University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A physiological approach to teaching conducting

(USC Thesis Other)

A physiological approach to teaching conducting

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content A PHYSIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO TEACHING CONDUCTING
by
Michelle Warman Jensen, M.M.
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
(CHORAL MUSIC)
December 2023

ii
Acknowledgements
My gratitude must first go to Kenneth Mengel, MPT who helped me recover from a
shoulder injury over a decade ago. His persistence in research revealed the lack of study in
physical therapy on conductors, and his tenacity to discover what conductors need to use and how
they need to use it launched this project. Together, we developed many of the exercises that I have
adapted for use in teaching the mechanics of conducting presented here. In addition, Paul Cords,
DPT was instrumental in the early stages of the development of this project. Thank you both for
helping me down this path.
I must also thank the members of my dissertation committee: Dr. Tram Sparks (chair), Dr.
Cristian Grases, and Dr. Emily Sung. Dr. Grases’s gentle yet persistent prodding to complete this
dissertation served as both encouragement and the right kind of pressure. Dr. Sparks was willing
to graciously jump in with a student she had not previously met and help get me across the finish
line. Dr. Sung deserves recognition for her careful proofreading and timely responses to questions.
Brandon DiNoto, Brian Sidders and Dr. Alex Lansburg all contributed to this project in
multiple ways, from proofreading and helping me find images to leading rehearsals and covering
my classes when I needed to write, edit, rewrite, edit. I could not have finished this project without
you.
To my conducting teachers: Dr. William Dehning, Dr. Charlene Archibeque, Paul
Salamunovich, Dr. Rodney Eichenberger, and Dr. Jo-Michael Scheibe, I owe you a debt of
gratitude for inspiring me along the way. Each one of you has contributed in a significant way to
my conducting practice and philosophy. Thank you for investing in me. I hope I make you proud.
The faculty and students at Azusa Pacific University have been instrumental in allowing
me to take these ideas and put them into practice. Thank you for providing an environment where
scholarship is valued, growth is supported, and faith can be lived out in a meaningful way.
Most importantly, I need to thank my family. I could never have finished this dissertation
without their love and unstinting support. My husband Jeep has provided emotional, physical and
spiritual sustenance every step along the way. My children Mackenzie and Trey have been patient,
loving and understanding as I have had to juggle between mom, professor and student. Mackenzie,
an artist and athlete, graciously tried my exercises, modeled for some of the pictures, and
contributed illustrations to this paper. Your talent astounds me! My parents, Joyce and Marvin
Warman have enthusiastically cheered me on and supported my music education from my first
solo in church at the age of 2 through today. My in-laws, Mary and Roger Jensen never understood
much of what I did, but that didn’t stop them from zealously attending concerts, traveling with my
choir oversees, and asking thoughtful questions about my work. Both sets of parents provided
countless hours of babysitting, driving, and weekend sleepovers so I could finish this degree. You
are all my biggest and most important fans. Thank you all for loving me through this.

iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................... ii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. iiv
Abstract .........................................................................................................................................vi
Chapter 1: Statement of the Problem..........................................................................................1
Purpose of the Study....................................................................................................................4
Need for the Study.......................................................................................................................4
Definitions...................................................................................................................................7
Limitations...................................................................................................................................7
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature: Conducting and Physiology.................................19
History of Teaching Conducting ...............................................................................................19
History of the Craft & Physiology of Conducting.....................................................................26
Chapter 3: Review of Related Literature: Physical Therapy Devices to be Considered for
Conducting Instruction ...............................................................................................................33
BOSU Ball.................................................................................................................................33
Foam Rollers..............................................................................................................................36
TheraBandTM Elastic Resistance Bands ....................................................................................36
Chapter 4: Application to the Study and Teaching of Conducting ........................................43
Examination and Application of Therapy Tools in the Development of Body Parts and
Functions used in Conducting ...................................................................................................43
BOSU BALL.........................................................................................................................43
FOAM ROLLER...................................................................................................................55
THERABAND ELASTIC RESISTANCE BANDS .............................................................76
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications for Further Study..................................................88
Conclusions ...............................................................................................................................88
Implications for Further Study ..................................................................................................90
References.....................................................................................................................................95

iv
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Frontal Plane ............................................................................................................... 7
Figure 1.2 Horizontal Plane.......................................................................................................... 8
Figure 1.3. Sagittal Plane.............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 1.4. Horizontal Conducting Plane ..................................................................................... 9
Figure 1.5. Vertical Conducting Plane ......................................................................................... 10
Figure 1.6. Sagittal Conducting Plane .......................................................................................... 11
Figure 1.7. Zero Position .............................................................................................................. 13
Figure 1.8. Prone Position ............................................................................................................ 14
Figure 1.9. Supine Position........................................................................................................... 14
Figure 2.1. Relief on the False Door of the Tome of Nikaure, showing two women
singing and playing the harp, or one leading with gesture, the other following.
From the Old Kingdom, Saqqara, Giza ............................................................................ 19
Figure 4.1. BOSU Ball™ Balance Trainer................................................................................... 44
Figure 4.2. Zero Position on BOSU Ball™ – Platform Side Up.................................................. 48
Figure 4.3. Zero Position on BOSU Ball™ – Ball Side Up ......................................................... 49
Figure 4.4. BOSU Ball™ Toe-Touching Exercise....................................................................... 51
Figure 4.5. BOSU Ball™ Leg-Raising Exercise.......................................................................... 52
Figure 4.6. BOSU Ball™ Core Engagement Exercise - Knee Raise ........................................... 53
Figure 4.7. BOSU Ball™ Core Engagement Exercise – Superman............................................. 54
Figure 4.8. Foam Roller................................................................................................................ 56
Figure 4.9. Latissimus Dorsi Diagram.......................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.10. Thoracic Spine Area Diagram.................................................................................. 61
Figure 4.11. Gluteal Muscle Group Diagram............................................................................... 62

v
Figure 4.12. Hip Abductors Diagram........................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.13. Hip Flexors Diagram................................................................................................ 64
Figure 4.14. Iliotibial Band Diagram............................................................................................ 65
Figure 4.15. Piriformis Diagram................................................................................................... 66
Figure 4.16. Foam Roller Neck Exercise ..................................................................................... 68
Figure 4.17. Foam Roller Upper Back Exercise........................................................................... 69
Figure 4.18. Zero Position on Foam Roller.................................................................................. 73
Figure 4.19. First Position on Foam Roller .................................................................................. 74
Figure 4.20. Second Position on Foam Roller.............................................................................. 75
Figure 4.21. TheraBand Elastic Resistance Bands....................................................................... 77
Figure 4.22. TheraBand Elastic Resistance Band Color and Resistance Guide........................... 78
Figure 4.23. Zero Position with TheraBands................................................................................ 81
Figure 4.24. Exercise One with TheraBands................................................................................ 82
Figure 4.25. Partner Exercise with TheraBands........................................................................... 86

vi
Abstract
Traditionally, conducting is taught from a primarily aesthetic perspective, with little or no
attention paid to the physiology involved. Even less is done to train the specific muscles and
muscle groups required to create conducting gestures. The lack of study on conductors and their
physiological process in the biomechanics and physical therapy realms has exacerbated the
challenge of understanding exactly what is happening physically and why. By applying principles
from similar physical activities that have been studied by healthcare professionals in other
disciplines, it is possible to create exercises for conductors that will intentionally develop and
strengthen the involved muscle groups while also increasing potential artistry.
The introduction of conducting physiology, principles, and applications is not intended to
replace current conducting practices; rather this material is meant to aid conductors and conducting
students in the development of physical skill in a way that provides deeper understanding of the
body and better physical command of the muscles engaged. In addition, methods will be proposed
to teach conducting skills in a way that promotes physical health in conducting students. With the
use of three devices commonly used in physical therapy and sports training (the BOSU Ball™, the
foam roller, and TheraBands™), this dissertation proposes specific exercises to aid conductors in
increasing balance and core strength and in the physical training of the muscle groups involved in
conducting.

1
Chapter 1: Statement of the Problem
The two primary physical activities in the choral rehearsal are singing and conducting.
Vocal pedagogy is taught from an artistic and physiological point of view. While students develop
their artistry, they memorize the muscles, ligaments, tendons, and bones involved in vocal
production and study how these elements work together to produce healthy phonation. Conducting
pedagogy, on the other hand, seems to be taught primarily from an aesthetic perspective.
Conductors generally have an idea of how gesture should look and an awareness of how it should
feel. However, there is little understanding of the actual physiology involved in the gesture.
The study of conducting is relatively new compared to other music disciplines. While there
is documentation of instrumental, vocal, and compositional training dating back to the Middle
Ages, conducting as a separate discipline did not begin to take shape until the early twentieth
century. The first recorded account of time beating within the context of a pattern was in 1701,
1
but it was not yet in the form of the silent conducting that is the current standard. Early conducting
was an audible beating of time. Practices included the tapping of a bow, rolled up manuscript,
staff, or baton on a podium or the floor, a practice that persisted into the nineteenth century in parts
of Europe.2 Over time, conducting developed into a more complex, expressive, and intricate
discipline. By the middle of the twentieth century, universities started to offer Doctor of Musical
Arts degrees (first approved by the National Association of Schools of Music in 1953), which soon
included degree offerings in conducting.3 Over time, the D.M.A. in conducting grew in popularity
1 Elliot Galkin, A History of Orchestral Conducting in Theory and Practice (New York, NY: Pendragon Press,
1988), 198. 2 Ibid., 200.
3 Howard Tauman, “A Matter of Degree; Eastman School Sets Up Doctorate for Musicians” in The New York
Times (New York, NY: The New York Times, 1953).

2
around the world, becoming the presumed terminal degree for those specializing in choral
conducting.
There is a presumed consensus that conductors bear responsibility for composers,
performing ensembles, audiences, and the music itself. While there are arguments among
conductors as to which should receive priority, most would agree that each of these entities falls
under the conductor’s purview. There is an entity, rarely discussed, that is glaringly missing from
this list: the conductor. If the task of the conductor is to effectively manage and lead all the
aforementioned elements, they must be in shape to do so. Most self-care and preparation come in
the form of study and skill development. However, neglecting the health and development of the
physical body, especially in the areas directly required for effective communication through
gesture, could lead to a reduction in effectiveness and perhaps even heightened risk of physical
injury or deterioration.
Clearly the art of conducting should be as firmly rooted in the art and science of
human movement as it is in the art of music. Mastery of either discipline without a
complementary mastery of the other has been insufficient for nearly two hundred
years.4
Additionally, there seems to be a direct connection between what singers see in a conductor and
the sound they produce. Rodney Eichenberger and André Thomas, both well-known choral
conductors and choral pedagogues, produced a video in 1994 entitled What They See is What You
Get!5 The opening graphic highlighted the principle of the video: “linking the visual, the aural, and
the kinetic to promote artistic choral singing.”6 The concept of how a conductor’s physical gesture
4 C.L. Gambetta, Conducting Outside the Box; Creating a Fresh Approach to Conducting Gesture through the
Principles of Laban Movement Analysis (Greensboro, NC: University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2005). 5 Rodney Eichenberger, What They See is What You Get (M. Graves; Hinshaw Music, Inc,1994). 6 Ibid.

3
can change, even transform, the sound of the choral ensemble is explored through dozens of
unrehearsed demonstrations with several different choirs spanning different ages and skill levels.
This principle has been expanded by several notable conductors, especially James Jordan in his
application of Rudolf von Laban’s concept of Movement Language.
7
That’s why how we teach gesture matters just as much as how we define it. And
here we encounter a problem. Violinists study string pedagogy, singers learn
vocal pedagogy, and theorists and composers are able to study theory and
compositional pedagogy. But conducting is still largely taught through mentorship
and imitative initiation at a personal level. The professional training of conductors
resembles the guild approach of the Middle Ages more than anything else…
Pedagogy is a comprehensive, coordinated, and systematic approach that enables
teachers to reliably communicate knowledge (both data and specific skills) in a
replicable manner about a given subject area to those who are learning it. It
encompasses both minimum levels of competencies—what must be known and
what must be done—and how best to teach that content and those skills.
8
However, the instruction of conducting rarely addresses the physiology involved with conducting
gesture. In a survey of over eighty books and three hundred articles on conducting spanning
seventy-two years, very few included physiological aspects of gesture. There were no articles
focusing on physiology in a significant way. Additionally, vocal pedagogy books and articles rely
heavily on the comprehension and application of the physiological aspects of singing. Considering
the principles presented by Eichenberger and Thomas regarding the connection between the
physical gesture of the conductor and the sound the choir produces, it seems imperative for the
physical mechanics of conducting to be addressed in the study of conducting alongside aspects
commonly taught, including general beat patterns, expressive gestures, performance practice,
interpretation, etc.
7 James Jordan, The Conductor’s Gesture (Chicago, IL: GIA Publications, 2011). 8 Ibid., xxiii-xxiv.

4
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to identify specific physical therapy tools that contribute to the
development of the muscle groups and physical skills engaged in conducting and to develop
exercises and teaching methods that incorporate a physiological point of view. As conducting is a
physical as well as an artistic practice, it is important to understand how to train the muscle groups
involved for maximal control and development. Even a rudimentary understanding of the
physiology engaged in conducting has the potential to help conductors promote health and avoid
unnecessary injury.
Need for the Study
A fundamental understanding of the physiology involved in conducting can increase
effectiveness and help conductors intentionally develop the muscles involved while potentially
reducing the risk of injury due to overuse or misuse. As the intentional development of muscles,
ligaments, and tendons increases, so does the awareness of the involved physiology. Awareness is
essential for effective conducting. “Everything about the art of conducting is about being in a
constant state of awareness. In fact, teaching one to be aware may be the most difficult task facing
any conducting teacher or student. Being aware of one’s own body and sound in the same instant
poses pedagogical challenges.”9 A course of study that includes intentional development of the
physiology involved will lead to an enhanced awareness of the conductor’s body, aiding in the
process of overall mastery of the conducting gesture.
9 James Jordan, The Conductor’s Gesture (Chicago, IL: GIA Publications, 2011), 8.

5
Additionally, there are significant artistic aspects of conducting technique that can be
effectively taught and executed through the enhanced muscle control and awareness that an
understanding of this knowledge can bring. The awareness and intentional development of these
muscles, tendons and ligaments serve to elevate a conductor’s communication through gesture
while also promoting health and reducing the negative impacts of repetitive movements over time.
The need for a pedagogical approach to conducting was addressed in the early 1980’s,
highlighted by two Choral Journal editorials written by past American Choral Directors
Association (ACDA) President Royce Saltzman,
10 as well as an article by Mr. Gail B. Poch, a
longtime professor of music at Temple University, in the same journal, published November
1982.
11 In his article, Poch examines the lack of pedagogy in conducting classes.
Many of us have experienced frustration in teaching conducting. How does one
guide a student to comprehend the relationship of gesture (movement) to music,
and at the same time remain within the confines of traditional orientation and
clarity? Texts on conducting deal only with the spatial reproduction of patterns,
minimal introduction to cueing, dynamics, phrasing, etc. Some recognize the
difference in style of beat, but none provide tangible methods for developing those
differences. The problem: conducting is initially an imitative form of
communication dictated by conventional patterns of movement which have evolved
into a series of universally understandable gestures. It is possible for a student to
learn to articulate these gestures through imitation, yet, the movement patterns fail
to successfully convey the basic demands of a score. The communication of stylistic
qualities of musical sensitivity is beyond the realm of possibility when a conductor
is only imitating the gesture. The connection of gesture to musical style as part of
the basic technique is not adequately provided for…If the conductor does not
understand movement potential and its relationship to the music, his palette is
limited to monochromatic expression. If he is aware of the vast range of movement
implications, he may successfully impart those qualities which elicit a genuine
musical statement.12
10 Royce Saltzman, “Letter from the President,” in The Choral Journal (1982), 2. 11 Gail Poch, “Conducting: Movement Analogues Through Effort Shape,” in The Choral Journal (1982), 21-22. 12 Ibid.

6
Poch was one of the early pedagogues to implement the movement methodologies of Laban,
originally designed for dancers, in teaching conducting with the intent of addressing this
shortcoming in the field. Jordan has led a field of professionals who have continued and expanded
this effort. In addition to applications in dance, music therapy, and other disciplines, Laban’s
methods have been applied in physical therapy and brain rehabilitation. In her dissertation dealing
with combining physical therapy and Laban principles for patients with brain injuries, Marianne
Talbot asserts, “Rehabilitation professionals are recognizing the need to transform current
assumptions regarding the essential aspects of brain injury rehabilitation and seek additional nonmedical model approaches to rehabilitation.”13 She also states,
Evidence exists that the mind and body are interconnected and communicate
together to form a unified integrative self (Cotterill, 2001). Evidence also suggests
there is a direct approach to defining cognition that enables one to acquire novel
context-specific reflexes (Cotterill, 2001). This could be interpreted as the
acquisition of skills through learning (context-specific) movement patterns such as
dance. It is suggested by Sperry (1963) that individuals become more insightful into
the relationship between the sensory-associative functions of the brain and its motor
activity. In order to accomplish this, we must integrate the mind and body.14
Talbot’s findings assert that the mind-body connection works both ways. Laban has explored
elements of mind-body connection, and several prominent conductors have embraced and applied
the methodology to conducting. Laban’s method, however, does not examine specific aspects of
physiology. While there is little scientific research on the physiology of conducting, there are
related studies on the types of mechanics involved, notably in certain sports. By applying this
13 M.B. Talbot, The Dynamics of a Therapeutic Dance/Movement Intervention for Individuals with Brain Injuries:
Comparison with Physical Therapy Using Laban Movement Analysis. Philosophy (Falls Church, VA: Virginia
Polytechnic and State University, 2006), 18. 14 Ibid., 18.

7
research, exercises can be developed that will increase the awareness, engagement, and control of
muscle groups used in conducting.
Understanding the physiology of conducting gesture does not solve all of the problems
addressed in Poch’s article. It is a vital tool that gives conducting students a sense of command
over their physical expression of the music as they learn which muscles to engage, which to release,
and the overall mechanics of the human body. Knowledge of physiology will aid conductors in
developing relevant muscle groups and moving from imitation to ownership of expression through
gesture. Three physical therapy tools that are beneficial to this process are the focus of this study.
TheraBand™ resistance training bands, foam rollers and BOSU (Both Sides Utilized) balls will
each be addressed with specific exercises developed for implementation in the conducting
classroom.
Definitions
For the purposes of this study, the following definitions will apply:
Frontal Plane
● Also called the coronal plane:
● A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) halves.
Figure 1.1 Frontal Plane
Image courtesy of Mackenzie Jensen.

8
Horizontal Plane
● Also called the transverse plane, axial plane, transaxial plane:
● A horizontal plane, running perpendicular to both sagittal and frontal planes, that divides
the body into inferior (lower) and superior (upper) parts.
Figure 1.2 Horizontal Plane
Image courtesy of Mackenzie Jensen.
Sagittal Plane
● Also called the median or lateral plane:
● A vertical plane which passes through the body from anterior to posterior, dividing the
body into left and right halves. Any plane parallel to the median plane can also be referred
to as sagittal or paramedian planes.
Figure 1.3 Sagittal Plane
Image courtesy of Mackenzie Jensen.

9
Conducting Planes
● Horizontal
○ Also called x plane
○ Any movement along the plane parallel to the floor, perpendicular to the midline of
the body.
Figure 1.4 Horizontal Conducting Plane

10
● Vertical
○ Also called y plane
○ Any movement along the plane perpendicular to the floor, parallel to the midline of
the body.
Figure 1.5 Vertical Conducting Plane

11
● Sagittal
○ Also called z plane
○ Any movement extending forward from the conductor towards the ensemble.
Figure 1.6 Sagittal Conducting Plane
Directions
● Medial—toward the midline of the body
● Lateral—away from the midline of the body
● Proximal—toward a reference point (extremity)
● Distal—away from a reference point (extremity)
● Inferior—lower or below
● Superior—upper or above
● Anterior—toward the front

12
● Posterior—toward the back
● Dorsal—posterior
● Ventral—anterior
Kinesthesis
● The “muscle sense” or “sixth sense”: “Sensual discrimination of the positions and
movement of body parts based on information other than visual, auditory, or verbal.
Kinesthetic perception involves judging changes in muscle tension, body position, and
the relative placement of body parts… Without any difficulty we know where the body
is, and where it is going, at any moment, with eyes shut.”15
Isometric Exercise
● A form of resistance exercise in which one’s muscles are used in opposition with other
muscle groups, generally to increase strength. The term is a combination of two Greek
words: isos which means equal, and metria which means measuring. In general, the angle
of the joint and the length of the muscle do not change during isometric exercise.
15 Carol-Lynne Moore, Beyond Words: Movement Observation and Analysis (Milton Park, London: Routledge,
2012).

13
Zero Position
● “The anatomical position of the body is an erect posture, face forward, arms at sides, palms
of hands forward with fingers and thumbs in extension. This is the position of reference
for definitions and descriptions of body planes and axes. It is the designated zero position
for defining and measuring joint motions for most of the joints of the body.”16
Figure 1.7 Zero Position
16 Florence Peterson Kendall and Elizabeth Kendall McCreary, Muscles, Testing and Function (Baltimore, MD:
Williams & Wilkins, 2005).

14
Prone Position
• A term used in medicine and anatomy to describe a person (or any organism) on their front.
The dorsal (back) side is positioned facing up toward the sky, while the ventral (front) side
is positioned facing down toward the ground (or an object on the ground).
• It is the opposite of supine position, where the person is lying on their back.
Figure 1.8 Prone Position
Supine Position
● A term used in medicine and anatomy to describe a person (or any organism) on their back.
The dorsal (back) side is positioned against the ground (or on an object on the ground)
while the ventral side then points toward the sky.
● Supine is the opposite of prone, where the person in lying on their stomach.
Figure 1.9 Supine Position

15
Flexion and Extension
● Movements in the sagittal plane:
● Flexion is the decrease in the angle of a joint. It is movement in the anterior direction for
most joints, including the head, neck, trunk, upper extremity, and hip. However, flexion
of the knee, ankle, foot, and toes refers to movement in the posterior direction.
● Extension is movement in the opposite direction of flexion. It is the increase in the angle
of the joint, or straightening of the limb.17
Abduction and Adduction
● Movements in the frontal/coronal plane:
● Abduction is movement of a structure) away from the midline or midsagittal plane of the
body for parts of the extremities except the thumb, fingers and toes.
● Adduction is movement toward the midsagittal plane for the same body parts.
● For the fingers, abduction and adductions are movements away and toward the axial line
which extends through the third digit.
● For the toes, the axial line extends through the second digit.
● For the thumb, adduction and abduction are movements perpendicular to the plane of the
palm, addiction being toward and abduction being away from the palm.18
17 Ibid., 21. 18 Florence Peterson Kendall and Elizabeth Kendall McCreary, Muscles, Testing and Function (Baltimore, MD:
Williams & Wilkins, 2005).

16
Medial and Lateral Rotation
● Medial rotation (also called internal rotation) is movement that brings the anterior surface
close to the midline.
● Lateral rotation (also called external rotation) is the movement of the anterior surface away
from the midline.19
Proprioception training
● Any sort of training done on an unstable surface.
● Also referred to as “unstable surface training” or UST, primarily used in physiotherapy.
● The purpose of proprioception training is to increase central nervous system response,
increase stability and awareness, and in cases of rehabilitation, to speed up recovery.
Training on unstable surfaces engages stabilizer muscles that would not otherwise be
targeted or engaged by training on a regular, flat surface.
● Common UST tools in athletic training and physical therapy/rehabilitation include therapy
balls, BOSU Balls™, foam rollers, and balance boards.
● Tools used in this study include the BOSU Ball™ and the foam roller.
Self-myofascial release (SMR)
● A self-massage technique performed by an individual who is experiencing muscle tightness
or pain as a result of exercise or repeated physical activity.
● It can also be used by individuals who wish to prevent tightness, soreness and/or pain as a
part of a regular warm-up or cool down routine.
19 “Cardinal Planes and Axes of Movement,” in Physiopedia, accessed 2022, https://www.physiopedia.com/Cardinal_Planes_and_Axes_of_Movement.

17
● Commonly known as foam rolling
● Foam rollers are the most common apparatus to perform self-myofascial release.
● Foam rollers come in multiple densities, lengths, widths and shapes, each providing a
different type or self-myofascial release.
Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)
● Most common type of muscle soreness treated by SMR
● A common occurrence experienced by most people after new or extended physical activity.
Often appearing a day or two after the activity, DOMS can range from mild to severe and
can last several days after activity.
● Regular practice of SMR along with stretching both before and after activity can limit and
even eliminate DOMS.
● Not to be confused with acute muscle soreness, a burning sensation that you experience
when contracting a muscle. Acute muscle soreness is normal, occurring when there is a
rapid buildup of lactic acid within the muscle, and usually dissipates upon or soon after
workout completion.
Fascia
● The internal connective tissue beneath the skin that encloses, attaches, stabilizes and
separates muscles and other internal organs.
● Fascia is entwined throughout the body and, different than muscle, doesn’t lay in linear
paths, making it difficult to achieve release with simply stretching. Creating enough
tension to stretch and change the fascia is aided by self-myofascial release (SMR).

18
Trigger point
● A sensitive spot located within the muscle or muscle fascia, often the result of injury,
overuse or misuse.
Limitations
This study is not intended to replace existing methodologies of conducting. Rather, this
study seeks to supplement current practices with a physiological perspective that will allow
conductors and conducting students to gain awareness, increase effectiveness, and promote health.
The expectation is that these findings will enhance the methodologies already in existence. Aspects
of conducting pattern, cueing, dynamics, and other conducting elements discussed in traditional
conducting texts will not be addressed.
While the focus of this study is choral conducting, the majority of the principles can be
applied to orchestral and band conducting as well. The journals, books and texts included are
either general conducting sources or specifically focused on choral conducting. While some
examples of instrumental applications and resources may be included if they are directly linked to
source material, there will be no elements specifically applied to strictly instrumental conducting.

19
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature: Conducting and Physiology
History of Teaching Conducting
The documented history of conducting and the teaching of gesture as an independent art
form is minor compared to other music performance practices. The modern concept of a
professional conductor did not emerge until the mid-1800’s in Europe.1 However, the practice of
leading a group of musicians (instrumental or vocal) through gesture dates back to before the
medieval era. There are also differing opinions in these early writings as to whether the job of the
conductor was merely to beat time or if elements of interpretation were also expected. In William
Southerland’s article “Giving Music a Hand,” he explores some of these early writings and
depictions of what we now consider to be conducting.
…depictions of conducting gestures were etched in hieroglyphics and Pharaonic
friezes, recorded in Greek and Roman literature, and encoded above Jewish and
Gregorian texts as cheironomic neumes. Conductors in the ancient world were so
revered, in fact, that the ancient Egyptians dedicated images of the hand and arm in
art exclusively to refer to music, musicians, and especially conductors.2
Figure 2.1 Relief on the False Door of the Tomb of Nikaure, showing two women singing and
playing the harp, or one leading with gesture, the other following. From the Old Kingdom, Saqqara.
Giza. Image taken from ‘Giving Music A Hand’ by Southerland.
1 William Southerland, “Giving Music A Hand,” in The Choral Journal (2019), 32. 2 Ibid, 30.

20
While evidence shows that conductors have existed in some fashion for a millennium, there are
few documented sources regarding the process and pedagogy of teaching conducting before the
medieval era. Until these historic sources were uncovered, it was presumed by many that
conducting did not exist in any form prior to the fourteenth century. Karl Gerkens asserted this
theory in his 1919 book, Essentials of Conducting.
3 Several of his contemporaries refuted his
claim, but the presumption amongst many persisted.4 In 1968, Julius Herford noted the dearth of
historical information regarding conducting gesture and performance practice.5
Several texts have endured as excellent sources for historical conducting. One example is
Wilhelm Ehmann’s Choral Directing,
6 which includes one of the most evocative portrayals of
conducting in ancient times. Ehmann depicts Greek practices, including the use of feet for the beat
and the use of hand gestures for the melody.7 He builds on the history presented by William
Wallace in “The Conductor and His Fore-Runners,” written in 1923. Wallace credits Marius
Victorinus (290-364 AD) for defining and naming the following gestures: the silent lifting of the
feet was given the term arsis, and the subsequent sounded dropping of the foot was called thesis.
8
These terms evolved into cheironomy: the medieval practice of conducting chant. William Wallace
was a well-known Scottish composer who served at the University of London as Dean of Music
Faculty. One hundred years later, his scholarship is still respected and considered to be highly
accurate. An additional respected historical source that focuses on orchestral conducting is Elliott
3 Karl Gerkens, Essentials in Conducting (Oliver Ditson Company, 1951). 4 William Southerland, “Giving Music A Hand,” in The Choral Journal (2019), 32. 5 Harold Decker and Julius Herford, Choral Conducting Symposium (Prentice Hall, 1988), 123. 6 Wilhelm Ehmann, Choral Directing (Augsberg Publishing House, 1968). 7 Ibid., 110-111. 8 William Wallace, “The Conductor and His Fore-Runners. I. The Beat in Classical and Post-Classical Times,” in
The Musical Times (1923), 612.

21
Galkin’s The History of Orchestral Conducting: Theory and Practice,
9 a valuable and
comprehensive resource for understanding the details of historical practice.
After the Great Schism of 1054, Western European music practices did not maintain as
close a connection to Greek methods as their Eastern counterparts did. As music became more
complicated, it could no longer rely on individual interpretation. This prompted the revival of the
old practices. By 1274, Elias Salomon articulated elements of cheironomic gesture that indicated
an evolution in the Western European approach and incorporation of gesture, as documented by
Wallace. When describing the application of the “Harmonic Hand” invented by Guido d’Arezzo,
Salomon made allusions to a baton: “having a mental image of the diagram on the palm of the left
hand, we mark the pauses with the right, we indicate the ‘points’ with the finger and a little stick.”10
There is no definition or description of the “little stick,” which could be a precursor to the modern
baton. Salomon also discusses the need for leadership in a group of singers, specifically when
performing Gregorian chant:
Likewise, be it noted that in the case of four singers equally good, they should be
led by one…and he should mark all pauses…and start again after them…Similarly,
if the rector does not sing in the quartet, he is to arrange the others in order, and
indicate the pauses with his own hand above the book, while he frankly prompts
them.11
These instructions are early indications of a leader making functional and interpretive decisions in
the music. The terms arsis and thesis are appropriated into the monastic tradition, while the
meaning shifts to represent “a synthesis of these melodic and rhythmic tendencies with both arsis
9 Elliot Galkin, A History of Orchestral Conducting in Theory and Practice (New York, NY: Pendragon Press,
1988).
10 William Wallace, “The Conductor and His Fore-Runners. II. The Beat in the Middle Ages,” in The Musical Times
(1923), 677. 11 Ibid., 679.

22
and thesis—upward melodic motion quickens while downward melodic motion slows.”12 The role
of the conductor was not always well received, and the use of one was considered controversial.
There are descriptions of conductors from the late Renaissance that show disdain for what was
considered by some to be the histrionics engaged. One such scathing text is Philomates de Nova
Domo Musicorum from the fifteenth century:
There are those for whom it is a custom to direct songs with base gestures, thinking
that they know outstanding customs and the exquisite condition of singers. Certain
directors moderate the measure with both hands spread apart, at a fighting distance,
just as when in a lawsuit one of the two people is not able to jump upon the hair of
the other with his fingernails, he threatens a lethal contest with his twofold palms
unarmed and extended. Also I have seen many signifying the measure by stamping
their foot, like a horse that has eaten enough strikes the turf of green grass and
salaciously leaps about. Many imitate a vegetable while directing neumes, like the
one who sings like a swan with his neck tilted back, or that one accustomed to squat
down while singing.13
As a reaction to this style of conducting, Ludovico Zacconni in his 1593 Pratticca di Musica
admonished conductors to keep the beat vertical and “steady and straightforward,”14 signaling to
some a return to the concept of arsis and thesis. During this same time period in Germany, many
Kapellmeisters took literal approaches to the concept of “beating time” in their conducting. These
practices included stomping their foot or striking a stick against surface, somewhat akin to the
practices in ancient Greek and Roman traditions. This method of conducting presented certain
issues, most noticeably, the sound created which could be strident and distracting. One of the
earliest recorded proponents for what is now the standard silent gesture was Stephanus Vanneus,
who advocated for a beat that was indicated inaudibly, without the use of any “sounded
12 William Southerland, “Giving Music A Hand,” in The Choral Journal (2019). 13 Devin Iler, Václav Philomathes’ 'Musicorum Libri Quattor’ (1512): Translation, Commentary, and
Contextualization” (Denton, TX: University of North Texas, 2015). 14 Ludovico Zacconni, Prattica di Musica (Venice, 1593).

23
instrument.”15 The most famous incident connected to audible conducting was that of the French
Baroque composer Jean-Baptiste Lully. In addition to his music, Lully was well known for his
method of conducting, which included pounding a heavy staff on the floor. On one occasion a
misplaced beat landed on his foot. The injury developed into a case of gangrene which eventually
lead to Lully’s death.16
During the Baroque and Classical periods, conductors became more common. Composers
increasingly expanded the size and demands of ensembles, requiring clear ensemble leadership.
By the end of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the role of the conductor became more
standardized to accommodate growing ensemble sizes and the complexity of scores. Instrumental
ensembles often looked to the keyboardist to keep the beat and give cues. Wallace suggests that
the increased use of the baton was connected to the decrease in popularity of the harpsichord.17 As
the need for a separate conductor became more universally incorporated and accepted, so did the
use of the baton. Early conducting, especially from the keyboard or violin, often consisted of subtle
indications during the performance, including breath, head nods, eye contact and other physical
cues. This became increasingly ineffective as ensembles grew in size and scores grew, both in
scope and intricacy. Historians credit eighteenth century French opera for pioneering the role of
the conducteur d’Opera, who was responsible for providing an auditory beat or showing the pulse
visually by waving a stick or a rolled up piece of paper.18 Wallace also suggests that this type of
leadership was necessary as musical literacy was declining in the French royal band: from 1715-
1724 there was not a single violinist that could sight-read music.19 The use of a baton continued to
15 Stephanus Vanneus, Recanetum de Musica Aurea (Rome, 1533). 16 Donald Jay Grout, and Claude V. Palisca, A History of Western Music (New York, 2010), 357. 17 William Wallace, “The Conductor and His Fore-Runners: VII. The Dawn of Modern Conducting,” in The Musical
Times (1924), 213. 18 David Camesi, “Eighteenth-Century Conducting Practices,” in Journal of Research in Music Education (1970),
367-368. 19 William Wallace, “The Conductor and His Fore-Runners: V. The Means,” in The Musical Times (1924), 19.

24
be controversial and was considered by some to be mechanical, unmusical, and distracting. One
nineteenth century musician complained that “the cursed little white stick of wood did always
annoy me, and when I see it domineering over the whole orchestra, music departs from me.”20
Toward the end of the eighteenth century, the baton became more widely accepted in Europe, and
by 1820, it had become accepted in England.21 The increasing complexity of scores and growing
ensemble size required direction during performances and rehearsals, prompting the idea of the
conductor as a creative force. When choral ensembles rose in popularity in the 1920s, the image
of the choral conductor was also elevated.22
The earliest known conducting text, Der Volkommene Cappelmeister (The Perfect
Conductor) was written by Johann Mattheson and published in 1739. In Mattheson’s view, a
complete conductor was a composer, voice teacher, arranger, and a rehearsal technician. All of
these roles were considered more importance than the physical conducting gesture.23 Mattheson
portrayed a model conductor as one who is a “broadly educated artist… knowledgeable in
literature, poetry, painting, philosophy, and languages as in the various realms of music.”24 Certain
principles presented in Mattheson’s text have endured, as evidenced by their inclusion in Gunther
Schuller’s The Compleat Conductor.
25
In his 2016 dissertation, Christopher Smith reviewed the teaching philosophies of several
influential choral conductors of the twentieth century.
26 William Southerland summarizes these
instructional approaches Smith reviewed in his article, “Giving Music a Hand.”
20 Adam Carse, The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz (Cambridge, 1948), 72. 21 Arthur Jacobs, “Spohr and the Baton,” in Music & Letters (1950), 301-17. 22 Leonard Van Camp, “The Rise of American Choral Music and The A Cappella ‘Bandwagon’,” in Music
Educators Journal (1980), 36-39. 23 Hanna-Weir, Developing a Personal Pedagogy, 1. 24 Gunther Schuller, The Compleat Conductor (Oxford University Press, 1997), 67. 25 Ibid. 26 Christopher Matthew Smith, A Comparative Study of Select Choral Conductor’s Approaches to Unification of
Choral Sound, Rehearsal, Conducting, and Leadership (University of Kansas, 2016), 61-72.

25
Frieder Bernius stated that conducting gestures should be unique to each conductor
to engage higher-order thinking with conducting students. Bernius specifically
recommended resisting beating time as a teaching method and instead focus on
compelling gestures. Stephen Cleobury recommended a more organized
instructional system for the teaching of conducting and also argued for
individualized gestures. Weston Noble asserted that the ensemble members
themselves must be trained to recognize and correctly interpret the gestures of the
conductor. Robert Shaw believed that orchestra conducting made his gesture more
universally recognizable in terms of pattern and therefore more communicative.27
As conducting became a more essential and accepted practice, the study of gesture became its own
discipline. One of the twentieth century’s most influential teachers of conducting was Nicolai
Malko, whose methods were memorialized in the conducting textbook The Modern Conductor by
Elizabeth Green.28 There are many other conductors and texts that reflect the influence of Malko’s
teaching, if in a less direct way. Furthermore, many of the influential conductors of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries have written treatises on conducting, gesture, and ensemble leadership.
These texts serve as source material for developing conductors and professionals. Advancements
in the field of choral conducting were highlighted by the establishment of the D.M.A. in Choral
Music by Harold Decker at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and Charles Hirt at the
University of Southern California Thornton School of Music in the 1950s. Since the inception of
this degree, many conducting texts have been published for undergraduate and graduate
education.
27 While much is said about the role of the conductor and the function of gesture, little
if anything is mentioned about the physiological part of the process.
27 William Southerland, “Giving Music A Hand,” in The Choral Journal (2019), 32. 28 Green, Elizabeth A.H. Green, and Mark Gibson, The Modern Conductor (Prentice Hall, 1996). 27 Marvin Latimer, “The Nation’s First D.M.A. in Choral Music: History, Structure, and Pedagogical Implications,”
in Journal of Historical Research in Music Education (2010).

26
History of the Craft & Physiology of Conducting
The Choral Journal has been a significant resource for articles pertaining to the craft of
conducting since 1959. An overview of the published articles reveals that few discuss conducting
gesture and even fewer address the physical mechanics of conducting. The majority of articles on
conducting do not mention physiology or kinesthesis in any aspect. Joseph Kevin Ford’s article,
“Implications for Non-Verbal Communication and Conducting Gesture,”29 focuses on gestural
vocabulary, specifically on tracing the use of non-verbal gestures through a societal context.
However, Ford’s article never discusses the physical functions of conducting. “Beyond Error
Detection: A Cycle of Pedagogical Skills for Choral Conductors”30 is an additional article that
focuses on rehearsal technique while ignoring physical gesture.
James Jordan explores this challenge in his book The Conductor’s Gesture: A Practical
Application of Rudolf von Laban’s Movement Language. In his Philosophical Foreword he
articulates his concerns:
Audiation, rehearsal planning and management, sectional voicing, and error
detection and correction (among other skills) are vital. But gesture remains the
central expression of our technique as conductors. It is the most important avenue
available to us to effect the revelatory transference that lies at the heart of choral
rehearsing and choral performance…That’s why how we teach gesture matters just
as much as how we define it…But conducting is still largely taught through
mentorship and imitative initiation at a personal level. The professional training of
conductors resembles the guild approach of the Middle Ages more than anything
else…We need a pedagogy of our own.31
29 Joseph Kevin Ford, “Implications for Non-Verbal Communication and Conducting Gesture,” in The Choral
Journal (2001). 30 Patrick K. Freer, “Beyond Error Detection: A Cycle of Pedagogical Skills for Choral Conductors,” in The Choral
Journal (2009). 31 James Jordan, The Conductor’s Gesture: A Practical Application of Rudolf von Laban’s Movement Language,
(Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2011).

27
When physiology is sometimes discussed, it is almost always in the context of singing, not
conducting. An exception is a guest editorial by Barton L. Tyner Jr., as he briefly examines the
“complex and diverse demands placed upon the choral conductor.”32 In this article, Tyner
discusses the need for conductors to understand “something about human physiology—how to
make your singers more aware of the physical components of good vocal production.”33 Here, the
author stops short of applying the understanding of human physiology to conductors, choosing
instead to focus only on the physiology of singing. It is widely expected that a choral conductor
should understand and demonstrate the anatomy and physiology of the voice. It is unclear why that
same expectation has not translated to the conductor’s anatomy and physiology. While it is
understandable that elements including score knowledge, composition, leadership, and rehearsal
craft are emphasized in conducting practice, the physical demands of conducting must also be
considered. In order for that to happen, they must first be understood.
There are multiple published articles that reference physical activity and engagement;
however, most do not reference physiology. Brock McElheran’s book, Conducting Technique,
34
discusses physical gesture in great detail from an aesthetic, not physiological, perspective. One
article that does discuss conducting physiology is “Effective Bodily Communication” by Gregory
K. Lyne. This article focuses primarily on the “pantomimic gesture” developed by François
Delsarte.
35 Lyne discusses and describes pantomime principles and applies them to conducting.
While the majority of his article centers on this concept, he does refer to bodily movements and
32 Ibid. 33 Barton L. Tyner, “Guest Editorial,” in The Choral Journal (1993). 34 Brock McElheran, Conducting Technique for Beginners and Professionals (Oxford University Press, 1966). 35 Gregory K. Lyne, “Effective Bodily Communication: A Key to Expressive Conducting,” in The Choral Journal
(1979).

28
their function with a nod to physiological implications. Specifically, he discusses the expression
of individual fingers and joints and their effect on the sound of the choir.
The fingers, obviously, play an important role in the conducting process. More
importantly, the effective use of one or all of the fingers can have a direct bearing
upon the choral tone. For example, the conductor who uses a stiff forefinger will
most often receive a tone which is rather pointed in character, perhaps even
approximating nasality. Similarly, the spreading of the fingers in a relaxed manner
will most often result in a choral tone which is somewhat breathy in character.
While any detailed discussion of the hands and fingers and their effect upon choral
tone may be outside the scope of this article, it suffices to say that the conductor
should be encouraged to experiment with various positions of the hand and fingers,
and thereby consider the effect upon the tone produced by the singers.36
Lyne makes an important and early connection between physiology and the effect the nuance of
the conductor’s body has on choral tone. “It should be emphasized that the posture shown by the
conductor can directly influence the choral tone produced by the ensemble. In this regard, the
choral conductor who conducts with drooping shoulders and an inactive chest might well be
rewarded with a choral tone which is listless, dull and lethargic.”37 He shifts the focus from
physiology and mechanics of the body to the impact of the subtle differences in the conductor’s
hands on the sound the choir produces. However, even though this article did not explicitly
examine physiology or biomechanics, the observations indicate a movement within the discipline
of conducting towards actively considering physiology.
This awareness of the connection between the conductor’s body and the tone produced by
the choir increased throughout the 1980s. Poch derided the field for the absence of basic technical
skills and body awareness. “The fact that there is such extensive evidence of this absence indicates
an obvious lack of effective methodology for developing these skills.”38 The article places the
36 Ibid. 37 Ibid. 38 Gail Poch, “Conducting: Movement Analogues Through Effort Shape,” in The Choral Journal (1982).

29
cause of the problem squarely on the shoulders of academic institutions, and calls the field to the
importance of examining resources as “the result of such an examination reveals the factual truth—
there is no source which offers a logical and meaningful learning sequence for the development of
the techniques and skills of conducting.”39 Poch distinguishes between the physical movement and
the artistic component, but stops before examining the function of the physical movement and how
it impacts gesture. Later in the article, Poch addresses the importance of posture: “A commanding
posture is the basis for all effective conducting gesture. Standing tall with the shoulders back and
down, the spine lifted out of the hips, and the weight evenly distributed toward the balls of the
feet.”40 Normal standing posture in most young adults exacerbates the challenges of posture,
including rounded, inward shoulders, foot and leg positioning, and torso placement issues. His
assertion is that improper body alignment will have a negative impact on all other areas of a
conductor’s style. Poch also asserts that there are several “particularly annoying habits” including
pulsing the body with the ictus, the lifting and sinking of the torso with the beat, and bouncing
from the knees. This study proposes a physiological method of addressing each of these identified
issues.
While there was a rise during the 1950s-1980s in the level of attention paid to the physical
aspects of conducting through published journal articles, this did not often translate into textbooks
on conducting. Ray Robinson’s conducting text, The Choral Experience: Literature, Methods, and
Materials,
41 was touted as a much-needed resource for graduate students of conducting. Robinson
dedicates chapters to the history of choral music, choral conducting, rehearsal technique, basic
musicianship, and performance practices. However, there is little discussion regarding physical
39 Gail Poch, “Conducting: Movement Analogues Through Effort Shape,” in The Choral Journal (1982), 21-22. 40 Ibid. 41 Ray Robinson, The Choral Experience: Literature, Materials, and Methods (New York: Harper’s College Press,
1976).

30
gesture. Choral Techniques by Gordon Lamb42 is also a helpful resource for beginning conductors,
but there is only one chapter dedicated to physical gesture with minimal references to the physical
mechanics involved. Other notable books from this period, including Harriet Simons’ Choral
Conducting: A Leadership Approach43 and Choral Conducting: Focus on Communication by
Harold Decker and Colleen J. Kirk44 certainly serve the field well, but they do not delve into the
physiological components of gesture. There is one marked development in 1985 with the wholistic
approach to the physical body of the conductor: a dissertation by James Jordan. In this study,
Jordan incorporates theories of Laban Movement Analysis into the rehearsal.45 Jordan’s study does
not apply Laban directly to conducting, rather, it introduces concepts that would later be applied
to conducting by himself and others.
The 1990s saw an increase in articles referencing the development of the physical body,
but the approaches were still largely aesthetic in nature, focusing on how the gesture looks and
feels. Principles found in eurhythmics (as introduced through the Dalcroze Method) and Laban
Movement Analysis started to appear in more forums, including interest sessions at conferences
and articles in conducting and music education journals. One such article by Claire McCoy
appeared in the December 1994 issue of The Choral Journal. Focusing on Dalcroze eurhythmics,
McCoy suggests a variety of physical exercises through which conducting students can
“understand the flow of rhythm, the energy of a phrase, and the special relationships in musical
42 Gordon Lamb, Choral Techniques (Dubuque: W. C. Brown Co., 1979). 43 Harriet Simons, Choral Conducting: A Leadership Teaching Approach (Champaign, IL: M. Foster Music Co.,
1983).
44 Harold Decker and Colleen J. Kirk, Choral Conducting: Focus on Communication (Prospect Heights, IL:
Waveland Press, 1995).
45 James Mark Jordan, The Effects of Informal Movement Instruction Derived from the Theories of Rudolf von Laban
upon the Rhythm Performance and Discrimination of High School Students (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University,
1985).

31
form on a deep, visceral level.”46 Still, the physical aspects being explored were anchored in the
aesthetics of conducting, not the actual physiology.
The 1990s saw a significant jump in the number of published books and texts on conducting
compared with previous decades. There seems to be an emphasis on a philosophical approach to
conducting in many of the texts: The Compleat Conductor by Gunther Schuller, Choral
Conducting: Philosophy and Practice by Colin Durrant, and Precision Conducting: The Seven
Disciplines of the Masterful Conductor by Tim Sharp are three such books. Even the texts that
address the physical aspects of gesture, such as Ray Robinson’s Choral Conducting: Focus on
Communication and Up Front! edited by Guy Webb, still address gesture in an aesthetic way,
glossing over or completely ignoring the physical function of the muscles. This trend continues
into the twenty-first century.
An exception to this is an online article by Anthony Trecek-King, “Conducting for
Educators: Part 2,”47 in which Trecek-King discusses the anatomy of the arm and defines some
anatomical terms that relate to conducting gesture. However, Trecek-King’s discussion is limited
to the arm and is not put into any context with other parts of the body. In his previous article,
“Conducting for Educators: Part 1,” Trecek-King articulates the need for physical awareness,
submitting that bad habits in conducting are linked to “unnecessary and involuntary gestures and
body movements by the conductor that can be misinterpreted by the singers, impacting their vocal
production and getting in the way of [the conductor’s] musical interpretation.”48 He identifies what
he considers to be the worst of these bad habits, including excessive head movements, busy feet,
46 Claire W. McCoy, “Eurhythmics: Enhancing the Music-Body-Mind Connection in Conductor Training,” in The
Choral Journal (1994). 47 Anthony Trecek-King, Conducting for Educators: Part 2. Skills not Songs, Anthony Trecek-King, April 2020,
https://www.trecekking.com/conducting-for-educators-part-2/. 48 Anthony Trecek-King, Conducting for Educators: Part 1. Skills not Songs, Anthony Trecek-King, March 2020,
https://www.trecekking.com/conducting-for-educators-part-1/.

32
unnecessary knee bending, and unsupported posture. He does not, however, give specific exercises
or suggest ways to fix these issues. These are the types of issues this study will address.

33
Chapter 3: Review of Related Literature: Physical Therapy Devices to be Considered for
Conducting Instruction
For the purposes of this study, three devices used regularly in sports training and physical
therapy/rehabilitation have been selected. Those devices are the BOSU Ball™, foam rollers, and
resistance bands. Each has proven to be effective in numerous scientific and medical studies,
especially in the areas of balance, endurance, and strength training. They have each been tested
across multiple disciplines and have proven to be effective for activities ranging from injury
rehabilitation to elite performance athletic training. This chapter examines some of the studies and
articles pertaining to these three devices across multiple physical disciplines in the scientific
community. Results from these studies will inform the development of exercises for conductors in
the next chapter.
BOSU Ball™
Researchers at Helwan University in Egypt conducted a study over the course of ten weeks in
2016 on the effects of Instability Resistance Training, focusing on muscular balance and learning
level specifically in fencing. The primary tool used in this study was the BOSU Ball™, on the
theory that the use of unstable training platforms could enhance the learning and development of
specific skills and effects through increased activation of core and stabilizing muscles. The study
focused on the early, rudimentary stages of training and was limited to females in the sport of
fencing. The data showed a significant improvement in balance and the learning level of fencing
basics compared to those training on stable, flat surfaces, indicating that using a BOSU Ball™

34
during exercise and sport-specific training could result in an improvement of the performance level
of fencing basics and increase the mastery level of static and dynamic balance.1
Another study in Egypt, this time through Azgazig University, considered the effects of BOSU
Ball™ training on basic handball skills. Citing the importance of optimal balance and stability for
peak performance and injury prevention in athletes, this study sought to separate popular media
hype from sound scientific results. The results indicated statistically significant differences
between the test group and the control group, indicating that training on a BOSU Ball™ elevated
the efficacy of the training. They concluded that the program involving the BOSU Ball™
surpassed the traditional methods of training for beginning handball athletes in the physical level
and the skill-specific elements of handball.2
Drs. Darwin Gouwanda and Alpha Agape Gopalai at Monash University in Malaysia
researched how standing on a BOSU Ball™ would impact balance and postural control. The
Journal of Medical and Biological Engineering published their results in 2017, showing a
significant impact of the BOSU Ball™ on balance and overall posture. The premise was that
balance and postural control have significant impacts on an individual’s ability to perform the
activities of daily living, and that improvement of these abilities could minimize the risk of injury.
Based on previous studies that proved training devices including the BOSU balance trainer could
improve postural stability and increase the perception of the somatosensory system with a
unilateral stance, Gouwanda and Gopalai devised this study to determine if this training would
also be effective on a bilateral stance. While the unilateral stance is useful for elite sports training
and high-level fitness programs, the bilateral study is more applicable to daily life activities. The
1 Aisha Elfateh, “Effects of Ten Weeks of Instability Resistance Training on Muscular Balance and the Learning
Level of Fencing Basics,” in Ovidus University Annals (Ovidius University, 2016). 2 Nevin Badr, “The Effects of BOSU Ball Training on Teaching and Improving the Performance of Certain
Handball Basic Skills,” in Ovidus University Annals (Ovidus University, 2013).

35
study examined bilateral stances on the BOSU Ball™, a wobble board, and a seesaw platform,
then measured participants’ static and dynamic balance. Gouwanda and Gopalai found an increase
in participants’ center of pressure and range of excursion in medial-lateral and anterior-posterior
directions. The study concluded that a bilateral stance on the BOSU Ball™ can “stimulate [the]
neuromuscular system to coordinate the lower extremity in order to mitigate the instability and to
reduce the risk of fall.”3
A Czech study on female volleyball athletes published in 2017 examined the impacts of
significant unilateral load and the subsequent negative impact on posture. The goal of this study
was to execute a detailed examination of muscle imbalance and posture in elite female volleyball
athletes and then, pursuant to the results, develop a program of compensatory exercises. Both the
BOSU Ball™ and elastic resistance bands factored heavily in the training regimen, which occurred
at the end of every training session over two competitive volleyball seasons. The results indicate
that both the BOSU Ball™ and the elastic resistance bands played a significant role in the success
of the compensatory program.4
Additional studies have examined the effectiveness of the BOSU Ball™ compared to other
balance devices, including the Original Step On and wobble or balance boards. The results of the
studies consistently showed that the BOSU Ball™ is equal or superior to these other devices.5
3 Darwin Gouwanda and Alpha Agape Golpalai, “Investigating Human Balance and Postural Control During
Bilateral Stance on BOSU Balance Trainer,” in Journal of Medical and Biological Engineering (2017). 4 Tamara Čučková, Vladimír Süss, and Jan Carboch, “A Long-Term Cohort Study of the Muscle Apparatus of
Female Volleyball Players After the Application of a Compensatory Programme,” in AUC Kinanthropologica (Acta
Universitatis Carolinae, 2017).
5 Erica Taylor, Jason Beam, and Shane Gilliam, “Effect of BOSU Balance Trainer vs. Original Step On Health- and
Skill Related Components of Physical Fitness,” in Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research (Philadelphia,
PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2010); Aisha Elfateh, “Effects of Ten Weeks of Instability Resistance Training
on Muscular Balance and the Learning Level of Fencing Basics,” in Ovidius University Annals (Ovidius University,
2016); Mutlu Cuğ, Ashley Duncan, and Erik Wikstrom, “Comparative Effects of Different Balance-TrainingProgression Styles on Postural Control and Ankle Force Production: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” in Journal of
Athletic Training (2016).

36
There have also been connections made between brain health and unstable surface training on the
BOSU Ball™ from the University of California at Berkeley.6 Based on these studies, including a
BOSU Ball™ in training for sports or conditioning for life has practical value. There is evidence
that other physical activities, including conducting, could also benefit from incorporating the use
of a BOSU Ball™ in the learning and developing stages. Direct application to conducting will be
explored in the next chapter.
Foam Rollers
The benefits of self-myofascial release with foam rollers are extensive. A 2017 Japanese study
of forty-five healthy students (twenty-two male, twenty-three female) with a mean age of twentyone years and a body mass index of 21.4 kg/m2 found that the supine position on a foam roller
significantly increases respiratory function. Three groups were included in the study: one third
exercised in the supine position on a foam roller, one third maintained the supine position but did
not exercise, and a control group where no foam rollers were used. They measured forced vital
capacity, transverse abdominal muscle thickness, as well as chest wall and abdominal wall
mobility. These measurements were taken before and after the protocols. While those exercising
on the foam roller saw the greatest increase in respiratory function, those lying on the foam roller
also encountered statistically significant increases as well, indicating that lying on the foam roller
in a supine position has a greater impact on respiratory function than the exercise itself.7
The value of the foam roller has proven beneficial for demographics beyond young people and
fitness enthusiasts. A study conducted in Korea with senior women ages sixty-five and older
6 UC Berkeley Department of Wellness, “A Nobel Prize-Winning Molecule,” in University of California at Berkeley
Wellness Letter (Berkeley, CA; UC Berkeley, 2018). 7 大, 内田, 金子秀雄, 鈴木あかり, and 和田朋子, “Differences in Respiratory Function between Exercise and
Non-exercise in a Supine Position Maintained with a Foam Roller,” in Rigakuryoho Kagaku (2017).

37
examined the impact of “aerobic and foam roller exercise programs on body balance in senior
women.”8 The purpose of this study was to identify effective exercise methods for preventing
falling accidents. The study concluded that foam roller exercises were effective in enhancing
balance and recovery skills in senior women, helping to prevent falling accidents.
Scott Cheatham led a randomized control trial to determine which methods of self-myofascial
release with the foam roller were the most effective on range of motion (ROM) and pressure pain
thresholds (PPT). The primary difference between the two groups in his study was joint motion
during SMR: one group engaged with active joint motion and the other was static. They also
examined the length of the foam rolling session. The study showed that short sessions of SMR
with a foam roller while actively engaging joint motion seemed to have a greater effect on ROM
and PPT than passive, static engagement. It also showed that longer sessions were not always
proportionally more effective.9
Foam rollers have been proven to have long term benefits, possibly including staving off some
of the impacts of aging. Jeremy Shore’s article, “How to Outrun Aging,”10 examines multiple
sources of research to propose an exercise regime including incorporating shorter, more intense
running sessions, using an exercise or BOSU Ball™, and using a foam roller for post-exercise
recovery. Australian Sailing and Yachting featured an article by Andrew Verdon on the benefits
of self-myofascial release with foam rollers to remain flexible for sailing. The article cites the
benefits of foam rolling to include the release of muscles and tendons and compares these benefits
to the results of sports massage conducted by a therapist. Verdon then gives specific exercises and
8 Seong Ja An and Hae keon Kwon, “A Study on the Effects of Aeorbic and Foam Roller Exercise Programs on
Body Balance in Senior Women,” in Journal of International Academy of Physical Therapy Research (2017). 9 Scott W. Cheatham, “Comparison of a Foam Rolling Session with Active Joint Motion and Without Joint Motion:
A Randomized Controlled Trial,” in Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies (2018). 10 Jeremy Shore, “How to Outrun Aging,” in Runner’s World (Runner’s World, 2018).

38
maneuvers targeted for the release of several muscles including the thoracic region, piriformis,
hamstrings, and the gluteal muscles.11
In an additional article, Adam Bornstein admits that he was originally reluctant to try foam
rolling, believing it was just another fitness trend that would soon pass. “When foam rollers first
came out, I looked at them like any other fad. ‘Nice toy. I’ll pass.’ But when I tried rolling, I
learned how useful it can be, and now rollers are standard equipment in practically every gym.”12
He goes on to explain, “Rolling creates pressure in the muscles, forcing them to relax and
ultimately drawing blood into the area, warming them up. When your muscles are warm, they
generate more force and move more weight. Rolling can reduce the risk of injury, too. Warm,
pliable muscles are less likely to be overstretched.”13
Building on the foam roller’s popularity and effectiveness, the American Physical Therapy
Association conducted a survey in 2018 among physical therapists about the impact of foam roller
massage with clients in their respective practices. The survey sought to document how certified
physical therapists were actually using the foam roller, if at all, and if they were integrating and
implementing the latest research into their clinical practice. The purpose of this study was to
“survey and document the physical therapists’ responses in the knowledge, clinical application
methods, and use of [foam] roller massage devices among physical therapy professionals in the
United States.”14 The results of this survey are descriptive in nature, as there was no control group
or study beyond the attestation of professionals in the field. The responses did show a robust use
11 Andrew Verdon, “Stretching is Not Enough: A Guide to Foam Rolling,” in Australian Sailing & Yachting
(April/May 2013).
12 Adam Bornstein, “Keep it Rolling: The Foam Roller Could be the Best Piece of Equipment You’re Not Using,” in
Joe Weider’s Muscle and Fitness (July-August 2015). 13 Ibid. 14 Scott Cheatham, Kyle Stull, and Tony Ambler-Wright, “Roller Massage: Survey of Physical Therapy
Professionals and a Commentary on Clinical Standards - Part II,” in International Journal of Sports Physical
Therapy (2018).

39
of foam rollers in physical therapy treatment, as well as varied levels of studying and implementing
the latest research.
There are a significant number of articles from all over the world documenting the benefits of
foam rollers and giving detailed descriptions of how to use them in varied ways, depending on the
desired application. This is a brief and focused survey of the studies and articles on the foam roller
and self-myofascial release. The research shows applications ranging from injury recovery and
prevention to peak athletic performance and includes participants ranging from healthy young
adults to senior citizens with health issues. It is apparent through this review that the foam roller
has documented benefits that can be applied in a multitude of ways, and contains multiple potential
applications for the development of conducting gesture. By opening up the spine, and releasing
the muscles of the back and chest, conductors can achieve a different spacial awareness and
improve their overall physiological response in gesture.
TheraBand™ Elastic Resistance Bands
TheraBand™ elastic resistance bands are generally applied in exercises for the upper body
(superior), although there are applications for lower limbs as well (inferior). As with the BOSU
Ball™ and the foam roller, TheraBands™ have applications that range from physical therapy
rehabilitation to elite athletic training. A review of the available research and articles support
TheraBands™ as an integral part of a physical fitness routine.
In 1999, the American Physical Therapy Association conducted a study on the effects of a
home exercise program using TheraBands™ in normative adult females ages eighteen to thirty.
Specific attention was paid to the level of strengthening in the external rotators isometrically and
isokinetically in the non-dominant shoulder. The results indicated a significant difference in peak

40
torque strength results for all tests except one (60 degree external rotation). They concluded that
incorporating TheraBands™ into a designated home exercise program will show a significant
improvement and increase in isometric and isokinetic strength of shoulder external rotators.15 A
subsequent study on the rotator cuff conducted through Allied Health also determined that
incorporating TheraBands™ for progressive resistance in the treatment of injury to the
supraspinatus was beneficial. The results were considered to be excellent, enhanced by the fact
that the use of these bands is easy to perform at home as well as in a clinic, allowing for more
repetition and continuation after the treatment plan has concluded.16
Twenty years later, another study focusing on the impact of resistance bands on the
supraspinatus was conducted. This study was expanded to include the infraspinatus partitions as
well as the periscapular musculature. The focus was on rehabilitation, and the impact of resistance
bands on the healing and strengthening processes. By measuring the maximal voluntary isometric
contraction in all rotator cuff partitions, they were able to determine that resistance bands were
effective in maximizing rehabilitation of all of the partitions of the rotator cuff in the late stages of
rehabilitation.17
Another study conducted by Dr. Gajendrakumar Patel in 2015 compared the more standard
Muscle Energy Technique (MET) with Eccentric Training using TheraBands™ in the
improvement of triceps surae muscle flexibility. The study compared two techniques, one using a
TheraBand™ and the other without, to see which type of training had the best outcome for
improving muscle flexibility. The study showed that while both MET and Eccentric Training with
15 S. D. Macko, M. L. Manley, C. A. Maul, B. E. Roth, and M. A. Sakalas, “Home Exercise Program using
TheraBands and their Effect on External Rotators in the Non-dominant Shoulder,” in Physical Therapy (1999). 16 P. Zamora-Navas, A. Borrás Verdera, M. V. Vargas, M. Jiménez Secilla, and A. Rico Yáñez, “Rehabiliation in the
Supraspinatus Muscle Tendon,” in Allied Health (May 2005). 17 Ranjit Joseph, Talia Alenabi, Tea Lulic, and Clark R. Dickerson, “Activation of Supraspinatus and Infraspinatus
Partitions and Periscapular Musculature During Rehabilitative Elastic Resistance Exercises,” in American Journal of
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (2019).

41
Therabands™ were effective in improving range of movement, the Eccentric Training with
Theraband™ demonstrated greater improvement in range of motion than with MET. 20
Male athletes suffering from Shoulder Impingement Syndrome were the subject of a 2015
study by Moharrami, Shoja’eddin, and Sadeghi, examining the effect of TheraBand™ training on
internal and external rotator muscles. After six weeks of TheraBand™ training, the experimental
group showed significantly more improvement than the control group. The conclusion was that
TheraBand™ training was highly beneficial as it “resulted in improved position sense of internal
and external rotator muscles in male athletes with impingement syndrome thus, the benefits of
these exercises can be used widely in team sports and also for easy quick rehabilitation of
patients.”21
TheraBands™ have also shown efficacy in cases of extreme disability. A 2016 study on male
patients with multiple sclerosis tested TheraBands™ as part of a regimen to improve movement
capacity and postural control. Multiple sclerosis is one of the more common diseases of the central
nervous system world-wide. It is caused by damage to the myelin sheath, a plasma membrane that
wraps around the nerve axon. The primary function of the myelin sheath is to protect the nerves
from other electrical impulses. During a course of eight weeks, the experimental group was taken
through a series of core stabilization, TheraBand™ resistance, and combined training exercises
that targeted functional endurance and postural control. Participants in the experimental group
showed significant improvement over their counterparts in the control group.22
20 Gajendrakumar Patel, “A Comparative Study of Muscle Energy Technique (MET) and Eccentric Training using
Theraband to Improve Triceps Surae Muscle Flexibility,” in Indian Journal of Physiotherapy & Occupational
Therapy (April-June 2015). 21 Ramin Moharrami, Sadreddin Shoja’eddin, and Heidar Sadeghi, “The Effect of TheraBand Training on Position
Sense of Internal and External Rotator Muscles in Male Athletes with Shoulder Impingement Syndrome,” in Journal
of Rehabilitation (2015). 22 B. Moradi, S. Shojaedin, and M. Hadadnazhad, “Comparison of Core Stabilization, TheraBand Resistance and
Combined Training on Functional Endurance and Postural Control in Male Patients with Multiple Sclerosis,” in
Journal of Gorgan University of Medical Sciences (2016).

42
There is evidence to suggest that Therabands™, foam rollers and BOSU balls all have direct
implications that can aid in the development of conducting gesture. Furthermore, the research
cited demonstrates that incorporating these three devices can improve overall health and stamina
when added to a regular training protocol. Proactive application of principles of physical therapy,
rehabilitation and biomechanics can enhance the teaching of conducting and help prepare the
conductor for a long career of conducting efficacy and health.

43
Chapter 4: Application to the Study and Teaching of Conducting
For the purpose of this study, three devices commonly used in sports training gyms,
physical therapy clinics, and rehabilitation practices have been identified, researched, and applied
to the development of conducting skills and the overall health of the conductor. Those devices are
the BOSU Ball™, foam rollers, and TheraBand™ resistance training bands. In this chapter, each
device will be described, and instructions for use and specific conducting-based exercises will be
presented. The author has developed the majority of these exercises in conjunction with various
physical therapists and biomechanists over the course of ten years of physical therapy,
rehabilitation and exercise. The remaining exercises were borrowed from common athletic and
physical training practices and adapted by the author to benefit conducting gesture.
Examination and Application of Therapy Tools in the Development of Body Parts and
Functions used in Conducting
BOSU BALL™
The BOSU Ball™ is primarily a balance trainer. The term BOSU evolved as an acronym for
“Both Sides Up” (original reference) or “Both Sides Utilized,” (current preferred term), meaning
that the apparatus was designed to be used ball side up as well as platform side up. While both
sides are useful in physical training and in physiological rehabilitation, the platform side up
position is optimal for conducting training purposes.
The BOSU Balance Trainer was invented in 1999 by David Weck as a safer
alternative to the traditional exercise ball. The BOSU works in a similar way to an
exercise ball, by engaging the core muscles of the body to improve balance, but it
is flat on one side, like a fitness ball cut in half, so it will not roll out from under
you. The BOSU Ball™ helps improve balance because the unstable surface forces
you to use your core muscles to keep from falling off the ball. As you keep trying

44
to stand on a BOSU Ball™, you will eventually be able to keep your balance for
longer periods of time because those core muscles will become stronger.
Consequently, strong core muscles help your balance and posture during the
activities of daily life.1
Figure 4.1 BOSU Ball™ Balance Trainer
While other apparatuses like balance boards can also help develop core muscles, they are usually
hard, made of wood or inflexible plastic. Standing on these types of surfaces can lead to tightening
of muscles instead of engaging them, locking of knees and other tension-filled issues. In contrast,
the BOSU Ball™ is half stable platform, half flexible ball. This allows for awareness without the
1 “History of the BOSU Ball,” lifetips, Accessed October 2022, https://balance.lifetips.com/faq/120190/0/what-is-abosu-ball-and-how-does-it-improve-balance/index.html.

45
danger of falling or losing balance with slight moves. It encourages engagement instead of tension,
which is necessary for a healthy gesture. Continued use of the BOSU Ball™ can increase core
strength, stamina, and physical awareness in conductors.
A significant benefit of the BOSU Ball™ is its versatility of use, since it can be utilized
with either side facing up. Depending on what the conductor’s individual goals and needs are, the
BOSU Ball™ can be used to achieve a variety of outcomes. Balance is one of the most
foundational conducting skills. Simply standing on the BOSU Ball™, either ball side up or
platform side up, can increase an individual’s balancing skills by requiring engagement of the core
and foundational muscles. There are also many applications that can increase strength, flexibility
and stability. The BOSU Ball’s™ unstable surface helps counteract some of the most basic
conducting errors and challenges, from locking knees to swaying unintentionally.
When using a BOSU Ball™ in the conducting classroom, it is important for the student to
first become comfortable standing on an unstable surface. Some may find this easier starting with
the platform side down/ball side up, although this is not the ideal position for conducting exercises.
As soon as the student is able, the ball should be turned so the platform side is up and the ball side
is down. The initial benefit of an unstable surface is that it immediately brings attention to overall
posture and engages the core muscles. Finding one’s center is key to all other aspects of using this
apparatus; awareness of one’s complete physicality is critical to integrating gesture in a meaningful
way. In his book Choreutics, Rudolf von Laban asserts, “Awareness of bodily perspective will
assist in the discrimination between spatial feeling and understanding the spontaneous activity in
the limbs… the definite and joyful execution of an integrated movement will be the final result.”2
Once stability is achieved with the platform side up, conducting exercises can be performed.
2 Rudolf Laban, Choreutics (Hampshire, UK: Dance Books, Ltd., 2011), 114-115.

46
Initially, simply standing on the BOSU Ball™ will help engage and strengthen the core
muscles, increasing balance, stability, and overall control. To begin, place the BOSU Ball™ on
the ground, ball side up/flat side down, and step onto the ball. Some might find it easier to start
with feet close together and slowly move them farther apart until they are in line with the shoulders.
There are two ways to get onto the ball safely. The first approach is to step firmly in the center of
the ball with one foot, then bring the other right next to it. Slowly move the feet out until they
reach shoulder width. The second method is to step on the outer edge of the BOSU Ball™, bringing
the platform down into a diagonal position. The second foot then steps on the opposite outer edge,
bringing the platform back to center. For both of these methods, some might find it beneficial to
have a sturdy surface to hold on to while mounting the apparatus. Dismounting can be
accomplished by reversing either method.
Once on the BOSU Ball™, it is important to take some time to find one’s center and feel
secure. In this position, while keeping the knees unlocked, shift weight slightly from side to side,
then front to back. This method will help conductors to engage core stability muscles and discover
their center for balance. The exercise should be repeated until balance can be achieved quickly
and easily. Then, flip the BOSU Ball™ so that the platform side is up and repeat the process. In
addition to forward/back and side to side motions, on the platform upside it is also beneficial to
shift weight in a circular motion, making sure to keep knees unlocked the whole time. It is
generally easier to maintain balance when looking at a fixed point directly ahead. Looking down
at the feet will tend to destabilize one’s balance, making it more difficult to find the center core
and achieve stability. Over time and with increased control, the goal is to keep the torso stable with
shoulders down and arms outstretched as if encompassing a big round ball, all while shifting
weight in these different patterns (forward/back, side to side, around).

47
Conducting Incorporation and Application
Once stability is achieved, specific conducting-related exercises can be employed. In the
beginning stages, these exercises should be as basic as exploring the various planes and going
through the traditional patterns (duple, triple, and quadruple; simple and compound) while
standing on the BOSU Ball™. As stability increases, more complicated exercises can be added. A
level of stability is required before practicing cueing, dynamics, the Gesture of Syncopation, and
other off-beat gestures. If the conductor starts to lose balance or feels unstable, then the level of
intensity or complexity should be reduced until security is re-established. Since the BOSU Ball™
significantly increases kinesthesis perception, conducting students are made aware internally of
issues that are not usually addressed until further in the learning process. Conducting on a BOSU
Ball™ can therefore aid in the learning process as well as prevent bad habits from developing.

48
Figure 4.2 Zero Position on BOSU Ball™ – Platform Side Up

49
Figure 4.3 Zero Position on BOSU Ball™ – Ball Side Up
Start by moving through the x-axis (horizontal) plane, y-axis (vertical) plane, and z-axis
(sagittal) plane respectively while staying centered on the BOSU Ball™. Move through planes
with both hands mirroring, then with one at a time, always returning to center. Coordinate
breathing with movement: inhale as the hands move out, exhale as they return. Practicing
conducting specific scores on a BOSU Ball™ can help with balance, improve the conductor’s
sense of low center, and increase awareness of unwelcome elements such as swaying, bouncing
knees, foot tapping, or rocking.

50
LEVEL UP
The BOSU Ball™ can also be used to increase strength and endurance that may help
conductors throughout their development and career. The following exercises have been adapted
by the author from the Weck Method by David Weck to be applied as part of an exercise regime
specifically designed to strengthen the muscle groups commonly used in conducting, enhance body
control, and increase body awareness. The exercises below are categorized by primary
development goal.
Balance:
1. Step onto the BOSU Ball™, ball side up. Take a moment to establish balance on the device.
Start by putting both hands down by the left hip, then move the arms diagonally up, tracking
up to the right (opposite) shoulder. Move arms back down to the hips and repeat. When
arms are at the hip level, make sure there is a good bend in the knees. Take a beat with the
beginning and ending of each move to feel balanced on the BOSU Ball™ and adjust as
necessary. Adjustments should be smaller and less frequent as the exercise progresses.
Switch sides and repeat.
2. To add intensity and advance to the first balance exercise, add visual tracking—watch the
hands go down to one side, then follow hands up to the opposite side. It tends to be more
difficult to balance when visual tracking is added, increasing the impact of the exercise and
the balance achieved. Switch sides and repeat.

51
3. Performing squats on the BOSU Ball™ (platform side up) can improve balance and
increase strength in the core, glutes and quadriceps. Find a point of focus at eye level and
maintain weight more on the heels than the balls of the foot. Slowly lower into a squatting
position by bending the knees, hold this position, then slowly rise back to standing. Repeat
10-12 times.
4. With the platform side up, starting at Zero Position, and keeping the head up, slowly move
hands down toward the toes, touch the toes, and return to Zero Position. Knees should be
slightly bent for this exercise (unlike toe touches on the ground). Repeat 5-8 times.
Figure 4.4 BOSU Ball™ Toe-Touching Exercise

52
5. Stand, platform side up, with the feet close together in the center of the BOSU Ball™.
Slowly raise one leg off the platform and hold for several seconds before lowering. For
beginning students, this can be performed with the foot slightly raised off the platform. For
more physically advanced students, position one foot on the BOSU Ball™, bring the
opposite knee up, and hold with the same side hand for five seconds before releasing. The
opposite arm can extend up or out to aid in balance.
Figure 4.5 BOSU Ball™ Leg-Raising Exercise

53
Core Strength and Engagement:
1. With the ball side up, start by sitting on the front third of the BOSU Ball™, knees bent and
feet flat on the floor where the body is on the BOSU Ball™ from the hips to the small of
the back. Using a small range of motion, slowly lift up while contracting the abdominal
muscles into a “crunch” and back. The key to this exercise is maintaining a slow, steady
pace with minimal range of motion. Keep it contained in the center, allowing the instability
of the ball to engage the muscles of the core.
2. In the same position, bring the knees up one at a time, keeping the upper body engaged and
slightly forward, pressing the back into the ball. Repeat ten to twenty times on each knee.
Figure 4.6 BOSU Ball™ Core Engagement Exercise – Knee-Raise

54
3. With the ball side up, lie prone on the ball in a Superman position (arms and legs off the
ground). Chest and hips should be on the ball. Extend arms and legs out (medial) then bring
them back to center. Repeat 5-8 times.
Figure 4.7 BOSU Ball™ Core Engagement Exercise – Superman
One of the major benefits of conducting on a BOSU Ball™ is that the unstable surface naturally
draws attention to some of the most typical and problematic errors of developing conductors while
deterring students from developing these habits. Whether moving through different planes,
practicing patterns, or conducting actual pieces, issues that are hard to notice on solid ground
become immediately apparent on the unstable surface of the BOSU Ball™. A review of conducting
texts has established the following issues as common problems and bad habits in conducting
students. Practicing gesture on the BOSU Ball™, whether conducting exercises or scores, will
help eliminate these issues:

55
1. Knees bending/bouncing
2. Knees locking
3. Weight shifting
4. Shoulder tension
5. Staying centered
6. Slouched/poor posture
Tips and Tricks for using a BOSU Ball™:
1. Try to keep the body in proper alignment while using the BOSU Ball™. While it is normal
to shift and adjust to maintain balance, it is important that the user does not slump.
2. The user will likely need to step off the BOSU Ball™ several times, especially in the
beginning stages, as they get accustomed to these exercises. It is appropriate to engage a
contact point in the early stages. This can be a wall, a chair or a bar to help achieve balance.
Conversely, if the exercises are becoming easy, the contact point can be removed.
3. If using the BOSU Ball™ on a hard surface, such as wood or tile, adding a mat or a folded
towel can serve as extra padding.
4. It is not uncommon for feet to become tired or achy, especially in the early stages of using
the BOSU Ball™. Breaks may be needed. Walking on a stable surface may help recovery.
5. It may take time for the BOSU Ball™, or any unstable surface, to feel comfortable. Expect
it to be unusual, even awkward, in the initial stages.
FOAM ROLLER
Self-myofascial release techniques involve the use of tools to massage the muscles and the
fascia around them that have been affected by pain and tightness. The most common tool used for

56
self-myofascial release (SMR) is the foam roller. The Gale Encyclopedia of Fitness describes foam
rollers as “foam cylindrical fitness tools [that] are used to massage muscles, warm up and cool
down, and as equipment for balance training.”3 Foam rollers so dominate the practice of SMR that
the practice is commonly referred to as “foam rolling.”4
Figure 4.8 Foam Roller
Traditionally, foam rollers are round, circular, or half-round (semi-circular with a flat bottom,
somewhat similar to a BOSU Ball™). They range in length, traditionally from 12 to 48 inches
(30.48 to 121.92 centimeters), while the width tends to be more standardized. The most commonly
used foam roller has a diameter of six inches (15.24 centimeters) and is 36 inches (91 centimeters)
in length. There are three general categories of foam rollers based on density: the mild, less dense
foam roller is generally white, the medium density comes in blue, and black is the hardest density,
3 Tracie Moy, The Gale Encyclopedia of Fitness (Farmington Hills: Gale, 2017). 4 Luke Hughes, “What is SMR? Guide to Self-Myofascial Release,” in Origym (June 2020).

57
although more variations are constantly being developed and marketed. There are several
variations, most notably rollers that vibrate or have ridges. Half rollers are used for less pressure
and greater stability, as the flat side is on the ground. Rollers that are shorter are often used for
targeting legs or other smaller body parts. For the purpose of this study, a traditional length roller
(approximately thirty-six inches) in any of the densities will work. Many people will start with the
mild white roller and move towards the intense black roller as their comfort and stability increase.
In the end, roller density choice is a matter of individual preference, as they all accomplish the
same end goal for conducting purposes.
The type of muscle soreness where SMR is most frequently used is Delayed Onset Muscle
Soreness (DOMS). This pain is usually experienced within one to two days after exercise,
especially when new muscles are being targeted or excursion beyond typical use is employed. This
is not the same as acute muscle soreness, which generally occurs during the exercise or moment
of excursion. Acute muscle soreness can be a symptom of injury, whereas Delayed Onset Muscle
Soreness is a routine part of a new or extended exercise regime. If acute pain is felt, then a medical
examination or attention should be pursued. SMR is not intended to address initial stages of injury.
In addition to DOMS, self-myofascial release can also be used to address muscle tightness, often
a result of a lack of movement or activity in the muscle groups (opposite of overuse and
excursion).5
In an article published by the University of Washington through UW Medicine, the benefits of
and need for self-myofascial release are outlined. The article “Self-Massage for Runners: The 5
Best Self-Myofascial Release Moves to Try”6 specifically targeted runners, but the principles
5 Luke Hughes, “What is SMR? Guide to Self-Myofascial Release,” in Origym (June 2020). 6 Kristen Domonell, “Self-Massage for Runners: The 5 Best Self-Myofascial Release Moves to Try,” in Right as
Rain (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Medicine, Accessed February 2021).

58
apply more broadly and can be adapted to accommodate conductors and conducting students.
According to Dr. Elliot O’Conner, a University of Washington Sports Medicine Center physical
therapist7, the majority of the human body is comprised of fascia. This connective tissue is different
from muscles and tendons in that it does not lie in linear paths, but rather is woven all throughout
the body. Because of this, it is hard to stretch without the aid of a physical therapist or a device
like a foam roller. While there is still much left to be understood about fascia, most movement
experts believe that myofascial release can help by increasing blood flow to the fascia, improving
circulation and therefore hydrating the tissue. Studies have shown that SMR conducted with a
foam roller can help in recovery, specifically in reducing the severity and length of DOMS.8 For
conductors, this can be especially helpful for individuals who are not used to maintaining an
engaged, raised arm position or standing with good posture for an extended time.
Foam rollers are particularly good for reaching muscles and fascia that are harder to stretch on
one’s own, including in the neck, back (upper, middle and lower), and legs. Self-myofascial release
can aid with increasing flexibility, stretching before practicing or rehearsing, and recovery after
conducting. As such, foam rollers can be a useful tool for both amateur and professional
conductors. Extended experience and knowledge of physical exercise is not required to be able to
successfully use a foam roller, which makes the foam roller more approachable than many other
forms of stretching. Foam rollers also can be used without a trainer or physical therapist and do
not require much space to store or use.
There are several muscle groups with which foam rollers are traditionally used. Many of these
muscle groups are used in conducting. The most common muscle groups used actively by
conductors that can be targeted for self-myofascial release with a foam roller include:
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.

59
Torso Muscle Groups
● Latissimus Dorsi: “The latissimus dorsi is a broad, flat muscle occupying most of the lower
posterior thorax. The muscle's primary function is to move the upper extremity, but it is
also considered an accessory muscle of respiration… The muscle fibers are situated in
various orientations, with the superior-most fibers almost horizontally oriented and
the inferior fibers more vertically oriented on the thorax… the latissimus dorsi acts with
the teres major and pectoralis major muscles to adduct and medially rotate the humerus.
The latissimus dorsi, along with the teres major, is active in the extension of the humerus.”9
9 Ronny Bergquist, Vegard Moe Iversen, Paul J. Mork, and Marius Steiro Fimland, “Muscle Activity in Upper-Body
Single-Joint Resistance Exercises with Elastic Resistance Bands vs. Free Weights,” in Journal of Human Kinetics
(March 2018).

60
Figure 4.9 Latissimus Dorsi Diagram
Image taken from: Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs. OpenStax College.
Accessed October 25, 2023. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/11-5-
muscles-of-the-pectoral-girdle-and-upper-limbs.
● Thoracic spine area: Located in the center of the upper and middle back, the thoracic area
is comprised of two main muscle groups. It begins at the cervical spine (base of the neck)
and ends at the bottom of the rib cage, just above the lumbar spine (lower back). The two
main muscle groups are the trapezius muscle, which extends across the shoulders and into
the upper back, and the rhomboids, comprised of two muscles that connect the shoulder
blades to the thoracic spine. The thoracic spine and ribcage work synergistically to stabilize

61
each other and together provide protection for the heart and lungs. The muscles, tendons,
ligaments and nerves of the thoracic region help with movement and flexibility.10
Figure 4.10 Thoracic Spine Area Diagram
Image taken from: Cancer Research UK. Cancer Research UK. Accessed October 25, 2023.
https://www.cancerresearchuk.org.
Inferior Muscle Groups
● Gluteal muscle group: There are three components that make up the gluteal region: the
gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, and gluteus minimus. The gluteus maximus is the largest
and most superficial of the three muscles, comprising most of the buttock and hip region.11
10 Sports Health & Fitness, “How Effective Are Resistance Bands for Strength Training?,” in healthessentials
(Cleveland, OH: Cleveland Clinic, May 2022). 11Adel Elzanie and Judith Borger, “Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb, Gluteus Maximus,” National Library of
Medicine, April 1, 2023, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538193/.

62
Its primary function is to extend and externally rotate the thigh, as well as to aid in
maintaining an erect posture in the upper body.12 The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus
coordinate as hip abductors. Together, these two muscles are critical to normal movement.
There are many layers of fascia around the three gluteal muscles, making SMR particularly
effective in this region.
Figure 4.11 Gluteal Muscle Group Diagram
Image taken from: Gluteal Muscle Group. SportEX. SportEX. Accessed October 20, 2023.
https://live.staticflickr.com/8357/8271843421_7f0db13929_b.jpg.
12 Ronny Bergquist, Vegard Moe Iversen, Paul J. Mork, and Marius Steiro Fimland, “Muscle Activity in UpperBody Single-Joint Resistance Exercises with Elastic Resistance Bands vs. Free Weights,” in Journal of Human
Kinetics (March 2018).

63
● Hip abductors: Colloquially known as outer thigh muscles, hip abductors allow the leg to
move sideways. These muscles are located on the lateral thigh. The gluteal muscles,
piriformis, artorius, and tensor fasciae latae are all included in this muscle group.
Figure 4.12 Hip Abductors Diagram
Image taken from: Hip Abductors. SportEX. SportEX. Accessed October 20, 2023.
https://live.staticflickr.com/8357/8271843421_7f0db13929_b.jpg.
● Hip flexors: Located on the upper thigh below the hip, these muscles are active in the
process of lifting the knees and bending at the waist. The muscles included are the iliacus,
psoas major, sartorius, and pectineus. Together, the hip flexors work to rotate the hip joint,
flex the knee, and flex the hip. This area is also critical for blood flow in the thigh region.
Foam rolling can increase circulation as well as stretch these muscles.

64
Figure 4.13 Hip Flexors Diagram
Image courtesy of Mackenzie Jensen.
● Iliotibial band: “Your iliotibial band is a strong, thick band of tissue that runs down the
outside of your thigh. It extends all the way from your hip bones to the top of your shinbone.
When you bend and extend your leg, this band moves over the outer lower edge of your
thighbone. With repeated bending and extending of the knee, this movement of the iliotibial

65
band may irritate nearby tissues, causing pain.”13 If left untreated it can lead to Iliotibial
Band Syndrome (ITBS). The experts at Cedar Sinai suggest that regular stretching outer
thighs and hamstrings can help prevent ITBS. Foam rolling can be a significant benefit for
those at risk of developing ITBS.
Figure 4.14 Iliotibial Band Diagram
Image courtesy of Jordi March i Nogué, M.D.
13 Thomas N. Joseph, Raymond Turley Jr, and Stacey Wojcik, “Iliotibial Band Syndrome,” Cedars Sinai, Accessed
2022, https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/i/iliotibial-band-syndrome.html.

66
● Piriformis: The piriformis is a small muscle situated underneath the gluteus maximus. It is
an external rotator muscle, along with obturator internus, obturator externus, and quadratus
femoris, working with the gemelli muscles in the external rotation of the thigh. The sciatic
nerve courses deep into the piriformis muscle, and is associated with tightness and pain in
the region.14 Foam rolling has been found to be helpful to this region.
Figure 4.15 Piriformis Diagram
Image courtesy of Beth Ohara.
14 Thomas N. Joseph, Raymond Turley Jr, and Stacey Wojcik, “Iliotibial Band Syndrome,” from Cedars Sinai,
Accessed 2022, https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/i/iliotibial-band-syndrome.html.

67
Foam rollers and SMR can be effective with other muscle groups as well, but these are not as
integral to conducting gesture and prolonged conducting practice.
Conducting Incorporation and Application
Like the BOSU Ball™, the foam roller is an unstable surface. It can take time to develop
comfort and ease while using it. In the early stages, using the foam roller to stretch is
straightforward and fairly easy if done correctly. After becoming more familiar with the foam
roller, specific exercises can be engaged to expressly target issues in conducting. Exertion can
range from minimal to intense. It is important when performing SMR on the back with a foam
roller to support the neck and head by clasping the hands behind the neck and head.
This self-administered form of massage can be used to manipulate muscle tissue to relieve
tension in the fascia as well as the muscles. When using the foam roller for this purpose, it is
recommended that the cylinder is rolled over the area of the tissue where tenderness or soreness is
being experienced, held in place, then gently rolled out. Recommended rolling times vary between
areas of the body, level of soreness, and other factors. For generally healthy adults, recommended
times range from thirty to ninety seconds and can be repeated several times.
The following exercises may be used to stretch and reduce tightness in specific areas that
are active during conducting:
Neck
For relieving tension or tightness in the base of the neck, Dr. Fei Jiang, an orthopedic
certified specialist at Providence Saint John’s Health Center’s Performance Therapy, suggests
placing the foam roller behind the neck like a pillow while lying in a supine position on the ground

68
or another stable, flat surface.15 After resting for a minute or two, slowly turn your head from side
to side, gently stretching the neck muscles at the base of the skull. This exercise can help with both
upper back pain and headaches originating from neck tension. It can also effectively stretch the
neck muscles before and after conducting. This exercise can also be useful after prolonged periods
of score study. It should be noted that the neck is a region that should be manipulated with care.
For this reason, a qualified physical therapist or medical professional should be consulted before
beginning an exercise regimen involving the neck.
Figure 4.16 Foam Roller Neck Exercise
Upper Back
The upper back (thoracic spine) is one of the most common parts of the body that experts
recommend for self-myofascial release, as many everyday activities—working at a computer,
cooking, writing—often cause people to have a hunched posture, resulting in stiffness and pain in
the upper back region. Conducting exacerbates this condition as the arms are extended through the
15 Julia Malacoff, “The Right Way to Foam Roll Your Entire Back,” in My Fitness Pal (July 2019).

69
Sagittal and Frontal Planes (anterior), adding strain to the upper and middle back. Conductors can
encounter additional challenges as they spend extended time in score study. Mobilizing the upper
back with SMR can help relieve tension and loosen the muscles.
There are several exercises that can help the upper back. One such exercise starts with lying
on a flat surface. Rest the upper back on the foam roller (perpendicular to the spine) with knees
bent. Place the hands behind the neck, drawing elbows together pointing up towards the ceiling.
Figure 4.17 Foam Roller Upper Back Exercise
Engaging the core, elevate hips off the ground and roll slowly down the back, no further than the
bottom of the shoulder blades. Then return, rolling back up to the starting position. The
effectiveness of this exercise can be increased by pausing in various places and slowly rocking left
and then right. Repeat a few times before moving to the next area. For a deeper stretch, contract
the abdominal muscles, bringing the shoulders forward while rolling.

70
Lower Back
The lower back region, referred to in physiology as the lumbar spine, is another area that
needs to be approached with care. Since the lower back is not supported in the way that the rib
cage supports the thoracic spine (upper back), it is not recommended to roll the foam roller directly
over this region of the back. Instead, by “using the foam roller in a side-lying position, you can
release the muscles along the sides of [the] lower back.”16 It is also safe to use the foam roller on
the gluteus maximus and gluteus medias, which can provide relief in the lower back as well.
The foam roller can also be used to develop balance and core strength. It has been argued
that core strength and conditioning are essential for peak performance in athletes. In his book
Introducing the Core: Demystifying the Body of an Athlete, Dr. William Meyers states,
There is no more important area of the body for an athlete—okay, for anyone—
than the core. It’s the engine room, the place where power is generated and then
distributed. Strength there makes life easier for the shoulders and knees. It produces
speed and explosiveness. Endurance and grit. Build the core, and you have built
the house. It extends from the chest to the thighs and includes a network of muscles,
tendons, ligaments, and joints that interconnect to provide the burst necessary for
optimal performance. Perhaps because this is where the body generates its power,
the core just so happens to be the same as the baseball/softball strike zone…17
The core also affects many other aspects of the body’s physical functions in conducting. For
strengthening the core and increasing balance, some exercises commonly employed by physical
therapists and sports trainers could prove beneficial for conductors.
Due to the nature of the arm position while conducting (extended and suspended forward
on the sagittal plane) there is a tendency to allow the shoulders to roll forward and the chest to
16 Julia Malacoff, “The Right Way to Foam Roll Your Entire Back,” in My Fitness Pal (July 2019). 17 Michael J. Bradley, Introducing the Core: Demystifying the Body of an Athlete (Slack Incorporated, 2019).

71
collapse slightly. This can be caused by contraction of the pectoralis major, the largest and most
superior muscle of the anterior chest wall. Over time, this position can lead to tightness and
soreness in the back. It can also lead to problematic postures in the ensemble, as singers often
unconsciously mimic what they see in their conductor. Learning to release the pectoralis muscles
and open the spine can aid in resolving this issue, resulting in improved health for the conductor
and improved aesthetic posture for the singers. The foam roller can be a great help in achieving
these goals.
Begin by lying on the foam roller in a supine position with the roller parallel to the spine,
making sure both the back of the head and the coccyx are resting on the roller. Take a moment to
gain stability and comfort, then extend the arms to the side, palms facing up. Slowly lower the
arms until they rest on the ground, allowing the shoulder blades to drop on either side of the roller.
Gradually lift the arms to shoulder level, keeping contact between the back of the hands and the
floor. Elbows may bend or lift slightly if necessary. Breathing deeply, release the pectoral muscles
and allow the foam roller to stretch the muscles around the spine. Hold this position for sixty to
ninety seconds, then repeat as necessary. This stretch is especially helpful after a long rehearsal to
relieve tension in the upper back.
The widely used “Dead Bug” exercise is found in fitness workouts and physical therapy
rehabilitation alike. This exercise targets core muscle strength and stability, especially in the
transverse abdominis and spinal erectors, which are both deep core muscles. Largely considered a
beginner level exercise, the “Dead Bug” can become a more advanced exercise when performed
on a foam roller instead of on the floor. Before that can be done, the conductor must first learn the
basics of the exercise on the floor where it is essentially a body weight movement. Using a yoga
or exercise mat, lie on the floor in a supine position, tilting the pelvis so that the low back is in

72
direct contact with the mat. Raise both legs (with knees bent) and both arms (held straight from
shoulders, perpendicular to the floor) in the air for the starting position. Using opposite limbs (right
leg with left arm and vice versa), alternate extending the limbs outward to a straight position,
almost parallel to the floor, while maintaining contact between the lower back and the floor. The
left arm should extend overhead while the right leg extends down. Bring the limbs back to the
starting position and then alternate. It is important to prevent the lower back from arching off the
floor and to keep the hips and shoulders from rocking during the exercise. In the early stages, work
up to ten repetitions per side, twenty total repetitions. Perform this complete set three times.
To increase the level of difficulty of the “Dead Bug” exercise and engagement of the core
in a more impactful way, this exercise can be adapted for use with a foam roller. Begin by sitting
on one end of the foam roller. Lie down on the foam roller so that the spine is parallel to and lying
on the length of the roller, with knees bent and arms on the ground on either side. From this
position, extend the left arm and right leg as in the floor-based exercise, keeping the right arm and
left leg on the ground. Proceed in a similar fashion, alternating opposite limbs for a total of twenty
repetitions, ideally completing three sets. By performing this exercise on an unstable surface like
the foam roller, the engagement, and therefore the strengthening, of the core muscles is
significantly increased. In addition, lying on the foam roller while performing the exercise adds
the element of stretching for the muscles around the spine and the pectoral muscles, making this
an ideal exercise for conductors.
While the foam roller can be used to help relieve tension and soreness associated with
conducting as well as improve core strength and balance, it can also be used in the instruction and
development of conducting gesture. Using some of the techniques articulated above, it is possible

73
to adapt the exercises to address issues specific to conducting. These exercises should be preceded
by a level of comfort and stability in using the foam roller.
As in the first proposed foam rolling exercise, begin by lying on the foam roller in a supine
position with the roller parallel to the spine, making sure both the back of the head and the coccyx
are resting on the roller. Plant the feet flat on the floor, approximately in line with the hips or
slightly outside with knees bent. From this position, extend the arms from the shoulders, facing
palms up. Allow the shoulder blades to relax over the foam roller, dropping towards the floor. This
will give a gentle stretch to the pectoral muscles and cause the shoulders to release, moving
towards the spine instead of hunching forward.
Figure 4.18 Zero Position on Foam Roller
Once in this position and after stretching the chest, shoulder, and muscles around the spine, the
body is ready to begin practicing conducting gestures. Start with basic patterns, then move to more

74
advanced elements including articulations, dynamics, cueing, etc. By changing the frame of
reference, awareness of body position and its implications can be enhanced.
Figure 4.19 First Position on Foam Roller
When standing, there is a singular point of view, one that is comfortable and common as it is the
position in which people spend much of their day. Awareness of horizontal, vertical and sagittal
planes in conducting is often limited by previous experience. This limitation can be exacerbated
by habits formed in the study of a musical instrument. When the body’s orientation is altered, this
new position can increase overall awareness of the conductor’s physiology. By lying in a supine
position, especially on an unstable surface, one’s awareness of small changes in stability and
position can increase substantially. Suddenly, the horizontal plane is now perpendicular to the
floor, the vertical plane is ideally parallel, and maintaining the sagittal plane takes more effort than
while standing.

75
Figure 4.20 Second Position on Foam Roller
In addition to awareness and development of conducting planes, the feeling of the placement of
the beat also changes. Due to gravitational pull, the penultimate beat (beat 3 in a 4 pattern, beat 2
in a 3 pattern, etc.) has a tendency to drop towards the floor if not actively engaged and managed.
Awareness of the sagittal plane tends to increase, as the conductor must work intentionally against
gravity to move away from the core. For the majority of people, changing physical orientation and
the center of gravity can alter the awareness of and therefore use of the non-dominant hand. The
same can apply to conductors. In the author’s experience teaching conducting for over 20 years,
some conducting students find an increased awareness of breath as well. Overall, changing the
normative orientation increases awareness, allowing the conductor to make articulated choices and
adapt aspects of their gesture as needed.

76
THERABAND™ ELASTIC RESISTANCE BANDS
A resistance band is an elastic band, typically used for physical therapy, rehabilitation, and
strength training. Originating in the early 1900’s, bands made from surgical tubing were used
primarily for muscle rehabilitation. Towards the end of the twentieth century, they gained
popularity as a tool for physical fitness and strength training. As the use of resistance bands has
increased and diversified, resistance band design has also diversified. Basic therapy bands include
models with plastic handles attached to one or both ends, continuous flat loop bands, short bands
in the shape of an eight with two handles, circular bands with two soft handles, Velcro ankle cuffs
connected by a band, as well as other designs. For the purposes of this study, therapy resistance
bands by TheraBand™ will be used for all exercises. Therapy resistance bands by TheraBand™
come with a standard four-inch (10.18 centimeters) width and in a variety of lengths. They are also
available as rolls ranging from six to one hundred yards, making it possible to customize the length
for multiple people. According to the company’s website,
TheraBand™ Latex Resistance Bands are designed to help users rehabilitate
injuries, improve functional living and enhance athletic performance. The elastic
exercise bands provide both positive and negative force on muscles and joints to
help stretch, tone and condition all major muscle groups. These training bands are
best used before working out to enhance stretches and prime the muscles for
strenuous exercises.18
TheraBand™ resistance bands come in a variety of colors that correlate to the level of resistance,
which is determined by the thickness of the band. While most bands are made of latex, there are
non-latex versions as well. For the convenience of users and trainers, the company maintains
consistent color coding in all their products. This is an integral part of their Progressive Resistance
18 “Theraband Professional latex Resistance Bands”, Performance Health, Accessed November 2022,
Performancehealth.com.

77
System. “The TheraBand™ color-coded resistance system allows users to easily track their
progress from one level to the next… The pull-force system ensures users can increase the
difficulty of their workouts over time to tone muscles and recover from injuries.”19 This colorcoded system makes it easy for students and instructors to move progressively through their
development. TheraBand™ is the creator and first producer of the Trusted Progression™ System,
the name given to their pull-force tested and validated, color-coded system of resistance levels.
Figure 4.21 TheraBand™ Elastic Resistance Bands
Image from therabrand.com.
In addition to levels of resistance intensity, the colors also indicate the recommended body
part or muscle group for which each band was designed. Yellow bands are for the shoulders and
shins, red bands are for the biceps and triceps, and green, blue, and black bands are for the legs,
chest and back. These are recommendations, as all bands can be used interchangeably for exercises
as long as the resistance intensity is appropriate. The concept behind these recommendations is
19 “Theraband Professional latex Resistance Bands”, Performance Health, Accessed November 2022,
Performancehealth.com.

78
that larger muscle groups can handle more weight and resistance than their smaller counterparts
and therefore will benefit from a higher level of resistance intensity in the band. Generally
speaking, yellow and red are considered beginner level, green and blue are considered
intermediate, and black is considered advanced. In terms of exertion level, yellow corresponds
with extra-light, red corresponds with light, green corresponds with medium, blue corresponds
with heavy, and black corresponds with extra heavy exercise. There are a few additional levels at
the extremes (tan, silver and gold), but these are not as common and will not be used for the
exercises developed in this study. For use as a tool in the conducting classroom, understanding the
differences in use and intensity will help the instructor to determine which band is right for each
student.
Figure 4.22 TheraBand Elastic Resistance Band Color and Resistance Guide
Image from therabrand.com.

79
Resistance band training is attractive in part because the bands are safe, portable,
inexpensive, and easy to store. These conveniences are especially important for use outside the
gym or physical therapy clinic. Resistance bands were developed to re-establish range of motion,
control and strength in rehabilitating patients. All of these skills are beneficial for conductors. A
full class set of TheraBands™ can be stored in a typical desk drawer or small container. Due to
the resistance levels and muscle groups that each band is designed to target, it should be sufficient
for all instructional and developmental purposes to limit classroom use to red, green and blue
TheraBands™.
There is no real learning curve to using a TheraBand™ effectively, making it ideal for
people with little or no background in exercise or physical therapy. As one progresses, there are
ways to expand and increase the effectiveness of the exercises, but there are no barriers for
beginners. To start, the proper color or level of resistance needs to be determined. For most
conductors, the best starting point will be the red resistance band. Even advanced conductors
should start with the red band, as resistance training constitutes a new approach to training muscles
used in conducting. For more elderly individuals or those contending with shoulder or arm injuries,
it may be more appropriate to begin with the yellow band. In the case of injury, always consult a
physician or physical therapist before beginning a new exercise routine.
When compared to dumbbells, research shows that resistance bands are a comparable
alternative in terms of muscle engagement, especially in upper body exercises.20 In addition,
several other benefits have been identified. Because one must maintain tension on the band
throughout the entire movement, there is greater muscle stimulus and control. In addition, the
20 Ronny Bergquist, Vegard Moe Iversen, Paul J. Mork, and Marius Steiro Fimland, “Muscle Activity in UpperBody Single-Joint Resistance Exercises with Elastic Resistance Bands vs. Free Weights,” in Journal of Human
Kinetics (March 2018).

80
movement of the arms with the resistance bands activates the core and stabilization muscles. All
of these elements are beneficial to conductors.
Conducting Incorporation and Application
Many of the following exercises begin by securing the TheraBand™ on the hands. This
can be accomplished by holding the hand open, palm side up, and laying one end of the band across
it. Make sure to leave a tail of four to five inches (10.16 to 12.7 centimeters) hanging from the
thumb side of the hand. Wrap the longer end around the bottom of the hand and back over the
thumb side. If using both hands for the exercise, repeat with the other hand. Depending on how
tight the grip needs to be, additional looping on one or both hands is an option. Wrap both hands
with the TheraBand™ with approximately twelve to fifteen inches in the middle. The goal is to be
able to rest the elbows at the waist with forearms extended forward, parallel to the floor with palms
up.

81
Figure 4.23 Zero Position with TheraBands™
This is the starting position for several exercises. All of the exercises below engage the latissimus
dorsi as a stabilizer. Different active muscles groups are identified in each of the following
exercises.
Exercise 1:
Gently pulse the arms out and back ten times, pulling in a straight line parallel to the floor
with palms up. Make sure to keep the elbows in, touching the torso. Repeat this set 3 times.
Once it becomes easy, move to a higher intensity resistance band. This lateral movement
will strengthen the forearm, preparing it for prolonged periods of extension and
engagement.

82
Figure 4.24 Exercise One with TheraBands™
Exercise 2:
Keeping elbows in at the torso with palms facing up, slowly move arms out for four beats, then
slowly back into starting position for four beats. The elbows may move slightly out with this
exercise, but try to keep them close to the body. Repeat five times. The number of beats can
be altered for either direction and can be symmetrical or asymmetrical (e.g., six beats out and
six beats in, five beats out and three beats in). The slow movement of this exercise requires
more muscle groups to be engaged than in the first exercise, while changing directions shifts

83
some of the muscle groups between active and stabilizing functions. The primary active muscle
groups include the triceps brachii, biceps brachii, brachioradialis, anconeus, brachialis, and
pronator teres. Rhomboid and pectoralis muscles are engaged, alternating with extension and
return. The deltoids serve a secondary and stabilizing function. In addition to increasing
strength and endurance, this exercise can help develop an engaged, legato gesture with pull.
Exercise 3
Begin in the same position as the previous exercise, but instead of moving the arms out at the
same time in opposite directions, keep one arm static and move the other arm out. This should
be repeated on both sides. Muscle involvement remains the same as the previous exercise. The
benefit of this variation is the ability to focus on one arm at a time.
Exercise 4
To develop range of motion on the sagittal plane, start with the bands wrapped as described
above, shoulder width apart with the band engaged (taut) but not stretched, arms straight and
down in front of the body. Slowly move the arms up together, keeping the tension in the band
consistent and the arms moving at the same pace. Keeping the shoulders down, raise the arms
(without bending the elbows) until they are directly overhead. Hold for two beats, then slowly
bring the arms down to the starting position. Exhale on the way up, and inhale on the way
down. Working primarily from the shoulder joint, the deltoids and triceps are the primary
muscles involved with the latissimus dorsi and the pectoralis muscles playing a stabilizing and
secondary role. Using the space of the sagittal plane, this exercise also raises awareness of the
differences between the dominant and non-dominant arm as they try to maintain constant speed

84
and separation. Keeping the band suspended between the arms with equal tension as they move
through space will bring attention to any irregularities or differences.
Exercise 5
Hold the band in both hands (without looping around hands), shoulder width apart, elbows out,
arms parallel to the floor, and palms facing down. Extend the right arm out, using the elbow
joint and extending from the shoulder. Keep the arm parallel to the floor throughout the
movement. Return to center, then repeat on the left. Repeat the full cycle ten times. This can
be done standing or sitting. This exercise is a tricep pull. For conductors, this exercise helps
reinforce isolated arm movements without raising the shoulders or engaging in other unwanted
or unintended movements.
Exercise 6
Hold the band in both hands (without looping around hands) above the head and stretch the
band past shoulder width to form a “Y” shape. Keeping the arms straight, pull the band down
in front of the face to the chest, widening the arms as they are brought down. Bring the band
back up overhead and pull the band down behind the head to the upper back. Repeat the full
cycle (front and back makes one cycle) ten times, then repeat the cycle three times with a oneminute rest in between the cycles. It is important not to move the head or back during this
exercise. Through these moves, the primary targets are the shoulders and back, especially the
deltoids and the latissimus dorsi. By moving in front and behind, the range of motion, multiple
planes, and shoulder stability are all explored. This exercise is excellent for developing
endurance for prolonged arm extension and elevation.

85
Exercise 7
Sitting forward on a chair, wrap the band under the legs and hold on each side of the band.
With the palms facing up, bending at the elbow joint, pull the fists up towards the shoulders.
Slowly lower the arms down and repeat, exhaling on the way up, inhaling on the way down.
Try to keep the pacing constant, with no accelerations or slowing down. Perform this cycle ten
to twelve times, rest for thirty to sixty seconds, and repeat the set. This exercise is a
modification of a bicep curl, focusing on the biceps and biceps brachii, with secondary
engagement. Working the biceps will increase strength and endurance, but it will also help
balance the arm and body as many of the other exercises have engaged the triceps and muscles
of the back. The extended, slow movement will prompt engagement through the legato,
connected gesture; the strength will aid in effective weight in the marcato gesture.
Exercise 8
Holding the band at each end, wrap the band around the back in a posterior position. Extend
the arms out from the shoulder on the coronal plane, then pull the arms forward to meet in the
center of the body. The elbows should be engaged and stable but should not be rigidly straight
or bent during movement. This exercise will actively work the latissimus dorsi (which has been
largely engaged as a stabilizer in the other exercises) as well as the pectoral muscles, deltoids,
and rhomboids. This exercise will enhance the conductor’s engagement with the horizontal
plane of conducting as well as increase stability and endurance.
Performing any of these exercises on the BOSU Ball™ will increase the intensity and
effectiveness of the training. Any movement on an unstable surface will automatically engage the

86
core more than standing on a flat, stable surface. It is recommended that these exercises only be
attempted after comfort and stability are achieved on the BOSU Ball™ and these exercises have
been performed multiple times while standing on the ground.
TheraBands™ can also be used with singers in rehearsal to impart a sense of line and direction.
Divide students into groups of two and give each their own TheraBand™. For this activity, lighter
density bands (yellow, red and green) are recommended. Have each student hold an end and stand
far enough apart to keep the band taut. Keeping the tension in the band, slowly move toward one
student and away from the other for a determined amount of time (four bars, twenty seconds, etc.),
then change directions. This exercise can be enhanced by playing music while the students move,
asking them to change directions when they feel the phrase ending and a new one beginning. By
keeping the band taut during the movement, active engagement is experienced and can translate
into gesture.
Figure 4.25 Partner Exercise with TheraBands™

87
There are countless other exercises and variations that can be performed with a resistance band,
many of which could aid in conducting as well as improving general health. For the purposes of
this study, the focus has been on the arms, shoulder and torso, which are the most active body parts
in conducting. The muscles inferior to the axial plane are also important for the conductor, but
they have not been included in this study since in general, they are not actively involved in gesture.

88
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications for Further Study
Conclusions
Through the evaluation of conducting texts and other writings, it is apparent that common
current approaches to teaching conducting do not delve into the physiology involved in the
conducting process. Additionally, there are few biomechanical or physical therapy studies of the
physiological process of conducting. By merging these two disciplines, it is possible to enhance
the current conducting methodology with sound physiological pedagogy. This cross-disciplinary
approach will bring conducting instruction more in line with vocal and instrumental instruction.
Conducting is inherently artistic. However, it is also a physical practice, making it important to
understand how to train the muscle groups involved for maximal control and expression.
Understanding and intentionally training the physical body for the skills needed in conducting
should not detract from the artistry of the conductor. On the contrary, training the muscles involved
in conducting should lead to greater physical control and therefore expand the possibilities for
artistry and expression. The study of conducting should incorporate a physiology and intentional
muscle training and development along with the aesthetic elements already commonly present in
the instruction.
The three devices used in this study are the BOSU Ball™, the foam roller, and
TheraBands™. All three have been studied in the biomechanics and physical therapy fields and
have been determined to aid in strength, endurance, and overall health. This study has
demonstrated how these physical therapy tools can contribute to the development of the muscle
groups and physical skills engaged in conducting. Specific exercises have been proposed to aid in

89
the physical training of conductors and to help develop teaching methods incorporating conducting
physiology. In different ways, all three devices contribute to balance and core strength.
The unstable surfaces created by the BOSU Ball™ and the foam roller increase the
conductor’s stability and heighten awareness of muscles and larger systems that are more difficult
to sense on a stable, flat surface. Issues often faced by both new and experienced conductors
include unintentional rocking, bouncing, and other unwanted movements that can be difficult to
notice from the podium. These issues are instantly apparent on the unstable surfaces of the BOSU
Ball™. By implementing some time conducting on the BOSU Ball™, it should be easier for the
developing conductor to increase awareness of unhelpful habits. Thus far, it has primarily been the
responsibility of the conducting instructor to bring attention to these issues, with the hope that the
student will work to correct the problem. Asking the student to review videos of their conducting
is also a common approach. Both of these corrections occur after the fact, sometimes hours or days
after the conducting experience. The immediate feedback of the unstable surface can greatly
enhance student awareness and therefore contribute to their growth.
There are several additional benefits of the foam roller that have been shown to enhance
and develop conducting gesture. First, the ability to flip orientation by lying supine on the foam
roller changes perception, especially of the conducting planes and their orientation. In a supine
position, the horizontal plane is suddenly perpendicular to the floor, and the vertical plane is
parallel to the floor. Gravity interacts differently with movement in this position. As the
conductor’s awareness increases through altered perception, learning can be augmented. Second,
the ability to release the muscles (particularly the pectoral and shoulder muscles) by lying in the
supine position with the roller parallel to the spine is not easily accomplished any other way. The
rounded shape of the roller plus the natural pull of gravity makes it almost impossible for a

90
conductor to assume a hunched position. This exercise can correct bad posture as well as provide
relief for tight muscles.
TheraBands™ are unique among the three devices in that they primarily engage the arms
and upper body. Many scientific studies have demonstrated that resistance bands are effective at
training and strengthening the muscles involved in conducting. For conductors, an added benefit
of training with resistance bands is the ability to develop both adduction and abduction movements,
since most exercises only engage one of these actions. Again, awareness is heightened by this
process, as the bands require intentionality to maintain the rate of speed throughout the exercise.
Conducting gestures need to be engaged without being tense, as tension can cause problems for
the conductor and the singers that are following their gesture. TheraBands™ train muscle
engagement without promoting tension.
Conducting is an artistic expression as well as a physical endeavor. Therefore, it is
important to learn which muscles are implicated, how they work, and how they can be developed
for maximal control, health and artistry. The field of conducting must invest in the physical aspect
of this art form and develop methods of training conductors that train and promote awareness of
the physical body. Conducting is a profession that can last well into a conductor’s advanced years.
Even a rudimentary understanding of the physiology involved and an intentional development of
the body may help conductors promote health and avoid injury and pain.
Implications for Further Study
In this study, the focus has been on the muscles which are superior to the axial plane,
especially those in the arms, shoulder, back, and core. It must also be noted that the muscles
inferior to the axial plane are also important to a conductor’s gesture as well as overall health.
Standing on the BOSU Ball™ does help develop muscles in the hips, legs and feet, but most of

91
the exercises included in this study have focused on upper body development and direct application
to gesture. Further study is needed on the muscles in the lower half of the body and their impact
on conducting gesture. Exercises can then be developed to engage and develop those muscles.
There are several additional tools used in physical therapy and sports training that could
also prove beneficial for conductors. Additional research is needed to determine the possible
applications of these tools to the training of conductors. Of particular interest is the Bodyblade®,
a training tool that uses vibration and the power of inertia to cause rapid contractions in muscles.
It is frequently used in both rehabilitation and strength training, as it works from the core and upper
body to develop stability.
Further research is needed on the biomechanical side of conducting to determine which
muscles/muscle groups are active during conducting. To date, there have been no scientific studies
diagnosing muscle function pertaining to conducting gesture. This knowledge could have
significant implications on the teaching of conducting, allowing for the development of exercises
to strengthen the needed areas. Currently, information is ancillary and deductive, primarily using
studies for athletes as source material. Of particular interest are studies on upper body activation,
especially those focusing on overhand arm movement. For lower body and core activation, running
studies may have some relevance to conducting, but the mechanics and processes involved are still
quite different.
For accurate diagnosis of the muscles and muscle groups involved in conducting, there are
several tests that can be performed in a biomechanics or physical therapy lab. First,
electromyography (EMG) testing could prove highly effective for isolating and identifying the role
of specific muscles while conducting. According to the Mayo Clinic, electromyography is a

92
diagnostic procedure where the health of muscles and the nerves that control them can be assessed.1
For this test, a small needle electrode is inserted through the skin directly into a muscle to record
the electrical activity in that muscle, measuring muscle response or electrical activity in response
to a nerve’s stimulation of the muscle.2 These responses are displayed on an oscilloscope (a
monitor that shows the activity in the form of waves) and through an audio amplifier, allowing the
activity to be heard. Typically, muscles do not show electrical activity when they are at rest. These
electrodes not only pick up the presence of electrical activity, they also measure intensity of use.
Needle EMGs are commonly performed diagnostically for patients dealing with muscle weakness,
numbness, tingling, and certain types of limb pain.3
There are concerns with the effectiveness of electromyography for identifying muscle
activity during conducting. First, these tests are usually done with the subject sitting or lying down.
Neither of these positions are compatible with conducting. Second, the wire leads that transmit the
information could get caught on each other with the activity produced during conducting. As the
electrodes are inserted into the muscle through a needle, this could present problems for the subject
and make getting an accurate read difficult. If there are more advances in wireless EMG, this
problem would be resolved. While most people experience small discomfort during the insertion
of the needles, the pain tends to dissipate after they are in place. However, some subjects
experience ongoing pain or discomfort, which can distort the results and be unpleasant for the
subject.
1 Mayo Clinic Staff, “Electromyography (EMG),” in Mayo Clinic (Rochester, MN: Mayo Clinic, Accessed
December 2022).
2 Hopkins Medical Staff, “Electromyography (EMG),” in Johns Hopkins Medicine (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins
Medicine, November 2022).
3 Ibid.

93
An alternative to needle electromyography is surface electromyography (SEMG or surface
EMG). Surface EMG is also an electrodiagnostic medical technique for evaluating and recording
electrical activity produced by muscles. Instead of using needles to enter the muscle directly,
electrodes are placed on the skin overlying a muscle to detect the electrical activity of that muscle.
A non-invasive procedure, surface EMG does not use needles nor does it involve piercing the skin,
resulting in little to no discomfort for the subject. In addition, surface EMG can be performed
while standing and active as well as sitting and lying down. The primary disadvantage to this mode
of study is that an evaluation of muscles not lying directly under the surface of the skin is limited.
Surface electromyography could be an effective starting point for research into muscle activity
during conducting.
A nerve conduction study (NCS), or nerve conduction velocity test (NCV) is often paired
with either EMG or surface EMG in testing. NCS calculates how fast electrical impulses travel
through the nerve. Together, these two tests effectively diagnose activity within muscles and
nerves. These tests are especially helpful in determining the presence and extent of damage to
muscles and nerves. The test is traditionally done by a neurologist. Usually performed while sitting
or lying down, electrodes are placed directly on the skin over the nerve being studied. One
electrode records activity while the other stimulates the nerve with a brief electrical shock.
Discomfort is generally minor and lasts only a few seconds. The stimulation and response of the
nerve are both recorded and displayed on a monitor. While a nerve conduction study in isolation
may not be very informative for the understanding of the physiology of conducting, when paired
with EMG (needle or surface) it is possible that it will help unlock additional information.
As there has been little to no study on the physiology of conducting, there are no resources
for physical therapists when it comes to rehabilitation for conductors. Conductors can suffer from

94
muscle and tendon issues originating in overuse, exacerbated by a lack of physical training.
Conductors may also need rehabilitation following non-conducting injuries. Without accurate
information about the muscles and ligaments used in conducting, it may be difficult for a physical
therapist to help a conductor recover. In the event of injury, musicians should be treated like
athletes. Tennis players, volleyball players, and swimmers require different forms of training and
rehabilitation. There have been countless studies done on athletes, many of which offer sportspecific guidelines for training and recovery from injury. The same should be true for musicians.
There have been a handful of studies on instrument-specific issues, primarily for strings, piano and
flute. Collaboration between conductors and physical therapists will increase knowledge of
conducting physiology, paving the way for the development of protocols and exercises that
promote artistry, health, and healing.

95
References
Ahn, Sung Ja, and Hae Yeon Kwon. “A Study on the Effects of Aerobic and Foam Roller
Exercise Programs on Body Balance in Senior Women.” Journal of International
Academy of Physical Therapy Research 8, no. 2 (January 2017).
https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSear
chBean.artiId=ART002245313
Badr, Nevin. “The Effects of BOSU Ball Training on Teaching and Improving the Performance
of Certain Handball Basic Skills.” Ovidius University Annals, Series Physical Education
and Sport / SCIENCE, MOVEMENT AND HEALTH 13, no. 2 (September 2013): 498–
505.
Bergquist, Ronny, Vegard Moe Iversen, Paul J Mork, and Marius Steiro Fimland. “Muscle
Activity in Upper-Body Single-Joint Resistance Exercises with Elastic Resistance Bands
vs. Free Weights.” Journal of Human Kinetics 61, no. 1 (2018): 5–13.
https://doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2017-0137.
Bornstein, Adam. “Accelerate Gains with the Foam Roller.” Muscle & Fitness.
https://www.muscleandfitness.com/workouts/workout-tips/accelerate-gains-foam-roller/.
Bradley, Michael J. Introducing the core: Demystifying the body of an Athlete. Thorofare, NJ:
SLACK Incorporated, 2019.
Camesi, David. “Eighteenth-Century Conducting Practices.” Journal of Research in Music
Education 18, no. 4 (December 1970): 365–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/3344503.
“Cardinal Planes and Axes of Movement.” Physiopedia, Accessed September 24, 2023.
https://www.physio-pedia.com/Cardinal_Planes_and_Axes_of_Movement.
Carse, Adam. The orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz: A History of the Orchestra in the First
Half of the 19th Century, and of the Development of Orchestral Baton-Conducting.
Cambridge: Heffer, 1948.
Cheatham, Scott W., and Kyle R. Stull. “Comparison of a Foam Rolling Session with Active
Joint Motion and without Joint Motion: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” Journal of
Bodywork and Movement Therapies 22, no. 3 (2018): 707–12.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2018.01.011.
Cheatham, Scott W., Kyle R. Stull, and Tony Ambler-Wright. “Roller Massage: Survey of
Physical Therapy Professionals and a Commentary on Clinical Standards - Part
II.” International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy 13, no. 5 (2018): 920–30.
https://doi.org/10.26603/ijspt20180920.

96
Čučková, Tamara, Vladimír Süss, and Jan Carboch. “A Long-Term Cohort Study of the Muscle
Apparatus of Female Volleyball Players after the Application of a Compensatory
Programme.” AUC Kinanthropologica 53, no. 2 (2017): 126–37.
https://doi.org/10.14712/23366052.2017.10.
Cuğ, Mutlu, Ashley Duncan, and Erik Wikstrom. “Comparative Effects of Different BalanceTraining–Progression Styles on Postural Control and Ankle Force Production: A
Randomized Controlled Trial.” Journal of Athletic Training 51, no. 2 (2016): 101–10.
https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-51.2.08.
Decker, Harold A., and Julius Herford. Choral Conducting Symposium. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall, 1988.
Decker, Harold A., and Colleen J. Kirk. Choral Conducting: Focus on Communication. Prospect
Heights: Waveland Press, 1995.
Domonell, Kristen. “Self-Massage for Runners: The 5 Best Self-Myofascial Release Moves to
Try.” Right as Rain, (November 2017).
https://rightasrain.uwmedicine.org/body/exercise/self-massage-runners-5-best-selfmyofascial-release-moves-try.
Durrant, Colin. Choral Conducting: Philosophy and Practice. New York: Routledge, 2003.
Eichenberger, Rodney, dir. What They See is What You Get. USA: Hinshaw Music, 1994. DVD.
“Electromyography (EMG).” Johns Hopkins Medicine, (April 2023).
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-andtherapies/electromyography-emg#:~:text=Electromyography%20(EMG).
“Electromyography (EMG).” Mayo Clinic, (May 2019). https://www.mayoclinic.org/testsprocedures/emg/about/pac-20393913.
Elfateh, Aisha. “Effects of Ten Weeks of Instability Resistance Training on Muscular Balance
and the Learning Level of Fencing Basics.” Ovidius University Annals, Series Physical
Education and Sport / SCIENCE, MOVEMENT AND HEALTH 16, no. 2 (September
2016): 273–79.
Elzanie, Adel, and Judith Borger. “Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb, Gluteus Maximus
Muscle.” National Library of Medicine, (2023).
Ford, Joseph Kevin. “Implications for Non-Verbal Communication and Conducting Gesture.”
The Choral Journal 42, no. 1 (2001): 17–23. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23553881.
Freer, Patrick K. “Beyond Error Detection: A Cycle of Pedagogical Skills for Choral
Conductors.” The Choral Journal 50, no. 3 (2009): 34–45.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23559805.

97
Gambetta, Charles L. “Conducting Outside the Box: Creating a Fresh Approach to Conducting
Gesture through the Principles of Laban Movement Analysis.” Dissertation, University of
North Carolina at Greensboro, 2005.
Gehrkins, Karl Wilson. Essentials in Conducting. Boston: Oliver Ditson Company, 1951.
Gouwanda, Darwin, and Alpha Agape Gopalai. “Investigating Human Balance and Postural
Control during Bilateral Stance on Bosu Balance Trainer.” Journal of Medical and
Biological Engineering 37, no. 4 (2017): 484–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40846-017-
0282-9.
Green, Elizabeth A.H., and Mark Gibson. The Modern Conductor, 6th ed. Upper Saddle River:
Prentice Hall, 1996.
Grout, Donald Jay, and Claude V. Palisca. A History of Western Music, 8th ed., 357. New York:
W.W. Norton & Company, 2010.
Hanna-Weir, Scot Alan. “Developing a Personal Pedagogy of Conducting.” Dissertation,
University of Maryland, 2013.
“History of the BOSU Ball.” lifetips. Accessed September 24, 2023.
https://balance.lifetips.com/faq/120190/0/what-is-a-bosu-ball-and-how-does-it-improvebalance/index.html.
“How Effective Are Resistance Bands for Strength Training?” Cleveland Clinic, (May 2022).
https://health.clevelandclinic.org/should-you-try-resistance-bands-for-strength-training/.
Hughes, Luke. “What Is SMR? Guide to Self-Myofascial Release.” Origym (blog), (June 2020).
https://origympersonaltrainercourses.co.uk/blog/self-myofascial-release.
Iler, Devin. “Václav Philomathes’ 'Musicorum Libri Quattor’” (1512): Translation, Commentary,
and Contextualization.” Dissertation, University of North Texas, 2015.
Jacobs, Arthur. “Spohr and the Baton.” Music and Letters 31, no. 4 (1950): 307–17.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ml/xxxi.4.307.
Jordan, James Mark, Giselle Wyers, Meade Andrews, Eugene Corporon, and Gerald Custer. The
Conductor’s Gesture: A Practical Application of Rudolf von Laban’s Movement
Language. Chicago: GIA Publications, 2011.
Jordan, James Mark. “The Effects of Informal Movement Instruction Derived from the Theories
of Rudolf von Laban upon the Rhythm Performance and Discrimination of High School
Students.” Dissertation, Temple University, 1985.

98
Joseph, Ranjit, Talia Alenabi, Tea Lulic, and Clark R. Dickerson. “Activation of Supraspinatus
and Infraspinatus Partitions and Periscapular Musculature during Rehabilitative Elastic
Resistance Exercises.” American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 98, no.
5 (2019): 407–15. https://doi.org/10.1097/phm.0000000000001116.
Joseph, Thomas N, Raymond Turley, and Stacey Wojcik. “Iliotobal Band Syndrome.” Cedars
Sinai, 2022. https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-andconditions/i/iliotibial-band-syndrome.html.
Kendall, Florence Peterson. Muscles testing and function. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins,
2005.
Laban, Rudolf. Choreutics. Edited by Lisa Ullmann. London: Macdonald & Evans, 1966.
Lyne, Gregory K. “Effective Bodily Communication: A KEY TO EXPRESSIVE
CONDUCTING.” The Choral Journal 20, no. 1 (1979): 22–24.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23545179.
Macko, S.D., M.L. Manley, C.A. Maul, B.E. Roth, and M.A. Sakalas. “Effectiveness of TheraBand on strengthening the shoulder external rotators.” Physical Therapy 79, (1999).
Malacoff, Julia. “The Right Way to Foam Roll Your Entire Back.” Myfitnesspal (blog), (July
2019). https://blog.myfitnesspal.com/the-right-way-to-foam-roll-your-entire-back/.
McCoy, Claire W. “Eurhythmics: Enhancing the Music-Body-Mind Connection in Conductor
Training.” The Choral Journal 35, no. 5 (1994): 21–28.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23550576.
Moharrami, Ramin, Sadreddin Shoja’eddin, Heidar Sadeghi. “The Effect of Theraband Training
on Position Sense of Internal and External Rotator Muscles in Male Athletes with
Shoulder Impingement Syndrome.” Journal of Rehabilitation 16, no. 3 (2015): 228-233.
http://rehabilitationj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-1440-en.html
Moore, Carol-Lynne, and Kaoru Yamamoto. Beyond Words: Movement Observation and
Analysis. London: Routledge, 2012.
Moradi, B., Sadreddin Shoja’eddin, and M. Hadadnazhad. “Comparison of Core Stabilization,
TheraBand Resistance and Combined Training on Functional Endurance and Postural
Control in Male Patients with Multiple Sclerosis.” Journal of Gorgan University of
Medical Sciences 18, no. 1 (2016): 58-63.
Moy, Tracie. The Gale Encyclopedia of Fitness. Farmington Hills: Gale, a Cengage Company,
2017.
UC Berkeley Department of Wellness. "A Nobel Prize-Winning Molecule." University of
California at Berkeley Wellness Letter 6, (2018).

99
Patel, Gajendrakumar. “A Comparative Study of Muscle Energy Technique (MET) and
Eccentric Training Using Theraband to Improve Triceps Surae Muscle
Flexibility.” Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy - An
International Journal 9, no. 2 (2015): 64. https://doi.org/10.5958/0973-
5674.2015.00055.6.
Poch, Gail. “Conducting: Movement Analogues Through Effort Shape.” The Choral Journal 23,
no. 3 (1982): 21-22.
Robinson, Ray. Up Front!: Becoming the Complete Choral Conductor. Edited by Guy Webb.
Boston: ECS Pub., 1993.
Saltzman, Royce. “Letter from the President.” The Choral Journal 23, no. 3 (1982).
Schuller, Gunther. The Compleat Conductor. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Sharp, Timothy W. Precision Conducting: The Seven Disciplines of the Masterful Conductor.
Dayton: Roger Dean, 2003.
Shore, Jeremy. “How to Outrun Aging.” Runner’s World 53, no. 8 (2018): 1.
Smith, Christopher Matthew. “A Comparative Study of Select Choral Conductors’ Approaches
to Unification of Choral Sound, Rehearsal, Conducting, and Leadership: Frieder Bernius,
Tõnu Kaljuste, Stephen Cleobury, John Eliot Gardiner, Weston Noble, and Robert
Shaw.” Dissertation, University of Kansas, 2016.
Southerland, William. “Giving Music a Hand: Conducting History in Practice and Pedagogy.”
The Choral Journal 59, no. 8 (2019): 30–43. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26601977.
Talbot, Marianne B. "The Dynamics of a Therapeutic Dance/Movement Intervention for
Individuals with Brain Injuries: Comparison with Physical Therapy Using Laban
Movement Analysis." Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, 2006.
Tauman, Howard. “A Matter of Degree; Eastman School Sets Up Doctorate for Musicians.” New
York Times, (New York, NY), 1953.
Taylor, Erica, Jason R Beam, and Shane T Gilliam. “Effect of Bosu Balance Trainer® VS
ORIGINAL STEP® on Health – and Skill-Related Components of Physical
Fitness.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 24 (2010): 1.
https://doi.org/10.1097/01.jsc.0000367226.61224.7e.
“THERABAND Professional Latex Resistance Bands.” Performance Health. Accessed
September 24, 2023. https://www.performancehealth.com/theraband-professional-latexresistance-bands.

100
Trecek-King, Anthony. “Conducting for Educators: Part 1.” Trecekking.com. (March 2020).
https://www.trecekking.com/conducting-for-educators-part-1/.
Trecek-King, Anthony. “Conducting for Educators: Part 2.” Trecekking.com. (April 2020).
https://www.trecekking.com/conducting-for-educators-part-2/.
Tyner, Barton L. “Guest Editorial.” The Choral Journal 33, no. 6 (1993): 4.
Van Camp, Leonard. “The Rise of American Choral Music and The A Cappella ‘Bandwagon.’”
Music Educators Journal 67, no. 3 (1980): 36-39.
Vanneus, Stephanus. Recanetum de Musica Aurea. Rome, 1533.
Verdon, Andrew. “Stretching is Not Enough: A Guide to Foam Rolling.” Australian Sailing &
Yachting 4, (2013).
Wallace, William. “The Conductor and His Fore-Runners.” The Musical Times 1-7: (1923-
1924).
Zacconni, Ludovico. Prattica di Musica. Venice, 1593.
Zamora-Navas, P., A. Borrás Verdera, M. V. Vargas, M. Jiménez Secilla, and A. Rico Yáñez,
"Rehabiliation in the Supraspinatus Muscle Tendon." Allied Health, (2005).
大, 内田, 金子秀雄, 鈴木あかり, and 和田朋子. “Differences in Respiratory Function
Between Exercise and Non-exercise in a Supine Position Maintained with a Foam
Roller." Rigakuryoho Kagaku 32, no. 6 (2017): 5.

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Harnessing range and tessitura: a conductor's guide to the identification and management of vocal demand in mixed-voice choral repertoire

PDF

A history of choral literature: canons and peripheries in the development of an American discipline

PDF

Moorland Elegies / Lageda Laulud for choir and strings by Tõnu Kõrvits: a conductor's guide

PDF

A study of Nick Strimple’s compositional life with an emphasis on his work Pentecost

PDF

A choral conductor's guide to the Messe de requiem by Alfred Désenclos

PDF

The development of Taiwanese choral music in the twenty-first century

PDF

A conductor’s guide to the original organ version of Antonín Dvořák’s Mass in D major, opus 86, including a critical comparison of the published editions

PDF

A conductor’s guide to select choral works composed by Hyo-Won Woo between 2012 and 2018

PDF

Osvaldo Golijov's La Pasión según San Marcos: a theological commentary

PDF

Using music to heal Catholic-Jewish relations: an analysis of Stephen Paulus' post-Holocaust oratorio, To Be Certain of the Dawn

PDF

The Antiochian Orthodox Church of North America: vocal music and choral practice

PDF

The life of Rudolf Mauersberger and an analysis of Wie liegt die Stadt so wüst and Dresdner Requiem

PDF

Charles C. Hirt at the University of Southern California: significant contributions and an enduring legacy

PDF

In search for a deeper understanding of Emma Lou Diemer’s compositional style through the analysis of her shorter choral works for mixed chorus since 1987

PDF

Refined gold from along the Royal Highway: musical training at the California Missions as a model for present-day pedagogy

PDF

Sing on: The life, pedagogy, and contributions to choral music of Dr. Jo-Michael Scheibe

PDF

(Trans)itioning voices: gender expansive vocal pedagogy and inclusive methodologies for choral directors and teachers of singing

PDF

Leon Levitch's Song of Dreams: the testimony of a survivor

PDF

A companion guide to Nick Strimple’s Choral Music in the Nineteenth Century: a research and repertoire guide for nineteenth century small form choral works for mixed voices

PDF

The romantic loner: a conductor’s guide to the choral-orchestral works of Sir William Walton

Asset Metadata

Creator Jensen, Michelle Warman (author)

Core Title A physiological approach to teaching conducting

School Thornton School of Music

Degree Doctor of Musical Arts

Degree Program Choral Music

Degree Conferral Date 2023-12

Publication Date 10/30/2023

Defense Date 10/30/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag BOSU ball™,Choral Conducting,Conducting,foam roller,OAI-PMH Harvest,Physiology,Teaching,Theraband™

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Sparks, Tram (committee chair), Grases, Cristian (committee member), Sung, Emily (committee member)

Creator Email mjensen@apu.edu,mjensen@me.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113763048

Unique identifier UC113763048

Identifier etd-JensenMich-12445.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-JensenMich-12445

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Jensen, Michelle Warman

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20231103-usctheses-batch-1104 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu