University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Music education in a post-pandemic world: motivators for the retention of music students

(USC Thesis Other)

Music education in a post-pandemic world: motivators for the retention of music students

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content MUSIC EDUCATION IN A POST-PANDEMIC WORLD:
MOTIVATORS FOR THE RETENTION OF MUSIC STUDENTS
by
Jim Wang
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
(MUSIC TEACHING AND LEARNING)
December 2023
Copyright 2023 Jim Wang

ii
Dedication
For April, Olivander, and Luna Rose.

iii
Acknowledgments
I believe it is safe to say that only the constant in our lives is change. Yet, within all the
changes that occurred in the past decade in my life and the world around me, one constant that
remained was the pursuit of this degree and the people I met along the way. Ten years is a long
time, and I certainly had the privilege of encountering a village of people who have all made a
tremendous impact on my life. The wealth of social capital is overwhelming. To list everyone
would be a monumental task. Still, I would be remiss if I didn’t mention a few heroes by name.
First, to my family. My parents immigrated to America hoping for a better life for their
future children. I don’t think they would have ever dreamed that one would eventually earn a
doctorate degree. I keep their American dream alive. My wife April was there by my side,
through the ups and downs, each and every day. This journey also saw the birth of our two
beautiful children, whom I hope to inspire and encourage so that they may pursue dreams that we
would have never imagined possible today.
Next, to all of my USC professors who have given and shared their time and expertise.
Dr. Susan Helfter saw the potential in me before anyone else. Dr. Peter Webster took me under
his wing and gave me encouragement when I needed it the most. Dr. Judy Lewis pushed and
challenged me to be the best version of myself. Kenneth Foster guided me to think globally
beyond my own practice. Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi and Dr. William Coppola gave me valuable
feedback and insight as my dissertation committee. Most importantly, my advisor and mentor,
Dr. Beatriz Ilari offered me unwavering support and helped guide me to cross the finish line. My
sincerest gratitude to all of you.
Finally, to all of my students past and present. You are my why and my motivation to
continue to do what I do. I stand on the shoulders of giants so that you can stand on mine.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication .................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ viii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. ix
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... x
Chapter One: Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1
Prologue ............................................................................................................................. 1
Need for Study ................................................................................................................... 3
Purpose of Study ................................................................................................................ 4
Research Questions ............................................................................................................ 4
Study Design ...................................................................................................................... 5
Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 6
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................ 7
Researcher Positionality ................................................................................................... 14
Theoretical Underpinnings ............................................................................................... 16
Self-Determination Theory ...................................................................................16
Open Forms .......................................................................................................... 17
Overview of Chapters ...................................................................................................... 18
Chapter Two: Review of Literature.......................................................................................... 19
Current Model and Values of Traditional Large Ensemble Music .................................. 19
Social Constructive Learning & Music ................................................................ 23
Socio-Emotional Learning & Music .................................................................... 24
Social Context & Music ....................................................................................... 25
Limitations of the Current Model ........................................................................ 25
Issues with Classical Genre ..................................................................... 26
Issues with Student Population ................................................................. 27
Issues with Performance Expectations ......................................................30
Online Learning Environments ........................................................................................ 32
Formats of Online Education ............................................................................... 32
Traditional Online Courses vs. Massively Open Online Courses (MOOCs) ...... 34
Informal vs. Formal Online Learning Environments............................................ 35
Online Student Engagement & Motivation .......................................................... 36
Competence Support in Online Learning ................................................ 37
Autonomy Support in Online Learning ................................................... 39
Relatedness Support in Online Learning ................................................. 41
Self-Determination Theory & Music Teaching and Learning ......................................... 43
Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation (Usefulness) ..................................................... 43
Autonomy (eMpowerment) ................................................................................. 45

v
Competence (Success) ......................................................................................... 46
Relatedness and Belongingness (Caring) ............................................................. 47
Value & Interest ................................................................................................... 50
Student Voices in Research & Open Forms .................................................................... 51
Quantitative Designs ............................................................................................ 52
Qualitative Designs .............................................................................................. 55
Mixed Methods Designs ...................................................................................... 58
Summary of Chapter ........................................................................................................ 61
Chapter Three: Methods............................................................................................................ 62
Mixed Methods ................................................................................................................ 62
Quantitative Stage ................................................................................................ 64
Qualitative Stage .................................................................................................. 64
Field Notes ............................................................................................... 64
Ethnographic Tools .................................................................................. 66
Ethical Considerations ..................................................................................................... 68
Research with Students ........................................................................................ 68
Research Setting ............................................................................................................... 70
Independent Unified School District (IUSD) ...................................................... 71
Music in IUSD ......................................................................................... 72
Site Selection Criteria .............................................................................. 73
Site and Participant Selection .......................................................................................... 73
Description of Participants ............................................................................................... 75
Data Collection ................................................................................................................ 78
Quantitative Stage ................................................................................................ 78
Qualitative Stage .................................................................................................. 81
Data Analysis ................................................................................................................... 82
Data Validation ................................................................................................................ 84
Summary of Chapter ........................................................................................................ 85
Chapter Four: Findings ............................................................................................................. 87
Quantitative Findings ....................................................................................................... 87
Descriptive Data ............................................................................................................... 88
Inferential Data ................................................................................................................ 89
Gender .................................................................................................................. 89
Grade Level .......................................................................................................... 91
Ethnicity ............................................................................................................... 93
Summary of Quantitative Findings .................................................................................. 96
Qualitative Findings ......................................................................................................... 97
A Typical Day in Orchestra ..............................................................................................97
Emergent Codes ............................................................................................................. 102
Student Participants ....................................................................................................... 105
Relatedness and Belonging (Caring) ............................................................................. 106
The Orchestra Community ..................................................................................108
The San Francisco Tour ..................................................................................... 110
The Class Culture ............................................................................................... 115

vi
Musical Competence (Success & Interest) .................................................................... 117
Musical Selection & Interest .............................................................................. 119
Musical Growth & Identity ................................................................................ 122
Musical Accomplishments & Achievements ..................................................... 125
Autonomy and Musical Independence (eMpowerment) ................................................ 130
Musical Independence ....................................................................................... 131
The COVID-19 Pandemic ...................................................................................132
Mental Health & Coping ........................................................................ 134
Isolation and Solo Repertoire ................................................................. 135
Issues of Technology ............................................................................. 138
The Silver Lining ................................................................................... 139
Summary of Qualitative Findings .................................................................................. 140
Mixing the Data ............................................................................................................. 141
Summary of Chapter ...................................................................................................... 144
Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusion, & Implications ........................................................ 145
Summary of Findings Relevant to the Research Questions ........................................... 146
Question One ..................................................................................................... 146
Question Two ..................................................................................................... 148
Question Three ................................................................................................... 150
Question Four ..................................................................................................... 151
Question Five ..................................................................................................... 152
An Inquiry for the Profession ............................................................................ 153
Discussion .......................................................................................................................154
A Shift in Perspectives: Remixing the Classroom ............................................. 155
The Self: eMpowerment ........................................................................ 155
The Environment: Caring ...................................................................... 156
The Other: Interest ................................................................................. 157
The Text: Success .................................................................................. 158
The Future of Ensemble Music .......................................................................... 159
Cultural Relevancy: Valuing Students’ Interests ................................... 160
Diversity in Student Population: Creating a Music Community ........... 164
Democratizing the Classroom: Establishing Agency ............................ 166
Reflexivity: It Begins with the Teacher ................................................. 169
Study Limitations ........................................................................................................... 170
Implications for Music Education .................................................................................. 173
Implications for Future Research ................................................................................... 174
Epilogue ..................................................................................................................................... 178
References ................................................................................................................................. 180
Appendices ................................................................................................................................ 193
Appendix A – USC Institutional Review Board Approval ............................................ 193
Appendix B – School District Institutional Review Board Approval ............................ 196
Appendix C – Parent and Teen Consent Form .............................................................. 197
Appendix D – Recruitment Language ........................................................................... 200

vii
Appendix E – Demographic Survey .............................................................................. 201
Appendix F – MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory ................................ 205
Appendix G – Reflective Questions .............................................................................. 207

viii
List of Tables
Table 3.1 WHS Student Enrollment Demographics by Ethnicity (2022)..................................... 71
Table 3.2 Demographic of Student Participants .......................................................................... 77
Table 4.1 Observed Means, Standard Deviations, Correlations, and Cronbach’s Alpha Values 87
Table 4.2 Means, Standard Deviations, and ANOVA for MUSIC Scale by Gender ................... 89
Table 4.3 Means, Standard Deviations, and ANOVA for MUSIC Scale by Grade Level .......... 91
Table 4.4 Means, Standard Deviations, and ANOVA for MUSIC Scale by Ethnicity ............... 93
Table 4.5 Descriptions of Student Participants in the Qualitative Stage ................................... 106
Table 4.6 Sub-themes of COVID-19 Reflections ...................................................................... 134

ix
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Creswell’s Convergent Parallel Design....................................................................... 63
Figure 3.2 Key Principles of the MUSIC Model of Motivation .................................................. 79
Figure 3.3 Creswell’s Data Analysis Spiral ................................................................................. 84
Figure 4.1 Word Cloud from Student Responses ...................................................................... 103
Figure 4.2 Initial Coding Tree ................................................................................................... 104
Figure 4.3 Sankey Diagram of Codes from ATLAS.ti 23.2 ...................................................... 105
Figure 4.4 Relatedness in the Music Classroom ........................................................................ 107
Figure 4.5 Sankey Diagram Highlighting the Co-Occurrences of Social Connections ..............115
Figure 4.6 Path of Musical Competence..................................................................................... 119
Figure 5.1 Indicators of Musical Independence ......................................................................... 148

x
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the inherent flaws and limitations of traditional
large ensemble music classes in public schools and fast-tracked the mass migration of students
dropping music altogether. As a high school ensemble music teacher at a public school, my
unique positionality allowed me to be in proximity to high school music students, giving me
special access to their voices. As a result, I felt a sense of responsibility to discover underlying
motivations for their continued participation in ensemble music classes by sharing my student’s
voices.
Through the lens of self-determination theory, a mixed methods design was utilized to
collect both quantitative and qualitative data. Autonomy, competence, and relatedness, the three
aspects of self-determination theory, guided the data analysis. Student volunteers (N = 51) who
participated in the quantitative stage of the study completed a demographic survey and the
MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory, adapted for music class. Additionally, 13
student volunteers participated in the qualitative stage of the study and completed open-ended
reflective questions. Results showed that the mean values for each variable of the MUSIC
Inventory were relatively high. Student reflections indicated that social connections, enjoyment
of music, and musical independence were factors that helped them persevere through the
COVID-19 pandemic to continue studying music. Implications for music education and future
research are provided at the conclusion of the study.
Keywords: music teaching and learning, recruitment and retention, motivation, selfdetermination theory, social connections, musical enjoyment, musical independence, COVID-19,
online education

1
Chapter One: Introductions
Prologue
In most parts of the continental United States, the COVID-19 pandemic led to nationwide
shutdowns of public schools and a transition to remote learning (United Nations, 2020). Since
the change occurred rapidly near the second half of the 2019-2020 school year, many teachers
needed more time to prepare for remote teaching. While remote learning challenged all teachers
and subject matters, for music classes in particular, the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the
inherent flaws and limitations of traditional large ensemble music classes in public schools
(Hash, 2021; cf. Kratus, 2007; Miksza, 2013) and fast-tracked the mass migration of students
dropping music altogether (Alegrado & Winsler, 2020; Elpus & Abril, 2019; Kinney, 2019;
Kratus, 2007; Music for All Foundation, 2004; Shaw & Auletto, 2022; Williams, 2011). Remote
learning stressed standard practices built into the curriculum of traditional large ensemble music
classes that were difficult to implement during the pandemic. Therefore, examining the current
state of public school music education is essential as we enter a new post-pandemic period.
Nascent trends emerging from the pandemic include an increased reliance on hybrid and
online learning environments in education (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020; Haftador et al., 2021;
Ruthmann & Hebert, 2012; Tobias, 2020). However, despite promising new learning models and
learning environments, early anecdotal evidence from the music teaching profession suggests a
trend of teacher burnout and young, novice, and yet-to-be musicians electing out of music classes
altogether due to a lack of good and robust initial exposure to large in-person group music
classes (Gardner, 2010; Pressley, 2021). Therefore, we currently find ourselves at the crossroads
of a perfect storm, made more urgent and apparent by the COVID-19 pandemic: the trend of

2
current music students who want out of music altogether, the loss of potential new music
students, and the mass exodus of experienced music teachers in the profession.
Still, these problems seem not necessarily new—they are just more evident and
transparent, more expansive and universal, transcending already existing trends and attitudes, all
due to the COVID-19 pandemic. If there is any silver lining, the pandemic affected us globally,
and we will indeed have shared experiences across our state, country, and world. As a result, in
November 2022, California voters approved Proposition 28: The Arts and Music in Schools
Funding Guarantee and Accountability Act (California Department of Education, 2023). The
measure requires the state to establish a new, ongoing program supporting arts instruction in
schools beginning in 2023-24. This new legislation will encourage arts education for all, but its
effect on existing programs remains unknown. Therefore, now, more critical than ever are music
students’ voices in the classroom, persistently participating in music ensemble classes despite
recent circumstances and attrition trends.
Scholars have linked student motivation and engagement to student learning and
achievement. Within the scope of self-determination theory, autonomy predicts student
engagement in the classroom (Evans & Ryan, 2022; Jang et al., 2010; Patall & Zambrano, 2019;
Patall et al., 2022; Wallace & Sung, 2017). Students’ self-efficacy, or beliefs in their ability to
fully participate in a performing music class, can affect their perceived competence. Competence
in a performance task is a substantial motivating factor in student achievement, especially for
reaching mastery orientation in a performance-driving setting such as a music performance
(Evans & Ryan, 2022; Patall et al., 2022; Senko et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Relatedness and belongingness are also basic needs that demand to be fulfilled, especially during
adolescent development (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Leary & Cox, 2008). The need for

3
acceptance is a fundamental social motive that can drive student behavior. Self-determination
theory also outlines the importance of supporting students’ values and interests for motivation in
learning (Patall et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Understanding and aligning student musical
preferences with the music taught plays a crucial role in maintaining student interest in music
classrooms (Kratus, 2007).
Therefore, this study engaged current high school music students’ thoughts and
perspectives through their voices. With the help of student participants and their voices, the
research examined whether there may be more efficient methods to retain the valuable aspects of
traditional large ensemble formats and merge its traditions and practices with contemporary
music pedagogies. As students shared their unique voices, I included and framed their
perspectives through the lens of self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2020) and, through
their responses, examined how ensemble music classes may evolve to better adapt to hybrid
learning mediums and address the limitations of current models of ensemble music classes.
Need for Study
Music and the arts are essential for the human soul. However, without students electing to
take music and art classes, nontraditional music students will largely miss its impact. In music
education, issues of recruitment, retention, and attrition have always been “hot topics,” but the
impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has made it even more urgent. The pandemic has increased
reliance on hybrid and online learning environments in education, and its effect on a
performance-based music ensemble needs to be examined.
Therefore, in doing this research, I aspired to keep the tradition of music education in our
public schools alive and thriving. I worked to gather evidence and determine central themes from
music students’ perspectives, connecting their responses through the lens of self-determination

4
theory to gain insight into how to recruit and retain this next generation of music learners and
lovers. Rather than reinventing music teaching and learning from scratch by dismantling the
traditional models of the band, choir, and orchestra, there must be a more efficient method of
retaining the valuable aspects of traditional large ensemble formats and merging its traditions
and practices with contemporary pedagogies such as popular music courses and music
technology (Dammers, 2012; Rolandson, 2020).
Given an increased focus on new learning environments in education, examining the
research on hybrid and online teaching modalities and their effects on subject areas like
traditional large ensemble music classes may be beneficial. Although the current state of music
education may seem grim due to a steady and sharp decline in enrollment, I am very optimistic
about the changes that may arise as a response to our current situation in music education. We
must re-discover why music education grew in the 20th century in America and compel students
(and parents alike) to understand that music elective is beneficial for students in terms of
academic, social, and emotional development.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this research project was twofold. First, it aimed to investigate which
aspects of self-determination theory are most important for students who continue to participate
in an elective music ensemble class year after year. Second, it aimed to collect music students’
stories of past music experiences to find underlying motivators for their continued participation
in ensemble music classes.
Research Questions
The following questions sought to answer the first aim:

5
1. What aspects of self-determination theory are most important for students who
continue participating in an elective music ensemble class?
2. Do differences in age, gender, and ethnicity play a role in which aspects of selfdetermination theory are most important for students who continue to participate in an
elective music ensemble class?
The following questions helped frame the second aim:
3. What factors in students’ past experiences in and outside of music class affect their
decision to continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
4. In what ways (if any) has the recent COVID-19 pandemic impacted students’
decision to continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
5. In what ways (if any) do students’ future aspirations in music affect their decision to
continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
Answers to these questions provide pedagogical implications for current and future large
ensemble music educators. It may also help the profession respond to critics citing uniformity
and conformity issues in large ensemble music classes (Bull, 2019; 2022; Kratus, 2007), which,
coupled with post-pandemic challenges, could lead to a new tipping point for public school
music education.
Study Design
To better understand students’ perceptions in music class, a convergent mixed method of
inquiry, including a quantitative survey and tools of ethnography, was used and completed in two
stages (Creswell, 2012; Greene et al., 1989). In the quantitative stage, a demographic
questionnaire was paired with the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory, which I
adapted for the music class according to the User Guide (Jones, 2009; 2018; Vogt & Johnson,

6
2011). The MUSIC inventory was used to investigate which aspects of self-determination theory
are most important for students in a large ensemble classroom. Through an anonymous online
form, the qualitative stage involved open-ended questions. Participating students responded to
various prompts asking them to reflect on their experience in music class. Consistent with the
quantitative stage, the questions centered around self-determination aspects of autonomy,
competence, and relatedness. Responses were used to gather evidence and derive central themes
to gain insight into recruiting and retaining the next generation of music learners (Creswell,
2012).
To assist with data analysis, year-end observations and field notes were also taken from
my perspective as the school year wrapped in preparation for the final concert at graduation for
triangulation and member checking (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Emerson et al., 2011; Mills &
Birks, 2014). These field notes were taken during daily rehearsals and were based on my
observations of the same music ensemble as the pool of volunteer student participants in this
study. I had to practice reflexivity and ensure that taking field notes while teaching did not
interfere with my classroom teacher role (Creswell, 2012). My goal was to get close to my
students’ activities and everyday experiences to understand their responses. As a classroom
teacher, I was in a prime position to collect field notes while teaching in the field.
Limitations
This dissertation had some limitations. One limitation is that student responses were
voluntary and collected at the end of a school year when students’ motivation to complete graded
assignments is limited; including an extra task that was not required meant that not all student
voices were recorded or heard. This suggests that the data may not have included all voices and
may be limited to students who were either naturally highly motivated or opinionated, both in the

7
positive and negative sense. Students who were overwhelmed at the end of the school year,
“checked out,” unmotivated, or who were deciding to or had already decided to take a non-music
elective the following year were also less likely to participate in the study. In addition, this study
was limited to students from one school and in one music ensemble class. It did not include
students who had graduated or no longer participated in the program, nor students in other music
classes and music disciplines at the school. Finally, since ethnographic tools were used in the
qualitative phase, the study was limited to my own narrative and bound to my conclusions
(Bloom et al., 2021; Doloriert & Sambrook, 2009; Méndez, 2013). Due to my familiarity with
the school and music program, my awareness was heightened about possible unfavorable
responses from my own students. I made every effort to stay true to their voices.
Definition of Terms
The following definitions of terms were adopted in the current dissertation.
Achievement goal theory – A motivation theory suggesting that a student’s motivation
to accomplish a task is influenced by their goal orientation. Four goal orientations position
students as mastery (mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance) or performance-oriented
(performance-approach, performance-avoidance) as they aim to approach or avoid the task
(Elliot, 1999).
Asynchronous online learning – A learning modality in which students determine
individually when they interact with online materials (McPherson & Bacow, 2015), often on
their own and without the presence of a teacher.
Attrition and Retention – Within the context of education and elective classes in
secondary public schools, retention measures the percentage of students who remain in the same

8
elective subject matter over a specific period. In contrast, attrition measures the percentage of
students who leave or drop an elective subject.
Autonomy – In cognitive evaluation theory, autonomy refers to the notion that students
in the classroom can make their own decisions independently of a teacher or authority figure. For
students to feel autonomous in the classroom, they must have a choice or, at the very least, a
perceived sense of an internal locus of causality (Jang et al., 2010; Patall & Zambrano, 2019). In
contrast, agency is the ability to take action or to choose what action to take.
Belongingness/Relatedness – A student’s sense of belongingness is a need that demands
to be fulfilled, especially during adolescent development (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). The need
for acceptance is a social motivator (Leary & Cox, 2008). Relatedness, in turn, pertains to the
student’s sense of attachment to other people. It involves feelings of closeness and belonging to a
social group.
Cognitive evaluation theory – A theory that explains how social and environmental
conditions can support intrinsic motivation. In other words, an individual’s feelings of
competence—such as a student’s self-efficacy toward a task—and a sense of autonomy (e.g., an
internal perceived locus of causality) can enhance intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985;
Evans & Ryan, 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020).
Competence – The ability of a student to complete a task successfully. Students’ selfefficacy, or beliefs in their ability to participate fully in a performing music class, can affect their
perceived competence (Evans & Ryan, 2022; Patall et al., 2022).
Contemporary music pedagogies – Refers to music teaching mediums beyond the
traditional band, choir, or orchestra ensemble models. Some examples include modern ensembles
such as popular music and rock bands; alternative or eclectic ensembles with hybrid, mixed, or

9
untraditional instruments; or world music ensembles such as gamelan or mariachi. It can also
include non-ensemble music instruction, such as music theory classes, music composition
classes, and music technology and production classes.
Content knowledge – According to Grieser and Hendricks (2018), pedagogical content
knowledge is “the body of understanding, knowledge, skills, and dispositions that a teacher
needs to perform effectively in a given teaching situation” (p.14). Basic knowledge and skills for
teaching music in the classroom include music theory and composition (e.g., melody, harmony,
and rhythm), music history and literature, and music performance (e.g., working knowledge of
the voice and musical instruments).
Formal learning environments – Within a music learning context, formal learning in
secondary schools usually looks like a traditional large ensemble using music notation,
performing works from the Western European tradition under the baton of a music teacher.
Hybrid learning environment – Also known as blended learning, it includes an online
platform and traditional face-to-face instruction. The online component could be supplemental or
contain media that students access outside of in-person class time.
Informal learning environments – Within a music learning context, informal learning
could allow learners to choose the music themselves; learn by listening and copying recordings;
learn in friendship groups with minimum adult guidance; learn in personal, often haphazard
ways; and integrating listening, playing, singing, improvising, and composing in an organic
manner (Green, 2006). In contrast, non-formal learning operates much like formal learning with
the exception that it occurs outside formal learning environments (e.g., non-profit music
organizations, community music ensembles, multi-generational ensembles, etc.). Whereas
informal learning is exclusively incidental, non-formal learning is partly intentional.

10
Intrinsic & extrinsic motivation – Two elements from Self-determination theory,
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, describe the different reasons or goals that move students to do
something or behave the way they do. The main distinction between the two is the external and
internal factors that affect student actions and behaviors. Whereas intrinsic motivation refers to
doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, extrinsic motivation refers to
behavior linked to an external reward or outcome (Ryan & Deci, 2020).
Learning Management System (LMS) – A software application online platform used to
deliver and manage the learning context in online learning environments. An LMS is often
utilized during in-person classroom settings where teachers can post class content for students to
access outside of class time and for students to submit assignments. In traditional learning
settings, commonly used LMS examples include Blackboard, Canvas, and Google Classroom.
Locus of control – A concept describing how strongly students believe they have control
over their situation and experiences. Students with an internal locus of control believe that their
success or failure directly results from their hard work or effort. An external locus of control
perceives the opposite: success or failure “simply happens,” and a student cannot do anything to
change that (Rotter, 1966).
Mastery orientation – From Achievement goal theory, mastery orientation focuses on
setting goals with the intention of mastering a skill or task. A mastery-approach orientation
describes students who focus on mastering a task, usually for self-improvement or wanting to
learn as much as possible. Mastery-avoidance orientation describes students who avoid a task
because they feel they will not be able to learn or master the task.

11
Music curriculum – Music curriculum refers to the music content taught in a classroom
that aims to align with National Standards for Music Education. In 1994, the standards developed
by the National Association for Music Education (NAfME) focused on nine content standards:
1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.
2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.
3. Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments.
4. Composing and arranging music within specified guidelines.
5. Reading and notating music.
6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music.
7. Evaluating music and music performances.
8. Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside the
arts.
9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. (National Association for
Music Education, 1994)
In 2014, NAfME revised its standards to emphasize music literacy. The standards focus
on three Artistic Processes:
• Creating,
• Performing, and
• Responding. (National Association for Music Education, 2014)
In addition, the three standards are recommended across different spectrums of music education,
including PK-8 general music, composition/theory, music technology,
guitar/keyboard/harmonizing instruments, and ensemble. Each artistic process is organized
within the context of process components (e.g., imagine; select; plan and make; analyze;

12
rehearse, evaluate, and refine; interpret; present), enduring understanding, and essential
questions. While philosophical foundations and goals of both versions of the standards are
similar, the new standards shift from factual, conceptual, and procedural skills and knowledge to
also emphasize understanding and independence.
Music pedagogy –Whereas curriculum refers to the content of what to teach, pedagogy
is the methodology of how to teach. Pedagogy is the practice of teaching and includes the depth
of knowledge or “broad preparation” needed in real-world applications.
Nontraditional music students – Refers to students who do not elect to participate in
traditional ensemble music classes such as bands, choirs, or orchestras. These students are not
necessarily uninterested in music per se; they are just left out of music classes due to the
dominant nature of traditional ensemble music. Williams (2007) refers to this demographic as
“the other 80%,” suggesting that, on average, about 80% of the student population at a school
site does not participate in ensemble music classes.
Online learning environments – All learning activities, content, experiences, and
assessments are delivered online using some technology. Other terms such as e-learning, distance
learning, distance education, and virtual learning environments may be used to describe learning
modalities outside traditional face-to-face classrooms.
Performance orientation – From Achievement goal theory, performance orientation
focuses on setting goals to achieve an extrinsic outcome. Performance-approach orientation
describes students who are motivated to complete a task to outperform others, appear better, or
receive an extrinsic reward. Performance-avoidance orientation describes students who avoid the
task to evade embarrassment, shame, self-doubt, or public failure.

13
Remote learning – In this dissertation, this term is used synonymously with distance
learning and when referring to the teaching aspect (i.e., remote/distance teaching). Remote
learning is an umbrella term for teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is also
associated with online learning environments and asynchronous and synchronous online learning
modalities.
Self-determination theory – A motivation theory that emphasizes the relationship
between the learner’s three basic needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. It also includes
basic principles of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators (Ryan & Deci, 2020). The following tenets
of the theory are defined below:
Self-efficacy –A student’s attitude about their skills and abilities, self-efficacy is the
student’s belief in their ability to complete the task successfully (Bandura,1997).
Social constructivism – Based on Vygotsky’s (1978) seminal learning theory, social
constructivism understands learning to occur through an individual’s active participation in
social and cultural settings. According to social constructivism, learning involves interacting
with others and building on prior knowledge within social contexts.
Socio-emotional learning (SEL) – Describes learning that promotes students’ selfawareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decisionmaking within school learning contexts. It aims to help students learn skills to support healthy
social relationships.
Synchronous online learning – A traditional face-to-face classroom where students and
the instructor are all online simultaneously, with the course material delivered in real-time via
chat or video.

14
Traditional large ensemble music classes – Ensemble classes that are common in
American public schools including wind bands (i.e., woodwinds, brass, and percussion),
choruses, and orchestras (i.e., bowed stringed instruments), which are usually large by design
(Conway, 2002; 2012). Large ensemble music classes historically focus on the music of the
Western tradition and are bound to traditional music notation out of necessity (Williams, 2011).
Therefore, “traditional large ensemble music classes” refers to the ensemble size, ensemble
instrumentation, and music literature that is often a study of, a reflection of, or a continuation of
Western art music.
Value and interest – Value in education refers to students’ perception that what they are
learning is valuable. Interest in learning is students’ inclination toward a subject they can connect
to without hassle or hurdle. (Patall et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020).
Researcher Positionality
I was fortunate to begin my teaching career right out of college. Although I majored in
violin performance as an undergraduate student, I simultaneously completed a master’s degree in
music education and obtained a teaching credential. My first teaching assignment was itinerant,
where I was the only string teacher in the entire district. This challenging but rewarding
assignment allowed me to work with string students of all ages, from the 4th grade through high
school. As a novice teacher, I quickly learned about my knowledge deficits and the gaps in my
teacher preparation courses. Nevertheless, I found community through music colleagues within
the district and my middle and high school students.
After that, I spent nearly a decade teaching middle school orchestra in a public school on
the west coast of California. While many in my field find middle school age challenging, I
enjoyed building a community with my students and worked hard to earn their trust and be a

15
positive influence. Since the pandemic, I have moved to the high school I fed into all those years.
While the initial transition was difficult due to remote learning and the COVID-19 global
pandemic, I quickly re-established the connections I have made over the years, as more than half
of my new high school students were those whom I taught in middle school. As a result, I am
currently in a unique position where my “overlapping” students have not yet graduated from high
school. From the time of writing, they will become high school Seniors. This will mark the start
of my seventh consecutive year of interacting and working with the same group of students.
Positionality, as defined by Holmes (2020), “describes an individual’s worldview and the
position they adopt about a research task and its social and political context” (p.1). In addition to
Merton’s (1972) classic categorization of researcher identity as an insider versus outsider, the
modern take on positionality includes “the perspective shaped by his/her [the researcher’s]
unique mix of race, class, gender, nationality, sexuality, and other identifiers” (Srivastava, 2006,
p. 212). Bourke (2014) and Holmes (2020) also stated the importance of practicing and
recognizing reflexivity when considering researcher positionality. Self-reflection not only helps
bring about an awareness of the relationship between the researcher and the “other” but also
acknowledges my views, values, and beliefs about the research design.
Although I am an Asian American born to immigrant parents, I realize that I also have
many privileges. I am a straight, cisgender male and able-bodied. I attended a small, private
Christian liberal arts university for my undergraduate degree and am finishing a doctorate at the
University of Southern California. I was fortunate to begin my career at 21 and have over a
decade of teaching experience in my mid-thirties. Together with my working wife, I consider
myself to be in the upper middle class, living in our own home in a beach city with two beautiful

16
children. Setting race aside, I am as privileged as privilege comes—I am living my parents’
American Dream.
Still, as a public school music teacher, my heart is for my students. My positionality
challenges me to be a voice for my students. I am influenced by Paulo Freire’s (1972) and bell
hooks’s (1984) works and aspire to be a liberatory leader in my music classroom. Freire (1972)
challenges me to consider my practice for underserved communities and move away from a topdown banking system of education. hooks (1984) shows me that my positionality must not push
my students to marginalized positions. According to Tilghman-Havens (2018), a “liberatory
leadership framework offers a set of three guiding principles that inspire the practices of
leadership: awareness, a commitment to share power, and love” (p. 112). I aspire to use my
privileged platform by allowing my students’ voices to come through my research. Therefore, I
intend to engage with ethnographic tools to research within this context of positionality.
Theoretical Underpinnings
Self-Determination Theory. Self-determination theory describes motivation based on
the reasons or goals that compel action (Ryan & Deci, 2020). The perception of interest and
competence are important ingredients of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). In the music
classroom, intrinsically-motivated students are usually competence-oriented and interested in the
class subject. However, to be intrinsically motivated, the student must also be free from external
pressures, such as extrinsic rewards. Therefore, self-determination theory argues for freedom
from control and the ability to manage the environment. Students who have autonomy in the
music classroom are more self-determined. With autonomy, competence, value, and interest, the
self-determined student is more motivated to succeed in class.

17
In its most basic form, self-determination theory examines the distinction between
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. While anecdotal ideas center around the effectiveness of
intrinsic motivators versus problems with extrinsic rewards, research points to a more nuanced
relationship between the two. For one, self-determination theory realizes social and
environmental factors that can both facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci,
2020). Lepper and Henderlong (2000) outline how certain extrinsic rewards—noncontingent,
unexpected, and intangible—are effective and can benefit later intrinsic motivation.
Open Forms. A music classroom with self-determined students also requires a shift from
how traditional large ensemble music classrooms operate. Allsup (2016), in his book Remixing
the Classroom: Toward an Open Philosophy of Music Education, considers the current state of
music education and its highly guarded traditions and urges educators to (re)consider what music
education might look like if they were open to new forms and ideas. He illustrates the current
state of public education and suggests that a quality teacher can weave in and out of closed and
open forms. He cautions readers to be wary of routine expertise and not confuse success with
quality teaching. In doing so, Allsup provides a practical structure for developing and designing
open-ended instruction based on cycles of inquiry. He challenges educators to continually seek
renewal in opening a closed form. In this spirit, I plan to adopt the closed form of dissertation
research while attempting to find ways to open the forms of research methods that are not
commonly used. I hope to answer research questions that have been asked by many before me
(closed form), yet utilize my students as providers of possible answers that may ultimately lead
to new questions that have yet to be asked (open form).

18
Overview of Chapters
Chapter 1 laid out a general introduction to the dissertation. It provided the context of the
COVID-19 pandemic and its perceived effect on public school music programs. It also described
the purpose and need for the study, research questions, study methods, limitations, terminology,
researcher positionality, and theoretical underpinnings that will be used in the dissertation.
Chapter 2 discusses the current model of traditional large ensemble music, provides an overview
of online learning environments, and reviews literature on self-determination theory and student
learning. Chapter 3 outlines the convergent parallel mixed method of inquiry used and dives
deeper into the quantitative and qualitative stages employed in this dissertation. It details the site
and participants and describes the data collection, analysis, and validation processes. Chapter 4
presents the results and findings from the quantitative and qualitative data, respectively. It
includes detailed responses submitted by students for this research and presents emerging themes
uncovered during data analysis and coding. Finally, Chapter 5 begins with a discussion of study
findings, revisits the initial research questions, summarizes the study with conclusions, and
provides implications for music teaching and learning. It will hopefully persuade us to new
research directions on this topic. I do not plan to have all the answers or questions I should be
asking—and I hope my students, in their reflections and responses, can help reveal what new
questions should be asked.

19
Chapter Two: Review of Literature
This chapter begins with a discussion of the current model of traditional large ensemble
music and the values associated with it, followed by an overview of online learning
environments. Each of these sections provides context for how the COVID-19 pandemic has
impacted music education. Next, I review literature on self-determination theory and student
learning, and then include musical studies that used this theory. I conclude the chapter with a
brief discussion on the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research designs
in music education, leading to the natural choice of a mixed methods design.
Current Model and Values of Traditional Large Ensemble Music
Lowell Mason is often regarded as the first educator to advocate for music to be included
as a curricular subject in the United States. In 1838, he persuaded the Boston School Committee
following a threefold rationale: music is intellectually, morally, and physically good for children
(Mark, 2002). In the mid-19th century, vocal music grew alongside the establishment of normal
schools (i.e., schools for teacher preparation) as a burgeoning young American population
needed to be educated (Keene, 1982). That is, classroom teachers were trained to teach music to
their students. Gradually, teaching music became specialized and developed as a subject with its
own certification. By the 1920s, institutions in the United States began granting degrees in music
education. The increase of qualified music teachers in schools saw the growth of music
ensembles, as large performance ensembles have been synonymous with American music
education ever since (Keene, 1982; Williams, 2011).
Preservice music teacher education traditionally focused its education courses on
ensemble music (Conway, 2002; 2012), including wind bands (i.e., woodwinds, brass, and
percussion), choruses, and orchestras (i.e., bowed stringed instruments). Ensemble classes in

20
American public schools are also large performing ensembles by design. Often, policymakers
and administrators will (incorrectly) look at class size to determine the health and quality of
public school music classes (Music for All Foundation, 2004). In addition, large ensemble music
classes historically focused on the music of the Western tradition and are bound to traditional
music notation out of necessity (Williams, 2011). Therefore, the current model of traditional
large ensemble music classes reflects the ensemble size, ensemble instrumentation, and music
literature that is often a study of, a reflection of, or a continuation of Western art music. While
other branches of music education are also prevalent today—mainly PK-8 general music,
composition and theory, music technology, guitar, keyboard, and other harmonizing
instruments—traditional large ensemble music classes fall under the branch of ensemble music
classes.
Advocacy for music education is a subject that has been previously deliberated. In the
U.S., one of the leading modern music advocacy groups is the National Association for Music
Education (NAfME). Formerly known as the Music Educators National Conference (MENC), in
1991, they commissioned a report titled Growing Up Complete: The Imperative for Music
Education, which continues to serve as a foundation for music advocacy today. In the report,
they list ten foundational reasons why music should be included as an essential part of the
curriculum:
1. Music is worth knowing.
2. Music is one of the most important manifestations of our cultural heritage. Children need
to know about Beethoven and Louis Armstrong as well as about Newton and Einstein.
3. Music is a potential in every individual that, like all potential, should be developed to its
fullest.

21
4. Music provides an outlet for creativity, self-expression, and individual uniqueness. It
enables us to express our noblest thoughts and feelings.
5. Music teaches students about unique aspects of their relationships with other human
beings and with the world around them, in their own and other cultures.
6. Music opens avenues of success for students who may have problems in other areas of
the curriculum and opens approaches to learning that can be applied in other contexts.
7. Studying music increases the satisfaction students derive from music by sharpening
sensitivity, raising their level of appreciation, and expanding their musical horizons.
8. Music is one of the most powerful and profound symbol systems that exist.
9. Music helps students learn a significant lesson–that not all aspects of life are quantifiable.
10. Music exalts the human spirit. (National Commission on Music Education & Music
Educators National Conference, 1991)
Recent scholars have tried to identify why music education is declining despite advocacy
efforts made by NAfME. Elpus (2007) pinpointed a philosophical rift that divides music
advocates into different camps. First, the “aesthetic” group believes that music education should
serve to educate and elevate students’ aesthetic response to the music experience. This is often in
opposition to the second group or those in the “praxial” camp, who believe that the true nature of
musical experience is when students are primarily and directly engaged in performing and
making music. A third group, usually associated with the fields of cognitive psychology and
neuroscientific research, sees music learning as transferring into other areas like language or
mathematics, or a means to something else. In addition, Branscome (2012) noted how advocacy
messaging for music education tends to change following U.S. education reform. Former
President Obama’s Race to the Top campaign still influences our current advocacy message,

22
which challenges U.S. education to focus more on job creation and science, technology,
engineering, and math research. Music’s response to this campaign resulted in a shift from
linking music education and intelligence to linking music education and critical thinking. It has
also challenged music educators to create a stronger connection between music, science, and
technology.
Regarding research for music education advocacy, the methodologies used have tended to
focus on individual development and learning issues rather than the effects of group instruction.
For example, Collins (2014), in reviewing the literature on music education and the brain, found
a body of work from neuroscientists revealing the benefits of music education. The results
included memory, language acquisition, executive function, and brain plasticity improvements.
While these data can certainly be used for music advocacy, links to education are not explicit.
Additionally, most studies focused on the one-to-one teacher-to-student model (i.e., instrumental
lessons), which is not the main form of music education in American public schools.
Eerola and Eerola (2014) also found discrepancies with existing research data that reflect
individual perspectives instead of examining group data. While working to answer the research
question of whether music education enhances the quality of school life in Finland, they
reviewed literature that did not support their findings. They noted that previous studies that
showed little or no connection between studying music and social benefits only focused on an
individual’s behavior and not on group attitudes. Measuring individual behavior as perceived by
a parent, teacher, or student is not the same as measuring classroom climate or interactions
between students and teachers. Ultimately, their findings suggested that it is also essential to
consider a learning environment as a whole group in addition to individual perceptions.

23
Therefore, ensemble music does present a unique learning environment that distinguishes
itself from learning music on an individual level. Learning in a group setting allows for unique
benefits that cannot be overlooked, including social constructive learning, socio-emotional
learning, and other socio-context learning opportunities. Advocacy for music education should
also focus on aspects and features that only large ensemble music can replicate, such as the value
of working together in a group and the benefits of making music with others.
Social Constructive Learning and Music. The theory of social constructivism suggests
that knowledge is constructed through human activity (Vygotsky, 1978). In addition, Vygotsky
theorized that individuals create meaning through their social interactions. Therefore, learning is
both an active and a social process. Building off on Vygotsky, Wiggins (2016) recommended
that music educators consider the impact of Vygotsky’s approach on a music learning
community. Social constructivism understands learning to occur in an individual’s active
participation through social and cultural settings. It involves interacting with others and building
on prior knowledge within social contexts. Like “praxial” thinkers (i.e., those who see music as a
process or a product), social constructivists understand learning to be a real-life experience;
something that individuals do. Therefore, Wiggins reminded teachers that it is their role to create
an environment with active engagement, encourage risk-taking opportunities, establish agency in
the learner, set clear goals, support a safe and supportive environment, and stimulate
opportunities for peer interactions. Large ensemble music can, therefore, support social
constructivist learning in that all students collaborate toward the collective’s mutual
improvement. In addition, the National Commission on Music Education & Music Educators
National Conference (1991) states that while music learning starts at the individual level, “when
a child learns, by experience, music forges direct links between self and world.” Therefore,

24
ensemble music can teach effective communication as students’ understanding of themselves
helps position them within the greater context of the group.
Socio-Emotional Learning and Music. Large ensemble music allows students to engage
in socio-emotional learning through their interactions with their ensemble teacher and each other.
Taylor et al. (2017) surveyed research literature that suggests socio-emotional learning, or SEL,
as learning that promotes students’ self-awareness, self-management, social awareness,
relationship skills, and responsible decision-making. In their meta-analysis, they reviewed SEL
interventions involving students from kindergarten to high school students (N = 97,406). They
found SEL participants faring significantly better in social-emotional skills, attitudes, and
indicators of well-being. The benefits of SEL were similar regardless of the student's ethnicity,
socioeconomic background, or school location.
Few studies to date have examined the associations between music education and SEL.
Of the existing studies, many have focused on the preschool and elementary years (e.g.,
Schellenberg et al., 2015), with a focus on general music, not ensembles (e.g., Boal-Palheiros &
Ilari, 2023). Studies focusing on large ensembles were often conducted in the context of
afterschool programs, not schools (e.g., Holochwost et al., 2021; Ilari et al., 2019). An exception
to the case is the work of Shaw (2022), who ran a study of students in music class, socialemotional learning, and academic achievement. Shaw combined propensity score weighting and
nested multiple regression using data from the High School Longitudinal Study 2009 (N =
25,206). Although the study's results were mixed, he found that instrumental music students had
higher reading scores than students who did not enroll in music. Students enrolled for 3 to 4
years in music had higher belongingness scores than peers who enrolled in 1 to 2 years. Shaw
argued that SEL built into the music curriculum predicts improved academic performance.

25
Social Context and Music. Hendricks (2016) and Yoo (2021) examined the social
aspects of learning music as a group. In her literature review of Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy
theory, Hendricks (2016) reported that developing a student’s musical ability also helps them
foster positive self-efficacy beliefs. Through the lens of music education, Hendricks identified
four sources of self-efficacy that ensemble music teachers can utilize in education and music
(i.e., enactive mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal/social persuasion, and
physiological and affective states), to help develop individual student growth in the context of
the large group.
Yoo (2021) examined the socio-contextual factors influencing intrinsic motivation,
positive motivational outcomes, and persistence in musical activities in high school ensemble
students. Using a multiform questionnaire, Yoo found that study participants (N = 425) were
more likely to feel competent and proficient when teachers focused on individual students’
improvement and musical capabilities, and valued their roles within the ensemble. Students were
motivated to learn and participate in music when their ensemble teachers could connect and
relate with students. Therefore, within the social context of music learning, the music teacher is
essential in facilitating the ensemble environment and allowing for social learning.
Limitations of the Current Model. As noted in chapter 1, the pandemic has affected the
accelerated decline in music student enrollment (Music for All Foundation, 2004; Williams,
2011), validating many music education critics’ opinion that the current model is not working.
For instance, a common critique of traditional large ensemble music classes is that the format
often necessitates uniformity and conformity—it is limiting in instrumentation, irrelevant in
music literature, insists on music literacy, and, most critically, it usually follows a top-down,

26
teacher-to-student model of instruction (Bull, 2019; 2022; Kratus, 2007; Williams, 2011). Issues
with repertoire, student recruitment and performance expectations are discussed ahead.
Issues with Classical Genre. Kratus (2007) and Bull (2019; 2022) examined music
ensemble classes most often included in the curriculum. Kratus’s (2007) review on the status of
music education contrasted students’ out-of-school to in-school musical experiences. He
examined the data produced by the Music for All Foundation (2004) on the enrollment of music
students in California public schools. He concluded that the music studied in school was not
culturally relevant. He found that in-school music satisfied curricular goals, was large-group
oriented, yet made little use of technology to connect students to others. In-school music was
also primarily classical in the musical genre, emphasized one-time concerts that required the
audience to be present in a single location, and focused on instruments that restrict musical
involvement after graduation except in large ensembles. Out-of-school music, on the other hand,
worked to satisfy the student’s personal and emotional goals, was more individualistic, made use
of technology to connect across distances, was primarily nonclassical in the musical genre, deemphasized formal concerts, and made wide use of instruments such as guitar and keyboard,
allowing for a lifetime of musical involvement, alone or with others. Kratus concluded that
music educators are most successful when the genre of music they teach aligns with societal
preferences instead of the music of long-held traditions.
Bull (2019; 2022), in turn, examined literature on music education in classical music. As
a sociologist, Bull (2019) conducted an ethnographic work examining classical music in middleclass British English youth (N = 37). She was most interested in questions surrounding
inequalities, diversity, and inclusion in music education. Her work detailed how young musicians
learn the unspoken rules of classical music culture in their rehearsal space, and debated the

27
culture of classical music on social markers like class, gender, and whiteness. She remarked that
the issue with teaching classical music is that it becomes a “pedagogy of correction,” where the
sole voice in the classroom often is the conductor, correcting intonation, accuracy, or ensemble
balance issues. Bull further asserted that the goal of musical accuracy limits individual students’
creativity.
Williams (2011), in his response to the decline in enrollment of music students reported
by the Florida Department of Education, critiqued the current model for music education as the
catalyst for students opting out of music classes. He offered ten opportunities for the music
education profession to consider to help realize interesting, relevant, and meaningful future
musical experiences for student musicians. Williams’ suggestions included a reduction of music
ensemble class size, allowing students to experience self- and peer-directed learning, allowing
students opportunities for creative decision-making, significantly reducing formal concerts to
focus on individual student musical learning, and including instruments and making use of
technology that is interesting to the student. He also advocated for the inclusion of musical styles
relevant to the culture of the students, deemphasizing musical notation, developing lifelong
musical skills, encouraging students to start music instruction at any grade level— allowing for
students of various abilities and experiences to work together—and developing new music
students to reach functionality within one year or less, to help them continue to independently
enhance their musicality even after they leave the music program. William argued that these
changes allow for a more diverse group of nontraditional music students to have an opportunity
to enjoy a potentially rich music education.
Issues with Student Population. In surveying student populations involved in school
music programs, many scholars have examined the demographics of students enrolled in

28
ensemble music classes. Collectively, these surveys suggest that one of the main predictors of
student participation in music is their family’s socioeconomic status (Elpus & Abril, 2019;
Kinney, 2019; Shaw & Auletto, 2022). Especially in urban schools, Kinney (2019) reported
differences in ethnicity, gender, SES, native language, test scores, GPA, and parent education
levels between music and non-music students. Using data obtained from the school district,
Kinney explored a database containing student demographic information and achievement test
schools of students in sixth grade (N = 12,104), eighth grade (N = 11,679), and tenth grade (N =
13,581). Using multinomial logistic regression, Kinney found that higher achieving students
were more likely to enroll in instrumental music electives and also more likely to persist than
students in other groups. Math achievement, in particular, was a significant predictor of initial
enrollment and persistence in music learning.
Likewise, Elpus and Abril (2019) found that students from the highest socioeconomic
status were overrepresented in high school ensemble music classes, following an analysis of data
from the National Center for Education Statistic High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (N =
25,210). Their analysis showed that 24% of the class of 2013 enrolled in at least one year of
music at some point during high school. In addition, they found an overrepresentation of female
students in music ensembles overall, with a proportion of 70/30 split of female to male students
in choral programs. Racially, Latino and African American students were significantly
underrepresented in high school band and orchestra programs, whereas White and Asian/Pacific
Islander students were overrepresented in orchestra programs. Elpus and Abril also observed that
students with out-of-school arts experiences, such as attending a play, concert, or other live art
events with a parent or relative, were more likely to stay in music.

29
Shaw and Auletto (2022) investigated access to music education in Michigan schools
using data from Michigan’s State Department of Education. They found that 82.2% of schools in
that state employed a music teacher, whereas 17.8% did not. Their findings were significant
because the average school without a music teacher performed at 0.5 SD below the mean. They
concluded that policy—such as not requiring or enforcing all public school students to have an
arts education—is one crucial factor affecting underserved student populations. The authors also
agreed with Kinney (2019), who suggested that:
Making a concerted effort to recruit and retain minority students, males, those from a
lower SES, and transient students will go far in bolstering enrollment in music ensemble
electives, especially if these efforts are coupled with strategies to make these experiences
more relevant to traditionally underserved populations. (Kinney, 2019, p. 40)
Scholars also noted pre-existing factors that may impact students’ decisions toward music
enrollment. Alegrado and Winsler (2020) examined middle school students in Miami (N =
31,332) who did or did not enroll in music, and concluded that black students, students in special
education, and English language learners were less likely to participate in middle school music
classes. Like Elpus and Abril (2019), Alegrado and Winsler (2020) found enrollment in music
classes at 23%. They also stressed how often a student’s academic or language status prevents
them from being able to take a music class as their elective period. These percentages align with
Williams’s (2007) classification of “the other 80%,” referring to many nontraditional music
students who are left out of traditional large ensemble music classes. Taken together these
studies suggest that focusing recruitment efforts on nontraditional music students and providing
access to students from all ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds will make an impact to bolster
enrollment in music ensembles.

30
Issues with Performance Expectations. Teaching traditional large ensemble music
classes also necessitates a performing element, a feature that was eliminated due to the pandemic.
At the very least, significant stakeholders—parents, administration, and community members—
expected regular performances. Haning (2021), in his grounded theory research, selected
participants (N = 9) using a maximum variation sampling method. In addition to reviewing
collected documents and artifacts such as lesson plans, concert programs, and other
communications with program stakeholder, Haning had participants complete weekly online
journals by answering questions and prompts that were provided during the study period. In the
study, Haning examined the role and influence of performances in school music programs and
uncovered five emerging themes: community expectations, student motivation, time
management, teaching strategies, and teacher views of performance. According to Haning’s
findings, performances help motivate students to practice, inform repertoire selection and
rehearsal strategies, and focus assessments on musical mastery. Still, Haning noted, “As the
participating music teachers worked to increase the number and quality of presentational
performances mounted by their music programs, they created an intensified community
expectations for future performances” (Haning, 2021, p. 98). The author also found that this
ongoing perpetual cycle only works to cause music teachers to want to increase the number of
performances and strive for higher quality performances.
Shaw (2021), in his critique of performances through the lens of student assessment,
suggested that while concert performances affect students’ extrinsic motivation for musical
practice, authentic assessments of students’ live performances should still be conducted without
the context of a public performance. His article for teacher practitioners questioned the
usefulness and fairness of assigning students a concert grade. Instead, and like Haning (2021),

31
Shaw (2021) encouraged ensemble music teachers to focus on musical mastery as the primary
form of student assessment rather than utilize performances as the outcome of musical learning
goals.
As a result of performance expectations, one immediate challenge from a transition to
remote learning for teaching large ensemble music classes was the lack of technology that would
allow for the common practice of simultaneous music participation. While the technology at the
time permitted visual connectivity (i.e., through the use of multiple cameras simultaneously),
audio connectivity beyond a singular source was not feasible (Dolister, 2020). In addition, even
if the transition to remote learning allowed for music teachers to incorporate a broader range of
musical perspectives and contexts—such as a focus on technology, individual musicianship, and
lessons in music theory, history, and culture—Hash (2021) noted how remote learning had a
significant negative impact, especially on schools in high poverty areas.
In a survey of remote learning in school bands during the COVID-19 pandemic, Hash
(2021) asked music teachers (N = 462) about their remote learning experiences including
technologies and materials, activities and assessments, student participation, challenges of
teaching remotely, and the extent to which these experiences varied among participants in lowpoverty versus high-poverty schools. Hash found gaps in experience based on socioeconomic
status relating to access to technologies and materials, activities and assessments, and student
participation. The teachers surveyed noted challenges due to a digital divide where some students
could not even get reliable Internet access for school. Without the ability to rehearse
simultaneously and remotely, any progressive movement toward a more individualized, flexible,
accessible, and student-centered remote education through traditional large ensembles, would be
left behind. As Hash (2021) suggested, the performance expectations of music ensembles did not

32
change during remote learning. The connection between traditional large ensemble music classes
and performing music created undue challenges for music teachers during the pandemic.
Now that we have reviewed literature on the current models of traditional large ensemble
music classes and their limitations that were accentuated during the pandemic, we turn our
attention to online learning, another relevant topic to this dissertation.
Online Learning Environments
The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the reliance on hybrid and online learning
environments in education. As terms like “zoom,” “social distancing,” and “masking up” became
colloquial and everyday language, educators found themselves repeating phrases they had never
used before, such as “cameras on, please,” and “let me share my screen,” or “I think you’re still
muted.” Every educator became a new teacher overnight and struggled to navigate student
learning and motivation in an online environment. In addition, music educators who taught
ensemble classes needed to find alternative ways to replicate traditional music rehearsals and
public performances. Therefore, a literature review on online learning environments is necessary
to understand students’ everyday learning experiences during the pandemic. This next section
reviews research on hybrid and online teaching modalities and examines student learning and
motivation in online music education environments.
Formats of Online Education. To describe learning modalities outside traditional faceto-face classrooms, online learning adopts many different terms—e-learning, distance learning,
distance education, virtual learning environments, and many more. A common element to them
is that all learning activities, content, experiences, and assessments are delivered online using
some technology. Online learning also depends on the use of a learning management system
(LMS) to deliver and manage the learning content (Kasim & Khalid, 2016). For example,

33
Blackboard, Canvas, and Google Classroom are widely adopted commercial platforms that
institutions utilize to modernize and make their course content available online.
Aside from the use of LMS, online education usually follows one of three modalities:
asynchronous, synchronous, or a blended/hybrid format. Asynchronous online learning allows
students to determine individually when to interact with the online material (McPherson &
Bacow, 2015). This is perhaps the most flexible modality, and one that accommodates a broader
population of working students, students with families, students with geographical constraints,
and students with disabilities requiring more time to complete a course. Synchronous online
learning functions like a traditional face-to-face classroom where students and the instructor are
all online simultaneously, with the course material delivered in real-time via chat or video.
Finally, blended or hybrid online learning includes an online platform and traditional face-toface instruction. The online component could be supplemental content or contain media that
students access outside of in-person class time, often utilized by proponents of the flipped model
(McPherson & Bacow, 2015).
Online learning environments may vary substantially based on the organization that
offers the course content. McPherson and Bacow (2015), in their review of the current state of
online higher education, found a broad spectrum of interactivity—from courses that consist
entirely of pre-recorded lectures to adaptive machine-learning interfaces that change the pacing
or materials as the learner interacts with the content. They also noted the wide range of online
courses and degrees offered. With an oversaturation of LMS and online learning content
available, in their article on music learning and new media in virtual and online environments,
Ruthmann and Hebert (2012) distinguished three main characteristics of quality online
environments for music education. First, they suggested that the learning environment contains

34
richly synchronous interactivity, allowing instant communication and responsiveness between
musicians, teachers, and students. Second, there should be exploitation of the unique possibilities
only online learning allows, such as utilizing online discussion boards outside of class time,
contacting artists outside of typical geographical boundaries, and using media as part of
instruction. Finally, they argued that a sense of transcendence should not be overlooked—a
beautifully designed and presented online musical environment helps to distinguish online
interactions from traditional “brick-and-mortar” education.
Traditional Online Courses vs. Massively Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Online
teaching and learning developed for many years before the COVID-19 pandemic. Although the
first entirely online doctoral program in music education dates back to 2005 at Boston University
(Ruthmann & Hebert, 2012), online learning environments were popularized in 2012 when two
Silicon Valley start-ups, Coursera and Udacity, offered free college-level courses over the
Internet to learners worldwide (McPherson & Bacow, 2015). This format of higher education
became known as Massive Open Online Courses or MOOCs.
Compared to traditional online courses, MOOCs content is always accessible and utilizes
open-sourced media. Learners work through the content at their own pace and are encouraged to
share and contribute materials to the course as content is edited when needed. Lectures are prerecorded, with all content available from the start of the course (Rhoads, 2015). On the other
hand, traditional online courses have limits regarding when the material is available and contain
media restricted by the affiliated university. These courses are usually structured within a
university’s academic calendar as groups of students within the same course learn at the same
pace and must complete the course by the due date. While this may be more restrictive,

35
traditional online courses often include live lectures and direct feedback from the professor with
whom they are taking the course.
Scholars have debated the pros and cons of MOOCs compared to traditional online
courses. Many agreed that the format of MOOCs attracts a much more diverse group of students
due to its accessibility, low cost, and low barrier of entry (Poellhuber et al., 2019). Rhoads
(2015) described MOOCs as rooted in a Freirean philosophy of teaching and learning. Unlike the
top-down banking system describing teacher-to-student interactions (Freire, 1972), MOOCs are
driven by students, encourage open dialogue, are widely accessible to all socioeconomic
backgrounds, and are free from the constraints of traditional education systems. Rhoads argued
that MOOCs value accessibility and democratization of knowledge, connecting the openness of
MOOCs to the outgrowth of the Open Educational Resource and Open Courseware movements.
Informal vs. Formal Online Learning Environments. Examining online learning
environments also necessitates delineating between formal, non-formal, and informal learning
environments. Informal learning is often at play, especially when considering MOOC
environments or asynchronous learning modalities. Green (2006; 2008) linked informal music
learning with new music-making mediums within the context of music education. Popular music
ensembles, for example, are not bound by traditional music rehearsals via a top-down conductorto-musician process. Popular musicians may not necessarily be familiar with the traditional
notation and may require learning music by ear and in small groups (Green, 2008). In the music
classroom, informal learning could mean allowing learners to choose the music themselves;
learning by listening and copying recordings; learning in friendship groups with minimum adult
guidance; learning in personal, often haphazard ways; and integrating listening, playing, singing,
improvising, and composing in an organic manner (Green, 2006).

36
On the other hand, formal learning describes traditional or formal educational learning
environments that separate the teacher from the learners. This is in contrast with non-formal
learning, where although learning is still partially intentional, it occurs outside traditional
educational environments such as local community music groups and multigenerational music
ensembles. Within a music learning context, formal learning usually looks like a traditional large
ensemble using music notation, performing works from the Western European tradition under
the baton of a music teacher. The learning activity is often structured and sequenced beforehand
by the teacher, who leads and carries out the activity. The intentionality is distinguished between
formal and informal—whereas the former functions as learning how to play/make music,
informal learning practice functions as playing music (Folkestad, 2006). Still, Folkestad (2006),
in his review of formal and informal learning, recognized the relationship between formal and
informal learning not as a dichotomy but as two poles of a continuum. In this way, certain formal
and informal aspects can be mixed or varied in degrees on the continuum based on the learning
context. Folkestad identified four factors to be considered: the situation or where the learning
takes place; the learning style describing the character, nature, and quality of the learning
process; the ownership of didactic teaching versus self-regulated learning; and the intentionality.
Online Student Engagement and Motivation. Online learning environments and
traditional large ensemble music classes seem incompatible in many ways. Many articles
examining online learning environments and music education focus on music teaching and
learning mediums such as popular music, music production, or music technology (Ruthmann &
Hebert, 2012; Salavuo, 2006; Tobias, 2016) or new forms of musical engagement (Tobias,
2020). While there is not currently a working model demonstrating how traditional large music
ensembles can be taught entirely online, the switch to remote learning during the COVID-19

37
pandemic has challenged music educators to rethink what music education could and should look
like for the future. However, student engagement in an online environment is still significant and
requires more than simply examining the different types and formats of online education.
Learning theories like self-determination (Ryan & Deci, 2020) can be adapted to support student
learning and engagement in an online learning environment.
Competence Support in Online Learning. Although the COVID-19 pandemic led to a
sudden shift to online learning, online education has been well-established and is deeply rooted
in adequate planning and instructional design. In their study, Adedoyin and Soykan (2020)
framed the challenges and opportunities of the COVID-19 pandemic and online learning using
the crisis-response migration methods. They assured educators that the “crisis-response
migration” to online learning does not correctly reflect whether online education is effective or
should dissuade educators from completing a digital transformation of their practice. Instead,
they found that teachers who struggled with online learning during the pandemic lacked digital
competence. This, coupled with students who were not motivated to obtain digital competency,
made it much more challenging to embrace technology-driven online learning and dependent on
Internet facilities.
Even so, many researchers during the COVID-19 pandemic found common trends that
affected student engagement and motivation during online learning. Mamolo (2022) and Ferrer
et al. (2020) saw a significant decrease in student motivation and self-efficacy during the sudden
transition to synchronous online learning. Mamolo (2022), in his quasi-experimental research
design, examined the effect of online learning on eleventh-grade Filipino students’ (N = 31)
motivation, self-efficacy, and anxiety in mathematics class. Mamolo utilized two questionnaires
and discovered a significant decrease in student motivation and self-efficacy during synchronous

38
online learning. Students’ anxiety levels, however, remained high. Mamolo noted that slow and
unstable Internet connection, lack of self-regulation, and distractions at home led to low student
engagement. Ferrer et al. (2020) attributed students’ attitudes toward online learning to the
design of the online learning environment using an online survey. In their investigation of
undergraduate business students at an Australian higher education institution (N = 574), the
authors suggested establishing a protocol or etiquette for online interactions, modeling thoughtful
contributions to discussion forums, and skillfully using break-out rooms to provide small group
opportunities for all students to ask and answer questions to increase student engagement.
Researchers also observed teacher- and policy-driven aspects influencing student
satisfaction and persistence in online learning. Naseer and Rafique (2021) and Hartnett (2016)
noted the importance of teachers’ academic support for individual students in online learning.
Naseer and Rafique (2021) used a survey to examine the role of teachers’ academic support in
online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. They employed a correlational research design
focusing on undergraduate students from different universities in Pakistan (N = 406). They found
that learners were more satisfied with online learning when their teachers offered them academic
support. This, in turn, significantly affected their academic motivation.
Hartnett (2016), in two case studies on motivation in online education, examined
undergraduate, pre-service teachers at a New Zealand university (N = 12, 9). Through interviews,
she found that students’ motivation online was:
Multifaceted (i.e., students endorsed multiple motivation types), situation-dependent (i.e.,
student motivation comprised various combinations of amotivation, extrinsic motivations
and intrinsic motivations that depended on the nature of the activity in which they were

39
engaged), and complex (i.e. certain environmental factors supported learner motivation in
some cases and undermined it in others) (Hartnett, 2016, p. 74).
Hartnett concluded that differentiating student instructional needs increased students’ satisfaction
with online learning. In addition, Hartnett suggested that teachers offer more frequent feedback
to support student competence and success. She recommended that teacher guidance be given in
a timely, responsive, and informative manner. In addition, students should also be taught the
feedback process to perform routine self-assessments and provide peer-to-peer feedback to
increase competency and success with online learning.
Similarly, Hobson and Puruhito (2018) linked student GPA and course performance to
distance learning persistence and retention. Their study surveyed distance-learning college
students at a large university in the Southwestern United States (N = 409) to understand what
drives the learning and performance of students enrolled in distance-learning courses. They
found students’ self-efficacy to predict satisfaction and online performance and urged
policymakers and educators to shift students’ focus away from grades. The authors
recommended that educators work to better connect students toward the value of their learning
by engaging in mastery orientation.
Autonomy Support in Online Learning. Understanding individual learner needs is
critical to supporting engagement and motivation during online learning. Hartnett (2016)
encouraged teachers to take the time to establish frequent, ongoing communication with learners
to help them develop situational interest. According to Hartnett, problem-based, project-based,
scenario-based, and inquiry learning engage students with the content and allow them to make
meaningful choices in the learning process. Allowing learners to pursue topics of existing
interests is one way of supporting student autonomy in online learning.

40
Scholars have confirmed the value of blended learning as a method to support student
autonomy (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020; Haftador et al., 2021; Ruthmann & Hebert, 2012).
Blended learning is a method of teaching that integrates technology and digital media with
traditional teacher-led classroom activities (Haftador et al., 2021). Online learning naturally
yields itself to a blended approach. The flipped classroom is an example of blended learning.
Within the classroom context, flipped learning refers to an inversion of the traditional classroom
learning experience. Passive lectures and content delivery occur outside of class time using
media, allowing class time for discussions and interactive projects. In this way, the classroom
becomes an active learning environment (Haftador et al., 2021).
The Jigsaw method is another way to support student autonomy in the classroom. Jigsaw
is a collaborative learning strategy where learners are empowered to be responsible for a part of a
task in a small, predefined group. Each group member is held accountable for their material and
becomes a part of a new group containing learners representing all the previous groups so that
knowledge can be socially constructed. Haftador et al. (2021) compared synchronous online
classes with a class that combined flipped and jigsaw methods. Using a quasi-experimental
design, they studied nursing students (N = 85) during the COVID-19 pandemic and measured
their academic motivation using Harter’s Academic Motivation Scale. They found that
combining flipped and jigsaw learning methods had a more significant positive effect on
students’ academic motivation than lecture-based synchronous online instruction. Especially in
an online learning context, they recommended that educators consider using synchronous online
time for more interactive discussions and activities rather than passive content delivery from the
instructor.

41
Relatedness Support in Online Learning. Establishing a supportive and caring network
among students is critical in an online learning environment to support student engagement and
motivation for collaborative and individual online activities (Hartnett, 2016; Tobias, 2020).
Hartnett (2016) found that when teachers share personal experiences; model inclusiveness; treat
learners with respect; and adopt open, sociable, and considerate approaches to teaching and
learning, students are more motivated to engage with learning online. In music education,
engaging students in a participatory culture of music-making creates an open and inviting
learning environment and can help transition students to online music engagement (Tobias,
2020). According to Tobias (2020), the participatory culture of music-making has “relatively low
barriers to artistic expression and civic engagement, strong support for creating and sharing
creations, and some type of informal mentorship whereby experienced participants pass along
knowledge to novices” (Tobias, 2020, p. 2). Although Turino (2008) did not take online spaces
into account, he described participatory performance as music-making that contains no artistaudience distinction, giving way to “participants and potential participants performing in
different roles” (Tobias, 2020, p. 26). Turino’s ethnomusicological approach to music-making
focused on four fields. Aside from recorded music (i.e., high fidelity and studio audio art) and
live presentational music, online spaces lend themselves well to his notion of participatory field
(i.e., everyone present is actively doing something: playing an instrument, singing, and/or
dancing). Therefore, online learners are more likely to engage musically with one another when a
safe and welcoming online community for student musicians of all levels is created and the
number of people in performance roles is maximized (Tobias, 2020).
Researchers also found that leveraging social media platforms effectively allows learners
to communicate, share, engage, and learn music in online learning environments (Keegan-Phipps

42
& Wright, 2020; Salavuo, 2006; Waldron, 2012). Keegan-Phipps and Wright (2020), in their
article on learning how to be a folk musician with social media, defined social media as any
shared communicative practices mediated by web-based digital technology—a space to gather
and organize. They understood social media as a new form of folk transmission in the digital age.
Not surprisingly, young musicians have been found engaging in open and informal online
communities as forms of collaborative musical activities and learning (Salavuo, 2006). Salavuo
(2006) utilized an online survey to study young musicians’ reasons for participating in an online
music community (N = 233). While many used the Internet to find people with similar interests
worldwide, Salavuo realized that musical reasons superseded social reasons in online musical
communities. Keegan-Phipps and Wright (2020) and Waldron (2012) also found musical
communities connecting on YouTube and noted the power of video tutorials’ collaborative, ondemand learning potential. Waldron (2012), in her “cyber ethnographic field study,” observed
the Banjo Hangout online music community. She found that community members on YouTube
joined one another via forums and discussion boards. According to Waldron, the advantage of an
informal online music community like YouTube is that it does not require concurrent proximate
physical or temporal presence. It also allows all people with temporary or permanent disabilities
to be active participants (Waldron, 2012).
When considering pedagogical practices in an online learning musical community, music
educators can use social media to support relatedness (Keegan-Phipps & Wright, 2020; Tobias,
2020; Waldron, 2012). Tobias (2020), in his article on social media and participatory cultures,
explained how using social media in the classroom as a collaborative tool can expand how music
students engage and learn musical content. He showed how music educators can address new
forms of musical engagement (i.e., digital and social media) to diversify what occurs in music

43
programs. Social media can connect students with artists and professional musicians worldwide
(Ruthmann & Hebert, 2012; Tobias, 2020). Still, meaningful integration of social media requires
careful thought and planning. Tobias cautioned that incorporating social media in formal settings
requires more than just using social media or replicating musical practices observed outside of
school. Instead, educators should consider how social media supports musical engagement and
learning rather than it being the sole focus of musical engagement and learning.
Now that we have reviewed literature on online learning formats and connected selfdetermination theory to support online learning and engagement, we can turn to selfdetermination theory and its application in music teaching and learning.
Self-Determination Theory and Music Teaching and Learning
Ryan and Deci (2020) noted that intrinsic motivation is catalyzed by certain social
contexts that produce variable results. In other words, social factors surrounding the individual
affect one’s intrinsic motivation. To explain this, an aspect of self-determination theory
presented as cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Evans & Ryan, 2022; Ryan &
Deci, 2020) is applied. Cognitive evaluation theory specifies that an individual’s feelings of
competence—such as a student’s self-efficacy toward a task—and a sense of autonomy (e.g., an
internal perceived locus of causality) can enhance intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985;
Evans & Ryan, 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). In student learning, cognitive evaluation theory
within self-determination theory suggests that the classroom environment can facilitate students’
intrinsic motivation by supporting their need for autonomy and competence.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation (Usefulness). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
describe the different reasons or goals that move students to do something or behave the way
they do. The main distinction between the two is the external and internal factors that affect their

44
actions and behaviors. Whereas intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is
inherently interesting or enjoyable, extrinsic motivation refers to behavior linked to an external
reward or outcome (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Studies have revealed that some forms of extrinsic
motivation undermine students’ interest if they were initially intrinsically motivated (Lepper &
Henderlong, 2000; Cerasoli et al., 2014). While there is mounting evidence against extrinsic
motivation as the best form of motivation for learning in a classroom setting (Ryan & Deci,
2020), Lepper and Henderlong (2000) pointed to a balance of intrinsic plus extrinsic motivation
to help sustain students’ motivation as they progress through school. They drew attention to
perceptions of autonomy in the classroom, fostering curiosity through relevant and practical
learning contexts, emphasizing learning goals to better frame the educational task for students,
and promoting a challenging learning environment to help maintain motivation in the classroom.
The performing nature of a music ensemble class may emphasize extrinsic motivators
instead of more favorable intrinsically motivating factors. For example, when students are
required to produce weekly practice logs (i.e., recording the amount of time practiced) for a
grade, external factors motivate them to practice their musical instruments. While extrinsic
rewards are effective, Ryan and Deci (2020) have pointed out that when the rewards cease to
exist, so does the desired behavior. Instead, other assignments such as journaling the practice
session or goal setting may be better in the long run. Students need to understand why what they
are learning is useful for their short- or long-term goals. Usher and Pajares (2008), in their
literature review of sources of self-efficacy in school, found that grading students on their ability
to write realistic goals will help them become more mastery-oriented and reward them on their
ability to complete the goals they have set instead. In this spirit, music teachers can help foster

45
students’ continued intrinsic motivation for musical practice with the help of extrinsic factors
such as goal orientation and goal setting (Locke & Latham, 2002).
Autonomy (eMpowerment). Scholars have linked student motivation and engagement to
student learning and achievement. Within the scope of cognitive evaluation theory in selfdetermination theory, the incorporation of autonomy predicts student engagement in the
classroom (Evans & Ryan, 2022; Jang et al., 2010; Patall & Zambrano, 2019; Patall et al., 2022;
Sanguinetti, 2023; Wallace & Sung, 2017). Still, external pressures to perform may affect music
teachers’ perception of limited time, often resulting in top-down teaching. Yet Patall and
Zambrano (2019) and Patall et al. (2022) suggested otherwise. Patall and Zambrano (2019)
reviewed literature on autonomy-supportive practices and found that choice opportunities,
providing rationales, and incorporating student perspectives help catalyze student engagement,
motivation, learning, and achievement. In the music classroom, this suggests that by giving
students choice opportunities, providing the “why” behind every rehearsal practice, and allowing
students to feel empowered by incorporating student perspectives and decisions into the
everyday rehearsal plan, students will be more likely to contribute positively to the overall music
practice. Autonomy support, in turn, better predicts student achievement and outcomes.
Patall et al. (2022) provided instructional practices that support adaptive motivation,
engagement, and learning. In their article, they recommend autonomy-supportive classroom
practices to include structuring activities that allow students to feel empowered and engaged in
learning because it reflects their values, preferences, interests, and goals. According to Patall and
colleagues, for students to feel autonomous in the classroom, they must have a choice or, at the
very least, a perceived sense of an internal locus of control. Allowing students autonomy where
intentional behaviors are internally endorsed will give them a sense of freedom.

46
Jang et al. (2010) assured the teacher that autonomy in the classroom is not a choice
between autonomy or structure, but can include both autonomy and structure. According to
them, “structure refers to the amount and clarity of information that teachers provide to students
about expectations and ways of effectively achieving desired educational outcomes” (Jang et al.,
2010, p. 589). They observed the instructional styles and student behavioral engagement in 133
public high school classrooms in the Midwest and also surveyed high school students (N =
1,584), who reported their subjective engagement. Results indicated that autonomy support and
structure were positively correlated and predicted higher levels of students’ behavioral
engagement in the classroom.
Sanguinetti (2023) reviewed literature on self-determination theory and examined its
applications in the general music classroom. For autonomy, she recommended that music
teachers empower students by allowing them to brainstorm how the class can reach a desired
performance outcome. Giving students choices regarding topics and learning activities, including
choices in how they demonstrate mastery of new materials or skills, will give them a sense of
autonomy. In addition, considering improvisation and composition aspects of the national music
standards can create an autonomy-supportive environment.
Competence (Success). Students’ self-efficacy, or beliefs in their ability to fully
participate and be successful in a performance music class can affect their perceived competence.
Competence in a performance task is a substantial motivating factor in student achievement,
especially for reaching mastery orientation in a performance-driving setting such as a music
performance (Evans & Ryan, 2022; Patall et al., 2022; Senko et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares,
2008). Achievement goal theorists argue for mastery goal orientation (i.e., the belief that success

47
results from effort with the intention of mastering a skill or task) over performance goals (i.e.,
the belief that success is a result of ability and with the intention of surpassing others).
Aydiner-Uygun (2020) studied whether the achievement goal orientation of Turkish
college music students (N = 240) would predict their learning approaches. She measured students
based on the Approaches in Instrument Learning Scale and the Achievement Goal Orientation in
Instrument Learning Scale. Aydiner-Uygun found that mastery-approach oriented students
positively predicted deeper learning as students were more interested in learning and selfdevelopment and more involved in developing expertise in difficult music. She also found that
students’ performance-avoidance orientation positively predicted surface learning and students
who believe that their musical ability is innate and fixed.
However, in their review of achievement goal theory, Senko et al. (2011) took note of
new research that supported the emergence of a multiple-goal perspective. They emphasized “the
positive potential of performance-approach goals alongside mastery goals” (Senko et al., 2011, p.
26). Within music, as the “threat” of a looming concert performance or playing test may suggest,
performance-approach goals may predict achievement more than mastery goals (Haning, 2021;
Shaw, 2021). What this means in music education is that by encouraging our student musicians
to strive for mastery and performance goals, they can potentially reap the benefits of both goal
orientations. Higher performance achievement lends itself to higher levels of competence,
leading to an even higher achievement goal. Once students orient themselves with performanceapproach and mastery goals and develop an increased perception of competence, they are more
likely to stay in music for the long haul.
Relatedness and Belongingness (Caring). In self-determination theory, relatedness is
considered one of the three basic psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020). In addition, the

48
sense of belonging is a need that demands to be fulfilled, especially during adolescence
(Baumeister & Leary, 1995). According to Leary and Cox (2008), “the need for acceptance and
belonging is a fundamental social motive that underlies and helps to explain a great deal of
human behavior” (Leary & Cox, 2008, p. 28). Many studies have also shown the positive impact
of student-teacher relationships during this developmental stage, especially among students of
diverse and ethnic backgrounds (Froiland et al., 2019; Roorda et al., 2011). Froiland et al. (2019)
examined teacher-student relationships, psychological need satisfaction, and happiness through a
survey distributed to diverse high school students (N = 1,961) in the San Francisco Bay Area.
They used structural equation modeling to analyze their data and found teacher-student
relationships positively associated with needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence. They
suggested that teacher-student relationships are essential to students’ happiness and the latter,
and in turn, affect student intrinsic motivation to learn, engage, and achieve academically.
Roorda et al. (2011) utilized a meta-analytic approach to study teacher-student
relationships on students’ school engagement and achievement. They analyzed 99 studies that
included students from preschool to high school (N = 129,423). Their results revealed positive
associations between positive teacher-student relationships with engagement and achievement
and negative associations between negative relationships with engagement and achievement.
Although negative relationships had a greater impact on younger students, affective teacherstudent relationships were more influential for older students.
Pomerantz et al. (2012) have also examined relatedness between children and parents and
its implications for motivation. In their literature review, they observed that parents have a
validating function in children’s lives; when they show that they care about them, they allow
their children to feel worthy. Although the context of their research was not between children

49
and teachers, the implications are likely to be similar. When teachers create a safe, caring, and
nurturing environment for students to make mistakes, students are likely to be less fearful in their
future endeavors and prepared for challenges obstacles that may come their way. Analogously, a
music teacher’s relationship with their student-musicians may ultimately be more important than
their collective need to create good music. Doing so will motivate the student-musicians to
higher musical achievement and performance.
The peer-to-peer connections in the music classroom are as crucial as the student-teacher
relationship. In her research, Ryan (2000) examined literature on peer groups and their influence
on understanding motivation, engagement, and achievement in school. She defined peer groups
as those including adolescent students and their self-identified friends. In addition, she used peer
group “to refer to an individual’s small, relatively intimate group of peers who interact on a
regular basis” (Ryan, 2000, p. 103). Ryan argued that peer groups must be considered when
examining individual students’ motivation, engagement, and achievement. She modeled
dimensions that influence the socialization process, indicating that peer groups can reinforce an
individual and influence change. Usher and Pajares (2008), in their literature review on selfefficacy, explained how students can build their efficacy beliefs through the vicarious experience
of observing their peers. When student musicians see their similar peers perform a more
challenging task, they are more likely to believe that they can, too (Usher & Pajares, 2008).
In the context of the music classroom, creating an environment where there is pride in
membership and camaraderie among members can make a significant difference in student
retention (Crowe, 2015). Crowe studied the retention of college students (N = 11,393) in music
ensembles, examining data at a midwestern university from Fall 2005 through Fall 2011. He
found that a significant, positive correlation between first-semester freshman enrollment in music

50
ensembles and retention of students in their subsequent years in college. Students who enrolled
in music ensemble classes after their freshmen year were also less likely to persist in music.
These finding suggest that efforts should be made to recruit first-year students. As Crowe noted,
fostering the social connections that student musicians make within the music classroom should
not be taken for granted. This sense of belonging is fundamental to their ability to play good
music together.
Value and Interest. Self-determination theory also outlines the importance of supporting
students’ values and interests for motivation in learning (Patall et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020).
Again, Patall et al., 2022, in their article on instructional practices that support motivation,
engagement, and learning, highlighted how value addresses why a student chooses to engage in a
particular task. According to Patall et al. (2022), “supporting value from a self-determination
theory perspective means facilitating student internalization of the learning behaviors and
activities so that students endorse those behaviors as their own” (Patall et al., 2022, pp. 23–24).
For music, this means that understanding and aligning student musical preferences with the
music taught plays a key role in maintaining student interest in music classrooms (Kratus, 2007).
Patall et al. (2022) recommended giving rationales, emphasizing purpose, contextualizing
teaching and learning, encouraging active learning, and including culturally responsive teaching
to support students’ values and interests. Culturally responsive teaching uses students’ customs,
experiences, and perspectives as tools for classroom instruction. Culturally responsive teaching
in music involves understanding and recognizing individual perspectives and cultural heritages
when selecting musical repertories and music practices in the classroom (Bond, 2017). Bond
(2017), in her literature review of culturally responsive teaching in music education, found key
elements for music educators to follow. She outlined student identity and achievement

51
considerations, equity and excellence, developmental appropriateness, teaching the whole child,
and student-teacher relationships as foundations for a culturally responsive music classroom. By
allowing students to see themselves (Evans & Ryan, 2022) in the music they are studying, music
can continue to be a source of immense joy and provide a deep sense of personal connection.
Before moving on to the method section of the dissertation, a brief review of literature that
outlines past examples of research methods in music education will help frame and justify the
methodology adopted for this dissertation.
Student Voices in Research and Open Form
As a classroom music teacher, one way I work to promote socio-emotional learning,
foster students’ sense of self-efficacy, and connect and relate with my music students is to make
efforts to ensure that I am listening to their voices. However, I have found that simply giving
students a platform to express themselves is not enough—they must feel heard and believe that
their perspectives and opinions directly influence classroom decisions and outcomes. While we,
as music educators, may naively think that we are constantly engaged in good pedagogical
practices, our ways of listening to our students can and should be improved. Student voices are
essential to improving our craft. In academic research, student perspectives or perceptions are
often used to discover an outcome, correlation, or effect. This includes teacher effectiveness;
issues on attrition and retention; or student perceptions about a musical topic, including
perception of pitch, musical preferences, or performance anxiety (Alegrado & Winsler, 2020;
Hash, 2021; Elpus & Abril, 2019; Kinney, 2019; Kratus, 2007; Shaw & Auletto, 2022; Williams,
2011). However, in earlier research, student voices were often not the central focus of music
education research (e.g., Fredrickson, 1997; Petters, 1976; Taylor, 1997).

52
If we are to engage in good pedagogical practices in our classrooms, we must remember
who we are serving in the first place. An open form (Allsup, 2016) implies that our research
inquiries should be student-centered and challenge teacher practitioners to better serve their
students and their needs. Research related to content (e.g., curriculum) and content delivery (e.g.,
pedagogy) is a good start. Still, it leaves out a crucial part of our practice: the voices, thoughts,
perspectives, and perceptions of our students at large. If we are to move our profession forward
and operate in the paradigm of a liberating pedagogy (Freire, 1972) and remix our music
classrooms (Allsup, 2016), then we must take time to listen to the voices of the students we are
teaching and invite them into our research inquiries as co-constructors and co-authors of
knowledge. Therefore, a mixed method design was adopted for this study to include student
voices and, along with the quantitative data, allow readers to come up with their own
conclusions.
Quantitative Designs. While many research studies may claim to study student
perceptions and perspectives, in quantitative design, some utilize student perspectives to
demonstrate a desired point or support a pre-determined hypothesis. An early example of music
education research involving student voices examined student participation in the decisionmaking process regarding musical performance (Petters, 1976). The study aimed to see if
including high school string orchestra students (N = 38) in the decision-making process would
make their music playing more expressive than students who were given directions in a topdown manner from a conductor. This was a classic experimental design in which Petters had a
control group of students who received traditional rehearsal instruction and an experimental
group of students who were asked questions about the music during the rehearsal process. James
Hoffren’s “A Test of Expressive Phrasing in Music” was used to measure the outcome. Petters

53
employed two judges to listen to tape-recorded performances of both groups, scoring for rubato,
smoothness, articulation, phrasing, unity, continuity, dynamics, and accentuation (variables in
Hoffren’s measure). The researcher admitted that the experiment did not show any significance,
perhaps due to problems in the design. The only authentic student voices that were included were
overtly unfavorable: “Do we have to talk? Let’s play,” and that they should not have to “take
tests during orchestra” (Petters, 1976, p. 186), indicating that not only did the students not fully
understand what they were doing or had buy-in to be co-constructors of the research process—
they were resistant to change the status quo.
Two articles published in the same volume of the Journal for Research in Music
Education in late 1997 examined student perception and interpretation concerning music
teaching and learning. Fredrickson (1997) studied student perceptions of tension in music in
elementary, middle, and high school students (N = 120), and Taylor (1997) examined student
interpretation of teacher verbal praise in seventh- and eighth-grade choral classes (N = 80).
Fredrickson (1997) had a quantitative design where students listened to a recording of the first
movement of Haydn’s Symphony No. 104 and were engaged using a Continuous Response
Digital Interface (CRDI) dial to record their perception of tension in the music. While
Fredrickson found significance in his data, no student voices other than their recorded dial input
were presented. Fredrickson concluded that music educators should find ways to select repertoire
that impacts listeners most to reach the broadest audience.
Taylor’s (1997) quantitative research used videotapes of teachers’ praise to survey
students (N = 80) on whether the praise was deserved (i.e., contingent on student performance) or
instructional (i.e., used to encourage, gain student cooperation, or send a message). Results
showed that students could separate deserved praise from instructional praise; therefore, their

54
interpretation of a teacher’s praise and its intended instructional purpose matters. While both
researchers examined students’ perspectives as the focal point of their research, their purpose
centered around an expected outcome, not the student voices themselves. Fredrickson (1997)
never asked if students wanted to examine tension in music—his use of student perceptions was
merely data points of the CRDI dial. Taylor (1997) never asked students whether they were
concerned with the type of praise received from their music teacher. Instead, students were given
two choices: deserved or instructional praise rather than an open-ended platform to express their
interpretation of the teacher’s praise.
Still, quantitative research designs in music education have their advantages, especially if
the goal is to establish a greater understanding of the overall climate of music education. Perhaps
one of the most common research questions we ask to be more responsive to our student’s
musical interests is the “age-old” musical preferences survey. These inquiries are often meant to
be informative and revealing to the music teacher. Still, individual student voices are often
neglected in favor of the aggregate of a larger population, and teacher practitioners should be
wary about a generalized, one-size-fits-all model that may not apply in an individual’s
classroom. An example of such inquiry is Siebenaler’s (1999) work in response to a published
list of songs that “every American should know” by the National Association for Music
Education in 1996. Siebenaler used a 5-point Likert-type scale for preference and familiarity
with the song in his quantitative study. Although Siebenaler sought a large population to survey,
the results of his study showed that “De Colores” was the most preferred song, with 86% of
students surveyed reported to be Hispanic. Siebenaler’s research aligned with the beginning of a
movement toward culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2002; 2010), and demonstrates how
quantitative designs on student perspectives can have an impact on music education at large.

55
Stavrou and Papageorgi (2021) surveyed the literature and designed a quantitative study
on students’ perceptions of music in school. Their literature review revealed a relatively small
body of music education literature featuring student voices. They admitted that “what often
happens in practice is that... the choice of the curriculum content is a responsibility of a group of
experts, [and] every student will [inevitably] accept it as remarkable, interesting, important and
useful” (Stavrou & Papageorgi, 2021, p. 368). To demonstrate how quantitative designs can still
include student voices, they conducted a study on secondary school students in Cyprus (N = 749)
using a self-reported questionnaire with closed and open-ended questions. Results showed that
music ranked second in students’ preference of classes, and the authors included direct
quotations from students explaining why music was one of their favorite school subjects. The
inclusion of student quotations provided a richer context to support the results of their
quantitative data. Unsurprisingly, qualitative designs are more likely to capture individual voices
if the research aims to study student perspectives and include student voices.
Qualitative Designs. Qualitative studies utilize narrative research, phenomenology,
grounded theory, ethnography, and/or case study designs to conduct research (Creswell & Poth,
2018). In education settings, qualitative designs give opportunities for student voices to inform
results and implications for the field. For example, Hoffman and Carter (2013), Kruse (2016),
and Shaw (2016) aimed to provide a voice to underrepresented student participants and gave
them a platform to share and talk about their unique experiences that directly inform their
conclusions and implications to the field. They all looked deeper into specific voices that were
underrepresented in academic research.
Using critical race theory as a lens, Hoffman and Carter (2013) explored African
American middle school students’ (N = 3) educational experiences and perspectives within a

56
composition-based secondary music curriculum and classroom power structures. Applying a case
study approach, they framed their research within a composition-based music curriculum and
acknowledged the absence of African American student voices in music education literature. The
individual student voices informed their conclusion, which suggested that music education as it
currently stands does not serve all students. The authors challenged music educators to redefine
socially just musical experiences and to re-imagine educators’ relationships with students and the
curriculum.
Kruse (2016), in his ethnographic work, gave voice to a hip-hop artist who was a highschool dropout. Kruse designed his research as a multiple case study where he conducted an
ethnographic case study of his informant and positioned it with a second case study where he
examined his own practice as a music educator. He acknowledged the disconnect between the
type of music students engage with outside school and the academic canon learned in school.
With his account, he legitimized the voices that compelled him to think about his experiences
with students who eventually dropped out of music. Informed by his participant, Kruse
acknowledged the need for music educators to have more significant inclusion in their content
and highlighted the void of perspectives from students who have not continued their music
schooling. Kruse’s participant challenged his perceptions and preconceived notions about issues
of privilege. As a result, Kruse encouraged educators to consider including hip-hop in their
music curriculum seriously.
Finally, Shaw (2016) gave voice to an immigrant Hispanic population and examined
student perceptions of culturally responsive teaching in music education. Embedding multiple
case studies, Shaw focused on three after-school choirs situated in a Puerto Rican enclave. The
student participants (N = 3) acknowledged the teacher’s instruction to be culturally responsive as

57
their perceptions revolved around three themes: developing sociocultural competence, expanding
cultural horizons, and enhancing cultural validity. The music studied represented the students’
cultural backgrounds. Culturally responsive teaching worked to meaningfully bridge students’
home and school experiences and affirm students’ musical and cultural identities. Shaw
acknowledged that culturally responsive teaching is essential regardless of the diversity within a
classroom. Her platform to give these specific students voices confirmed the effectiveness and
importance of engaging in a culturally responsive teaching.
Although qualitative designs offer more opportunities for researchers to include student
voices, the researcher almost always predetermines the research question or inquiry. While they
may include actual quotations of students’ voices, the researcher often looks for a central theme
that best answers the question they are looking for. For example, Parker (2010) conducted an
action research project exploring student experiences of belonging in a choral ensemble. High
school students (N = 26) were interviewed to describe their experiences of belonging, and the
interview data was analytically coded. As a result, Parker described five emerging themes from
the research data: an uncompetitive choral experience, sectional bonding as social bonding,
singing as a shared experience, chorus as a safe space, and choral trips as a significant bonding
experience. While Parker’s research included many different student voices and informed teacher
educators of students’ perspectives, the results were guided by the researcher’s positionality and
research question explicitly looking for themes that related to bonding. The student voices served
as a data set to support the researcher’s question. Again, while the inquiries were worthwhile and
informative to the music teaching and learning profession and community at large, they, at the
very least, neglected to mention how the student responses have guided or redirected their
research in the research process. While this may not have been Parker’s inquiry goals, some

58
questions remain. Were students’ experiences of belonging the reason why they participated in
choral ensembles in the first place? Were there unfavorable student responses regarding
belongingness that were neglected from the study? Was belongingness important to the students,
or did they have other more pressing issues? By including quantitative and quantitative data, a
mixed research method may offer researchers with the best of both worlds.
Mixed Methods Designs. Mixed methods designs may provide a better understanding of
a research problem (Creswell, 2012). Qualitative data can often add detail and explain the
quantitative data (Stavrou & Papageorgi, 2021), and vice versa (Creswell, 2012). In the context
of this dissertation, mixed methods was chosen as it provided a richer context to the quantitative
data and verified the validity of individual student’s responses in the qualitative data. The
quantitative data indicated that aspects of self-determination theory for students in my music
classroom extended beyond the few who participated in the qualitative stage. More importantly,
the qualitative data provided an explanation for the quantitative data.
Three music studies reviewed below employed a mixed methods design that provides a
deeper understanding of their quantitative data, allowing individual perspectives and voices to be
utilized in their implications. Springer (2020) examined student perspectives on their master’s
degree in music education (MME). Using a web-based questionnaire that included closed and
open-ended questions, Springer investigated graduate-level students’ (N = 136) motivations for
enrolling in an MME programs. The quantitative data suggested that students’ most common
motivators for enrollment were “to become a better teacher, to gain a higher salary, to gain
academic stimulation through graduate-level coursework, and to create a possible pathway to
doctoral study in the future” (Springer, 2020, p. 88). Adding open-ended questions allowed
Springer to code and find participants’ perceptions of the best aspects of the program, which

59
included flexibility in scheduling and the ability to take classes online. Including participant
voices allowed students to contribute aspects that were not asked in the closed portion of the
questionnaire.
Cumberledge and Williams (2023) studied college students’ (N = 278) perceptions of
ensemble repertoire and representation in music. Applying the perspective of culturally
responsive teaching, they collected data through an online questionnaire by combining openended questions and responses to statements on repertoire using a five-point Likert-type scale.
They found through the quantitative data that “when directors select repertoire representative of
musician demographics, musicians will be encouraged to participate in music” (Cumberledge &
Williams, 2023, p. 356). However, the issue of representation in repertoire is not as
straightforward as it may seem (Schippers, 2009). By giving student voice through qualitative
data, Cumberledge and Williams uncovered that many college students still value the
“preservation of fantastic works throughout history” (p. 354). Students voices also indicated that
programming of new composers was “done specifically because a person is diverse, rather than
the fact that their compositions are good” (Cumberledge & Williams, 2023, p. 354). Thus,
adding individual voices to the research methods allowed for a more nuanced study result.
Although representation is important, especially through the lens of culturally responsive
teaching, Cumberledge and Williams’ mixed data suggest that carefully considering why certain
pieces are selected is also important.
Finally, Ilari et al. (2017) provided an example of how to mix data when conducting
research with quantitative and qualitative datasets. Using an explanatory sequential mixedmethods design, their quantitative phase established general trends and helped inform the
qualitative phase, which explained the findings in more depth. Over two years, they investigated

60
the development children’s improvised song endings. Phase one of their study (N = 57)
examined “the roles of age, biological sex, and music training on children’s improvised song
endings and pitch-matching skills” (Ilari et al., 2017, p. 500). Phase two (N = 53) utilized a
qualitative design “to shed light on the musical contents of improvisions, the strategies used by
children when improvising, and children’s reactions to different improvisatory tasks” (Ilari et al.,
2017, p. 500). They organized their research by outlining the quantitative phase, its participants,
procedures, data analysis, results, and discussions before doing the same for their qualitative
phase. Then, they integrated and mixed both findings outlined in phase three of their study.
Mixing their data allowed them to discover that child participants “showed preferences for
difference sources of inspiration when improvising” (Ilari et al., 2017, p. 515). This meant that
children who scored low in improvisation in the quantitative phase could have scored higher if
they were asked to complete a different task than the one employed in phase one. Their findings
suggested that improvisation is a complex and specific skill and requires nurturing and more
opportunities for practice. They confirmed,
Had we not integrated qualitative and quantitative results, the takeaway message from
our study would probably center much more on group differences (or lack thereof) than
on the many factors that may influence the development of vocal improvisation in middle
childhood (Ilari et al., 2017, p. 516).
As seen ahead in chapter 3, in this study I opted for a mixed methods design to address the
question of student motivation and retention in a large ensemble in a post-pandemic world. The
literature reviewed earlier guided the study design and later on, the interpretation of findings, as
seen in chapters 4 and 5.

61
Summary of Chapter
This chapter began with literature surrounding the model of traditional large ensemble
classrooms and explored its limitations highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic. As the
pandemic forced music educators to remote learning, the review transitioned to literature on
online education. It explored the different online formats and how self-determination theory may
support student motivation and engagement in an online environment. The chapter then
transitioned to the specific aspects of self-determination theory and how it fits into music
education. It ended with a review of quantitative and qualitative designs and concluded that a
mixed methods approach be adopted to truly include and capture students’ voices. The next
chapter will elaborate on the mixed methods design that was adopted for this study, and outline
the study setting, the participants, the data collection approaches, the strategies employed to
analyze data, and validation procedures.

62
Chapter Three: Methods
This chapter describes the methods that were used to conduct the study. A mixed
methods approach was adopted to collect quantitative and qualitative data. Collecting both forms
of data may provide a better understanding of the research problem (Creswell, 2012). The
quantitative stage involved a demographic survey, and the MUSIC Model of Motivation
Inventory adapted for music class (Jones, 2009; 2018). The qualitative stage involved openended reflective questions, ethnographic observations, and field notes. Ethical considerations,
research setting, site and participation selection, and description of participants are subsequently
provided. The chapter ends with details on data collection, analysis, and validation.
Mixed Methods
This study used multiple methods of inquiry, including a quantitative survey and tools of
ethnography, and was completed in two stages. According to Creswell (2012), a mixed methods
design includes quantitative and qualitative data collected simultaneously or separately and
subsequently mixed. The hope of collecting quantitative and qualitative data is to offset any
weaknesses of one form of data collection and to arrive at a more complete understanding of the
research problem (Creswell, 2012). A convergent parallel mixed method design was used to
understand students’ perceptions in music class (see Figure 3.1; Creswell, 2012; Greene et al.,
1989). The convergent parallel design involves collecting quantitative and qualitative data
simultaneously, analyzing both datasets separately, and comparing and merging the datasets to
answer the research questions. The interpretation of the datasets helps the researcher to contrast
and conclude whether the results from each type of data support or contradict each other.
Therefore, the direct comparison and juxtaposition of the data sets converging together were
used to address the following research questions:

63
• What aspects of self-determination theory are most important for students who continue
participating in an elective music ensemble class?
• Do differences in age, gender, and ethnicity play a role in which aspects of selfdetermination theory are most important for students who continue to participate in an
elective music ensemble class?
• What factors in students’ past experiences in and outside of music class affect their
decision to continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
• In what ways (if any) has the recent COVID-19 pandemic impacted students’ decision to
continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
• In what ways (if any) do students’ future aspirations in music affect their decision to
continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
• Are there aspects of traditional large ensembles that should be retained for future
practices with contemporary pedagogies? Are there aspects that should be eliminated or
adjusted?
Figure 3.1. Creswell’s Convergent Parallel Design (Creswell, 2012)

64
Quantitative Stage. A survey design was used to collect data for the study’s quantitative
stage. Survey designs aim to “identify trends in attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics
of a large group of people” (Creswell, 2012, p. 21). For the quantitative stage of this research
study, an online survey utilizing Jones’s (2009; 2018) MUSIC Model of Motivation Inventory
was used to investigate which aspects of self-determination theory are most important for
students a large ensemble classroom. This survey was paired with a general demographic
questionnaire that asked students about their extracurricular high school activities. The survey
data were analyzed to investigate what aspects of self-determination theory are the most
important for students who continue participating in an elective music class. The survey was
additionally used to identify participants willing to participate in the qualitative stage of the
research study.
Qualitative Stage. Participants were given an opportunity to volunteer in the qualitative
stage of the research study. Student volunteers created pseudonyms to help link their responses
from both stages of data collection. Through an anonymous online form, the qualitative stage
included open-ended reflective questions where students were asked to respond to various
prompts asking them to reflect on their experience in music class. The open-ended reflective
questions centered around self-determination aspects of autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Responses were used to gather evidence and derive central themes to gain insight into recruiting
and retaining the next generation of music learners (Creswell, 2012).
Field Notes. To assist with data analysis and interpretation, observations and
ethnographic field notes were taken weekly in the final month of the school year from my
teaching perspective. This was done as the school year wrapped in preparation for the final
concert at graduation, for the purposes of triangulation and member checking (Creswell & Poth,

65
2018; Emerson et al., 2011; Mills & Birks, 2014). Field notes were written on a notepad that I
kept on the conducting podium and were based on classroom observations of the same music
ensemble as the pool of volunteer student participants. Notes were jotted down before, during,
and after rehearsals with minimal interruption to the class flow. The goal was to get close to my
students’ activities and everyday experiences, in order to understand their responses. As a
classroom teacher, I was in a prime position to collect field notes while teaching in the field.
Mills and Birks (2014) explained field notes as “written by the researcher during actual
fieldwork, or shortly thereafter” (p. 41). Emerson et al. (2011) clarified that ethnographic work
requires the researcher to get close to people’s activities and everyday experiences.
‘Getting close’ minimally requires physical and social proximity to the daily rounds of
people’s lives and activities; the field researcher must be able to take up positions in the
midst of the key sites and scenes of others’ lives in order to observe and understand them
(Emerson et al., 2011, pp. 2-3).
According to Creswell and Poth’s (2018) four options for data generation using
observation, I was a participant observer, where my role was that of music teacher, and my
observation was secondary to my participation. To capture details from the field as a participant,
I practiced jotting while teaching simultaneously. Emerson et al. (2011) defined jotting as “a
brief written record of events and impressions captured in keywords and phrases” (p. 29). Jotting
helped me recall the day’s events without interrupting the rehearsal process. Therefore, Emerson
et al.’s four implications for writing fieldnotes were considered:
(1) What is observed and ultimately treated as “data” or “findings” is inseparable from
the observational processes;

66
(2) in writing fieldnotes, the field researcher should give special attention to the
indigenous meanings and concerns of the people studied;
(3) contemporaneously written field notes are an essential grounding and resource for
writing broader, more coherent accounts of others’ lives and concerns; and
(4) such fieldnotes should detail the social and interactional processes that make up
people’s everyday lives and activities. (p. 15)
Ethnographic Tools. An ethnographic design was adopted to develop a more complete
picture of the music students in the study. Creswell (2012) defined ethnographic research designs
as procedures for describing, analyzing, and interpreting a cultural group’s shared patterns of
behavior, beliefs, and language that develop over time” (p. 21). Spradley (1980) instructed
ethnographers to look for three sources of understanding: cultural behavior, or what people do;
cultural knowledge, or what people know; and cultural artifacts, or what people make and use.
Therefore, an ethnographic research design is not necessarily seeking to find something but rather
an attempt to describe and understand. In the classroom, ethnography “is useful for looking into
questions about educational and classroom practice” (Krueger, 2013, p. 135). Krueger explained
that “data collection in ethnography is used to identify and understand patterns of conduct that
guide participants’ day-to-day practice, as well as to explore structures that shape that practice”
(p. 135).
At the same time, an ethnographic approach allowed me to approach the study without a
predetermined hypothesis (Krueger, 2013). In the study, I aimed to “remain open to generating
new theories that may emerge through data collection and analysis, and to the possibility of
discarding the initial theories” (Krueger, 2013, p. 137). As the music teacher in the classroom, I
was both a participant and an investigator. I had to practice reflexivity and ensure that my

67
investigation did not interfere with my classroom teacher role (Creswell, 2012). Reflexivity also
meant that I had to be able to examine my own thoughts, feelings, and reactions to understand
how they may influence my observations as a participant and an investigator. Ethnographic tools
are an integral part of research in music education as they can explore the “dynamics within
music classrooms, the beliefs, values, and understandings of music students and teachers, the
influence of societal trends on music classroom culture and curriculum creation, and the effects
and process of music teacher education” (Krueger, 2013, p. 144).
Dutta (2014) recognized critical ethnography as a methodology rooted in research
inquiry’s humanistic and social justice commitments. One possible way of examining
ethnography is through the philosophical lens of social constructivism, which views the research
results as a product co-constructed by the researcher and their participants. The lens required for
this research demands a look inward at the researcher’s self, which calls for action toward
change. In this spirit, Adams (2017) described critical autoethnography as a method to identify
personal and cultural shortcomings and offers a way to remedy the deficiencies. He describes a
few key character traits critical autoethnography shares:
They ascertain vital and often unforeseen connections between personal experiences and
cultural experiences; identify manifestations of power and privilege in everyday
practices; discern social injustices and inequities; and describe beliefs and practices that
should—and should not—exist. (Adams, 2017)
While my research is not an autoethnography, I hoped that in conducting this research, I could
still reflect and look at my own practices through a critical lens and, as a result, encourage and
inspire others in a similar position to mine to do the same.

68
Ethical Considerations
This study was approved by two organizations: the University of Southern California
(USC) and the Department of Educational Services of the Independent Unified School District.
(IUSD)1
. USC’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) was rigorous in ensuring that the rights of the
student participants were protected. As part of the protocol, a brief description of the study,
recruitment tools, survey prompts, and questionnaires, along with potential risks and benefits to
participants, were submitted for review. University of Southern California’s IRB office approved
the study in June 2023 (Appendix A). To conduct research at West High School (WHS), the
school district’s Department of Educational Services also had to approve the study. The
application for IUSD’s IRB was submitted concurrently with USC’s IRB and included the same
social-behavioral protocol along with parental and teen consent forms. Approval to conduct
research at West High School was also approved in June 2023 (Appendix B). The parent and
teen consent form, recruitment language, demographic survey, MUSIC inventory, and openended reflective prompts were approved by USC and IUSD’s IRBs (Appendices C-G).
Research with Students. Ethical considerations and operating procedures must be
clearly outlined in working with minors (Mayall, 2012; Morrow & Richards, 1996). Flewitt
(2005) outlined ethical practices that involve contacting parents of potential students and making
“clear to parents their rights to decline to participate, to reassure parents that there would be no
negative outcomes if they chose not to participate, and to answer any questions” (p. 554) the
parents may have. She also recommended negotiating ongoing consent as the study progresses so
students do not feel pressured or forced to participate. Finally, privacy and confidentiality issues
1 Name of the public school district is changed to protect the identity of the district, school, and
students. This was part of the agreement of the district’s own IRB process.

69
should be discussed before collecting student data. An effort should be made to assume student
pseudonyms, extract audio from video submissions, and leave out sensitive information shared
from the study (Flewitt, 2005).
One ethical consideration for this study was that the student volunteers were recruited
from my own classroom. USC’s IRB has strict rules and regulations regarding research with
one’s students to avoid possible coercion. While I could have recruited music students from
another teacher’s classroom, I wanted to examine my practice and connect my students’
responses with my field notes. Therefore, steps were taken to address ethical concerns.
First, another teacher from the high school was recruited to help with data collection. The
teacher helped with recruitment, parent consent, and data collection, before passing any datarelated document to me, the primary investigator. The data collection manager ensured that
everything was anonymous and removed any potential identifiers before giving me the data.
Next, students were assured that their participation in this research study was entirely voluntary
and that:
(1) Their decision to participate will not in any way affect their grades in class,
(2) They may drop from the study at any time without any consequences, and
(3) If they agree to participate, their identities will remain anonymous.
Finally, all data collected were anonymous, even to the data collection manager. Students were
asked to create a pseudonym to help link their responses together, but at no point in the data
collection were their identities recorded or linked to their responses.
Pascal and Bertram (2009) outlined children’s historical struggle for voice, especially as
research subjects rather than research objects. To engage in good pedagogical practices in our
classrooms, we must remember whom we are serving in the first place, or better yet, who/what is

70
the product or audience of our efforts and processes. As a secondary music teacher, I believe that
giving our students agency in their learning results in a better learning process and experience
outcome. Thinking thoughtfully and intentionally about our content and our delivery of said
content is a good start. Still, it leaves out a crucial part of our practice: the voices, thoughts,
perspectives, and perceptions of our students. If we are to move our profession forward and
operate in the paradigm of a liberating pedagogy (Freire, 1972), we must listen to the voices of
the students we teach and invite them into our research inquiries as co-constructors and coauthors of knowledge. Student voices are underrepresented in the research field and our daily
professional practice.
Research Setting
This research study took place in suburban Los Angeles County, California. While Los
Angeles Unified is the largest school district in the county, many surrounding suburban schools,
including Independent Unified School District, operate within their own school district. In 2022,
Independent Unified School District’s (IUSD) enrollment was around 10,000, with West High
School’s (WHS) enrollment totaling just over 2,800 students. WHS served 28% SED students in
2022. Racially, West High School reported 42% White, 35% Hispanic, 10% Two or More Races,
6.5% African American, 5% Asian, 1% Filipino, 0.1% Pacific Islander, and 0.1% American
Indian (see Table 3.1).

71
Table 3.1
WHS Student Enrollment Demographics by Ethnicity (2022)
Ethnicity Total Enrolled Percentage
African American 182 6.5%
American Indian 2 0.1%
Asian 140 5%
Filipino 28 1%
Hispanic 980 35%
Two or More Races 280 10%
Pacific Islander 3 0.1%
White 1,176 42%
Independent Unified School District (IUSD). In the 2021-2022 school year, IUSD
served around 10,000 students. While the district performed very well overall in English
Language Arts and Mathematics assessments, they reported a very high chronic absenteeism rate
(19%), especially amongst African American, English language learners, foster youth, Hispanic,
homeless, SED, and students with disabilities (California Department of Education, 2022). Still,
the district successfully demonstrated a high graduation rate, with 97.5% of students graduating
in the 2021-2022 school year.
IUSD serves around three elementary schools that feeds into each of its middle schools,
two high schools, and also has a K-8 school and one alternative/continuation high school. Half of
the elementary schools in the district are classified as Title I schools. In general, Title I schools
are designated when there is a high percentage of SED students, usually determined by the
California Department of Education’s Free and Reduced Price Meal Eligibility data. Since one of
the main predictors of student participation in music is their family’s socioeconomic status
(Elpus & Abril, 2019; Kinney, 2019; Shaw & Auletto, 2022), it is essential to understand the
demographic breakdown of IUSD and WHS when researching music education topics. In
addition, because Elpus and Abril found that students from the highest socioeconomic status

72
were over-represented in high school ensemble music classes, it will be noteworthy to see if the
same applies to WHS’s music programs.
Music in IUSD. IUSD’s visual and performing arts department’s mission statement
states: “Equity, access, and excellence in arts education for every student in every school.” IUSD
affirms that,
Our goal is to incorporate the arts into the classroom and expose students to artistic
experiences, fostering the development of artistic skills and encouraging a lifelong
passion for learning through the arts. We aim for students, teachers, and parents to
perceive themselves as lifelong learners inspired by the arts, actively engaging in creative
contributions to our school communities. We approach the arts as both distinct subjects
taught by qualified experts and as valuable partners in interdisciplinary and artsintegrated classes, striving to educate the whole child and equip all students for
meaningful future endeavors. Additionally, we offer professional development
opportunities for our educators and administrators to improve their teaching practices and
inspire them to become innovative leaders in the educational process.2
The district provides general music instruction to all third-grade students once a week. All fourth
and fifth-grade students then choose either choir, string, or wind instruments for twice a week
lessons during school hours. All middle and high schools offer a wide range of music classes as
elective classes. In addition, dance, theatre, and visual arts are all part of the department’s
program offerings.
Recently, IUSD has been honored with the “Best Communities for Music Education”
designation from the National Association of Music Merchants (NAMM) Foundation for its
2 Passage is paraphrased with the reference omitted for anonymity purposes

73
outstanding commitment to music education. As one of a few districts in Los Angeles County
recognized in 2023, the district has earned these honors for more than 20 consecutive years. In
addition, middle and high school music students from IUSD are selected each year for honor
choirs, orchestras, and bands at the regional and state levels. Many middle and high school music
ensembles participate annually in adjudicated festivals and have been recognized by the local,
state, and national levels. Music education excellence is part of IUSD’s identity.
Site Selection Criteria. The research study site was a high school in Los Angeles County,
California. The criteria for site selection included: 1) an existing instrumental music program; 2)
a diverse population of music student participants, including SED students; 3) a trend of
declining student enrollment in music elective classes; and 4) available access to the music
program. To examine the effects of COVID-19 on music education, the site needed to have had
an existing instrumental music program before the pandemic. WHS’s band program, in
particular, has historical records of the ensemble dating back to the early 1900s. A diverse
student population was also essential since students from the highest socioeconomic status are
over-represented in high school ensemble music classes (Elpus & Abril, 2019). SED students
were more likely affected by the pandemic than non-SED students (Hash, 2021). As a teacher in
IUSD for the past 12 years, I have witnessed a steady decline in student enrollment in music
elective classes that my colleagues and I teach. Therefore, with my access as a teacher on the
inside, WHS became the ideal site to conduct the research study.
Site and Participant Selection
West High School (WHS) was chosen based on the site selection criteria described earlier
and access. Public school classrooms are usually easier to access with a connection from the
inside. In addition, obtaining permission from the district level to conduct research is often a

74
complicated process. Without knowing whom to connect with from the district office, including
required approval from site administrators, conducting research in a public school classroom
may not always be viable. As a teacher at WHS, I had unique access, knowledge, and
connections to obtain the necessary permissions to proceed with my research study. As a fulltime teacher, access to students and classroom observations was readily available.
Participants enrolled in a music class were selected using purposeful sampling (Creswell,
2012). Purposeful sampling intentionally selects individuals, in this case, current high school
music students, in a traditional large ensemble classroom. All students currently enrolled in one
of my music classes were recruited to complete a year-end survey about their music class. This
class reflected diverse students, including musical instrumentation, grade level, SED, gender
identity, and ethnicity. All students in the class could volunteer to complete the survey
anonymously as part of their year-end evaluation of the music course. In addition, all students
who participated in the quantitative stage were also invited to participate in the qualitative stage
at the end of their survey. The idea of being close to the participants is to have unique insight
into their anonymous responses to events that occurred in the past school year. As noted, the data
was collected at the end of the school year by another music teacher at the high school who
served as the data collection manager. Students were assured that their decision to participate
would not affect their grades in class. They could also drop out at any time or skip any questions
or prompts they did not feel comfortable answering. Students’ identities were kept anonymous,
with no key to link the pseudonyms to students’ real names.
The data collection manager recruited participants in person and online via Google
Classroom, the main form of content distribution (i.e., learning management system) at the high
school. Students had access to an announcement of the research study on their home page in

75
Google Classroom (Appendix D). All students were also sent home a parent consent form.
Students who volunteered to participate in the study reviewed the signed consent form with the
data collection manager before the start of the study.
Description of Participants
The West High School Orchestras (WHSO) has a long tradition of musical excellence.
Taught by two music directors, WHSO offers opportunities to all musicians, ranging from entry
to advanced levels. Currently, seven different orchestras are offered at WHS, including a
beginning orchestra, three levels of string orchestras, two full symphony orchestras, and one
premiere chamber orchestra representing the best string musicians at the school. All orchestras
meet every day except the top chamber orchestra. The two full orchestras also rehearse once a
week in the evenings with their band counterparts, in addition to sharing class instruction once a
week with the band. All orchestras receive one hour per week of sectional small group
instruction taught by paid coaches funded by the WHSO Parent Association. In addition, the
parent association holds fundraising events year-round that work to provide private scholarship
lessons to qualifying students.
The ensemble selected for this study was the Philharmonic Orchestra. This orchestra was
chosen intentionally, as it consists of students who have been involved in the orchestra for many
years and includes a wide diversity of students. The Philharmonic orchestra is the third highestlevel orchestra at the high school. It is also one of two full symphony orchestras. In addition to
the orchestra being a regularly scheduled class period during the school day, they meet once a
week after school for two hours as a full orchestra. The band members of the orchestra, who
were also invited for this study, meet either after school or also in class on Fridays if their band
period lines up with the orchestra class. The Philharmonic toured the San Francisco Bay for their

76
biennial tour this past year. The orchestra presents classical concerts in the fall, winter, and
spring. They also perform popular music for three fundraising concerts out of the year and at the
final senior recognition concert.
While the orchestra frequently invites different auxiliary players (e.g., harp, saxophone,
piano) to fill various roles throughout the concert season, it stood at 84 members strong, with 55
members in the string section and 29 members filling the woodwind, brass, and percussion
sections. Out of the 84 members, 7% (N = 6) completed only the demographic questionnaire in
the quantitative stage, 61% (N = 51) completed the quantitative stage of the study, and 15% (N =
13) completed the qualitative stage. The 7% incomplete responses were omitted from the
analysis. Of the students who completed the quantitative stage, 47% were men (N = 24), 47%
were women (N = 24), and 6% identified as non-binary (N = 3). The following ethnicities were
represented: 49% White (N = 25), 24% Two or More Races (N = 11), 18% Hispanic (N = 9), 4%
Asian (N = 2), 4% Some Other Race (N = 2), and 1% African American (N = 1). Of the students
who reported Two or More Races, 67% (N = 8) were half-Asian. The grade level distribution
was: 24% Freshmen (N = 12), 31% Sophomores (N = 16), 33% Juniors (N = 17), and 12%
Seniors (N = 6) (see Table 3.2).

77
Table 3.2
Demographic of Student Participants
Stages Quantitative Stage Qualitative Stage
n % n %
Gender
Men 24 47 4 31
Women 24 47 8 61
Non-binary 3 6 1 8
Ethnicity
White 25 49 5 38
Two or More Races 11 24 2 15
Hispanic 8 18 5 38
Asian 2 4 0 0
Some Other Race 2 4 0 0
African American 1 1 1 8
Grade Level
Freshmen 12 24 1 8
Sophomores 16 31 4 31
Juniors 17 33 6 46
Seniors 6 12 2 15
Note. N = 51 for quantitative stage and N = 13 for qualitative stage.
The 13 participants in the qualitative stage comprised students from all four grade levels.
Eight were women, four men, and one identified as non-binary. Ethnically, they broke down as
follows: five White, five Hispanic, two as Two or More Races, and one African American. Both
Two or More Races students were half-Asian. In addition, all students indicated that English was
the primary language spoken at home. Three revealed a second language in addition to English:
French, Spanish, and Swiss-German. Among the two feeder middle schools, six attended North
Middle School, six attended South Middle School3
, and one attended a middle school outside the
district. Before teaching at WHS, I was the orchestra teacher at North Middle School. Since band
students in the Philharmonic Orchestra were also eligible to participate in this study, I do not
know if all six participants who attended North Middle School were “my” orchestra students.
3 Names changed to protect anonymity.

78
Data Collection
Data collection took place the end of the 2022-2023 school year. Data for both stages
were collected in a convergent parallel design model, where students who volunteered for both
stages of the study completed the qualitative stage immediately following the quantitative stage.
The technology used for this process was Google Classroom’s Google Forms. Google Forms
allowed for flexibility in design and the randomization of questions. In addition, access to
student responses could be pushed directly to Google Sheets, allowing easy data management.
Students were already familiar with the Google Forms interface. All students in the class had
access to the link to the quantitative stage’s Google Forms survey and the demographic
questionnaire. After completing the survey, students who wished to complete the qualitative
stage found a link to reflective prompts.
Quantitative Stage. The quantitative stage consisted of a demographic questionnaire
paired with the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory, adapted for music class as
instructed by the Inventory manual (Jones, 2009; 2018; Vogt & Johnson, 2011). The version
used was the 18-item middle/high school version of the inventory (Jones, 2012/2020). Developed
by Jones (2009; 2018), the MUSIC model of motivation measures the motivational climate in a
classroom using five constructs: eMpowerment/autonomy, Usefulness, Success, Interest, and
Caring. The constructs align with self-determination theory, primarily through the cognitive
evaluation theory concepts of autonomy and competence (see Figure 3.2; Deci & Ryan, 1985;
Evans & Ryan, 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). The purpose of the model is to explain motivational
factors that affect students’ motivation to engage in school activities. The inventory includes a
User Guide that contains instructions, items, and scoring instructions (Jones, 2012/2020). I
adapted the MUSIC model inventory (Jones, 2008; 2012/2020) to investigate which aspects of

79
self-determination theory are most important for students who continue to participate in an
elective music ensemble class year after year. The data were analyzed to investigate which
aspects of self-determination theory are most important for students who continue participating
in an elective music class.
Figure 3.2. Key Principles of the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2018), adapted by the
author.
Students were first asked to create a pseudonym so that their responses could be linked
together. The following directions were given to students before the start of the demographic
questionnaire and survey:
This is not a test, and there are no right or wrong answers. We are only interested in your
honest response. Your responses will remain confidential. This means that no one at your
school will know how you answered these questions because your names will not be

80
attached to this survey, and your answers will be summarized with the answers of the
other students in your class.
An additional set of instructions appeared before the MUSIC inventory, as directed by the
inventory User Guide (Jones, 2012/2020):
Some of the questions will seem similar to one another; however, it is important that you
answer all of them to ensure that we completely understand your answers. The questions
ask you to select a number for your answer. Please select the number that best describes
what you believe.
The MUSIC inventory asked students to select numbers for each question based on a sixpoint Likert scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Somewhat Disagree, 4 = Somewhat
Agree, 5 = Agree, and 6 = Strongly Agree. (Appendix F). There were 18 questions on the
middle/high school version of the MUSIC inventory, and the text was changed to adapt for music
class. Example questions from each scale include: “I had the freedom to complete my music
class work in my own way” (eMpowerment), “I found music class work to be relevant to my
future” (Usefulness), “I felt that I could be successful in meeting the challenges in music class”
(Success), “The music class work was interesting to me” (Interest), and “My music teacher cared
about how well I did in music class” (Caring). The items in each scale were averaged to create a
mean scale score.
The demographic questionnaire asked students for basic demographic questions,
including ethnicity, grade level, and gender identity (Appendix E). Students could use free time
during their regularly scheduled classes to complete the quantitative stage of the study. They
could also complete the surveys on their own time. Students were given a week to complete the
quantitative stage. Immediately following the completion of the quantitative stage, a link to the

81
qualitative stage was shared with the students who wished to continue the research study and
participate in the qualitative stage. Responses were collected via Google Forms and compiled in
Google Sheets.
Qualitative Stage. The qualitative stage of the study included open-ended reflective
questions where students were asked to respond to various prompts to reflect on their experience
in music class. Student volunteers created pseudonyms to help link their responses from both
stages of data collection. The responses were conducted as a year-end summative reflection and
could be completed outside class time. In addition to the directions from the quantitative stage,
students were given the following instructions:
You may choose to answer any of the prompts. Please try to answer as many as possible,
as it will help us understand your complete story. Of course, your answers will not affect
your grade or standing in music class. Do not close the web browser tab if you anticipate
needing more time to complete the reflections. To be safe, it may be a good idea to copy
your responses on a separate Word document just in case.
Prompts were divided into three different categories:
(a) reflections on the past year,
(b) reflections on cumulative music experiences, and
(c) aspirations for their musical futures.
The questions centered around self-determination aspects of autonomy, competence, and
relatedness (Appendix G). Example prompts include: “Please provide an example of a challenge
you encountered this past school year in music class and how you overcame that challenge if you
could” (competence), “Please share a connection (person) in your musical past that you feel has
helped shape/transform/influence the musician you are today” (relatedness), and “Throughout

82
your journey thus far as a musician, briefly talk about what an "independent musician” means to
you” (autonomy). Students could use free time during their regularly scheduled classes to
complete the qualitative stage of the study. They could also complete the prompts on their own
time. Students were given a week to complete the qualitative stage, where they could save their
answers in their web browser and return later to answer another prompt. Responses were
collected via Google Forms and compiled in Google Sheets.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted in three phases based on the study design. First, for the
quantitative data, responses to the demographic questionnaire were linked to the MUSIC
inventory using the student’s pseudonyms that they provided. The User Guide for the MUSIC
inventory was followed to score the responses (Jones, 2012/2020). The demographic data were
coded, and each inventory scale was combined in a spreadsheet. The data was cleaned up before
analysis following Creswell’s (2012) guidelines. Cronbach’s Alpha values were calculated to
determine the reliability of the scales in each of the MUSIC components (Kline, 2005). Finally,
the dataset was analyzed in JMP Pro 17.0 using statistical tests frequently used in educational
research, such as the Pearson correlation and the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA; Creswell,
2012). The analysis aims to discover any significant constructs of motivation in effect within the
music classroom, whether there are correlations between the constructs (Pearson correlation),
and whether there are differences in motivation constructs between gender, ethnicity, and grade
level (ANOVA).
The second phase of data analysis focused on the qualitative data. Qualitative data
analysis followed Creswell and Poth’s (2018) Data Analysis Spiral (see Figure 3.3). The first
step in the analysis consisted of managing and organizing student responses for the reflective

83
prompts. Students’ responses were extracted from Google Sheets and compiled in a separate
document that can later be used to link their written responses to the quantitative stage of the
study. The second step included reading and memoing emerging ideas (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
For this step, student responses were read and re-read so that I could fully internalize their
thoughts and perspectives. The field notes I took during the school year were merged with
student responses. During this step, all notes taken helped inform data interpretation.
The third step involved coding the data so that themes could be developed. This involved
describing, classifying, and interpreting student responses through the lens of motivation and
self-determination theory. ATLAS.ti 23.2 was used to help organize and code student responses.
The final coding framework included student emotions (enjoyment, feelings of gratitude and
appreciation, passion for music, desire for growth, and ideas of adaptation, perseverance, and
facing adversity); student values (collaboration, friendship, community, teamwork, and
bonding); students’ music-related interests and growth (personal growth, musical skill
development, and self-expression); and the COVID-19 pandemic. The themes and subthemes
discovered included social connection and belongingness (caring), enjoyment of music (interest),
including subthemes of musical accomplishments and musical achievements (success), and
musician independence, resiliency, and perseverance during the COVID-19 pandemic
(empowerment). Data were interpreted based on indicators of motivation, developing themes,
and similar or shared experiences. The fourth step involved visualizing and representing the data.
As themes emerged, a word cloud, a diagram of emergent codes, and Sankey diagrams
demonstrating how themes were interconnected were created (see Figures 4.1–4.3; 4.5). Themes
that connected to the self-determination theory aspects of relatedness, competence, and
autonomy were also visualized (see Figures 4.4, 4.6, & 5.1).

84
Finally, phase three of the data analysis involved linking the quantitative data to the
qualitative data. Priority was given to the qualitative data as the text from student responses held
more depth and detail of students’ experiences and perspectives. A convergent design analysis
(Creswell, 2012) was followed to merge the two datasets. The quantitative and qualitative data
were juxtaposed and placed side-by-side to see if the themes that emerged from the qualitative
analysis supported the statistical analysis. The results of this data mixing are presented at the end
of Chapter 4.
Figure 3.3. Creswell’s Data Analysis Spiral (Creswell & Poth, 2018)
Data Validation
Data validation is necessary to confirm the validity of data (Creswell, 2012). Since there
were two different data sets, the validity of both stages of the research was examined. For the
quantitative stage, several peer-reviewed articles verified the validity of Jones’s MUSIC Model
of Academic Motivation Inventory (Chittum et al., 2019; Jones et al., 2021; Jones & Skaggs,
2016; Jones & Wilkins, 2022). There was also precedent for utilizing and adopting the inventory
for music context in middle and high schools. Parkes et al. (2017) examined music students’
motivation and found the MUSIC inventory to be a reliable means to assess students’ motivation

85
perceptions. As a result, they were able to present teaching strategies to target and increase the
various motivation scales in the inventory.
Cronbach’s Alpha scores were calculated to determine internal consistency between
questions within the same motivation scale. Cronbach’s Alpha values range from 0 to 1 and can
be used to assess the degree to which the items on a scale correlate. Values closer to 1 indicate a
higher degree of correlation. According to criteria developed by Kline (2005), alpha values
greater than .9 are excellent, and those between .7 and .9 are good. The alpha values for this data
set were good (see Table 4.1; eMpowerment α = .86, Usefulness α = .83, Success α = .77,
Interest α = .78, Caring α = .88).
The data validation process for the qualitative stage involved triangulation and member
checking (Creswell, 2012). The member checking process involved comparing student responses
with one another and comparing my field notes with student responses. Data mixing was
conducted in phase three of the analysis, when the quantitative data was compared with the
qualitative data. Therefore, the study aimed to establish a more robust picture of motivation in
my music classroom.
Summary of Chapter
This chapter discussed the methods used in the study. A convergent parallel design was
adopted to collect the data. The research setting, West High School, located in Independent
Unified School District, was described to provide demographic and economic contexts. The data
collection process involved using Google Suites to collect student responses. The quantitative
data were analyzed using statistical tests frequently used in education research, such as the
Pearson correlation and the analysis of variance (ANOVA). Creswell’s Data Analysis Spiral was
adopted to analyze the qualitative data. Both sets of data collected followed a convergent design

86
analysis that compared the quantitative and qualitative data. In addition to using Cronbach’s
Alpha values to determine the validity of the quantitative data from the MUSIC inventory,
triangulation and member checking were used to create a complete picture of the study.

87
Chapter Four: Findings
This first section of this chapter reports the findings from the quantitative stage. Here, I
provide an analysis of the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory and report the
values of student responses to each scale based on different statistical tests frequently used in
educational research, such as the Pearson correlation and the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA;
Creswell, 2012). Analysis of the qualitative data sets is discussed in the second section of this
chapter, followed by data mixing. Discussion of the data, responses to the research questions,
and conclusions, along with their implications for the field of music education, will be provided
in Chapter 5.
Quantitative Findings
Analysis of the quantitative data was conducted in the statistics software JMP Pro 17.0.
The MUSIC inventory was scored according to the User Guide (Jones, 2012/2020) and grouped
based on the five scales: eMpowerment, Usefulness, Success, Interest, and Caring. The averages
of each scale were inputted into the statistics software. Distribution of each scale, multivariable
correlation, and one-way Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) examining the scales by gender, grade
level, and ethnicity were performed. To investigate the constructs of motivation in effect within
the music classroom and whether there are differences in motivation constructs between gender,
ethnicity, and grade level, the following research questions were asked:
• What aspects of self-determination theory are most important for students who continue
participating in an elective music ensemble class?
• Do differences in age, gender, and ethnicity play a role in which aspects of selfdetermination theory are most important for students who continue to participate in an
elective music ensemble class?

88
The results of the quantitative data are summarized below.
Descriptive Data
Table 4.1 summarizes observed means, standard deviation, Pearson correlations, and
Cronbach’s Alpha values for each MUSIC Inventory scale. Cronbach’s Alpha values were above
.7 for all the scales (see Table 4.1; Kline, 2005), which indicates that the scales were reliable for
this sample of students. The mean values for each variable were between M = 4.77 and M = 5.52,
which is relatively high compared to other studies using the same inventory (Parkes et al., 2017;
Schnittka et al., 2012). The score for eMpowerment (M = 4.77) was the only variable with a
mean value below 5. Overall, students felt what they were learning was useful (M = 5.13) for
their short- or long-term goals. They believed they could succeed (M = 5.47) if they put forth
effort and were interested (M = 5.2) in the content and instructional activities. More importantly,
Caring was rated higher than the other scales (M = 5.52), suggesting that students believed that
the instructor and others in the learning environment cared about their learning and them as a
person (Jones, 2009). After running one-way repeated measures between the scales, the
difference between the scales was statistically significant (F (4, 47) = 14.2, p < .0001).
Table 4.1
Observed Means, Standard Deviations, Correlations, and Cronbach’s Alpha Values,
Measure M SD α 1 2 3 4 5
1. eMpowerment 4.77 .84 .86 —
2. Usefulness 5.13 .85 .83 .33* —
3. Success 5.47 .50 .77 .40** .47** —
4. Interest 5.20 .68 .78 .48** .49** .45** —
5. Caring 5.52 .61 .88 .48** .26 .40** .49** —
Note. N = 51.
*
p < .05. **p < .01

89
Table 4.1 shows how means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients for each
scale were similar, probably due to the small sample size (N = 51). Observing the subtle
differences in scores and values against each scale offers important insights. For example, Table
4.1 shows the correlation of values between each scale item. All values indicate positive
correlations; when one variable changes, the other changes in the same direction. Empowerment
and Usefulness scores (r = .33) were not as strongly correlated as eMpowerment and Interest or
Caring, which were moderately correlated (r = .48). This suggests that students who felt a sense
of empowerment or autonomy in the class also had higher interest and thought they were in a
caring learning environment. Of all scales, the correlation coefficient between Usefulness and
Caring (r = .26) was the lowest and the only correlation that was not statistically significant. This
finding suggests that students who felt like the class could have been more useful to their shortor long-term goals still felt connected to the rest of the class. Conversely, correlations between
Interest and Caring (r = .49) and Interest and Usefulness (r = .49) were moderate. These findings
suggest that students who were interested in the class also either felt a strong connection with
others in the class or believed that the class was useful for their future endeavors.
Inferential Data
Gender. One-way Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) were performed to compare the
different scales of the MUSIC Inventory on gender, grade level, and ethnicity. This statistical test
analyzes the difference between the means of more than two groups and was deemed appropriate
since participating students also indicated non-binary as a preferred gender identification.
ANOVA uses the F test to compare multiple means simultaneously (men, women, non-binary).
If the variance within groups (e.g., the variance within men) is smaller than the variance between
groups (e.g., the variance between men and women), then the F test will yield a higher F-value.

90
One-way ANOVAs revealed that there were no statistically significant differences between
gender and any scales of the MUSIC Inventory (see Table 4.2). In addition, eta-squared (η2
)
values were also extremely low for each scale, which indicates that the effect of gender on each
scale is very small. Table 4.2 summarizes the means and standard deviation of each scale of the
MUSIC Inventory by gender differences: men, women, and non-binary.
Table 4.2
Means, Standard Deviations, and ANOVA for MUSIC Scale by Gender
eMpowerment Usefulness Success Interest Caring
Men
M 4.89 5.10 5.51 5.18 5.67
SD .86 .89 .57 .72 .34
Women
M 4.61 5.14 5.43 5.22 5.40
SD .85 .86 .43 .67 .77
Non-binary
M 5.08 5.33 5.5 5.11 5.42
SD .38 .67 .50 .77 .80
F(2, 48) .84 .09 .17 .05 1.25
p .44 .91 .85 .96 .30
η2 .03 .004 .01 .002 .05
Note. Men N = 24, Women N = 24, Non-binary N = 3
While p-values, F-values, and eta-squared indicated that gender differences are not
statistically significant, with a slight variance between groups and a small effect size, observing
the subtle differences can provide some insight. For example, mean scores for Usefulness (M =
5.1 for men, and M = 5.14 for women) and Interest (M = 5.18 for men, and M = 5.22 for women)
were close, indicating that both groups found music class useful for their short- or long-term
goals and that the class was interesting to them. In addition, the mean score for Success between
the men and non-binary groups differed by 0.01 points (M = 5.51 for men and M = 5.5 for
women). Both groups believed they could succeed in the music class if they put forth effort. On

91
the other hand, a moderate variance between groups was evident for the scale of Caring (M =
5.67 for men, and M = 5.4 & 5.42 for women and non-binary, respectively).
Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed statistically significant differences between the
means of the MUSIC Inventory scales for men (F (4,92) = 7.21, p < .001) and women (F (4,92)
= 8.90, p < .001), but no statistically significant differences for non-binary students (F (4,8) =
.59, p = .68). Post-hoc analyses revealed differences for women students between eMpowerment
compared to the other four variables (p < .001 for all except between eMpowerment &
Usefulness, p = .002). Post-hoc tests also showed significant differences between Usefulness and
Success (p = .017), Usefulness and Caring (p = .007), Success and Interest (p = .013),
eMpowerment and Success (p = .002), eMpowerment and Caring (p < .001), and Interest and
Caring (p < .001) for men.
Grade Level. The structure of the orchestra classes lends itself to include a diverse group
of students across all grade levels. For many core curricular classes at the high school level,
students are grouped by grade level. Core curricular classes that offer different pathways, such as
math, will still enroll students closer in grade levels (e.g., AP Calculus BC will typically only
have upperclassmen). In music classes, all levels of classes will typically have students from all
four high school grade levels. Although students are grouped by musical abilities, students in
different grade levels often have different class loads and may be in different life stages in their
adolescent development. One-way ANOVAs were performed to examine if grade levels
impacted student scores on each scale of the MUSIC Inventory, and revealed no statistically
significant differences between grade levels and any of the scales of the MUSIC Inventory (see
Table 4.3).

92
Table 4.3
Means, Standard Deviations, and ANOVA for MUSIC Scale by Grade Level
eMpowerment Usefulness Success Interest Caring
Freshman
M 4.77 5.07 5.6 5.19 5.56
SD .84 .83 .47 .73 .40
Sophomore
M 4.75 5.13 5.43 5.13 5.34
SD 1.02 1.05 .54 .68 .78
Junior
M 4.69 5.31 5.44 5.37 5.6
SD .81 .73 .43 .68 .61
Senior
M 5.04 4.78 5.33 4.89 5.71
SD .40 .66 .66 .66 .40
F(3, 47) .25 .61 .45 .83 .75
p .86 .61 .72 .48 .53
η2 .02 .04 .03 .05 .05
Note. Freshman N = 12, Sophomore N = 16, Junior N = 17, Senior N = 6
Although there was no significant statistical difference between grade levels for any of
the scales, a closer examination of Table 4.3 indicates some differences between some pairs of
grade levels when conducting a t-test for each pair of groups. t-test scores revealed that freshmen
and sophomores answered the most similarly for eMpowerment (∆ = .02), Usefulness (∆ = .06),
and Interest (∆ = .01). Across the same scales, juniors and seniors answered the most differently:
eMpowerment ∆ = .35, Usefulness ∆ = .50, and Interest ∆ = .48. In addition, based on Table 4.3,
those same three scales between juniors and seniors had the greatest difference of means.
Whereas seniors felt more autonomy or empowerment (M = 5.04) than any other grade levels,
compared to juniors, they were less interested (M = 4.89) in the subject matter. They felt that the
class was not as useful (M = 4.78) for their future short- or long-term goals.
Perceptions of Success were the closest among sophomores and juniors (∆ = .01). Here,
freshmen and seniors had the largest gap (∆ = .20), with freshmen having higher perceptions of

93
success than seniors. Caring and Interest means had the largest effect size (η2 = .05) between
groups. Freshmen and juniors had the closest means for Caring (∆ = .04), with sophomores and
seniors having the largest difference (∆ = .36). Interest had the greatest disparity among all group
sets, with juniors and seniors sharing a ∆ = .48. As students advance from their junior year to
their final year of high school, they perceive music class as less interesting and useful.
Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed statistically significant differences between the
scales of the MUSIC Inventory for all four grade levels (Freshmen: F (4,44) = 4.44, p = .004),
Sophomores: F (4,60) = 2.89, p < .03), Juniors: F (4,64) = 9.20, p < .001), and Seniors: F (4,20)
= 4.70, p = .008). Post-hoc tests revealed that there were statistically significant differences
between Caring and eMpowerment (p = .003), Caring and Usefulness (p = .004), and Usefulness
and Success (p = .007) in Seniors. For Juniors, a post-hoc test showed statistically significant
differences between eMpowerment compared to the other four variables (p < .001). Differences
were less pronounced in Sophomore students, but there were still some statistically significant
differences. Post-hoc tests revealed statistically significant differences between eMpowerment
and Success (p = .009) and between eMpowerment and Caring (p = .02) in Sophomores. Finally,
post-hoc tests showed that there were statistically significant differences for Freshmen between
Usefulness and Success (p = .04), eMpowerment and Success (p = .006), and eMpowerment and
Caring (p = .001).
Ethnicity. Since one of the main predictors of student participation in music is their
family’s socioeconomic status (Elpus & Abril, 2019; Kinney, 2019; Shaw & Auletto, 2022),
examining differences in motivation construct by students’ ethnicity was necessary. Elpus and
Abril (2019) also found a connection between enrollment and ethnicity, citing that out of the
U.S. graduating class of 2013, only 24% of the class were enrolled in at least one year of a

94
course in the band, choir, or orchestra as some point during high school. With just over 50% of
student participants in the quantitative stage reporting a race other than White, there is a greater
percentage of non-White students in this data set than the national average (Williams, 2007).
One-way ANOVAs revealed that there were no statistically significant difference between
student scores for any of the scales of the MUSIC Inventory by ethnicity (see Table 4.4).
Table 4.4
Means, Standard Deviations, and ANOVA for MUSIC Scale by Ethnicity
eMpowerment Usefulness Success Interest Caring
Asian (N = 3)
M 4.75 4.89 5.08 4.56 5.25
SD .25 .51 .58 .51 .25
African American (N = 1)
M 5.00 5.33 5.50 4.67 6.00
SD 0 0 0 0 0
Hispanic (N = 8)
M 5.06 5.46 5.47 5.42 5.31
SD .76 .59 .54 .68 .86
Some Other Race (N = 2)
M 4.25 4.83 5.38 4.50 6.00
SD 1.41 1.18 .53 .24 0
Two or More Races (N = 11)
M 4.57 5.48 5.43 5.39 5.68
SD 1.03 .72 .54 .68 .37
White (N = 25)
M 4.80 5.02 5.58 5.20 5.48
SD .84 .86 .44 .68 .65
F(5, 44) .46 .90 .64 1.45 .83
p .8 .49 .67 .23 .53
η2 .05 .09 .07 .14 .09
It was interesting that Asian students had the lowest overall mean across the board. This
would also be true for students who indicated Some Other Race if it were not for their high score

95
for Caring. Having “Some Other Race” as an available category helped to include students who
may have felt that their ethnicity did not fit within any particular box. However, the creation of
this item also created a wider difference between students in the same group, as indicated by
higher standard deviation values for eMpowerment (σ = 1.41) and Usefulness (σ = 1.18). The
means for eMpowerment were the lowest of the five scales among White, Hispanic, Two or
More Races, and Some Other Race student groups. Still, Hispanic students had the highest mean
value for eMpowerment compared to other ethnicities (M = 5.06). The means for Caring were
the highest of the five scales for all groups except Hispanic and White students. Both Hispanic
and White students instead had Success as their highest mean values (M = 5.47 & 5.58).
A closer examination of Table 4.4 shows differences between some pairs of ethnicity
when conducting a t-test for each pair of groups. The largest difference between means and
ethnicity was under the scale of Interest between Some Other Race with Hispanic students (∆ =
0.92) and Some Other Race with Two or More Races students (∆ = .90). This difference may
account for the fact that the Hispanic and Two or More Races student groups had the highest
mean values for Interest (M = 5.42 & 5.39) compared to students grouped in Some Other Race
(M = 4.50). Other notable differences included that between mean values for eMpowerment
between Hispanic and Some Other Race student groups (∆ = .81) and mean values for Caring
between African American and Some Other Race student groups against Asian students (∆ =
0.75). Hispanic and Two or More Races student groups shared the most similarities, with close
mean values for Usefulness (∆ = .03), Success (∆ = .04), and Interest (∆ = .02). Hispanic students
also shared more similarities with African American students on the scale for eMpowerment (∆ =
.06) and Success (∆ = .03). In contrast, White and Asian student groups were similar in mean

96
values for eMpowerment (∆ = .05), they differed in Success (∆ = .50), with Asian student groups
feeling less successful in music class than their White counterparts.
Repeated measures ANOVAs for each racial/ethnic groups revealed statistically
significant mean differences between the scales of the MUSIC Inventory for students who
identified as White ( F (4,96) = 9.65, p < .001), or with Two or More Races: F (4,40) = 6.55, p <
.001). Other ethnicity groups did not show statistically significant mean differences between the
scales of the MUSIC Inventory, with Hispanic students answering very similarly across all
scales. For students who identified as having Two or More Races, post-hoc tests showed
statistically significant differences between eMpowerment compared to the other four variables
(eMpowerment & Usefulness, p = .03; eMpowerment & Success, p = .024; eMpowerment &
Interest, p = .014; eMpowerment & Caring, p = .002). For White students, post-hoc tests showed
statistically significant differences between eMpowerment and Success (p <.001), eMpowerment
and Interest (p = .011), eMpowerment and Caring (p < .001), Usefulness and Success (p = .001),
Usefulness and Caring (p = .014), and Success and Interest (p = .009).
Summary of Quantitative Findings
This section reported the findings from the quantitative data. Mean scores, correlations,
and one-way ANOVAS of students’ responses to the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation
inventory were reported. Between-subjects comparisons indicated that that were no statistically
significant differences in students’ scores on each scale of the inventory in relationship to
gender, grade level, and ethnicity. However, repeated measures ANOVAS that compare withinsubjects scores, showed statistically significant mean differences within the scales of the MUSIC
Inventory for certain groups. Additionally, the overall mean values for each variable were
relatively high, suggesting that students generally were highly motivated in the music class.

97
Qualitative Findings
This section reports findings from the qualitative stage of the study and documents
themes and subthemes that emerged from student responses and observations. A narrative
version of my field notes describing a typical day in orchestra was included to help frame the
students’ responses. Codes were used to find emerging themes from students’ open-ended
responses to the reflective prompts. The goal was for the participants’ voices to emerge directly
from the data. Direct quotations are included to help support the emergent themes. Interpretation
and discussion of the data, along with its implications for the field of music education, will be
provided in Chapter 6. To investigate the central phenomenon of motivation in the music
classroom, the following research questions were asked:
• What factors in students’ past experiences in and outside of music class affect their
decision to continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
• In what ways (if any) has the recent COVID-19 pandemic impacted students’ decision to
continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
• In what ways (if any) do students’ future aspirations in music affect their decision to
continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
• Are there aspects of traditional large ensembles that should be retained for future
practices with contemporary pedagogies? Are there aspects that should be eliminated or
adjusted?
A Typical Day in Orchestra
Period two Philharmonic Orchestra would start the day as a homeroom every Monday,
Tuesday, and Friday. Students at West High School (WHS) typically have a 9-minute passing
period, as the campus is large. A group of freshman students always arrives right when the end

98
of period one bell rings at 9:25 a.m. These students come from their physical education class—
the gymnasiums are located next to the music building, and PE students typically get extra time
to change before the bell rings. As the 9-minute passing bell progresses, more students enter the
classroom. Most students have a set routine: they enter the classroom, put their belongings on or
under their Wenger music chairs, grab a music stand from a nearby stand rack if there is not
already one next to their chair, and retrieve their instruments from their instrument lockers
located along the walls of the music classroom. All cello and bass students have a shared
instrument they use during class, so they do not have to carry their large home instruments back
and forth. Many violinists and violists drop their instruments off first thing in the morning, but
some will opt to arrive at period two with their instruments since it is still early in the day. After
music class, they will leave their instruments in their assigned lockers to pick up them up at the
end of their school day.
At 9:33 a.m., the one-minute warning bell rings. By now, most students have arrived in
the classroom, and there is a cacophony of instruments being tuned on top of familiar voices
greeting one another and catching up on the day’s events. A majority of students are already in
their seats. However, there is always a handful of students standing near a friend opposite the
room their instrument section usually sits in, chatting and laughing through the late bell. At 9:34
a.m., the homeroom announcements begin through the school speakers. On any given day in
period two orchestra, these announcements are almost always drowned out by the sound of
instruments warming up and continued chatter and laughter. Today is no exception. There is
excitement in the air as seniors are almost done with classes, and graduation is approaching.
Announcements can last five to nine minutes and always end with a student saying, “Have a nice
day.” That is my cue to start the class. The 9:43 a.m. bell signals the start of period two. Today,

99
we are starting on time because there is still work to prepare for our year’s final performance:
graduation.
Ideally, I am busy taking roll during the homeroom period. This gives me a head start on
the class as we can begin as close to the bell as possible, tuning as an entire group. In all other
orchestra classes, there is always a lag between when the bell rings and when students are ready
to start the class, but not period two. Period two students know that since we have the luxury of
homeroom at the front end of our class, they have that time to set up. Four absences today, I
thought to myself, much better than the previous days. As I get the class’s attention, I notice two
more students from the corner of my eye walk in shortly after the second-period bell has rung.
They hurry to grab their instruments, and I make a mental note to follow up with those students
after class to inquire about their tardiness. After all, they had an extra 9-minute homeroom on top
of the passing period!
I stand on the conductor podium and raise my right hand. Today, I skip the greetings and
go right into our tuning sequence. I usually try to be out in the classroom as students arrive. I
interact with as many students as possible, making small talk and touching base with as many
different social circles and instrument sections as possible. Getting a pulse on my students and
their everyday lives outside of orchestra helps with the rehearsal process. I can often bring
outside experiences into the orchestra as an analogy or metaphor to the music lesson or use their
lived experiences to gauge the pacing of instruction each day. I can hear the usual students
shushing one another as I wait for complete silence before starting our tuning sequence. Dr. Beat
gives us the A set to 440 hertz. Basses tune their A strings first. I would cycle through each
string for the younger orchestras before re-tuning them with just an A as a reference pitch.
Philharmonic students already have the prerequisite of tuning with just one reference pitch. Once

100
the basses agree on their As, I ask the rest of the strings to begin tuning. Once I hear that most
students have moved on to other strings, I turn off the tuner and wait for the tuning to subside.
Students have been taught to take time tuning, and today was one of those days where the
weather was just dry enough to affect more strings than usual. As the final tuning sound
diminishes, I raise my hands in a conducting posture.
“D major three octaves, three-part round, on my cue.” The celli and basses begin the
round, followed by the violas and the second half of the violins once the first group gets to the
third note of the scale. Once the first violins come in on the fifth, we have a three-part harmony
ascending and descending the three octaves of the D major scale. Students are used to scale
warmups as part of our warmup routine. They also know what piece I could start rehearsing
based on the warmup scale of choice: since Elgar’s “Pomp and Circumstance” is in the key of D,
most of them already have their music turned to Elgar.
All year, the Philharmonic Orchestra has been a fascinating group. While I do not have
concrete data to back this up, I see a correlation between the level of orchestra and the amount of
chatting between playing repetitions. It is not a perfect distribution curve per se, but younger
groups tend to be less disciplined and talk more, and they gradually get more disciplined with
more experience. By the time students are in our Philharmonic and Symphony orchestra classes,
they are chatty once again, perhaps due to their comfort level with each other and familiarity
with being in the same orchestra together for many consecutive years. The noise level shrinks
again at our highest level orchestra, the chamber orchestra, perhaps because those student
musicians are the most serious. Typically, the Philharmonic orchestra is loud and chatty in
between repetitions. This year, it took a tour to San Francisco for the orchestra to truly warm up
to one another. Ever since our tour, the orchestra became chatty again. Ever since the tour, they

101
have challenged me to be prepared to give directions as soon as I cut them off, for if I take too
long between repetitions or drills during the rehearsal, it will take longer than expected to reign
them back in.
Today, I am ready. As soon as I cut off the last note of the scale, I bring my hands back
up. I wanted to see if the orchestra could read my mind. They did. We went straight into the start
of Elgar and ran the “Pomp and Circumstance March No. 1” through as we would play for
graduation. As I cut off the last note, I heard a suppressed glee as students cheered aloud
following the final release. It was a good run, but also, they felt like they were in sync with one
another and me. I am known to give extended metaphors and life lessons when needed, and
senior students especially have a quote book of outrageous things I have said before in past
rehearsals. When we can start class and rehearsal with minimal talk and verbal directions, it is
always an exhilarating feeling for all, including myself.
I tried to hide my tears of pride, but I knew some students caught it. I look around my
class, proud of their accomplishments this year. I am particularly proud of all the seniors who
weathered the pandemic halfway through their first year of high school and, despite everything,
persevered and continued music. Today, I would talk to them about the value of time. I wanted
my seniors to slow down and take in their last few days of rehearsal as a member of the high
school orchestra. While many will attempt to continue playing in their college orchestras, some
will not. They will move on to their other interests and passions, with the orchestra being a
distant memory. I tell my students not to take these moments for granted. I tell them not only to
set their eyes on the finish line but also to enjoy the process and the journey. This is the end of
the marathon, but even near the end, especially near the end, it is important to look around at all
the spectators cheering them on and soak in every moment before they cross that line.

102
We work through a few trouble spots in Elgar and move on to two other pieces that they
will perform at graduation. Today’s theme centered on listening closely to different sections for
better intonation and balance. After a typical but productive rehearsal, I ended early because they
were ready for the final performance. All the pieces are polished and ready to go, with time to
spare—a rare occurrence in public school performing ensembles. As students pack their
instruments, some immediately return to their friend circles. A few take out textbooks or
Chromebooks and engage in a last-minute review of an upcoming final exam. Some check their
phones. A group of senior students makes their way to me, eyes watering, and perhaps their way
of thanking me, ask me why I had to make them cry so early in the day. They know I am not a
hugger, so I smile back and reply, “Well, what are you wasting your time talking to me? Go
make memories with your friends!” When the bell rang, students slowly filled out of class as the
next group of early orchestra musicians started to arrive. A few more students thanked me for
“the talk” today. I caught the two late students before they escaped the room. “Sorry, Mr. Wang,
we lost track of time,” they say in perfect unison before I get to say anything. I give them my
best teacher look, suppress my smile, and shake my head. They giggle and leave the room.
Emergent Codes
Data were coded following the steps outlined by Creswell (2012). ATLAS.ti 23.2 was
used to help organize and code student responses. Student responses to the open-ended reflective
questions were systematically categorized based on recurring themes and phrases. This was also
compared to my field notes and observations of the class while teaching. Initial codes consisted
of ideas surrounding students’ emotions, such as enjoyment, gratitude and appreciation, passion
for music, desire for growth, and thoughts of adaptation, perseverance, and facing adversity.
Other codes centered around student values like collaboration, friendship, community,

103
teamwork, and boding. Some codes indicated students’ music-related interests and growth,
including personal growth, musical skill development, musical independence, and selfexpression. As expected, a common recurring code centered on the COVID-19 pandemic and its
effects on students. After codes were established and reduced, emerging themes began to form.
A central theme of social connection and belongingness (caring) permeated all students’
responses. Enjoyment of music (interest) was another theme that included subthemes of musical
accomplishments and achievements (success). Finally, the theme of musical independence,
resiliency, and perseverance rang true for many students as their sense of musical autonomy kept
them in music despite the COVID-19 pandemic (empowerment).
Figure 4.1. Word Cloud from Student Responses

104
Figure 4.1 depicts a word cloud, showing recurring words from students’ reflections. The
higher the word frequency, the larger the text is displayed. Although words like music, playing,
orchestra, experience, year, and time are predictable recurring words from student responses,
words like challenge, together, fun, practice, and group stood out. Figure 4.2 diagrams the initial
coding tree, which eventually gave way to emergent codes. Initial codes centered around themes
of students’ emotions, values, social connection, and the impact of COVID-19. Many articulated
codes were interconnected to other themes. Figure 4.3 displays a Sankey diagram showing how
the themes were interconnected. The density of the connections indicates the frequency of the
code in students' responses and its connection with other codes. The themes were then connected
to aspects of self-determination theory. Relatedness and belongingness (caring) were connected
to discussions about the orchestra community, touring, and class culture. Competence (success &
interest) was connected to students’ musical interests, musical growth and identity, and musical
accomplishments and achievements. Finally, autonomy (empowerment) was connected to
musical independence and was a key component of students’ perseverance during the pandemic.
Figure 4.2. Initial Coding Tree

105
Figure 4.3. Sankey Diagram of Codes from ATLAS.ti 23.2
Student Participants
Thirteen students participated in the qualitative stage of the study, and responded to ten
reflective questions or prompts (see Table 4.5; Appendix G). The open-ended reflective
questions and prompts were designed for students to share their past experiences in music class.
Prompts were divided into three different categories that included:
(a) reflections on the past year,
(b) reflections on cumulative music experiences, and
(c) aspirations for their musical futures.

106
The questions aimed to gather student responses related to self-determination aspects of
autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Participant voices are shared unedited as they pertain to
the central themes uncovered during the coding process.
Table 4.5
Descriptions of Student Participants in the Qualitative Stage
Pseudonym Gender Grade
Level Ethnicity Feeder Middle
School
Angela Woman 9 White North MS
Edith Woman 11 Hispanic South MS
Elisa Woman 10 Hispanic North MS
Garfield Woman 11 Hispanic South MS
Jacob Man 11 Two or More Races South MS
Jacques Man 11 White Out of district
Jasmine Woman 11 Hispanic South MS
Kelly Woman 11 Two or More Races North MS
Marjorie Woman 10 Hispanic South MS
Oswaldo Man 10 White North MS
Phoebe Non-binary 12 White South MS
Quandale Man 12 African American North MS
Shane Woman 10 White North MS
Relatedness and Belonging (Caring)
Social connection and belongingness were central themes that permeated the students’
responses. Students valued their shared experiences with one another, in and out of class, with
their time together in orchestra class emerging as a common thread. In self-determination theory,
relatedness is considered to be one of three basic psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2020).
Baumeister and Leary (1995) theorized that a student’s sense of belongingness is a need that
demands to be fulfilled, especially during adolescent development. The need for acceptance is a

107
social motivator (Leary & Cox, 2008). In addition, relatedness pertains to the student’s sense of
caring and attachment to others. It involves feelings of closeness and belonging to a social group.
Students talked about the orchestra community, opportunities for bonding, and the culture
of the music class that contributed to their feelings of relatedness and belongingness (see Figure
4.4). The orchestra community became a space for collaboration where students cared for one
another and established a sense of belongingness. This community was created by bonding
opportunities throughout the school year, including having shared classes with one another
outside of music class, attending after-school rehearsals, and traveling and touring together as a
performing group. As evidenced through various student responses, these bonding opportunities
were established, ultimately, because of the culture established in the class. With high
expectations for one another, students had shared goals and values. In addition, I was successful
in creating a safe environment for my students. In the end, the orchestra was viewed by many
students as a space for community, relatedness, and belonging.
Figure 4.4. Relatedness in the Music Classroom (Figure developed by author.)

108
The Orchestra Community. The orchestra community was a recurring theme that
students referred to when discussing notions of belongingness and social connection. Whereas
belongingness suggests the students’ sense of connection to the group, community conveys an
individual’s participation and belief in something larger than themselves. Marjorie, a sophomore,
in her response to a prompt that asked what they will miss most about orchestra when they look
back years from now, shared:
I know I will most fondly remember the people and the community made in this
orchestra. But the messages I got in class, and the lessons I learned like time management
and social and leadership skills will also stick with me. I won’t miss playing tests, that’s
for sure. But I will definitely miss the community, fun times (like pops concerts, outings,
rehearsals), and the exciting pieces we played. The whole orchestra program is such a
unique community, really like no other. So many of my friendships have come to be
because we were in the same orchestra, or existing friendships deepened because of it.
And it reaches beyond my own orchestra. I know of the students who are just in the
orchestra program and we kind of have an understanding and relate to each other because
of it. If I see them in my classes or clubs, we already have something in common so we
become closer. I know that I can approach any person in my orchestra or the program and
be met with kindness. I’ll really miss having that automatic community. (Marjorie,
Student Response to Prompt #9)
Jasmine, a junior, also shared similar sentiments about the orchestra community under the same
reflective prompt:
I will remember the sense of community because orchestra is such a welcoming
community it is one I know I can always go back to. The least I would miss will be the

109
actual playing we did because it’s not only about music but rather the people. I will miss
the most the group and especially the long talks Mr. Wang would have with the orchestra.
(Jasmine, Student Response to Prompt #9)
Both students emphasized their orchestra community over the music. Although being in music
class was why they were in the orchestra community in the first place, both acknowledged that
the people in music and belonging to a group outweighed the musical aspects of the class.
In addition, students also shared enjoyment with others and attitudes of gratitude as part
of their motivation behind joining the orchestra. Elisa, a sophomore, wrote:
It has been such a fun experience and I have learned how to work well with others and
learned how to be in a community and how to grow out of my comfort zone. (Elisa,
Student Response to Prompt #8)
Kelly, a Hispanic and Asian junior, added:
I always have a lot of fun in music class and I feel that the things I learn are very useful
to me in the future. It is truly an amazing experience to play music with others. (Kelly,
Student Response to Prompt #1)
Students’ sense of enjoyment and having fun with others was a shared sentiment among
many students. Along the lines of gratitude, Edith, a junior, included:
I really am just so thankful that I’ve been granted the opportunity to play music with such
an amazing and unique group of people. Music is such an important part of my life and I
truly cannot imagine what my life would be like without it and without Phil[harmonic].
(Edith, Student Response to Prompt #10)
Since high school musicians who perform at the Philharmonic orchestra level have ample prior
experience in the ensemble, their wholesome observations and perceptions centered less around

110
the mundane mechanics of playing their instruments and more on their experiences as a whole.
Jacques, a junior, had perhaps the most astute sense of orchestra community above all:
My biggest takeaway is that I am not an individual in the ensemble, I am only one part of
a larger organism, and that idea is important in many areas of life. (Jacques, Student
Response to Prompt #8)
Shane, a sophomore, wrote the most detailed reflexive responses out of all students. She
will be featured a few times across the themes of relatedness and belongingness, but she had the
following thought to share about the orchestra community:
I think some of the things I will remember fondly including certain concerts, tours, the
feeling of being part of such a close-knit community, and the opportunity to play some of
the most iconic pieces of all time. Some aspects I think I will miss the least is the drama
that sometimes ensues due to being part of such a close-knit community, the days that can
end up being 14+ hours long, and the mental toll the previous two things can take on you.
The things I think I am going to miss the most include the rehearsal process, the routines,
and the community. (Shane, Student Response to Prompt #9)
Although Shane notes that being a part of a close-knit community can also be difficult due to
drama between students and student groups, at the end of the day, it is a double-edged sword she
also treasures.
The San Francisco Tour. The West High School orchestras have a long-standing
tradition of traveling and touring as part of their music curriculum. Each year, the top two full
orchestras and chamber orchestra take turns traveling to domestic and international destinations.
Since I started teaching in the district, the top three orchestras have collectively traveled
domestically to New York City, Oregon, Reno, San Francisco, and Washington D.C.

111
Internationally, the orchestras have recently toured Argentina, Austria, Canada, the Czech
Republic, Germany, Ireland, Northern Ireland, and Uruguay. Planning for a Berlin tour is already
underway for the upcoming 2023-2024 school year.
This past year, the Philharmonic Orchestra toured the San Francisco Bay area for their
biennial tour. While annual tours are taxing to plan and expensive to execute, they are essential
to the orchestra’s identity at WHS. For one, the WHSO Parent Association fundraises year-round
to help ensure that all students in the orchestra that is slated to travel can attend the trip
regardless of the student’s familial contributions. Touring musical cities has been part of the
music curriculum and enhances the connection between students and the music performed. Tours
also allow students to be seen beyond their own communities and have the opportunity to go
places. Many former students have expressed how orchestra trips have been the most memorable
experiences of their time in high school. The student who participated in the qualitative stage
agreed. Oswaldo, a sophomore, shared:
As a member of the Philharmonic Orchestra, I was able to go on tour to San Francisco
this year. It was my highlight of the year. Spending time with friends, exploring the city,
and also being able to perform at a high school and Stanford! I got to do the thing I loved
with the people I love. (Oswaldo, Student Response to Prompt #2)
Kelly also mentioned the San Francisco tour in her response:
The San Francisco trip was very fun for me. I loved spending time with my friends and
sightseeing. My favorite part of the trip was the Black Panther Concert. It amazed me
that not all instruments were on stage even though it sounded like it. (Kelly, Student
Response to Prompt #2)

112
In addition to cultural experiences, another primary purpose of traveling and touring is
performing. The WHS orchestras have played with countless other high schools as exchange
concerts and have had the privilege to perform in some of the world’s best stages, including
Carnegie Hall in New York, the Rudolfinum in Prague, Teatro El Círculo in Rosario, and the
Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles to name a few. For the upcoming Germany tour, the
orchestra has plans to perform at the Leipzig Gewandhaus and the Berlin Philharmonie. Marjorie
accounted for her experience performing on the recent San Francisco tour:
The most memorable class experience this year was the trip to San Francisco. I feel like
we really gelled as an orchestra while we were there and were able to play much better
together afterward. I will never forget my shock when we played Mahler at Stanford…
kinda badly… but after not practicing for a few days, just hanging out together, we
somehow played it the best we’ve ever done at Gunn HS. And then after that, we played
so much better together in the following concerts. I also made many great friends with
people I probably would not have spoken to otherwise. And overall, I just have so many
unforgettable, amazing memories that I will cherish forever. I feel like it was a great
opportunity to have fun, see another city, and also deepen our connection as an orchestra,
which helped us sound better. (Marjorie, Student Response to Prompt #2)
Marjorie was not the only student who felt the orchestra sounded better after bonding
during the trip. Jasmine also wrote about group bonding, which made the orchestra more musical
in their performance. In addition, she mentioned that trust in each other came as a result of the
trip and performing on tour:
The most memorable experience was our tour to San Francisco. It was Philharmonic’s
turn to travel and our destination was San Francisco. It was a really great balance

113
between orchestra and fun. It was a really great weekend where we all just hung out and
got to know each other better. This brought me so much closer to so many people I had
never talked to before. It was like an instant click the orchestra community is extremely
welcoming, and I am so grateful that I was able to experience that feeling like I felt safe
with the community. Also, we were able to perform in front of another school and
because we had all been bonding and just hanging out with each other, let’s just say that
was the best you would have ever heard Philharmonic orchestra play that group bonding
came so in handy and helped us just trust each other even more allowing us to be more
musical and reliable. (Jasmine, Student Response to Prompt #2)
It was interesting to note that Marjorie and Jasmine mentioned talking to and getting closer to
other students in the group that they had never spoken to before. Edith believed that the orchestra
bonding and sounding better together was because they were in an exciting new space:
The orchestra tour in San Francisco was definitely a very memorable experience because
it allowed everyone to bond in a new, exciting space and to “mesh,” which in turn created
a better collective sound. The winter orchestra rehearsals were also very cool because we
would walk into the warm orchestra room from the freezing cold outside and get to make
music together for an hour and a half or two hours. By the time rehearsal was over, it
would be dark outside and the campus would be almost deserted, and all of the orchestra
kids would walk outside together. It was just a very cool feeling. (Edith, Student
Response to Prompt #2)
Finally, Garfield, a junior, made similar observations to Marjorie, Jasmine, and Edith. She
reflected:

114
Music class this year was a very distinct and positive experience. This year, especially
through the San Francisco tour and preparation for it, I felt that I became close to so
many people that I never would have connected with and that my bonds with existing
friends grew much stronger. One great memory I have from this year was the boat trip in
San Francisco. It was so fun to spend time with my friends (even though it was windy)
and Mr. Wang talking about things other than music. It was great to be immersed in a
new city like San Francisco with my orchestra friends and classmates, and it definitely
allowed me to form new bonds with both my peers and teachers. (Garfield, Student
Response to Prompt #1)
The Sankey diagram in Figure 4.5 highlights how the theme of social connection is
connected to all the other codes uncovered from student responses. The themes of belongingness
and relatedness permeated students’ reflections on their experiences together. Although students
recognized how traveling has positively impacted their ensemble musically, their connection
with one another that was established and strengthened during the trip was most memorable.
Again, Jacques stated it best:
I will remember being close with all my friends and going on crazy adventures before
rehearsal and during San Francisco. (Jacques, Student Response to Prompt #9)

115
Figure 4.5. Sankey Diagram Highlighting the Co-Occurrences of Social Connections
The Class Culture. One thing that I always worked hard to establish each year in each
orchestra class is a classroom environment where students felt safe to make mistakes and learn. I
knew anecdotally that establishing a close relationship with my students would help the overall
musical outcomes. In her reflections, Shane helped me put into words the exact classroom
culture I had hoped to establish all these years:
I think something that really makes a difference in the experience of a student in a music
class is the culture that has been created by the director. As someone who has
experienced five different directors in my time in school ensemble music classes, I know

116
it is not just the difficulty of the music that will make or break the success of the
ensemble, but whether the students feel valued by the director and each other. (Shane,
Student Response to Prompt #10).
Creating a culture where students felt valued by me meant that they would, in turn, also value
themselves and each other. This is an essential aspect of relatedness in self-determination theory.
Shane went on to share a memory of this tenet at work:
The most memorable rehearsal for me this year was when a speech given to my orchestra
about how valuable our time together is. Prompted by a few people being on their phones
during rehearsal, our director went on to share how sad it made him feel when people
were not taking full advantage of our rehearsal, not only because we had concerts coming
up, but because we are so lucky that we had those two hours a week we would get to
focus solely on music and forget about the outside world... I remember this speech
because it reminded me that there are people who truly care about us as students and
musicians. As an orchestra, we clicked after this speech because I think everyone heard
what our director was saying and put their all into the music. It is such a good feeling
when an ensemble is really clicking. (Shane, Student Response to Prompt #2)
As a teacher, I hold Shane’s account close to my heart. I will admit that there were times
when students’ behaviors during class would impact our ability to make music together, and I
dreaded having to discipline my students. Keeping a positive classroom environment sometimes
meant letting go of minor, insignificant disruptions and focusing on the bigger picture. I always
feared that an iron fist could negatively impact my students and their future decision to continue
in music. My students reminded me that there should be a balance to everything. Establishing
rules and boundaries is essential. Having high expectations of my students and calling them out

117
shows them that I care. However, the most important thing was that my students knew where I
came from whenever I had to reprimand them. It came from a place of love and compassion.
Phoebe, my wise senior, understood. After being in the orchestra for all four years, Phoebe
reflected:
There were many memorable experiences in music class. I even wrote down a lot of what
my music teacher, Mr. Wang, said. He made the class a lot of fun even when we were
doing repetitive things. He did have many long monologues while we were playing
during class, but they included valuable life lessons that we could bring into the piece we
were playing. Mr. Wang allowed sidebar conversations while working with other sections
individually, but he made it clear not to talk while he was talking which made the
rehearsals run smoothly. I think being able to talk with your fellow musicians allows for
more bonding to take place and that in turn allows for a more connected feel within the
orchestra. (Phoebe, Student Response to Prompt #2)
Musical Competence (Success & Interest)
Interest in and enjoyment of music is another central theme that emerged from student
responses. It is closely connected to students’ music-related interests and growth, including
personal growth, musical skill development, and self-expression. Under self-determination
theory, students’ self-efficacy, or beliefs in their ability to fully participate in a performing music
class, can affect their perceived success and competence. Students’ sense of competence in a
performance task is an important motivating factor in their achievement (Evans & Ryan, 2022;
Patall et al., 2022; Senko et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Self-determination theory also
outlines the importance of supporting students’ values and interests for motivation in learning
(Patall et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Aligning students’ musical preferences with the music

118
taught plays a crucial role in maintaining student interest in music classrooms (Kratus, 2007).
Themes that supported students’ development of competence include the relationship between
musical selection and its impact on student interest, a desire for musical growth and development
of students’ musical identity due to their increased interest, and students’ newfound musical
accomplishments and achievements from their musical growth.
Students interested in the music they perform and who feel successful in music tend to
have more enjoyment and intrinsic motivation to practice (Kratus, 2007). The more they enjoy
music and practicing, the more musical growth they will obtain. More musical growth could also
lead back to more enjoyment of music and a higher perception of self-efficacy. In addition, more
enjoyment and practice in music often lead to more musical accomplishments and achievements,
which is also related to a commitment to musical development. All of this leads to an increase in
students’ competence in music. The more competence students have, the more interested they are
in the task at hand. Students’ competence can also lead to an increase in feelings of success. This
path of musical competence (see Figure 4.6) can be repeated but may require a catalyst to help
start it. According to student responses from their open-ended reflective questions, music
selection relevant to the student can be one catalyst that starts this path. Therefore, it can be
presumed that working to align the musical selection with students’ invested interests will help
them accomplish higher musical achievements and performances leading to a commitment to
musical development and, as a result, increase their sense of competence.

119
Figure 4.6. Path of Musical Competence (Figure developed by the author.)
Musical Selection and Interest. Out of all concert performances throughout the school
year, the Philharmonic Orchestra participates in three less formal concerts that also serve as a
fundraising concert. One concert occurs off-campus, usually accompanied by a dinner service
and silent auction. Two concerts bookend the season and often focus on popular music. While
we have certainly played our fair share of orchestral arrangements of pop songs, most of our
Pops concert series center around film music. Film music is familiar to the students and our
audience and often works as an entry point into classical music. For our two Pops concerts, the
music is usually accompanied by clips from the film, frequently arranged and edited by students.
Students are also welcome to dress up as their favorite characters rather than the traditionally
required black concert dress.
Phoebe reflected on their year, continuing on the theme of class culture. They then
highlighted why orchestra was enjoyable for them:
Pops concerts have to be some of my favorite concerts because the music we play is
familiar to us and the audience, and that allows for the audience to be more engaged.
Also, dressing up for Pops concerts allows for students to express themselves through

120
what they wear, and it’s a lot of fun to see what everyone wears. (Phoebe, Student
Response to Prompt #1)
On our trip to San Francisco, we were fortunate to be in town the same night the San
Francisco Symphony performed music to Marvel Studios’ Black Panther [Film]. The orchestra
would play the entire underscore accompanying the movie in real-time for these performances.
The movie's audio track would be split so that dialogue, sound effects, and any other music track
that could not be replicated live could be kept in. Kelly connected our Pops concert and her
experience watching Black Panther [Film] on tour. She noted:
It amazed me that not all instruments were on stage even though it sounded like it. The
musicians were so in sync with each other and the movie which was amazing to me. I
hope to see more concert following more movies in the future. (Kelly, Student Response
to Prompt #2)
Elisa detailed her first experience with our off-campus concert. The last time this concert
took place was in 2019. Since then, this concert has been canceled due to the pandemic. Most
recently, a new winter outbreak in 2022 caused parents to re-think planning a large dinner event,
and they canceled a few weeks before the event would take place. This last year, the WHSO
Parent Association finally organized the “Spaghetti and Strings” concert at a nearby hotel
banquet hall. Elisa shared her experience and the music that was played:
My favorite experience this year was the “Spaghetti and Strings” concert. Last year the
event was canceled which I was very sad about. Earlier in the year I had recommended
pieces to play for the Pops concert and I thought that my teacher didn’t care about my
suggestions. Then one day he passed out the music I had asked to play and said we were
playing it for Spaghetti and Strings. I was so happy that day. It was my first Spaghetti and

121
Strings concert [and it] was very fun as well because it was not only the first time playing
something fun, but it was my first time playing in a fancy venue making it the best
experience of the year. (Elisa, Student Response to Prompt #2)
Edith responded similarly to Elisa at the “Spaghetti and Strings” concert. She added:
Overall, I had a very positive experience in music this year, particularly in the weeks
leading up to the concerts where we played movie scores. My favorite concert that we
played this year was “Spaghetti and Strings,” and Chicago in particular, because I was
already familiar with the music and being given the rare opportunity to play it with my
friends and to truly give life to the piece of music was an incredible experience. (Edith,
Student Response to Prompt #1)
Student responses support the suggestion from Kratus (2007) that aligning students’
musical preferences can help maintain their interest in the music classroom. Culturally relevant
and responsive education in music involves understanding and recognizing individual
perspectives and cultural heritages when selecting musical repertories and music practices in the
classroom (Bond, 2017). By allowing students to see themselves in the music they are studying,
music can continue to be a source of immense joy and provide a deep sense of personal
connection (Evans & Ryan, 2022). Shane also reflected on the music she played with the
orchestra this year and remarked on her experience playing a variety of music genres,
Overall this year, one of the stand-out things I learned was how important it is to be
familiar with a variety of different types of music. I played jazz, pop, movie music,
musical theater, marches, traditional orchestral music, symphonies, and more. Playing all
these different types of music in various ensembles taught me so much, and I could take
things I had learned playing one type of music and transfer it into a different type. I was

122
also able to experience the cultural differences in each of these ensembles, which I think
is so important because it gives you a different perspective as you are able to play with
different people, under different directors, and with different professional expectations.
(Shane, Student Response to Prompt #1)
Once again, Jacques summarized it best:
[An] independent musician means not only playing things for the orchestra but also
playing things that the individual enjoys. I grew up surrounded by music, so I have
always been able to have experiences outside of orchestra regarding music. (Jacques,
Student Response to Prompt #6)
Musical Growth and Identity. Although an entire dissertation topic could be spent
discussing students’ musical identity, for this analysis, this topic will be referred to in relation to
the motivation context of interest and value. With musical interest established, the following
examination is how interest ties into musical enjoyment. The assumption is that students are less
likely to enjoy music unless they develop as a musician. In other words, music only really
becomes “fun” once they can fully participate in the music-making process.
The subtheme of musical growth and identity explores students’ progression toward selfrealization through reflexivity. Students concluded that they were able to have more fun and
enjoy music class due to their musical growth. As students overcame personal musical
challenges, they gained self-efficacy or belief in their ability to accomplish a task. Elisa reflected
on her challenges this last year:
This year, I had lots of challenges outside of music which affected my musical playing. I
was very lost but music helped me bring me back to reality. There were times when the
music I played was really challenging because I wasn’t practicing that much. When I

123
started practicing I was able to gain more control and music class became more fun and
wasn’t as challenging. (Elisa, Student Response to Prompt #3)
Musical performances helped maintain accountability for students to keep up with their
musical growth and practice. In her response, Angela recalled the challenges of a rigorous
performance calendar:
This school year in orchestra, especially towards the end, felt like we had a concert about
every two weeks. As a person who loves feeling busy, I enjoyed always jumping from
piece to piece and preparing for something new. It felt like I was on a rollercoaster ride
the whole year in orchestra. (Angela, Student Response to Prompt #1)
Still, Angela may not miss the challenge of precision regarding concert performances. Despite
her distaste for perfection, Angela continued:
I will also certainly miss performing so frequently in front of a large audience. I love the
rush I feel on the day of a concert, and the concert high I feel after. I think I’ll miss the
precision it takes to perfect something the least. (Angela, Student Response to Prompt #9)
As Angela suggested, themes of musical enjoyment and identity go hand in hand.
Musical growth allows students to find more enjoyment in music. More enjoyment in music
leads to students developing a musical identity. Students who identify themselves as a musician
are more likely to continue in the music-making process. Marjorie added:
If you had asked me this question two years ago I would have said that right when high
school is over, ‘I’m quitting my instrument and never touching it again.’ But now I don’t
think I can do that. My instrument has become a really big part of my life, my identity,
and I also just really enjoy playing it, especially in a large ensemble like an orchestra. I
don’t think I’ll be a music major or anything like that in college but I definitely want to

124
find a recreational orchestra or club or something like that so I can continue playing it,
but just for fun. In the future, I also really want to learn to play the piano because I feel
like you can casually play that whenever you want. That way I can easily keep music in
my life. (Marjorie, Student Response to Prompt #7)
Students’ sense of a musical self is a significant catalyst of musical expression. While
musical expression can come in many forms, Jacob recalled his opportunity for mentorship as
part of his outward expression in music. Without a solid musical identity, Jacob would not be
looking out for moments to help others. He recalled:
One memorable experience so far has been being able to use my experience to help
younger members of the group deal with situations that I’ve had to tackle in the past.
Situations such as dealing with rejection, dealing with performance anxiety, and how to
navigate orchestral things. (Jacob, Student Response to Prompt #2)
The path to musical accomplishment and achievement is not always straightforward. As Jacob
mentioned rejection and anxiety, many other students discussed mental health and depression.
Developing competence in music requires students to overcome the challenges that may come
their way. In her pursuit of musical competence, Garfield recalled her arduous journey this past
year. Her musical growth this year involved overcoming a loss of motivation for music:
One of the challenges I encountered this past year in music class was low self-esteem and
loss of motivation due to some depression. Loss of motivation was one of the major
events that colored my school year, and was manifested through some practicing lapses.
However, orchestra definitely helped renew my motivation to practice and improve at my
instrument. Mr. Wang was very instrumental in helping me regain my motivation through
his lectures and talks in class, encouraging all of us to improve in both music and the

125
other parts of our lives. This inspiration was very effective in helping me to resume
practicing and improving at my instrument both in and out of orchestra. (Garfield,
Student Response to Prompt #3)
As music teachers, our encouragement toward students cannot be overlooked. As Garfield
explained, encouraging students like her to persevere through challenging tasks can help them
overcome a loss of motivation and push them toward musical accomplishments and
achievements.
Musical Accomplishments and Achievements. The subtheme of musical
accomplishments and achievements relates directly to musical competence. Achievement goal
theorists argue for mastery goal orientation over performance goals. Still, Senko et al. (2011)
advocated for a multiple-goal perspective and emphasize “the positive potential of performanceapproach goals alongside mastery goals” (p. 26). Within the realm of music, as the “threat” of a
looming concert performance or playing test may suggest, performance-approach goals may
predict achievement more than mastery goals. By encouraging our student musicians to strive for
mastery and performance goals, they can potentially reap the benefits of both goal orientations.
Students who can demonstrate higher performance will move toward higher levels of
competence, leading to an even higher achievement goal. Students who orient themselves with
performance-approach and mastery goals will develop an increased perception of competence.
Through their responses, students have demonstrated a vested interest in the music class
and shared their experiences this past year on their musical accomplishments and achievements.
Establishing high standards and being able to perform at a high level also encouraged students to
work toward musical mastery. Increased perception of competence is precisely what Phoebe
shared in their reflections. They noted that the high level of musical achievement the entire

126
orchestra was able to accomplish helped make her experience in orchestra more memorable.
They stated:
I think that the level that our orchestra was able to play at will always be an aspect that I
remember. We all pushed ourselves and each other to become better musicians, and I
admire that about my school music program. I will also always remember my orchestra
directors because they helped make orchestra a fun and exciting experience. I won’t miss
elementary school orchestras where it felt like the music teachers were only there to make
sure you got through 2 years and never expected you to continue music. (Phoebe, Student
Response to Prompt #9)
Being able to have higher musical achievements means that students are better able to express
themselves through their music. Garfield found joy in the rehearsal process. Her memorable
experience was being able to connect musical expression to her performance:
Some of the most memorable experiences in class this year were during full orchestra
rehearsal. Although we only meet as a string section most days, I feel that our most
productive and inspiring lessons are during full orchestra rehearsal. Mr. Wang’s lectures
during class and evening rehearsals were also very influential in my overall experience
this year. I recall one especially notable lecture that centered around the writings of Leo
Tolstoy; Mr. Wang pulled up one of Tolstoy’s quotes and then connected it to the
importance of feeling and conveying emotion in music. The theme of conveying emotion
through music has been one that has continued to come up this year, and it was definitely
one of the ideas that stuck with me most. (Garfield, Student Response to Prompt #2)
The road to musical accomplishments and achievements involves students recognizing
and utilizing various strategies to achieve musical mastery. By participating in this research

127
study, the reflexivity process allowed students to internalize the strategy they employed as they
increased their musical competency. It also gave me insight into what strategies have worked for
students and where I can provide additional guidance for future improvements. Marjorie
admitted that not mastering certain practice tools has hindered her progress. In working with a
private teacher and sectionals during class, she learned how to practice effectively:
To me, an independent musician means you rely less on the guidance of others to help
you play. You are confident in your own playing, and bring your own personality/style to
it. You can approach new music or techniques without fear because you are able to teach
and work through it yourself because you have learned enough to do so. I think it also
means wanting to participate in and practice music yourself, not because of pressure from
others. In my private lessons and in sectionals, I have learned many techniques to help
me approach fast sections, hard key signatures, or complex rhythms in new music. So
now when I get new music, I am not daunted by it, and don’t wait until I can work on it
with someone. I start working through it myself and trying to apply the tools I know to
learn it. I have also learned many strategies to practice my music effectively so I can
spend less time practicing, but still get really good effects. (Marjorie, Student Response
to Prompt #6)
Angela employed similar strategies during practice to obtain musical mastery. Her focus
was focusing on smaller chunks and changing her mindset on the competitive nature of the class:
I will always use the lesson of improving something as a whole by isolating individual
parts, and then putting it all back together. Another big takeaway will be how to use
competitiveness to better myself, instead of weighing myself down. (Angela, Student
Response to Prompt #8)

128
Jasmine also shared a specific instance in which she encountered a musical challenge. She
overcame the challenge through self-reflection and studying reference tracks to work toward
mastery performance:
A challenge I encountered was definitely playing Mahler. The piece at first look seems
easy to read and the notes were easy but making the piece musical was really, really
challenging and to fit the style of the piece was the most challenging. To overcome this
challenge I would ask questions on how to improve the way I would play and I would
watch a lot of videos of professional orchestras that would give me ideas. (Jasmine,
Student Response to Prompt #3)
Nevertheless, students’ sense of self-efficacy can help and hinder their progression
toward mastery. Elisa shared her initial struggles before she was ultimately able to find new
momentum,
First semester, it was really hard to focus on anything and I was so lost that it was hard to
comprehend everything around me, even music. Second semester was easier and I was
less lost than I used to be. I started practicing more and even picked up the viola, which
my teacher fully supported me and I really value the help. (Elisa, Student Response to
Prompt #1)
Jacob’s sense of musical accomplishment and achievement was a source of doubt. As an
upperclassman, he understood the continued challenge toward musical mastery, and although he
is competent in musical performance, his heightened sense of mastery kept him humble. Still, as
the self-determination theory on competence (Evans & Ryan, 2022; Patall et al., 2022) suggests,
Jacob was motivated to explore continuing music in the future.

129
As of now, I don’t believe my own playing abilities are proficient enough to be eligible
for a performance major. Music education also doesn’t feel like the path for me as I’m
concerned with where I will go after getting the degree. At the very least, I hope to minor
in music and be able to perform in college ensembles. (Jacob, Student Response to
Prompt #7)
Finally, students’ perception of competence paired with relatedness significantly affected
their motivation in music class. One of Garfield's most significant takeaways from learning
music in a traditional large ensemble was having a shared goal, working together, and being
accountable for learning their parts. She asserted:
I think my biggest takeaway from learning music in a large ensemble will be the
importance of working together. Orchestra has taught me that for anything to work out
smoothly or function, all members of a group must know and respect not only their places
but the places of others; if anyone plays their role too much or too timidly, nothing will
work out properly. Balance has always been emphasized throughout my time in orchestra
(particularly in Philharmonic) and all the pieces we’ve played have seconded the need to
learn each part’s importance in the score in order to play one’s own part well. I know this
will be a very helpful skill to have when entering college and the workforce, and I know
it will help me serve the needs of whatever task is at hand much better and much more
effectively. (Garfield, Student Response to Prompt #8)
Edith shared the same thought. Without directly using the term “community,” she added how
being a part of the orchestra class encouraged her to keep practicing to contribute to the group:
To me, an independent musician is someone that is capable of creating music on their
own. In the context of a group though, I think an independent musician is someone that

130
contributes to the larger entity in their own unique way and that works diligently to be
able to uplift their group. I think my past orchestral experiences have taught me how to
work with other people and figure out how to fit into something that is bigger than just
myself. That being said, I feel that my years in orchestra have also conditioned me into
depending too much on other people for difficult sections – though I practice them and
try my best to master them, the fact that we’re playing in a group allows me to be less
strict with myself and my practicing. (Edith, Student Response to Prompt #6)
While Edith’s introspection of hiding behind other strong musicians is noteworthy, the benefits
of working together and keeping each other accountable may counteract the few individuals who
may take advantage and hide behind others.
Autonomy and Musical Independence (eMpowerment)
Autonomy and musical independence are two closely related concepts. Autonomy in the
music classroom equates to students making decisions independently of a teacher or authority
figure. In other words, for students to feel autonomous in the classroom, they must have a choice
or, at the very least, a perceived sense of an internal locus of causality (Jang et al., 2010; Patall &
Zambrano, 2019). Many music teachers still teach their classes in a top-down manner. After all,
how else would a class of 80-plus student musicians be able to rehearse effectively and make
good music together? A teacher-conductor selects music for each concert cycle, rehearses the
students, and is the ultimate timekeeper during concert performances. The traditional large
ensemble music classroom is not naturally suited to adopt an autonomous framework. However,
autonomy does not necessarily mean that the class needs to be conducted without structure. Jang
et al. (2010) assure the teacher that autonomy in the classroom is not a choice between autonomy
or structure but can include both autonomy and structure. They found that autonomy support and

131
structure predicted higher levels of student engagement in the classroom. The autonomy and
empowerment aspects of self-determination theory was found in students’ responses as they
described the development of their musical independence, especially during the pandemic.
Musical Independence. Students were asked in their reflective prompts what they
thought being an independent musician meant (see Appendix G, Prompt #6). They may not have
remembered all the countless times I shared with them what being an independent musician
meant to me. Even when I taught at the middle school level, I always shared with students that it
was not my intention or goal as a music teacher to create an “army of musicians.” I do not use
enrollment numbers as a measure of success for what I do. My goal is not to have as many
students major in music or become professional musicians. Instead, I tell my students that
“music” happens to be the vehicle in which we do life together. My goal is to nurture and create
students who will become independent musicians. In other words, I want to teach so my students
no longer need me.
An independent musician, to me, is a musician who can teach themselves. They can walk
into a music store (remember those?) and browse through the library of sheet music available,
pick out something of interest, and learn it on their own. With their prior knowledge,
independent musicians can learn an entirely new instrument independently. My role as a teacher
ultimately is to produce graduates who are knowledgeable about music, can perform successfully
in public with confidence, and can operate within a structured framework. In addition, I strive to
make informed adults of high integrity who understand and appreciate music and musicians and
foster the continuing development of artistic endeavors within their community. An independent
musician is what I imagine autonomy to look like in my music classroom.

132
My students shared some of their thoughts on this as well. Angela viewed the idea behind
an independent musician as a musician who is intrinsically motivated. She stated:
An independent musician, to me, is someone who is intrinsically motivated to play their
instrument. I have a variety of past experiences in music which have had no reward, and
the sole purpose of doing them is because of my passion for music. I think these
experiences always help me think back to why I love music, and forget all the outside
factors that may influence why I play. (Angela, Student Response to Prompt #6)
It should be noted that the students were never directly told that this study was on motivation or
the role of motivation in music class. I informed students that I would be examining reasons why
students stay in music class and asked them to share their experiences. Jasmine’s perspective on
independent musicians centered around ideas of resiliency and perseverance. She saw an
independent musician as one who can overcome challenges independently.
Being an independent musician to me feels like how one person can help the whole
orchestra. I am not a good soloist, but as an independent musician I know I can help
myself through tough challenges whether it’s asking for help or conquering them on my
own. Past challenges have helped me get closer to being an independent musician.
(Jasmine, Student Response to Prompt #6)
Jasmine’s reflection demonstrates that her prior challenges, such as learning music during the
pandemic, have helped transform her into a better independent musician.
The COVID-19 Pandemic. Angela and Jasmine touched upon a vital leitmotif threaded
through all student reflections on their time learning music remotely during the COVID-19
pandemic. Many students brought up mental health issues in their reflective responses.
Wieczorek et al. (2021) found that student mental health worsened due to the COVID-19

133
pandemic. They surveyed (the General Health Questionnaire) university students in Poland (N =
1123) and found that almost 77% of participants exhibited symptoms requiring psychological or
psychiatric attention. They attributed these results to shifts during the pandemic, including
students having to move back home and struggling with diminished productivity due to online
learning. Stamatis et al. (2022) also examined U.S. university students’ (N = 176) mental health
during the COVID-19 pandemic. They identified poor mental health symptoms as depression,
anxiety, stress, alcohol, and substance use. Participants completed a survey, the Patient Health
Questionnaire-9, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-Item Scale, and the Impact of Events
Scale-6, at the beginning and end of a semester. They found that disruption due to the pandemic
and limited confidence in the federal government’s response were significant predictors of
depression symptoms in university students. In addition, predictions that the pandemic would
continue to impact daily life further into the future were linked with stress symptoms.
Despite their struggles, notions of intrinsic motivation to practice and overcoming
challenges independently were indicators of success during the pandemic. Subthemes of musical
independence, resilience, and perseverance were hot topics in their responses. I asked students to
share their time learning music during the COVID-19 pandemic and reflect on the challenges of
learning and playing music remotely (see Appendix G, Prompt #5). The stories and accounts of
how they continued playing music despite the pandemic were grouped into four emergent subthemes: Mental health and coping, feelings of isolation, issues of technology, and positive
outcomes of COVID-19 (see Table 4.6).

134
Table 4.6
Sub-themes of COVID-19 Reflections
Limitations Silver Lining
Isolation Poor mental health
Missing social connection
No outside distractions
Literature/Repertoire Can’t play together Found solo repertoire
Technology Disparities
Poor Wi-Fi connection
Poor recording equipment
Opportunities
Learned new software
Revision opportunities
Mental Health and Coping. Mental health was an area of concern for teachers during
remote learning. In WHS, we were provided professional development on social-emotional
learning (SEL) and a directive to start each online session with an icebreaker to help students feel
more connected. Still, different students responded differently to their time spent at home online.
Students who persevered found ways to cope. Quandale recalled spending more time listening to
music when he was unmotivated to play music with his instrument.
Covid-19 was one of the hardest times because I was unmotivated to do work and I was
going through a stage of mental illness. I even almost quit orchestra. My way to cope was
by listening to music (rock, classical, movie scores) even though I had a hard time
playing by myself. (Quandale, Student Response to Prompt #5)
Kelly found ways to continue playing her instrument, as playing music was her coping
mechanism. On top of the music assigned in class, Kelly independently sourced music she was
interested in. She described:
The pandemic was really hard for me but I felt that music helped me cope. I was not only
playing the music given, but I also wanted to play fun pieces too. I loved to play all the

135
Disney songs which I think really helped me get through it. (Kelly, Student Response to
Prompt #5)
Still, not everyone was able to find ways to cope. Angela shared how she completely lost
motivation to practice during the COVID-19 pandemic. She conceded:
My main challenge in music during COVID was finding motivation to keep playing.
Most days, I would just turn off my camera and not play anything. Unfortunately, I kept
this habit until the end of online learning. (Angela, Student Response to Prompt #5)
Isolation and Solo Repertoire. Phoebe, a cellist, explained why they were unmotivated to
play their instrument during remote learning. Part of their lack of motivation was due to not
being able to hear what others were playing simultaneously (Hash, 2021). They found ways to
cope by continuing private lessons and focusing more on solo work with their private teacher.
They explained:
The pandemic was very challenging on me mentally, so it was difficult for me to find the
energy or the motivation to play the cello. Not being able to hear what others are playing
also added its own level of difficulty to playing. I did my best to continue private lessons
while social distancing and was able to continue playing even if it wasn’t in an orchestral
setting. (Phoebe, Student Response to Prompt #5)
Jacob also found similar solace in working through solo repertoire. Despite not having the
everyday social aspects of music class, Jacob dove deep into solo work and, as a result, helped
propel him into a better musician after the pandemic. He admitted:
During the pandemic, I lost motivation very easily as it was a very isolated time. Prior to
the pandemic, I took the social aspects of music classes for granted. Without people
around me to keep pushing and supporting me, my only motivation came from within.

136
However, it ran thin very quickly. Ultimately, what helped me the most was beginning to
focus more and more on solo repertoire. Solo repertoire, by nature, is isolated and
exposed so that social distancing practices wouldn’t affect it as much. Focusing on that
reignited a flame that allowed me to continue and continues to push me today in that
regard. (Jacob, Student Response to Prompt #5)
Nevertheless, losing the social feature of a large ensemble music class was the source of
many other students’ frustrations and loss of motivation during remote learning. Edith and
Marjorie emphasized the longing to play with others during the pandemic. Edith expressed,
For me, the main challenge of learning music during the pandemic was finding the
motivation to practice. I very much love the feeling of playing music with a large group,
and it was very difficult to recreate this feeling while learning from home. I tried to
overcome this challenge by playing music that I genuinely enjoyed, particularly music
from movies and other pop culture, to motivate myself to practice. (Edith, Student
Response to Prompt #5)
Like Kelly, Edith found comfort in playing music she enjoyed. Marjorie added:
Playing during COVID was rough for me. I was in middle school, so I wasn’t really an
independent musician at that point and still needed a lot of guidance from others to
improve. It was really hard to find the motivation to practice because the only time
people really heard me play was in my private lessons once a week. Other than that my
instrument was kind of untouched. I also completely forgot how to play with others and
the fullness of an orchestra with all the moving parts. In addition, it was hard to learn new
skills such as vibrato because I couldn’t get the physical movement just by watching a
video. I feel like my musical growth was at a standstill and thought I’d be behind when

137
we went back. I’ll be honest: I didn’t really cope that well, but a few things that helped
me practice was forcing my sibling to play songs with me, and the high school audition in
the spring which I wanted to practice for. (Marjorie, Student Response to Prompt #5)
The social and group aspects of music-making were fundamental for students and their musical
development. Marjorie continued to elaborate on her COVID experience. She admitted that
joining a small chamber group, independent of the music she had to learn from the orchestra
class, has helped her adjust back to playing in a group. Although she was hesitant at first, she
recalled her journey fondly:
Coming out of COVID, I had honestly forgotten how to be a group musician and was still
having trouble getting back into practice habits. Very early on in my freshman year, a
classmate approached me asking if I wanted to be in a quartet with them and two others.
It was going to be for the solo and small ensemble festival but we ended up continuing on
the whole year. I wasn’t sure about it because I was going to be more exposed in my
playing, didn’t know the people very well, and didn’t think I could perform the music at
the level they expected. But this person convinced me to do it. We practiced during flex
time each week; at first, playing with the others was really challenging. I told the person
they should replace me multiple times because I didn’t think I could do it. But they
wouldn’t let me quit and helped me out a lot. After a while, I got the hang of it and really
enjoyed our sessions because the person pushed me to practice more, absorb literature
faster, be confident in my playing, and remember how to play in a group. This continued
to help me in the big orchestra because I could apply all the same principles. I became a
more advanced and thoughtful musician because of this person. And we’re also really
good friends now. (Marjorie, Student Response to Prompt #4)

138
Issues of Technology. Some students also shared their experiences with technology
during remote learning during the pandemic. As music teachers, we saw remote learning as an
opportunity to introduce music technology to our students. With all students having access to a
computer, this was the perfect opportunity to teach students about digital audio workstations and
recording. We quickly learned how students’ socioeconomic status limited access to good
technology. Simply put, there were gaps in experience based on different socioeconomic statuses
that involved access to technologies and materials, activities and assessments, and student
participation. For example, I remember seeing the drastic differences between two students who
had their Zoom windows next to each other. While one student looked very comfortable in a
gaming chair in what I would presume to be their own bedroom, another student was at a kitchen
counter, with two siblings visible in their background who were also attending their respective
Zoom classes. As Hash (2021) reported, there were challenges in the digital divide where some
students could not even get reliable Internet access for school. Without the ability to rehearse
simultaneously remotely, students had different experiences learning music remotely during the
pandemic.
Garfield shared her challenge with poor Wi-Fi connection during remote learning. In
addition to the challenges of learning music remotely, Garfield maintained:
Naturally, it was also very challenging to improve at my instrument when I couldn't
receive any feedback about my playing that wasn't over the internet. This was made even
more challenging by persistent Wi-Fi issues in my apartment building and very thin walls
that made it both hard to focus on my playing and made me reluctant to play out (in fear
of being too loud). (Garfield, Student Response to Prompt #5)

139
Shane also experienced technological difficulties during the pandemic. For her, there was a need
for proper equipment to help record her instrument. Since assignments were in the form of audio
recordings, this hindered Shane’s experience during the pandemic. She recalled:
In ensemble music playing, the hardest part for me was not being able to connect with the
other musicians. I did not know how my part fit in with other parts, and it felt weird
playing the music out of the context of everyone else. I really missed the feeling of
playing with an ensemble that just meshes with each other. One of the hardest parts about
trying to learn music remotely was not having the right equipment. I play a high-pitched
instrument, and my computer did not have a microphone strong enough to pick up some
of the pitches. As a result, my recording sounded distorted, and I could not get
meaningful feedback or fully contribute to any recordings my teacher was splicing
together. I ended up turning to mostly soloistic playing in the time I could practice, which
was not much due to living in a building where others had important meetings where they
did not want an instrument playing in the background. (Shane, Student Response to
Prompt #5)
The Silver Lining. The silver lining is that not all students had a negative experience
during remote learning. Some, like Jacob, quickly understood the technological pivot and took
the opportunity to learn a new skill. He concluded:
Thanks to Philharmonic (my freshman year), I was able to learn to use Soundtrap, which
eventually led to me being proficient in several other different audio editing software.
With those skills, I’ve been able to complete several personal projects, and I’m very
grateful for the skills I was able to acquire. (Jacob, Student Response to Prompt #5)

140
Although Jasmine, too, had similar challenges as other students during the pandemic, she could
see the positive that came as a result. Her optimism was reassuring:
COVID was probably the time I was most productive musically. It was my freshman year
and I had so much spare time on my hands as the pandemic did not allow me to do any
outside activities. I am grateful for Zoom because it allows us to connect with our
teachers and I took advantage of that and would just practice while the teachers were
talking and even afterward I was just playing all the time. Even though I was able to
practice whenever I wanted, the lack of playing in person was really depressing because
orchestra had always been my favorite class and the sense of community I got was
missing as we would meet online. (Jasmine, Student Response to Prompt #5)
Jasmine was not the only student who took advantage of the isolation. Without external
distractions, Oswaldo looked inward and continued to work on developing his musical skills:
Unlike most people, I had a fairly good musical experience with the COVID-19
pandemic. It was awful that we could not play together, and that we were stuck with solo
music rather than ensemble music, but I was able to develop my skills during this time.
When many stopped playing because they were not with friends or it just was not fun
anymore, I persevered and improved my playing immensely. My middle school orchestra
teacher taught me to have fun even in the bad COVID years, which allowed me to
improve. (Oswaldo, Student Response to Prompt #5)
Summary of Qualitative Findings
This section began with an account of a typical day in orchestra and shared the findings
from student responses to the open-ended reflective questions. The qualitative data found themes
of social connection and belongingness, enjoyment of music due to musical accomplishments

141
and achievements, and musical independence, resiliency, and perseverance that helped students
power through the COVID-19 pandemic. Student responses were presented as much as possible
to provide them a platform to share their experience and gain unique insight and access to their
perspectives. In addition, I provided my observations as their teacher and added context to
validate and elaborate on their responses. Student responses were examined and grouped through
the lens of self-determination theory. Themes of social connection and belongingness paired with
relatedness. Students discussed the impact of the orchestra community. Themes of musical
interest, growth, identity, accomplishment, and achievement are connected with competence in
music. Students shared how playing music of interest led to more enjoyment in music. Finally,
ideas about musical independence, including how students coped during the pandemic, are tied
to autonomy. These pillars of self-determination theory provide insight into how students were
resilient and persevered through the pandemic.
Mixing the Data
Results from the quantitative stage indicated that there were no significant differences in
students’ scores on each scale of the inventory in relation to gender, grade level, and ethnicity.
However, within-subjects analyses showed that there were statistically significant mean
differences between the scales of the MUSIC Inventory for certain groups, like the difference
between eMpowerment and Caring for Freshman (p = .001), Sophomores (p = .02), Junior (p <
.001), and Seniors (p = .003). The overall mean values for each scale were relatively high,
suggesting that students generally were highly motivated in the music class. Additionally, the
qualitative data confirmed that themes of relatedness and belongingness were important to
students in the orchestra class. Students appeared to be interested in the music, which led to more

142
competence in music (see Figure 4.6). Students with a strong sense of musical independence
(autonomy) could cope with the isolation of remote learning.
The quantitative data corroborates the student narratives from the qualitative data. As
indicated with high mean values for each variable, students’ qualitative responses demonstrated
high motivation in their orchestra music class. Although the mean value and scores for
eMpowerment was also lower than the rest of the scales (M = 4.77), this was expected for two
reasons. First, as mentioned above, the nature of a traditional large ensemble class does not
always lend itself well to full autonomy in the classroom. Second, as Marjorie shared, students
were most likely impacted post-pandemic as many had to readjust and re-learn how to play
together in a large group. Students also expressed interest in participating in music class but had
experienced frustration when the COVID-19 pandemic impacted their prior in-person orchestral
experience. The impact of the pandemic could perhaps explain the lower mean values of
Usefulness and Interest, especially among senior students.
Even though seniors indicated that the class could have been more useful to their shortor long-term goals (M = 4.78), they still felt connected to the rest of the class (M = 5.71). This
was also evident in their responses to the importance of the orchestra community in their lives.
Unsurprisingly, Caring had the highest mean value among all other scales (M = 5.52). Students
felt connected not only to each other but also to their teachers. Garfield concluded:
When looking back on my time in high school music classes, I think I will most
remember the lessons I learned from Mr. Wang that weren't exactly musical and all of the
social memories with friends I made in orchestra. Memories like the San Francisco tour
will definitely stick, especially if I am still in contact with the friends I spent the most
time with during orchestra. However, I think Mr. Wang's life lessons and musical

143
analogies and connections will be the strongest curriculum related memories I will have. I
think I will miss all of the connections I made in orchestra the most: both to new friends
and new musical knowledge. However, I definitely will miss playing tests and seating
assignments least, as those have been the most unpleasant parts of orchestra throughout
my high school career. (Garfield, Student Response to Prompt #9)
Based on student responses to the open-ended questions, it appears that the culture of the class
superseded musical accomplishments or achievements. Students indicated that having an
authentic connection was more important than rehearsing music to perfection. While the
differences between the mean values for Caring and other scales were statistically significant, if
the data had not also included their open-ended responses, the reasons behind the high mean
Caring values would have been missed.
As mentioned earlier, analyses across gender, grade level, and ethnicity did not reveal
any significant differences in student scores in the MUSIC inventory. Some differences were
found within-subject responses, which also reveal individual differences. Thus, quantitative data
alone would not have been able to inform how and what aspects of motivation helped students to
persist in music during and after the pandemic. Rather, qualitative responses offered a window
into student self-determination. Their social connections, sense of collective musical
accomplishments, and sense of musical independence helped them persevere through the
pandemic. Whereas quantitative data revealed high Success (M = 5.47) and Interest (M – 5.20)
mean values, Marjorie articulated why she chose to attend WHS and its music program in the
qualitative data. She shared her perspective in her response to the final prompt.
I wanted to add that I honestly would not have come to [WHS] if it weren’t for the
orchestra program. I strongly considered going to and even applied to other high schools.

144
But they didn’t really have orchestra programs and I knew from older friends and
attending concerts that the [WHS] orchestra program was supposed to be “awesome.”
And they were right. When I came here, I loved the environment. In my freshman year, I
had some negative experiences at [WHS] (not in orchestra) and considered switching
schools again, but I couldn’t because I loved the orchestra program too much at that
point. I’m not in any sports here or things like that so this is my main connection. I’ve
made so many friends here and built such a great community. This is always my favorite
class, and most of my fondest memories have been from orchestra. I tell all of my band
friends or people coming to [WHS] to do orchestra. It’s really hard to put into words, but
this program really means so much to me and is by far the best part of [WHS] for me.
(Marjorie, Student Response to Prompt #10)
Summary of Chapter
This chapter reported the findings from the quantitative and qualitative data, and data
mixing. The quantitative data validated the qualitative data. The qualitative data not only gave
context and insight to the quantitative data, but also explained the reasoning behind students’
motivation to continue in an elective music class. Musical independence (autonomy) was
connected to students’ Success and sense of Usefulness in the music class. The path of musical
competence (see Figure 4.6) was tied to students’ Interest in music. Ultimately, Caring
(relatedness) was students' most important aspect of motivation. Belonging to the orchestra
community was as important as musical excellence or performance. The following chapter will
provide a final discussion and conclusion to the study. It will use the evidence from the data to
answer each of the research questions raised at the beginning of the study. Limitations and
implications of the study will follow.

145
Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusion, and Implications
This study examined motivation and the retention of music students in one of my
orchestra classes. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, many traditional large ensemble music classes
in public schools have found a continuance of steep and steady decline in student enrollment
(Shaw & Auletto, 2022; cf. Alegrado & Winsler, 2020; Elpus & Abril, 2019; Kinney, 2019;
Williams, 2011). My classroom was no exception. Through the lens of self-determination theory
(Ryan & Deci, 2020), I wanted to examine my own students’ motivation and the reasons why
they continued music post-pandemic.
Within the scope of self-determination theory, autonomy predicts student engagement in
the classroom (Evans & Ryan, 2022; Jang et al., 2010; Patall & Zambrano, 2019; Patall et al.,
2022; Wallace & Sung, 2017). Students’ self-efficacy can affect their perceived competence.
Competence is a substantial motivating factor in student achievement. (Evans & Ryan, 2022;
Patall et al., 2022; Senko et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Supporting students’ values and
interests for motivation in learning is also important (Patall et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020).
Aligning student musical preferences with the music taught plays a crucial role in maintaining
student interest in music classrooms (Kratus, 2007).
However, relatedness or caring was the most significant aspect uncovered through the
quantitative and qualitative data. The sense of belongingness is a need that demands to be
fulfilled, especially during adolescent development (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). According to
Leary and Cox (2008), “the need for acceptance and belonging is a fundamental social motive
that underlies and helps to explain a great deal of human behavior” (p. 28). Students reflected on
the importance of their social connections and the impact that the orchestra community has had
on them. In addition, they revealed how they felt toward me, their music teacher, and

146
emphasized how the culture of the class played a vital role in their musical development. As
mentioned by Shane’s responses, by establishing a class culture where students felt valued by the
teacher and were allowed to make mistakes, they also valued themselves and each other. A
music teacher’s relationship with their musicians should ultimately be more important than the
collective need to create good music.
This chapter begins with a summary of findings relevant to the research questions. Next, I
offer an examination of the current practice of music education for current music educators in the
field in light of this study’s findings. Here, I discuss themes of social connection, musical
enjoyment, musical independence, resiliency, and perseverance and how they tie into the
autonomy, competence, and relatedness aspects of self-determination theory. The limitations of
the study are then examined, followed by conclusions and implications for music education and
future research.
Summary of Findings Relevant to the Research Questions
Five questions guided the investigation of student motivation within the West High
School Orchestra program. The study findings are summarized below, in relationship to each
study question.
Question One. What aspects of self-determination theory are most important for students
who continue participating in an elective music ensemble class?
Although this question was anticipated to be answered through the quantitative data, it
was the data from the qualitative stage of the study that revealed which aspects of selfdetermination theory are most important for students who continue to participate in a high school
elective music ensemble class. Study data informed three key tenets of teaching music in a postpandemic world. First: Social connection (caring) is vital and trumps everything. Participants

147
shared how their connection with their teacher and their peers was the most memorable and
impactful aspect of being in a music class. The orchestra community gave students a sense of
belonging that was vital to their continued participation in the class. Students valued and
treasured their time spent making music together with their peers. In addition, many students
commented about the class culture that was created and facilitated by the music teacher.
Establishing an environment where students felt cared for and valued above all else was the
primary motivator for students. Ultimately, it was their care for each other that seemed to have
enabled an environment for music-making at a higher level.
Second: Valuing the significance of students’ interest in music and the types of music
they play in class is of utmost importance. Students shared feelings of enjoyment when
participating in orchestra concerts. Although musical enjoyment was correlated with students’
perceived sense of competence in their ability to play the music at a high level, musical
enjoyment was also related to student interest and liking for the music selection (see Figure 4.6).
Students valued playing music that had personal meaning to them. Allowing students a say in
music selection also gave them agency and a sense of autonomy in the class. Students believed
that they could be successful if they put forth effort. Many students continued in the orchestra
program because they were interested and enjoyed the music they got to play and perform.
Third: Teaching musical independence (eMpowerment) should be a priority for all music
programs. Many students who took part in this study shared their struggles when learning music
remotely during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although many of their struggles centered around
access to technology, the most common response was the lack of social connection during
quarantine. Students who were able to cope did so because they had already acquired some level
of musical independence (see Figure 5.1). They were able to adapt their focus on their own

148
individual progress and had the capacity to source music that they were interested in to work on
independently. Students who persevered did so because they gave themselves a reason to
continue and looked forward to when they could make music in person together once again.
Students who are equipped with the tools to be independent musicians are more likely to be
resilient during any musical challenge. This form of empowerment and autonomy will likely
keep them in music for a more extended period. We must teach so that students no longer need
us. Although this may seem counter-intuitive, giving students the tools to be independent may
keep them returning to music class.
Figure 5.1. Indicators of Musical Independence (Figure developed by author).
Question Two. Do differences in age, gender, and ethnicity play a role in which aspects
of self-determination theory are most important for students who continue to participate in an
elective music ensemble class?
The quantitative data suggested that students’ responses to the MUSIC Model of
Academic Motivation Inventory (Jones, 2009; 2018) that was adapted for music class were not
significantly different when analyzed by gender, grade level, or ethnicity. Differences only

149
emerged when within-subjects analyses were carried out. Three main conclusions can be drawn
from the quantitative data.
First, the mean values for each variable of the MUSIC Inventory were relatively high,
suggesting that students who took part in this study were motivated in music class. Of the five
scales, eMpowerment had the lowest mean value (M = 4.77). This made sense, as the nature of
traditional large ensemble music classes does not lend itself well to allow students much
autonomy. Still, seniors who participated in the study had a higher eMpowerment score than all
the other grade levels (M = 5.04). It is possible to speculate that, as students got older, they took
ownership of their upperclassmen status, feeling more empowered to help make decisions and
offer input that would affect the class on a larger scale. Music teachers should strive to find more
opportunities for students to give input and foster an environment where younger students can
step up and help make decisions for the whole class.
Second, Caring had the highest mean value (M = 5.52), which suggests that students
believed that the instructor and others in the learning environment cared about their learning and
them as a person. This value was significantly higher for men (M = 5.67) than women (M = 5.4)
students. When navigating the social landscape of high school, I speculate that adolescent men
who stay in music class do so either because they have found a caring and tight-knit community
in music or perhaps they saw themselves in me as a male music teacher. Orchestra has been
viewed to be the most gender-neutral music elective (Alegrado & Winsler, 2020). This was true
for BCSD, where there was a balance of men and women students in the orchestra, and likewise,
who participated in this study. Like many other districts (Alegrado & Winsler, 2020; Elpus &
Abril, 2019; Kinney, 2019), in BCSD, the choir department struggles to recruit adolescent men
singers. Especially since the pandemic, BCSD choirs have been more impacted than the band or

150
orchestra programs. It is possible that adolescent men may have a greater need to connect with
others and feel that they are cared for than adolescent women or non-binary students. While this
is speculative, I suggest that music teachers work to foster a more welcoming environment for
adolescent men in music to retain them in their music programs.
Finally, on ethnicity, Hispanic students gave higher ratings in their perception of Success
(M = 5.47) than students who identified as Asian, Two or More Race, and Some Other Race.
Although not statistically significant, this finding could imply that to recruit and retain more
Hispanic students, focusing on giving them tools to be successful in music class may be vital.
Asian and African American students scored Caring as their highest variable on the MUSIC
Inventory (M = 5.25, 6.00). Again, while speculative, this may suggest that making an extra
effort to create a welcoming environment for Asian and African American students could be
crucial to their retention. In addition, Asian students were the most critical of themselves when it
came to their Usefulness (M = 4.89), Interest (M = 4.56), and Success (M = 5.08) scores. As an
Asian-American teacher, I can attest that the music teacher must understand better the cultural
differences between Asian and Western students to help foster a positive learning environment
for students with Asian heritage and cultural backgrounds.
Question Three. What factors in students’ past experiences in and outside of music class
affect their decision to continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
As mentioned in the response to question one, the most significant factor in students’
experiences in and outside music class was their social connection with their fellow music
students. It was clear from the qualitative data that students’ connection with one another
catalyzed their most memorable experiences all year. A common event from students’ reflections
was their trip to San Francisco this past school year. Students interacted with students with

151
whom they had never spoken with before and believed that some of their best performances
together occurred during the tour. Although trips and tours help, they are not necessary. Teachers
should consider taking class time to allow for group bonding and building social connections. As
the data from this study suggests, social interactions may be key to retaining students in music
programs year after year. Spending time together outside of class allows students to connect on a
personal level and beyond the music context.
Question Four. In what ways (if any) has the recent COVID-19 pandemic impacted
students’ decision to continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
Unfortunately, this study was limited to success stories. Former students severely
impacted by the isolation of the COVID-19 pandemic were no longer in music class and thus
were not part of this research study. Still, much insight can be gained by examining the accounts
of resilient students who persevered in music through the pandemic, including their remote
learning experiences during this stressful time.
Notions of intrinsic motivation to practice and overcoming challenges independently
were indicators of success during the pandemic. Subthemes of musical independence, resiliency,
perseverance, and mental health emerged from their responses. Students who persevered in
music found ways to cope during remote learning. Listening to music and playing music of
personal interest were two common coping mechanisms described in the interviews. Many
students also turned to solo work and focused on improving their own playing abilities during the
period of isolation.
Still, many longed for the social aspects of playing together once again. Post-pandemic,
students like Marjorie admitted that joining a small chamber group, irrespective of the music
learned in the orchestra class, helped her adjust to playing in a group. The silver lining is that not

152
all students had a negative experience during remote learning. While some students took the
opportunity to dive deep into learning music technology, others saw the isolation period as a
“distraction-free” time to focus on their own musical skills and techniques.
Although no students emerged from the pandemic unscathed, those who chose to
continue music post-pandemic seem to have high levels of motivation for music, as suggested by
the qualitative data from this study. Although the effects of the pandemic will continue to impact
enrollment, teachers should be reminded and assured that those students who persevered in
music are that much better because of it. Ultimately, we returned stronger, more resilient, and
more determined to make music together. At the very least, I suspect that my students, for the
foreseeable future, will not take the privilege of making music together for granted.
Question Five. In what ways (if any) do students’ future aspirations in music affect their
decision to continue participating and staying in an elective music class?
Most students wrote in their responses that music as a profession is not in their purview.
Still, the majority indicated that they hope to continue playing music at the college level, even if
they do not plan to major in music. Teaching students about musical independence may help
them imagine a future where music is always present in their lives. If the music curriculum
focuses solely on the skills needed to pull off the next concert successfully, then students will not
find music class useful for their short- or long-term goals. Participating students indicated that
the music class was useful, if not for the specific music-related skills, then for my “long-winded”
lectures and life-related metaphors that inevitably find their way into the rehearsals.
The culture I established in my music classes seemed to have positively impacted
students’ lives. Although the participating students do not necessarily aspire to be professional
musicians, being able to imagine their future selves as a musician seem to help keep them

153
enrolled in music class year after year. Creating life-long musicians should be the goal of every
music program. Creating good music together is the byproduct. Developing a healthy balance of
their “why” will help students see that although learning a difficult musical passage may not
have direct relevancy to what they do as a career, the skills and discipline it takes to perfect the
passage will apply to everything they do.
An Inquiry for the Profession. Are there aspects of traditional large ensembles that
should be retained for future practices with contemporary pedagogies? Are there aspects that
should be eliminated or adjusted?
Student responses suggested that the traditional large ensemble still has an important role
in music education today, else they would have been in an alternate elective class. Student
participants shared the importance of the orchestra community in their lives. They valued the
connections and the time spent together in and outside music class. Relatedness and
belongingness, both aspects of self-determination theory, affirm that what the students shared is
vital to their motivation to continue participating in music class. Still, as Williams (2011)
suggested, the size of the ensemble does not necessarily need to be large. He noted that
reasonable class sizes, similar to other academic classes, work just as well in an ensemble
setting. The key is to create a community and sense of belonging regardless of ensemble size. As
the quantitative data showed, focusing on caring may go a long way in student retention in music
classes.
The qualitative data also suggests that aligning students’ musical interests will help
maintain their interest in music class. Kratus (2007) gave similar suggestions and found that
aligning students’ out-of-school music with their in-school music will help make music classes
more relevant for students. Music teachers should consider the positive and negative impact of

154
Western music. While studying the classics is an important aspect of ensemble music, it does not
have to be the only genre of music studied. Responses from students in the qualitative data show
that increasing the range and repertoire of music studied and played helped attract and retain
students in the music class. As Figure 4.6 illustrates, students interested in music will ultimately
lead to more competence in music.
Finally, autonomy in the music classroom should not be overlooked. The quantitative
data in this study show that students’ sense of empowerment was not as high as other variables.
As Patall et al. (2022) suggested, increasing students’ sense of autonomy in the classroom is the
foundation for intrinsic motivation. Music teachers should consider how the traditional top-down
approach inhibits autonomy in the music classroom and find ways and opportunities for students
to give input to support autonomy.
Discussion
Examining our current practice is necessary to recruit and retain music students, as
proposed by many scholars (Kinney, 2019; Kratus, 2007; Miksza, 2013; Shaw & Auletto, 2022;
Williams, 2011). It necessitates an analysis of the current state of music education through a
critical lens and asks: How can we evolve to stay relevant in our fields? Indeed, there is still a
need for existing music teachers to embrace and learn new forms of music teaching and
learning—popular music (including music technology and production), alternative music
ensembles (flex instrumentations, rock bands, digital instruments), and culturally relevant music
ensembles (instrument/ensembles beyond Western art as well as musical genres). Still, music
teachers teaching in traditional large ensemble music classrooms can find cultural relevance
within their discipline of expertise (Albert, 2006; Bond, 2014). The following discussion is
intended for current music teachers who are still working in the field. While changes in policy

155
can certainly make a difference, it is ultimately the teachers who are currently still working in the
field that can make the most immediate impact on the current state of ensemble music education.
A Shift in Perspectives: Remixing the Classroom. Randall Allsup (2016), in Remixing
the Classroom: Toward an Open Philosophy of Music Education, challenged readers to consider
the current state of music education and its highly guarded traditions, urging educators to
(re)consider what music education might look like if they were open to new forms and ideas.
Allsup suggested that a quality teacher can weave in and out of closed and open forms. He
cautioned readers to be wary of routine expertise, and not confuse success with quality teaching.
Through four lenses—the self, the environment, the other, and the text—Allsup provided a
practical structure for developing and designing open-ended music instruction based on cycles of
inquiry. Each of these lenses are discussed below in light of the findings from this study.
The Self: eMpowerment. Music teachers should ask themselves: How could I teach so
my students no longer need me? Paulo Freire (1972), in Pedagogy of the Oppressed, brought up
the notion of a liberating pedagogy where teachers are not bound to work in a master-apprentice
banking system of teaching and learning, but instead, teachers and students are co-constructors
of knowledge on equal footing, journeying through the life of knowledge together. The teacher’s
role is not that of one who deposits knowledge into students but instead serves as a facilitator,
ever-so-gently guiding students as they construct knowledge from their perspective, making
personally significant meanings of the world around them—the goal: giving students agency to
take ownership of their learning.
My students have taught me that I need to consider more ways to increase their sense of
empowerment in the class. Autonomy does not mean running a class without structure (Jang et
al., 2010). However, it can look like giving my students more input on the music literature we

156
study based on their interests, empowering them with time in class to work on self-selected solo
and small ensemble literature with their peers, and even delegating warm-up time to student
leaders to collectively start the class together (Parkes et al., 2017). Autonomy in the classroom
could also be encouraged by establishing classroom norms that allow students to co-construct
knowledge. The quantitative analysis suggested that seniors had a higher sense of empowerment
than all the other grade levels. Perhaps I should spend more time empowering and fostering
student leaders at a younger age and giving first- and second-year students more opportunities to
give input.
The Environment: Caring. If the product or the main goal of large ensemble music
classes is musicking (Small, 1998), then we must also enable the music classroom to be an
environment that is conducive to risk-taking and egalitarian beliefs, whereby if the students do
not feel safe or a part of the musicking community, then they are less likely to participate in
learning. The role and responsibility of the music teacher are to build a music community to help
facilitate a safe, caring, and engaging learning environment. Music education should then be
inclusive, not exclusive. They should encourage students from all backgrounds, with or without
prior experience, an opportunity to participate and join in the music-making and musicking
experience. Dialogue must occur within a risk-tolerant environment. Making mistakes and
failing should not be ignored or chastised but embraced as part of the learning process. The
pandemic has proved that music students cannot effectively work individually to acquire
knowledge and information but rather, as a shared community that is as much social as it is allinclusive, where everyone involved is a community member with a shared goal, learning
together, musicking together side-by-side.

157
Building a class culture and creating a cohesive community are what draw students into
music classes in the first place. As their qualitative responses suggested, the students yearned for
that social connection that was lacking during the pandemic. Even post-pandemic, some
struggled to re-learn how to work together within a group structure. Taking class time to allow
for group bonding and building social connections is key to retaining students year after year.
Although trips and tours help (as seen in the qualitative responses of the participating students),
they are not necessary. Spending time together outside of class will give students a chance to
connect on a personal level outside of the music context. Students who feel closer to one another
will be more willing to work for one another to achieve a group goal.
The Other: Interest. Access and equity must be examined if we strive for all-inclusive
music programs. For one, it simply is not enough that a music program accepts any student who
wishes to study music. We cannot claim that students have equity in the sense that they have
access to instruments regardless of circumstances, access to any of the music classes, access to
the curriculum, access to the music teacher at large, access to a safe and welcoming learning
environment, and pat ourselves on the back for a job well done. Even when looking at overall
demographics, seeing all cultures, socioeconomic, and genders (and gender preferences)
represented ignores the fact that, in many instances, students who lack degrees of privilege in
comparison to other students would often still be at a disadvantage regardless of their “ability” or
“merit” to accomplish a task or goal. Until we deconstruct the notion of merit and ability and
work toward a multicentric view of music teaching and learning (i.e., center students in their own
experiences and grounds them in their own cultural backgrounds; Hess, 2021) while actively
providing additional resources and opportunities to historically disadvantaged music students, we
perpetuate a Euro-centric, Western art agenda instead of an equity agenda.

158
Affording students with opportunities to not only share their musical interests but also
study and perform them, legitimizes their music (Kratus, 2007; Williams, 2011). In the orchestral
sense, popular music does not always have to cover an instrumental version of a pop song.
Soundtracks from film, television, and even video games bridge classical and popular music.
Including more types of music in the music class will help more students feel seen and included
(Kruse, 2016). In addition, music programs should strive to provide access and resources to
students who need them. This does not mean providing the same resources for all. The challenge
is for teachers to find resources for students who need them most. Any music class should reflect
the overall demographic of the school. This does not mean explicitly targeting minority students
but instead giving students with the most need additional resources to help them be as successful
as everyone else in the class.
The Text: Success. Although there is value in teaching students how to decode the
musical code, we quickly revert to the issues discussed above, mainly that of access and equity.
To be “literate” today looks much different than in the days of Dewey (1902) and Freire (1972).
Literacy today does not only refer to functional literacy but rather to a plethora of other ways to
understand, access, and make meaning in the world, including but not limited to technological
literacy, social media literacy, and even SPAM-filter literacy (i.e., an ability to decipher between
real news and fake news). Instead, music teachers should strive to emphasize multimodal
literacy, where students make sense of their musical worlds by engaging in different forms of
meaning-making: textual, sonic, visual, gestural, and spatial dimensions (Kress, 2010).
The most successful students in remote learning during the pandemic had a stronger
sense of musical independence, as voiced in their comments. These were students who could find
ways to cope, including sourcing music they were interested in working on in addition to the

159
music assigned in class. They focused on their musicianship as well as their own solo literature.
These students possibly have a better sense of multimodal literacy than others. Although students
like Angela had proficient music literacy, that alone did not help her during the pandemic. Like
many others, she faded behind her computer, kept her camera off, and seldom participated in
remote learning. To teach our students competence in their musical achievement is to give them
tools to be multimodal, literate independent musicians. Only then could they overcome and
persevere whatever next global challenge may arise.
The Future of Ensemble Music. The Music for All Foundation (2004) published a
report detailing the decline of music education in California public schools. Using data provided
by the California Basic Educational Data System, they found that during five years (from 1999-
2004), the total population of California’s student population increased by 5.8%, while the total
number of California students involved in music education courses declined by 50%. Although
the authors of the report postulate the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act and the
California budget crisis at the time as possible explanations for the cause of the decline, other
scholars see the decline as a sign that the current model of traditional large ensemble music
classes is not working.
School administrators also agree that nationwide educational initiatives such as the No
Child Left Behind Act are one of the reasons that impact overall support for music curricular
requirements. Abril and Gault (2008) reported that while school administrators support music
and the arts, only 34% of the schools surveyed required music to graduate. They noted that
graduation requirements, budgeting, and scheduling were the most significant obstacles
preventing students from accessing music classes at their site.

160
Perhaps the loudest criticism of traditional ensemble music in public schools came from
Williams (2011). If it is true that all teenagers enjoy music, why are most students are not
involved in traditional school music ensembles in middle and high school? Williams disagreed
with the assumptions that administrators make—low enrollment in music linked to the fact that it
is not part of college requirements, a quest for high GPAs, scheduling conflicts, unsupportive
counselors, block schedules, or even competing student interests in other elective subject
matters. Instead, Williams pointed to the outdated, prevalent model for music education.
Even when nontraditional music classes are offered, Williams questioned why they are
taught in a manner resembling traditional large ensembles—neat rows, reading notation, and
performing simultaneously. Williams believed that less common courses such as music
technology, songwriting, or popular music ensembles might draw a different population segment
to studying music. He laid out ten problems in the traditional model: large class size, lack of
student-centered learning opportunities, top-down musical decisions, need for formal concerts,
limiting instrumentation, adherence to established musical styles, need for traditional notation, a
disconnect to lifelong skills, lack of entry-level opportunities for older students, and the time it
takes to develop functionality for a new or struggling program. Taking note of Williams, three
themes emerge as music classes work to address issues of cultural relevancy, diversity in the
student population, and democratizing the classroom.
Cultural Relevancy: Valuing Students’ Interests. Scholars advocating for nontraditional
music classrooms often point to cultural relevance as the reason for the divergence from the
tried-and-true traditional models of music teaching and learning. Pendergast and Robinson
(2020), in surveying both in-school and out-of-school music participants (N = 827), found that
both groups of students expressed similar levels of interest in taking classes in piano/guitar,

161
music composition with technology, popular music groups, and music history/theory. They also
reported that out-of-school and non-music participants preferred a small group learning
environment and having a choice in the repertoire. Similarly, Kratus (2007) suggested that music
educators are most successful when the music they teach aligns with societal preferences. When
societal preferences change, music education becomes disconnected from the prevailing culture.
Compared to music in the early 20th century when the model of large ensembles emerged in
American education, music today is experienced differently. While live performance is still
essential, Kratus noted that physical proximity to live music is no longer a priority—people
enjoy experiencing music more privately. Kratus mentioned ukulele music classes, creating
original operas, the Vermont MIDI project, and ethnic music ensembles as four working
examples of culturally relevant music education.
New technologies have also impacted music education in profound ways, helping to
include more nontraditional music students. Williams (2007) characterized nontraditional music
students as students in grades seven through twelve who do not participate in a school’s
traditional performing ensembles. Such students may or may not play an instrument, read very
little, if any, music notation, and may be unmotivated academically. Technology offers new tools
for reaching these nontraditional students. For example, Williams suggested that developing
software such as GarageBand (Apple, 2023) had helped open new doors to musical creativity
and expression that was once only accessible to students who could read traditional notation and
perform on an instrument. Williams concluded that “artistically ‘intelligent’ software” can give
students the same creative tools that allows of individual expression in music.
Powell (2021) explored popular music and the modern band to bridge the gap between
the music students experience in school and the music of their communities. Modern bands such

162
as rock bands, guitar classes, music production, DJ clubs, and pop ensembles can blend
technology with students’ diverse musical backgrounds and tastes. Powell noted that when
students have agency in selecting their music and when they can see themselves in the music,
their musical identities are validated. He also found that students who qualify for free and
reduced lunches and students of color are twice as likely to participate in a modern band. As a
result, modern bands can increase the diversity of a school’s music program.
Pendergast (2021) took technology further by examining how to transform music
education with digital audio workstations or DAWs. He claimed, “A hybrid approach to music
education will include explicit instruction in specific domains (e.g., performing, composing,
improvising, technology) and ample opportunity to exercise a combination of these musical roles
through meaningful creative endeavors” (p. 45). This addresses the emergence of a new group of
student musicians, the “hyphenated musician.” Citing celebrity musicians like Billie Eilish,
Kanye West, and Pharrell Williams, a modern hyphenated musician is the performer-composerarranger-producer-engineer who blends technology with music making.
Regardless of the model of music teaching and learning adopted, Bond (2017) detailed
demographic shifts in the U.S., suggesting that teachers will teach students with backgrounds
that differ considerably from their own ethnically, linguistically, racially, and economically
speaking. One possible way to reconcile issues inherent to traditional large ensemble music is to
consider and incorporate culturally responsive teaching—a pedagogy used to validate students'
varied experiences and teach to their strengths. Bond suggested a few central themes that
culturally responsive teaching applies to music teaching and learning.
First, on identity and achievement, teachers and students need to focus on their identities
and music, and come to an understanding that individual perspectives and cultural heritages are

163
validated when their musical repertoire and musical practices are embraced. Second, there is a
need to understand that equity and excellence in music are directly linked to the recognition of
the economic barriers that prevent students to participate in music, and work to provide free and
equal music education to all. In addition to acknowledging students’ musical preferences,
teachers should also work to downplay competition in the classroom and look at multicultural
materials more intentionally. Third, there is a need to consider developmental appropriateness in
pedagogical approaches to music teaching and learning. In considering the effect of Eurocentric
music, teachers need to work to align their teaching styles with the student’s learning styles.
Finally, teach the whole child and manage student-teacher relationships. One way of moving
beyond the banking system of education (Freire, 1972) is to know one’s classroom, surrounding
environment and community, to develop meaningful relationships with the students.
As seen in the qualitative data, participating students have confirmed that the music that
most resonated with them was our Pops concerts during the school year. Although there were a
few mentions of Mahler, most described their joy and excitement in playing film scores and
music from Broadway musicals. While I am not suggesting that the demographic population of
my classroom is a model that all should strive for, our inclusion of music outside the Western
canon has certainly helped to attract and retain nontraditional music students in the program.
And even if I did not find as much success incorporating technology into my classroom during
the pandemic, I know that it made a difference to some students like Jacob, who may have
otherwise quit music during the pandemic. A shift toward cultural relevancy will take time,
especially if an existing performing arts program is steeped in tradition. The catalyst begins with
the teacher who is willing to make a change; with such change in attitude, it is more likely that
for a music program to survive beyond the pandemic, and thrive.

164
Diversity in Student Population: Creating a Music Community. Scholars have also
noted that nontraditional music classes tend to be more inclusive to diverse student populations.
Dammers (2012) found that many low socioeconomic status and nontraditional music students
enroll in technology-based music classes compared to traditional ensemble classes. Dammers
asserted that technology-based music classes inherently include a broader range of curricular
materials and objects, deliberate about incorporating technology, and intentionally reach a more
comprehensive portion of the secondary school population. Technology in the music class also
allows for an adaptive software environment that can address issues of music literacy and enable
students with diverse backgrounds to be successfully served in the same class. In addition,
Dammers argued not for applying technology within a traditional setting but rather a standalone
course that works alongside the traditional band, choir, and orchestra ensemble classes.
Rolandson (2020) examined motivation by comparing secondary music students in
popular music courses and traditional large ensembles (N = 1,714). Like Kratus (2007) and
Williams (2011), Rolandson (2020) found that most students lack interest in curricular music
because large performing ensembles are not relevant to their lives and fail to reflect the music of
local cultures and ethnicities. As a result, popular music, songwriting, and music technology
classes have emerged to attract and include students who are not motivated to participate in
traditional music learning experiences. Rolandson suggested that the music curriculum expand to
include popular music courses to attract a different population of students to engage in music
learning. After all, if the music educator’s goal is to deliver a quality music education for all
students, they must consider ways to attract and include students from all diverse backgrounds.
Although Williams (2011) may be one of the loudest critics of the traditional model of
music education, he also admitted that the model has been quite successful. Still, his final point

165
against traditional performance programs—that the traditional model takes years to develop
functionality—should not be dismissed by supporters of the traditional model. Should music
teachers find themselves in a situation where the traditional model has faded or waned, or
perhaps within a vastly urban and diverse population that has been systemically oppressed and
neglected, then a nontraditional approach to music education may perhaps be the best model.
Frankly, the traditional model of music education does not fit all, and if hitting a reset button
could revive a music program, alternative models of music education may more effectively
reinvigorate nontraditional music students to participate in a music class. However, this does not
mean that we should dismantle traditional ensembles altogether. Ensemble music can co-exist
with nontraditional music classes. The large ensemble teacher can also be the music technology
teacher. Large ensemble music educators can still work to address their most prominent critics
by remixing the classroom (Allsup, 2016) to be more relevant, inclusive, and anti-racist.
Others have different perspectives. Miksza (2013), for example, supports curricular
change while also defending traditional ensembles. He suggested:
Rather than condemning the traditional secondary school model of music education as
culturally irrelevant and inherently pedagogically unsound, it would be better to focus our
energies on revitalizing and reimagining the instructional approaches and musical
experiences that could be possible. (p. 48)
He pointed to new and diverse compositions from diverse composers being commissioned and
performed by choirs, string orchestras, and wind bands as signs that the music education
profession is starting to address issues of diversity and relevancies. Curricular approaches for
dealing with content and engaging students in meaningful musical experiences via a largeensemble model have a long-standing history.

166
In response to nontraditional music classes, Miksza (2013) noted that at least one of
music education's roles in society is to expand students’ perspectives so that more music will
become relevant to them across their lives. Popular music becomes problematic when consumer
trends dictate its music curriculum (i.e., what sells) rather than professional and educational
judgments of musical value. Miksza also pointed out that while technology in the classroom is a
positive addition, students and teachers make learning happen, not the technology itself. Whereas
a student can quickly compile a decent-sounding composition in a DAW, there are no shortcuts
to obtaining a deep musical understanding.
As my students have noted in their responses, regardless of the type of music we perform,
the sense of joy and enjoyment in participating in large ensemble music classes is the social
connection and the community of music-makers. What my students missed most during the
pandemic was not the music itself, but the social connection that occurs when playing music
together. Having taught music online during the pandemic, I believe that while incorporating
technology in the classroom is important, it is not the be-all-end-all way of revitalizing a music
program in decline. Technology itself will not attract students, especially nontraditional students,
into a music classroom. It is the inclusiveness of the orchestra community that attracts students
into the classroom. Although some may not be orchestral musicians at first, they will learn,
together with their peers and friends, how to make great music together.
Democratizing the Classroom: Establishing Agency. Scholars also noted that simply
including a different music course to attract nontraditional music students is not enough; we must
also interrogate and reimagine the methods through which music instruction is delivered.
Abramo (2010), in advocating for guitar and popular music classes, explored alternative teaching
and learning pedagogies. Powell (2021) contrasted the pedagogy of a popular music ensemble

167
with the traditional rehearsal. For instance, the popular music classroom may not always be a
collective effort, focus on notation, or be entirely directed by the teacher. Popular music
ensembles often work in different ways. This plurality of teaching and learning approaches
should also be reflected in the music classroom to be truly inclusive to all students, regardless of
culture or ethnicity, musical interests, previous musical experiences, or future ambitions. As a
result, students may embark on individual or small-group projects, whilst still being engaged in
music in ways that are relevant and useful to how they want to learn about music.
Hess (2015; 2021) urged music teachers to move toward what she called “the anti-racist
music educator.” She recognized whiteness in music education in the repertoire chosen for the
classroom of traditional ensembles, Eurocentricity dominating the curriculum (Western
traditions), notation and notational literacy, the instruments that are made available for study, and
teachers expect students to respond to music (e.g., listening quietly, in a concert hall, without
moving). Systemic issues of music education also lie in the population of students who “elect” to
take a music class, which often influences who becomes a music teacher. To democratize the
music classroom, Hess appealed to music educators to understand how a student’s ability is not
inherent in but rather structured by privileges. Music educators should strive to move away from
Eurocentricity by turning toward youth-directed musical practices. She also suggested including
“aurality” (i.e., sound before symbol) when considering music pedagogy in the classroom.
Finally, to root out systemic issues of music education, educational policy, including the barriers
of entry, must be addressed and examined outside the context of music curricula and pedagogy.
For example, if the current process by which someone becomes a music teacher is through the
Western practice of a classical audition, the status quo will continue to be perpetuated.

168
Whereas Wiggins (2016) argued for learner agency to allow social constructivism to
work in the classroom, Tobias (2016) pushed for the hybrid music classroom. Within music
education, “a hybrid approach embraces overlaps, combinations, connections, and blurred lines
among music and ways of being musical” (Tobias, 2016, p. 1). A hybrid class mixes aspects of
general music and ensembles, mobile devices and acoustic instruments, and music from multiple
genres, eras, and cultures. It reflects a comprehensive curricular model that allows “students to
emphasize their own focus or specializations while developing multifaceted or hyphenated
musicianship in varied contexts” (Tobias, 2016, p. 2). In this way, music educators who develop
a hybrid music classroom can account for all the different ways students know and do music.
Tobias (2016) also explored the intersection between technology, digital media, music,
musicking, and education. He believed that technology is a tool for music learning but also
considers the role of media, such as graphic visualizations of sound. Media is how students
engage with and make sense of their world for today's learners. Hybrid classrooms, then, balance
integrating technology and media with other ways of knowing and doing music. A hybrid
traditional large ensemble music class incorporates multiple means of music making. It
challenges the students to consider how technology and media can be incorporated into their
performance practice.
In their responses, my students have revealed how they have successfully navigated the
isolation of remote learning during the pandemic. Developing musical independence prior to the
pandemic appeared to be an indicator of success. Students who learned how to work on music
independently of a top-down instructional format were more likely to cope with isolation, source
music they were interested in, and work on individual goals when the group could not meet.
Post-pandemic, these independent skills can still be nurtured. In addition to ensemble rehearsals,

169
giving students time to work independently and in small groups to create chamber music will
help give students more agency in their learning. Allowing these student-created groups choose
what music to work on will go a long way in democratizing the classroom. As Tobias (2016)
hinted, the contemporary post-pandemic classroom does not have to be either fully traditional or
nontraditional. It can be a hybrid, taking the positive characteristics of both and evolving into the
next iteration of ensemble classes.
Reflexivity: It Begins with the Teacher. Ultimately, the music teaching and learning
process, regardless of models and methods, begins with the teacher. As my student’s response
suggested, and in line with Abril and Gault (2008), Bond (2017), and Yoo (2021), the studentteacher relationship is an essential aspect of music teaching and learning. While education
policies and music advocacy have the power to make large-scale changes and recommendations,
the most effective agent of change comes from within the music classroom. Becoming an antiracist music educator (Hess, 2015; 2021) as an effort to critically look at one’s teaching and
curriculum is an essential step toward change.
Next, understanding the context of every teaching assignment is essential to address the
specific needs of that community and the demographic of students. There is no one-size-fits-all
approach to music education. Where a traditional model might work best in one situation, if the
majority demographic of a school site consists primarily of nontraditional music students, then
an alternative new or hybrid model may be the best approach. Kratus (2007) reminded music
educators to uphold the traditions and preserve the best of our musical past while also embracing
and looking toward the future. Music education must promote human connections in personally
fulfilling and educationally valid ways. Creating a class culture in an environment where
students feel safe to make mistakes is likely to foster a community that students yearn for.

170
Finally, considering “the othered” is essential to create a music learning environment that
is welcoming to all. Music educators must seek opportunities to incorporate new ideas into a
traditional ensemble class. Orzolek (2021) astutely found that students appreciated performing
works of diverse composers. In his survey of student responses, he found that students believed
that music can give a voice to the marginalized. By intentionally seeking out and performing
music of underrepresented composers, teachers offer students from diverse music classrooms a
chance to learn about other cultures and people. More importantly, if our students can see
themselves in the music we teach, the traditional ensemble class model has a bright future.
Study Limitations
A mixed-methods approach was adopted to address the quantitative versus qualitative
debate that is still ongoing in the “hallways” of graduate music programs. However, a limitation
of this study was its small sample size, which makes study findings difficult to apply to other
sites or contexts. Another limitation of this study is the role of the researcher in data reporting
and interpretation. Although I did not know the identity of study participants, I was still their
teacher. Thus, my interpretation of data was bound to my personal experiences with these
students (see Bloom et al, 2021; Doloriert & Sambrook, 2009; Méndez, 2013).The events and
experiences that I chose to share versus those that I withheld could warrant a perception that I
may have only shared positive outcomes within my classroom. Still, as Krueger (2013)
instructed, “As data collectors, participant observers study their subjects’ views and work to
remain conscious of the effect that their presence, biases, values, and assumptions have on the
interpretations, dynamics, and other participants that they seek to understand.” (p.138). Bias
undoubtedly existed in my observations as well as in the reflections of my students. Still, despite

171
the known and unknown limitations, this research is necessary and will hopefully encourage
other music teachers to examine their own practices.
Ethical reasons made it impossible to gather detailed background information on the
student participants; I did not know the identity of any students who decided to participate.
Student stories may have been richer if I knew who they were and could offer background or
context to their reflections. Not being able to follow up student responses with interviews was
certainly a limitation. Student responses were voluntary and collected at the end of a school year
when students’ motivation to complete graded assignments is already questionable. By adding an
extra, non-required task to the students’ busy agendas likely meant that not all student voices
were recorded or heard. This suggests that the data may have been limited to students who were
either naturally highly motivated or highly opinionated about the music program, both in the
positive and negative sense. Students who were overwhelmed at the end of the school year,
checked out, unmotivated, or were deciding to or who had already decided to take a non-music
elective the following year were also less likely to participate in the study.
Another limitation of this study is that the qualitative stage only included the voices of 13
participants. Most of the students completed only the quantitative stage (61%, N = 51) or
decided not to continue with their participation. This study also did not include voices from
students in other orchestra classes in the school, nor did it seek out the voices of other music
students at the high school who were participating in concert bands, marching bands, choirs,
piano classes, mariachi classes, or musical theater. In addition, it did not include voices of recent
alumni. More importantly, students who dropped out of orchestra and music throughout any
point of their musical journey, including after the pandemic, were not included. This would
explain the apparent ceiling effect of higher motivation scores from the student participants.

172
Students currently in the orchestra class have self-selected to stay in the ensemble, and naturally,
their responses would be overtly positive, else they would have already dropped the class. In
addition, examining former music students’ perspectives and inquiring why they left music
would be vital, and is an issue for future research to address.
This study was also limited to one classroom, teaching site, school, district, and city. As
such, study results are not meant to be generalized for other schools, even those with similar
demographics. Even across other nearby cities, every music program looks different based on the
interests and needs of that particular school and students. Teachers should draw their own
conclusions based on what the student participants in this study have shared. This study could be
replicated across the different music and performing arts disciplines at my site. It can also be
adapted to different schools to examine if there are any shared experiences and similarities.
However, as we venture further from the memories of the pandemic, the window of opportunity
for obtaining detailed accounts of students’ experiences during the pandemic is rapidly closing.
Although I would imagine that topics of retention and recruitment will always be relevant to the
music education profession, examining pandemic-specific causes will inevitably (and hopefully)
have an expiration date in the foreseeable future.
Finally, in qualitative research, especially studies that utilize ethnographic tools, data
analysis, interpretation and findings are viewed through a combination of a strong theoretical
framework and the researcher’s own lens. The advantage of conducting research with my own
students was that I could provide more context and insight into students’ responses. Still, I
realize that since I am examining my practice, two additional limitations inherently arise. First,
although anonymous, my students predictably realized that I would be reading their responses,
which may have primed them to recall more favorable and less critical memories and thoughts.

173
Second, since I have conducted the analysis and coding process, I may have missed certain
comments and ideas posited by the students. To partly mitigate these issues, I included as many
student responses as possible and in their unedited entirety, hoping that the reader could cointerpret them with me, and either agree with my conclusions or draw their own. Either way, I
hope that the voices of my student participants were heard through this work.
Implications for Music Education
Change begins with the teacher. While policy and leadership from the administration are
also important, real change begins with the teacher in the classroom. If we teach music the same
way music has been taught since the days of Lowell Mason, then our music programs are
doomed to fail. As society evolves, so too should education. The pandemic has reminded us that
music education is fragile and not impervious to societal shifts. Still, change does not need to be
drastic. As outlined above, there are still aspects of ensemble music that are valuable and should
be retained. As Allsup (2016) suggested, it will take a quality teacher to weave in and out of
closed and open forms and hold on to valuable traditions while evolving and adapting to the new.
Teaching musical independence should be a priority for all music teachers. Teaching
specifically to the music for the next concert is just as harmful as only teaching students by rote.
Students should be taught musical skills that are transferrable to all instruments and musical
genres. As Williams (2011) suggested, students should be able to reach a functional level of
musicianship within one year or less to sufficiently sustain musical activity even if they stop inschool music participation. Doing so will allow students to enhance their musicality
independently even after leaving us.
In addition, teaching culturally relevant music does not mean we give in to student
selections and are stuck teaching four-chord pop songs. Instead, teachers should consider the

174
impact of Western art music and intentionally and authentically include diversity, equity, and
inclusion principles in our musical selection process. Giving students the opportunity to explore
all different genres of music will give them a greater music appreciation. Film music, for
example, is an excellent bridge to classical music. Video game music has merit. At the end of the
day, music is music. When students see themselves in the music they learn in class, they are
more likely to stay involved in school music.
Finally, the community that ensemble music classes create cannot be overlooked. For
many students, it may be why they are still involved with music. The music-making process is
inherently social. If music teachers establish a culture that inhibits social interactions for efficient
rehearsals or high musical achievements, they may find themselves in an empty classroom. At
the end of the day, it does not matter what impact music education has on students or how great
the music teacher is if no music students are enrolling in the class.
Implications for Future Research
This study concurs with the idea that ensemble music instruction is challenging to
replicate online. While online music teaching and learning is still a novel concept, the many
unique possibilities it can provide should tempt traditional in-person music teachers to consider
adopting a hybrid or blended approach to their music classrooms. More research on applications
for teaching ensemble music online may benefit the profession. For example, the new learning
environment would allow music educators to change their approach and attitudes toward music
pedagogy (Waldron et al., 2020). It will enable online musical communities to emerge that are
not limited to physical or temporal presence (Waldron, 2012). Musicians worldwide can connect
to communicate, share, engage, and learn the music they are interested in (Josef et al., 2020). In a
music classroom, social media can be applied to have students connect with others outside of the

175
music classroom and create meaningful music-making experiences and connections with others
(Tobias, 2020).
Online learning environments may allow students to connect with artists and music
professionals worldwide and open the space to explore other cultures and practices (Ruthmann &
Hebert, 2012; Tobias, 2020). Living music composers can conference with an ensemble
classroom to discuss insights and inspiration not found in the printed musical notation.
Professional musicians can perform live recitals in multiple classrooms simultaneously. Artists
can engage with students via social media and engage in a participatory culture of music-making
by allowing student musicians the opportunity to perform with them online. Students of different
ethnic backgrounds can now research and connect with musicians and musical practices of their
own cultures and find new ways of bringing other cultures into the music they are engaged in.
The possibility to communicate with people outside the classroom opens a rich and imaginative
world where the burden of expertise does not need to lie solely on the teacher.
Online music teaching and learning can also encourage informal learning and grant
opportunities for autonomy support to the learner (Green, 2006; 2008; Hartnett, 2016). Student
musicians have unlimited access to media and can discover new avenues of music on social
media that are not restricted to specific instrumentation or genre. In their musical practice, they
can engage in on-demand repetition with tutorial videos and replay content as needed (Waldron,
2012). Students can connect with other student musicians outside their immediate classroom to
collaborate and make music online. Soon, they may even engage in a virtual world and
experience music and music-making virtually (Ruthmann & Hebert, 2012).
Still, online learning and music education can present a unique challenge for music
educators. While certain music subjects adapt well to an online environment, such as music

176
technology and music theory courses, large ensemble music classes still face many technological
restrictions. Although remote learning provided unique opportunities for music teachers and
students to incorporate new concepts and technologies into their curriculum (Dammers, 2012;
Hash, 2021), music teachers faced new technological challenges when they tried to reproduce a
large ensemble rehearsal environment online. More research is needed to address these
challenges.
In addition, not all participants or music educators have the skills or access to social
media and digital technology (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020; Gibson, 2021; Josef et al., 2020).
More research and technical training are required to assist in online music teaching and learning.
Gibson (2021) found tensions in participants between real-time and recorded musical practices.
Music teachers quickly learned about audio latency when trying to sync audio during remote
learning. While the technology at the time allowed for visual connectivity (multiple cameras
simultaneously), audio connectivity beyond a singular source was not feasible (Dolister, 2020;
Gibson, 2021). Furthermore, latency issues meant that audio was often delayed. In music classes
with an emphasis on ensemble performance (aka playing “together” at the same time), even a
few milliseconds of latency between two remote parties impacted the ability of the ensemble to
play together remotely. Future research could look at newly developed technologies and find
ways to create an online curriculum that would work in a large ensemble setting.
Finally, examining former music students’ perspectives and inquiring why they left music
would be beneficial. The research that music teachers in the field conduct are usually of students
currently in music class. To truly understand retention and attrition, we need to access students
no longer in music. We need to discover their reasons for leaving. We must ask ourselves if
something we are or are not doing in our practice allows students to disengage with music-

177
making. I believe that the future of music education is bright—but only so if we continue to
evolve and adapt to the new needs of our students. If we hold onto our traditions too tightly, our
students will find new ways to engage in music without us or, worse yet, stop engaging in music
and music-making altogether. After all, we, the music teachers, define what a music ensemble is
and isn’t. While there is undoubtedly a place for performing large ensembles, music education is
not limited to that medium. The future of music education is in our hands.

178
Epilogue
I began my doctoral journey almost a decade ago, not knowing the end goal. I was
interviewed about my research interest, and at the time, I could only think of examining why my
music students were also the top academic students at school. While taking courses, I prioritized
my work as a teacher over my studies. Inevitably, this made my journey longer than most, as I
could only fit one graduate class into my schedule in most semesters. As the graduate courses
transformed my thinking in the classroom, I noticed how this long-form professional
development had impacted my practice. The pandemic affected us all, and I immediately knew
coming out of the pandemic that this would be the research topic for my dissertation.
The reality is that not all music students had a negative experience with remote learning.
There is a silver lining that came about as a result. The pandemic challenged music teachers to
think outside the box and consider and incorporate other forms of music teaching and learning,
such as music technology, into their curriculum. It forced music teachers to look at the music
program as a whole and determine which elements of their program they should keep, which are
nice to have, and most importantly, which are excessive and need to go. Many students on the
fringes of dropping large ensemble music learned essential technology skills and valued the
ability to “redo” parts of their performance through editing and revisions. The pandemic
inevitably forced everyone to hit the reset button and reprioritize.
It should also be emphasized that ensemble size does not measure a program’s success.
While numbers often equate with full-time positions from an administrative point of view, the
size of a “traditional large ensemble” does not translate to the quality of music education
students receive from their music teachers. There is a natural ebb and flow of increasing and
declining enrollment that does not and should not reflect the quality of the music program. I

179
understand that I am fortunate to teach in a traditional music program with other music
colleagues on the same campus. I follow in the footsteps of other musical giants that established
the music program I currently teach in. In other words, my music program is the way it is, not
because of any work I contributed but rather due to those who came before me. Although there
are days that I yearn to explore teaching mediums beyond the traditional model, I do not take my
post for granted.
A decrease in enrollment should be seen as an opportunity for music teachers to consider
pivoting to other areas of music teaching and learning to expand their student audience. Often,
small eclectic music classes can become a gateway for students to participate in large ensemble
music. Music teachers must look beyond their current pool of students to reach the other 80%
(Williams, 2007). The ultimate silver lining is that the global pandemic is a shared experience—
we can undoubtedly connect over its global impact.

180
References
Abramo, J. (2010). Guitar class and the popular music ensemble. In A. C. Clements (Ed.),
Alternative approaches in music education: Case students from the field (pp. 17–26).
R&L Education. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/socal/detail.action?docID=634215
Abril, C. R., & Gault, B. M. (2008). The state of music in secondary schools: The principal’s
perspective. Journal of Research in Music Education, 56(1), 68–81.
doi:10.1177/0022429408317516
Adams, T. (2017). Critical autoethnography, education, and a call for forgiveness. International
Journal of Multicultural Education, 19(1), 79–88. doi:10.18251/ijme.v19i1.1387
Adedoyin, O. B., & Soykan, E. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic and online learning: The
challenges and opportunities. Interactive Learning Environments.
doi:10.1080/10494820.2020.1813180
Albert, D. J. (2006). Strategies for the recruitment and retention of band students in low
socioeconomic school districts. Contributions to Music Education, 33(2), 53–71.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/24127208
Alegrado, A., & Winsler, A. (2020). Predictors of taking elective music courses in middle school
among low-SES, ethnically diverse students in Miami. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 68(1), 5–30. doi:10.1177/0022429420908282
Allsup, R. E. (2016). Remixing the classroom: Toward an open philosophy of music education.
Indiana: Indiana University Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1d9npqk
ATLAS.ti Scientific Software Development GmbH [ATLAS.ti 23.2.0 Mac] (2023). Retrieved
from https://atlasti.com
Aydiner-Uygun, M. (2020). Achievement goal orientations of students studying instrument
education as predictors of their learning approaches. Music Education Research, 22(2),
130–144. doi:10.1080/14613808.2020.1713735
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal
attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–
529. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
Bloom L., Jones, A., Barnes, S., Dwyer, M., Garcia, G., Garcia, J., Hadid, H., Johannessen, A.
L., Kricke, E., Mendoza, Y., Turkovich, M., Wangensten-Oye, K., Wofford, S., & Zou, J.
(2021). Powerful methodologies/powerful pedagogy: Autoethnography and dialogic
interviews in a WGS empowerment self-defense class. Qualitative Inquiry, 27(6), 689–
699. doi:10.1177/1077800420948102

181
Boal-Palheiros, G., & Ilari, B. (2023). Music, drama, and social development in Portuguese
children. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1–14. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1093832
Bond, V. L. (2014). Culturally responsive teaching in the choral classroom. Choral Journal,
55(2), 8–14. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43917026
Bond, V. L. (2017). Culturally responsive education in music education: A literature
review. Contributions to Music Education, 42, 153–180.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/26367441
Bourke, B. (2014). Positionality: Reflecting on the research process. The qualitative
report, 19(33), 1–9. doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2014.1026
Branscome, E. E. (2012). The impact of education reform on music education: Paradigm shifts in
music education curriculum, advocacy, and philosophy from Sputnik to race to the
top. Arts Education Policy Review, 113(3), 112–118. doi:10.1080/10632913.2012.687341
Bull, A. (2019). Class, control, and classical music. Oxford University Press.
Bull, A. (2022). Equity in music education: Getting it right: Why classical music’s “pedagogy of
correction” is a barrier to equity. Music Educators Journal, 108(3), 65–66.
doi:10.1177/00274321221085132
California Department of Education (2022). School accountability report card.
https://sarconline.org/public/findASarc
California Department of Education (2023). Proposition 28–Arts and music education funding.
https://www.cde.ca.gov/eo/in/prop28artsandmusicedfunding.asp
Cerasoli C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Ford M. T. (2014). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives
jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 104(4),
980-1008. doi:10.1037/a0035661
Chittum, J. R., Jones, B. D., & Carter, D. M. (2019). A person-centered investigation of patterns
in college students’ perceptions of motivation in a course. Learning and Individual
Differences, 69, 94–107. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.11.007
Collins, A. (2014). Music education and the brain: What does it take to make a change? Update:
Applications of Research in Music Education, 32(2), 4–10.
doi:10.1177/8755123313502346
Conway, C. M. (2002). Perceptions of beginning teachers, their mentors, and administrators
regarding preservice music teacher preparation. Journal of Research in Music Education,
50(10), 20–36. doi:10.2307/3345690
Conway, C. M. (2012). Ten years later: Teachers reflect on “perceptions of beginning teachers,
their mentors, and administrator regarding preservice music teacher preparation.” Journal
of Research in Music Education, 60(3), 324–338. doi:10.1177/0022429412453601

182
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative
and qualitative research (4th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among
five approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Crowe, D. R. (2015). Retention of college students and freshman-year music ensemble
participation. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 17(3),
373–380. doi:10.1177/1521025115575918
Cumberledge, J. P., & Williams, M. L. (2023). Representation in music: College students’
perceptions of ensemble repertoire. Research Studies in Music Education, 45(2), 344–
361. doi:10.1177/1321103X211066844
Dammers, R. J. (2012). Technology-based music classes in high schools in the United States.
Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 194, 73–90.
doi:10.5406/bulcouresmusedu.194.0073
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human
behavior. New York: Plenum.
Dewey, J. (1902). The child and the curriculum. University of Chicago Press.
Dolister, C. (2020, April 4). Why can’t musicians jam with each other online without latency or
other issues? Medium. https://calebdolister.medium.com/why-cant-musicians-jam-witheach-other-online-without-latency-or-other-issues-44260789a721
Doloriert, C., & Sambrook, S. (2009). Ethical confessions of the “I” of autoethnography: The
student’s dilemma. Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management, 4(1), 27–45.
doi:10.1108/17465640910951435
Dutta, U. (2014). Critical Ethnography. In J. Mills & M. Birks (Eds.), Qualitative methodology:
A practical guide (pp. 89–105). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Eerola, P.,-S., & Eerola, T. (2014). Extended music education enhances the quality of school
life. Music Education Research, 16(1), 88–104. doi:10.1080/14613808.2013.829428
Elliot. A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational
Psychologist, 34(3), 169–189. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3403_3
Elpus, K. (2007). Improving music education advocacy. Arts Education Policy Review, 108(3),
13–18. doi:10.3200/AEPR.108.3.13-18
Elpus, K., & Abril, C. R. (2019). Who enrolls in high school music? A national profile of U.S.
students, 2009–2013. Journal of Research in Music Education, 67(3), 323–338.
doi:10.1177/0022429419862837

183
Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I., & Shaw, L. L. (2011). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes (2nd ed.).
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Evans, P., & Ryan, R. M. (2022). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for music performance. In
G. E. McPherson (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of music performance, volume 1. Oxford
University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190056285.013.24
Ferrer, J., Ringer, A., Saville, K., Parris, M. A., & Kashi, K. (2020). Students’ motivation and
engagement in higher education: The importance of attitude to online learning. Higher
Education, 83(2), 317–338. doi:10.1007/s10734-020-00657-5
Flewitt, R. (2005). Conducting research with young children: some ethical considerations. Early
Child Development and Care, 175(6), 553–565. doi:10.1080/03004430500131338
Folkestad, G. (2006). Formal and informal learning situations or practices vs formal and informal
ways of learning. British Journal of Music Education, 23(2), 135–145.
doi:10.1017/S0265051706006887
Fredrickson, W. E. (1997). Elementary, middle, and high school student perceptions of tension in
music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45(4), 626–635. doi:10.2307/3345427
Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the oppressed (M. B. Ramos, trans.). New York: Herder.
Froiland, J. M., Worrell, F. C., & Oh, H. (2019). Teacher-student relationships, psychological
need satisfaction and happiness among diverse students. Psychology in the Schools,
56(5), 856–870. doi:10.1002/pits.22245
Gardner, R. D. (2010). Should I stay or should I go? Factors that influence the retention,
turnover, and attrition of K-12 music teachers in the United States. Arts Education Policy
Review, 111(3), 112–121. doi:10.1080/10632910903458896
Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53,
106–116. doi:10.1177/0022487102053002003
Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.) New
York: NY: Teachers College Press.
Gibson, S.-J. (2021). Shifting from offline to online collaborative music-making, teaching and
learning: perceptions of Ethno artistic mentors. Music Education Research, 23(2), 151–
166. doi: 10.1080/14613808.2021.1904865
Green, L. (2006). Popular music education in and for itself, and for “other” music: Current
research in the classroom. International Journal of Music Education, 24(2), 101–118.
doi:10.1177/0255761406065471
Green, L. (2008). Music, informal learning and the school: A new classroom pedagogy.
Aldershot, England: Ashgate.

184
Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a conceptual framework for
mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy analysis, 11(3),
255–274. doi:10.2307/1163620
Grieser, D. R., & Hendricks, K. S. (2018). Review of literature: Pedagogical content knowledge
and string teacher preparation. Update: Applications of Research in Music
Education, 37(1), 13–19. doi:10.1177/8755123318760970
Haftador, A. M., Shirazi, F., & Mohebbi, Z. (2021). Online class or flipped-jigsaw learning?
Which one promotes academic motivation during the COVID-19 pandemic? BMC
Medical Education, 21(1), 1–8. doi:10.1186/s12909-021-02929-9
Haning, M. (2021). The role and influence of performance in school music programs: A
grounded theory. Journal of Research in Music Education, 69(1), 85–104.
doi:10.1177/0022429420953118
Hartnett, M. (2016). Motivation in online education. Springer: Singapore. doi:10.1007/978-981-
10-0700-2
Hash, P. M. (2021). Remote learning in school bands during the COVID-19 shutdown. Journal
of Research in Music Education, 68(4), 381–397. doi:10.1177/0022429420967008
Hendricks, K. S. (2016). The sources of self-efficacy: Educational research and implications for
music. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 35(1), 32–38.
doi:10.1177/8755123315576535
Hess, J. (2015). Upping the “anti-”: The value of an anti-racist theoretical framework in music
education. Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education, 14(1), 66–92.
http://act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Hess14_1.pdf
Hess, J. (2021). Becoming an anti-racist music educator: Resisting whiteness in music education.
Music Educators Journal, 107(4), 14–20. doi:10.1177/00274321211004695
Hobson, T. D., & Puruhito, K. K. (2018). Going the distance: Online course performance and
motivation of distance learning students. Online Learning, 22(4), 129–140.
doi:10.24059/olj.v22i4.1516
Hoffman, A., & Carter, B. (2013). Representin’ and disrespectin’: African-American wind band
students’ meanings of a composition-based secondary music curriculum and classroom
power structures. Music Education Research, 15(2), 135–150.
doi:10.1080/14613808.2012.685458
Holmes, A. G. D. (2020). Researcher positionality: A consideration of its influence and place in
qualitative research: A new researcher guide.” Shanlax International Journal of
Education, 8(4), 1–10. doi:10.34293/education.v8i4.3232

185
Holochwost, S. J., Goldstein, T. R., & Wolf, D. P. (2021). Delineating the benefits of arts
education for children’s socioemotional development. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1–11.
doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624712
hooks, b. (1984). Feminist theory: From margin to center. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
Ilari, B., Fesjian, C., Ficek, B., & Habibi, A. (2017). Improvised song endings in a
developmental perspective: A mixed-methods study. Psychology of Music, 46(4), 500–
520. doi:10.1177/0305735617715515
Ilari, B., Perez, P., Wood, A., & Habibi, A. (2019). The role of community-based music and
sports programmes in parental views of children’s social skills and personality.
International Journal of Community Music, 12(1), 35–56. doi:10.1386/ijcm.12.1.35_1
Jang, H., Reeve, J., & Deci, E. L. (2010). Engaging students in learning activities: It is not
autonomy support or structure but autonomy support and structure. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 102(3), 588–600. doi:10.1037/a0019682
JMP Statistical Discovery LLC [JMP® Pro 17.0.0. Mac]. (2022). SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC.
Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC model of academic
motivation. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21(2),
272–285. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ899315
Jones, B. D. (2012/2020, September). User guide for assessing the components of the MUSIC®
model of motivation. Retrieved from http://www.theMUSICmodel.com
Jones, B. D. (2018). Motivating students by design: Practical strategies for professors (2nd ed.).
Charleston, SC: CreateSpace.
Jones, B. D., Krost, K., & Jones, M. W. (2021). Relationships between students’ course
perceptions, effort, and achievement in an online course. Computers and Education
Open, 2, Article 100051. doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2021.100051
Jones, B. D., & Skaggs, G. E. (2016). Measuring students’ motivation: Validity evidence for the
MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. International Journal for the
Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10(1). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1134527
Jones, B. D., & Wilkins, J. L. M. (2022). Validating the MUSIC model of academic motivation
inventory: Evidence for the short forms of the college student version. Journal of
Psychoeducational Assessment. doi:10.1177/07342829221121695
Josef, D., Nethsinghe, R., & Cabedo-Mas, A. (2020). “We learned lots in a short time”: Cultural
exchange across three universities through songs from different lands. International
Journal of Music Education, 38(2), 177–193. doi:10.1177/0255761419880027

186
Kasim, N. N. M., & Khalid, F. (2016). Choosing the right learning management system (LMS)
for the higher education institution context: A systematic review. International Journal of
Emerging Technologies in Learning, 11(6), 55–61. doi:10.3991/ijet.v11i06.5644
Keegan-Phipps, S., & Wright, L. (2020). “Tradition,” vernacularism and learning to be a folk
musician with social media. In J. Waldron, S. Horsley, & K. Veblen (Eds.), The Oxford
handbook of social media and music learning. Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190660772.013.26
Keene, J. A. (1982). A history of music education in the United States. Hanover, NH: University
Press of New England.
Kinney, D. W. (2019). Selected nonmusic predictors of urban students’ decisions to enroll and
persist in middle and high school music ensemble electives. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 67(1), 23–44. doi:10.1177/0022429418809972
Kline R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY:
Guilford Press.
Kratus, J. (2007). Music education at the tipping point. Music Educators Journal, 94(2), 42–48.
doi:10.1177/002743210709400209
Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A social semiotic approach to contemporary communication.
New York: Routledge.
Krueger, P. J. (2013). Doing ethnography in music education. In C. M. Conway (Ed.), The
Oxford handbook of qualitative research in American music education (pp. 133–147).
New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199844272.013.008
Kruse, A. (2016). “They wasn’t makin’ my kinda music”: A hip-hop musician’s perspective on
school, schooling, and school music. Music Education Research, 18(3), 240–253.
doi:10.1080/14613808.2015.1060954
Leary, M. R., & Cox, C. B. (2008). Belongingness motivation: A mainspring of social action. In
J. Y. Shah & W. L. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of motivation science (pp. 27–40). New
York: Guilford.
Lepper, M. R., & Henderlong, J. (2000). Turning “play” into “work” and “work” into “play”: 25
years of research on intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. In C. Sansone & J. M.
Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal
motivation and performance (pp. 257–307). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
doi:10.1016/B978-012619070-0/50032-5
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and
task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717.
doi:10.1037//0003-066X.57.9.705

187
Mamolo, L. A. (2022). Online learning and students’ mathematics motivation, self-efficacy, and
anxiety in the “new normal.” Education Research International, 2022, 1–10.
doi:10.1155/2022/9439634
Mark, M. L. (2002). A history of music education advocacy. Music Educators Journal, 89(1),
44–48. doi:10.2307/3399884
Mayall, B. (2012). Conversations with children: Working with generational issues. In P.
Christensen & A. James (Eds.), Research with children: Perspectives and practices (3rd
ed., pp. 120–135). London: Taylor & Francis.
McPherson, M. S., & Bacow, L. S. (2015). Online higher education: Beyond the hype cycle. The
Journal of Economic Perspectives, 29(4), 135–154. doi:10.1257/jep.29.4.135
Méndez, M. (2013). Autoethnography as a research method: Advantages, limitations and
criticisms. Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal, 15(2), 279–287.
doi:10.14483/udistrital.jour.calj.2013.2.a09
Merton, R. K. (1972). Insiders and outsiders: A chapter in the sociology of knowledge. American
Journal of Sociology, 78(1), 9–47. doi:10.1086/225294
Miksza, P. (2013). The future of music education: Continuing the dialogue about curricular
reform. Music Educators Journal, 99(4), 45. doi:10.1177/0027432113476305
Mills, J., & Birks, M. (Eds.). (2014). Qualitative methodology: A practical guide. Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Morrow, V., & Richards, M. (1996). The ethics of social research with children: An overview.
Children & Society, 10, 90–105. doi:10.1111/j.1099-0860.1996.tb00461.x
Music for All Foundation (2004). The sound of silence: The unprecedented decline of music
education in California public schools: A statistical review. Warren, NJ: Music for All
Foundation. https://www.americansforthearts.org/sites/default/files/California.pdf
Naseer, S., & Rafique, S. (2021). Moderating role of teachers’ academic support between
students’ satisfaction with online learning and academic motivation in undergraduate
students during COVID-19. Educational Research International, 2021, 1–9.
doi:10.1155/2021/7345579
National Association for Music Education (1994). National standards archive.
https://nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/national-standards-archives/
National Association for Music Education (2014). Standards. https://nafme.org/myclassroom/standards/
National Commission on Music Education & Music Educators National Conference.
(1991). Growing up complete: The imperative for music education: The report of the
National Commission on music education. Virginia: R&L Education.

188
Orzolek, D. C. (2021). Equity in music education: Programming and equity in ensembles:
Students’ perceptions. Music Educators Journal, 107(4), 42–44.
doi:10.1177/00274321211001496
Parker, E. (2010). Exploring student experiences of belonging within an urban high school choral
ensemble: an action research study. Music Education Research, 12(4), 339–352.
doi:10.1080/14613808.2010.519379
Parkes, K. A., Jones, B. D., & Wilkins, J. L. M. (2017). Assessing music students’ motivation
using the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. UPDATE: Applications of
Research in Music Education, 35(3), 16–22. doi:10.1177/8755123315620835
Pascal, C., & Bertram, T. (2009). Listening to young citizens: the struggle to make real a
participatory paradigm in research with young children. European Early Childhood
Education Research Journal, 17(2), 249–262. doi:10.1080/13502930902951486
Patall, E. A., & Zambrano, J. (2019). Facilitating student outcomes by supporting autonomy:
Implications for practice and policy. Policy Insights from Behavioral and Brain Sciences,
6(2), 115–122. doi:10.1177/2372732219862572
Patall, E. A., Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., Liu, P. P., Zambrano, J., & Yates, N. (2022). Instructional
practices that support adaptive motivation, engagement, and learning. In A. O’Donnell,
N. C. Barnes, & J. Reeve (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of educational psychology.
Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199841332.013.36
Pendergast, S. (2021). Creative music-making with digital audio workstations. Music Educators
Journal, 108(2), 44–56. doi:10.1177/00274321211060310
Pendergast, S., & Robinson, N. R. (2020). Secondary students’ preferences for various learning
conditions and music courses: A comparison of school music, out-of-school music, and
nonmusic participants. Journal of Research in Music Education, 68(3), 264–285.
doi:10.1177/0022429420931826
Petters, R. (1976). Student participation in decision-making processes concerning musical
performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 24(4), 177–186.
doi:10.2307/3345128
Poellhuber, B., Roy, N., & Bouchoucha, I. (2019). Understanding participant’s behaviour in
massively open online courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance
Learning, 20(1), 222–242. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v20i1.3709
Pomerantz, E. M., Cheung, C. S., & Qin, L. (2012). Relatedness between children and parents:
Implications for motivation. In R. Ryan (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human
motivation. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190666453.013.19
Powell, B. (2021). Equity in music education: Addressing equity and social justice in music
education through modern band: Opportunities and challenges. Music Educators
Journal, 108(2), 57–59. doi:10.1177/00274321211060534

189
Pressley, T. (2021). Factors contributing to teacher burnout during COVID-19. Educational
Researcher, 50(5), 325–327. doi:10.3102/0013189X211004138
Rhoads, R. A. (2015). MOOCs, High Technology, and Higher Learning. Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Rolandson, D. M. (2020). Motivation in music: A comparison of popular music course students
and traditional large ensemble participants in high school. Contributions to Music
Education, 45, 105–126. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26974519
Roorda, D. L., Koomen, H. M. Y., Spilt, J. L., & Oort, F. J. (2011). The influence of affective
teacher-student relationships on students’ school engagement and achievement: A metaanalytic approach. Review of Educational Research, 81(4), 493–529.
doi:10.3102/0034654311421793
Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of
reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80(1), 1–28. doi:10.1037/h0092976
Ruthmann, S. A., & Hebert, D. G. (2012). Music learning and new media in virtual and online
environments. In G. E. McPherson & G. F. Welch (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of music
education, volume 2. Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199928019.013.0037
Ryan, A. M. (2000). Peer groups as a context for the socialization of adolescents' motivation,
engagement, and achievement in school. Educational Psychologist, 35(2), 101–111.
doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3502_4
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination
theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych. 2020.101860
Salavuo, M. (2006). Open and informal online communities as forums of collaborative musical
activities and learning. British Journal of Music Education, 23(3), 253–271.
doi:10.1017/S0265051706007042
Sanguinetti, R. D. (2023). Applications of self-determination theory in the general music
classroom. Journal of General Music Education. doi:10.1177/27527646231188083
Schellenberg, E. G., Corrigall, K. A., Dys, S. P., & Malti, T. (2015). Group music training and
children’s prosocial skills. PloS One, 10(10), 1–14. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141449
Schippers, H. (2009). Facing the music: Shaping music education from a global perspective.
Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195379754.001.0001
Schnittka, C. G., Brandt, C. B., Jones, B. D., & Evans, M. A. (2012). Informal engineering
education after school: Employing the studio model for motivation and identification in
STEM domains. Advances in Engineering Education, 3(2), 1–31.

190
Senko, C., Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2011). Achievement goal theory at the
crossroads: Old controversies, current challenges, and new directions. Educational
Psychologist, 46(1), 26–47. doi:10.1080/00461520.2011.538646
Shaw, B. P. (2021). Concert grades and performance assessment in ensemble music. Music
Educators Journal, 108(2), 30–35. doi:10.1177/00274321211060358
Shaw, B. P. (2022). A national analysis of music coursetaking, social-emotional learning, and
academic achievement using propensity scores. Journal of Research in Music Education,
69(4), 382–401. doi:10.1177/00224294211006415
Shaw, J. (2016). “The music I was meant to sing”: Adolescent Choral Students’ Perceptions of
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy. Journal of Research in Music Education, 64(1), 45–70.
doi:10.1177/0022429415627989
Shaw, R. D., & Auletto, A. (2022). Is music education in tune with the pursuit of equity? An
examination of access to music education in Michigan’s schools. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 69(4), 364–381. doi:10.1177/0022429421989961
Siebenaler, D. (1999). Student song preference in the elementary music class. Journal of
Research in Music Education, 47(3), 213–223. doi:10.2307/3345780
Small, C. (1998). Musicking: The meanings of performing and listening. Middletown: Wesleyan
University Press.
Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant observer. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Springer, D. G. (2020). Students’ perspectives on the master’s degree in music education.
Journal of Music Teacher Education, 30(1), 79–92. doi:10.1177/10570837209514
Srivastava, P. (2006). Reconciling multiple researcher positionalities and languages in
international research. Research in Comparative and International Education, 1(3), 210–
222. doi:10.2304/rcie.2006.1.3.210
Stamatis, C. A., Broos, H. C., Hudiburgh, S. E., Dale, S. K., & Timpano, K. R. (2022). A
longitudinal investigation of VOID-19 pandemic experiences and mental health among
university students. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61(2), 385–404.
doi:10.1111/bjc.12351
Stavrou, N. E., Papageorgi, I. (2021). ‘Turn up the volume and listen to my voice’: Students’
perceptions of music in school. Research Studies in Music Education, 43(3), 366–385.
doi:10.1177/1321103X20929709
Taylor, O. (1997). Student interpretations of teacher verbal praise in selected seventh- and
eighth-grade choral classes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45(4), 536–546.
doi:10.2307/3345421

191
Taylor, R. D., Oberle, E., Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2017). Promoting positive youth
development through school-based social and emotional learning interventions: A metaanalysis of follow-up effects. Child Development, 88(4), 1156–1171.
doi:10.1111/cdev.12864
Tilghman-Havens, J. (2018). The will to (share) power: Privilege, positionality, and the servantleader. The International Journal of Servant-Leadership, 12(1), 87–128.
doi:10.33972/ijsl.71
Tobias, E. S. (2016). Learning with digital media and technology in hybrid music classrooms. In
C. Abril & B. M. Gault (Eds.), Teaching general music: Approaches, issues, and
viewpoints. New York: Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199328093.003.0007
Tobias, E. S. (2020). Envisioning pedagogical possibilities of social media and sonic
participation cultures. In J. Waldron, S. Horsley, & K. Veblen (Eds.), The Oxford
handbook of social media and music learning. Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190660772.013.3
Turino, T. (2008). Music as social life: The politics of participation. Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press.
United Nations. (2020). Policy brief: Education during COVID-19 and beyond.
https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wpcontent/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid19_and_education_august_2020.pdf
Usher, E. L., & Pajares, F. (2008). Sources of self-efficacy in school: Critical review of the
literature and future directions. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), 751–796.
doi:10.3102/0034654308321456
Vogt, W. P., & Johnson, R. B. (2011). Dictionary of statistics and methodology: A nontechnical
guide for the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M.
Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Waldron, J. (2012). YouTube, fanvids, forums, vlogs, and blogs: Informal music learning in
convergent on and offline community. The Journal for the International Society of Music
Education, 31(1), 91–105. doi:10.1177/0255761411434861
Waldron, J., Horsley, S., & Veblen, K. (2020). Introduction: Why should we care about social
media? In J. Waldron, S. Horsley, & K. Veblen (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of social
media and music learning. Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190660772.013.42

192
Wallace, T. L., & Sung, H. C. (2017). Student perceptions of autonomy-supportive instructional
interactions in the middle grades. The Journal of Experimental Education, 85(3), 425–
449. doi:10.1080/00220973.2016.1182885
Wieczorek, T., Kołodziejczyk, A., Ciułkowicz, M., Maciaszek, J., Misiak, B., Rymaszewska, J.,
& Szcześniak, D. (2021). Class of 2020 in Poland: Students’ mental health during the
COVID-19 outbreak in an academic setting. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 18(6), 1–14. doi:10.3390/ijerph18062884
Wiggins, J. (2016). Teaching music with a social constructivist vision of learning. In C. Abril &
B. M. Gault (Eds.), Teaching general music: Approaches, issues, and viewpoints. New
York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199328093.003.0004
Williams, D. A. (2011). The elephant in the room. Music Educators Journal, 98(1).
doi:10.1177/0027432111415538
Williams, D. B. (2007). Reaching the "other 80%:" Using technology to engage "nontraditional
music students" in creative activities. Presentation at the Tanglewood II "Technology and
Music Education" Symposium, University of Minnesota.
https://musiccreativity.org/documents/tanglewood2tech_dbwilliams0.pdf
Yoo, H. (2021). A motivational sequence model of high school ensemble students’ intentions to
continue participating in music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 69(2), 167–
187. doi:10.1177/0022429420954880

193
Appendix A – USC Institutional Review Board Approval
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board
3720 S. Flower Street, Suite 325
Los Angeles, CA 90089
Telephone: (323) 442-0114
Fax: (323) 224-8389
Email: irb@usc.edu
Date: Jun 19, 2023, 05:35pm
Action Taken: Approve
Principal
Investigator:
Jim Wang
THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
Faculty Advisor: Beatriz Ilari
THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
Project Title: Music education in a post-pandemic world
Study ID: UP-23-00477
Funding Types: No Funding
The University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) designee reviewed your project and it was APPROVED on 06-
19-23. In approving this research, the IRB determined that all of the requirements under 45 CFR 46.111 were satisfied. Based on the
information submitted for review, this study qualifies for expedited review according to 45 CFR 46.110(b) (7).
You are authorized to conduct this research as approved. In accordance with 45 CFR 46.109(f)(1)(i), continuing review is not
required for minimal risk projects.
THE MATERIALS SUBMITTED AND CONSIDERED FOR REVIEW OF THIS PROJECT INCLUDED:
1. iStar application, dated 05-16-23, updated 06-16-23
2. JWANG_Social_Behavioral_Protocol(0.02), uploaded 06-14-23
3. JWang-Recruitment-tools v3,_DCM email, uploaded 06-19-23
4. JWang-MUSIC-Inventory, uploaded 05-16-23
5. JWang-Student-Demographics, uploaded 05-16-23
6. JWang-Year-End-Reflective-Journal, uploaded 05-16-23
7. JWang-ICF parent and teen v3_DCM email, dated and uploaded 06-19-23
8. JWANG_SMMUSD_IRB, uploaded 06-15-23
THE IRBA HAS MADE THE FOLLOWING CHANGES TO THE ISTAR APPLICATION:
1. In iStar 24.2: Edited recruitment materials to show data collection manager’s email address, not the PI, who is not authorized to have
direct contact with participants.
2. In iStar 24.A.4: Made minor edits to the consent for to add the data collection manager’s contact information so people do not have to
contact PI.

194

195

196
Appendix B – School District Institutional Review Board Approval
Note: District identification redacted to maintain anonymity

197
Appendix C – Parent and Teen Consent Form

198

199

200
JWang-Recruitment-tools v2.png (PNG Image, 1506 × 1280 pixels) https://istar.usc.edu/iStar/sd/Doc/0/2B28R7GAQO8UT257EGLRKLIG... Appendix D – Recruitment Language
1 of 1 6/19/2023, 3:26 PM

201
Appendix E – Demographic Survey
The version below re-formatted from Google Forms (the form is not collecting emails)
Directions
This is not a test and there are no right or wrong answers. We are only interested in your honest
response. Your responses will remain confidential. This means that no one at your school will
know how you answered these questions because your names will not be attached to this survey,
and your answers will be summarized with the answers of the other students in your class.
This information will help us better understand the students we work with every year. Thank you
for your time!
Pseudonym
The pseudonym can be whatever name you want to give yourself for this study. To help us link
the responses together, please use the same pseudonym across the different questionnaires.
(Short answer text)
Background Information
Race/Ethnicity (check all that apply)
• White
• Hispanic/Latino
• Black or African American
• American Indian and Alaska Native
• Asian
• Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander
• Some Other Race
• Two or More Races
Grade Level
• 9
• 10
• 11
• 12
Gender: How do you identify?
• Man
• Non-binary
• Woman
• Prefer to self-describe
Spoken Language (at home)
(Short answer text)
School Activities Background
Elementary School

202
*List of elementary schools redacted to maintain anonymity
Middle School
*List of middle schools redacted to maintain anonymity
High School Foreign Language
• Spanish
• French
• Japanese
• Chinese
• Latin
• Other (fill in the blank)
Fall Athletics
• No fall sports
• Boys Water Polo
• Cheer and Pep Squad
• Cross Country
• Football
• Girls GOLF
• Girls Tennis
• Girls Volleyball
• Other (fill in the blank)
Winter Athletics
• No winter sports
• Boys Basketball
• Boys Soccer
• Cheer and Pep Squad
• Girls Basketball
• Girls Soccer
• Girls Water Polo
• Wrestling
• Other (fill in the blank)
Spring Athletics
• No spring sports
• Baseball
• Beach Volleyball Girls
• Boys & Girls Swimming
• Boys Golf
• Boys Lacrosse
• Boys Tennis
• Boys Volleyball

203
• Girls Lacrosse
• Softball
• Track and Field
• Other (fill in the blank)
Other Extracurriculars (You can list clubs, competitive academics, special programs, and other
non-music elective classes.
(Long answer text)
Have you ever/will you plan to take summer high school “get ahead” classes?
• Yes
• No
• Maybe
• Other (fill in the blank)
Have you ever/will you plan to take [community college] courses as a high school student?
• Yes
• No
• Maybe
• Other (fill in the blank)
Have you ever/will you plan to take an AM high school class?
• Yes
• No
• Maybe
• Other (fill in the blank)
Music Background
When did you start your instrument in music class?
• Before 4th grade
• 4th grade
• 5th grade
• 6th grade
• 7th grade
• 8th grade
• After 8th grade
Have you ever taken private music lessons consistently? (e.g., had a private teacher/tutor for a
sustained period)
• Yes
• No
• Other (fill in the blank)
Have you ever had scholarships for your private music lessons?
• Yes

204
• No
• Never had private lessons
Do you currently have a private teacher for music?
• Yes
• No
Other Instruments? (List any instruments you play outside of music class)
(Short answer text)
Music Preferences
What genre of music do you listen to outside of music class? (Check all that apply)
• Classical
• Blues
• Country
• Easy listening
• Electronic
• Contemporary folk
• Hip hop
• Jazz
• Pop
• R&B and soul
• Rock
• Other (fill in the blank)
List your top 5 artist/band (listening)
(Long answer text)
List music/pieces suggestions for future concerts
(Long answer text)

205
Appendix F – MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory
MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory, adapted for music class
Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC Model of
Academic Motivation. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher
Education, 21(2), 272–285.
The version below re-formatted from Google Forms (the form is not collecting emails)
Questions About Music Class
Directions
This is not a test and there are no right or wrong answers. We are only interested in your honest
opinion. Your responses will remain confidential. This means that no one at your school will
know how you answered these questions because your names will not be attached to this
questionnaire, and your answers will be summarized with the answers of the other students in
your class.
Some of the questions will seem similar to one another; however, it is important that you answer
all of them to ensure that we completely understand your answers.
The questions ask you to select a number for your answer. Please select the number that best
describes what you believe.
Example Question 1
Please select one of the numbers from 1 to 6 below.
_____ I like to eat pizza (Google Forms: radio buttons, 1-6)
For this question, you would select a "6" if you like to eat pizza a lot, you would select a "1" if
you do not like pizza at all, or any number in between depending on how much you like pizza.
What number would you choose if you liked pizza a little? Maybe a 2, or 3, or 4. You can pick
any number depending on how much you like pizza. You should answer the questions on the real
survey using this same scale.
Pseudonym
The pseudonym can be whatever name you want to give yourself for this study. To help us link
the responses together, please use the same pseudonym across the different questionnaires.
(Short answer text)
Directions
These items ask you about your current MUSIC CLASS and MUSIC TEACHER.
Please select one of the numbers from 1 to 6 below next to each question.
_____ The knowledge I gained in music class is important for my future.
_____ I was confident that I could succeed in music class performances.

206
_____ My music teacher cared about how well I did in music class.
_____ I was capable of getting a high grade in music class.
_____ I had the freedom to complete my music class work in my own way.
_____ The music class work was interesting to me.
_____ I felt that I could be successful in meeting the challenges in music class.
_____ I enjoyed completing the music class work.
_____ In general, music class work was useful to me.
_____ During music class, I felt that I could be successful on the class work.
_____ My music teacher was friendly.
_____ I had choices in what I was allowed to do in music class.
_____ I found music class work to be relevant to my future.
_____ My music teacher was willing to assist me if I needed help in music class.
_____ My music teacher was respectful of me.
_____ I had control over how I learned the content in music class.
_____ The music class work held my attention.
_____ I had options in how to achieve the goals in music class.

207
Appendix G – Reflective Questions
The version below was re-formatted from Google Forms (the form is not collecting emails)
Directions
Your story matters. We would like to be able to share your story so that future music educators
can learn from our shared experience. Please take time with this portion of the research study.
This is not a test, and there are no right or wrong answers. We are only interested in your honest
response. Your responses will remain confidential. Your identity will not be attached to any
responses in the report's final publication. You will link your pseudonym before starting the
reflection.
You may choose to answer any of the prompts. Please try to answer as many as possible, as it
will help us understand your complete story. Of course, your answers will not affect your grade
or standing in music class. Do not close the web browser tab if you anticipate needing more time
to complete the reflections To be safe, it may be a good idea to copy your responses on a
separate Word document just in case.
Thank you for your time!
Pseudonym
The pseudonym can be whatever name you want to give yourself for this study. To help us link
the responses together, please use the same pseudonym across the different questionnaires.
(Short answer text)
Reflections on Past Year
Please reflect on your overall experience in music class this past year, specifically any story or
moment that stands out. For example, you can talk about a particular concert series, focus on a
particular rehearsal, or talk more broadly about the school year.
(Long answer text)
Please recall any memorable experiences in music class this past year. Give your story some
context/background.
(Long answer text)
Please provide an example of a challenge you encountered this past school year in music class
and how you overcame that challenge if you could.
(Long answer text)
Reflections on Past Cumulative Music Experiences
Please share a connection (person) in your musical past that you feel has helped
shape/transform/influence the musician you are today. If there is a particular story that stands
out, please also share!
(Long answer text)

208
Please reflect on your time learning music during the COVID-19 pandemic. What were the
main challenges of learning and playing music remotely? Were you able to find ways to cope or
overcome that challenge, if so, what strategies worked for you?
(Long answer text)
Throughout your journey thus far as a musician, briefly talk about what an "independent
musician" means to you. How have your past experiences helped you take steps closer to
becoming an independent musician?
(Long answer text)
Reflections on Future Musical Aspirations
The following questions are future aspirations, so even if you're unsure, take your best-educated
guess as to how you feel about the prompt today.
What musical plans do you have once you graduate from high school? Will you continue
playing in a large ensemble in college? Will you participate in other types of music? If so, what
types?
(Long answer text)
What do you think will be your biggest takeaway from learning music in a large ensemble up to
the end of high school? What musical lesson do you think will have the biggest impact on your
college major and/or other real-life experiences?
(Long answer text)
When you look back to your overall experiences in participating in large ensemble music
classes five or ten years down the road, what aspects do you think you'll remember fondly? What
aspects do you think you'll miss the least? What aspects do you think you'll miss the most?
(Long answer text)
Final Remarks
Optional
Responding to the prompts may have triggered a thought or a memory. If there is something
important that you could share to add to your story, use the space below to write about anything
that came up.
(Long answer text)

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the inherent flaws and limitations of traditional large ensemble music classes in public schools and fast-tracked the mass migration of students dropping music altogether. As a high school ensemble music teacher at a public school, my unique positionality allowed me to be in proximity to high school music students, giving me special access to their voices. As a result, I felt a sense of responsibility to discover underlying motivations for their continued participation in ensemble music classes by sharing my student’s voices.

Through the lens of self-determination theory, a mixed methods design was utilized to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. Autonomy, competence, and relatedness, the three aspects of self-determination theory, guided the data analysis. Student volunteers (N = 51) who participated in the quantitative stage of the study completed a demographic survey and the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory, adapted for music class. Additionally, 13 student volunteers participated in the qualitative stage of the study and completed open-ended reflective questions. Results showed that the mean values for each variable of the MUSIC Inventory were relatively high. Student reflections indicated that social connections, enjoyment of music, and musical independence were factors that helped them persevere through the COVID-19 pandemic to continue studying music. Implications for music education and future research are provided at the conclusion of the study.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Mindset and its role in first-year music teachers in differing cultures

PDF

The relationship between small ensemble experiences, empathy, and emotional self-regulation skills in music students

PDF

Musical self-efficacy of graduate students in South Korea and the United States

PDF

High school string orchestra students’ perceptions of wellness and its implications on musical performance

PDF

A case study in how middle school counselors mentor students at risk for emerging academic disengagement

PDF

Recent high school graduates' perceptions on their school experiences, musical lives and curriculum relevancy

PDF

Teaching in the time of COVID: secondary educators’ experiences during and after the COVID-19 pandemic

PDF

Frontline workers serving students: a study on the well-being of student affairs professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic

PDF

Transformation of habitus and social trajectories: a retrospective study of a popular music program

PDF

Students’ sense of belonging: college student and staff perspectives during COVID-19

PDF

A crafted intergenerational district band: A bounded case study of participant experiences

PDF

The well-being and employee effectiveness of United States government contractors during the COVID-19 pandemic

PDF

Teaching in the time of COVID-19: secondary educators’ experiences during and after the COVID-19 pandemic

PDF

A case Study of gender gaps in the legal profession

PDF

Case study of constructivist philosophy and policy implementation for music teaching and learning in two elementary schools in Los Angeles

PDF

Leadership practices impacting Minnesota school principals’ employee well-being and burnout during the pandemic

PDF

Forming relationships: investigating social capital in a low socio-economic school music program

PDF

COVID-19 pandemic: the impact on the Napa Valley wine industry workers

PDF

Voices from within: perceptions of community youth orchestras and musical identities of child musicians

PDF

How do transition challenges affect the persistence of Chinese international undergraduate students?

Asset Metadata

Creator Wang, Jim (author)

Core Title Music education in a post-pandemic world: motivators for the retention of music students

School Thornton School of Music

Degree Doctor of Musical Arts

Degree Program Music Teaching and Learning

Degree Conferral Date 2023-12

Publication Date 10/30/2023

Defense Date 10/20/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag COVID-19,motivation,Music Teaching and Learning,musical enjoyment,musical independence,OAI-PMH Harvest,online education,recruitment and retention,self-determination theory,social connections

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ilari, Beatriz (committee chair), Coppola, William (committee member), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee member)

Creator Email jimwang@usc.edu,maestrowangmusic@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113763045

Unique identifier UC113763045

Identifier etd-WangJim-12441.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-WangJim-12441

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Wang, Jim

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20231103-usctheses-batch-1104 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu