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How do transition challenges affect the persistence of Chinese international undergraduate students?

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How do transition challenges affect the persistence of Chinese international undergraduate students?

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How Do Transition Challenges Affect the Persistence of Chinese International
Undergraduate Students?

Jiaming Wang

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Jiaming Wang 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Jiaming Wang certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Briana Hinga
Sourena Haj-Mohamadi
Patricia Tobey, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
April 2023
iv
Abstract
This qualitative, phenomenological study explored how transition challenges affect Chinese
international undergraduate students’ persistence in U.S. higher education institutions and
identified the types of support schools should provide to improve students’ persistence. This
study conducted semistructured, open-ended interviews via telephone with 12 Chinese citizens
who had subscribed to receive information from the Education Consulting Company in
California, United States. Students were eligible to participate in the study if they were 18 years
of age or older, studied in the United States under an F1 visa during the 2019/20 academic year,
and were dismissed or dropped out from their original schools during the same year. A document
review was undertaken to analyze public domain information available on the websites of the
first and second U.S. colleges attended by the participants. The finding of this study identified
eight transition challenges that collectively impeded the participants’ ability to persist in their
studies at U.S. colleges, including difficulties in adjusting to U.S.–China relations, U.S. culture,
language barriers, differences in teaching methods, academic requirements, immigration laws
and policies, local laws and regulations, and campus integration. As well as highlighting areas
where schools lacked support for international students from the participants’ perspectives. This
study provided five recommendations for higher education institutions to better serve and retain
Chinese international students. It recommended that U.S. higher education institutions use the
Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education’s Self-Assessment Guide to
design and implement a program-level assessment to enhance their International Student
Program and Services comprehensively.
Keywords: Chinese international students, transition challenges, persistence, retention

v
Dedication
This research is dedicated to all Chinese international students. I hope this research will help
U.S. schools understand the challenges and needs of Chinese international students. I also hope
this research will inspire other Chinese international students who are struggling with transition
challenges and help them to succeed in U.S. higher education institutions.

vi
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to the many people whose support and efforts made this research possible. I
extend my heartfelt appreciation to the Chinese international students who participated in this
study. Your willingness to share your valuable experiences and thoughts, despite the challenges
you face, was essential to the success of this research. Your contributions will help U.S. schools
better understand the needs and challenges of Chinese international students as well as inspire
other Chinese international students who are struggling with similar challenges.
I also want to express my gratitude to my family and friends for their unwavering love
and support throughout my educational journey. Your encouragement and belief in me have been
a constant source of motivation, and I would not have been able to complete this research
without your support. I am deeply grateful for the sacrifices you have made to help me pursue
my dreams, and I will always cherish your unwavering support.
I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my dissertation chair and committee
members, Dr. Patricia Tobey, Dr. Briana Hinga, and Dr. Sourena Haj-Mohamadi. Your
guidance, feedback, and support were invaluable in shaping this research and bringing it to
fruition. Your expertise and mentorship helped me to navigate the complex research process, and
I am deeply grateful for the time and effort you invested in this project. I also would like to thank
all the faculty members and staff at Southern California University who have provided me with
various resources, support, and opportunities during my academic pursuit.
To all those who have supported me along this journey, I am deeply grateful. Thank you!

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 1
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 3
Significance of the Study .................................................................................................... 4
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 4
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................... 8
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .......................................................................................... 9
History of Chinese International Students in the United States .......................................... 9
Education Agencies in China ............................................................................................ 20
Chinese International Students’ Persistence in U.S. Higher Education............................ 22
Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 25
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 35
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 36
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 36
Study Site .......................................................................................................................... 37
Sample and Population ..................................................................................................... 37

viii
Researcher Positionality.................................................................................................... 40
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 41
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 46
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 48
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 52
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 54
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 56
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 56
Summary for Participants ................................................................................................. 66
Interview Findings for Research Question 1 .................................................................... 67
Document Review for Research Question 1 ..................................................................... 89
Summary for Research Question 1 ................................................................................... 95
Interview Findings for Research Question 2 .................................................................... 96
Document Review for Research Question 2 ................................................................... 111
Summary for Research Question 2 ................................................................................. 116
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 117
Chapter Five: Discussion ............................................................................................................ 119
Discussion for Research Question 1 ............................................................................... 121
Discussion for Research Question 2 ............................................................................... 130
Recommendations for Practice ....................................................................................... 134
Implementation ............................................................................................................... 137
Recommendation for Future Research ............................................................................ 146
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 147

ix
References ................................................................................................................................... 148
Appendix A: Interview Conceptual Framework Alignment Matrix ........................................... 165
Appendix B: Document Review Conceptual Framework Alignment Matrix ............................ 166
Appendix C: Student Interview Protocol .................................................................................... 168
Appendix D: Informed Consent for Research ............................................................................ 174
Appendix E: IRB Approval Notice ............................................................................................. 177

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Number of F1 and M1 Visas Issued From 1997 to 2020 to Chinese (Mainland)
Nationals 12
Table 2: Participants Interviewed for the Study 58
Table 3: Participants’ Transition Challenges and Mental Health Problems 88
Appendix A: Interview Conceptual Framework Alignment Matrix 165
Appendix B: Document Review Conceptual Framework Alignment Matrix 166

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Mainland Chinese International Students in the United States
From 1979/80 to 2019/20 10

Figure 2: Chinese International Students by Academic Level in 2019/20 19
Figure 3: What Majors Chinese International Students Studied in 2019/20 20
Figure 4: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems 26
Figure 5: Chinese International Students’ Ecological Systems 27
Figure 6: Chinese International Undergraduate Students’ Ecological Systems 120
Figure 7: Self-Assessment Plan for International Student Programs and Services 140
Appendix E: IRB Approval Notice 177
1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
This study focused on exploring how transition challenges affect Chinese international
students’ persistence in U.S. higher education institutes. This chapter introduces the background
of the problem, statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, and significance of the study.
Limitations and delimitations will be discussed, and definitions of terms will be provided. I
conclude with an overview of the organization of the study.
Background of the Problem
The globalization of education is a development trend, and an increasing number of
students choose to study abroad. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, an estimated 5.3 million students crossed a border to pursue an international
education experience in 2017, demonstrating a massive increase from the 2 million students who
went abroad in 2000 (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2019). The United States is the largest
host of international students, enrolling 1,075,496 international students in the 2019/20 academic
year. International students comprised 5.5% of the total U.S. higher education population of
19,720,000 in the 2019/20 academic year (Institute of International Education, 2020). Since the
late 1970s, the government of the People’s Republic of China aggressively promoted
modernization through international scholarly and technological exchanges. For the 11th
consecutive year, China remained the largest source of international students in the United States
in 2019/20 with 372,532 students in undergraduate, graduate, nondegree, and optional practical
training programs.
International students bring valuable educational, cultural, and economic benefits to U.S.
colleges and universities. Greater exposure to international students and education increases U.S.
students’ cultural sensitivities and global understandings and equips them with the skills to
2

interact with people from diverse backgrounds in today’s global workplace (Chapdelaine &
Alexitch, 2004; Mamiseishvili, 2012). International students created or supported 415,996 direct
and indirect jobs and contributed $44.7 billion to the U.S. economy in the 2019/20 academic year
through tuition, fees, and living expenses, according to the U.S. Department of Commerce
(Institute of International Education, 2019). In particular, Chinese students contributed more than
$14.9 billion to the U.S. economy in 2018 through tuition, fees, and living expenses (Institute of
International Education, 2019).
Statement of the Problem
The importance of international student retention has received little attention from
governmental agencies or higher education institutes. For instance, the Integrated Postsecondary
Education Data System lacks a data category for international students (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2021), and international student retention rates are not even reported by the
Institute of International Education (2020). Moreover, only a few studies have used quantitative
research methods from the school perspective to analyze why international students leave before
they graduate and no qualitative research has explored this topic from the perspective of
international students.
Most of the theoretical research on persistence does not apply to international students,
such as Spady’s (1971) student dropout process model, Tinto’s (1975, 1993) college student
departure theory, Bean’s (1980) student attrition model, the student-faculty informal contact
model (Pascarella, 1980), Astin’s (1984, 1993) student involvement theory, the nontraditional
student attrition model (Bean & Metzner, 1985), or the student retention integrated model
(Cabrera et al., 1993). These models and theories were developed and published when only a
small number of international students attended institutions in the United States and, therefore,
3

the transition challenges affecting such students were not specifically addressed in student
persistence models and theories (Di Maria & Kwai, 2014).
International students face a multitude of transition challenges, such as language barriers
(Mori, 2000; Sato & Hodge, 2009), social adaptation difficulties (Hechanova-Alampay et al.,
2002; Lee, 2010; Tas, 2013), psychological stress (Yeh, 2000), culture shock (Lertora et al.,
2017), and adjustment challenges to the U.S. educational system (Yan & Berliner, 2009).
Moreover, international students must comply with complex regulations required by the U.S.
Department of Homeland Security (Urias & Yeakey, 2009). Yet, these transition challenges have
received little attention, and no research has investigated how these transition challenges affect
the persistence of international students. Chinese international students, as the largest group of
international students, have only been studied as part of the international student population. To
date, few studies have focused on Chinese international students’ persistence, especially in
undergraduate programs.
Purpose of the Study
Unlike previous studies that have studied international students as a single population,
this study focused specifically on Chinese international students in undergraduate programs. This
study used Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological systems theory as a theoretical guide. Through
qualitative-method research, I interviewed 12 students and performed document reviews to
collect data on Chinese international students who were dismissed or dropped out before
graduating due to transition challenges. Thus, through this study, I aimed to discover how
transition challenges affect Chinese international undergraduate students’ persistence in U.S.
higher education institutions. Further, I evaluated school support systems for international
students from the perspective of Chinese international students.
4

Significance of the Study
Transition challenges affecting international students are not specifically addressed in
student persistence models and theories (Di Maria & Kwai, 2014). This research will extend the
models and theories for exploring the impact of transition challenges on student persistence.
Specifically, the transition challenges of international students based on the U.S. Department of
Homeland Security’s regulations have not been discussed in previous studies. This study will fill
this gap.
This research will help educators obtain a more comprehensive understanding of Chinese
students’ learning experiences and transition challenges and how these transition challenges
affect their persistence. Accordingly, schools and education departments will be encouraged to
pay more attention to the transition challenges and persistence of international students and
provide improved student support. This study provides suggestions for U.S. higher education
institutions to improve their services. This research will also help educators and policymakers to
understand international students’ perspectives on current visa regulations and how these
regulations affect the persistence of international students.
Definition of Terms
A designated school official (DSO) is a designated employee who is responsible for
assisting and overseeing enrolled F and M students. Federal law requires DSOs to update and
maintain student records in the Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS). Each
campus or physical location must have a principal DSO, whose duties also include serving as the
main point of contact for issues related to Student and Exchange Visitor Program (SEVP)
certification. SEVP-certified schools can nominate as many additional DSOs as the school
determines that it needs (Department of Homeland Security, 2021b).
5

Duration of status refers to the time a student is allowed to remain in the country.
When international students arrive at a U.S. port of entry, a U.S. Customs and Border Protection
officer will provide them with admission stamps that will list the date on which they must depart
the United States. As F1 students, they will most likely have a duration of status (D/S) listed on
their admission stamps. D/S means they may remain in the United States so long as they
maintain their nonimmigrant student status. As F1 students, to maintain their student status they
should complete their program of study by the program end date listed on their Form I-20,
“Certificate of Eligibility for Nonimmigrant Status.” If they need more time to graduate or
complete their program, they must request a later program end date by contacting their DSO,
who can print an updated Form I-20 for them (Department of Homeland Security, 2015, 2021d).
An F1 student visa is issued to an applicant from a foreign country “who wishes to enter
the United States to attend university or college, high school, private elementary school,
seminary, conservatory, or another academic institution, including a language training program”
(Bureau of Consular Affairs, 2021b).
Form I-20, or Certificate of Eligibility for Nonimmigrant Student Status, is issued to
international students when they are accepted into a SEVP-certified school. The DSO will issue
international students one of two forms: (a) Form I-20, Certificate of Eligibility for
Nonimmigrant (F1) Student Status–For Academic and Language Students or (b) Form I-20,
Certificate of Eligibility for Nonimmigrant (M1) Student Status–For Vocational Students. Except
for the name of the form, the information on both forms is the same. A student and the student’s
dependents must have a Form I-20 to apply for a student visa to enter the United States and apply
for benefits (Department of Homeland Security, 2021e).
6

Form I-94, Arrival/Departure Record, is a document issued by the Department of
Homeland Security to nonimmigrant aliens at the time of lawful entry into the United States at an
air or seaport of entry. Form I-94 is evidence of a nonimmigrant’s term of admission and is used
to document legal status in the United States, including length of stay and departure (Department
of Homeland Security, 2021e).
An M1 student visa is issued to an applicant from a foreign country “who wishes to enter
the United States to attend vocational or other recognized nonacademic institution, other than a
language training program” (Bureau of Consular Affairs, 2021b).
Persistence is defined as an individual phenomenon that “refers to the desire and action
of a student to stay within the system of higher education” (Berger & Lyon, 2005, p. 7).
Retention is “an institutional measure” rather than “a student measure” such as
persistence (Hagedorn, 2005. p. 92). Similarly, retention “refers to the ability of an institution to
retain a student” (Berger & Lyon, 2005, p. 7) and “is an organizational phenomenon—colleges
and universities retain students” (Reason, 2009, p. 660).
SEVP-certified schools are the institutions certified by SEVP to issue Form I-20,
Certificate of Eligibility for Nonimmigrant Student Status, to prospective international students
after admitting them to a program of study. Prospective international students then use Form I-20
to apply for a visa to enter the United States. SEVP certification also authorizes the institution to
enroll these international students after they enter the United States on an F or M student visa
(Department of Homeland Security, 2021c).
A student visa is needed before a citizen of a foreign country can enter the United States
to attend school. To obtain a student visa, the first step is to apply to an SEVP-approved school
in the United States. After the SEVP-approved school accepts international students’ enrollment,
7

students will be registered for the SEVIS and must pay the SEVIS I-901 fee. The SEVP-
approved school will issue students a Form I-20. After students receive the Form I-20 and
register in SEVIS, students may apply at a U.S. Embassy or Consulate for a student (F or M)
visa. Students must present Form I-20 to the consular officer when they attend their visa
interview (Bureau of Consular Affairs, 2021b).
Terminating a student in the SEVIS could indicate that the nonimmigrant no longer
maintains F or M status. DSOs mostly terminate F1/M1 students and/or F2/M2 dependents who
do not maintain their status. However, termination is not always negative. DSOs can terminate
records for several normal, administrative reasons (Department of Homeland Security, July 10,
2020).
The Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS) is the web-based system
that the U.S. Department of Homeland Security uses to maintain information regarding (a)
SEVP-certified schools, (b) F1 and M1 students studying in the United States (and their F2 and
M2 dependents), (c) U.S. Department of State-designated Exchange Visitor Program sponsors,
and (d) J1 visa Exchange Visitor Program participants (and their J2 dependents). On behalf of
the Department of Homeland Security, SEVP manages SEVIS. The system is a critical tool in
SEVP’s mission to protect national security while supporting the legal entry and stay of the more
than one million F, M, and J nonimmigrants coming to the United States for educational and
cultural exchange programs (Department of Homeland Security, 2021a).
The Student and Exchange Visitor Program (SEVP) is a part of the National Security
Investigations Division and acts as a bridge for government organizations that have an interest in
information on nonimmigrants whose primary reason for coming to the United States is to be
students. On behalf of the Department of Homeland Security, SEVP manages schools and
8

nonimmigrant students in the F and M visa classifications and their dependents (U.S.
Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 2021).
Organization of the Study
This thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter One has introduced the study and outlined
its focus. Chapter Two provides a review of the literature on Chinese international students’
history in the United States and the transition challenges they face. In particular, this chapter will
present the conceptual framework for this study—Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological systems
theory. Chapter Three will outline the research methodology and design used for this study,
including the conceptual framework and research design, target population, composition of the
sample, and research site. The chapter also discusses different methods used in capturing,
recording, transcribing, and analyzing the collected data. The findings of the study led by data
presentation and interpretation are reported in Chapter Four. Chapter Five includes a discussion
and offers recommendations based on the findings of the study, followed by a conclusion.
9

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Chinese international students face many challenges when transitioning from the
educational environment in China to that of the United States. In past studies, Chinese students
were usually grouped into a sample with other international students, and few studies have
focused on Chinese students alone. At the same time, the impact of transition challenges on
Chinese international students’ persistence in U.S. higher institutions has received little attention.
To address this gap, this study explored how transition challenges affect Chinese international
undergraduate students’ persistence in U.S. higher education institutions and identified the types
of support schools should provide to improve students’ persistence.
In this chapter, I review the history and current situation of Chinese students in the
United States and indicate the important role of agencies for Chinese students studying abroad. I
also introduce Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological systems theory as a theoretical framework for
analyzing Chinese international students’ transition challenges and how these challenges affect
their persistence in U.S. higher education intuitions.
History of Chinese International Students in the United States
Since the late 1970s, China and the United States have improved their foreign relations
with trade and educational and cultural exchanges (Andrew & Robert, 1997). The first group of
52 Chinese students was sent to study in the United States by the Chinese government at the end
of 1978, witnessing the restoration of U.S.–China relations (Andrew & Robert, 1997). On
January 1, 1979, the two governments officially established full diplomatic relations. Since then,
an increasing number of Chinese students have come to study in the United States (Andrew &
Robert, 1997). Figure 1 shows the number of mainland Chinese students in the United States
from 1979/80 to 2019/20. Except for the slight decrease in 2003/04, the total number of Chinese
10

students in the United States has increased every year. China has remained the largest source of
international students in the U.S. education market for the past consecutive 11 years (Institute of
International Education, 2020).

Figure 1
Mainland Chinese International Students in the United States From 1979/80 to 2019/20

Note. The bar graph shows a steady increase in the number of students attending U.S. schools
between 1979/80 and 2019/20. From “2020 the Total Number of Enrolled International Students
by Place of Origin,” by Open Doors, 2020. https://opendoorsdata.org/data/international-
students/all-places-of-origin/

11

Foreign students may be issued one of two types of visas: F visas for academic study and
M visas for vocational study. Most foreign students come to the United States with an F1 visa.
F1 and M1 students must pursue full-time academic education. These students are generally
admitted as nonimmigrants for the period of the program of study, referred to as the duration of
status (Haddal, 2008). F2 and M2 visas are issued to dependents, including spouses and children,
of a foreign student holding an F1 or M1 visa. According to the U.S. Department of State and
Institute of International Education’s report in 2020, international students include foreign
students holding F1 and M1 visas. As Chinese international students represent the largest number
of international students, it is worthwhile to examine the fluctuations in their numbers and what
has caused these numbers to vary over the years.
Although the overall number of Chinese international students has been increasing, four
significant changes can be seen in the statistics reported by the Bureau of Consular Affairs
regarding the number of F1 visas issued from the fiscal years 1997 to 2020. The four significant
changes include three significant drops in 2002, 2016, and 2020 and one significant rise in 2006.
Historical events or significant policy changes appear to be the causes of these four significant
changes and are discussed in detail below. Since the number of M1 visa students is small, this
group will not be discussed in this study.

12

Table 1
Number of F1 and M1 Visas Issued From 1997 to 2020 to Chinese (Mainland) Nationals
USCIS
fiscal
year*

China
F1
visas
issued
China
F1 visa
growth
rate
(%)
Total F1
visas
issued
Global
F1
visa
growth
rate
(%)
% of F1
visas
issued to
China (%)
China
M1
visas
issued
Total M1
visas
issued
% of M1
visas
issued to
China
(%)
1997 11909 – 266483 – 4.47 65 7075 0.92
1998 13958 17.21 251565 -5.60 5.55 58 6515 0.89
1999 16303 16.80 262542 4.36 6.21 37 6240 0.59
2000 21586 32.41 284053 8.19 7.60 64 6107 1.05
2001 25218 16.83 293357 3.28 8.60 70 5373 1.30
2002 21784 -13.62 234322 -20.12 9.30 52 4116 1.26
2003 16169 -25.78 215695 -7.95 7.50 157 4157 3.78
2004 18089 11.87 218898 1.48 8.26 248 4817 5.15
2005 21642 19.64 237890 8.68 9.10 270 5822 4.64
2006 28444 31.43 273870 15.12 10.39 568 7227 7.86
2007 39535 38.99 298393 8.95 13.25 752 9221 8.16
2008 56258 42.30 340711 14.18 16.51 1128 10475 10.77
2009 81842 45.48 331208 -2.79 24.71 1286 9257 13.89
2010 113772 39.01 385210 16.30 29.54 1414 9192 15.38
2011 153026 34.50 447410 16.15 34.20 1348 10049 13.41
2012 189402 23.77 486900 8.83 38.90 1421 10331 13.75
2013 217593 14.88 534320 9.74 40.72 1872 11320 16.54
2014 244927 12.56 595569 11.46 41.12 1983 11706 16.94
2015 274460 12.06 644233 8.17 42.60 2043 11058 18.48
2016 148016 -46.07 471728 -26.78 31.38 2120 10305 20.57
2017 112817 -23.78 393573 -16.57 28.66 2114 9587 22.05
2018 98904 -12.33 362929 -7.79 27.25 2136 9317 22.93
2019 105775 6.95 364204 0.35 29.04 1990 9227 21.57
2020 14436 -86.35 111387 -69.42 12.96 435 3928 11.07

Note: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, posts were instructed to suspend routine visa services
and provide only mission-critical and emergency services in late March 2020. This had a
significant impact on the provision of immigrant and nonimmigrant visa-related services. Posts
were only able to resume limited services on a post-by-post basis beginning in July, as local
conditions allowed. Adapted from “Nonimmigrant Visa Issuances by Visa Class and by
13

Nationality-FY1997-2021 NIV Detail Table,” Bureau of Consular Affairs, 2021a.
https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/legal/visa-law0/visa-statistics/nonimmigrant-visa-
statistics.html
*Fiscal year refers to the previous year Oct. 1 to current year Sep. 30.

Change 1: 2002 and 2003 Fiscal Years
The first significant change occurred in the 2002 fiscal year, as the number of visas
issued to Chinese students decreased by 13.62% year over year. Then again in the 2003 fiscal
year, the same number decreased by 25.78%. Meanwhile, the total number of F1 visas issued to
other countries also dropped significantly in these 2 fiscal years—the number of F1 visas issued
globally dropped by 20.12% and 7.95% year over year, respectively. The decrease in student visa
issues can be attributed to the reasons outlined below.
First, after the 9/11 terror attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001,
national security became a priority as the government embarked on its war on terrorism (Urias &
Yeakey, 2009). On October 26, 2001, Congress enacted PL107-56, also known as the USA
PATRIOT Act (Urias & Yeakey, 2009). The Act established January 30, 2003, as the deadline
for colleges and universities to comply with the SEVIS, which is an Internet-based system
implemented in July 2001 to track international students/scholars (Urias & Yeakey, 2009). The
Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2001, enacted on May 8, 2002, requires
additional information on international students to be electronically reported, specifically, the
issuance of Form I-20, the issuance of F1 visas, and the registration and enrollment of
international students at the institution. This law also requires schools to report to the
14

Department of Homeland Security the failure of an international student to enroll or to begin
studying at an approved school (Department of Justice, 2003).
New visa regulations require more electronic work and advanced information technology
(Bowen & Foley, 2002). While universities and colleges are struggling with their staffing,
technology, funds, and communication with anxious students for complying with government
policies, the U.S. government also faces difficulties (Urias & Yeakey, 2009). Government-
mandated new services or policies are not always fully funded (Urias & Yeakey, 2009). The
computer systems for the respective federal government offices are not the fastest or most easily
accessible (Urias & Yeakey, 2009). Moreover, technical issues remain with SEVIS; some
schools are not able to log on and some consulate and embassy offices report difficulty logging
on or accessing information. The result is a delay in the issuance of visas (Urias & Yeakey,
2009).
Change 2: 2006 Fiscal Year
Since the fiscal year 2006, the United States has increased the number of F1 visas issued,
especially for students from China. According to the statistics from the Bureau of Consular
Affairs (2021a) of the U.S. Department of State, the number of all F1 visas issued reached a
historical high, totaling 273,870, 15.12% higher than the same period the previous year. In 2006,
Mainland China accounted for 28,444 F1 visas, which is 31.43% higher than the same period the
previous year.
Beginning on June 20, 2005, eligible Chinese Nationals who wished to study in the
United States temporarily as students (F1), exchange visitors (J1), or vocational training students
(M1) were issued visas that were valid for 12 months and multiple entries. The previous
maximum validity for U.S. visas issued for these purposes was 6 months (U.S. Department of
15

State, 2005a). On September 28, 2005, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice issued a
memorandum advising overseas U.S. consular officials to improve the approval rate of student
visa applications considering the significant drop in the number of international students due to
the tightened visa policies after the terrorist attacks in 2001 (Liu, 2015).
This memorandum outlines five key points regarding the approval of visas for
international students (Liu, 2015; U.S. Department of State, 2005b). First, the schools’ size or
recognition cannot be a negative factor in approving visas. Applicants should be adjudicated on
their bona fide as students, regardless of institution or program of study. Second, visa officers
cannot deny a visa based on their personal opinion of the applicant’s school admission
qualifications. Instead, they should verify with the school if they suspect dishonesty. Thirdly, an
applicant’s intention to return home after completing their studies is the deciding factor for
determining immigrant intent, not visa officers’ subjective conjecture. Fourthly, visa officers
cannot deny a visa based on the applicant’s chosen major or the employability of that major in
their home country. Nor can they deny a visa because the applicant’s home country offers
equivalent quality courses. Students have the right to choose where to study if accepted by the
school. Finally, students are encouraged to maintain ties to their home country by traveling back
during their studies, and visa renewals should not be denied without significant changes in the
student’s situation. If a student believes obtaining a visa would be difficult upon returning to
their home country, they may choose to remain in the United States during their studies and
become estranged from their home country (U.S. Department of State, 2005b).
President Obama announced on November 10, 2014, at the APEC Summit in Beijing,
that the United States and China mutually agreed to increase business and tourist visa validity to
10 years and student and exchange visa validity to 5 years, replacing the original 1-year validity
16

for the visas (Welsh, 2014). The relaxation of the visa policy boosted the interest of Chinese
students going to study in the United States. As a result, in the fiscal year 2015, the number of F1
visas issued to students from China reached a historical high, totaling 277,520. Despite a
significant rise in the number of visas issued in 2015, numbers for the same visa would drop
dramatically the next year due to the deteriorated China–U.S. relations.
Change 3: 2016 Fiscal Year
The number of F1 visas issued to students from Mainland China dramatically decreased
in the fiscal year 2016. The global number of F1 visas issued was 471,728, a year-over-year
decrease of 26.78%, and the F1 visas issued to students from Mainland China was 148,016, a
year-over-year decrease of 46.07%. The F1 visa numbers for Chinese students in the fiscal years
2017 and 2018 continued to decrease, with year-over-year decreases of 23.78% and 12.33%,
respectively.
President Donald Trump made a series of speeches during his 2016 campaign to attack
China and its trade relations with the United States (Ahmann & Chance, 2016; Corasaniti et al.,
2016; Diamond, 2016). When Trump took office on January 20, 2017, and during his 4 years in
power, Sino–U.S. relations became increasingly tense. The tension between the United States
and China subsequently spilled over into education. According to the Trump Administration’s
order on June 11, 2018, graduate students who were studying in major fields related to robotics,
aviation, and high-tech manufacturing may, at the discretion of the consular officer, receive a
multiple entry visa for a shorter 1-year time frame instead of 5 years (Redden, 2018). This
modification was introduced because of concerns that students studying in certain science fields
would relay technological and intellectual information to the Chinese government, and thus pose
a security threat to the United States.
17

In May 2019, a bill was introduced in Congress that would preclude any person in or
sponsored by the Chinese military from being granted a visa to study or conduct research in the
United States (Skinner, 2019). President Donald Trump signed a proclamation on May 29, 2020,
to cancel the visas and ban Chinese graduate students and researchers who have direct ties to
universities in China affiliated with the People’s Liberation Army from entering the United
States. The objective was to stop China from using graduate students to steal intellectual
property and technology from the United States. This policy affected between 3,000 and 4,000
Chinese students at U.S. universities. Although this represented a small fraction of the total
number of Chinese students studying at U.S. universities, the ban was an unfriendly signal to
international students from China, which may have led to lower Chinese student enrollment
(Cong, 2020).
Change 4: 2020 Fiscal Year
As the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus aggravated and spread, President Trump issued a
Presidential Proclamation on January 31, 2020, to suspend entry for all aliens who were
physically present within the People's Republic of China, excluding the Special Administrative
Regions of Hong Kong and Macau, less than 14 days prior to their arrival in the United States
(Executive Office of the President, 2020). Due to the ongoing situation related to COVID-19, as
of February 10, 2020, regular visa services at the U.S. Embassy in Beijing and the U.S.
Consulates General in Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Shenyang were suspended (Mission
China, 2020). As the pandemic quickly spread throughout the United States, new international
nonimmigrant students, including Chinese students, were impacted by the Student and Exchange
Visitor Program’s March 2020 guidance, which prohibited them from obtaining F1 or M1 visas
18

if they planned to pursue a fully online course of study, unless the program was a hybrid with in-
person learning (U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 2022).
In 2020, tensions between the United States and China continually increased. President
Donald Trump’s administration clashed repeatedly with Beijing over trade and the COVID-19
pandemic while China imposed a controversial new security law on Hong Kong. The United
States ordered China to close its consulate in Houston, Texas to protect U.S. intellectual property
and the private information of U.S. citizens on July 22, 2020. China then ordered the United
States to close the Chengdu consulate on July 24, 2020, as revenge (Cheng, 2020). As a result,
only 15,445 Chinese students received F1 visas in the 2020 fiscal year, 85.77% less than the
previous year.
Although the growth rate of new Chinese international students has slowed, China
remained the largest source of international students in the U.S. education market in the 2019/20
academic year. In 2019/20, 372,532 Chinese mainland international students enrolled in
undergraduate, graduate, nondegree, and optional practical training programs in U.S. higher
education institutes, which accounted for 35% of the total international students in the United
States that year (Institute of International Education, 2020). The second largest source country,
India, only accounted for 18% of the total number of international students, and the third largest
source country, South Korea, only accounted for 5% of the total number of international students
(Institute of International Education, 2020).
In detail, Chinese mainland international students enrolled in the following programs:
148,160 in undergraduate programs, 137,096 in graduate programs, 15,896 in nondegree
programs, and 71,380 in optional practical training in the United States in the 2019/20 academic
year (Institute of International Education, 2020; Figure 2). Overall, 49% of Chinese international
19

students studied in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields, 17% in the
business and management fields, 9% in the social sciences fields, and 25% in all other fields
(Figure 3). Engineering, math and computer science, business and management were the three
most popular majors (Institute of International Education, 2020).

Figure 2
Chinese International Students by Academic Level in 2019/20

148,160
137,096
15,896
71,380
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
Chinese international students by academic level in 2019/20
Undergraduate Graduate Non-degree OPT
20

Figure 3
What Chinese International Students Studied in 2019/20

Education Agencies in China
China’s rapid growth in the number of students studying abroad has spawned a booming
business for education agencies (Serra Hagedorn & Zhang, 2011). Education agencies refer to
third-party agents, which could be a person or a company, who provide services to students
seeking to study abroad. Education agencies charge a fee to the students and/or receive a
commission from the foreign intuitions with whom the agent has an agreement (Serra Hagedorn
& Zhang, 2011; Yang et al., 2020). Education agencies play a prominent role in international
student recruitment.
The Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China does not publish data on
how many students use education agencies to study abroad. One interview published on
1.20%
1.50%
1.50%
1.60%
2.00%
2.20%
3.20%
6.00%
7.60%
7.90%
16.20%
19.10%
20.50%
0.00% 5.00% 10.00% 15.00% 20.00% 25.00%
Agriculture
Education
Legal Studies and Law Enforcement
Humanities
Intensive English
Communications and Journalism
Health Professions
Fine and Applied Arts
Physical and Life Sciences
Social Science
Business and Management
Math and Computer Science
Engineering
What do Chinese international students study in 2019/20?
21

September 17, 2003, by China Education Daily, stated that 125,000 students studied abroad in
2002. Among them, 117,500 students studied abroad at their own expense, of which 80% used
education agencies (Cao et al., 2003). A mixed methods study by Zhang and Hagedorn in 2011
reported that approximately two thirds of international Chinese undergraduates enrolled at four
U.S. baccalaureate institutions paid an education agent to assist with their college application.
Two main types of education agencies operate in China based on different business
models (Yang et al., 2020). The first type is based on a business-to-client model, which means
agencies offer services directly to applicants and overseas universities (Yang et al., 2020). The
second type is based on a combined model, which includes both business-to-business and
business-to-client services. Business-to-business means agencies provide services to other
education agencies. Overseas universities are unlikely to build partnerships with every agency,
so they may choose to cooperate and pay commissions to a select number of key agencies (Yang
et al., 2020). To receive shared commissions, some education agencies may rely on connections
with other agencies that have established partnerships with overseas universities to submit
applications on their behalf (Yang et al., 2020).
Professional educational advising is increasingly seen as a compulsory component in the
college application process for many students and their parents in China (Serra Hagedorn &
Zhang, 2011; Zhang & Hagedorn, 2014). Agencies usually provide a wide variety of services,
including counseling on college and major choice, entrance examination training, application
guidance, and visa application. Some agencies also assist students after they land in the United
States with services, such as airport pick-up, host family arrangements, insurance, and financial
transactions (Serra Hagedorn & Zhang, 2011; Zhang & Hagedorn, 2014). Agencies can also
provide useful information about the study location, local transportation, cost of living, weather,
22

social and cultural life, and other important issues to help students adjust smoothly to their
studies and life abroad. Students may consult with education agents in one or more areas based
on the number and intensity of the services provided. A trustworthy agency can save students
time by providing them with valuable counseling. However, a less responsible agency could
harm students’ studies and life by providing unreliable information or misleading them for the
agent’s financial benefit (Serra Hagedorn & Zhang, 2011; Zhang & Hagedorn, 2014).
Although a school’s international student office may provide counseling services to
international students, many Chinese students still look for help from Chinese education agents.
Some Chinese students seek help from agents because they lack knowledge and experience with
the application process of U.S. colleges (Zhang, 2011). whereas some students can complete the
application by themselves but do not have the time to do so (“Study-Abroad Agents Help
Chinese Students,” 2011).
Chinese International Students’ Persistence in U.S. Higher Education
Although a great number of international students study in the United States,
international students’ retention rates have received little attention from governmental agencies
or higher education institutes. Data on international student retention rates are not even reported
by the Institute of International Education (2020). According to the statistics from the Integrated
Postsecondary Education Data System (National Center for Education Statistics, 2021),
international students do not have a standalone set of data; instead, they are counted as part of a
group called “nonresident aliens.” Andrade (2009) indicated that the lack of awareness of this
issue could be explained by three factors. First, despite the growing number of international
students on U.S. college campuses, these students still represent only a small share (5.5%) of the
total student enrollment in 2019/20 (Institute of International Education, 2020). According to
23

Nkomo and Al Ariss (2014), a system of power of ethnic (White) privilege still exists in the
United States today. Whites have the most power in the allocation of educational resources.
International students, as a small group, are marginalized and have little power in the U.S.
education system., as most U.S. governmental agencies, postsecondary institutions, and
educators ignore their needs and interests.
Second, U.S. higher education institutes have more admission requirements for
international students. Taking undergraduates as an example, both U.S. domestic students and
international students are required to submit an online application form, high school transcripts,
test scores (ACT or SAT), personal statements or essays, and letters of recommendation (Patel,
2019). In addition to these general requirements, international students must submit documents
such as test scores of English proficiency, foreign transcripts and diploma evaluations, and
financial statements showing that they have adequate funding to pay tuition and living fees in the
United States (USA.gov, 2021). Once international students are accepted, it is generally assumed
that they will be prepared both academically and financially (Andrade, 2009). Moreover, the
limited data from a few schools on international student persistence suggesting that these
students persist at least at rates similar to U.S. domestic students has led to a lack of awareness of
issues related to international students’ persistence (Andrade, 2009). However, no matter how
prepared international students are in academics or how proficient they are in English, they still
face unique challenges to succeed in a foreign environment. Therefore, U.S. higher education
institutes should not only place their emphasis on the recruitment of international students but
also their retention (Mamiseishvili, 2012).
24

Theoretical Research on Student Persistence
Student retention has been one of the most widely studied areas in higher education since
the 1970s, but international student retention or persistence has rarely been studied (Schulte &
Choudaha, 2014). In those 4 decades of work, several theories and models have been developed
regarding who persists, what determines student persistence, and what institutions can do to
increase persistence. However, most of the theoretical research on persistence does not apply to
international students, such as Spady’s (1971) student dropout process model, Tinto’s (1975,
1993) college student departure theory, Bean’s (1980) student attrition model, the student-faculty
informal contact model (Pascarella, 1980), Astin’s (1984, 1993) student involvement theory, the
nontraditional student attrition model (Bean & Metzner, 1985), the student retention integrated
model (Cabrera et al., 1993), or Museus’ (2014) the culturally engaging campus environments
model. These models and theories were developed and published when only a small number of
international students attended institutions in the United States. Thus, transition challenges that
affect international students are not specifically addressed in student persistence models and
theories (Di Maria & Kwai, 2014).
Influencing Factors for International Student Retention
Moreover, most of the existing studies used quantitative research methods from the
school perspective to analyze why international students leave before they graduate. Schulmann
and Choudaha (2014) included 480 international education professionals and 517 undergraduate
international students who participated in the National Association of Foreign Student Advisers
and World Education Services’ surveys for international students’ retention and engagement in
2013/14. The authors cited the search for a better-fit institution, financial difficulties, the lack of
access to work opportunities, academic challenges, and campus integration as why international
25

students leave school before graduation. Fass-Holmes (2017) indicated that academic integrity
violations are a factor that affects international students’ retention and/or graduation by
analyzing the demographic data for international students attending a U.S. public university
during at least one of the academic years between 2009–10 and 2013–14. Loo (2016) surveyed
institutional officers providing career services to international students and indicated that career
prospects are the top factor that attracts graduate students to transfer to another institution.
However, little qualitative research has included students’ voices on this topic. Further, Chinese
international students, as the largest group of international students, have only been studied as a
part of the international student population. To date, no empirical study has focused solely on the
retention/persistence of Chinese international students in U.S. postsecondary institutions.
Theoretical Framework
To adequately understand Chinese international students’ transition challenges and how
they affect their persistence in U.S. higher education intuitions, I used Bronfenbrenner’s (1994)
ecological systems theory to guide this study (Figure 4). Bronfenbrenner’s theory was first
introduced in the 1970s as a way to explain the development of a person in early childhood by
analyzing the entire ecological system in which growth occurs (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). This
ecological model consists of five systems, which are conceived as a set of nested structures. The
child is in the center of the circle. Moving from the innermost level to the outside, these systems
are (a) the microsystem, (b) the mesosystem, (c) the exosystem, (d) the macrosystem, and (e) the
chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1994).

26

Figure 4
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

Note. Adapted from Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, by Special Education Notes,
2022 https://www.specialeducationnotes.co.in/Urie%20Bronfenbrenner.htm

In terms of education, the ecological theory positions the student at the center of a
varying ecological context. It allows researchers, educators, and practitioners to understand the
experiences of individual students as well as help them gain in-depth insight into how to create a
campus environment that can enhance student development (Zhang, 2018). Although crafted
with early childhood development, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model transfers easily across the
lifespan and has been applied in various fields of study (Renn & Arnold, 2003). Renn and Arnold
(2003) applied Bronfenbrenner’s model to college student development, and Paat (2013) and
27

Stebleton (2011) applied it to study immigrant students. Zhang (2018) applied this model to
study academic advising with international students in a community college context. The study
summarized the challenges encountered by international students in U.S. colleges and the people
who provided them with the most direct support as mentioned in previous studies. Chinese
international students were studied as part of the larger population of international students in
those studies. Using the ecological system theory as a framework, the study adapted the
identified challenges and support systems to better understand the experiences of Chinese
international students in U.S. colleges. The adapted ecological theory framework for the study
was illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5
Chinese International Students’ Ecological Systems

28

In this study, Chinese international students are at the center of these subsystems. The
microsystem includes parents, friends, professors or instructors, academic advisors, and staff of
the international student office. The mesosystem comprises the linkages and processes taking
place between Chinese international students and the microsystem. The second outer ring is the
exosystem, which includes academic requirements, U.S. foreign policies, immigration laws and
visa regulations, and U.S. local laws and regulations. The outermost ring is the macrosystem,
which includes China and U.S. relations, U.S. culture, language barriers, and differences in
education methods. The chronosystem includes Chinese international students’ transitions and
changes over time. The following section describes each subsystem in detail with examples of
how they are related to Chinese international students and their transition and persistence in U.S.
higher education intuitions.
Microsystem
According to Bronfenbrenner (1994), the microsystem is “a pattern of activities, social
roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing persons in a given face-to-face
setting” (p. 39). In this setting, individuals engage in sustained and progressively more complex
interactions with their immediate environment, which is characterized by particular physical,
social, and symbolic features that may encourage or hinder their development. This means that
the microsystem is the immediate environment that directly influences the developing person.
For example, a child’s family, school, and peer group are all part of their microsystem. For
Chinese international students, the microsystem encompasses immediate relationships with
parents, friends, academic advisors, the office of international services staff, professors or
instructors, etc. These individuals in the microsystem can have a tremendous influence on
Chinese international students’ education and daily life (Zhang, 2018).
29

Mesosystem
The mesosystem “comprises the linkages and processes taking place between two or
more settings containing the developing person. In other words, a mesosystem is a system of
microsystems” (Bronfenbrenner, 1994, p. 40). For Chinese international students, parents,
friends, professors or instructors, staff of the international student office, and academic advisors
are their main sources of support (Zhang, 2018). Students’ relationships with these supporting
parties have an important impact on their transition to U.S. universities (Zhang, 2018).
Parents and friends are the primary sources of support for Chinese international students.
Chinese international students generally state that serious matters related to extreme stress,
significant life events, or financial matters lead them to seek support from their parents (Bertram
et al., 2014; Bhochhibhoya et al., 2017). However, less serious life events, such as issues related
to coursework or relationships, often lead participants to seek support from friends in their home
country or people who live in the United States (Bertram et al., 2014; Bhochhibhoya et al.,
2017). Chinese parents play a critical role in Chinese international students’ support networks.
On the one hand, Chinese parents work hard and provide financial support for their child’s
higher education. On the other hand, parental sacrifices made for children’s achievements create
a cultural environment of high expectations that put pressure on the children and may influence
the children’s mental health (Jin & Acharya, 2021; Liu, 2009). In addition to the professors or
instructors who teach, international students need to work with both international student officers
and academic advisors. International student officers are responsible for international students’
admission and transition, and both international student officers and academic advisors help
students create their academic plans. Overall, the establishment of U.S. social networks can help
Chinese international students cope with the many adjustment stressors (Bertram et al., 2014).
30

Exosystem
According to Bronfenbrenner (1994), the exosystem “comprises the linkages and
processes between two or more settings, at least one of which does not contain the developing
person, but in which events occur that indirectly influence processes within the immediate setting
in which the developing person lives” (p. 40). For Chinese international students, an exosystem
may encompass U.S. foreign policies, immigration laws, visa regulations, college academic
requirements, and U.S. local laws and regulations.
To further highlight the challenges faced by Chinese international students within the
exosystem, it is informative to examine the results of a global survey conducted by the Institution
for International Education in 2009 and 2010. The survey collected 9,330 valid responses from
prospective students in various countries, including Vietnam, India, Mexico, Thailand, Hong
Kong, Brazil, Germany, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, and South Africa, and found that
49% of respondents believed that the United States had the most complex or difficult student
visa procedures in the world (Chow, 2011). Many Chinese students are afraid to return home to
visit their families during holidays because they fear that their visa renewal will be denied,
resulting in their inability to return to the United States (Yan & Berliner, 2013).
College academic achievement is the strongest within-college predictor of educational
attainment. College grades are consistently and strongly related to retention, persistence, and
graduation in both national and single institutional studies (Mayhew et al., 2016; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). In addition to the academic requirements of the school, international students
must also comply with the academic requirements of the immigration office. According to
immigration regulations, to maintain their legal student status in the United States, all
international students are expected to take a full course of study each term, attend all their classes,
31

and make normal academic progress throughout their studies (Department of Homeland Security,
2021d). International students in English language learning programs must successfully pass all
of their classes and progress to higher levels. Undergraduate students at a college or university
must take at least 12 credit hours per term and maintain a 2.0 or higher grade point average
(GPA) every term with no NC (no credit), NP (no pass), I (incomplete), or F grades on their
transcripts. Undergraduate students at a conservatory or seminary and graduate students must
take a full course of study as certified by the institution. To maintain good academic standing,
most universities require international graduate students to maintain a 3.0 GPA or higher. A low
GPA or failure to maintain a full course of study equals a violation of their visa policy
(Department of Homeland Security, 2021d).
Academic integrity violations may also result in international students being suspended
or expelled from school (Fass-Holmes, 2017). Once international students are expelled from their
current program of study, their legal status will be terminated, and they will be deported
(Department of Homeland of Security, October 14, 2020). In addition, students who could not
complete their program by the end date listed on their Form I-20 or drop a class without the
DSO’s authorization can also cause a violation of their visa policy that may result in legal status
termination and deportation (Department of Homeland Security, 2021e).
According to the Department of Homeland Security (June 17, 2020), a reduced course
load is allowed for four special situations in case a student could not enroll in full-time study.
First, F1 students are allowed to enroll at least half the clock hours required for a full course of
study in the initial academic term if they have academic difficulties, including improper course
level placement, initial difficulty with reading requirements, initial difficulty with the English
language, or unfamiliarity with the U.S. teaching methods (Department of Homeland Security,
32

June 17, 2020). Second, F1 students with illnesses or medical conditions are allowed to enroll
part-time or be excused from all classes for up to 12 months aggregate per program level. These
students must provide medical documentation from a licensed medical doctor, doctor of
osteopathy, or clinical psychologist to the school’s DSO and obtain approval (Department of
Homeland Security, June 17, 2020). Third, F1 students are allowed to enroll in at least one
required class in the final term of completing the program (Department of Homeland Security,
June 17, 2020). Fourth, F1 commuter students attending school within 75 miles of the U.S.
border are allowed to enroll in at least half the clock hours required for a full course of study
(Department of Homeland Security, June 17, 2020). Although the fourth situation is suitable for
students from countries bordering the United States, it does not apply to Chinese students.
Students who use M1 visas to study in the United States can only receive approval for a reduced
course load for illness or a medical condition (Department of Homeland Security, June 17, 2020).
Notably, international students must obtain permission from a DSO to reduce their course load
regardless of their situation (Department of Homeland Security, June 17, 2020). In addition,
Forbes-Mewett et al. (2015) pointed out that crimes are committed by international students in
the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia, although the number is relatively small.
The researchers explained international students commit crimes in the host country for three
reasons. Firstly, due to cultural influences, international students had a different view about what
was and was not a crime. Secondly, international students may be involved in crime to obtain
money, as the crimes committed range from petty theft to drug and firearm trafficking. Thirdly,
mental health issues of international students may result in their involvement in crimes. In the
United States, international students who are convicted of a “deportable crime” or being a threat
to public safety can be deported back to their home country by the Department of Homeland
33

Security and barred from re-entering the United States for a set number of years (Office of the
Law Revision Counsel, 2021). The complex international student regulations and policies are
challenging for both students and academic advisors and require institutional support (Zhang,
2018). However, no research has been conducted from the Chinese international students’
perspective to investigate whether they feel they receive adequate support from the international
student office to help them understand or navigate through these complicated policies and
procedures.
Macrosystem
The macrosystem, as defined by Bronfenbrenner (1994), refers to the larger cultural and
subcultural context that shapes the micro-, meso-, and exosystems. According to
Bronfenbrenner, the macrosystem includes “belief systems, bodies of knowledge, material
resources, customs, life-styles, opportunity structures, hazards, and life course options that are
embedded in each of these broader systems” (p. 40). In other words, the macrosystem
encompasses the broad societal norms, values, and practices that influence the development of
individuals across various systems. In the context of education, the macrosystem is the outermost
layer of a child’s environment and includes the broader cultural, economic, and social contexts
that influence their development. Chinese students have identified changes in China and U.S.
relations, language barriers (Ching et al., 2017), U.S. culture (Samovar & Porter, 1991; Ward,
1996), and differences in education methods (Lertora et al., 2017, Liao & Wei, 2014; Smith &
Khawaja, 2011) as factors affecting their persistence in the U.S. education system, all of which
belong to the macrosystem category.
Limited English proficiency might be evident in Chinese international students’ reading,
writing, listening, and speaking skills. When Chinese international students are adjusting to
34

learning at the collegiate level in a secondary language, their language deficiency may cause a
lack of participation in the classroom. They may also spend more time reading and writing,
which may interfere with their academic performance if an exam is set to be finished within a
limited amount of time (Ching et al., 2017). The U.S. style of education that requires a lot of
classroom participation and group work is challenging for Chinese students who are accustomed
to rote learning and teacher-dominant classes (Lertora et al., 2017, Liao & Wei, 2014; Smith &
Khawaja, 2011). Moreover, the topics in class discussions and the content of learning materials,
especially for the social sciences, are more relevant to U.S. culture and less relevant to Chinese
students. Samovar and Porter (1991) noted that maximum sociocultural differences exist between
Western and Asian countries, and they cite the United States and China as an example of
maximum cultural distance. Greater cultural distance will bring students more psychosocial
distress during cross-cultural transitions (Ward, 1996). Compared to students from other
countries, Chinese students face greater challenges and psychosocial distress when adjusting to
the U.S. educational system, and it takes time for Chinese international students to adjust
(Huang, 2012; Yan & Berliner, 2009; Zhao & Bourne, 2011).
Chronosystem
The last component of Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) model is the chronosystem, which
“encompasses change or consistency over time not only in the characteristics of the person but
also of the environment in which that person lives” (p. 40). All of the subsystems are situated in
time and can change over time (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). Chinese international students are also
affected by the environment in which they live. The environment is changing over time;
therefore, its impact on the students will also change over time. For example, Chinese
international students are affected by life transitions and individual development over time, such
35

as prior educational and social environments, coming to the United States, time spent in the
United States, and other life-changing events through time (Newell, 2015; Stebleton, 2011,
Zhang, 2018). Further, some Chinese international students have been studying in the United
States during both the Trump and Biden administrations. While they have been in the United
States, major political and social changes have been brewing nationally, which undoubtedly has
an impact on how they view their college experiences.
The research regarding Chinese international students’ transition and persistence
published so far has been from the school officers’ perspectives concerning the students at their
institution. No study has included abroad agencies to conduct in-depth research on international
students’ transition and persistence experience. Notably, institutional services to a student
usually end when a student is expelled or dismissed by the school, making it difficult to contact
and conduct in-depth research with Chinese international students who fail to persist. However, a
study-abroad agency may be able to maintain a working relationship with students who fail to
persist at a particular school, as the agency may continue to assist the student to get admitted to a
new school and or follow up with a student’s future studies.
Conclusion
Previous research has highlighted numerous transition challenges faced by Chinese
international students. However, these studies have not examined how these challenges impact
the persistence of Chinese international students, nor have they identified which challenges have
the greatest impact. Given the limited human and financial resources of many higher education
institutions, this study aimed to effectively assist schools in increasing retention rates and aiding
students in their adjustment to studying and living in the United States more quickly.

36

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to investigate how transition challenges affect Chinese
international undergraduate students’ persistence in U.S. higher education institutions and
identify what support schools should provide to improve students’ persistence. In Chapter Three,
I present the research methods, study design and rationale, and my role as the researcher. I
discuss the selection of participants and instrumentation along with research procedures. In
addition, I explain the data collection methods and data analysis steps.
This study employed qualitative research with a phenomenological approach because the
phenomenological approach is preferential for understanding the different ways in which people
describe a phenomenon (Morse & Richards, 2002). Quantitative methods, which rely on
numerical data and statistical analysis, may not capture the complexity and richness of
individuals’ experiences and perceptions of a phenomenon, which is better suited to qualitative
methods, such as phenomenology (Creswell, 2018). This study was conducted at a private
education consulting company. Twelve Chinese citizens who were studying in undergraduate
programs at different U.S. higher education institutions under F1 visas participated in this study.
The research questions, sampling, instrumentation, data collection methods, and data analysis
were designed according to the phenomenological approach to meet the purpose of the study. At
the end of this chapter, I discuss the credibility, confidentiality, limitations, and delimitations of
this study.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. How do Chinese international undergraduate students perceive the impact of
transition challenges on their persistence in U.S. higher education institutions?
37

2. How do Chinese international students experience institutional support through
persistence problems caused by transition challenges?
Study Site
This study was conducted at Education Consulting Company (ECC; pseudonym) in
California, United States. ECC is an international educational agency with offices located both in
China and the United States. ECC assists Chinese students applying to U.S. schools and helps
Chinese students who are dismissed or drop out from U.S. schools to transfer to another U.S.
school.
Sample and Population
On the homepage of ECC’s website, anyone browsing the website can enter their email
address and voluntarily subscribe to receive information about studying abroad in the United
States. Subscribers can also choose to unsubscribe at any time. A recruiting email was sent to all
subscribers of ECC. ECC sent recruiting emails to a total of 420 subscribers. After the first mass
email, only eight replies were received. One week later, ECC sent another round of recruiting
emails to all subscribers and finally reached the goal of 12 potential participants who met the
study inclusion criteria.
To ensure the participants met the study inclusion criteria, the recruiting email contained
the study information and the inclusion criteria. If a student was interested in participating in the
study, they could indicate by selecting, “Yes, I meet these criteria and I would like to sign up.” A
separate link would direct potential participants to the Qualtrics survey, where they could
provide their contact information for the researcher and complete a prescreening questionnaire.
The sample for this study consisted of 12 Chinese citizens who were studying in
undergraduate programs at different U.S. higher education institutions under F1 visas.
38

Qualitative interview research typically involves a smaller number of participants due to its in-
depth nature, which allows for a deeper exploration of the research topic (Light et al., 1990).
Purposeful sampling is a commonly used sampling technique in qualitative research that involves
a deliberate selection of participants based on specific criteria to achieve maximum variation in
the sample (Light et al., 1990). This technique ensures that the sample is representative of the
population of interest and enhances the richness and depth of the data collected (Light et al.,
1990). By using purposeful sampling, the study obtained a rich and varied set of data from 12
Chinese citizens who were studying in undergraduate programs at different U.S. higher
education institutions under F1 visas. These participants had left their original schools before
graduation due to various transition challenges they faced during the 2019/20 academic year.
Examining their experiences could help us understand the specific transition challenges they
encountered and how these challenges led to their decision to leave school, as well as their
coping strategies and support systems. The findings of this study could potentially inform the
development of interventions and support programs to better assist international students in their
transition to studying in the United States.
Inclusion Criteria
According to Hulley et al. (2007), inclusion criteria are the key features of the target
population that the researchers would target to answer their research questions. The participants
for this study met the following criteria: (a) came from Mainland China, (b) were citizens of the
People’s Republic of China during the 2019/20 academic year, (c) studied in an undergraduate
program at any U.S. higher education institution during the 2019/20 academic year, (d) studied
in the United States under an F1 visa during the 2019/20 academic year, (e) were dismissed or
39

dropped out from their original schools during the 2019/20 academic year, and (f) were 18 years
of age or older when participating in this study.
Exclusion Criteria
In contrast, exclusion criteria are features of potential study participants who meet the
inclusion criteria but present with additional characteristics that could interfere with the success
of the study or increase their risk for an unfavorable outcome (Patino & Ferreira, 2018). Chinese
international students who studied in graduate programs, nondegree programs, and optional
practical training were not included in the research. Ethnic Chinese international students from
Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan were also not included in the research because the language of
instruction and educational methods in these three regions are different from those in Mainland
China (Chang, 2017; Fang, 2011; Yan, 2017). Immigrant students from Mainland China and
other Chinese mainland student studying in the United States under different types of visas were
not included because the immigration policies and regulations are different (U.S. Citizenship and
Immigration Services [USCIS], 2021).
The 2020/21 academic year was not selected due to visa policy and travel restrictions.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, regular F1 visa services at the U.S. Embassy in Beijing and the
U.S. Consulates General in Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Shenyang were suspended from
February 10, 2020 (U.S. Mission China, 2020, February 8) to May 4, 2021 (Jia & Jia, 2021). As
a result, no Chinese students could obtain visas during this period. In March 2020, many U.S.
schools shifted abruptly to remote learning due to COVID-19 (Office for Civil Rights, 2021).
Following the SEVP March 2020 guidance, nonimmigrant students with a new or initial status
after March 9, 2020, were not able to enter the United States to enroll in a U.S. school as a
40

nonimmigrant student for the Fall 2021 term to pursue a full course of study that was 100%
online (U.S. Mission China, 2020, July 28).
Researcher Positionality
According to Creswell (2018), studying the researcher’s organization or immediate work
setting often leads to compromises in the researchers’ ability to disclose information and raises
issues of an imbalance of power between the inquirers and the participants. When researchers
collect data at their workplace, the information may be convenient and easy to collect, but it may
not be accurate information and may jeopardize the roles of the researchers and the participants.
If studying one’s workplace is essential, researchers have the responsibility for showing how the
data will not be compromised and how such information will not place the participants at risk
(Creswell, 2018).
I worked as an international student advisor at ECC. Since this study was being
conducted at an organization with which I was affiliated, my role was both as an organization
affiliate and a researcher. Creswell (2018) stressed that researchers must prevent coercion during
the recruitment/consent process and avoid generating risk for study participants throughout the
study procedures. To avoid the potential that participants feel pressured to participate in this
study, I used my USC email to contact potential participants instead of a work email. Also, I did
not invite the students whom I have served to participate in this study. Moreover, this study only
focused on students; no ECC employees participated. All participants were advised that their
responses would be kept private and confidential. This is not only a key issue in the ethical
conduct of research but also a protection for the research participants (Ryen, 2004). Participant
anonymity is one mechanism through which privacy and confidentiality can be maintained
41

(Giordano et al., 2007). In this study, I assigned all participants pseudonyms, and the schools that
participants attended were also anonymized.
Instrumentation
This study employed qualitative research with a phenomenological approach. To better
triangulate findings, interview and document review methods were used in this study. According
to Maxwell (2013), triangulation is a research method that enables a researcher to gather
information from multiple sources and perspectives, allowing for a comprehensive understanding
of various aspects of the phenomena under investigation. Both interview and document review
methods worked as a check on the other to determine whether methods with different strengths
and limitations all support a single conclusion (Fielding & Fielding, 1986; Maxwell, 2013).
Triangulation reduces the risk that conclusions reflect only the biases of a specific method and
allows the researcher to gain a more secure understanding of the issues being investigated
(Fielding & Fielding, 1986; Maxwell, 2013).
Interviews Instrumentation
In phenomenological research, the aim is to uncover the essence of the studied
population’s “lived” experiences, focusing on the deep, meaningful aspects of these experiences
for the participants (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). To achieve this, a semistructured and open-
ended interview approach is often used (Seidman, 2013). Merriam and Tisdell (2015) suggested
that this format allows researchers to respond flexibly to the situation, the worldview of the
respondent, and new ideas that emerge during the interview. In this study, I employed a
semistructured and open-ended interview to explore the essence of the lived experiences of
Chinese international students studying in the United States, which included the transition
42

challenges and support they receive. Given the constraints imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic,
the interviews were conducted via telephone.
According to Salmons (2014), the use of data collection methods should align with the
purpose and theoretical framework of a study. By doing so, the collected data were relevant to
the research questions and contributed to the goals of the study while also maintaining a clear
and consistent research design per Salmons’ (2014) guidelines. To ensure this alignment, the
interview questions in my study were designed to be consistent with the overall purpose and
theoretical framework.
The interview questions started with some demographics interview questions to capture
the background of the participants, such as their pseudonym, gender, age, TOEFL score, and
GPA at first and second U.S. colleges. The following questions were also included: “How many
years have you studied in the undergraduate program in the United States?” and “Why did you
choose to study in the United States instead of China?”
The interview questions were designed based on the ecological system of Chinese
international students. A total of 13 interview questions were developed to answer Research
Question 1, which aimed to explore how Chinese international undergraduate students perceive
the impact of transition challenges on their persistence in U.S. higher education institutions.
Participants were asked about their experiences and perspectives on transition challenges from
the macrosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem. In addition, nine questions focused on the
microsystem and mesosystem to answer Research Question 2, which aimed to explore how
Chinese international students experience institutional support in dealing with persistence
problems caused by transition challenges. Appendix A shows how I organized and designed
interview questions according to the research questions and conceptual framework.
43

The macrosystem transition challenges included culture shock, language barriers,
differences in education methods, and the negative impact of deteriorating China–U.S. relations.
Interview questions included “What is the difference in teaching methods between U.S. schools
and Chinese schools?” “Could you share an experience of language barriers you encountered
after arriving in the United States, if any?” “Could you share an experience of culture shock you
encountered after arriving in the United States, if any?” “What do you think about Sino–U.S.
relations?” and “How do Sino–U.S. relations affect your study-abroad plan, if at all?”
The transition challenges from the exosystem included the negative impact of academic
requirements, U.S. foreign policies, immigration laws and visa regulations, and U.S. local laws
and regulations. In this section, I asked about the participants’ understanding of academic and
legal requirements in their schools and if they could share their experiences. Example questions
include “Does your first undergraduate school have any academic requirements for international
students?” “What is an academic challenge you have experienced in your first undergraduate
school, if any?” “Do you know any immigration law or visa regulations international students
must comply with?” and “Do you or other Chinese students you know have any experience of
violating any immigration law or visa regulation?” If a participant left school due to a transition
challenge, the participant was asked to describe their experience.
To capture students’ transitions and development over time, I included a question related
to the chronosystem. Specifically, participants were asked to reflect on their transition challenges
and identify which ones they believed could be overcome within the first year of admission and
which ones could not. The question was formulated as follows: “Considering the transition
challenges which we have mentioned above, which ones do you think can be overcome within 1
year of admission and which ones cannot?”
44

Nine questions were developed from the microsystem and mesosystem to answer
Research Question 2, which aimed to explore how Chinese international students experience
institutional support in dealing with persistence problems caused by transition challenges. In
addition to the known microsystem, which includes professors or instructors, academic advisors,
staff of the international student office, peers, and parents, this study attempted to identify other
supporting personnel for Chinese international students. Thus, the interview guide included the
following questions: “If I were a new international student and wanted to find support to help me
with challenges I was facing, where would you tell me to go?” and “Have you received any other
support in addition to the support mentioned above?”
The interview questions designed according to the mesosystem asked the students to
describe their interactions and feelings about those supporting personnel and how these affected
the participants’ persistence. For instance, “What kind of support did you receive when you
faced transition challenges in your first undergraduate school, if any?” “How might the school’s
support affect your persistence in school, if at all?” “How do you feel about your parents’
support, if any?” “How might your parents’ support affect your persistence in school, if at all?”
“How do you feel about your friends’ support, if any?” and “How might your friends’ support
affect your persistence in school, if at all?”
Document Review Instrumentation
A document review provides document support for an interview and can be used to verify
the information obtained from an interview (Fielding & Fielding, 1986). According to Merriam
and Tisdell (2015), documents include public records, personal papers, popular culture
documents, visual documents, and physical materials and artifacts. The document review in this
study was designed to align with the interview and theoretical framework, and it focused on
45

analyzing public domain information available on the websites of the first and second U.S.
colleges attended by the participants (see Appendix B for a list of reviewed documents).
In the document review for Research Question 1, I focused on the overall supporting
programs and services that schools provide to help Chinese students cope with transition
challenges in U.S. colleges. Regarding the macrosystem, I reviewed the services and programs
that schools offer to help Chinese international students understand and adapt to U.S. culture and
educational methods, as well as improve their English proficiency. In the exosystem part, I
reviewed each school’s catalog to determine academic requirements, as well as services and
programs available to help Chinese international students overcome academic challenges. I also
reviewed schools’ policies and regulations and USCIS immigration laws, policies, and
regulations for international students from their websites. Additionally, I examined the services
and programs that schools offer to help Chinese international students understand and comply
with U.S. laws and school regulations. In the chronosystem part, I reviewed the schools’ services
and programs for international freshmen and continuing students and compared the differences
between them.
The document review for Research Question 2 focused on personnel who directly support
Chinese international students. In the microsystem part, I reviewed the international student
office, academic advisors, and professors’ and instructors’ contact information and office hours.
I also reviewed the number of Chinese international student organizations and their contact
information, as well as the contact information for parent organizations. This information can
help understand whether Chinese international students can easily access those who provide
direct support to them. If a participant mentioned other people who provide direct help during the
interview, I would also check the relevant information on the school’s website. In the
46

mesosystem part, I reviewed the international student office and academic advisors’ job
responsibilities listed on the schools’ websites. I also reviewed schools’ recruitment requirements
and training for professors or instructors. Additionally, I reviewed the activities and services that
Chinese international student organizations provided, as well as the activities and services that
parent organizations offered to the parents of Chinese international students.
Data Collection
Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research
to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena (Patton, 1999). Triangulation also has
been viewed as a qualitative research strategy to test validity through the convergence of
information from different sources (Carter et al., 2014). In this study, I used interviews and
document review methods of data collection. By using both methods, I cross-checked and
validated the information obtained from each method to enhance the credibility and reliability of
the findings. This approach allowed for a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of my
research questions.
Interview Data Collection
A sample of 12 Chinese undergraduate international students who met all inclusion
criteria was selected and interviewed. Each interview lasted approximately 1 hour and was
conducted in Chinese Mandarin. The interviews were audio-recorded with the participants’
permission. If more information was needed after the interview, I contacted the participants by
email.
Participants were provided with a copy of the informed consent form before they
participated in the interview. They were required to sign the informed consent before they could
proceed with the interview. Before the interview started, participants were asked for their
47

permission to record the interview. If a participant refused to be recorded, the interview would be
terminated. Before the interview, participants were informed that they had the right to refuse to
answer any questions or to terminate the interview at any time. They were also informed that
they could review or edit the audio recordings and transcripts after the interview was conducted.
The interview began with an opportunity for participants to ask questions about the study. Next, I
asked participants about their age, gender, the names of their first and second schools, their
majors, and the length of time they had been studying in the United States and at each school.
These questions provided detailed background information about each participant. The
remainder of the interview consisted of 24 questions that explored the participants’ perspectives
on the transition challenges they experienced and the support they received. Participants were
also asked to describe how their transition challenges led to their termination of studies at their
first college. Before the interview ended, participants were given the opportunity to add anything
that was not mentioned.
After the interview, each participant had the option to choose $20 in Amazon gift cards or
cash as compensation for their time. Compensation was provided to the participant immediately
after the interview was completed. Participants were not required to answer all the questions to
receive the gift cards or cash. If there were additional questions that participants needed to
answer after the interview, they were sent to them via email, and they could choose whether to
answer them voluntarily. Participants were informed that not answering these questions would
not affect their compensation.
Document Review Data Collection
The document review focused on public domain information available on the websites of
the first and second U.S. colleges attended by the participants. Since two participants attended
48

the same school, a total of 23 school websites were reviewed. In the process of collecting
information, the main reliance was on the navigation bar of the school website and searching for
keywords to find the required information.
To help answer the first research question, the document review focused on transition
challenges in the students’ exo- and macrosystems, as well as the changes in the chronosystem.
Schools’ policies and regulations, guidelines or instructions, supporting programs, and activities
that helped international students to comply with U.S. laws and overcome transition challenges
were reviewed and coded from the schools’ websites. Since some students experienced F1 status
issues, the related immigration laws, policies, or regulations listed on the website of the USCIS
were also reviewed. In the chronosystem part, I reviewed the schools’ services and programs for
international freshmen and continuing students and compared the differences between them.
The document review for the second research question focused on the available support
from individuals in the students’ microsystems. At school, these individuals included professors
or instructors, staff of the international student office, academic advisors, student organizations,
and parent organizations. If appropriate, I reviewed the job responsibilities, contact information,
and open hours displayed on school websites for each individual to determine if they were
readily available to Chinese international students. As the support provided to Chinese
international students changes over time, I compared each school’s support for new and
continuing students, which reflects the chronosystem.
Data Analysis
The initial step in the data analysis process was listening to interview tapes and
transcribing interviews. I transcribed all of the interviews and then translated them from
Mandarin to English. To increase the accuracy of the translation, the transcripts and translation
49

were checked by a certified translator who can read, speak, and write both Chinese and English.
The translator was not part of the study team. I also read the collected documents, wrote notes
and memos about what I heard or read in my data, and developed tentative ideas about categories
and relationships.
Data from direct quotations from interview questions and documents were open-coded
into different categories in the codebook. ATLAS.ti, a qualitative analysis software, was utilized
to code the transcripts. This study employed two coding categories, namely theoretical categories
and substantive categories. According to Maxwell (2013), theoretical categories involve placing
the coded data into a general or abstract framework. These categories can either be derived from
prior or inductively developed theories. Theoretical categories usually represent the researcher’s
concepts and do not necessarily denote participants’ concepts. In contrast, substantive categories
are primarily descriptive and encompass the participants’ beliefs and concepts. They stay close to
the data categorized and do not inherently imply a more abstract theory. In this study, I first
placed the coded data into theoretical categories based on the ecological systems of Chinese
international students, such as the types of transition challenges they faced and sources of
support. Secondly, substantive categories were developed to capture participants’ ideas that did
not fit into the existing theoretical categories. After coding all the interviews and documents, I
examined and compared the selective codes within and between categories. As the analysis
developed, I cataloged the emerging codes and began to look for themes in the codes. Some
themes were eventually grouped under superordinate themes, and two overarching themes
potentially answered the research questions.
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Credibility
Lincoln and Guba (1985) indicated four qualitative paradigms of validity and reliability
standards—credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Credibility refers to the
extent to which the data and findings presented by the researcher are considered believable,
accurate, and plausible by the intended audience (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). To ensure credibility, I
used the data triangulation strategy to collect data from both interviews and document reviews. I
also employed member-checking to increase credibility. During this process, the interview
transcripts were sent to the participants to review before conducting any analysis so they could
correct any errors or provide any additional information. Furthermore, I solicited feedback for
my preliminary findings from the participants as to whether they felt that the findings were
accurate.
Transferability refers to the degree to which research findings can be generalized to other
contexts, but the receiving context determines their usefulness (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Thick
description is a strategy for improving trustworthiness by providing a detailed and
comprehensive account of the research process and outcomes, which creates a solid and
transparent database that allows others to make informed decisions about the relevance and
applicability of the research findings to their contexts (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In my
dissertation, I employed the thick description strategy by providing a detailed and comprehensive
account of the research process and outcomes, including the selection of participants from an
ECC in California, the use of semistructured, open-ended interviews and document review as
instrumentation, and the coding and analysis of data using ATLAS.ti software, which allowed
readers to evaluate the trustworthiness and rigor of the study.
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The definition of dependability is the consistency, trackability, and logic of the research
design and process (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Strategies to improve dependability include
involving multiple researchers, accurately recording and fully reporting data, conducting inter-
rater checks on coding, and ensuring a match between the research and design (Lincoln & Guba,
1985). In my study, I ensured dependability by conducting member-checking with participants to
validate the accuracy of their responses and conducting debriefing with my dissertation chair to
confirm the consistency of the coding process.
The definition of confirmability is that data, such as field notes, interviews, and
observations, can be traced back to their original sources (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Strategies to
improve confirmability include creating audit trails, which are records of the raw data, data
reduction memos, data reconstruction themes, process notes (i.e., conversations with oneself
about strategies), and instrument development (i.e., using the same format for interview
protocols; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In my study, I ensured confirmability by maintaining detailed
and organized records of the data collection and analysis process, including audio recordings and
transcripts of all interviews, notes on the coding process, and memos on the development of
themes and patterns. I also maintained a clear trail of evidence, allowing for the traceability of all
data back to the original sources.
Confidentiality
I used pseudonyms for all participants and anonymized their schools’ names. The
participants were required to sign an informed consent for research. In this document,
participants were informed that they had the right to refuse to answer any questions or to
terminate the interview at any time. Additionally, they were informed that they would have the
right to review or edit their data anytime within 60 days of the interview. All data were saved on
52

a password-protected computer and external servers, such as USC Qualtrics, USC Google drive,
and USC DocuSign. Security software was installed and regularly updated on all servers and
computers used in this study. The computer with access to study data was scanned regularly for
viruses, spyware, etc. Data transfer was encrypted. All data will be erased after 3 years, per
university policy. Notably, the findings of this dissertation may be published or discussed at
conferences, at which time, no identifiable information will be used. The data collected as part of
this research will not be used or distributed for future research studies, even if all participants’
identifiers are removed.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations
This qualitative research aimed to determine how transition challenges affect the
persistence of Chinese international students and how they perceive school support. However,
limitations impacted the generalizability of the findings to the larger population of Chinese
international undergraduate students in the United States. One limitation was the bias in
participant selection. Participants were recruited from a private education consulting company’s
clients or potential clients, which may introduce certain biases or tendencies in the sample, such
as a higher proportion of students with higher economic backgrounds. This means that the
participants in this study may not be representative of all Chinese international students, and
therefore, the findings may not be generalizable to the broader population.
In addition, self-report bias was another limitation that could impact the generalizability
of the study findings. Although the study utilized multiple data collection methods, including
interviews and document reviews of school websites, the focus was primarily on understanding
transition challenges and school support from the participants’ perspectives. The reliance on self-
53

reported information may introduce biases, such as participants omitting certain details or
overemphasizing particular experiences. Furthermore, the perspectives of school administrators
or professors who work with Chinese international students were not included, which could have
provided additional insights. Therefore, caution should be exercised when attempting to
generalize the study findings beyond the participants in this study.
Delimitations
Concerning the delimitations of this study, it is important to note that this qualitative
research focused solely on Chinese international students who were enrolled in U.S.
undergraduate programs with an F1 visa, which accounted for 40% of all Chinese international
students in the 2019/20 academic year (Institute of International Education, 2020). It should also
be noted that the exclusion of Chinese international students in graduate programs, nondegree
programs, and optional practical training as well as ethnic Chinese international students from
Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan could potentially affect the generalizability of the results, as the
language of instruction and educational methods may differ from those in Mainland China
(Chang, 2017; Fang, 2011; Yan, 2017). In addition, immigrant students from Mainland China
and other Chinese mainland students studying in the United States under different types of visas
were also not included due to the varying immigration policies and regulations (USCIS, 2021),
which could also impact the generalizability of the findings.
Furthermore, this study has selected the 2019/20 academic year as the research period. As
the COVID-19 pandemic quickly spread throughout the United States, new international
nonimmigrant students, including Chinese students, were impacted by the SEVP March 2020
guidance, which prohibited them from obtaining F1 or M1 visas if they planned to pursue a fully
online course of study, unless the program was a hybrid with in-person learning (U.S.
54

Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 2022). However, this policy had a minimal effect on
students enrolled during the 2019/20 academic year since the March 2020 guidance permitted a
fully online course of study from inside or outside the United States for students who were
already enrolled (U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, 2022). On the other hand, the
policy had a significant impact on Chinese students who enrolled in the United States during the
2020/21 academic year and beyond. This study does not consider the unique circumstances of
the pandemic. The exclusion of data from the pandemic period may limit the generalizability of
the findings to future situations where the pandemic or other unforeseen circumstances impact
international students’ experiences.
In the interview section, only Chinese international students were interviewed, not school
administrators or professors. The main reason for this was that the study aimed to understand the
impact of transition challenges on students’ persistence and the support provided by schools
from the students’ perspectives only. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic, which began in
March 2020, made it difficult to reach school employees to conduct interviews, as most U.S.
schools closed their campuses and staff began working from home. Furthermore, due to limited
resources in terms of personnel and time, the researcher was unable to conduct more interviews.
As a result, the study relied solely on interviews with students and document reviews of school
websites.
Chapter Summary
In summary, this chapter provided a detailed account of the research design and
methodology used in this study to investigate the impact of transition challenges on the
persistence of Chinese international undergraduate students in U.S. higher education institutions
and identify what support schools should provide to improve students’ persistence. I selected a
55

qualitative research approach, specifically phenomenology, to allow for a deep exploration of the
participants’ experiences and perceptions. I designed the data collection methods and data
analysis techniques to address the research questions and ensure the rigor and credibility of the
study. Finally, ethical considerations, limitations, and delimitations of this study were addressed
to ensure the validity and reliability of the research findings. Overall, this chapter provides a
foundation for subsequent chapters and contributes to the understanding of the research topic.
The next chapter will present the findings of the study.

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Chapter Four: Findings
This study investigated how transition challenges affect Chinese international
undergraduate students’ persistence in U.S. higher education institutions and sought to identify
what types of support schools should provide to improve students’ persistence. Bronfenbrenner’s
(1994) ecological systems theory was used as the theoretical framework to guide the study. The
following research questions were answered in this qualitative methods study using interviews
and documentation analysis through a phenomenological approach:
1. How do Chinese international undergraduate students perceive the impact of
transition challenges on their persistence in U.S. higher education?
2. How do Chinese international students experience institutional support through
persistence problems caused by transition challenges?
Participants
Chinese international students who studied in undergraduate programs at U.S. higher
education institutions under F1 visas and left their original schools before graduation due to
transition challenges during the 2019/20 academic year were selected to participate in this study.
A total of 12 participants (seven males and five females) between the ages of 22 and 26 years
were interviewed for the study. Among the participants, the lowest TOEFL score before entering
college was 45 and the highest was 103. Seven participants attended two colleges, three attended
three colleges, and two attended four colleges—all first colleges were 4-year universities. After
encountering transition challenges in the first school, seven participants transferred to
community colleges and five transferred to other 4-year universities. Table 2 summarizes the
demographic makeup of participants, including gender, age, years in U.S. colleges, number of
colleges attended, TOEFL scores, first-school information and GPA, and second-school
57

information and GPA. Pseudonyms were used to protect the privacy of participants and the
schools involved in the study. Eight demographic questions and 22 semistructured interview
questions comprised the student interview protocol (Appendix C).

Table 2
Participants Interviewed for the Study
Name Gender Age Years in
U.S.
colleges
# of
colleges
attended
TOEFL
scores
First school/
GPA
Second school/
GPA
Reason for
leaving first
college
Amy

F 23 5 Three 79 Public 4-year university
in Iowa/3.0
Community college in
Iowa/2.9
Change program
David

M 22 4 Two 71 Public 4-year university
in Colorado/2.7
Public 4-year
university in
Wyoming/2.6
Change major
Henry

M 25 6 Three 80 Public 4-year university
in Southern
California/2.6
Community college in
Southern California/3.5
Change major
Jack M 26 6 Four 80 Private 4-year university
in Colorado/0.94
Community college in
Southern California/1.8
Campus
integration
Jerry

M 23 4.5 Four 96 Public 4-year university
in Northern
California/1.67
Community college in
Northern
California/1.86
Academic
challenges
Lily

F 24 5 Three 98 Private 4-year university
in Massachusetts/3.8
Public 4-year
university in
Arizona/1.6
Mental health
problem
Louis

M 22 4 Two 55 Private 4-year university
in S. California/2.4
Community college in
S. California/3.0
Change major
Lucy

F 23 4 Two 103 Public 4-year university
in Illinois/1.63
Community college in
Illinois/3.7
Academic
challenges
Tom M 24 5 Two 89 Public 4-year university
in Ohio/2.8
Community college in
Ohio/3.45
Academic
challenges and
mental health
problems
58
59

Name Gender Age Years in
U.S.
colleges
# of
colleges
attended
TOEFL
scores
First school/
GPA
Second school/
GPA
Reason for
leaving first
college
William

M 23 4 Two 45 Public 4-year university
in Arizona/2.86
Private 4-year
university in
Massachusetts/3.5
Transfer to better
school
Yvonne F 23 4 Two 99 Women's private liberal
arts college in
Massachusetts/3.61
Private 4-year
university in
Massachusetts/3.61
Campus
integration
Zoe F 22 4 Two 96 Public 4-year university
in S. California/3.6
Private 4-year
university in S.
California/3.4
Transfer to better
school
59
60

Amy
Amy studied in Beijing from elementary to high school, but her household registration is
in Heilongjiang Province, which meant she could not take the college entrance exam in Beijing
and had to go back to Heilongjiang to take it. However, the exam questions in Heilongjiang were
different from those in Beijing, and without attending high school there, it was difficult to get
good grades on the exam. After junior high, students take the high school entrance exam to
determine which high school they can attend. Although Amy was willing to return to
Heilongjiang and retake Grade 12, she would not be able to attend any top high schools there,
only some ordinary schools in small cities would accept her. She believed that these schools
would not provide enough teaching for her to be accepted into a top Chinese university. So, she
decided to study abroad. Amy’s family hired an education agency to help her apply to U.S.
universities and she was accepted to three of them. Not knowing which to choose, the agent
recommended a public 4-year university in Iowa, and she ended up attending that school. After
1.5 years in the Intensive English Program, she transferred to a community college in Iowa for 1
year and then to a private 4-year university in Southern California, where she has studied for 2
years.
David
David’s household registration is in Shandong Province in China and he lived with his
parents in Beijing where they worked. However, without a Beijing household registration, David
was not eligible to take the college entrance exam in Beijing. The college entrance examination
questions in Shandong Province are much harder than those in Beijing. Going back to Shandong
to take the exam after completing high school in Beijing is too difficult. So, David‘s parents
allowed him to attend an international high school and later study abroad to avoid taking the
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Chinese college entrance exam. David had never been to the United States before and had seen
reports of shootings on the news, leading him to believe the east and west coasts were dangerous
but the central states were relatively safe. He chose to study at a public 4-year university in
Colorado. Initially, David planned to major in petroleum engineering, but his grades were not
high enough. His study-abroad agent suggested he start with chemical engineering and later
switch to petroleum engineering, which he thought was feasible. After 2 years in Colorado,
David transferred to a public 4-year university in Wyoming to study petroleum engineering, but
he found that many courses had to be repeated due to changing majors, which he estimated
would take him a total of 6 years to complete his undergraduate degree.
Henry
Henry is from Jiangxi Province, China and has spent nearly a decade studying in the
United States. His parents sought to provide him with a better educational environment and, with
relatives in the U.S., sent him to study there. Henry first attended a private high school in
Southern California for 3 years, completing Grades 10 through 12. He was then admitted to a
public 4-year university in Southern California, where he majored in computer engineering for
1.5 years before transferring to a community college to study art. After 2 years, he transferred
again to another public 4-year university in Southern California to further his art studies and was
expected to earn his bachelor’s degree in art in May 2022.
Jack
After graduating from a public high school in Beijing, Jack came to the United States to
pursue an undergraduate degree instead of taking the Gaokao exam in China. He initially
enrolled at a private university in Colorado, which he selected for its positive reputation and
name recognition. However, he later attended three other undergraduate colleges in the United
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States. Jack’s academic journey began with two quarters in the English as a Second Language
(ESL) program at the first private university in Colorado. He then transferred to a community
college in Southern California to study in both the ESL and computer science programs. After
spending 2.5 years at the community college, he transferred to his third school and eventually to
his fourth institution. Throughout his academic journey, Jack explored different majors at each
school. At the time of this writing, he was in the final semester of his college studies at his fourth
institution and expected to graduate in May 2022.
Jerry
Jerry graduated from an international class in a public high school in Shenyang, China.
Before graduation, the high school assisted students in the international class with applying to
foreign universities. Jerry’s parents were supportive of him attending school in the United States,
believing that it would offer him more opportunities and a relatively fair society. Jerry was eager
to gain new experiences while he was young, and he selected California as his destination for
studying abroad because he believed that the state was more democratic and offered greater
freedom compared to other states. After comparing university rankings in California, Jerry
selected a public 4-year university in Northern California for its superior reputation in the major
he wished to pursue. However, despite studying at three different schools in Northern California
for 1 academic year each, Jerry was repeatedly dismissed due to low cumulative GPAs (1.67,
1.86, and 0). He is currently in his second semester at a fourth school, which is another
community college in Northern California. During his first semester at the fourth school, Jerry
achieved a GPA of 2.25. At the time of the interview, Jerry was in the process of applying to
transfer back to a 4-year university.
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Lily
Lily, who hails from Shaanxi province, China, graduated from an international class at a
public high school in Xi’an city. In Grade 8, she endured bullying from both her head teacher
and classmates and her poor mental health significantly impacted her academic performance.
Due to her high school entrance examination scores being inadequate, she was unable to enroll in
ordinary high school classes and could only attend international classes with lower admission
scores. These international classes were designed to prepare students for foreign university
applications and did not provide guidance for China’s college entrance examination. Therefore,
Lily had to pursue her college studies abroad. During her high school summer, Lily traveled to
the United States and attended a summer camp at a private 4-year university in Massachusetts,
where she had the opportunity to familiarize herself with the university and its admissions officer.
Additionally, Lily’s cousin resides in Massachusetts, which further solidified her decision to
apply and enroll at that private university. After completing 2 years at the Massachusetts
university, Lily transferred to a public 4-year university in Arizona and switched majors.
Unfortunately, Lily was expelled from the second university due to her low GPA after 1 year of
attendance. Several months later, she began attending a community college in Arizona, where
she was still studying at the time of the interview.
Louis
Louis attended school in Beijing from elementary school to high school, but due to his
household registration in Liaoning Province, he was unable to take the college entrance
examination in Beijing. Consequently, his family decided early on to send him to study abroad.
However, Louis revealed that he was deceived by a study-abroad agency and chose his first
university based on their recommendation of a major that was similar to the one he wanted. After
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arriving in the United States, he discovered that the two majors were different. As a result, he
transferred to a community college in Southern California after one semester and has been
studying there for 2.5 years.
Lucy
Lucy was born in Anhui Province, China and graduated from a public high school in
Hefei city. She opted to pursue higher education in the United States to avoid taking the Chinese
college entrance examination. She chose to enroll in a public 4-year university in Illinois, which
she considered the highest-ranked and the most prestigious among the schools that accepted her.
Of the 12 participants, Lucy had the highest TOEFL score: 103 out of 120. However, her
academic performance at the first university was unsatisfactory, as she obtained a GPA of only
1.63 after 1.5 years of study. Subsequently, she transferred to a community college in Illinois and
continued her studies there for another 1.5 years. After improving her GPA, she transferred back
to the public 4-year university in Illinois, where she expects to graduate next year.
Tom
Tom graduated from a public high school in Zhengzhou, China. Based on his grades at
the time, he was unable to gain admission to the university that his parents had hoped he would
attend in China. Tom’s family had a relatively good economic situation, and his parents decided
to send him abroad to study, although it was not Tom’s preference. Tom’s parents sought the
help of a study-abroad agency to assist him in applying to several universities in the United
States. Eventually, Tom decided to enroll in a public 4-year university in Ohio, as it had the
highest overall U.S. News ranking among all the schools to which he was admitted. However,
Tom had no knowledge of the U.S. school system and chose to attend the school based solely on
its ranking without considering other factors. After 2 years at the public 4-year university, Tom
65

transferred to a community college in Ohio, where he spent a year before taking a year off. At
the time of the interview, Tom was back at the same community college to continue his studies.
William
William was born and raised in Henan Province, China and graduated from a public high
school in the city of Zhengzhou. Knowing that his high school grades would not allow him to get
into a good university in China, William’s parents supported his studying abroad. They chose the
United States because of the country’s highly ranked schools and excellent learning environment.
William hired an education agency in China to help him prepare for the TOEFL test and apply to
six U.S. universities. He was accepted to three of them and decided to attend a public 4-year
university in Arizona because of its highly regarded business programs and warmer climate
compared to the two eastern universities. Due to poor English proficiency and a TOEFL score of
only 45, William completed the university’s Intensive English Program for 1 year before taking
undergraduate courses. He studied in the university’s undergraduate program for 2.5 years and
achieved a GPA of 2.86. He then transferred to a private 4-year university in Massachusetts to
continue his undergraduate studies, where he was studying at the time of the interview.
Yvonne
Yvonne graduated from a private international high school in Chongqing, China. She
came to the United States to participate in a summer camp at a U.S. university when she was in
junior high school. During the camp, she took some relatively simple courses that introduced her
to U.S. culture. Knowing that science was her weakness, she realized that her poor exam results
in science would prevent her from getting into top universities in China if she took the Chinese
college entrance exam. Attending a U.S. university would be a way to avoid taking that exam.
Before coming to the United States, she applied to both liberal arts colleges and comprehensive
66

universities. Eventually, she decided to attend a women’s private liberal arts college in
Massachusetts because the school had the highest ranking among the schools that accepted her,
and she also liked the elite education style of the school. However, after 2 years at the women’s
college, she transferred to a private comprehensive university in Massachusetts in the fall of
2019, where she earned a bachelor’s degree in May 2021. She was pursuing a master’s degree at
the same university at the time of the interview.
Zoe
Zoe graduated from a public high school in Zhengzhou, China, which employed similar
teaching methods to those used in European and American countries. In the classroom, there
were more discussions and interactions between students and teachers, with a focus on
cultivating students‘ autonomous learning abilities. Zoe appreciated this teaching style and
believed that studying abroad would be a better fit for her than studying in China. She ultimately
chose to attend a public 4-year university in Southern California over an eastern university
because of the warmer climate. After spending 2 years at the public university, she transferred to
a private 4-year university in Southern California, where she earned a bachelor’s degree.
Summary for Participants
The biographical portraits of these participants show how their backgrounds and
experiences shaped their goals in pursuing their bachelor’s degrees in the United States. While
some sought better education opportunities overseas, others were compelled to study abroad due
to China’s household registration and college entrance examination systems. Each participant
shared a compelling narrative about their college selection process, with varying levels of
English proficiency, educational backgrounds, and life experiences. These diverse backgrounds
resulted in different college choices and unique challenges faced in the United States. The
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following section details the challenges they encountered at U.S. colleges and how these
challenges affected their persistence as well as the students’ descriptions and evaluations of the
support they received from the colleges.
Interview Findings for Research Question 1
In response to the first research question, which aimed to explore how Chinese
international undergraduate students perceived the impact of transition challenges on their
persistence in U.S. higher education, eight key themes emerged. These themes highlight the
distinct transition difficulties faced by Chinese students during their undergraduate studies and
how they viewed the impact of these challenges on their persistence in U.S. colleges. Overall, the
challenges that international students face during their transition include adapting to differences
in education methods, language barriers, culture shock, negative impact from the deterioration of
China–U.S. relations, U.S. academic requirements, U.S. foreign policies, immigration law and
visa regulations, U.S. local laws and regulations, and campus integration.
Differences in Education Methods
The education system in the United States and China differs in their approach to learning,
class enrollment, and integration of technology. Chinese education prioritizes imparting
knowledge and has a passive learning approach, while American education prioritizes active
learning and self-reliance. In the United States, students have more autonomy in choosing their
courses but have to compete for limited course space, which is difficult for international students.
U.S. education also heavily relies on technology and online learning, which can be challenging
for students from China to adapt to.
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From Passive Learning to Active Learning
Ten of the 12 participants acknowledged the significant differences in educational
methods between the U.S. and China, with a consensus that the U.S. educational institutions
prioritize active learning, in contrast to the passive learning approach in Chinese schools.
Yvonne stated, “Chinese schools focus on imparting knowledge, while U.S. schools focus on
fostering independent thinking.” Louis added that U.S. education is more liberal and self-reliant,
with less supervision from teachers. David mentioned that the management method of China’s
head teachers differs from that of U.S. advisors and that in the United States, only an advisor
talks to students twice a semester, and there is less supervision from teachers. Lucy mentioned
difficulty adapting to the shift from passive to active learning in the United States because of her
passive character. Overall, the participants felt that U.S. education emphasizes active learning
and self-reliance, while Chinese education is more focused on imparting knowledge.
Class Enrollment
The participants acknowledged the freedom of choosing courses in the United States but
also highlighted the difficulty of enrolling in classes, particularly for international students. Amy
and Jack both said that class enrollment was the biggest difference between Chinese and U.S.
education. According to Amy, “the compulsory courses in each semester are arranged by the
school, and only a few elective courses are chosen by the student” in China, while in the United
States, students have more autonomy to decide which courses and how many units to take each
semester. However, this freedom comes with the disadvantage of having to compete for limited
course space. Jack stated that it was much more difficult to enroll in a class in the United States,
as he had to “compete for a spot” due to the limited space available. Henry liked the flexibility of
course selection in the United States but acknowledged the difficulties international students face
69

when trying to enroll in classes as most classes were already full when international students
arrived. Furthermore, David also pointed out that another challenge in course selection is that
some courses are only offered in certain semesters, which can lead to a delay in graduation if a
student does not take or pass a prerequisite course in a certain semester. However, due to
immigration policy, he would not be allowed to stay in the United States without maintaining
full-time study.
Computer Use and Online Learning
Participants reported difficulty in adapting to the use of technology and academic writing
norms in U.S. schools. They found it challenging to complete homework on computers,
communicate with teachers and peers through email, and use U.S. academic writing formats, as
these practices were not common in China. Jerry reported difficulty adapting to the use of
technology in U.S. schools, specifically the use of the Canvas learning management system and
email communication with professors. He stated that he was overwhelmed by the number of
emails he received and sometimes missed important messages. Jerry also described feeling
unsure of how to navigate the school system, including where to turn in homework and where to
go to class. William and Henry reported difficulty adapting to specific requirements for
homework format in U.S. schools. William stated that he completed homework on paper in
China and was not required to follow a particular format, but he found it difficult to conform to
certain fonts and style formats in the United States. He also reported struggles with inserting
math symbols, describing it as “very troublesome.” Henry reported spending several semesters
figuring out MLA and APA formats and other academic writing norms.
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Language Barriers
Among the 12 students who participated in the survey, nine said they had encountered
language barriers, which affected both their learning and life. In the classroom, language barriers
caused the participants’ inability to understand the lesson and low participation in class
communication. Participants’ English ability also affected their test performance, especially in
liberal arts courses. In daily life, language barriers make it difficult for participants to
communicate with others. Even though many schools provide intensive English classes for
international students, the participants pointed out that these courses were not very helpful.
Language Barriers in the Classroom
In the classroom, participants reflected on their inability to understand and express their
opinions in English, which caused their low participation in class communication. In particular,
David’s experience with language barriers when he first came to the United States is
representative of the feelings of most of the participants. According to David, he never spoke
English before coming to the United States. This meant that he often did not understand the
lesson. This issue was compounded by his embarrassment and the challenge of finding the right
time to ask questions since he did not want to interrupt the teacher. Overall, he said he “was
afraid of wasting other people’s time.” He also explained how the language barrier made it more
difficult to keep up with the readings. “The teacher would leave dozens of pages to read. When
reading the first four or five pages, I could look up words that I didn’t understand, but I couldn’t
keep reading after that.” Taking longer to understand English also posed problems for
international students during group discussions. As David described, “the American classmates
would have finished speaking while I was still organizing the language. The other team members
didn’t quite understand what I was saying, and then the time was up.” Amy, Henry, Lucy,
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William, and Zoe indicated that the language barrier would increase when the communication
partner speaks fast or has an accent. They complained that some teachers had heavy accents and
they could not understand them at all.
Language barriers also affect the test performance of the participants. Some participants
stated that unrecognized words slowed their reading speed and resulted in lower test scores. For
example, Jerry said that even though he understands the content of the exams, such as in
chemistry class, he did not understand some questions due to the language barrier, and that
negatively affected his test performance. Tom, Jack, Zoe, and Henry stated that they experienced
more language barriers in liberal arts courses than in math courses. Unlike math symbols that
would help them to understand math test questions, in liberal arts courses, unfamiliar English
words would cause them to fail to understand test questions. Henry stated he wrote an essay on a
completely unrelated topic because there was an unknown word in the question. This resulted in
him getting a zero, and the teacher advised him to retake the ESL courses. Henry said this
incident hit him particularly hard at the time.
Language Barriers in Daily Life
Although the students stated they also encounter situations where others speak too fast
and they cannot understand in their daily lives, they said the language barriers have less of an
impact. They explained that knowing some keywords or using body language can still meet the
basic communication needs in life. David said, “In daily life, it’s ok as long as you roughly say
the keywords, even if the grammar is wrong and you can’t make a sentence, it shouldn’t matter.”
William agreed and stated, “For example, when I go shopping, I won’t say which one I want, I
just point it with my hands, this, this, this. Just say so.”
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Intensive English Classes May Not Help
Many schools provide intensive English classes for international students whose TOEFL
does not meet the undergraduate admission standards to help students improve their English.
However, these English courses may not help international students integrate into undergraduate
studies in the United States because they are taught in isolation and do not have the opportunity
to practice English with other students whose first language is English. As Amy pointed out, “90%
of our language programs are Chinese students, and the remaining 10% are generally students
from the Middle East or Southeast Asia. … I didn’t have American friends during the language
learning period.” On the other hand, these English classes only focused on improving students’
academic English and did not help international students integrate into life in the United States.
Amy said her “intensive English classes are similar to the TOEFL test training.” Louis was
required to take some ESL classes in his first and second schools. He said the ESL classes
focused on learning new English words and grammar. Jerry and William’s schools required them
to take some English writing classes to improve their academic writing skills. Although their
English test scores improved after taking those English classes, they still felt out of place in the
classroom when they enter undergraduate programs. They said they “did not dare to ask the
teacher questions,” “did not know how to chat with American classmates,” and “didn’t
understand the teacher’s jokes and slang words in class.” These made them feel “embarrassed”
and “isolated.”
Culture Shock
Compared with the participants who studied in private international high schools or had
traveled to the United States, the participants who studied in regular Chinese high schools and
had never been abroad are more likely to experience culture shock. Before studying abroad, they
73

mainly relied on the Internet and movies and TV series to learn about the United States. After
arriving in the United States, they found that the cultural shock was mainly reflected in the issues
of diet, living habits, religious beliefs, and racism.
Religion
The participants in the study shared their experiences of culture shock regarding the
differences in religion and attitudes toward marginalized groups between China and the United
States. Lucy indicated, “the thing that is different from Chinese culture is, well, it must be
religion.” As Jerry described, “the education of Chinese children from childhood to adulthood is
atheism and communism. After coming to the United States, many Americans are Christians, and
many Koreans also believe in Christianity. There may be some conflicting views on religious
beliefs.” Jerry also highlighted that, in China, there is a negative perception toward individuals
who identify as homosexual or transgender, whereas, in the United States, there is a greater level
of acceptance and visibility of these individuals. He also noted that this was something that he
was not accustomed to seeing when he first arrived in the United States. Jerry said, “In China, we
must think that they are not good. … When I first came to the United States, I was not used to
seeing this situation, such as a man wearing women’s clothes and stockings.”
Racism
The participants shared their experiences of encountering racism and discrimination in
the United States as part of their culture shock experience, which they did not encounter in China.
Jerry mentioned that he has encountered Americans who held racist attitudes toward Asians and
Chinese. He described some of the experiences he had when coming to the United States,
including being asked strange and sensitive questions by Americans, such as if the government
in China installed chips in people to track their actions or if all Muslims were imprisoned in
74

China, as well as experiencing racism. Jerry said he “felt really uncomfortable after listening to
it.” But he felt there was nothing he could do and he “had to adapt to it.” A Chinese student
friend of William also encountered racism in Arizona. William shared, “When he was walking
on the street, a Black man scolded him and discriminated against him as Asian. Then they yelled
at each other.”
U.S. Diet and Clothing
Henry indicated that the U.S. diet was “the biggest shock” for him. “It was really
unacceptable in terms of diet at the time. Chicken and chips are served in the school cafeteria for
lunch every day. I see American students eating potato chips for lunch. I was too.” David said,
“America is a little more conservative and not as open as the American dramas I watch. Maybe
because I’m in the Midwest, which is more conservative here.” He described he “was a little
surprised for American students’ dress, because American students were always barefoot and
wearing shorts, no matter whether it was winter or summer.”
Isolation From U.S. Society and Culture
Tom described a situation that was different from the other participants. Although he
lives in the United States, he only interacts with Chinese people and does not integrate into U.S.
society. After he moved out of the dormitory at the end of his first year, he said he “didn’t have
any American friends to chat with.” He explained he “had some understanding of American
society and culture” but his “usual communication and thinking are all Chinese” and he “lived a
Chinese life in essence … didn’t need to adapt American culture.” Overall, the experiences of
these participants studying in the United States highlight the significant cultural differences
between China and the United States, which can lead to culture shock and difficulties in
integrating into American society. However, the transition challenges affecting their academic
75

and personal lives are not limited to just culture shock. The relationship between the two
countries can also play a role in shaping their experiences.
Impact of the Deterioration of China–U.S. Relations
Among the 12 participants in the study, 10 students were pessimistic about the future of
Sino−U.S. relations. However, the students generally felt that the relationship was separate from
their study plans in the United States. Eleven students said the change in Sino−U.S. relations
would not affect their study-abroad plans. However, more than half of the students believed that
the worsening of the relations would make studying abroad more difficult. Returning to China
after graduation was still the first choice for most students.
Influence on Chinese Students’ Study Plans
Although the students said any change in Sino−U.S. relations will not affect their study-
abroad plans, students worry that the worsening relations may make it more difficult for them to
study in the United States. Their first worry is the rising cost of studying abroad. For example,
William stated he was worried that changes in Sino–U.S. relations will lead to “the rise in the
exchange rate of the U.S. dollar, and tuition fees will be more expensive.” Jerry also said that
“the exchange rate between the U.S. dollar and the renminbi is closely related to our family.” If
the relationship deteriorates and the U.S. dollar exchange rate increases, he said his family will
have to “spend more money.”
Influence on U.S. Visa Policies
Jack, Jerry, and Zoe expressed concern that deteriorating Sino–U.S. relations could
impact visa policies. Jack said the relations made it “hard to get a visa in the beginning, and then
the more realistic and direct problem of not being able to stay after graduation.” Jerry was
worried that changes in U.S. policy for international students would prevent him from
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completing his studies. He cited President Trump’s position, “If your visa has expired, you have
to go back to your country. You can’t stay in the United States to study when your international
student visa has expired.” If he had to return to his home country before graduation, it would be
difficult for him to return to the United States, as he had transferred schools multiple times and
his GPA was low. However, if the policy remains unchanged, he can complete his studies even if
his student visa expires and return to China afterward. Zoe is worried that future U.S. policies
and the deterioration of Sino–U.S. relations will prevent her parents from visiting her and she
will not be able to return to the United States if she chooses to leave to visit her parents in China.
She fears she would not be able to see her family for a long time.
Influence on Chinese Students’ Work Plans
The students expressed their helplessness about the relationship and policy changes
between China and the United States. For example, Jerry said, “We are all small people and
ordinary people, and we have no way to influence these decisions. Whatever decision is made,
we can only adapt; there is no way we can change it.” All the students who participated in the
study said that they had no plans to immigrate to the United States, and some students hoped to
work here for a period after graduation because U.S. working experience will make them more
competitive in the job market in China. However, if Sino–U.S. relations continue to deteriorate,
David said, “the worst outcome is not looking for a job in the United States after graduation and
returning to China directly.” Amy said that she hopes that she can apply for H1B, a work permit,
to work in the United States after graduation to gain some work experience, and then return to
China; however, she said she felt “it's very difficult to get H1B.” Jack is also worried that the
deterioration of Sino–U.S. relations mean “Americans also have a very negative view of China,”
and “people in China have a very bad impression of the United States, and they are not so
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friendly to those who study in the United States.” This concern is not groundless, as he said he
already saw “negative news online or on the forum, as well as the unfriendly behavior of
Americans toward Asians once or twice on the street.” Jack believes that the unfriendly behavior
toward Chinese students, due to the deterioration of Sino–U.S. relations, makes it more difficult
for Chinese students to find jobs in the United States.
U.S. Foreign Policies, Immigration Law, and Visa Regulations
International students must abide by U.S. foreign policies, immigration laws, and visa
regulations. Noncompliance can result in the termination of their legal student status, leading to
expulsion from their school and even deportation. The process of applying for reinstatement is
complex and time-consuming, and schools’ assistance is limited, making it difficult for
participants to continue their studies in the United States.
Violations of U.S. Foreign Policies, Immigration Law, and Visa Regulations
Among the 12 participants in the study, five had experienced losing their F1 status due to
violation of U.S. foreign policies, immigration law, or visa regulations. This caused them to face
the risk of being expelled from school and even being deported back to China by immigration
authorities. Yvonne and Henry were terminated due to problems in the SEVIS transfer process.
Yvonne described her experience of losing her student status because she was “not able to leave
the United States in time due to the COVID-19 pandemic”; her student status was “automatically
terminated 60 days after graduation.” Henry also encountered problems when transferring
between schools because he did not know he had to request his SEVIS records be transferred;
consequently, his F1 status was terminated. In contrast, William, Lily, and Lucy lost their student
status because they failed to meet academic requirements. William shared that he was “missing
an in-person class” from his schedule. After a warning, he still did not fulfill the requirement.
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Then his SEVIS was terminated and his school required him to leave the United States. Lily and
Lucy lost their student status because their “GPAs were below the required 2.0” and their
“student status was terminated” after they were expelled. Amy and Jerry admitted to “working
illegally,” and four others acknowledged awareness of other Chinese students doing so. They
pointed out that “working illegally makes it difficult to protect their rights and increases the risk
of deportation.” Jerry emphasized “the lack of protection for illegal workers” and Louis
highlighted the severe consequences of being caught. Jack shared a personal story of a friend
who was deported for illegal work. Yvonne, Jerry, David, and Amy also mentioned “the
importance of informing the school of the travel itinerary” and “following proper procedures for
checking in with the school’s international student office” to avoid any issues with their legal
status.
Lack of Support From Schools for Complicated Reinstatement Procedures
International students, who lose their legal status, may face difficulties in finding a school
willing to support their application for reinstatement. William and Lily shared that after their
student status was terminated, their school did not provide them with any support until they
found an agent. They had to “find a new school” and “pay extra money to study-abroad agencies,”
which increases their cost of studying in the United States. Even if a school is willing to support
them in their application for reinstatement, they must still submit their application to the USCIS
for judgment. “The process of submitting the documents and information required by USCIS can
be difficult and time-consuming,” as described by Lily. All five participants who encountered F1
status issues, spent money to hire an immigration advisor to help with their reinstatement.
Additionally, the USCIS takes a long time to approve reinstatement. Lucy, another participant,
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shared that her reinstatement application was “approved after almost a year and a half,” and if it
were rejected, she would not have been allowed to continue studying in the United States.
U.S. Local Laws and Regulations
The lack of knowledge of American laws and the tendency to violate them is a significant
challenge for Chinese students studying in the United States. This can lead to serious
consequences, such as expulsion from school, being arrested, or even deportation back to China.
Among the 12 participants in the study, driving violations, fighting, and illegal drug use were
frequently mentioned as being violated by participants or other Chinese students they knew.
One of the most commonly mentioned violations was driving violations. Seven
participants discussed their experiences or those of other Chinese students around them with
driving under the influence, speeding, or driving without a license. William shared, “My friend
and I both drink and drive. … I broke up with my girlfriend at that time, and I was in a bad mood
after the breakup; I then went to drink and got caught for DUI.” Lily and Amy also said they
thought Chinese students party too much and either drink and drive or take drugs and drive.
Louis also commented, “there are some Chinese students racing, speeding, and driving
dangerously. ... My friends drag race, but they were lucky not to have a car accident with good
driving skills. Then they were pulled over.” Zoe said, “I have a classmate who was caught by the
police for speeding.” Tom, an Ohio student, added, “Basically, every boy is speeding and gets a
ticket.”
According to several participants, fighting is a common violation among Chinese
students in the United States. Henry, Jerry, Jack, Louis, and Amy all shared their experiences or
knowledge of physical altercations involving Chinese students. They all pointed out that there is
a significant difference in how fighting is treated in China compared to the United States, with
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China usually managing it through school and parents without involving the police, while the
United States treats it as a serious issue with possible arrest, prosecution, or deportation. Jerry
mentioned that a classmate was suspended and given a restraining order after a fight. Louis
mentioned that two students he saw fighting on campus were deported. Amy shared an
experience of seeing a Chinese student couple fighting and the woman being accused of
domestic violence. Lily, a victim of domestic violence, shared her experience of being physically
abused by her Chinese student boyfriend while studying in the United States. She recalled, “My
boyfriend hit me, choked me, and pinned me down on the couch.” After Lily reported the abuse
to the police, her boyfriend chose to flee to China to avoid punishment under U.S. law. This
experience had a profound impact on Lily’s mental health, leaving her “feeling constantly on
edge and unable to sleep at night,” fearing her boyfriend would come back to hurt her. Lily said
this significantly affected her academic performance.
According to Jerry, Lily, and Amy, illegal drug use is a commonly reported violation
among Chinese students. This behavior not only poses a risk to their physical health but also
negatively impacts their academic performance, even leading to their dropping out of school.
They pointed out that Chinese international students typically use marijuana, laughing gas, and
ecstasy. Jerry and Lily also stated that they were surrounded by Chinese students who smoke
marijuana, even though it is still illegal in some U.S. states. Amy explained that many Chinese
students inhale laughing gas and recounted the story of one girl who ended up paralyzed after
inhaling too much and dropped out of school. Ecstasy is also used by Chinese students at discos
and music festivals, with Lily describing how it is openly sold through WeChat, a popular
messaging app among Chinese students, along with tickets to upcoming festivals. She stated that
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it is easier to obtain drugs in the United States than in China and that the prevalence of drug use
scares her.
The participants also shared other experiences of Chinese students breaking laws, such as
buying guns illegally, underage drinking, and not following proper procedures for renting a
house, which can lead to negative consequences including deportation, being kicked out of
housing, and disciplinary action from the school. These actions can potentially impact their
academic progress and experience in the United States.
U.S. Academic Requirements
Participants face challenges in maintaining a sufficient GPA, adhering to academic
integrity standards, and meeting attendance and full-time study requirements. Many participants
cited language barriers and difficulty adapting to U.S. teaching methods as reasons for a low
GPA. Participants also shared struggles with academic integrity, including issues with citation
requirements and plagiarism. Attendance challenges, including issues with transportation and
low self-control, were also discussed. Participants must also meet full-time study requirements,
with risks of expulsion or cancelation of their F1 status for noncompliance.
Low GPA
Different schools and majors have varying GPA requirements. Most participants need to
maintain at least a 2.0 GPA, David and Louis need a 2.5 GPA, and Zoe and William need a 3.0
GPA. Five participants (Jerry, David, William, Lily and Lucy) previously had GPAs lower than
their school's requirements. The reasons for a low GPA varied among the participants, Jerry
mentioned that language barriers and difficulty in adapting to U.S. teaching methods were the
reasons for his low GPA. He said he “did not know how to start the undergraduate studies in the
United States,” “did not know how to do homework,” “could not finish the required readings,”
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and “did not know how to communicate with the teacher.” David stated that his major was too
difficult for him, even though he spent 80−120 hours per week studying. William attributed his
low GPA to “studying alone without parental guidance” and “lack of self-control.” He said he
“drank and hung out with friends all day long.” Lily explained that her lower GPA at her second
school was due to the more demanding curriculum and difficulty in adapting to the frequent and
varied assignments. Lucy attributed her low GPA to “negative emotions” caused by language
barriers, self-abasement, and difficulty communicating with others. Regardless of the reasons for
their low GPAs, the participants faced the same penalties: they received a warning from the
school in the first semester and risked expulsion if their GPAs remained low in the second
semester.
Academic Integrity
The participants face challenges in adapting to the stricter academic integrity standards in
the United States. Many of the students who participated in the interviews shared their
experiences or those of their peers regarding academic integrity problems. Jack, David, Lily,
Jerry, Amy, and Lucy all shared their struggles with adhering to the requirements. David shared
that his professor gave him “zero marks for that assignment” for violating citation requirements
and did not report it to the school. Jerry pointed out that “many Chinese students I know had
problems with academic integrity,” such as plagiarism or hiring someone to write papers on their
behalf, Amy stated that her school “had a big scandal a few years ago” of collective cheating by
Chinese students that resulted in expulsion, and Lucy said that a relative of hers also studying in
the United States was reported by classmates for cheating and dropped out or was expelled as a
result.
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Attendance
Four participants (Jack, Amy, Louis, and Lucy) said they had difficulties with school
attendance. Jack said his absence was because of the weather and road problems, which were
beyond his control. Amy stated that she was often late in the morning because she “lived too far
from school.” She had to live off campus because it would save her a lot of money. Louis
explained that his low attendance was due to his “lack of self-control and not wanting to attend
classes” when he first arrived in the United States. Lucy said that she felt inferior and did not
dare to communicate with others; as a result, she was often absent from class.
Low attendance can have several consequences for students. According to Amy, being
late is counted as an absence. Yvonne pointed out that “the attendance requirements for each
class can vary, and some instructors deduct absences from final grades.” Henry explained that
“teachers have the right to drop a student from a class if they miss three or five classes.” It is
important to note that low attendance can negatively affect a student’s academic performance
and progress.
Full-Time Study Requirements
International students’ attendance can result in severe consequences. According to David,
Tom, Henry, and William, “international students must take more than 12 credits per semester,”
otherwise, they may face “expulsion” or “the cancelation of their F1 status.” Louis was expelled
from his first school due to his credits being reduced to less than 12 after being dropped from a
course. Tom mentioned that he “could not drop a course because of the full-time study
requirements” even though he was “very uncomfortable with that teacher’s teaching method.”
William added that the school also stipulates how many in-person classes need to be taken. U.S.
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students do not face these challenges, as Lucy pointed out that U.S. students can take online
classes, and David indicated that U.S. students can take only a few credits.
Campus Integration
Participants noted campus cultural differences between the United States and China. For
example, William pointed out that compared with the “difficult and depressing” culture in China,
the campus culture in the United States is “more open and relaxed.” The interview data revealed
that the participants faced challenges in integrating into the campus culture and climate in the
United States. These challenges include difficulties in understanding the political views and
experiencing racism and sexual harassment on campus.
Yvonne, a participant who studied at a women’s college in Massachusetts, reported that
the school’s emphasis on “political correctness and women’s rights” led her to transfer to a
different institution after 2 years. She stated that she constantly worried about saying something
wrong and offending others and attributed this to not having a comprehensive understanding of
the school before attending. Yvonne believes that other Chinese international students may have
similar feelings and that U.S. students seemed to fit in better at the school.
Racism is another challenge faced by Chinese international students on U.S. campuses, as
reported by Louis and Amy. Louis described a friend who faced discrimination, ultimately
leading to dropping out of school and returning to China. While Amy recounted being shouted at
by classmates with the phrase “Go back to Chinatown!” which made her feel uncomfortable.
Amy shared two incidents of sexual harassment on her first U.S. university campus, including an
incident involving a Chinese girl who was raped by an American friend and another involving a
female professor manipulating student grades in exchange for sexual favors. These incidents
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were known among the students in the Intensive English Program at the time, but no one,
including the victim, reported it to the school because they did not want to get in trouble.
Three participants (Jack, Yvonne, and Zoe) indicated that they transferred or felt
uncomfortable in the city environment where their schools were located. Jack transferred from a
private 4-year university in Colorado to a community college in Southern California because he
felt “like [he] was in jail in this city” and experienced “a very large psychological isolation.”
Yvonne transferred due to the location of her school being “inconvenient” and “in the middle of
nowhere.” Zoe did not transfer but reported feeling unsafe in her second school environment due
to the presence of many homeless people.
Transitions and Changes Over Time
The transition and changes of the 12 participants over time from China to studying in the
United States varied, with some adapting faster than others. Among the participants, Lily
appeared to adapt to studying and living in the United States the fastest. She said it took her “2
months to adjust to life in the United States, and 3 months to adjust to the academic challenges.”
She attributed her quick adaptation to the fact that she “had attended an international high school
in China and had already had an opportunity to participate in a summer camp for high school
students organized by the university when she was in middle school.” William’s experience was
similar; he said he “spent 6 months getting used to completing his academic work using a
computer in the United States.” He believes that his ability to adapt was due to his “previous
travel experiences to the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.”
The rest of the participants required a relatively long time to adapt to the United States.
Most of the students said they learned U.S. visa policies and regulations, adapt to U.S. teaching
methods, food, and campus environments, and initially overcame the language barrier within 1
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year. Only two students (Jerry and Lucy) said they needed more than 1 year to adapt to U.S.
teaching and learning methods. Other aspects such as U.S. and campus cultures, require some
participants to spend more than 1 year to adapt. Jack and Louis said that studying in the United
States requires “constant self-discipline,” which requires long-term persistence. Zoe pointed out
that “there are some bad personal habits that need time to change, such as driving too fast and
smoking.”
Impact of Transition Challenges on Student’s Perception of Self
Ten participants (Yvonne, Zoe, Jerry, David, Henry, Amy, Louis, William, Tom, and
Lucy) reported using self-study as their primary strategy for adapting to U.S. academic standards
or improving their English language skills. They mentioned utilizing methods such as “searching
for useful information on the Internet,” “reading more English literature,” “watching English
television shows,” and “communicating more with U.S. classmates.” Five participants, Amy,
Zoe, David, Tom, and Lucy also reported seeking help from peers, professors, or academic
advisors. The participants in the interviews expressed a variety of attitudes toward cultural
differences. Some stated that “it did not matter” to them, and that they “did not feel
uncomfortable with it.” Others did not make a deliberate effort to integrate or adapt to the culture.
Some tried to “emulate American students and adopt their living habits and ways.” Some said
that as long as it did not affect their life, they would choose to respect it. Overall, the participants
seemed open-minded and respectful toward cultural differences.
During the transition from China to the United States, four out of the 12 interviewed
students (Lucy, Jerry, Tom, and Lily) reported suffering from mental health problems. Lucy
described “feeling lonely and isolated” due to her “lack of confidence in speaking English,” and
she was eventually expelled from school. Jerry felt “guilty and blamed himself” for his low GPA,
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which led to his expulsion from the first school. Tom struggled with academic pressure and felt
guilty for not being able to pass a class twice and being unable to change teachers the third time.
Lily suffered from school bullying and later dyslexia and experienced domestic violence from
her boyfriend. None of them sought help from the school with their mental health problems.
Lucy and Tom stated that they “didn’t know the school had free psychological counseling
services,” and even if they did, the “language barrier” and “fear of being seen as weak” would
have prevented them from seeking help. Lily, on the other hand, took the initiative to seek help
from a psychiatrist and was able to overcome her mental health problems. Additionally, Tom,
Yvonne, Louis, and William reported knowing Chinese students who suffered from mental
health problems. Yvonne and Tom suggested that the school could provide more support for
international students by sending emails and reminders about free counseling services.
In conclusion, as shown in Table 3, each participant has faced multiple transition
challenges. The reasons for their departure from school before obtaining a bachelor’s degree are
complex and are the result of a combination of transition challenges. While some participants
reported leaving their first school for the same reasons, their experiences were all different.
Transition challenges and mental health issues interact with each other and deserve the attention
of schools.

Table 3
Participants’ Transition Challenges and Mental Health Problems
Name GPA
at first
school
Differences
in
education
methods
Language
barriers
U.S.
culture
China–
U.S.
relations
Immigration
law and visa
regulations
U.S. local
laws and
regulations
U.S.
academic
requirements
Campus
integration
Mental
health
problem
Amy 3.0 X X X X X X
David 2.7 X X X X
Henry 2.6 X X X X
Jack 0.94 X X X X
Jerry 1.67 X X X X X X
Lily 3.8 X X X
Louis 2.4 X X
Lucy 1.63 X X X X X
Tom 2.8 X X X X X
William 2.86 X X X X X
Yvonne 3.61 X X
Zoe 3.6 X X X
88
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Document Review for Research Question 1
I performed a document analysis of the websites for each participant’s first and second
colleges to understand the information and resources available to the 12 participants to help them
overcome the transition challenges mentioned in the interview. Among the 12 participants,
Yvonne and William attended the same second school, so I analyzed 23 different school
websites. Of the 23 schools, 17 are 4-year universities and six are community colleges. I
reviewed and coded school policies and regulations, guidelines or instructions, supporting
programs, and activities for international students to overcome the transition challenges from the
schools’ websites.
Table 3 summarizes the 23 schools’ support Programs for International Students
Experiencing Transition Challenges. Each school offers a different number and content of
support programs. Overall, these programs include academic support, language support, culture
adaptation support, legal support, and campus integration support.

Table 3
Support Programs for International Students Experiencing Transition Challenges
Program Services
Academic support Free tutoring
Academic advisors
Peer advising or mentoring
Asking the instructors for help
Enrolling in counseling courses/workshops/webinars
Writing centers
Language support Intensive English Program
College ESL classes
Comprehensive English language support
English Conversation Program
Language Exchange Program
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Program Services
Culture support Intercultural communication courses
American culture courses
Cultural Connection Program
Workshop on U.S. culture
Global Mentorship Program
International Ambassadors Program
Outdoor activities for international students
Culture adjustment advising
Provided some introductions and strategies on the school website
Legal support Consulting services on visas application and maintaining legal
status
Guidelines for applying for on-campus/off-campus employment
Procedures for applying for H-1B and Permanent Residency
Guidelines for applying for reinstatement
Free legal advice for immigration services
Free legal advice for all kinds of legal problems
Free legal advice and free representation for all kinds of legal
problems
Campus integration
support
Introduction to the city environment
Introduction to the campus environment
Guidelines for applying for a driver’s license, housing, or buying
insurance

Academic Support
In the interviews, 10 out of 12 participants said that the educational methods in China and
the United States are quite different. The college websites were reviewed to identify whether any
information or resources were posted to help students adjust to the U.S. education environment.
Some schools provided information on U.S. education methods and gave students suggestions
for adapting, such as choosing courses wisely, communicating with teachers, studying skill
guidance, and understanding academic dishonesty. All schools provided academic support, such
as academic advisors, peer advising, free tutoring services, and the ability to contact instructors
for help. Some schools also provided counseling courses, workshops, and webinars to help
students develop necessary academic and personal behaviors. Most schools provided academic
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writing support, but some had trained staff members who were specifically trained to work with
international or ESL students. The writing centers provided both writing seminars and one-on-
one writing consultations.
However, some school websites were not clear and resources were difficult to find. An
example of this is Yvonne’s first school, a women's private liberal arts college in Massachusetts,
the school’s website, including the page of the international student office, had limited
information about the U.S. education system and resources to help international students adjust.
Resources and support for international students were not easily accessible on the website, and
contact information for international student advising or other services was difficult to find.
Additionally, regular tutoring or peer mentoring services could only be located by searching for
specific keywords, rather than being easily accessible on the website. Another example is Tom’s
second school, a community college in Ohio, where the website had little information on
international student resources, and the F1 student handbook link was broken and could not be
opened.
Language Support
In the study, the resources and support for improving the English of international
undergraduate students at 23 schools were examined. All schools accepted TOEFL or IELTS
scores as proof of English proficiency, and 19 offered an Intensive English Program for students
who did not meet the schools’ requirements. Students who met the schools’ English proficiency
requirements could enter the undergraduate programs directly. After entering the undergraduate
program, the schools had similar requirements for international and local students and offered
similar help. For example, in the first semester, all 23 schools required students to take
placement tests in subjects such as math and English to assess the students’ academic skill levels
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and place them in the correct classes. Students with poor English proficiency, including local and
international students, were required to take more college ESL classes. In addition, international
students, like local students, could access help from a writing center, academic advisor, peer
advising or mentoring, and tutoring services. However, most schools did not provide additional
support for international students to improve their English.
Of the 23 schools, six had extra programs on their websites to help international
undergraduate students improve their English. Yvonne’s first school, a women’s private liberal
arts college in Massachusetts, Tom’s first school, a public 4-year university in Ohio, and
William’s second school, a private 4-year university in Massachusetts, all had comprehensive
English language support for international undergraduate students to improve their listening,
speaking, reading, and writing. Zoe’s first school, a public 4-year university in Southern
California, and Amy’s first school, a public 4-year university in Iowa, had the English
Conversation Program to help international undergraduate students improve their oral English.
Jerry’s first school, a public 4-year university in Northern California, had a language exchange
program on the international student office web page, which was designed to help speakers of
different languages find one another so they may practice and improve their language learning,
but the links to log in and sign up were broken.
Cultural Support
Of the 23 schools examined, 10 did not provide any information or resources on U.S.
culture for international students, nor did they offer any activities or programs to help them
adjust to the new culture. The remaining 13 schools, however, had various programs and
activities in place to assist international students in adapting to their new surroundings.
According to the schools’ websites, some offered courses on Intercultural Communication or U.S.
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culture to help international students learn about and understand American culture while earning
college credits. Some schools’ international student offices hosted cultural connection programs,
such as the one offered at Zoe’s first school, a public 4-year university in Southern California,
which is described as “a drop-in discussion group that provides a safe and private space for
international students to share their cross-cultural experiences, discuss their concerns, and
support each other throughout the adjustment process.” Additionally, some schools hosted
workshops on U.S. culture to help international students develop their cultural literacy. Global
Mentorship Programs and International Ambassador Programs were also available at some
schools, providing opportunities for international students to make friends with local students
and become familiar with the campus and U.S. culture. Many schools also organized outdoor
activities for international students to explore the city and the state, and to socialize. International
student advisors at Amy’s second school provided culture adjustment advising to help
international students adjust to U.S. culture. Two schools did not offer any events but did provide
information about culture shock on their international student web pages and strategies to help
international students adjust to U.S. culture.
Legal Support
The websites of the 23 schools that were studied varied in the information provided to
international students regarding F1 visas and status. For example, Henry’s second school, a
community college in Southern California, had the least information available on its website,
with only a suggestion to contact the international student office for consulting services. By
contrast, Lily’s second school, a public 4-year university in Arizona, had a comprehensive
website with detailed guidelines for visa applications, maintaining F1 status, on-campus
employment, and even applying for H1B and permanent residency.
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Most of the schools provided limited information, with some not listing the minimum
GPA requirement. Lucy lost her student status because her school’s website only reminded
international students of the minimum unit requirement but did not mention the minimum GPA
requirement. Only 13 out of the 23 schools provided guidelines on how to apply for
reinstatement, with the remaining 10 schools not providing any information on the subject. The
information provided on their website was not sufficient, with students needing to make an
appointment with an advisor for clear guidance. The USCIS website provided even less
information and a long processing time of 17.5 to 20.5 months was shown in September 2022
(USCIS, n.d.).
Of the 23 schools, five provided student legal services. One of these schools offered both
free legal advice and representation, while another school only provided immigration legal
services, including general consultations, DACA renewals, and assistance in filling out forms
such as family-based petitions. The remaining three schools only offered a limited period of 15
or 30 minutes of free legal advice for all types of legal issues. An additional four school websites
provided a list of off-campus legal service providers and attorneys along with links to them. The
remaining 14 schools did not offer any information on student legal services on their websites.
Campus Integration
Of the 23 schools, most provided pictures, videos, and maps of their campuses on their
websites. Daily living information for international students was also widely available, including
information on how to obtain a driver’s license, find housing, and buy insurance. However, less
than half of the school websites provided information on the surrounding city environment, such
as city population, weather, attractions, and outdoor activities. Yvonne found the city of her first
school to be inconvenient, which was confirmed by the lack of information about the city on the
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school's website. The website only showed positive information about the school and did not
mention any negatives. Zoe, when enrolled in her second school, experienced negative aspects of
the city, such as feeling unsafe due to the presence of homeless people and bad air quality. These
issues were not mentioned on the school’s website.
Different Support for New and Continuing International Students
According to the schools’ websites, international student orientations were designed to
help international students smoothly transition into their new living and learning environment.
All 23 schools offered orientation sessions for new international students, with varying
requirements, content, and length, ranging from 1 to 4 days. Orientation could be attended either
virtually or in person and was not mandatory, but students needed to register through the
school’s website to participate. Most schools offered a first-year experience program or first-year
seminar for all incoming students to promote academic success and facilitate making friends in a
supportive multicultural setting, with international students also able to participate. However,
only a few schools highlighted this program on their international student page and encouraged
participation. No special orientation or programs were provided for continuing international
students, meaning that if they missed the orientation or did not understand the information
presented, they missed the only opportunity to fully understand the resources available at the
school. This may explain why many participants in the interview were completely unaware of
the resources available at their school.
Summary for Research Question 1
The first research question aimed to understand the challenges faced by Chinese
international students during their transition to U.S. colleges and the resources and information
provided by the schools to support them. Participants often face difficulties in adjusting to U.S.–
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China relations, U.S. culture, language barriers, differences in teaching methods, academic
requirements, immigration laws and policies, local laws and regulations, and campus integration.
The schools lack support for some of these challenges, and each participant may face multiple
transition challenges. The reasons for their departure from school before obtaining a bachelor’s
degree are complex and the result of a combination of transition challenges. Although some
participants reported leaving their first school for the same reasons, their experiences were all
different. Transition challenges and mental health issues interact with each other and deserve the
attention of schools. Furthermore, some of the links on the schools’ official websites are broken,
hindering both students and researchers from accessing information. The information available
on the schools’ websites varies greatly, with some offering extensive resources and programs
while others provide limited support. Participants show low engagement in the programs and
activities provided by the schools, often due to a lack of awareness. The transition to U.S.
schools is a long-term process that can last over 1 year and requires special attention to the
mental health of Chinese students.
Interview Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 aims to explore the institutional support experienced by Chinese
international students in addressing persistence problems resulting from challenges during their
transition to studying in the United States. In the interview, participants reported receiving
support from professors or instructors, academic advisors, staff of the international student office,
and peers when facing difficulties and challenges. However, most were unaware of the tutoring
and library services offered by their schools. Although the majority of participants overcame
most transition challenges within a year, many experienced mental health issues during the
process, highlighting the need for comprehensive services to support international students. The
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study also revealed a lack of communication and cooperation between schools and the parents of
participants, which could be addressed through the establishment of parent organizations with
Chinese international student parent participation. Additionally, the study explored the
advantages and disadvantages of using study-abroad agencies, as all 12 participants had sought
help from such agencies.
Professors or Instructors
In this section, we explore the participants’ experiences of receiving support from their
professors or instructors. While many of the participants had positive experiences, they also
identified areas for improvement. The support that the participants received from their professors
or instructors can be categorized into several aspects, which we will discuss below. Specifically,
we will examine how professors or instructors treated international students, the types of
academic support provided, the impact of class size, and the effectiveness of teaching styles. We
will also highlight some of the challenges that the participants faced, such as uneven teacher
quality, sexual harassment, language barriers, and slow response times, and consider their
suggestions for addressing these issues.
Professors or Instructors’ Support for Participants
Half of the 12 surveyed students felt that their teachers treated international students
equally without considering their specific needs, while the other half perceived some teachers to
consider the needs of international students, particularly regarding language level and
measurement units. Amy reported that only some instructors accommodated her “shortcoming in
English” by speaking slower or rephrasing, while Lucy noticed some teachers speaking more
clearly when international students were present. David mentioned some teachers making a point
of asking if international students needed clarification and considering different measurement
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units in their teaching. Despite these efforts, the majority of students felt that most teachers did
not take into account the needs of international students in their lectures. Tom summarized,
“Some teachers are kind and worry about international students, but most do not.” Eight students
(Zoe, Louis, William, Lucy, David, Tom, Yvonne, and Amy) shared their experiences of
receiving academic support from instructors.
Among the 12 students who participated in the survey, eight (Zoe, Louis, William, Lucy,
David, Tom, Yvonne, and Amy) shared their experiences regarding academic support from their
instructors. The students generally felt more supported in smaller classes, where instructors spent
more time communicating after class, responded quickly to emails, and incorporated fun and
practical teaching methods into their lectures. Office hours were a helpful tool for students to
clarify any questions they had in class. Tom and Zoe relied on office hours to ask questions they
did not understand in class, while David used office hours to deal with a low GPA by getting
direct answers to his questions. Smaller classes with fewer students also allowed for more
individual attention and communication between students and instructors. Yvonne and William
both appreciated the small class system they experienced as it provided an opportunity for them
to discuss their struggles with their professors. Fun and practical teaching styles, as well as
encouragement, were also remembered by students as having a positive impact. Amy praised the
speaking and listening teachers in her language program for being “really good,” because they
“incorporated fun into their lessons and had a practical teaching style.” Henry praised his art
history teacher for “adjusting to the different styles of each student and encouraging the use of
his culture.” Quick response times were also noted as a benefit, with Lily stating that her
professor replied right away and even after hours to her emails.
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Shortcomings and Students’ Suggestions
The participants reported numerous challenges in obtaining support from their professors
and instructors, including uneven teacher quality, sexual harassment, difficulties understanding
heavy accents, lack of cultural training for international students, and inconsistent response times
of teachers. “The qualities of teachers are uneven,” said Henry, “Even a school with a good
reputation has some teachers who may be great in their professional fields, but not good at
teaching.” Amy added that some teachers even engaged in sexual harassment of students. In
addition to teaching skills, the participants also noted challenges with accents, with Henry,
William, Amy, and Zoe stating that some teachers had heavy accents that made it difficult for
students to understand them. Henry emphasized that “improving the quality of teachers will
increase the retention rate of Chinese students.” Henry felt that professors lacked training in
coping with international students and that they often treated all students the same without
considering their different needs. “Many professors simply treat all students the same and do not
consider that international students may not be understanding what the professor is saying,” he
said. To address this, Henry suggested that schools provide cultural training for professors to
improve their understanding and retain international students. In terms of responsiveness, while
some teachers were noted for their quick response time, others were criticized for being slow to
answer emails. William mentioned that his teacher’s response time “solely depended on his
mood.” Tom also complained about his logic teacher, who he said took too long to mark
homework. He explained that he had not received the graded results for the first week’s
homework by the mid-term exam in Week Five, leading him to repeat the same wrong answers
and ultimately fail the course.
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Academic Advisors
Participants had mixed reviews of academic advisors. Eight students said that their
academic advisors were helpful, while four students reported having negative experiences or
feeling that their advisors were unhelpful. Of the eight students who found their academic
advisors helpful, two felt that there was room for improvement in the services provided.
Academic Advisors’ Support for Participants
The participants indicated that academic advisors play a crucial role in assisting students
with course and major selection. David stated that his advisor was enthusiastic and easily
accessible for help. He found the most valuable service to be the advisor’s assistance with course
selection and guidance on the quickest path to graduation. Additionally, the advisor reminded
international students of important requirements before it was too late. As David explained, “For
example, if credits were insufficient, the school would terminate the student’s I-20. If there was a
difficult course, the advisor would inform me in advance so I could avoid taking it.” When
David’s GPA was low, the advisor warned him and suggested that he focus on courses to
improve his GPA instead of taking too many difficult courses. Amy stated that her advisor
provided a list of required classes and advised on which ones to take first. Similarly, when
Jerry’s GPA was low, the advisor recommended a less challenging course and encouraged him to
take more general education courses. Tom added that when he wanted to pursue a double major
or minor, the advisor informed him of the requirements and procedures, including which college
to attend, which courses could be repeated, and which still needed to be taken.
Along with course selection, some academic advisors also helped with other problems.
Yvonne and Zoe reported that they could ask their advisors anything and the advisors would help
connect them to other departments or provide information on where to seek further support.
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However, Jerry, Amy, William, and Lucy said that their advisors “only helped with course
selection” and “did not offer any additional support.”
Academic Advisors’ Shortcomings and Students’ Suggestions
The frequency of meetings between students and their academic advisors differed among
schools. Yvonne's school required students to have a fixed meeting with their advisors once or
twice a semester, during which they could ask any questions they had. However, at Tom’s school,
students were responsible for reaching out to their advisors, unless their academic performance
was poor, and their advisor would then reach out to them. The response times of academic
advisors to email inquiries varied as well. Both William and Lucy found their academic advisors
“helpful, but also slow to respond to emails.” William said his advisor was “very slow” and
sometimes ignored his messages, forcing him to visit the office instead. Similarly, Lucy
mentioned that her advisor’s responses to her emails were “always slow,” except when she was
in the process of being expelled from the school. In that instance, her advisor replied promptly.
Nevertheless, the quick response came too late and did not change the outcome of her expulsion.
According to the participants, the quality of academic advising services varies. Four
students (Jack, Henry, Louis, and Lily) shared their negative experiences with their academic
advisors. Jack reported that the help he received was “very little and limited,” with advisors only
offering advice on course selection. Henry felt that he received “minimal help” from his
academic advisor. He stated that “the advisor spoke at a fast pace and only allotted 15 minutes
for appointments, leading to a lack of detailed explanation.” Furthermore, participants noted that
the quality of service could depend on the advisor’s mood. Henry’s experience with his first
advisor was negative, as “the advisor appeared tired and chose inappropriate classes” for him.
However, his experience with his second advisor was positive, as the advisor “provided detailed
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information” on his desired future school and courses. Louis stated that “the effectiveness of an
advisor could vary, as it depends on their mood.” Lily noted that academic advisors can be either
“very helpful” or “ineffective.” She encountered issues with course selection at her second
university and sought the help of an advisor. Despite “the advisor spending an hour trying to
solve the problem, nothing was resolved.” Lily also mentioned that “the advisor frequently
canceled appointments.” Eventually, Lily’s problem was quickly solved when the advisor quit
and she switched to a different advisor.
Some participants expressed their concern that some advisors may not have a deep
enough understanding of the students to offer meaningful advice. Louis suggested that “the
school needs to improve the efficiency of the counseling department by understanding each
student’s situation, reviewing their lesson plans, and providing careful consideration.” He
complained that his counselor only told him to retake a failed subject the next semester without
offering any academic advice for improvement. William shared that his advisor only instructed
him on “which courses were required and how to avoid being expelled” but did not provide any
information he wanted to know about “specific classes, teachers, or class details.” Lucy noted
that: “my academic advisor simply informed me that my GPA was low but did not offer any
suggestions for improvement.”
International Student Office
The participants highlighted that the international student office is responsible for
managing the legal status of international students and facilitating communication with other
departments. According to the participants, the level of professionalism and service quality
provided by the staff of the international student office varied among schools. Some students
reported limited support in the reinstatement process, which impacted their overall experience.
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International Student Office’s Support for Participants
According to some participants, the international student office was perceived as a
department that primarily managed the legal status of international students in the United States,
rather than providing support. Yvonne stated, “I don’t feel like it’s a department that helps
students.” Louis described the international student office as “just a decoration” with limited
responsibilities beyond managing paperwork for visas and immigration status. Lily shared her
sentiment that the international student office at her school “can give you nothing at all, except
help with visa problems.” Zoe stated limited interaction with international student office. “We
reach out only when we have questions about international students’ legal status, but they don’t
initiate contact.” William and David added that the office only intervenes if a student violates
requirements, first warning and then terminating their legal status. Jerry was assisted by the
international student office when he was facing expulsion from his school. The office helped him
communicate with his academic department to advocate for him. David had a positive experience
with the international student office at his second school. They were “somewhat helpful” during
his optional practical training application with USCIS after graduation, as they reviewed his
documents prior to submission.
Although the international student office was primarily viewed as a resource for
managing legal status, some participants reported that their schools’ international student office
also organized events and offered assistance in learning methods. Louis reported attending a
New Year’s party organized by the international student office but noted that most Chinese
students preferred to spend holidays with friends rather than attend events at the office. David
mentioned that the staff at his first school was “enthusiastic” and provided learning tips.
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However, other students interviewed did not mention any events held by the international student
office.
International Student Office’s Shortcomings and Students’ Suggestions
The quality of service and professionalism of the staff at the international student office
can vary. As Henry pointed out, “not everyone is friendly and helpful. There will always be
some individuals who lack professionalism and have not received proper training.” He recalls a
negative experience he had with a staff member at the international student office at his previous
university. Henry was inquiring about transferring, and the staff member shouted at him, “It’s
early in the morning, go to your class quickly! Don't bother me with this now!” Henry added that
the staff member did not even know when his class was, and then proceeded to kick him out.
This incident had a significant impact on Henry and he still remembers it clearly.
William also had a disappointing experience with the international student office when he
faced issues with his F1 student status. The international student advisor told him, “You must
leave the United States now,” without giving him the option to apply for reinstatement. William
had to seek the help of an agent, who then communicated with the school and was able to secure
an opportunity for William to apply for reinstatement. According to William, the staff at the
international student office was “lazy” and did not want to put in the effort to help, leading to
him having to pay extra for assistance from an agency. He also believes that schools are cautious
to avoid potential legal issues. Similarly, Henry, Lily, and Lucy also felt that the international
student office did not provide adequate assistance, leading them to seek help from an agency to
solve their F1 student status problems.
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Peers
Almost all participants indicated that support from friends was helpful. This kind of help
from friends is reflected in academic, life, and emotional support. Only one student Lily said
friends were “useless.” School's Chinese student clubs were a source of significant support for
the participants when they first arrived in the United States. Most participants found it difficult to
form friendships with American classmates due to cultural differences and diverse backgrounds.
Support From Friends
Eight students, including Jack, Yvonne, Jerry, David, Henry, Amy, William, and Lucy,
talked about the emotional support they received from friends. Henry said his friends “made his
college life less dull.” Jack said that his friends “significantly boosted his positivity and
optimism about living in the United States.” Amy mentioned that her friends made her study-
abroad life more enjoyable. Yvonne and Jerry talked to friends during low moments, while
Lucy’s friends made her feel less isolated and motivated her to persevere.
Four students, Jack, Zoe, Henry, and Louis, talked about the significance of friend
support in adapting to life in the United States. Louis said, “A friend I met when I first arrived
helped me solve many life problems.” Zoe and Henry relied on friends for transportation and
help with moving. Jack’s friends provided useful advice during the car-buying process and
helped him integrate into “the American society and culture.”
David, Henry, and William praised the support they received from their friends in their
studies. David said his Chinese student friends were “invaluable,” helping and encouraging him
with homework and sharing information. Henry communicated with his friends after class about
problems he did not understand, and they also worked on art projects together. Henry believes
his friends “take an important place in [his] ability to persist until graduation.” William credited
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his friends at his second school for encouraging him to study hard and achieve a higher GPA,
while Tom said his friends were the only people he could count on in the United States. Henry
said if it were not for his friends, his college life would be “boring and colorless.”
Many participants praised the help they received from their schools’ Chinese student
clubs. Zoe said, “The Chinese Student Club picked me up at the airport and dropped me off at
my place of residence.” Tom credited first-year meetings and lectures organized by the Chinese
Students and Scholars Association for providing new students with useful information. Amy said
the Chinese Students Association “solves all problems,” and the WeChat group facilitated by the
international student office is particularly helpful as it involves both students and parents. The
Chinese Student Club holds symposiums in big cities where students and parents can participate
and have questions answered in real time. Lily said senior students from the Chinese student
organizations helped new students with any problems they had. Jerry, David, and William agreed
that first-year students can benefit from the experiences and advice of upper-year students in
these organizations.
Difficulty Forming Friendships With U.S. Students
Almost all the participants reported having group projects or studying sessions with their
American classmates. However, only a few were able to form meaningful friendships with them.
Jack noted that this was due to cultural differences and differing backgrounds, making it difficult
for Americans to truly understand the needs of Chinese students. Out of the 12 students
interviewed, nine stated that all their friends in the United States were Chinese students, two had
American friends, and one had only befriended other international students.
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Tutors and Library Services
Out of the 12 participants, only three students, David, Henry, and Jerry, were aware of
the school’s tutoring services; the rest were completely unaware. David learned about the service
from an email sent by the international student office’s advisor in his first year. Henry found out
from another international student from Hungary. He believed that it was his responsibility to
seek out resources and said, “These resources won’t find you.”
Both David and Henry believed that the tutoring service was beneficial. According to
David, it was helpful for students with low GPAs or learning difficulties, as they could receive
free tutoring from the school. Henry also said that the tutoring service was “really, very helpful.”
Jerry, who was aware of the service, never looked for a tutor and felt that it was “pointless.”
Henry was the only participant who knew that the library provides many other services
for students in addition to borrowing books. However, he said that many students he knew “did
not use these resources and did not know how to solve their problems.” Henry attributed this to
the fact that “the school did not provide a list of services available to international students
during orientation.”
Parents
All 12 participants affirmed the importance of parental support for their persistence.
However, their parents played a complex role. On the one hand, parents provided both financial
and emotional support, and often played a decisive role in important academic decisions, such as
selecting a major or deciding to drop out. On the other hand, the high expectations of parents
placed significant pressure on the students, potentially leading to mental health issues and an
increased risk of dropout.
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Financial and Emotional Support From Parents
According to the participants, the primary form of support provided by their parents was
financial, without which they would not have been able to study in the United States.
Additionally, emotional and understanding support was also crucial, particularly in instances
where the students wished to change majors. During their undergraduate years, Jack, Amy, and
Louis received support from their parents when changing majors, which they regarded as
heartening and confidence-boosting. Specifically, they said that the support “was the most
touching and happiest thing,” “was really useful ... gave me confidence,” and “reduced my
feeling of guilt to waste so much time and so much money.” In contrast, Henry reported that his
mother was unsupportive of his desire to change his major. She constantly called him, harshly
opposed his decision, and even threatened to stop paying his tuition if he switched to an art major.
Consequently, Henry was indecisive when choosing a major, which impacted his course
planning and graduation timeline.
Pressure From Parents Cause Mental Health Problems and Increases Dropout Rates
The participants also reported experiencing significant pressure from their parents, which
could lead to mental health issues for some of them. Tom revealed, “I feel reluctant to talk to my
parents. When I have a problem, my parents did not help me solve the problem, they just blamed
me.” Lucy disclosed that her parents would add to her anxiety by constantly urging her to take
the GRE test. Additionally, Amy recounted a distressing account about her friend Ashley, who
had an outstanding academic record with a 4.0 GPA in biology. Ashley, however, succumbed to
pressure from her family and returned to China, where she suffered from depression and
ultimately “committed suicide by jumping off a building.” When the students performed poorly
in school, they expressed feeling guilty. For instance, after Jerry was expelled from school due to
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his low GPA, he became depressed and blamed himself. “My family has a heavy burden. ... I
don’t want to disappoint my parents. ... That is why I was in a bad mood before. My family
supported me so much, how can I drop the ball?”
Parental support often plays a decisive role when Chinese students face difficulties in the
United States. David stated that when his parents blame him for his difficulties, it only makes
things worse. Lily also pointed out that if she feels her parents do not support her, she may give
up. She explained that many of her classmates already experience homesickness, and if their
parents encouraged them to give up, they would return to China. Conversely, when Chinese
students face difficulties in the United States, parental support can reduce stress and increase
motivation. Lily shared that if her parents were willing to say, “It doesn’t matter how long you
study, I’ll support you as long as you stay in school,” she would feel less stressed and learn better.
Agents
All 12 participants, including the nine who applied to U.S. schools through study-abroad
agencies, sought help from the agencies when facing expulsion or termination of student status
after arriving in the United States. They acknowledged that good agency services could provide
useful information and save time, acting as a bridge between students and schools and
compensating for deficiencies in school services. However, the disadvantages of agents’ services
were also noted, including misleading information on school and major choices, inadequate
assistance with the application process, and a lack of support after students arrived at the school.
Benefits of Hiring an Agency
Study-abroad agencies assisted participants who were unfamiliar with U.S. schools and
improved application efficiency at the school application stage. Tom emphasized the importance
of finding an agent to help with applying to U.S. schools as “it is an unfamiliar situation,” and
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Lucy received “accurate information from the agent regarding school selection.” Jack praised the
agent for saving his application time and stated that he “would not have been able to do it alone
in such a short time.” Agents also filled the gap in the international student services of some
schools. When faced with F1 status issues, students sought help from agents because some
schools’ international student advisors did not provide F1 status support. For example, when
Henry was threatened with F1 status termination, he sought help from an agent to apply for
reinstatement. Lucy and Lily were expelled due to low GPAs. Their school’s international
student office only advised them to “return to China immediately” and they found agents to help
them apply for new schools and F1 status reinstatement in the United States. Furthermore,
communication between agents and schools is smoother and more efficient. According to
William, when his I-20 was terminated due to being “registered less than 12 units in that
semester,” his school required him to “return to China immediately.” However, after hiring an
agency to communicate with the school, he was given the chance to stay in the United States to
continue his studies at that school and apply for reinstatement.
Disadvantages of Agents’ Service
Participants also reported negative experiences with study-abroad agencies. They noted
that, because they were unfamiliar with American schools, they relied heavily on the agents’
opinions when choosing schools and majors. However, agents’ information and
recommendations were sometimes one-sided, inappropriate, or misleading. For instance, Amy
chose a school based on her agent’s recommendation that it was “outstanding and a suitable fit”
for her. However, after enrolling, she realized that she did not enjoy studying there and felt
misled, ultimately transferring to another school a year later. Similarly, Louis’ and David’s
agents could not help them gain admission to their desired majors and instead suggested they
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study other majors first and then switch. Upon arriving at their schools, they discovered that their
“desired majors were not available and had to apply to other schools,” resulting in “wasted time
and money.” Yvonne’s agent only emphasized the elite education provided by the women’s
college she enrolled in, without providing additional information about the school’s climate.
After 2 years, she transferred to a regular university due to her “inability to adapt to the women-
only environment,” feeling “misled by the agent’s limited information.”
Additionally, participants shared that the agents handled all the application matters before
the students went abroad but failed to teach them how to handle the processes themselves. The
agency’s services stopped after the students arrived at the school, which left them overwhelmed.
Amy and Lucy reported that their agents took care of everything for them, including “checking
and replying to school emails,” “choosing courses,” “paying tuition fees,” and “selecting
dormitories.” The agents did not allow them to participate or instruct them on how to do it. After
starting school, they expressed that they “didn’t know which of these things corresponded to,
whom to contact” and “did not know whom to go to when I encountered difficulties.” They felt
that their agents no longer cared for them and completely disregarded their requests for
assistance.
Document Review for Research Question 2
To explore Research Question 2, I also conducted a document analysis of the websites of
the first and second colleges attended by each participant. As Yvonne and William attended the
same school, I analyzed a total of 23 different school websites among the 12 participants. For
Research Question 2, I focused on the available support from academic advisors, staff of the
international student office, professors or instructors, and peers, and reviewed their job
responsibilities, contact information, and open hours displayed on the school websites. The
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objective was to determine whether these support personnel were easily accessible to Chinese
international students. Additionally, considering the complex influence of parents on students, I
also reviewed the information on parent organizations available on the school websites to
understand the interaction between the schools and international student parents.
Academic Advisor
Academic advising services are usually provided by each department for students at 4-
year colleges, with some departments assigning international advisors who particularly services
for international students. Community college advisors serve all students regardless of their
major. Most of the 23 schools surveyed do not display contact information for academic advisors
on the international student office web page. Instead, 4-year colleges usually provide academic
advisors’ contact information on each department’s web page, while community colleges display
it on student support or services web pages. However, finding contact information for academic
advisors on many school websites can be challenging, and students may need to search for
“academic advisor” and look for their contact information by browsing through various pages.
Most schools included academic advisors’ names, titles, phone numbers, and emails on
their websites. Students are usually assigned to an academic advisor based on their declared
major(s) and/or last name. However, in some schools or departments, students reported
difficulties in meeting with an academic advisor. For example, Jerry's first school was a public 4-
year university in California, and the analysis revealed no information or link to an academic
advisor on the school’s international student office web page. Moreover, the academic advisor’s
name and contact information were not found on the department’s web page. Jerry stated that he
could only schedule an appointment with an advisor by completing an online form. The form
requires him to leave his name, phone number, and question, select a time, submit the form, and
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wait for an academic advisor to contact him at the designated time. According to the school
website, the earliest appointment available is usually 2 weeks later, which means that if Jerry
wants to ask an academic-related question, he must wait at least 2 weeks.
International Student Advisor
At most of the 23 schools, international student advisors were primarily responsible for
immigration advice, visa-related documents, and internship authorizations. Some schools
assigned additional responsibilities, such as cultural adjustment guidance, F1 immigration status
support, and providing orientations, workshops, and tutorials. Other duties included providing
support for international student organizations, personal and financial planning, and advocating
for student and scholar immigration issues or benefits. Most school websites provide
international students with contact information for both the office and each advisor, including
their name, job responsibilities, phone number, and email. Some schools assign advisors based
on students’ majors or names, while others do not have a designated advisor. For those without a
designated advisor, students can contact an advisor based on their responsibilities listed on the
website and their personal needs or be randomly assigned an advisor.
However, in some schools, students have limited access to the international student office.
For example, at Zoe's second school, a public 4-year university in California, there is no advisor
profile or contact information provided on the international student office webpage. The only
available contact information is the office email and Zoom link, with no phone number listed.
Students are only able to contact the school by sending an email to the office or by attending a
Zoom meeting. Another example is Tom’s first school, where the contact information for the
international student office is limited to an office phone number and email for general inquiries.
No advisor contact information is provided on the website, and students wishing to meet with an
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advisor must schedule a Zoom appointment through an online system. It is important to note that
Zoom meetings are restricted to only 15 minutes.
Instructors and Professors
Most school websites have profiles and contact information for full-time faculty, but not
for part-time instructors. In addition, the websites do not display office hours for either
instructors or professors. During the interviews, some students complained about the accents and
teaching abilities of their instructors and professors. I also focused on the recruitment
requirements for instructors and professors posted on the school websites. Only some of the
schools required prior teaching experience or a teaching demonstration as part of the interview
process.
Each school had different programs, workshops, or other activities for faculty training
and development. Some schools offered minimal training on teaching, while others provided
comprehensive training that included mentoring, leadership development, pedagogical
development, writing training, mental health training, and more. None of the schools’ websites
indicated any relevant training on how to address the needs of international students.
Peers
All 23 schools stated they had peer mentoring or peer advising programs provided by
continuing U.S. students. Eighteen schools had Chinese Students and Scholars Associations.
Taking a public 4-year university in Southern California as an example, the school’s Chinese
Students and Scholars Association was “dedicated to assisting in adapting to local life,
promoting Chinese culture on and off campus, raising university awareness, and supporting to
achieve academic and professional success.” Chinese Students and Scholars Associations in
other schools had similar goals.
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The activities organized by the Chinese Students and Scholars Association of each school
varied. Overall, these associations hosted some Chinese festival parties, music, sports or e-sports
activities, or some workshops helpful for job hunting. These associations rarely had activities for
new students. Only two schools had welcome parties for new students. Notably, most of the
Chinese Students and Scholars Association’s web pages, Instagram accounts, or Facebook pages
had not been updated for 3−5 years. In conclusion, while many schools have Chinese Students
and Scholars Associations, the limited activities for new students and the lack of updated online
presence highlight the potential for improving these associations’ communication and
engagement with the student community.
Parents Organizations
According to the websites of 23 schools, schools can collaborate with parents in various
ways to promote student success. Most schools have departments dedicated to parent and family
relations, which may include parent councils or associations. These groups aim to establish a
connection between parents and schools, offering different programs and activities.
These organizations typically provide parents with counseling services, e-newsletters,
handbooks, parent and family weekend activities, welcome calls, and receptions for parents of
first-year students. Counseling services are available through the school’s counseling center,
which can provide guidance on school resources and support families during the transition period.
E-newsletters and handbooks keep parents informed about important student and university
issues, while parent and family weekend activities offer opportunities for parents to explore
academic and extracurricular resources and attend events on campus. Some schools have
welcome call programs or receptions for parents of incoming students to help them settle in and
learn about campus resources.
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However, no guidance is specifically available for parents of international students on
how to participate in these programs or organizations. Schools also do not provide information or
guidance to parents of international students through the international student offices, and there
is no data available on the number of international parents involved in parent councils or
programs.
Summary for Research Question 2
In summary, the finding of the second research question identified seven supporting
personnel of the participants, including academic advisors, international student advisors,
instructors and professors, tutors, peers, parents, and study abroad agents. Based on interviews
with 12 participants, Chinese international students in the United States face mixed experiences
with institutional support. Some professors or instructors offer academic assistance, cultural
sensitivity, and responsiveness, while others display uneven teacher quality, language barriers,
and sexual harassment. Academic advisors and the international student office vary in quality of
service, with some students reporting limited assistance and professionalism. Many students are
unaware of tutoring services and library resources and instead seek support from Chinese student
clubs and friends. High parental expectations can lead to mental health issues and increased
dropout risk. Study-abroad agents can provide improved application efficiency but may also
offer misleading information and inadequate support after arrival.
The document analysis of the websites of the first and second colleges attended by each
participant provided valuable insights into the accessibility of academic advisors, international
student advisors, instructors and professors, and peer support for Chinese international students.
The analysis revealed that while some schools provided easily accessible and comprehensive
support services, others had limited access to support personnel or lacked relevant training on
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how to address the needs of international students. The findings highlight the importance of
schools providing easily accessible and comprehensive support services to ensure the success
and well-being of international students.
Chapter Summary
The first research question focused on the transition challenges experienced by Chinese
international undergraduate students and the available support and resources at their schools to
help them overcome these challenges. Participants reported difficulties in adjusting to U.S.–
China relations, U.S. culture, language barriers, differences in teaching methods, academic
requirements, immigration laws and policies, local laws and regulations, and campus integration.
Each participant faced multiple challenges during their transition, which contributed to their
decision to leave school before completing their bachelor’s degree. Although some participants
left their first school for similar reasons, their experiences were unique and complex. The
transition to U.S. schools is a long-term process that can last over a year. Schools must address
the interaction between transition challenges and mental health issues and provide appropriate
support.
The second research question explored students’ perspectives on the services provided by
school staff who directly engage with Chinese international students and offer assistance. This
included academic advisors, international student advisors, instructors and professors, peers, and
parent organizations. Overall, school staff lacked relevant training to deal with international
students. While the school provided many resources and services, how to make Chinese
international students aware of and able to use these resources is something the school needs to
improve. The school website is an important way for Chinese students to obtain information, and
website design and information need to be updated to make it clearer and more user-friendly. It
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is particularly noteworthy that if the website lacks contact information for departments and
faculty members related to international students, it will increase the difficulty for Chinese
students to seek help.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
This study aimed to investigate the effects of transition challenges on the persistence of
Chinese international undergraduate students in U.S. higher education institutions and to identify
the types of support that schools should provide to improve their persistence. To achieve this
goal, I used Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological systems theory as a theoretical framework and
employed a qualitative methodology that involved interviews and documentation analysis using
a phenomenological approach. The following research questions guided this study:
1. How do Chinese international undergraduate students perceive the impact of
transition challenges on their persistence in U.S. higher education?
2. How do Chinese international students experience institutional support through
persistence problems caused by transition challenges?
This chapter provides a discussion of the findings presented in Chapter Four in the
context of the literature review in Chapter Two. Additionally, this chapter offers
recommendations to improve Chinese students’ persistence in U.S. higher education institutions.
To support these recommendations, the chapter cites the Council for the Advancement of
Standards in Higher Education (CAS, 2015) Self-Assessment Guide for International Student
Program and Services, which outlines 12 program-level assessment standards and seven steps to
assist schools in evaluating and enhancing their international student programs. Finally, I present
suggestions for future research in this area.
Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological systems theory positions the student at the center of a
varying ecological context. Moving from the innermost level to the outside, these systems are (a)
the microsystem, (b) the mesosystem, (c) the exosystem, (d) the macrosystem, and (e) the
chronosystem. This study applied the ecological system theory to Chinese international students.
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Figure 6 shows Chinese international undergraduate students’ ecological systems based on the
findings of this study.

Figure 6
Chinese International Undergraduate Students’ Ecological Systems

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In this study, Chinese international students are at the center of these subsystems. The
outermost ring is the macrosystem. Participants indicated they encountered transition challenges
in adjusting to China–U.S. relations, U.S. culture, language barriers, and differences in education
methods. The second outer ring is the exosystem. Participants indicated they encountered
transition challenges in adjusting to U.S. academic requirements, U.S. foreign policies,
immigration laws and visa regulations, U.S. local laws and regulations, and campus integration.
The chronosystem includes Chinese international students’ transitions and changes over time.
The findings related to the macrosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem and their impact on
Chinese students helped to understand the first research question: How do Chinese international
undergraduate students perceive the impact of transition challenges on their persistence in U.S.
higher education?
Participants indicated parents, peers, professors or instructors, academic advisors, staff of
the international student office, agents, and tutors as their support sources when they had
persistence problems caused by transition challenges. All these support sources are included in
the microsystem. The mesosystem comprises the linkages and processes taking place between
Chinese international students and the microsystem. The findings for microsystem and
mesosystem helped us understand the second research question: How do Chinese international
students experience institutional support through persistence problems caused by transition
challenges?
Discussion for Research Question 1
The findings of this study shed light on how Chinese international undergraduate students
perceive the impact of transition challenges on their persistence in U.S. higher education. Our
analysis revealed that these challenges are multifaceted and occur at various levels, including the
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macrosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem. By exploring these subsystems, we gained a deeper
understanding of the unique experiences of Chinese international students in navigating the
complex landscape of U.S. higher education. In this section, we will discuss our findings in more
detail and highlight their implications for supporting the persistence and success of Chinese
international students in the United States.
Macrosystem
Language Barriers
The impact of language barriers on the academic performance of Chinese students has
been highlighted in previous studies (Lertora et al., 2017; Liao & Wei, 2014; Smith & Khawaja,
2011). This is particularly challenging in the U.S. education system, where classroom
participation and group work are emphasized. As a result, Chinese students may struggle with
participation and may spend more time reading and writing, potentially affecting their
performance in exams that have time limits (Ching et al., 2017).
Participants in the study indicated that they faced difficulties not only in understanding
lectures and group discussions but also in comprehending test questions due to unfamiliar
vocabulary. Language barriers were exacerbated when teachers spoke quickly or with accents.
These challenges may be more pronounced in liberal arts courses, such as history, psychology, or
advanced English courses, when compared with math courses. In daily life, participants also
encountered situations where they struggled to understand others who spoke too fast.
To improve their English, participants relied mainly on self-study and sought help from
teachers and classmates. Although schools’ websites showed they offered programs and
activities to help non-English speakers improve their language skills, participants did not
mention any experiences participating in these programs. The only program mentioned was the
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Intensive English Program, which may require evaluation and improvement, as some participants
felt that it did not adequately prepare them for undergraduate studies and that language barriers
persisted even after studying for 1.5 years in the program.
American Culture Shock
According to Samovar and Porter (1991), maximum sociocultural differences exist
between Western and Asian countries, with the United States and China being cited as an
example of maximum cultural distance. In this study, the participants reported experiencing
culture shock mainly due to conflicts between Chinese atheist education and U.S. Christian
culture, differing views on homosexuality and transgender individuals, differences in diet and
attire, and the issue of racial discrimination in the United States. However, the students did not
have effective strategies to overcome this culture shock. Although some schools offer cultural
support programs, none of the Chinese students who participated in the survey took part in them.
Students who attended international schools in China or visited the United States for travel or
summer camps before studying abroad were able to adapt more quickly to the U.S. culture
without experiencing culture shock.
China and U.S. Relations
The data and a previous study showed that with the change in Sino–U.S. relations,
China’s visa policy would change accordingly, and the number of F1 student visas issued to
Mainland China would also change accordingly (Bureau of Consular Affairs, 2021a; Liu, 2015;
U.S. Department of State, 2005a). However, from the perspective of the study participants, the
change in Sino–U.S. relations did not affect their study-abroad plans. Those who wished to study
in the United States still chose to do so. The main concerns expressed by the participants were
the rising cost caused by the increase in the exchange rate of the U.S. dollar, the difficulties that
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Chinese students faced in obtaining U.S. F1 visas, increased experiences of racial discrimination
during their studies, and the challenges of finding internships and jobs.
Differences in Education Methods
Previous studies have indicated that the U.S. education style, which emphasizes
classroom participation and group work, can be challenging for Chinese students who are used to
rote learning and teacher-dominated classes (Lertora et al., 2017; Liao & Wei, 2014; Smith &
Khawaja, 2011). In this study, the participants reported undergoing a transition from passive
learning to active learning, which required self-discipline and proactive communication with
teachers. However, not all participants were able to adapt to this change. Introverted participants
tended to search for answers online rather than communicate with teachers. Participants also
expressed difficulties in registering for classes, especially during their first semester in the
United States. Upon arrival in the United States, Chinese students needed to become accustomed
to using the school’s teaching system, completing assignments on computers, and
communicating with teachers via email, which were all new challenges. In China, students
typically communicated with teachers in person and submitted handwritten assignments.
Regarding strategies for adapting to the U.S. education system, participants mainly relied on self-
study, online research, and seeking help from peers, professors, and academic advisors. While
some schools’ websites offered suggestions and academic support to help international students
adapt to the U.S. education system, the participants did not seem to be aware of these available
resources.
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Exosystem
U.S. Foreign Policies, Immigration Laws, and Visa Regulations
In the Institution for International Education’s global survey of over 9,000 prospective
students, nearly half of the respondents indicated that the United States had the most difficult or
complex student visa procedures and the highest requirements in the world (Chow, 2011). Even
after enrolling, international students must comply with a multitude of complex regulations
required by SEVIS, which can be difficult for both school faculties and students to understand
and follow (Haddal, 2008). In this study, some participants shared their experiences of losing
their legal F1 student status for violating various SEVIS regulations. Notably, some of these
terminations could have been avoided if the participants had known the regulations earlier.
Additionally, the process of reinstating legal student status was complex, and the schools
provided no or only minimum help, forcing participants to seek the help of an immigration
attorney or study-abroad agent at an extra cost.
On the other hand, the information available on the USCIS website was limited and its
staff’s efficiency was low, resulting in USCIS taking an excessive amount of time to process
applications for reinstatement of student status. The USCIS official website reported waiting
periods of 17.5 months for the California Service Center and 20.5 months for the Vermont
Service Center as of August 7, 2022 (USCIS, n.d.). In addition, international students may have
been reluctant to leave the United States during their course of study if they believed that
obtaining a visa in their home country would be more difficult (Liu, 2015; U. S. Department of
State, 2005). This was consistent with findings from this study, as participants expressed
concerns about returning to China to renew their visas. Especially students who faced transition
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challenges in the United States, such as those with low GPAs, previous expulsions, or terminated
student status, may have been hesitant to return to China due to visa-related anxieties.
Academic Requirements
Fass-Holmes (2017) pointed out that academic integrity violations may result in
international students being suspended or expelled from school. Additionally, both U.S. schools
and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (2021d) have strict requirements for international
students’ GPAs, the number of credits per semester, and attendance. In this study, participants
encountered challenges in following these requirements due to their own or external reasons.
Academic challenges can result in participants being expelled and even losing their legal status
in the United States. This study suggests that although participants experienced similar academic
challenges, the reasons for their academic difficulties may vary. This finding highlights the
importance for schools to address individual student needs and not assume that all students
facing the same challenges require the same interventions. For example, some participants with
low GPAs were unfamiliar with U.S. teaching methods and did not know how to use the online
teaching system of the schools, whereas others lacked self-discipline, prioritized fun over
studying, or had mental health problems. Schools need to understand the unique circumstances
of each student to provide appropriate help. Another noteworthy point is that the directories on
some school websites were unclear, and some web pages and links were invalid, which increased
the difficulty for students in accessing support.
U.S. Local Laws and Regulations
Forbes-Mewett et al. (2015) noted that although the number is relatively small, crimes
committed by international students exist in the United States, the United Kingdom, and
Australia. The authors explained that there are three main reasons why international students
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may engage in criminal behavior while studying abroad. Firstly, cultural differences may result
in international students having a different understanding of what constitutes a crime. Secondly,
financial gain may motivate some international students to commit crimes, ranging from petty
theft to drug and firearm trafficking. Thirdly, mental health issues among international students
can lead to their involvement in criminal activities.
The findings of this study indicate that Chinese international students in the United States
frequently violate rules and regulations, including driving under the influence, speeding, driving
without a license, fighting, and drug abuse. Moreover, U.S. schools have stricter rules and
regulations for dealing with student violations than schools in China. For instance, fighting in
school is a frequent occurrence in China, and schools usually ask parents to discipline their
children; however, in the United States, fighting in school is considered a serious offense, and
international students may face arrest, prosecution, or even deportation for such behavior.
Chinese international students in the United States also face easier access to drugs than in China,
highlighting the need for schools to address drug addiction among this population.
The study also identified other legal issues faced by Chinese international students in the
United States, such as being suspected of money laundering when carrying large amounts of
cash, and restrictions on drinking alcohol before the age of 21, which do not exist in China.
Schools must educate Chinese international students about these local laws and regulations to
prevent them from unknowingly violating them. Additionally, Chinese international students
may not understand the importance of signing a lease agreement, leading to financial losses and a
negative impact on their study-abroad experience if evicted by the property owner.
Few schools provide free legal advice and representation to international students,
highlighting the need for schools to provide more support in this area. Schools’ websites should
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prompt students to avoid violating local laws, and more schools should provide free legal advice
and representation. By doing so, Chinese international students may avoid legal trouble and
enjoy a more productive and fulfilling experience studying in the United States.
Campus Integration
Tinto’s (1975) theory on college student departure posits that the more students integrate
into campus life, the greater their chances of success and persistence until graduation. Cabrera et
al.’s (1993) integrated model of student retention, based on Tinto’s theory, emphasizes the
complex role of environmental factors in students’ persistence. In their study, participants
reported significant differences between the school culture and climate in the United States and
China, and they may transfer to other schools if they feel isolated and lack a sense of belonging.
Participants in this study also shared their or other Chinese students’ experiences of racial
discrimination and sexual harassment in the United States, including a teacher who threatened
and coerced international students with grades. Despite many international students being aware
of this teacher’s behavior and the availability of links to report sexual harassment on the school’s
website, no one reported it to the school. This highlights the need for schools to proactively
address and prevent such incidents and for international students to feel comfortable and
supported in reporting such behavior to school authorities.
In addition, the majority of participants reported that they did not consider location when
selecting a school, and as a result, some participants later transferred to other schools due to their
dissatisfaction with the environment of the city. This is compounded by the fact that most school
websites only provide information about the school itself and may not include a detailed
description of the city, or only provide a limited amount of positive information. This lack of
information may result in students overlooking the city environment or having an incomplete
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understanding of it when selecting a school. Schools need to provide comprehensive information
about the city and its environment where the school is located to prospective students to help
them make informed decisions.
Transition Challenges Change Over Time and the Impact on Students
According to Bronfenbrenner (1994), both characteristics of the person and the
environment in which that person lives would change over time and influence each other.
Chinese international students are affected by life transitions and individual development over
time, such as prior educational and social environments, coming to the United States, time spent
in the United States, and other life-changing events through time (Newell, 2015; Stebleton, 2011;
Zhang, 2018). In this study, participants who traveled to the United States or participated in U.S.
summer camps adapted to U.S. learning and life faster than other students. The schools websites
indicate more support is available for freshmen, but the transition of Chinese students to the
United States is a long-term process. Half of the participants indicated they still have some
transition challenges after their first year in the United States.
In response to these transition challenges, most participants did not realize and did not
use the resources provided by the school. They mainly relied on self-study, searched for useful
information on the Internet, and sought help from peers, professors, and advisors. During the
transition from China to the United States, the mental health of Chinese international students
requires more attention. U.S. schools must introduce and promote the school’s psychotherapy
services to Chinese international students.
The official websites of the schools where the participants attended lacked support for
some transition challenges. In addition, some links on the official websites of these schools are
invalid, which prevented both students and me from obtaining information. The information
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provided on the official websites of these schools shows two extremes: Some schools provide a
lot of information and programs to help international students overcome transition challenges,
whereas others only provide limited information and programs. While too little support is
undesirable, the necessity and effectiveness of too many programs remain to be assessed. On the
other hand, participants showed very low participation in the programs and activities offered by
the school. Most of the participants are simply unaware of the existence of these programs and
activities. Regardless of how effective the programs offered by the school are, lacking student
participation is meaningless. Schools should realize that for most Chinese students, the transition
to U.S. schools is a long-term process that requires continuous support from the school. During
this process, the mental health of Chinese students needs special attention.
Discussion for Research Question 2
Microsystem and Mesosystem
The microsystem of Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological systems theory indicates family,
school, and peers as having direct contact with a child in their immediate environment and
influencing student development. Zhang (2018) indicated international admission officers,
academic advisors, and friends as three main sources of support for international students. The
findings of this study confirmed the importance of family, peers, international admission
officers, and academic advisors for Chinese international students’ transition and persistence.
Further, participants mentioned other sources of support that affect international students. For
example, school support also included professors or instructors and tutors. Sources of support
outside the school also included agents. In the mesosystem, students’ relationships with these
supporting parties and the interaction between these supporting parties impacted Chinese
international students’ transition and persistence at U.S. universities.
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Support and Shortcomings of Services From Schools Staff and Faculties
When faced with transition challenges in the United States, participants’ main sources of
support from schools are professors or instructors, academic advisors, staff of the international
student office, tutoring, and library services. Most participants affirmed the school’s support.
However, the participants also indicated many shortcomings. In general, the participants
indicated that small classes, spending more time communicating with students after class,
responding to emails quickly, and fun and practical teaching methods can make students feel
more supported by professors or instructors. The participants also pointed out that the help of
academic advisors for students mainly focused on choosing courses and majors. Eight
participants said the academic advisors were helpful because their academic advisors told them
the most reasonable course selection and the fastest way to graduate. When some participants
have any other questions in various aspects, their academic advisor can help them contact other
departments or tell them which department to go to. In addition, the participants pointed out that
the main function of the international student office is to manage the legal status of international
students. Other supports from the international student offices received by the participants were
limited, such as teaching some learning methods, giving guidance for applying for optional
practical training, and helping contact academic departments.
The participants also pointed out some disadvantages of school staff and faculties. For
instance, some professors or instructors lack teaching skills, have accents that make them
difficult to understand, and lack training in teaching international students. Participants also
pointed out that some academic advisors responded to students too slowly. Each consultation
time is too short for students to ask all the questions. The quality of the advisor’s service varies
from person to person and the mood of the advisor. Some advisors have a negative work attitude,
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and others lack work ability, neither of which can help students solve problems. Further,
participants indicated that the professionalism and service quality of the staff of the international
student office vary, and most schools lack support for reinstatement applications. Although some
participants indicated tutoring and library services are helpful, the problem was that only a few
participants were aware of those free services.
Critical Roles of Off-Campus Sources of Support
The findings of this study indicate that the sources of support outside school, including
family, peers, agents, and the Internet, had an essential influence on Chinese international
students’ transition and persistence at U.S. universities. However, these off-campus supports
have both positive and negative effects. Schools should understand and take advantage of these
off-campus supports while reducing their negative impact.
Firstly, Chinese parents play a critical role in Chinese international students’ support
networks (Liu, 2009). On the one hand, parents provided financial and emotional support for the
participants. When participants faced important academic-related decisions, such as choosing a
major or dropping out, parents often played a decisive role. On the other hand, parents’ high
expectations pressure their children and may influence their mental health (Liu, 2009). The
findings also indicated parents were key to student persistence. For example, when participants
did not perform well in school, they reported feeling guilty. Further, misunderstandings, urgings,
and scolding from parents can increase participants’ stress, leading to anxiety, depression, and
even suicide. By reviewing schools’ websites, this study found that although schools had parent
organizations and offered some family programs and activities, the parents of Chinese
international students did not seem to be involved.
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Secondly, learning from peers is one of the strategies that participants use to deal with
transition challenges. Peers provided the participants with academic, life, and emotional support.
Most participants said that all their friends in the United States were Chinese students, and only a
few Chinese students can form friendships with American students or international students from
other countries. Some schools’ Chinese student clubs provided helped the participants when they
first arrived in the United States. A well-run Chinese Student Club offers an avenue for
participants to know other Chinese students but also for parents to communicate with the
International Students Office. Regrettably, by reviewing the websites of the 23 schools that
participants attended, Chinese student clubs in most schools only organized some activities for
entertainment among students and did not cooperate with the international student office.
Moreover, most of the Chinese Student Club web pages, Instagram, or Facebook pages have not
been updated for 3–5 years. If the International Students Office cooperated with and guided
Chinese student clubs, it may benefit more students and parents.
Thirdly, study-abroad agencies play an important role in Chinese students applying to
U.S. schools, applying for F1 visas, and adjusting to their studies and life abroad (Serra
Hagedorn & Zhang, 2011; Zhang & Hagedorn, 2014). This study confirms the importance of
study-abroad agencies. At the school application stage, study-abroad agencies facilitated the
participants who were unfamiliar with U.S. schools and improved application efficiency. When
participants were admitted to multiple schools at the same time, the agents’ recommendations
played a decisive role in determining which school participants ultimately chose to attend. The
agents also helped the participants prepare before the trip, such as booking air tickets and
dormitories. After the students enroll, agents also fill the gap in the school’s international student
services. When some students faced F1 status issues in the United States, they had to ask agents
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for help because some schools’ international student advisors did not provide F1 status support.
Schools must cooperate with and use agents smartly, allowing agents to serve as an aide to
international student services. At the same time, schools need to realize that agents have done the
application and preadmission preparations on behalf of some participants. Participants need to
handle everything by themselves after admission, and they may be overwhelmed. Students need
international student advisors to provide more information and attention to help them transition
from relying on an agent to handling things on their own.
Recommendations for Practice
Schools must recognize that many international students see studying abroad as an
investment, and schools should improve their quality of education and student services so that
international students can receive a higher return on their investment (Schulmann & Choudaha,
2014). The findings of this study offer some suggestions to help higher education institutions
more effectively retain and serve international students.
Firstly, schools should provide appropriate training to improve school staffs’
understanding of Chinese students’ needs and improve service quality. Forest (2002) notes that
the most effective learning plans are aligned with the organization’s strategic plan. If a college’s
goal is to improve student retention, the members of that institution must seek to learn how
various dimensions of the college affect current students and their retention (Forest, 2002).
Participants in this study shared the eight challenges they experienced during their studies and
life in the United States and how these challenges have affected their persistence. These findings
can be used as a reference for school training to help faculty and staff in various departments of
the school understand Chinese international students’ needs and educate staff on how to help
Chinese international students overcome these challenges within their responsibilities. The
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international student office of each school can also do more research to determine the specific
factors that affect Chinese international student retention at their location. In addition, schools
should provide regular training to help staff improve their quality of service. For example,
schools can offer training programs to help teachers improve their teaching skills. For teachers
and advisors whose native language is not English, schools should provide and encourage
teachers and advisors to participate in English pronunciation remedy courses to improve the
accent of teachers and advisors. Schools’ international student advisors should also take more
initiatives to study the Department of Homeland Security policies to give international students
better guidance.
Secondly, schools should effectively use and cooperate with external resources and attach
importance to parent and student organizations. Regarding recommendations, parent
organizations can provide leaflets in multiple languages for Chinese parents to read, and faculty
advisors could provide more guidance and support to the Chinese Student Union. Moreover, the
international student office must collaborate with these organizations. Schools should also
strengthen their cooperation with agents and use them to aid in their communication with
students following enrollment to address the lack of staff or services of the International
Student Office. When international students encounter F1 visas or legal status problems that the
schools cannot help resolve, schools should promptly instruct the students to consult the
customer service department of the USCIS or recommend suitable immigration lawyers to the
students. For laws that international students are prone to violate, the international student office
should remind students in advance and provide resources for contacting corresponding off-
campus legal aid departments or lawyers.
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Thirdly, schools should provide appropriate and moderate support programs. Both school
administrators and faculty must understand the differences and uniqueness of international
students as a population that is entirely different from domestic students (Akanwa, 2015).
According to the finding of this study, U.S. schools should help the participants understand U.S.
school culture and climate, city environment, academic requirements, U.S. foreign policies,
immigration laws and visa regulations, local laws and regulations, and U.S. education methods.
In addition, participants mentioned needing support to adapt to the changing China–U.S.
relations and overcome language barriers. In this study, some schools offered limited help, which
is not enough to meet the needs of participants, whereas others waste funding by offering too
many support programs for international students, leaving participants confused about which one
to choose. It is not beneficial to provide too many or too few support programs; it is most
important to provide the most suitable programs. International student offices need to perform
program assessments every year to understand the needs of students and improve their programs
in a timely manner.
Fourthly, it is important to ensure students know what supports are available at their
school. Regardless of how many good support programs a school offers, it does not make sense
if students do not know the programs exist. The Internet is an important source of information
for participants, and an informative and easy-to-find school website can help students obtain
support resources quickly. The school can also take international students to visit the campus
during orientation and show international students what resources the school has available as
well as send regular emails during the school year. Most U.S. schools will introduce resources of
support, as well as basic policies and regulations, to international students during their first-
semester orientation. Montgomery (2017) indicated that a one-time orientation is not enough and
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recommended that institutions provide continuous orientation each semester. A participant in this
study also suggested all U.S. schools make orientation mandatory for all international students
instead of voluntary.
Lastly, schools should pay attention to the mental health of Chinese international
students. Since Chinese international students are generally hesitant to seek help when they
encounter mental health problems, outreach programs that invite these students have become a
community and campus-based task that mental health professionals encourage (Hwang et al.,
2014; Nilsson et al., 2004; Sumer et al., 2008; Yan & Berliner, 2011). Researchers have
mentioned one way to solve this problem: have an on-campus mental health professional who
speaks Chinese and is introduced during orientation so that students are aware (Bertram et al.,
2014; Yan & Berliner, 2011). In this study, one participant suggested that the international
student office send regular emails to all international students telling them that mental health
problems are common in the United States, and reminding students what help they can get and
where to go if they encounter mental health problems.
Implementation
Organizational Learning and Learning Organization
The concept of organizational learning has a long history, beginning in the 1950s
(Argyris & Schön, 1996). The researchers in organizational psychology observed what they
thought was a new phenomenon, whereby collectives could be seen to learn as a whole rather
than just individually (Kezar, 2005). Argyris and Schön (1978) defined organizational learning
as the process of developing, retaining, and transferring knowledge within the organization.
Organizational learning focused on studying whether, how, and under what conditions
organizations can be said to learn (Fiol & Lyles, 1985).
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The concept of the learning organization evolved out of research on organizational
learning and became popular in the early 1990s (Kezar, 2005). The learning organization
emerged in response to concerns that U.S. firms were unable to respond to challenges from the
external environment and that bureaucratic structures had created inflexible, routinized
environments where workers no longer engaged in thoughtful reflection (Kezar, 2005). Learning
organizations focus on creating adaptable, flexible, experimental, and innovative organizations.
Such an environment promotes a culture of learning and a community of learners to ensure that
individual learning enriches and enhances the organization as a whole (Kezar, 2005). According
to Garvin (1993), a learning organization has five main activities (processes): systematic
problem-solving, experimentation with new approaches, learning from experience and history,
learning from the experiences and best practices of others, and transferring knowledge quickly
and efficiently throughout the organization.
Organizational learning and learning organization were used within higher education in
the 1980s and early 1990s and were related to discussions of total quality management teams,
systems emphasis, mission, and learning and continuous quality improvement (Freed &
Klugman, 1996; Freed et al., 1997; Kezar, 2005). At the same time, policymakers were
introducing assessments across the country as another way to improve the performance of higher
education institutions (Banta, 1996; Freed et al., 1997; Kezar, 2005; Lyons, 1999b). Assessment
refers to the processes employed by academic staff to judge students’ achievement in units of
study and through the course of study. These processes include deciding what evidence is
relevant for a particular purpose, how to collect and interpret it, and how to communicate it to
the intended users, such as students, academic colleagues, and university administrators (Harlen,
2005). The foundations of good assessment practice are designed to promote student learning,
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measure student achievement, and maintain academic standards. Good assessment must be fair,
transparent, and equitable (Senge, 1990).
Educational institutions assess for two primary purposes: to hold the institution, or parts
of an institution, such as individual departments, accountable and promote the self-improvement
and reform of the institutions at all levels to serve their students and the public more effectively
(Grubb & Badway, 2005). In addition to the institution-wide assessment required by the school,
the International Student Program and Services (ISPS), as the main body serving international
students, also needs to conduct a program-level assessment. The assessment purpose of ISPS is
to examine the effectiveness and improve the program, guide decisions, and accountability to the
school’s audiences. The evaluation will not only assess whether this program achieves missions
through outcomes, inputs, processes, and satisfaction of international students but also provide
evidence for organizational learning and promote institutes to be learning organizations.
Designing Program-Level Assessments
In designing the assessment plan for ISPS, the Council for the Advancement of Standards
in Higher Education (2015) Self-Assessment Guide for ISPS could be used as a reference. The
council suggests schools self-assess ISPS based on 12 components, which they developed and
have incorporated several common standards for each component. In this section, I discuss some
of the standards under each component related to this study for reference in school improvement.

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Figure 7
Self-Assessment Plan for International Student Programs and Services

The first component is the mission. ISPS should have a clear mission that is not limited to
providing documents for international students to enter and maintain their legal status in the
country but also focuses on ensuring compliance with governmental immigration regulations.
Further, ISPS should provide crucial support and assistance to international students to help them
achieve their academic goals. ISPS must implement and regularly review its missions, ensuring
they are performed within ISPS.
The second component is program and service. The support programs and services ISPS
provides must contribute to achieving its mission and ISPS must collaborate with colleagues and
departments across the institution and off-campus organizations to meet the needs of
international students. ISPS could interpret immigration policies and other government
regulations for the campus, local communities, and international students and ensure both
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institutional and international student policies comply with government regulations and
procedures. Also, ISPS must assess the needs of international students and provide programs to
assist them to overcome the transition challenges, ensure that international students complete
their educational goals, and prepare them for careers.
The third component is student learning, development, and success. ISPS must emphasize
identifying relevant learning outcomes and assessing their achievement by students. ISPS must
provide evidence of the extent to which student learning and development outcomes are
achieved, and use evidence to create strategies for improving student learning, development, and
success.
The fourth component is assessment. ISPS must realize the importance of assessment and
implement assessment regularly. ISPS must have adequate fiscal, human, and technological
resources to develop and implement assessment plans. ISPS must employ ethical practices in the
assessment process and the results should be used to improve the programs and services.
The fifth component is access, equity, diversity, and inclusion. In accordance with each
institution's mission, policy, and applicable codes and laws, ISPS must create and maintain
educational and work environments that are welcoming, accessible, inclusive, equitable, and free
from harassment. ISPS staff members must demonstrate a high degree of cross-cultural
competency and work for international students without judgment. ISPS must orient international
students to U.S. culture and promote and deepen international students’ understanding of cross-
cultural differences. To maintain the long-term well-being of international students and the
international educational exchange programs, ISPS staff members must anticipate and balance
the students’ needs with institutional policies and laws.
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The sixth component is leadership, management, and supervision. To achieve program
and student learning and development outcomes, ISPS must be purposefully structured for
effectiveness. ISPS must have clearly stated current goals and outcomes, policies and
procedures, responsibilities and performance expectations for personnel, and organizational
charts demonstrating clear channels of authority. Leaders must model ethical behavior and
provide strategic planning, management and supervision, and program advancement. In addition,
the institution should be aware of and ready to respond to government requirements for enrolling
international students. DSOs in ISPS must be designated to ensure institutional and international
students’ compliance with government immigration regulations.
The seventh component is human resources. ISPS could not accomplish its mission and
goals without qualified employees. Within institutional guidelines, ISPS must establish
procedures to recruit and select, train, and support employees, create performance plans, and
evaluate employee performance. Appropriate and thorough training should be provided not only
when hired but also throughout their employment. Further, employees should be given
opportunities to access advanced education and to improve their competence, skills, and
leadership capacity. ISPS should ensure employee benefits and pay attention to employee mental
health. Individual personnel evaluations must be conducted on an ongoing basis, such as once
per semester. The result of evaluations will be used to improve personal performance and
training programs.
The eighth component is ethics, law, and policy. ISPS must review applicable
professional ethical standards and implement appropriate statements of ethical practice. ISPS
must orient ethical standards, statements of ethical practice, and related institutional policies to
all employees and supervise employees so that their conduct meets requirements. ISPS should
143

respect privacy and maintain the confidentiality of students’ education records. However, ISPS
must release students’ education records when mandated by governmental regulations and
legislation, including the U.S. Department of Homeland Security or the U.S. Department of
State. Also, ISPS must comply with state, provincial, or federal laws, regulations, and
institutional policies that relate to their responsibilities. ISPS staff must also be familiar with the
rights and responsibilities afforded international students by law, and staff must be able to
communicate such to students. ISPS staff must be well versed in and remain current on
immigration laws and regulations that impact students. ISPS staff must understand and be able to
use the SEVIS proficiently. ISPS must have access to legal advice needed for employees to carry
out their assigned responsibilities. When a student needs legal services, ISPS should be able to
refer students to legal services on or off campus.
The ninth component is communication and collaboration. ISPS must reach out to on-
and off-campus individuals and organizations to assist with formal education, meet the needs of
students, and improve and disseminate information about programs and services. ISPS could
jointly organize programs or activities with these organizations or provide appropriate and timely
referral services to other relevant agencies when ISPS cannot meet the needs of international
students. ISPS must value and have procedures and guidelines to communicate with media and
distribute information through print, broadcast, and online sources. ISPS staff should establish
and maintain a positive working relationship with the institutional government liaison and be
aware of changes in government policies or activities affecting international students in a timely
manner. ISPS needs to inform students and take appropriate action to help students deal with
these changes.
144

The tenth component is financial resources. ISPS must have funding to accomplish its
mission and goals. To make a clear budget plan, ISPS should analyze the unmet needs of
international students, relevant expenditures, and the impact on students and the institute. ISPS
should also analyze external and internal resources to avoid unnecessary expenses. ISPS must
administer funds according to established institutional accounting procedures and demonstrate
efficient and effective use and responsible stewardship of fiscal resources. ISPS should evaluate
its programs and service regularly and cut out ineffective and inefficient programs and services
in time to avoid waste of financial resources. Financial reports must provide clear,
understandable, and timely data for managers to review and develop future budgets.
The eleventh component is technology. The ISPS web page must provide updated
information regarding mission, location, staffing, programs, services, and official contacts to
facilitate students and other constituents to obtain information. ISPS should provide employees
with training and technical support to ensure they have sufficient skills to achieve its mission and
goals. Sensitive information of students and other constituents should be saved in a secure
format. All the data should be backed up and all technology should be replaced regularly. ISPS
also needs to provide international students with instruction, training, and technical support to
ensure they know how to use school email, teaching systems, and software required by the
school.
The twelfth component is facilities and infrastructure. ISPS should provide suitably
located and accessible, well-equipped, adequately sized, and well-designed workspaces to
employees. The facilities must guarantee the security and privacy of records and ensure the
confidentiality of sensitive information and conversations. All employees should be trained in
the proper use of office equipment. All facilities, equipment, and other infrastructure must be
145

evaluated and maintained regularly. The cost of maintenance and replacement should also be
considered before purchasing equipment and not exceed the departmental budget. Based on this
study, ISPS should also inform international students how to access and use public equipment
provided by the school, such as computers and printers, and inform international students how to
seek help if they do not know how to use the equipment.
CAS recommends that schools conduct a self-assessment in seven steps. The first step is
to plan the process, which involves mapping out the steps, developing a timeline, gaining support
from stakeholders, and identifying the desired outcomes. The second step is to assemble and
educate the self-assessment team. Schools should determine who should be on the team and how
to educate them about the self-assessment process. In the third step, schools need to identify,
collect, and review evidence. They should define what constitutes evidence and gather, manage,
and review the data. For the fourth step, schools must conduct and interpret ratings using
evaluative evidence. This involves clarifying rating criteria, employing a rating process,
negotiating rating differences, and managing group ratings. In step five, schools should develop
an action plan that identifies discrepancies, corrective action, and recommended steps, including
identifying strengths, weaknesses, recommendations, benchmarks for achievement, resources,
timeframe, and responsible individuals. The sixth step is to prepare a report. Schools must
identify their audience, describe the self-assessment process, summarize the findings, describe
the action plan, and draft an executive summary. The last step is to close the loop. Schools
should put the action plans into practice, navigate politics and secure resources, identify and
overcome barriers, and build support for the program review results.
146

Recommendation for Future Research
Results from the National Association of Foreign Student Advisers and World Education
Services survey for international students’ retention and engagement in 2013/14 indicate
financial difficulties were listed as one of the top five influencing factors (Schulmann &
Choudaha, 2014). However, financial difficulties were not considered a major factor by the
participants in this survey. This does not mean that Chinese students do not have financial
difficulties. As mentioned in the limitations, this research was conducted at a private ECC that
charges students for their service. Students who drop out after experiencing financial difficulties
are less likely to be able to pay service fees, which means they were not included in the sample.
The impact of financial difficulties on Chinese international students’ retention can be explored
by schools in future research.
This study was designed before the COVID-19 outbreak and did not mention the impact
of COVID-19 on Chinese international students. Whether and how the 3-year plague has a
longer-term impact on Chinese students studying in the United States can be explored in future
research. Moreover, although previous studies have indicated that Chinese students encounter
mental health problems in the United States, the participants in this study stressed that the mental
health problems they and other students experienced during the transition process were more
common than expected. Thus, it is worthwhile to conduct more research on this subject in the
future. In addition, Further research is needed to explore how all departments within an
institution can collaborate to improve services and foster a greater sense of belonging for
international students.
147

Conclusion
To provide international students with a higher return on their investment, schools should
address the eight challenges identified in this study and continuously improve the quality of
education and student services. Help for Chinese students should be ongoing throughout the
undergraduate level. During the transition process, the mental health of Chinese students needs
special attention and support. ISPS should work actively with organizations on and off campus to
conserve departmental resources and maximize the needs of international students. Additionally,
ISPS needs to perform program assessments every year to understand the needs of students and
improve their programs in a timely manner.
148

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165

Appendix A: Interview Conceptual Framework Alignment Matrix
Research question Area of conceptual
framework
Questions
Individual background 1, 2, 19, 24
1. How do Chinese international
undergraduate students perceive the
impact of transition challenges on
their persistence in U.S. higher
education institutions?
Exosystem 8, 9, 10, 11, 20, 21
Macrosystem 3, 5, 6, 7, 20, 21
Chronosystem 12
2. What do Chinese international
students experience when seeking
help for persistence problems caused
by transition challenges?
Microsystem 13, 18
Mesosystem 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 22,
23

166

Appendix B: Document Review Conceptual Framework Alignment Matrix
Research question Area of
conceptual
framework
Questions
1. How do Chinese international
undergraduate students perceive
the impact of transition
challenges on their persistence
in U.S. higher education
institutions?
Exosystem Schools’ catalogs may be obtained on
schools’ websites
Schools’ services and programs to
help Chinese international students to
overcome academic challenges
Schools’ policies and regulations for
international students listed on
schools’ websites
Immigration laws, policies, or
regulations related to a student’s F1
status school from USCIS’ website,
if any
Services and programs the schools
provided to help Chinese
international students understand and
comply with U.S. laws and school
regulations
Macrosystem Services and programs the schools
provided to help Chinese
international students to understand
and adapt to U.S. culture
Services and programs the schools
provided to help Chinese
international students to understand
and adapt to U.S. education methods
Services and programs the schools
provided to help Chinese
international students to improve
their English proficiency
Chronosystem Services and programs which schools
provided to international first-year
students
Services and programs schools
provided to international continuing
students
2. What do Chinese international
students experience when
seeking help for persistence
problems caused by transition
challenges?
Microsystem Schools’ international student
office’s contact information and open
hours
Schools’ professors or instructors’
contact information and office hours
167

Research question Area of
conceptual
framework
Questions
Schools’ academic advisors’ contact
information and office hours
Number of Chinese international
student organizations and their
contact information
Parent organizations’ contact
information
Information on the school website
about other personnel directly
support international students
Mesosystem International student office’s job
responsibilities listed on schools’
website
Schools’ academic advisors’ job
responsibilities listed on schools’
website
Schools’ recruitment requirements
and training for professors or
instructors
The activities and services Chinese
international student organizations
provided
The activities and services parent
organizations provided to Chinese
international student’s parents

168

Appendix C: Student Interview Protocol
Student Name
Gender (self-identified)
Age
TOEFL Score___________________________
First School Name and GPA________________
Second School Name and GPA______________
Interviewer
Date
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set
aside to answer my questions. As I mentioned when we last spoke, the interview should take
about an hour, does that still work for you?
Before we get started, I want to provide you with an overview of my study and answer
any questions you might have about participating in this interview. I am a student at USC and am
conducting a study on how transition challenges affect the persistence of Chinese international
students in U.S. higher education institutions. I am reviewing documents and talking to multiple
students to learn more about this.
My questions (and documents reviewing) are not evaluative. I will not be making any
judgments about you. This interview is also confidential. I will not share them with any other
person. I am happy to provide you with a copy of my final paper if you are interested. I will keep
the data in a password-protected computer and all data will be erased after 3 years, per university
policy.
169

Might you have any questions about the study before we get started? I have brought a
recorder with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. This recording
is required/not optional for this study. The recording is solely for my purposes to best capture
your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone else. May I have your permission to record
our conversation? [If yes, continue. If not, thank the participant for their time and end the
discussion.]
Setting the Stage (Additional Demographics)
I’d like to start by asking you some background questions about yourself.
1. How many years have you studied in the undergraduate program in the United States?
[Background, RQs 1 & 2; individual] Prompt: How many undergraduate colleges
have you attended in the United States? [Background, RQs 1 & 2; individual]
2. Why did you choose to study in the United States instead of China? [Opinions/Values,
RQs 1 & 2; individual] Prompt: Why did you choose to study in your first
undergraduate school? [Opinions/values, RQs 1 & 2; individual]
Now I’d like to ask you some questions about the challenges you faced at your first
undergraduate school.
3. What is the difference in teaching methods between U.S. schools and Chinese
schools? [Interpretive, RQ1; macrosystem] Prompt: What methods have you tried to
adapt U.S. education methods, if any? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ1; macrosystem]
4. How have your instructors and/or school learned about your assets and needs?
[Behaviors/experiences, RQ2; mesosystem] Prompt: How have your instructors
and/or school included and fostered your assets and needs in classroom/university
processes, if any? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ2; mesosystem]
170

5. Could you share an experience of language barriers you encountered after arriving in
the United States, if any? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ1; macrosystem] Prompt: What
methods have you tried to overcome language barriers? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ1;
macrosystem]
6. Could you share an experience of the culture shock you encountered after arriving in
the United States, if any? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ1; macrosystem] Prompt: What
strategies have you tried to adapt to U.S. culture, if any? [Behaviors/experiences,
RQ1; macrosystem]
7. What do you think about Sino–U.S. relations? [Opinion/Values, RQ1] [Macrosystem]
Prompt: How do Sino-U.S. relations affect your study abroad plan, if any?
[Opinion/values, RQ1; macrosystem]
8. Does your first undergraduate school have any academic requirements for
international students? [Knowledge, RQ1; exosystem]
9. What is an academic challenge you have experienced in your first undergraduate
school, if any? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ1; exosystem] Prompt: What methods
have you tried to overcome this academic challenge, if any? [Behaviors/experiences,
RQ1; exosystem]
10. Do you know any immigration laws or visa regulations international students must
comply with? [Knowledge, RQ1; exosystem] Prompt: Do you or other Chinese
students you know have any experience of violating any immigration law or visa
regulation? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ1; exosystem]
11. Do you know which laws or regulations in the United States are different from those
in China? [Knowledge, RQ1; exosystem] Prompt: Do you or other Chinese students
171

you know have any experience of violating U.S. laws or regulations?
[Behaviors/experiences, RQ1; exosystem]
12. Considering the transition challenges which we have mentioned above, which ones do
you think can be overcome within one year of admission, and which ones cannot?
[Opinion/values, RQ1; chronosystem]
Now we’re going to switch gears and talk about the support you received at your first
undergraduate school.
13. If I was a new international student and wanted to find support to help me with the
challenges I was facing, where would you tell me to go? [Knowledge, RQ2;
microsystem]
14. What kind of support did you receive when you faced transition challenges in your
first undergraduate school, if at all? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ2; mesosystem]
 Prompt: How do you feel about your classmates’ support, if any?
[Feelings/emotions, RQ2; mesosystem]
 Prompt: How do you feel about your professors’ or instructors’ support, if
any? [Feelings/emotions, RQ2; mesosystem]
 Prompt: How do you feel about your academic advisors’ support, if any?
[Feelings/emotions, RQ2; mesosystem]
 Prompt: How do you feel about your international student officers’ support, if
any? [Feelings/emotions, RQ2; mesosystem]
15. How might school’s support affect your persistence in school, if at all?
[Behaviors/experiences, RQ2; mesosystem]
172

16. How do you feel about your parents’ support, if any? [Feelings/emotions, RQ2];
mesosystem] Prompt: How might your parents’ support affect your persistence in
school, if at all? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ2; mesosystem]
17. How do you feel about your friends’ support, if any? [Feelings/emotions, RQ2;
mesosystem] Prompt: How might your friends’ support affect your persistence in
school, if at all? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ2; mesosystem]
18. Have you received any other support in addition to the support mentioned above?
[Behaviors/experiences, RQ2; microsystem]
19. Some people would say that Chinese international students lack the perseverance to
graduate. What would you tell them? [Devil’s advocate, RQ2; individual]
Now we’re going to switch gears and talk about the reason(s) that caused you to leave
your first undergraduate school.
20. What is the reason that caused you to leave this school? [Behaviors/experiences,
RQ1; exosystem or macrosystem]
21. Do you think this is a challenge that all students would face or just international
students? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ1; exosystem or macrosystem]
22. When you were faced with a challenge that led to your expulsion from the school, did
the school provide any support to help you persist? [Behaviors/experiences, RQ2;
mesosystem]
23. If I was the principal at the school and wanted to improve Chinese international
students’ persistence, what would you suggest I do? [Ideal, RQ2; mesosystem]
173

Closing Question
24. As part of our wrap-up, is there anything I have not asked you that will help me
understand your experience in your first undergraduate school?
[Behaviors/experiences, RQs 1 & 2]
Closing Comments
Thank you so much for you sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate your
time and willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my study. If I
find myself with a follow-up question, may I contact you by email? Again, thank you for
participating in my study. As a thank you, please accept this small token of my appreciation.
Postinterview Summary and Reflection
[ADD shortly after each interview]

174

Appendix D: Informed Consent for Research
Study Title: How do transition challenges affect the persistence of Chinese international
students?

Principal Investigator: Jiaming Wang

Department: Rossier School of Education

DETAILED INFORMATION

PURPOSE

This study is being conducted in partial fulfillment of the Principal Investigator’s
graduate instruction at the University of Southern California. The focus of this study is to find
out how transition challenges affect Chinese international undergraduate students’ persistence in
U.S. higher education institutions and identify what types of support schools should provide to
improve students’ persistence.
You are invited as a possible participant because the participant must meet the following
criteria: (a) come from Mainland China, (b) are a citizen of the People's Republic of China, (c)
study in an undergraduate program in any U.S. higher education institution, (d) study in the
United States with an F1 visa, (e) were dismissed or dropped out during the 2019-2020 academic
year, and (f) are 18 years of age or older.
Twelve participants will take part in the study.

PROCEDURES

In this study, you will be invited to participate in a 1-hour interview via a video
conferencing platform, such as Zoom, or telephone. You will be asked about your experience
and perspective on the transition challenges. You will be asked in detail how this transition
challenge resulted in you leaving your original school. The interview will be audio-recorded. If
you decline to be recorded, you cannot participate in this study.

You will be asked to share personal documents related to the immediate causes or events
leading to your leaving school, and your experience of seeking help from the school will be
reviewed with your permission. These documents may include your academic transcript,
attendance rate, and your emails with the school(s). If you are also facing F1 status issues, the
letters and notices from U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services and your responses will also
be reviewed with your permission.

RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS

Participation in this study may result in your experiencing psychological or emotional
feelings, such as stress, guilt, loss of self-esteem, depression, or triggering of past emotional
experiences. Some of the interview questions may make you feel uneasy or embarrassed. You
175

can choose to skip or stop answering any questions. Also, you may refuse to provide any
requested documents that you do not want to share.

BENEFITS

There are no direct benefits to you from taking part in this study. However, your
participation in this study may help us learn how to provide better support to Chinese
international students.

PRIVACY/CONFIDENTIALITY

We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law.
However, if we are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about
you. Efforts will be made to limit the use and disclosure of your personal information to people
who are required to review this information. We may publish the information from this study in
journals or present it at meetings. If we do, we will not use your name.

The University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Human
Subject’s Protections Program (HSPP) may review your records.

Your responses, which are also called “data” will be saved on a password-protected
computer and all your identifiers will be destroyed. Only the principal investigator will have
access. You will have the right to review or edit your data anytime within 60 days of the
interview. All data will be maintained per university policy and destroyed after 3 years.

Your data collected as part of this research will not be used or distributed for future
research studies, even if all your identifiers are removed.

ALTERNATIVES

An alternative would be to not participate in this study.

PAYMENTS / COMPENSATION

You can choose to receive $20 in Amazon gift cards or $20 cash as compensation for
your time. Compensation will not be withheld until you complete the entire study. A $20
Amazon gift card or $20 cash will be given to you when the interview is finished. You do not
have to answer all of the questions or provide all requested documents to receive the gift cards or
cash.

VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION

It is your choice whether to participate. If you choose to participate, you may change
your mind and leave the study at any time. If you decide not to participate, or choose to end your
participation in this study, you will not be penalized or lose any benefits that you are otherwise
entitled to.
176

CONTACT INFORMATION

If you have questions, concerns, complaints, or think the research has hurt you, talk to the
study investigator. You may contact the principal investigator Jiaming Wang by email at
wangjiam@usc.edu, or contact faculty advisor Patricia Tobey, Ph.D. at tobey@usc.edu.

This research has been reviewed by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB
is a research review board that reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and
welfare of research participants. Contact the IRB if you have questions about your rights as a
research participant or you have complaints about the research. You may contact the IRB at
(323) 442-0114 or by email at irb@usc.edu.

STATEMENT OF CONSENT

I have read (or someone has read to me) the information provided above. I have been
given a chance to ask questions. All my questions have been answered. By signing this form, I
am agreeing to take part in this study.

Name of Research Participant Signature Date Signed

Person Obtaining Consent
I have personally explained the research to the participant using non-technical language. I
have answered all the participant’s questions. I believe that the participant understands the
information described in this informed consent and freely consents to participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Signature Date Signed
Informed Consent

177

Appendix E: IRB Approval Notice

178

179

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Asset Metadata

Creator Wang, Jiaming (author)

Core Title How do transition challenges affect the persistence of Chinese international undergraduate students?

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 05/24/2023

Defense Date 04/14/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Chinese international students,OAI-PMH Harvest,persistence,retention,transition challenges

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia (committee chair), Haj-Mohamadi, Sourena (committee member), Hinga, Briana (committee member)

Creator Email wangjiam@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113134841

Unique identifier UC113134841

Identifier etd-WangJiamin-11888.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-WangJiamin-11888

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Wang, Jiaming

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230524-usctheses-batch-1048 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu