaching of urban BIPOC youth mostly due to the learning limitations that occur in the
virtual classroom.
In a study conducted by Bączek, et. al., (2021) that examined Polish medical students
during the Covid-19 lockdown portion of the pandemic, Polish medical students in the study said
the lack of interaction with patients could not be fully replaced by distance learning and that real-
life scenarios could not be recreated in the online environment (Bączek, et. al., 2021). The Polish
students noted that the challenges encountered during their online learning were aligned with that
outlined in the interviews with Jose and Harlod, drawing a direct correlation between the unique
demands and nuances of the medical and teaching professions validating the necessity of in-
person instructorship to glean the best results so that teachers feel prepared to effectively
education their BIPOC youth.
Like the Polish medical students, both Jose and Harold’s online credentialing programs
rendered the same flatness and inability to duplicate the human piece needed in their line of
work. Like the medical field, education, and teachers' work is directly predicated on relationship
building that truly can only be successful when role-played, modeled, and applied in person.
Macsuga-Gage, et. al., (2012) address effective teaching as both an art and a science. Successful
teachers deftly weave these intricacies together with the academic, behavioral, and social threads
to achieve the unique flair that is essential for a functioning classroom. However, as noted by
Jose and Harold’s online learning experiences, they found the concepts, skills, and attributes of
being an educator to be intangible and ineffective in the virtual world; acknowledging that there
is no substitute for relationship-building online; thus rendering them generally unprepared to
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deftly fulfill their job duties and feel prepared and confident to teach BIPOC students in urban
communities. The implication of online learning in the educational realm is that online students
need more support and training once in the field to feel successful and prepared to teach in urban
communities.
In-Person Teaching Credential Programs
Eleven of the twelve participants in this study who attended in-person programs indicated
that despite being exposed to more traditional training and learning modalities like discussion
and group presentations in their courses, they felt unprepared to teach BIPOC youth. It is
important to note that the tone and feelings from all in-person participants conveyed were
typically that of fondness or ambivalence when it came to their overall satisfaction surrounding
their pre-service programs. Whereas compared to those who attended online pre-service
programs, participants emphatically expressed their dissatisfaction and unpreparedness with their
programs to instruct BIPOC youth. Mary, who attended a highly prestigious, private university,
is the only participant interviewed in this study who felt prepared and confident to educate
BIPOC students in urban areas as a result of her pre-service courses. Mary recognized her
program went above and beyond with awe-inspiring professors, career pathways, and matching,
with rich discussion, class activities, and support while student teaching. Mary indicated that her
program embedded reflection into all of their work, especially while student teaching. She stated
that she and her classmates had weekly collaborative conversations during class time that were
designed for student teachers to be reflective in their practice, curriculum choices, and delivery
of instruction. Mary shared that these conversations were crucial to teaching her how to reflect
on her practice and apply the methodologies of their readings, citing that student teachers in her
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program were required to demonstrate and provide evidence using teachings and strategies from
Zaretta Hammond.
Yet, despite these accolades, one area of her program she felt was a blind spot came to
providing pathways for learning how to teach math. Mary felt that an eight-week program was
not nearly long enough to learn the necessary strategies in order to impart mathematical content
and concepts to BIPOC students in urban areas. However, Mary indicated that her coursework
provided her with templates for teaching centered around big ideas and that she still uses them to
this day in her classroom. Unlike Mary’s experience, Cassie said the following about her
courses:
I found the sequencing of the classes to be confusing and didn’t really apply to my
placement. It was hard to make connections to things I learned previously because the classes
weren’t aligned and timed with our placements and I found myself reteaching and relearning
everything I learned.
Cassie discussed her frustration with the way her courses were arranged and how
challenging it was to be able to apply what she learned. As a result of having to reteach herself
concepts learned earlier in her credential program and largely feeling isolated and overwhelmed
in doing so, she felt ill-equipped to be able to teach BIPOC students in urban areas. Overall,
interviewees who attended in-person credentialing programs felt their programs were of higher
quality and more effective than those who attended online programs. While one participant did
feel her program appropriately prepared her to teach BIPOC students in urban communities; the
rest of the participants felt that they still needed more support to be effective educators serving
their urban communities of BIPOC learners.
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Discussions Centered Around Educating BIPOC Youth
This study was designed to elicit information about how prepared current educators felt
to teach BIPOC students in urban communities after recently completing a teacher credentialing
program. An emergent finding and theme that arose during the course of this research was the
contrast between private and public universities. These results yielded that participants in this
study who went to prestigious private schools had regular exposure to literature, materials,
activities, and discussions centered around elevating systematically marginalized voices in the
community and how to best serve in urban communities, specifically how to reflect on oneself,
recognize implicit biases, and actively participate in deconstructing white supremacy. In contrast,
participants who attended public institutions appeared far less comfortable discussing issues
around race, citing minimal exposure to deep instruction regarding BIPOC youth and imparting
culturally relevant teaching practices. To further illustrate this, Cassie’s credentialing program
included at least one course per semester that addressed race, systemic inequity, CRT, Implicit
Bias, and more. She said her program talked a lot about bias and how to create inclusive
communities, and they tried to prepare us for educating urban youth. But that knowledge came
from my placement and seeing things firsthand. Cassie shared that the cornerstones of her
program were anchored in understanding complex concepts such as racism and embedded within
all her courses were rich, passionate, raw discussions about what is and is not occurring
nationwide for BIPOC learners and communities. Her program was based and built upon having
difficult conversations around how to be a disruptor of the status quo, and co-conspiratorship in
order to be the best teacher possible in urban communities for her [all] BIPOC students.
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Similar to Cassie, Amber talked about a specific task in her program aligned to
cultivating self-awareness with the goal of embedding introspection amongst students so that
they would be better educators in urban communities. She said:
They had us write a positionality statement to self-reflect. The idea was to see how
diverse we were amongst ourselves. Also, part of my program was to conduct a home
visit of one of our students.
Amber indicated that she felt her program did a really good job of putting into practice
the things they read and learned about. She student taught in an urban area that was very diverse
and was supported through her program. Amber received support in teaching her students by
learning about BIPOC authors and how to teach BIPOC authors to her students. Amber did say
she felt prepared to teach BIPOC students in urban communities but noted that her university
made it a core focus of its credentialing program to design classes and coursework that directly
supported its mission. With the exception of a few teachers interviewed in this study, most of
them noted their programs did not discuss controversial issues surrounding race, and did not
overtly address educating BIPOC youth in urban communities. Laura’s experience was
dramatically different from the aforementioned participants. She indicated that her program
omitted these very important issues, stating:
My program talked about things like race only a very little. That’s the one thing I did not
like - it’s happening and it’s here and we can’t cover it with one hand. We had all these
classes on pedagogy, methods of teaching, and only one class on race. We are in urban
communities - can’t ignore who we are as a person and how it impacts children. We can’t
just have a lecture. We need a class.
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Laura also added familiarity with the acronym BIPOC. But said any discussion in her
classes and coursework around it was very little, very little, like less than 10%. Based on the
interviews conducted, it appeared that credentialing courses represented two spectrums: Those
that delved deeply into topics such as racism and antiracist teaching practices with literature and
conversations around systemic inequality, racism, CRT, and BIPOC learners in urban schools;
and those with a less pointed approach to the aforementioned topics. Similar to Laura, Charlie
reflected on his pre-service program and conversations around teaching BIPOC youth by
sharing, “there was no discussion of BIPOC youth - none.” When asked how prepared he felt he
was to instruct BIPOC youth due to preparedness in his credential program, Charlie's response
was, “I’m not.” Again, these snapshots provided by both Laura and Charlie highlight an absence
in institutional practices addressing the growing needs of urban educators, teaching BIPOC
students. Ultimately, as a result of the lack of guidance in their programs regarding how to
navigate teaching the students in which they serve, they felt unprepared and unable to meet the
needs of their BIPOC learners.
One participant was credentialed in 2008 but did not start teaching until 5 years ago.
When asked to discuss her program’s effectiveness in preparing her to educate urban youth,
Lupe said, “it was really taboo when I was credentialed. So not really, no. But we did address
how to assess for SPED (Special Education) and legalities.” Absent from Lupe’s program was
any discussion of educating youth from and residing in urban populations. Compared to other
respondents interviewed in this study, she cited a complete lack of this alluding to perhaps the
timing at which she attended her credentialing program in 2008 which came significantly before
the term BIPOC was used and popularized. Lupe remarked that she liked the formatting of her
program, stating that, “class started at night and I was still working. I liked that I was able to
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work and still do school.” She recalled not feeling prepared to educate BIPOC students in urban
communities as a result of her credentialing program but noted her ease, comfort, and success in
navigating the student teaching portion of her credentialing program came from her many years
of substitute teaching within her local community. Lupe said that had she not had previous
experience as a substitute teacher, she would have been grossly unprepared for the demands of
teaching and how to engage her community.
It is important to note that four respondents of the twelve (Amber, Laura, Lupe, &
Felicia) felt they were more prepared to educate BIPOC youth because of their identifications as
people of color. These acknowledgements and findings by participants interviewed in this study
speak to the power of racial matching, as demonstrated by Edmonds (2022). As stated by Amber
during her interview, she stated:
I feel fairly comfortable teaching BIPOC students, but I am hesitant to say that through
presenting as ‘white Latina’. I recognize how this has afforded me privilege and I strive
to understand and to continue learning always and be willing to grow.
Amber cited the credentialing program with helping her reflect on her race and privilege
and how these factors can, will, and do play an integral part in her instructorship of her urban
BIPOC students. Jennifer discussed a psychology course she was required to take in her
program:
In one course which was well-organized, we learned about teaching in communities of
poverty and addressed students with disabilities. The term BIPOC wasn’t used, but we
discussed how teachers need to have cultural sensitivities and understand how your
lesson is communicated. We learned that we should make ties to students' cultural
backgrounds and try to connect with them that way.
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Comparably, Lupe said her program did not use the term BIPOC, nor was there any
discussion of educating minority students and populations. Raquel spoke of her program and said
there was no discussion of race but a heavy emphasis on ELD and SDAIE (Specifically
Designed Academic Instruction In English) strategies. She said she did not believe the term
existed, but if it did, it was omitted from her coursework. It can be deduced that Jennifer, Lupe,
and Raquel’s programs did not use the term BIPOC because their credential programs predated
the term’s widespread use. As noted in the New York Times article by Garcia (2020), the term
was popularized during the murders of George Floyd and Breonna Taylor in 2020. The article
does mention that the earliest identified usage of the term BIPOC was on Twitter in 2013, but it
was not until 2020 that the term moved into the mainstream. Recognizing that some respondents
may have been credentialed prior to the popularization of the term BIPOC, their programs did
not address teaching BIPOC students. The closest one respondent who came to being equipped
with the skills to teach urban learners was Jennifer who said her program indicated that teachers
needed to be sensitive to others’ differences, but that was the extent of coursework to teach
BIPOC students in urban settings.
Real-life Application of Learning
Nearly all participants interviewed stated that they felt all of their programs lacked the
ability to offer real-life application of their learning. This is important because it shows that pre-
service credentialing courses are not aligned to preparing our teachers for the realities of teaching
BIPOC students in urban areas. Charlie discussed his pre-service coursework saying every class
discussed and talked about problems in education and asked us to come up with solutions. But,
how can I come up with solutions to problems I haven’t yet encountered and know nothing
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about? This sentiment that Charlie shares was not exclusive to him and is a common theme in
many respondents' interviews. Like Charlie, who said:
Once I became a classroom teacher, I realized just how unrealistic and not applicable my
coursework was. It was all this theory and philosophy - and sure that’s important - but
what I needed was less about what could be or was studied, and more application to
support my students in their learning.
Others felt the same. Participants all agreed that they saw the value in theory and
respected what their pre-service programs presented to them. However, they struggled to
make the connection to the theory in practice once in their own classrooms, citing student
teaching as inorganic and not representative of really teaching due to inheriting a pre-
existing teacher’s class with their rules, systems, expectations, and more along with the
constant support of another credentialed educator’s presence.
Matt and Jennifer also recalled similar thoughts to Charlie with respect to the
applicability of learning. Jennifer said:
I started in a math credentialing program and it bittered me on becoming a math teacher.
The approach and application was so abstract. The math program was just disappointing -
and it really requires a higher level of theoretical mathematics [which I had because I was
an engineer for 30 years] and a really high-level type of teacher. It all just felt like too
much and was very overwhelming. Not to mention, the theory and philosophy of it all
was not something I wanted or felt was particularly helpful or useful. I wanted something
actually usable from my credentialing program. Something I could turn around and use.
That definitely didn’t occur in the math program.
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Matt’s credentialing program was different from Jennifer’s, as was the discipline studied,
but he echoed her thoughts about theory. He said:
I learned educational lingo, but my program didn’t prepare me to be a teacher at all. It
was all just theory and in looking back, I don’t even know what I learned in most of my
classes. I don’t feel like I learned all that much - like especially the reality of things -
HOW to teach math instead of studying theory.
Participants felt the theory and philosophy presented in pre-service courses were moot
when it came to the actual demands of how to teach their students. They did not feel that it added
to their skill sets and ability to be able to teach their BIPOC students in urban areas and indicated
they wanted things that were more useful such as lesson design, planning, material cultivation,
pacing, and more as opposed to reading and discussing educational theoretical research.
Summary of Results for Research Question 1
This study illustrated that many teachers choose their respective credentialing programs
based on proximity and convenience. These were the most important factors in program selection
for nearly all participants with few exceptions. This choice meant that despite the long-term debt
incurred by attending a university with more flexibility, most participants received degrees from
private universities. This is particularly noteworthy because participants who attended private
universities reported more rigorous coursework, feeling better prepared for their teaching
positions, and expressed more satisfaction associated with their learning experiences. Juxtaposed
to those interviewees who went to public institutions, who reported feeling less prepared and that
their programs lacked the foundations needed to support them in teaching BIPOC students in
urban areas. However, despite some participants reporting they felt more comfortable than their
counterparts who were credentialed several years ago or at public universities, the overall
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consensus was that all teachers felt they needed more support in their programs to meet the needs
to teach their BIPOC students. Participants also indicated that their programs lacked
connectedness to the actuality of being in an urban environment. They cited their coursework as
being very heavy in theoretical practice, which respondents felt was germane to the needs of
their work. Again, participants recognized theory as important; but pondered if more time spent
learning how to apply said theory and practicing the art of teaching could have better prepared
them to teach BIPOC urban youth.
What School Site PD is Being Offered &
What Types of PD Teachers Would Like to Receive
It is important to focus on PD content that is linked to the teachers’ actual teaching, and
which promotes active learning, the support for collaboration, models, and modeling of effective
practice, expert support and feedback, and reflection through sustained opportunities for
professional learning (Herranen, et. al., 2021). Respondents interviewed for this study discussed
the types of professional development they are receiving at their school sites, and then indicated
PD they would like to receive. With few exceptions, it was observed that there is a disconnect
between what teachers are receiving and what they would like to receive. As evidenced by the
below table, school sites are not providing teachers with enough opportunities to sustain and
innovate culturally responsive teaching practices for BIPOC students. In fact, more than half of
the participants interviewed stated that in order to receive PD tailored to their interests and needs
such as detailed strategies to support their learners and classrooms, they had to seek out PD
opportunities on their own, taking trainings outside of school hours on weekends at universities
like UCLA to advance their practices in assisting their students with culturally relevant practices.
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For example, Jennifer’s school site emphasizes the importance of engaging students and
facilitating student talk via Kagan Strategies. Yet, explicit PD time is not dedicated to Kagan
training, simply it is mentioned as a reminder for something teachers to be implementing.
Unfamiliar with Kagan Strategies, Jennifer enrolled in two Saturday PD’s on Kagan, hosted at
and paid for by her school site. These trainings were optional and she found them extremely
beneficial to be able to support informal discourse amongst her students, but she emphasized that
teachers should not always have to seek PD opportunities out on weekends because there is too
much PD and teachers are exhausted. Seeing as she found the material so relevant, she wondered
why these strategies were not front and center in weekly PD training to promote interactive
classrooms, rich in academic student talk.
Table B below is a chart outlining the PD teachers interviewed for this study have and
currently engage in at their school sites, juxtaposed to each participant’s desires indicating the
kind of PD they would like to regularly receive:
Table B: Teacher Professional Development
Participant
Pseudonym
Examples of Professional
Development Teachers Have and
Currently Receive at Their School
Sites
Types of Professional Development
Teachers Would Like to Receive at
Their School Sites
Charlie ● Testing results and data
● Dibels
● SPED
● Application of theory and
pedagogy
● How-to teach and use district
mandate programs such as Benchmark
● How to write standards-based
lessons
Harold ● Statistics and data related to
the community and testing
● ELA and math scores
● Department meetings with
chairs to discuss best practices
● SPED
● Classroom management
● How to connect with students
● How to lesson plan and delivery
of instruction
● Collaboration time
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Amber ● Community circles
● Cultural relevance - CRT
● Professional Learning
Communities (PLC’s)
● Regular meetings with other
teachers to go through curriculum
● Lesson rounds and observations
Raquel ● ELL’s (English Language
Learners) and literacy
● Literature circles and how to
use them across the content areas
● CEE preparation (claim,
evidence, explanation)
● Backwards planning
● How to engage students in the
learning process
● Assistance with planning and
preparation such as with novel-driven
instruction
● Culturally relevant teaching
practices and materials
● How to educate diverse learners,
specifically the BIPOC population
Felicia ● Classroom management with
an emphasis on 4x4 block scheduling
● Note taking
● Routines and procedures
● SEL
● Culture wheel
● How to access the provided
curriculum
● How to create thematic units
and teach thematically
● Non-traditional approaches to
classroom practices
● Classroom management
Jose ● EL’s (English Learners) and
student reading levels
● How to improve reading
scores
● SPED
● Evaluating student work
● Rubric calibration
● Feedback to students
● How to become more
reflective in providing feedback
● Mastery learning, working at
grade level
● Scaffolding
● Project-based learning (PBL)
● Work-based Learning
● Arts integration
● Align school’s vision and
mission to trainings
● Value of the arts across the
disciplines
Matt ● ELD (English Language
Development)
● ELA
● Restorative Justice
● CGI
● How to teach students to read
● What strategies to use in
teaching students to read
● Consistency of PD
● Follow through and revisiting of
PD concepts
● CGI - How to teach math and
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how to make it meaningful
Jennifer ● Student data
● School climate data and
surveys
● Kagan Strategies
● Class Dojo
● Schoology best practices
● Student talk strategies
● Student choice, voice, and
agency
● District mandated online
training modules on anti-racism
● Targeted PD related to content
areas
● How to delivery instruction
● How to engage students in
academic conversations
● How to give directions, check
for understanding
Cassie ● CGI
● Choral Counting
● Number Talks
● Better construction of student
groupings
● Literacy
● Science-based PD’s
● Science Notebooking
● Lesson planning & delivery
of instruction
● Phonemic Awareness
● How to use and implement
district mandated instructional
programs such as Benchmark, etc.
Lupe ● Teacher Collective Efficacy
● Subject-based cohorts
● SEL
● TedTalk videos on culture,
watch ‘parties’
● ALICE training
● School safety
● Substance abuse: How to
identify and address it
● Active Shooter drills
Laura ● Dibels
● Eureka Math
● Backwards planning
● CRT & harassment in the
workplace via district mandated
online trainings
● In-depth culturally responsive
teaching practices
● ELD trainings
● SEL
Mary ● SEL
● Testing results and data
● How to improve student
achievement on various testing
● District mandate trainings i.e.
Child abuse certification
● Gifted and Talented
Education (GATE): How to facilitate
● Campus-wide Black Student
Achievement (BSA) programming and
workshops
● How to teach students of color
● How to mitigate implicit bias
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creativity in students
● Literacy: All teachers are
literacy teachers
● Robert Jackson, guest speaker
○ Motivational speaker
○ Presented to teachers,
then to students the
following
○ Book provided to staff
on how to build
relationships with
BIPOC students
As outlined in Table B, much of the school site PD time is dedicated to district and
school programs such as Dibels, analyzing data, discussing the EL, ELD, and SPED populations,
completing district mandates like work site harassment, and some SEL trainings. The overall
tone and response to the question regarding the kinds of PD teachers receive and how these PD’s
have supported their instructional programs and students was met with the same apathy. When
asked about a professional development that Laura found meaningful, she said, “None. I’m
gonna be as blunt as I can.” Another participant in the study, Raquel discussed PD at her school
site as:
There’s lots of gatekeeping. We rarely meet for PD as a whole group, so in our smaller
groups, no one really shares anything with the group. Anything I learned in the form of
‘professional development’ came from taking classes at UCLA and I love them! They are
practical and it’s a shame that’s not what’s actually offered at school sites.
Generally, participants did not feel that their school site's professional development
dignified their teaching practices and nearly every respondent reported that they were not
provided with opportunities to plan and collaborate with others regarding curriculum
choices to sustain culturally relevant practices for BIPOC students.
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While some participants like Amber, Raquel, Felicia, Jennifer, and Mary shared some
instances where their PD was indeed aimed to be culturally relevant in order to support their
BIPOC students, it appears that these instances occurred as more after-thoughts. To support this,
Mary shared:
Anytime we did anything that seemed really relevant to our students and classroom along
the lines of culturally responsive teaching practices, it was always done in the last five
minutes of a meeting. It just feels like the necessary things to teach our students aren’t
priorities - testing is.
Predominant focus of Professional Development at School Sites
Many participants interviewed indicated that in their school site PD, consistently focused
on ELL’s. Based on the data gathered, it was obvious that this was a disproportionate emphasis
and push at school sites. Many respondents reported some form of PD that was ELA, ELD, or
literacy focused with the goal of elevating the ELL’s test scores. Typically though, participants
reported that PD is exhaustive, covering too many topics, without enough time to delve into the
concepts being presented. When asked about the kinds of professional development at her school
site, Cassie and Lupe’s responses were “A LOT!” Cassie stated:
There was a lot. We had PD on how to better construct groups, also they gave
information on how to better write lessons and teach which was more like a baseline and
some new ideas. And a lot of literacy too, revisiting things we already talked about, and
how we could use and access community resources.
Cassie indicated that she did find these things helpful, but emphasized the overwhelming
nature of the variety of the PD’s without the proper time to examine and apply what she was
learning. In fact, this sentiment was echoed across all participants. All interviewees felt that their
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school sites offered too many PD’s and not enough opportunity to work with said PD concepts.
These findings reinforce what Harris (2019) as quoted by Reist (2021) demonstrated about PD
for teachers and its need to be immediately transferable to the classroom in a meaningful way
and as Robinson and Smith (2020) observed, when teachers feel PD is too time-consuming,
abstract, and/or unrelateable; teachers do not and will not feel empowered to utlize the strategies
being presented to them.
Though the overall tone of PD was negative from the participants, some were able to
discern the benefits of things they are learning and doing at their school sites which they are
indeed finding beneficial. Jose discussed the PD at his school site and that is improving his
practice, “my school regularly focuses on the EL students and reading levels. We have lots of
PD’s on how to improve reading scores, evaluate student work, engage in rubric calibration, and
feedback.” He added, “we are focused on Mastery Learning and work with our grade levels. We
focus on scaffolding, and how to provide proper standards-based feedback to students. Overall,
the whole process is helping me become really reflective.” This is important to note that Jose
mentioned that the reason why what he is learning is and has been successful is because his
administration deftly threads all of their work back to core concepts they are focusing on as a
staff. The work is geared towards ultimately improving test scores, but the attention to
collaboration has been instrumental in his growth. Indirectly he noted that there are few overt
conversations, if any, about how to sustain culturally relevant practices for BIPOC students; but
that indirectly via the practices employed in supporting the EL’s lends itself somewhat to their
BIPOC student population.
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Of all the participants interviewed, Lupe’s discussion of her on-site PD was the most
unique, almost an outlier, and the closest to being completely driven - directly related to the
needs of the teachers and their students. She shared this about what her school is currently doing:
We have been spending the year in cohorts within each subject focused on Teacher
Collective Efficacy by John Hattie. In our cohorts, teachers ask, ‘What do our students
need?’ and we are provided with the space to explore: What is Teacher Collective
Efficacy? And as cohorts - which are different at each school site, we get to decide on
PD. Such as right now, we are working on Reciprocal Teaching.
While Lupe did not explicitly mention specific opportunities aimed at culturally relevant
teaching practices for their BIPOC students, it is evident that through the PD model at her school
site; teachers are able to directly assess and meet the needs of their students, including their
BIPOC learners.
Jennifer shared that the kinds of professional development at her school site were far less
teacher-generated and student-centered, but with emerging themes attempting to use student data
to facilitate dialogue and action. She stated that “most of the PD at my school is centered around
tools for the classroom such as Class Dojo, Schoology, and best practices. Sometimes these PD’s
include how to use these tools.” However, recently her school site examined and discussed
student survey data. This data surveyed students based on their school experience and feelings
associated with their school sites and teachers. Jennifer said the data was really eye-opening
because most of the students said they “aren’t happy at this school and don’t feel like their
teachers are either.” Students surveyed at the site indicated that it seemed like the teachers at the
school did not want to be there or care about them. Jennifer recognized that her school is
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attempting to illuminate the campus culture and that some PD time has been dedicated to
brainstorming how to address these issues.
At the time of this study when Jennifer was interviewed, she noted that a conversation
had been started at her school site. Jennifer said a follow-up PD was integrated into the PD
program focused on giving students voice and choice. Jennifer recalled it being good and helpful
in being able to support her students, but aside from these recent conversations at her school site;
like the other respondents, there have been and remains no clear pathways for teachers to create
and impart culturally appropriate practices specifically tailored to their BIPOC students.
Professional Development Teachers Would Like to Receive
Teachers in this study consistently discussed wanting to learn different things to support
their teaching practice than what was being offered at their school sites. Interestingly, only one
respondent, Mary, shared and discussed explicit PD aimed to support BIPOC learners by way of
a guest speaker for staff and students and other activities based on this shared experience. Also,
particularly noteworthy, only one participant, Raquel, indicated that she would like to receive
training on how to specifically instruct BIPOC learners.
All interviewed participants indicated that they would like PD that directly correlates to
the “How To” of teaching, trainings on district-mandated programs like Benchmark and CGI
(Cognitively Guided Instruction) Math, and applicability to their content and/or classroom.
Charlie discussed his school site professional development as being “irrelevant - just facts and
nothing with any real information.” He added he felt he has “not learned anything meaningful”
and then asked, “how do I bring in a bunch of numbers and facts into my classroom? I need
application and how-to’s!” This feeling and frustration that Charlie shared, was not unique to
Charlie. About half of the teachers interviewed said they felt a disconnect between PD being
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required and offered and what they felt they needed. This evidence supports the literature
indicating that teachers need professional development that provides organic learning
experiences with conscious activities that contribute to the teacher’s classroom (Day, 1999 as
cited in Newman & Phetla 2020).
In summation, based on what teachers reported in contrast to what they would like to see
and learn, much of the school site PD lacks 21st-century relevancy and consistent examination of
culturally responsive instructional practices for BIPOC learners. Again, as indicated by Table B
and respondents' experiences, the crux of their PD is on quantity and does not provide
opportunities for teachers to create and sustain culturally relevant teaching and learning for
BIPOC students.
Conclusion
Evidence gathered in this study from interviewees highlights the discrepancy between the
coursework pre-service programs offer in-coming teachers with a particularly obvious blindspot
in effective teaching strategies for urban BIPOC students. Overall, despite some interviewees
citing more comfort in teaching BIPOC students in urban areas due to some exposure in their
program and identifying as a person of color; most respondents still felt ill-equipped to teach
BIPOC students in urban areas.
Teachers interviewed in this study shared the kinds of professional development they
regularly receive at their school sites and noted what they would like to see and need to improve
their practice. Similar to the disconnect between pre-service teaching programs; the same
disconnect existed at nearly all the school sites of those interviewed in this study. The norm was
the quantity of PD with little time to dig deeply into materials and revisit concepts, and testing
data. Some school sites like Jose’s and Lupe’s with their cohorts and collaboration represented
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more of the ideal models for PD; but this was not commonplace at the other 10 school sites in
which educators in this study were interviewed. Like their credentialing programs, professional
development opportunities did not provide teachers with the ability to innovate and sustain
practices in their classrooms that were specific to cultural relevance for their BIPOC learners.
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Chapter Five: Discussion
Chapter five summarizes findings as related to implications for new teachers recently
credentialed, teaching in urban areas, and the professional development opportunities they have
within the educational community to sustain culturally relevant teaching practices for BIPOC
students. Key research findings are addressed with the intention of informing current and future
educational leaders that teachers need adequate and appropriate coursework and support in their
pre-service credentialing programs to meet the needs of their BIPOC learners in urban areas.
Additionally, this study aimed to seek out the kinds of support teachers received from their
school sites to support their practice in culturally responsive pedagogy for their urban BIPOC
students. Based on the context of this study, recommendations for future research are made. The
following questions guided this research:
1. How, if at all, have pre-service/credential courses prepared educators to teach
BIPOC students in urban areas?
2. What professional development opportunities do teachers have to create and
sustain culturally relevant teaching practices for BIPOC students?
This study was qualitative and conducted through interviews with each participant. The
qualitative method is used to understand people's beliefs, experiences, attitudes, behavior, and
interactions. It generates non-numerical data. Qualitative research gives voice to the participants
in the study. It permits the participants to share their experiences (Pathak, et al., 2013).
Qualitative analysis of teacher interview findings revealed four major themes: (1) Convenience
of Pre-Service Teaching Program, (2) Pre-Service Teacher Program Quality and Effectiveness,
(3) Real-life Application of Learning, (4) What School Site PD is Being Offered & What Types
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of PD Teachers Would Like to Receive. Based on these findings, these themes were thoroughly
investigated through interviews via participant experience.
Findings
Based on the findings of this study, which involved seven different teacher credentialing
programs in the state of California; the driving force behind the selection of said program was
proximity then cost-effectiveness. Many teachers interviewed in this study stated that they
elected for privatized credential programs precisely due to the fact private universities offered
more flexibility better suited to the participants’ life. Additionally, some participants mentioned
that they heard positive feedback about the programs they ultimately selected, with only two
participants actively seeking out their privatized educational programs for their perceived quality
and reputation. Again, findings indicated that the prevailing reason for pre-service credential
programs was proximity and convenience.
Research Question One: How, if at all, have pre-service/credential courses prepared
educators to teach BIPOC students in urban areas?
Students in credentialing programs spend extensive time studying theory and pedagogy
associated with the practice of teaching. Teachers interviewed in this study unanimously
indicated that the extensive time dedicated to this was impractical in the field. While they all
noted and agreed that to a degree some pedagogical and theoretical study is needed, the over-
emphasis on it detracted from things they wished they spent more time on in their programs such
as curriculum development, anti-racist teaching practices, how-to designed and deliver
standards-based instruction, engage students, and how to facilitate rich academic student
discourse. Participants repeatedly emphasized that they wished their programs were far more
practical than they were. It is believed that part of this disconnect in teacher education programs
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is the further some teacher educators get from K-12 classrooms, the more out of touch they
become with the worlds that exist there. It is important for teacher educators to know what is
going on in schools, and it makes sense for them to keep those connections alive (Powell, 2016).
The participant interviews yielded tremendous variability in the course offerings,
approaches to delivering content, program demands, and cultural relevancy. The programs in
which participants enrolled varied on their approaches for study. For instance, variability exists
in the subject requirements for entry into and exit from programs, and in the degree to which
programs have appropriate mechanisms to assess formatively how well future teachers are
learning the knowledge and skills needed to be successful school teachers in their subjects.
Second, much variability exists around the kinds of summative assessments of knowledge and
skills that teachers must pass to obtain a credential (Tatto, 2021).
To further illustrate, few programs adopt a progressive stance toward racial issues, other
programs simply ignore or superficially address racial issues. With the exception of two
university programs that were centered on elevating the voices of systematically marginalized
populations; pre-service courses in the ten remaining participants focused on ELL’s, SPED, and
theory. For these ten participants, they shared that their programs only provided articles on topics
related to race, systemic equality, urban communities, and teaching BIPOC students with no
overt support, discussion, or meaningful integration of the 21st-century demographic in Southern
California.
Research Question Two: What professional development opportunities do teachers have
to create and sustain culturally relevant teaching practices for BIPOC students?
Overwhelmingly, nearly all participants felt a disconnect between what kinds of
professional development they were being offered at their school sites as opposed to what they
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actually needed. Many discussed that PD was often repetitive with a disproportionate amount of
time devoted to raising test scores and analyzing data from test scores. In addition to this,
teachers indicated that they felt PD was not meaningful, applicable, relatable, or a valuable use
of their time. Moreover, participants felt the nature and delivery of PD was passive (i.e., lecture
and presentation based without collaboration or teacher input into what teachers want and need
in PD), making it difficult to want to and remain engaged.
Bayar (2014) discusses that an important component of any effective professional
development activity is a design that allows the participants to engage in active participation
during the activities. Participants in this study mostly complained that they did not have any
opportunity for active engagement with the materials because of time limitations and emphasis
on PD quantity. They also noted that PD in approach and style was contrary to representing best
teaching practices, thus in effect not modeling effective teaching.
Participants indicated their general displeasure and disinterest with the PD options and
choices they receive at their school sites. However, what stood out more was not the kinds of PD
they are receiving, but the kinds that they are not. In interviews conducted by Will (2020) with
teachers across America, teachers indicated that professional development is often done to, rather
than with, or by teachers. It can lack continuity and be disconnected from classroom realities.
The way PD is taught matters. Just as good teaching differentiates instruction, good PD is
personalized to fit teacher needs. It is assessed throughout the process, and the content is
continuously adjusted to fit the pulse of the group. Rather than being lecture-based, quality PD
actively engages participants in learning something relevant and meaningful for them that can be
directly applied to the classroom. In addition to participants in this study indicating a disconnect
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between the kinds of PD offered at their school site; the absence of culturally relevant PD and
coursework speaks volumes about university programs and school site trainings.
Nearly all participants interviewed said their school sites do not offer consistent culturally
relevant PD. While some participants mentioned that their schools focus on it; it appears to be a
thematic blindspot in credentialing programs and at the school site. Seeing as teacher beliefs
have an impact on student behavior and student learning (Mellom, et al., 2018), it is imperative
that PD centers around exploring how teacher attitudes and beliefs impact instruction in order to
positively impact instruction and be culturally responsive and respectful of students via the
teacher and vice versa.
Limitations
Limitations of this study can be classified into two categories: generalizability due to the
specificity of the sample size and requirements; and validity given that participant narratives and
claims are self-reported. Due to the specificity of the sample size requirements (credentialed
teachers with 0-5 years of experience), this factor precluded many teachers from participating in
the study. Despite this, because of the intimate nature of the interviews, much information was
gathered and provided valuable insight into the pre-service teaching experience and PD
opportunities being offered at school sites. Moreover, in recruiting participants, I was only able
to recruit one Black teacher. While a qualitative study is purposefully not generalizable, this
study may not accurately reflect a broader scope of racially diverse teachers’ voices and
experiences.
Some modifications from the initially proposed instrument may impact the established
reliability and validity. Every effort was made by the researcher to preserve the original protocol,
and categories remained the same. Simply, some categories were divided into more cohesive
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sections where thematic alignment was integral, questions moved into more appropriate parts of
the interview, and finally, some questions were rephrased to enhance the precision of language.
The purpose of this study was to gain insight into the teacher preparation process and the courses
educators are required to take, and the preparedness teachers felt to educate BIPOC youth in
urban areas while examining the opportunities teachers have to create and sustain culturally
relevant teaching practices for BIPOC students. The descriptive findings of this study relied on
self-reported data via an interview from a small sample size, and limitations could be presented
in the form of validity. With a larger number of participants, more data could have been
collected, representative of more teachers. Findings were triangulated in an effort to combat this
potential thwarting of validity.
The twelve teachers in this study are not representative, nor speak on behalf of all newly
credentialed teachers. Again, due to the sample size and racial demographics of the participants,
delimitations of this study exist. The intention of this study was to highlight the learning that
occurred in pre-service credential programs and the perceived meaningfulness of culturally
relevant PD at school sites to support BIPOC learners.
Implications for Practice
This study examined how credentialing courses prepared educators to teach BIPOC
students in urban areas and the PD opportunities that exist at their school sites to sustain
culturally responsive teaching practices for their BIPOC students. Study findings established
themes that provided insight into what compelled participants to select their pre-service
programs, their perceptions of quality, and how applicable said learning was to their jobs. This
information provides valuable information for new teacher support programs, school site
administrators, and meaningful feedback for practitioners of said credential programs. Regarding
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the thematic findings of this study, implications for pre-service programs and existing PD models
at school sites were established.
The first implication for practice is that teacher credentialing programs have to reflect the
actuality of teaching in the 21st Century. Since most teachers felt unprepared for the teaching
profession after completing their credentialing programs, this could include surveying and
interviewing newly credentialed teachers, then using the findings to revamp and overhaul current
programs. Newly credentialed teachers do not feel set up for success. Combined with the
variability of pre-service programs - new teachers are ill-prepared. Their frustration peaks and
new teachers ultimately leave the profession. An obvious byproduct of this is the long-term
problem with attrition; but more pressing is the fact that teachers are entering the field as a result
of their programs lacking the skills and qualifications to be highly effective, let alone prepared
for the high-needs of teaching in urban areas.
Researchers and educators agree that teacher quality has a considerable impact on student
learning and achievement. Numerous studies examining teacher quality focus on the preparation
of teachers in pre-service training programs. Results often show that many teachers lack proper
preparation for their assigned teaching positions and according to the National Commission on
Teaching and America’s Future (1996), nearly a quarter of secondary school teachers need extra
training because they lack adequate preparation in the subject they teach (Bayar, 2014).
Subsequently, students often do not have quality teachers because of the pre-service programs
which credentialed them.
The second implication is that teacher credentialing programs should be consistently
modeling best teaching practices to provide pathways for engagement, planning and preparation,
and delivery of instruction for teachers in said programs. The interviews in this study revealed
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that relationship-building in teacher credentialing programs is important. Being a true adult
learner means being an active learner. Understanding the typical activities that characterize an
adult engaged in active learning can help teachers/facilitators appreciate and implement what
makes the adult learner “tick” and “bring out” the true adult learner (Mahan & Stein, 2014).
Ultimately, the relationship between student and professor is an integral part of adult learning
theory with working professionals feeling like their time is valued, they are respected, and above
all like the investment of their time is a worthwhile one. Like the students the participants in this
study educate, as students themselves in credentialing programs; the manner in which they were
dignified and taught was crucial to being able to successfully implement strategies back in their
classrooms. Therefore, teacher credentialing programs must retain rosters of highly qualified K-
12 educators, steeped in rapport building while imparting valuable content.
Participants could all recall at least one professor that had a positive impact on them
during their programs. While each participant could recall a professor with fondness, citing how
their instructorship contributed to their growth and learning, all but one participant could discuss
more than one professor with a proud impact on their learning. This spoke to the quality of
professors hired and teaching in the programs in which participants engaged and emphasized the
importance of ensuring credentialing programs have dynamic, well-versed, and experienced
professors. An integral part of the learning process is the reciprocity between teachers and
students. This is a widely known and accepted fact in the K-12 sector, but the same applies to
college students and adults continuing their education.
Positive teacher and student relationships enhance nearly every measurable aspect of
academic success. Students are more likely to attend class, get higher grades, and graduate when
they know their professors and teachers care about them (Kissam, 2022). Participants
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overwhelmingly noted that they felt a kinship and connection with the professors in their
credentialing programs. Most of these positive relationships that participants associated with
their professors in their credentialing programs were noted as feeling seen, valued, and like their
professors cared deeply about their mental health and well-being. Another factor discussed by
some of the BIPOC participants was the cultural connection and racial matching reflected in the
professorship at their universities. It is noteworthy to acknowledge that teachers of color bring
several practices to the classroom that might improve students’ outcomes. These practices and
behaviors mostly fit under the umbrella of culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP), a set of
behaviors, tactics, and strategies that uses students’ “cultural and linguistic backgrounds as
resources to support learning” (Lindsay, et al., p. 7, 2021).
The third implication is that teachers need quality PD aligned with the needs of their
BIPOC students and classrooms. Kwakman (2001) as cited by Bayar (2014) stresses the
relevance of professional development activities for teacher development. Similarly, Starkey et
al. (2009) as cited by Bayar (2014) highlighted the imperatives of professional development
activities for teachers by saying that “in-service teacher education is also often viewed as an
extension of pre-service teacher education in ensuring teachers - whether new or experienced -
have up to date snapshots of the knowledge needed to be effective” (p. 186). To continue,
according to Starkey et al. (2009), as cited by Bayar (2014), professional development programs
are necessary not only for new teachers but also for veteran teachers. Similarly, Rogers et al.
(2007) as cited by Bayar (2014) emphasized the importance of professional development
programs to veteran teachers for self-renewal. Therefore, there is no doubt in the literature
regarding the potential of professional development activities to help both novice and
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experienced teachers in developing their existing skills and in acquiring new ones (Bayar, p. 3,
2014).
Overall, everyone interviewed in this study indicated that they needed more training in
their pre-service programs and at their school sites. Teachers want to receive training and
learning opportunities that are directly related to their professional work and classrooms. At this
time, for the most part, this training does not include opportunities for teachers to create and
sustain culturally responsive practices for their BIPOC learners. This misalignment is
counterintuitive to the needs of urban school sites in the Southern California region.
Future Research
The literature review in this study examined many factors regarding the teacher diversity
gap in the field of education, how culturally responsive teaching impacts BIPOC student
learning, the impact of high-quality instructorship on student learning, pre-service teacher
preparation programs, and school site professional development. This study connotes that more
research is needed to address the critical state of our educational system: how teachers are
trained in their pre-service programs, and ensure that high-quality PD is systemically offered at
school sites directly targeting the changing demographic landscape of urban education. More
research is also needed on how to create more accessible pathways for BIPOC students to enter
the teaching field. It is recommended that additional research is conducted to explore these areas
of the teaching profession and the implications for urban BIPOC students.
The first recommendation for further research is that teacher credentialing programs are
closely examined with the aim of addressing their relevance and applicability. Future research
should delve into teacher credentialing programs that align their goals with the needs of teachers
who will be teaching in 21st-century urban schools. Credentialing programs should also align
92
with national and statewide programs/coursework requirements found in the private sector and
be more accessible in public universities.
The second recommendation is to conduct further research in the realm of how to
specifically recruit BIPOC teachers and what kinds of pathways are needed for BIPOC students
to enroll in teaching universities and credentialing programs. Additional research is needed to
assess why the Black teaching force continues to wane in attracting and maintaining Black
teachers, especially in urban school districts. It is worth investigating the motivations and
methods needed to urgently diversify the teaching force to enhance racial matching and elevate
the teaching profession.
The third recommendation is to examine the manner in which professional development
is considered, planned, and implemented at school sites. Study findings indicated that teachers
felt overwhelmed by the quantity of PD and its nature being irrelevant, disjointed, and tiresome.
More research should be conducted to ascertain how to offer truly meaningful PD that supports
the urban areas with BIPOC learners and how to support teachers in sustaining culturally
relevant teaching practices. At present, the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) is
piloting culturally relevant teaching practices and programming at six locations. Teachers
interviewed for this study did not hail from any of these school sites. However, future research
could examine these school sites: what they are doing, how they are doing it, examine student
achievement, interview teachers, students, families, and more.
Ultimately, expanding acquired knowledge through further investigation could
dramatically alter the teaching profession. This can be achieved by attracting, training, and
maintaining high-quality educators. Educators can be set up for continued success at their job
sites through dynamic and relevant pre-service teaching programs and professional development
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opportunities that sustain their learning and growth related to culturally responsive teaching
practices, leading to improved teacher effectiveness and quality and thus, improving BIPOC
student achievement.
Conclusions
Conclusively, teachers are not being set up for success in their credential programs to
educate in urban communities due to a mismatch between what is offered and studied in their
course versus the realities and demands of being at a school site and in the field. Furthermore,
teachers are receiving PD but as a result of the overwhelming focus on raising test scores in math
and ELA, a disproportionate amount of PD time is devoted to supporting ELL’s without time and
integrity dedicated to cultivating culturally responsive curriculum and approaches to instruction.
Regardless of race, all participants stated not truly feeling prepared enough to teach
BIPOC students. While some programs highlighted BIPOC students and urban communities
more than others, the overwhelming theme is that many programs include BIPOC students with
SPED and ELL’s subgroups. It appears and feels as if the BIPOC demographics are an
afterthought in credential programs and at school sites. There is little to no discussion of how
urban educators can effectively teach their students, specifically their uniquely urban BIPOC
students. It is wildly apparent that teachers do not feel prepared for the challenges of teaching in
urban schools, and they want their students to succeed but are struggling with the how-to’s of
classroom instruction. Teachers indicated in the study that there is a deficit in the kinds of PD
they are receiving as opposed to what they believe they need and want in order to best serve their
students.
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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact teachers have on BIPOC student achievement and the culturally relevant and professional development teachers receive to educate these students in urban environments. Many studies examine the way teachers impact student achievement and conclude that teacher training and ongoing professional development can better prepare teachers and sustain them in the education of BIPOC urban youth. This study aimed to examine the level of preparedness teachers felt their pre-service teacher credentialing programs sufficed in giving them the tools to navigate urban school systems, teaching BIPOC youth while addressing issues such as positionality, culturally responsive pedagogy, and exploring whiteness/white supremacy as it may apply to them and systemic, structural inequities.
The population for this study were early career teachers with 0-5 years of teaching experience who successfully completed a teacher credentialing program prior to entering the classroom and are educating BIPOC students in urban settings. Teachers were interviewed and asked to reflect on their teacher credentialing programs. Also, teachers were asked to reflect on their experiences at their school sites through the on-going professional development they receive and the level of support and relevancy of these trainings in facilitating their professional teaching practice to support BIPOC learners. The statistics and data analyzed were qualitative in nature and provided valuable insight and information into what teacher’s perceptions are regarding their abilities to be able to teach BIPOC students in urban environments, juxtaposed with the ongoing support they receive at their school sites via professional development.
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Miller, Arielle L.
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Examining teacher pre-service/credential programs and school site professional development and implementation of culturally relevant teaching of BIPOC students
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Rossier School of Education
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Doctor of Education
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Education (Leadership)
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2023-05
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06/02/2023
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BIPOC learners,BIPOC student achievement,contemporary issues in education,credential programs,credentialing programs,culturally relevant professional development,culturally relevant teacher training,culturally responsive teaching,diversifying the teaching force,education programs,new teacher support,OAI-PMH Harvest,ongoing teacher training,pre-service teacher programs,pre-service teachers,professional development,school site professional development,schools of education,teacher improvement,teacher preparation,Teacher Training,teacher training programs,teachers in urban schools,teaching BIPOC students,teaching universities,teaching urban students,Urban Education
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Tags
BIPOC learners
BIPOC student achievement
contemporary issues in education
credential programs
credentialing programs
culturally relevant professional development
culturally relevant teacher training
culturally responsive teaching
diversifying the teaching force
education programs
new teacher support
ongoing teacher training
pre-service teacher programs
pre-service teachers
professional development
school site professional development
schools of education
teacher improvement
teacher preparation
teacher training programs
teachers in urban schools
teaching BIPOC students
teaching universities
teaching urban students