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Teachers' classroom pedagogy and perception: In schools with high rates of exclusionary discipline practices for African American students

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Teachers' classroom pedagogy and perception: In schools with high rates of exclusionary discipline practices for African American students

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Content TEACHERS’ CLASSROOM PEDAGOGY AND PERCEPTION:
IN SCHOOLS WITH HIGH RATES OF EXCLUSIONARY DISCIPLINE PRACTICES
FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS
by
Shannyn Lynn Cahoon
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2024

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© Copyright by Shannyn Lynn Cahoon 2024
All Rights Reserved

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The Committee for Shannyn Lynn Cahoon certifies the approval of this Dissertation.
Bradley Ermeling
Maria Ott
Kim Ferrario, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

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Abstract
This study applies critical theory to examine the relationship that exists between teachers and
students in the classroom and whether the classroom is a microcosm of social injustice,
replicating the inequities between those in a position of power and those that are subject to them.
The purpose of the study was to expose gaps in current practices used to manage student
behaviors in secondary education to build capacity in staff and improve the perception of school
culture to decrease suspensions and expulsions, specifically for African American students as
they are disproportionately suspended and expelled from school. Also, this study sought to
explore better strategies to reduce the oppressive practices associated with critical theory in
education. Using qualitative research strategies by interviewing eleven core and special
education, secondary teachers, evidence suggested practices that replicated social injustices in
the classroom. Further, document review validated the participants responses. Findings from this
study support the assertion that the classroom is a microcosm of social injustices associated with
critical theory. Students in classrooms that a free from these injustices and have teachers that
utilize pedagogical practices that are inclusive and equitable experience better social and
academic outcomes. The study begins to bridge the gap between professional development
opportunities that teachers need and what is currently being offered to enhance pedagogical
practices that influence school culture as well as the role of teacher and administrator perceptions
of equity when working with students.

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Dedication
In loving memory of my Nonna, Mary Nicolosi. I know that you were with me throughout the
entire journey.

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Acknowledgements
The work that follows would also have not been possible without the guidance, feedback,
and support of my amazing committee, Dr. Bradley Ermeling, Dr. Maria Ott, and my wonderful
chair, Dr. Kim Ferrario
Of course, my USC Crew was also pivotal to this journey. Your comradery and
friendship made Wednesdays an evening to look forward to because I knew that I was learning
alongside lifelong friends. Denise, Shannon, Maurissa, and Alia---I look forward to all the future
holds for us regardless of the miles between us.
To my mother-in-law, Trish Reed, and father-in-law, Gerry Becker, I am grateful for
your ongoing support and love. Your pride in me was a great motivator. You always took an
interest and have treated me like one of your own.
The work behind this dissertation could also not have been possible without the love and
support of my family. Without them, I could not achieve my dream of not only earning my
doctorate degree but doing so as a USC Trojan.
To my children, Savannah, Carson, and Troy, I hope that while it was annoying that I
traveled everywhere with my MacBook for three years, that you were able to see through hard
work and dedication all dreams are possible. Making a life better for you than what I had, has
been and will always be my commitment to each of you. I also appreciate the never-ending
supply of caffeine that you all were always willing to provide on late nights and long days. To
my husband, Ryan, I hope you know how much I recognize the additional burden that you had to
carry, and I appreciate all you have done to support all my crazy endeavors. You were
volunteered to be my amateur editor on more than one occasion, and you always came through.
Finally, you all get Wednesday evenings and weekends back! I love you all and appreciate you.

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Finally, none of this would have been possible without my maternal grandparents, Nonna
(Mary) and Papa (Michael) Nicolosi and my Uncle “Ricky” Nicolosi. While you have each
moved on from this earth, you live on in my heart and soul. Papa and Uncle Ricky—you always
believed in me and taught me not to take myself or life too seriously. Nonna, you left me before I
was able to graduate, and I wish you could be here to celebrate my graduation. I am because of
you. You taught me how to persevere and overcome any challenge that life may have in store.
You loved me unconditionally and always supported me and had faith in me. You came to this
country with nothing but a dream, work ethic, and determination. You instilled this in me along
with the value of education. This is for you, Nonna.

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Table of Contents
Abstract........................................................................................................................................... 4
Table of Contents............................................................................................................................ 8
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 9
List of Figures............................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study ........................................................................................ 11
Background of the Problem....................................................................................................... 12
Organization Context and Mission............................................................................................ 14
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions.......................................................................... 16
Importance of the Study ............................................................................................................ 16
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology........................................................... 18
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 19
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 21
Zero Tolerance policies and the Unintended Consequences..................................................... 21
Teacher Role in the Effect of Exclusionary Discipline Practices ............................................. 29
Current Initiatives in Addressing Exclusionary Discipline Practices ....................................... 32
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 38
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 41
Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................................ 43
Overview of Methodology ........................................................................................................ 43
Data Sources.............................................................................................................................. 45
Credibility and Trustworthiness................................................................................................ 49
Ethics......................................................................................................................................... 50
The Researcher.......................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 53
Participants................................................................................................................................ 53
Findings for Research Question 1: How do secondary teachers in a district identified as
having disproportionate discipline practices for African American students describe the school
culture and education experience of these students? ................................................................ 55
Discussion for Research Question 1.......................................................................................... 62
Findings for Research Question 2: What do secondary teachers in HUSD perceive is the
impact of exclusionary discipline practices on their classroom pedagogy?............................. 64
Discussion for Research Question 2.......................................................................................... 73
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 74
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations for Practice ..................................................... 77
Discussion of Findings.............................................................................................................. 78
Recommendations for Practice.................................................................................................. 80
Limitations and Delimitations................................................................................................... 87
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................... 88
Conclusion................................................................................................................................. 89
References..................................................................................................................................... 91
Appendix A................................................................................................................................... 99
Appendix B................................................................................................................................. 101

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List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources................................................................................................................... 45
Table 2: Participant’s Years of Experience, Content Area, and Race .......................................... 54
Table 3: Ostracization of African American Students.................................................................. 58
Table 4:Cultural Experience Depended on Race .......................................................................... 60
Table 5: Exclusion because of not having an adult as an advocate. ............................................. 62
Table 6: Student experience depends on the teacher. ................................................................... 67
Table 7: Teachers respond differently to different students. ........................................................ 69
Table 8: Schools with a good culture need strong leadership....................................................... 72
Table 9: Summary of Themes and Findings of the Study ............................................................ 76
Table 10: Connection of RQ’s to Findings and Literature ........................................................... 80
Table 11: Recommendation Timetable, Resources, and Staff Responsible ................................. 86

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List of Figures
Figure A: Concept Map ................................................................................................................ 39

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Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
The problem of practice focused on for this study will examine what the teaching staff’s
perception of a school’s culture is when there are high rates of exclusionary discipline practices
utilized with African American Students. Zero Tolerance policies have been around for over
twenty years; however, those policies do more to negatively impact the relationship of
adolescents with the juvenile justice system than to keep schools safe (American Psychological
Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008; Wang, 2022). The implementation of policies that
promote exclusionary practices often lack consistency and do little to help students that may
have violated school rules. A large proportion of out of school suspensions are often for minor
infractions rather than major offenses and even with the limits placed on suspension for willful
defiance, the number of suspensions has not been reduced (Wang, 2022). Teachers have a
significant role in exclusionary practices as their ability to connect with students is pivotal and
this can be greatly impacted by how they perceive students.
Disciplinary practices that emerged from zero tolerance policies that are used by schools
are controversial because they fail to improve student behaviors and continually exclude students
from their educational environment. The most recently documented national suspension data
from 2017-2018 shows that 3.42% of students suspended were White, 12.30% African
American, 6.90% Native American, 5.52% Two or more races, 4.88% Pacific Islander, and
3.97% Latino; students that were not White were nearly ten times more likely on average to be
suspended nationwide (St. Andrews, 2013). African American students that resided in southern
and mid-western states were even more likely to be suspended than White students. Students that
are subjected to out of school suspensions or are placed on expulsions have an increased chance
of being arrested; thus, feeding the school-to-prison pipeline (Monahan et al., 2014). Alternatives

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to exclusionary discipline practices decrease the negative outcomes that many BIPOC (Black,
Indigenous, and People of Color) students experience (Henry et al., 2021).
Background of the Problem
Current impetus to resort to exclusionary discipline practices, suspension, and expulsion,
are the result of zero tolerance policies that had been a common practice in the United States.
The American Psychological Association developed a Task Force that reported in 2008 with
recommendations to reform zero tolerance policies and alternatives that may better maximize the
student’s opportunity to learn and more closely align with what is known about adolescent
development. Zero tolerance policies as they were practiced proved to be ineffective in making
schools safer, showed to result in African American students and students with disabilities being
suspended at higher rates than their White, general education counterparts that violated the same
rules, and proved detrimental to the relationship between these students and the education system
(American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008). This is problematic as
it has been demonstrated time and time again that the relationship between students and teachers
plays a significant role in how students feel about the education system and directly impact their
education outcomes (Perez et al., 2019). Unfortunately, there are residual effects of the “zero
tolerance mindset” in current practices and educational systems still heavily rely on exclusionary
practices in their behavioral systems. The overuse of suspension/expulsion as the “go to” in
behavioral systems on campus can tarnish the school culture and have a detrimental impact on
the relationships in the classroom.
Teachers’ perceptions impact their pedagogical practices; this includes how they manage
their classrooms and deal with students. Students’ perceptions impact how they feel towards the
teachers and the school, and they may not trust that they are in a place that is seeking what is in

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their best interest (Perez et al., 2019). Students that feel connected to campus through
interactions with faculty and peers and have a sense of belonging are more likely to persist and
experience academic success. According to Lundberg (2014), “students benefit from interactions
with faculty members who know and validate students” (p. 81). This cultural acknowledgment
contributes to a student feeling respected and connected to the campus. There is also power in
peer interactions which for some students may be limited by financial challenges and cultural
expectations (Shelton, 2019). Students of color are also more likely to have other responsibilities
that limit their ability to be involved on campus (Lundberg, 2019). Students that do not feel a
sense of belonging on campus and do not have the same opportunities to forge significant
relationships with peers and faculty are less likely to persist and this can impact academic
success (Lewis, et. al., 2019; Lundberg, 2019; Shelton, 2019). Limited relationships and
belonging are in part a result of the lack of cultural understanding (Lundberg, 2014) racism
(Shelton, 2019) and microaggressions (Lewis, et. al., 2019) on campus. Students that feel like an
outsider and do not connect to feel like they belong are less likely to persist and fulfill their
academic potential. These exclusionary practices become a barrier for those that have already
been pushed furthest from opportunity because of inequitable practices. Essentially, exclusionary
practices can change the trajectory of a student from being at-risk to at-promise (Perez et al.,
2019). Other means of correction, restorative justice, and PBIS (Positive Behavior Intervention
and Support) could improve school culture and improve the relationships not only between
students and staff, but between each group and the school as an entity. Students that report a
positive school culture fare better in terms of academic outcomes (Perez et al., 2019).
Nationally, African American students are twice as likely to be suspended than White
students for both violent and nonviolent offenses and are more likely to be suspended for longer

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periods of time (Barrett et al., 2017). There is significant disproportionality in the total of African
American students that face exclusionary discipline practices. This raises the concern of what
opportunities students must thrive in an environment where they are likely to be discarded. The
American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force (2008) found in their research
that exclusionary discipline practices are detrimental to the relationship between students and the
education system. This can lead both students and teachers to feel disenfranchised from the
system. Exclusionary practices are rooted in deterrence theory and have done little to change
student behaviors (Wang, 2022). Even though California has attempted to lower suspension rates
by removing the ability to suspend students in TK-8 for willful defiance (48900(k)), the number
of suspensions were not reduced. Wang (2022) identified three significant factors that resulted
in a failed attempt to successfully eliminate suspension for willful defiance and decrease
suspension/expulsion rates: (1) teachers still had the authority to suspend in this category for
other reasons, (2) out of school suspension does not attract the same attention as academic
outcomes, so there is not as much monitoring and training, and (3) districts implemented the
change without sufficient time to change perceptions and mindsets around reasons to suspend a
student. This could directly impact the school culture that is critical for staff and students alike.
Organization Context and Mission
Located in Southern California, Riverside County schools are a microcosm of the
national trends around education in terms of diversity and disproportionality in disciplinary
actions. It serves a diverse population of students in its schools and suspends African American
students at a rate of nearly three times as many as White students. According to the most recent
demographic data captured by the Riverside County Office of Education: 64.3% of students
identify as Hispanic/Latino, 5.9% identify as African American, 19.9% identify as White, and

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3.4% identify as two or more races. Within the county, 66.5% of students qualify as
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged with 3.4% being homeless. The last year of data collected that
was not impacted by the COVID-19 show that 8.9% of African American students were
suspended compared with 3.1% of White students (Riverside County Demographics).
“Harmony Unified School District'' (HUSD), a pseudonym, is one of 23 school districts in
Riverside County and serves nearly 22,000 students. The secondary schools addressed in this
subject include the three comprehensive high schools and four middle schools. HUSD follows
the motto that they will educate, empower, and embrace every student. The vision of HUSD is to
ensure equitable outcomes for all students with an emphasis on those students that have been
historically kept furthest from opportunity. According to the California School Dashboard
(2022), nearly 87% of all students in HUSD qualified as socioeconomically disadvantaged, over
half of the students attending were considered chronically absent, and suspension rates were
considered very high with over 5% of all students being suspended at least once and over 11% of
African American students were suspended at least once. The high rate of suspensions is a large
contributor to chronic absenteeism as schools cannot collect ADA (Average Daily Attendance)
for students that are suspended. HUSD’s rates of exclusionary discipline practices are over 2%
more than the state average for California. Despite having a vision that tout’s equity and
improving outcomes for those students furthest from opportunity, the practices do not align.
HUSD has been in differentiated assistance year after year because of the high suspension rates
and the disproportionality among African American students. This is evident in the sheer number
of students, specifically African American students, that are suspended and expelled each year.

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Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of the study is to expose gaps in current practices used to manage student
behaviors in secondary education. This information can be used to build capacity in staff and
improve the perception of school culture to decrease suspensions and expulsions, specifically for
African American students as they are disproportionately suspended and expelled from school.
The following research questions will provide the opportunity to understand current discipline
practices and how they impact the classroom and school culture:
1. How do secondary teachers in a district identified as having disproportionate discipline
practices for African American students describe the school culture and education
experience of these students?
2. What do secondary teachers in HUSD perceive is the impact of exclusionary discipline
practices on their classroom pedagogy?
Importance of the Study
The lingering consequences of zero tolerance policies are evident in current disciplinary
practices that have resulted in an increasingly large number of students being suspended and
expelled for various infractions. Zero tolerance policies have led to an increase in students being
excluded from school which places youth in the situation where they are not supervised, and
where they have more time to engage with other youth that engage in misconduct; forced
absence from school through suspension and expulsion in addition to chosen absence such as
truancy increases the likelihood of adolescent arrest (Monahan et al., 2014). African American
students are more likely to be suspended or expelled from school, and males are four times more
likely than females (Manahan et al., 2014) and the overuse of suspension exacerbates the
disparities in learning outcomes for these students (Wang, 2022). According to California

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Education Code 49079, a student’s teacher(s) must be notified, for a period of three years from
the last infraction that the student violated the Safe Schools Act (SSA). The means by how this
information is relayed to the teacher varies from district to district, but oftentimes there is an
indicator in the student information system that alerts the teacher. This indicator could have the
potential to impact how the teacher may perceive that student’s social and academic abilities and
in turn, the teacher may adjust their pedagogy to the detriment of the student.
Findings from this study may contribute to closing the gap in research that focuses on
teacher satisfaction and confidence in working with students as well as the overall educational
experience for African American students. Teachers are pivotal to the academic experience for
students. Wang (2022) highlights how there is power in having same-race teachers because they
have higher expectations for same-race students, students may respond more favorably to those
that they have a shared cultural understanding, and same-race teachers know how to advocate for
changes that would benefit same-race students. Findings showed that Black students were
suspended at higher rates in schools with less Black teachers (Wang, 2022). There is a need to
focus explicitly on alternatives that take into consideration adolescent development, provide
adequate training and support, hire a more diverse teaching staff, and systematically shift to more
restorative practices (Monahan et al., 2014; Henry et al., 2021; Wang, 2022). To reduce
exclusionary practices and improve student outcomes Wang proposes the districts increase
minority teachers, train teachers on effective strategies, and implement a systematic adoption of
programs such as Positive Behavior Intervention Support (PBIS) and Restorative Justice (2022).
Practical training measures and equitable hiring practices can improve school culture and provide
an opportunity for teachers to feel confident in meeting the needs of their diverse learners.

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Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The theoretical framework guiding this research study will be critical theory as
illuminated by Jürgen Habermas and Paulo Freire by which they call into question the power and
inequities that exist for many students as it relates to the oppressor and the oppressed in
education. Critical theory was born from the German Idealism that emerged from the Frankfurt
School; it identifies what is currently wrong in society (in this case in education) and those
positioned to transform these wrongs (Bohman et al., 2005). While the theory is described as
both broad and narrow as it encompasses various social theoretical approaches, in all manners
“critical theory provides the descriptive and normative bases for social inquiry aimed at
decreasing domination and increasing freedom in all their forms” (Bohman et al., 2005).
Critical theory as it pertains to the classroom looks to shift from the concept of banking
information to building autonomy through reciprocal teaching (Maddock, 2009; Roberts,
2015). A teacher’s pedagogical approach and the administration of a school have a
significant impact on student learning; however, educators are also influenced by the
environment around them. Critical theory calls into question the relationship that exists
between teachers and students in the classroom and whether the classroom is a microcosm of
social injustice, replicating the inequities between those in a position of power and those that
are subject to them.
The methodological approach is qualitative to include interviews with certificated
teaching staff along with document review. These interviews will be semi-structured in that there
is specific data that will be required; however, a good portion of the questions will be used to
guide participants’ responses to understand their perspective and cultivate new ideas about the
topic of discussion (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interviews with teaching staff from HUSD

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will not only pertain to their pedagogical practices, but those they witness with their colleagues
through collaboration, peer observation, and informal student feedback. Lochmiller and Lester
(2017) described that the researcher can be “interested in understanding the individual parts, the
relationships among them, and how they function as a whole” (p.102). Staff will be asked to
provide their perspective of the educational experience of African American students in their
classes that have been suspended or expelled as well as how these practices directly impact their
pedagogical practices. The study will ask teachers to share their perception about themselves and
reflect on how they respond to students knowing that the student has been suspended/expelled.
Document review can provide context and give insight into the study’s conceptual framework
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The review for this study will include data at the local, state, and
national level along with documentation regarding student behaviors and a review of disciplinary
processes/interventions.
Organization of the Dissertation
Following the introduction, this dissertation will move into Chapter 2, the Literature
review. Chapter 2 will review the literature around African American students’ education
outcomes as well as the disproportionality African American students face with regards to how
they are treated in terms of discipline measures taken in public school. The literature review will
also explore the role of teachers that work with students that have been subject to exclusionary
discipline practices. Literature will highlight the impact of working with these students on a
teacher’s pedagogy and well as the impact on a school's culture. The literature will also explore
the role of diversity in a teaching staff in building relationships with students and how this can
change the trajectory of student academic outcomes. Chapter 3 will provide clarity around the
methodology of this study including how the questions were developed for this qualitative study

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and how the participants were selected. Chapter 4 will provide an opportunity to delve into the
results solicited from interviews with classroom teachers and relevant document review. Chapter
5 will provide an opportunity to engage with the results of the study and identify what the results
mean in how educators practice their craft. There will be guidance as to how this fills the current
knowledge gaps, how the information can be directly applied to educators’ work with secondary
students immediately and provide guidance as to the next steps this research needs to meet the
needs of students as well as the professional needs of teachers. There are pedagogical
implications from this work that can change the trajectory in a positive manner for many atpromise African American youth not only within HUSD but beyond at both the state and
national level.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
Zero Tolerance Policies that emerged in the early 1990’s and continually gained
momentum throughout the decade and beyond, came with unintended consequences that still
plague public education. These consequences have been the most detrimental to African
American students. The impact can also be felt with teaching staff’s classroom pedagogy and
their perception of a school’s culture when there are high rates of exclusionary discipline
practices utilized with African American students. While legislative initiatives have aimed to
reduce the number of suspensions and eliminate suspension as a first resort with discipline, they
have failed to have the desired impact. Students are still suspended at high rates and efforts to
eliminate suspension for defiance and/or disruption have not gained the desired result as teachers
still have the right per California Education Code 48910 to suspend a student from class for up to
two consecutive classes for said offenses. The other challenge has been met with the lack of
training provided and limited cultural understanding as schools have attempted to utilize other
means of correction and provide interventions for students. The impact is apparent in school and
classroom environments.
Zero Tolerance policies and the Unintended Consequences
Zero Tolerance Policies: A Historical Perspective
Zero tolerance policies were initially implemented with the intentions to keep schools
safe from dangerous student behaviors including violence and drugs; however, they failed to take
into consideration students’ developmental needs and failed to keep schools safe. Zero tolerance
policies originated in the early 1990’s with drug enforcement and gained steam to keep schools
safe and improve culture (both claims unfounded); they are controversial because they fail to
improve student behaviors and continually exclude students from their educational environment

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(American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008). A slew of zero
tolerance policies also emerged following The Gun Free School Act that was established in 1994
which mandated any school receiving federal funds expel a student for no less than one year if
they brought a weapon to school (Camacho & Krezmien, 2020). While policies describe
exclusion as being used for severe infractions such as physical aggression and drugs, the data
shows that most exclusionary methods issued are for minor to moderate infractions such as
disruption and defiance (Skiba, et al., 2014; Camacho & Krezmien, 2020). Unintended
consequences were automatic suspensions for minor infractions including truancy and
disruption.
Following a review of these policies, the American Psychological Association Zero
Tolerance Task Force made recommendations to reform zero tolerance policies and alternatives
that may better maximize the student’s opportunity to learn and more closely align with what is
known about adolescent development (2008). According to the findings from the American
Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, students demonstrate psychosocial
immaturity in areas such as impulse control and thinking about consequences of actions and
these adolescents typically violate a rule out of poor judgment that is characteristic of their
immaturity (2008). There are many factors that make adolescence a time when children tend to
be most aggressive including: peer influence, dating, experimental and risk-taking activities,
increased strength as they are growing, accessibility to weapons, the onset of psychiatric
disorders begin, and the neural differences between the limbic region and prefrontal cortex of the
brain (Barr & Sandor, 2010). The subcortical region (social-emotional system) of adolescents is
overactive in comparison with the frontal cortex impacting decision-making and judgment; this
can lead to dysfunctional behavior (Barr & Sandor, 2010). Researchers have hypothesized that

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students that have been suspended feel a strong sense of frustration, resentment, and
disengagement from school causing them to engage in behaviors such as truancy, vandalism, and
aggression (Shirley & Cornell, 2012). The make-up of school structures also present challenges
for students. Secondary schools are structured contrary to the developmental needs of students
(American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008). Students that are
continually disciplined and removed from the school setting continue to engage in misbehavior.
While research shows that adolescents know how to behave in a controlled setting and respond
well to rewards and incentives, emotions take over in real life and school systems are punitive
(Barr & Sandor, 2010). Additionally, the ways in which teachers interact can have a severe
impact on student outcomes. Some scholars suggest that the disproportionality among discipline
referrals stems from racial bias and cultural misunderstanding and many teachers are prone to
accepting stereotypes that African American students are aggressive and dangerous (Shirley &
Cornell, 2012; Skiba et al., 2014). The exclusionary practices that emerged from zero tolerance
policies exacerbate the developmental challenges of adolescence.
Zero tolerance policies have also shown to result in disproportionate practices that have
persisted over time. Race as a contributing factor to exclusionary practices stands alone
regardless of the severity of the infraction (Skiba et al., 2014). African American students and
students with disabilities have been suspended at higher rates than their white, general education
counterparts that have violated the same rules, and this has proven detrimental to the relationship
between these students and the education system (American Psychological Association Zero
Tolerance Task Force, 2008). Students’ willingness to seek help is a major component of
positive school culture. African American students are less likely to seek assistance from school
staff for general issues as well as when experiencing teasing or bullying (Shirley & Cornell,

24
2012). This is in part to the lack of trust and relationships with staff. Research has shown that
staff tends to perceive African American students as demonstrating excessive verbal and physical
aggression and African American students perceive staff as being unfair and not supportive
(Shirley & Cornell, 2012). Schools with higher suspension rates have less satisfactory ratings of
school climate and culture (American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force,
2008). Shirley and Cornell (2012) explain that there is a strong possibility that when students
perceive staff as trustworthy and caring, these same students are more likely to respond
positively to not only the staff but to the school rules and are less likely to receive discipline
referrals and suspensions. The impact on school culture and climate emerged not only from the
high rates, but also from the inconsistency in implementation of exclusionary practices.
There has been a high rate of variability among schools in terms of consequences
administered for various infractions and consequences were applied universally to students with
no consideration for individual circumstances (Skiba, et al., 2014; Camacho & Krezmien, 2020).
An analysis of student outcomes found variance from district to district with some having more
severe consequences than others (Camacho & Krezmien, 2020). Schools believed that
suspension was a deterrent even though there is no data to support this claim and schools with
more positive than negative consequences reported lower suspension rates (Camacho &
Krezmien, 2020). Principal attitude was also critical; those that took context into consideration
were less likely to suspend at high rates (Skiba et al., 2014). According to Skiba et al. (2014),
“systemic school-level variables may be more important in determining the overrepresentation of
Black students in discipline than are any behavioral or student characteristics” (p. 662). Systemic
issues include the principal mindset and the use of exclusion for infractions that are more
subjective with less well-defined characteristics. Historically, the focus has been on

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characteristics of students or their behaviors and there has been a failure to focus on school
policies and practices—principal leadership, achievement orientation, and the possible
contributions of implicit bias (Skiba et al., 2014). Exclusionary practices that resulted from Zero
Tolerance Policies resulted in a lack of consistency across the education systems, resulted in an
overuse of these methods with mild to moderate infractions, and were disproportionately applied
to African American students. The overuse of these exclusionary practices significantly impacted
student outcomes.
Consequences of Exclusion on Student Outcomes
Student academic and social outcomes were severely impacted following the
exclusionary discipline practices that persisted even after many zero tolerance policies were
lifted. There is a significant discrepancy in lost instruction due to suspension and this is even
more so for African American students with disabilities. According to Losen and Martinez
(2020), there was significant loss of instruction in 2018-2019. African American high school
students in general education lost 28 minutes of instruction per 100 students and African
American students with a disability lost 70 minutes of instruction per 100 students; white high
school students in general education lost 7 minutes of instruction per 100 students and White
students with a disability lost 26 minutes per 100 students (Losen & Martinez, 2020). Overall,
high school students in general education lost 9 minutes of instruction per 100 students and
students with a disability lost 28 minutes of instruction per 100 students (Losen & Martinez,
2020). African American middle school students lost 114 minutes of instruction per 100
students; middle school females that were socioeconomically disadvantaged and had a learning
disability lost 95 minutes of instruction per 100 students; middle school males that were
socioeconomically disadvantaged and had a learning disability lost 149 minutes of instruction

26
per 100 students (Losen & Martinez, 2020). White middle school students lost 44 minutes of
instruction per 100 students; middle school females that were socioeconomically disadvantaged
and had a learning disability lost 35 minutes of instruction per 100 students; middle school males
that were socioeconomically disadvantaged and had a learning disability lost 89 minutes of
instruction per 100 students (Losen & Martinez, 2020). Overall, middle school students lost 50
minutes of instruction per 100 students (Losen & Martinez, 2020). The consequences are even
more significant for those that are socioeconomically disadvantaged. Findings show that a
socioeconomically disadvantaged student being suspended can have a significant, negative
impact resulting in lost wages for the family and jeopardizing the ability to pay rent, maintain
employment in some cases, threatens nutritional health (inability to buy food and suspended
student not accessing meals at school), and health repercussions (Losen & Martinez, 2020).
African American students perceive that they were suspended because of racial bias and
therefore perceive the education system as racially biased (Rosenbaum, 2020). African American
students are punished more harshly for the same infraction as White students and lose out on
more instructional minutes because of the lack of consistency and clarity in the school rules and
expectations. Exclusionary discipline practices significantly impact a student’s academic
outcomes and a student’s prospects outside of school as well.
Exclusionary practices in the form of suspension and expulsion create a vicious cycle of
negative outcomes for students. Rosenbaum (2020) describes contributing factors to suspension
that include low grade point averages, low expectations from both staff and parents, low school
attachment, and lower positive outcomes in the future (going to college, behavior, etc.). These
suspensions then create a negative self-perception by the student. Suspension for deviance led to
further deviance because of the label assigned to the student and associated stigma; thus, making

27
the student more likely to engage in antisocial behavior (Rosenbaum, 2020). Forced absence
from school through suspension and expulsion in addition to chosen absence such as truancy has
shown to increase the likelihood of adolescent arrest (Monahan et al., 2014). Black and Hispanic
students are more likely to be suspended or expelled from school, and males are more likely than
females. This increases the time out of school making these youth more susceptible to
encountering the juvenile system. Monahan et al. (2014), explains that higher levels of parental
monitoring and involvement in addition to student commitment to school has been shown to
lower adolescent delinquency whereas forced removal from school in the form of suspension and
expulsion reduces student commitment to school, substantially increasing the chances that the
student will be arrested. Involvement in the juvenile justice system has long term, negative
effects on youth development (Mennis and Harris, 2011; Steinberg, 2009 as cited by Monahan et
al., 2014). Ultimately, suspension may seem effective in the short-term, but administrators fail to
see the long-term consequences of suspension in the lack of educational attainment and criminal
justice involvement (Monahan et al., 2014; Skiba et al., 2014). The consequences of exclusionary
practices are evident with the ongoing deviant behavior by students that come to see themselves
in such a manner as well as within the family and the community. The widespread consequences
are even more evident and have an even harsher impact on African American students.
Ongoing Consequences for African American Excluded Students
African American students that have been suspended and/or excluded from school face
ongoing challenges that extend beyond their experience with a comprehensive education.
African American and Hispanic students are more likely to be suspended in areas with higher
incarceration rates and all students are more likely to be suspended in disadvantaged areas
(Hughes, 2022). According to a report from the Office of Civil Rights (U.S. Department of

28
Education, 2018 as cited by Hughes, 2022), three million of the approximately 50 million
students in the United States at the time of the study experienced exclusionary discipline.
Disproportionate rates mean that African American students in urban schools are removed from
the opportunity to learn at a higher rate than their peers (Losen & Skiba, 2010). There is also an
economic impact from suspension. Rumberger & Losen (2016) using the tenth-grade cohort
from 2001-2002, estimates $1.88 billion in fiscal losses and $6.2 billion in social losses for the
state of California and explain that one percentage point reduction in suspensions would yield a
fiscal benefit of $523 million and a social benefit of $1.7 billion. African American students are
more likely to be suspended, more likely to be suspended on first offense, and more likely to
be suspended than white students for similar or lesser offenses. (Hughes, 2022). The
economic burden of suspensions is harmful to African American children more than others and
there are economic benefits to reducing suspensions with purposeful effort to reduce the racial
school discipline gap between African American and White students.
When comparing suspended students to their peers that have not been suspended, they are
more likely to have poor academic performance, and come from disadvantaged backgrounds.
According to Rumberger and Losen (2016), while considering the other factors that can impact
graduation, their study reported that suspension alone could increase the risk of not graduating
high school by 12 percentage points. In the United States, 71% of tenth graders who received a
suspension graduated from high school compared with 94% of tenth graders who did not receive
a suspension (Rumberger & Losen, 2016). In California, 67% of tenth graders who received a
suspension graduated from high school compared with 94% of tenth graders who did not receive
a suspension (Rumberger & Losen, 2016). It is important to note that middle school significantly
impacts future outcomes for students. A typical ninth grader who went to prison attended school

29
58% of the time, failed at least one quarter of classes, read at a sixth-grade level at the end of
eighth grade, two-thirds had been suspended at least once in eighth grade, and 80% of these
individuals were African American (Balfanz, 2003 as cited by Losen & Skiba, 2010). While out
of school suspension is associated with dangerous behaviors such as fights and physical
aggression, a study of one state showed it accounted for only 5% of suspensions and that most
suspensions were for nonviolent, less disruptive behaviors (Losen, & Skiba, 2010). Research has
shown that there is no evidence that the overrepresentation of African American students in
school suspension rates is due to higher rates of misbehavior, but instead brings into question the
unconscious and conscious bias at the school level. Even though there is no evidence of
increased negative behaviors among African American students, they are excluded from school
and denied access to educational opportunities at disproportionate rates. The consequences of
disproportionate practices are not isolated events and directly result from the student’s
experience in classrooms with teachers.
Teacher Role in the Effect of Exclusionary Discipline Practices
The Cost of High Suspension Rates with Teachers
Research shows that there is a disconnect between teachers and many of the students that
they are charged to educate. Many teachers, specifically White women, that dominate the
teaching profession perceive African American students in deficit terms and do not find
academic excellence associated with African American students (Ladson-Billings, 2014).
Teacher education programs do not sufficiently prepare teachers to meet the needs of racially
diverse student populations and the lack of preparedness prohibits them from engaging in
conversations and practices that could benefit a racially diverse student population in
addition to providing an opportunity to enact change in an oppressive system (Milner, 2007).

30
The term, culturally relevant pedagogy, is now cliche and not actively utilized to create an
equitable educational experience for African American students. Ladson-Billings (2014)
explains, “to ensure that those who have been previously disadvantaged by schooling receive
quality education, we also want those in the mainstream to develop the kinds of skills that will
allow them to critique the very basis of their privilege and advantage” (p. 83). The blatant
ignoring of institutional racism in current practices would make it difficult for policy changes
to occur that would benefit racially diverse students (Milner 2007). There needs to be a push
for educators to re-examine the interactions with students that occur daily in their
classrooms.
There is value in having a diverse teaching staff that understands the cultural nuances
of the students. Previous studies confirm the power of same-race teachers in having higher
expectations for same-race students because students may respond more favorably to those that
they have a shared cultural understanding, and same-race teachers know how to advocate for
changes that would benefit same-race students (Wang, 2022). Findings showed that African
American students were suspended at higher rates in schools with less African American
teachers (Wang, 2022). Students are more successful when they have teachers that know and
understand them beyond the classroom. Students reportedly felt safer and more welcome in
classrooms with teachers that understood what it was like to be different and were more likely to
connect with these teachers while engaging with the content (Santoro, 2007). There is a need to
shift perspective and calls for a “critical pedagogy that takes into consideration how the symbolic
and material transactions of the everyday provide the basis for rethinking how people give
meaning and ethical substance to their experiences and voices” (Giroux & Simon, 1989, p. 237
as cited by Ladson-Billings, 2014, p. 83). Teachers' ability to authentically connect with students

31
and make them feel welcome in the educational environment are pivotal to students' success;
however, not all teachers are adequately prepared to make this cultural connection. School
culture is an important factor in providing an opportunity for students to feel connected to
school.
Culture in Schools with High Suspension
Students that attend schools with high rates of suspensions report that they do not feel a
sense of belonging and overall have a negative view of the school’s culture. According to the
research of Welsh and Little (2018), schools with positive perception over racial climate reported
stronger academic achievement and fewer suspensions and expulsions. One example came from
the study from School Climate Bullying Survey in Virginia where students were more likely to
seek adult assistance and they were less likely to act out (Welsh & Little, 2018). African
American students in the surveyed middle schools were less likely to reach out for help where
racial climate was not positive and more likely to respond with aggression to aggression; African
American students were also disproportionately on the receiving end of referrals and
suspensions; made up 20% of population, but 60% of referrals (Shirley & Cornell, 2012). The
African American student experience is built from institutionalized oppression and the school
system is built on a hierarchical system of punishment that serves to exclude those that are
already systematically disadvantaged (Losen & Skiba, 2010). Since exclusionary practices also
serve to disengage students perceived as being low risk or good kids at later points in time, there
is value in having an individualized approach to discipline rather than the universal zero
tolerance policies (Monahan et al., 2014). There is a need for more options other than suspension
and expulsion that already add to a strained system.

32
There are numerous factors that serve as challenges to the education system including
the allocation of resources, institutionalized racism, inadequately prepared and supported
teachers, and high stakes testing. Losen and Skiba (2010) explain, “these forces come together
when stressed and poorly supported teachers interact with equally stressed students in
environments that promote student alienation and active resistance on the one hand and teacher
reactivity and victim blaming on the other hand (Oberle & Schonert-Reichl, 2016)” (p. 211).
According to teachers surveyed, there is a need to work at connecting students that are disruptive
to the learning environment with the necessary services rather than just focusing on the reduction
of suspension rates (Griffith & Tyner, 2019). Negative student behaviors are a reality and
schools must develop a way to address the behaviors while not targeting the most vulnerable
student populations. Disciplinary removal has a negative effect on not only student outcomes,
but the learning climate and culture. Schools with higher rates of suspension do not improve
climate; instead, less attention is paid to school climate, they have lower academic ratings, and
the trajectory of the school is heavily dependent on principal attitudes (Losen & Skiba, 2010).
While schools with high suspension rates report less satisfaction with school culture, these same
schools do acknowledge that students that are struggling with behavior need to feel connected.
To meet the needs of students, there needs to be a varied approach that is effective.
Current Initiatives in Addressing Exclusionary Discipline Practices
Ongoing Concerns with Discipline Practices in Schools
While many zero tolerance policies and means by which a student can be suspended have
been removed from policies, the rollout of these new policies have demonstrated to be
ineffective at reducing the disproportionality of the suspension numbers. Out of school
suspension may be necessary for safety, but often, it is used for offenses that do not impose a

33
threat. Approximately 2.5 million children are suspended from school each year in the United
States and while states mandate suspension for serious offenses, most of these suspensions are
for minor misbehaviors (Ramey & Feelin, 2022). California has implemented willful defiance
suspension bans; however, they have woefully failed to address both implicit and explicit biases
that impact discipline outcomes for high school students because even though the use of out of
school suspension for “willful defiance" decreased, the overall suspension rates increased
(Wang, 2022; Ramey & Feelin, 2022). This implies that schools changed the ways that the
behaviors were coded to utilize out of school suspension. There is also growing concern that
students are being placed into Special Education as behaviors are now medicalized (known as
“medicalized social control”) in response to the willful defiance bans as a cause for suspension
(Ramey & Freelin, 2022, p. 5). Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD), for example, had
limited success with the suspension bans and restorative justice/PBIS implementation as these all
failed to reduce the gap in suspensions for African American students and students with
disabilities (Hashim et al., 2018). This conclusion is not unique. According to Wang’s (2022)
research that was specific to California, three causes that resulted in a failed attempt to
successfully eliminate suspension for willful defiance and decrease suspension/expulsion rates:
(1) teachers still had the authority to suspend in this category for other reasons, (2) out of school
suspension does not attract the same attention as academic outcomes, so there is not as much
monitoring and training, and (3) districts implemented the change without sufficient time to
change perceptions and mindsets around reasons to suspend a student. Given what is known
about banning suspension for willful defiance, there is room for improvement in schools.
Districts still need to address student misbehavior but can do so by building their Special
Education programs and developing social control strategies that address the root cause of

34
misbehavior such as restorative justice rather than the one-size-fits-all approach (Ramey &
Freelin, 2022; Hashim, et al., 2018). Even with policy changes aimed at reducing exclusionary
practices, the racial disparities are still glaring given the lack of consistency in implementation
and alternative strategies.
Willful defiance bans did not rectify the biases that exist towards African American
students. California schools did not improve the outcomes for these students either and the
overuse of suspension was found to exacerbate the disparities in learning outcomes for African
American students (Wang, 2022). A predominantly White teaching population teaches an everdiverse student population bringing predisposed bias against African American students,
specifically male; this dictates behavior management and results in disproportionate outcomes
(Welsh & Little, 2018). Smolkowski et al. (2016) found implicit bias at the root of the
disproportionate exclusion of African American students that resulted from a lack of clarity
around rules and policies in schools. Higher rates of suspension for disruption and/or defiance
are a direct result of the subjectivity and lack of specificity in the definition of these infractions.
Vulnerable decision points (VDP’s) lend themselves to subjective decision making and the
disproportionate response is made even more significant when there is a lack of proactive,
restorative responses (Smolkowski, et al., 2016). Discipline systems that lack clarity and fail to
provide appropriate interventions make African American students vulnerable to bias by teachers
and administrators. Schools that implement restorative practices reduced racial disparities,
experienced fewer suspensions, and lost instructional time, reduction in failing grades, increased
graduation rates, and higher ACT scores (Gonzalez, 2012 & Gonzalez, 2015 as cited by Welsh &
Little, 2018). Simply lifting suspension as an option does not provide the necessary clarity and
training to provide an equitable experience for students and meet students’ developmental needs.

35
Given the lack of attention to the individual student needs and cultural awareness, the
disproportionality in discipline practices has yet to be resolved.
Current Alternatives to Exclusionary Practices
Many schools and districts have relied on research-based alternatives that are currently
being used to curb the use of exclusionary discipline practices with students. School-Wide
Positive Behavior Intervention Supports is a systems approach to creating the social and
behavioral supports that students need for both social and academic success and schools that
implemented SWPBIS reported a decreasing trend in students that faced exclusionary discipline
(Childs, et al., 2016). The advantages of taking a school wide approach to PBIS include:
“(a) capitalizing on the prevention of problem behavior, (b) teaching appropriate social
behavior and skills, (c) acknowledging appropriate behavior, (d) using a multitiered
approach to instruction/intervention that matches behavior support intensity to student
need, (e) using data-based problem solving, and (f) investing in systems that support
evidence-based practices” (George et al., 2009).
PBIS provides an opportunity to address the whole student utilizing developmentally appropriate
strategies. In one study, schools that had high implementation practices saw better outcomes
early on, but leveled out with schools after four years that were implemented with less fidelity
and all schools saw reduced negative discipline outcomes over time regardless of the fidelity of
implementation (Childs, et al., 2016).
Research also shows that exposure to African American teachers is associated with lower
rates of negative discipline outcomes for African American students on average. Lang and Hart
(2017) conducted a study in North Carolina that also reflects national trends showing the
percentage of African American and Latino teachers is falling while diversity of students is

36
increasing. For example, African American and Latino teachers dropped from 15.61% to 14.95%
from 2001 to 2013 and the percentage of African American and Latino students rose during the
same time from 33.63% to 39.35% (Lang & Hart, 2017). This may support the argument that the
disproportionate match-up of teachers and students are at the root cause of inequitable student
outcomes. The research showed that African American teachers have a more favorable view of
African American students; therefore, their cultural understanding impacts the way discipline is
applied and explains why it differs from their white colleagues (Lang & Hart, 2017). Lang and
Hart (2017) found this to be even more evident where the infraction lacks clarity and the
perception of the teacher is subjective with regards to the behavior. There is a potential benefit to
further research on the pedagogical and classroom-management strategies utilized by African
American teachers to systematize strategies that could prove effective. Overall, methods that
seem to assist in reducing negative outcomes for students from exclusionary practices include
meeting the needs of students by addressing their social, emotional, behavioral, and academic
needs in addition to a culturally responsive environment. While research shows that cultural
proficiency and meeting the needs of the whole student are best practices in reducing the use of
exclusionary practices, these positive effects are not widespread because of the lack of
consistency and commitment from all stakeholders when implemented.
The Gaps in Addressing Exclusionary Practices
Initiatives to roll out progressive discipline models and positive behavior intervention
supports (PBIS) have been inconsistent and fail to reduce the disproportionate amount of African
American students being suspended. The default discipline for school has been exclusion with no
consideration of the context for a student. Current reform ignores the institutionalized
oppressions and are based in ethnocentrism with a negative disposition of students of color or

37
those that are disadvantaged (Gregory et al., 2021). PBIS and social emotional learning (SEL)
are research backed approaches but cannot be effective in systems where adults have a punitive
mindset. Schools also need to take into consideration the needs of the target population; the one
size fits all approach is ineffective. Suspensions do not improve behavior or school climate
(Skiba et al., 2012 as cited by Gage et al., 2020). Data suggests that the detrimental outcomes are
significant. Suspension leads to even more suspensions, poor academic performance, and
increased risk for involvement with the juvenile justice system (Gage et al., 2020). Given that
students of color are more likely to be excluded, there is a need to tailor proactive approaches to
social, emotional, and behavioral interventions that need to consider cultural characteristics.
Interventions that utilize cultural adaptations are more likely to be successful (Brown & Buren,
2018). Schools must consider culturally appropriate language, metaphors, and goals. There is a
call for procedural and content adaptations that include stakeholder input as families and
communities can provide the greatest insight into students' positionality (Brown & Buren, 2018).
Additionally, schools still need to bring evidence-based interventions into practice.
Moving from suspension to practices that address the whole student such as PBIS can
change outcomes. Students, specifically African American, have been the most disadvantaged
with the double pandemic of COVID and racism that is evident in school disciplinary practices
(Gregory et al., 2021). Schools that utilized inclusive measures reduced suspension rates and
disproportionate outcomes for vulnerable student groups. These measures included: developing
behavior expectations, developing a school wide recognition system, and providing a way to
accurately analyze school-wide behavioral data (Gage et al., 2020). Zero tolerance policies
perpetuate institutionalized racism in schools with BIPOC students are more likely to face more
severe punishments. The Black Lives Matter movement has taken to the education system to

38
eradicate this racism by calling for more BIPOC teachers, ethnic studies, a reduction of law
enforcement in schools, and an increase of counselors (Henry et al., 2021). Henry et al.’s (2021)
study asked participants to provide feedback through surveys on their willingness to build
accomplice ship, experience, and perception of zero tolerance policies overall, perception of the
impact of zero tolerance policies for BIPOC students, and their skills and experiences in the
workplace with interventions to reduce racism and racial inequality. The respondents had a
desire to improve outcomes for BIPOC students and create an environment that fostered more
equitable outcomes; however, few have ever acted or felt comfortable acting (Henry et al., 2021).
The study also confirmed the prevalence of zero tolerance policies that are still existent in the
education system suggesting that while educators may have the skills to combat these policies,
they are not prepared to do so nor do they feel comfortable taking that stand (Henry et al., 2021).
The desire to improve outcomes for African American students is prevalent in schools; however,
many lack the appropriate skills or resources and do not know how to make this possible.
Secondary education systems still follow a model of the oppressor in the form of the school or
teachers and the oppressed in the form of the students’ leaving students, specifically African
American, students to feel as though they really do not have the opportunity to access an
equitable education experience because of their race.
Theoretical Framework
Critical theory examines the relationship that exists between teachers and students in
the classroom and whether the classroom is a microcosm of social injustice, replicating the
inequities between those in a position of power and those that are subject to them. There is a
strong argument that the disproportionate use of suspension and other exclusionary discipline
practices mirrors the social injustices that many African American people face outside of the

39
school setting as well. Critical race methodology challenges separate discourse on gender, race,
and class as these three elements intersect to affect the experiences of people of color (Solórzano
& Yosso, 2002). The impact of these identities can be felt in the classroom. Socio-academic
failure as described by cultural deficit majoritarian storytellers is rooted in cultural assimilation
(Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Students that are unable to fit into the established ethnocentric
expectations that emerged from white supremacist culture are unlikely to be successful.
Figure A: Concept Map
Students that can feel emotionally stable are more likely to experience academic
achievement than students who are struggling emotionally. The American Psychological
Association’s Top 20 Principles from Psychology for PreK–12 Teaching and Learning (2015)
state, “emotional well-being is integral to successful, everyday functioning in the classroom and

40
influences academic performance and learning” (Lucariello, 2015, p. 23). Positive school culture
and climate are essential to students’ academic success; students must feel a sense of belonging
to have positive outcomes. Positive emotions engage a student in learning where negative
emotions discourage student learning (Linnenbrink, et. al, 2016). Freire (2000) recognizes the
flaws in education with his model of the oppressor and the oppressed whereas the oppressed
banks knowledge into the oppressed. Education continues to follow this model were students,
specifically those farthest from opportunity, as the systematically oppressed.
Critical theory provides an opportunity to decrease the oppression and increase
freedom for students (Bohman et al., 2005). This can be done by questioning the current
repressive practices used towards African American students and providing an avenue for
them to maintain their freedom to access their education like other student groups. Critical
theory applies more than any other theory as it provides an avenue to explore what is
currently not working in education and shift practices towards righting those wrongs
(Bohman et al., 2005). Common themes currently present in the justice system and school
include surveillance, correction, and control (Hughes, 2022). Incarceration and
disproportionality among African American and Hispanics evident in the justice system and
pervasive now in the workplace and education (Hughes, 2022). Education is the microcosm
of social trends. Merging of the school, and penal system by way of metal detectors, drug
dogs, and searches lends itself to authoritarianism and control.
The current clearly defined discipline processes and the centralized one-size-fits-all
approach mirror the penal systems and state/federal sentencing guidelines. These approaches
simplify behavior and response, reducing the subjectivity for schools and administrators
(Hughes, 2022). Like the criminal justice system, this approach has disproportionately

41
subjected students of color to exclusionary mandates prescribed by discipline codes. Gordon
et al. (2000) affirms this mindset: “the adoption and implementation of zero-tolerance discipline
policies further disenfranchises groups that are already marginalized. Carter et al. (2017)
contended that racial disparities in school discipline are the product of U.S. history and the
divisions of yesteryear shaping the biases of today. The consequences of simmering racial
divisions in society may be manifested in schools’ policies and practices. The resistance to
and/or avoidance of race exacerbates racial hierarchy as well as a culture of racism (Brown et al.,
2017). This underlines the importance of adopting a race-conscious approach in alternatives to
exclusionary discipline that have been advanced by several scholars (Carter et al., 2017; Gregory
et al., 2017; Skiba, 2015 as cited by Welsh & Little, 2018, p. 781). Different students require a
different approach and consideration must be given to student positionality.
Summary
Research shows that exclusionary discipline practices resulting from zero tolerance
policies are ineffective and detrimental to the academic and social emotional well-being of
students. Efforts to eliminate exclusion in schools have been unsuccessful because of the lack of
training and consistency with the implementation of these processes. Staff are also ill-equipped
to advocate for their students and lack the cultural proficiency to meet students’ diverse needs.
Students need to be in school with structure to have adequate supervision and support. Out of
school suspension and expulsions do not make schools safer and only serve to feed the school to
prison pipeline. Exclusionary practices even decrease a student’s commitment to school. The
unintended, long-term implications for zero tolerance practices cannot be ignored as they are not
successful. Instead, there is a need to focus explicitly on alternatives that take into consideration
adolescent development, provide adequate training and support, hire a more diverse teaching

42
staff, and systematically shift to more restorative practices (American Psychological Association
Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008; Monahan et al., 2014; Henry et al., 2021; Wang, 2022).
Further research is necessary to understand how teachers perpetuate the consequences of
exclusionary practices on African American youth and how their pedagogy and the school
culture can change this trajectory. The following chapter will provide details into the research
design and empirical methods used to understand gaps in current practices used to manage
student behaviors in secondary education.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study is to examine the perceptions of teachers within a school
culture where there are high rates of exclusionary discipline practices utilized with African
American Students in the school. While efforts have been made to reduce suspension for willful
defiance, there is still a disproportionate number of African American students that are excluded
from school for minor infractions. This chapter provides an overview of the methodology for this
study, data sources utilized, strategies used to maximize credibility and trustworthiness, ethical
implications, and the positionality of the researcher and relationship to the study. The research
questions guiding the study are:
RQ #1: How do secondary teachers in a district identified as having disproportional
discipline practices for African American students describe the school culture and
education experience of these students?
RQ #2: What do secondary teachers in HUSD perceive is the impact of exclusionary
discipline practices on their classroom pedagogy?
Overview of Methodology
The methodological design of this study qualitative and data will be derived from
interviews with support from documents. Qualitative research provides information that is
specific to lived experiences and how individuals interpret those experiences (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). This study allows for the researcher to gain specific, detailed information about
the experience of teachers and provides a window to understand the reality of the classroom
environment. Lochmiller and Lester (2017) described that the researcher can be “interested in
understanding the individual parts, the relationships among them, and how they function as a
whole” (p.102). The smaller sample size permits me as the researcher to go deep into the lived

44
experiences of the participants. The interview process will provide an opportunity to solicit reallife experiences from staff that regularly work with students that return from both suspension and
expulsion. Interviews will be conducted virtually with eleven classroom teachers. Each interview
will last approximately one hour. Document analysis implicates the researcher as the “primary
instrument for gathering data” (p. 175); therefore, the researcher must be open-minded about the
documents utilized and determine as much as possible about the documents (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016) Support from documents consulted will include collecting and reviewing district specific
data around suspensions, expulsions, academic performance, and attendance. No students will be
identified though as the analysis will focus on the collective responses rather than individual
responses. The document analysis provides objective evidence that can either reinforce or
contradict the information provided in the interview by the respondents. Merriam & Tisdell
(2016) highlight how qualitative research is rich in description and is a means of answering
questions. My intentions are to fill in the knowledge gap that currently exists in terms of the
general understanding that exclusionary discipline has on school culture. By understanding the
impact that has on both students and staff, my hope is that this will prompt further research into
the explicit impact that this practice has on our educators as they attempt to shift the dynamic
from inequitable practices to reduce disproportionately.

45
Table 1: Data Sources
Research Questions Interview
How do secondary teachers in a district
identified as having disproportional discipline
practices for African American students
describe the school culture and education
experience of these students?
X
What do secondary teachers in HUSD
perceive is the impact of exclusionary
discipline practices on their classroom
pedagogy?
X
Data Sources
The study will begin with the interview process and then incorporate support from
documents. Documents referenced will either provide evidence that is consistent with the
findings while validating responses from Interview participants or divergent. While the
documents provide data that has existed before the interviews, it is important to act in a manner
that reduces bias. By interviewing the respondents first, I as the researcher can conduct
interviews with an open mind. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) warn that keeping an awareness of
potential bias is also important when analyzing documents, so this will have to stay at the
forefront of the process.

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Interview
Interviews will be conducted with eleven classroom teachers and will be scheduled to last
approximately one hour in duration. The protocol is semi-structured as it will include twelve
concrete questions but allows for exploring and/or follow-up questions to go deeper with the
interview process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Participants
The population interviewed will be secondary classroom teachers that instruct core
classes. Core classes include English, Math, Social Science, and Science; staff will be both
general education and special education teaching staff. The sampling will be purposeful utilizing
a criterion-based selection process to intentionally include teachers from certain racial
backgrounds, and to ensure that the selected teachers have varying experiences working with
youth returning from suspension and/or expulsion. I will enlist participants by sending an email
with a brief rationale of the study and what is needed from participants. I will also include my
phone number in case there are further questions. The goal is to interview an equitable group of
teachers that identify as either African American or White. All respondents will be tenured (three
or more years) as a means of lowering the potential for an affective filter that teachers could have
if they are being interviewed by district office personnel. Being tenured assures certain
protections for teachers' employment. Respondents should accurately reflect on a small scale
what is happening district wide in terms of classroom practice and should reflect the overall
perceived experience of the HUSD's education systems for African American students returning
from having experienced exclusionary discipline practices.

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Instrumentation
A semi structured interview protocol will be utilized to solicit information from
respondents because it allows the researcher to explore and ask follow-up questions to go deeper
with the research and authentically understand the respondents’ lived experience. Asking
questions is an art and the interviewer is a critical piece of the process (Patton, 2002). Maxwell
(2013) describes how “...it is easy to become captivated by the stories of your informants, or by
what’s going on in the setting you are studying and lose sight of your reasons for studying these
particular phenomena” (p. 23). As the main instrument for data collection, I will lean on a
protocol that is divided into three specific sections. The first section focuses on learning about
the respondent’s professional career, the second section asks about the respondents’ perception
of a student's classroom experience at their school with a focus on RQ #1, and the final section
explores professional practices of the respondents when working with students returning from
suspension and their school’s culture with a focus on RQ #2 (Appendix A). Each question is
labeled to the corresponding research question that it addresses with the first section focusing on
background information. The interview questions also delve into the relationship that exists
between the teacher and African American students that have received an exclusionary discipline
as well as the teacher's perception of the school culture when there are exclusionary practices as
indicated in the conceptual framework. Other components addressed include understanding how
teacher perception of African Americans’ experience in school connects to social injustices and
self-perception of the impact to their pedagogy.
Data Collection Procedures
The interview time will last approximately one hour and will be conducted virtually using
Zoom to utilize the transcription feature in this platform. Interviews will be conducted outside of

48
the regular school day before 8:30AM or after 3:30PM. The data will be captured by recording
interviews during the virtual meeting and by keeping handwritten notes of key ideas during the
interview time. Recording enables a researcher to collect the most accurate data and focus their
attention on the interviewee (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Confidentiality is essential to protect the
respondents and uphold a researcher's ethical obligations as a researcher (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). All digital data will be kept safe in a secure Google folder; handwritten notes will be
typed, shredded, and stored with digital data.
Data Analysis
The interviews will be virtual allowing me to enable transcription on the interview that
can be reviewed after the event. Patton describes the analysis as a process where the researcher
makes sense of what people have said, looks for themes, putting together what people have said
at various times during the interview, and integrating the different responses from various
respondents (2002). Coding and annotating are pivotal methods to utilize when analyzing
transcripts and notes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I will keep an Excel sheet with tabs labeled
“field notes” and “interview.” Field notes will be reviewed for common themes in key
statements that have been made, certain body language that is identified as common between
respondents, and facial expressions that accompany common responses. I will have labeled
columns where I will then document specifics and label according to the number assigned to the
respondent. I will then review transcripts of the interview and, using a color-coded method,
highlight common words and phrases according to the piece of the conceptual framework they
align. Common themes will be documented in the designated column on the tab entitled
“interview”. Finally, I will have a third tab entitled “quotes” where I will have numbered rows
to correspond to the interviewee and recorded key quotes that will be used as evidence in my

49
findings. These will also be color coded to the corresponding element of the conceptual
framework.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Two key components to keep at the forefront when conducting a study are researcher bias
and reactivity. With researcher bias, it is important to address potential bias as a researcher and
understand how to deal with it because a researcher cannot eliminate their positionality
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Understanding reactivity is critical because it is
impossible to eliminate the actual influence of the researcher when conducting research; the
researcher needs to be self-aware and not do things that may alter the outcome of the study such
as leading questions (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I must understand how I can
influence inferences as the researcher. Strategy will be an important factor and triangulation will
add credibility to the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). My design choices have room for
inference and bias because I am designing the interview questions, conducting the interview, and
reviewing the documents. Practices that can enhance the experience include soliciting an outside
perspective on questions to ensure that they are objective and not leading; engaging in practices
that allow for me to remove (as much as possible) personal inferences that may skew data; and
being upfront and transparent with my positionality and seek feedback and clarification from
participants to not misinterpret their responses (Seidman, 2013). Tillman (2002) cautions
researchers to be culturally sensitive when conducting research by checking their assumptions
while conducting the research. I will discipline my subjectivity by continually acknowledging
potential bias and consciously checking my work to ensure that any bias has not spilled into how
I analyze my data.

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Ethics
Ethical considerations in relation to this study include creating an interview environment
where respondents can provide honest, authentic feedback. Lockmiller & Lester (2017) discuss
the significance of publicizing what is learned in education research for the public good. It is
imperative that the responses provide an accurate account of what is happening because of
current systems so that they can be utilized and positively contribute to educational research. If a
treatment or practice is not working, people need to know (Salkind & Frey, 2022). Many school
systems try to hide the reality of discipline in schools; I have a moral obligation to be transparent
with the impact of current practices on school culture and in turn on the staff that are charged
with supporting students. Educators need to be aware when a practice is not working and be able
to clearly identify the damage that can result. The research should serve to dismantle practices
that result in inequities for students, not perpetuate them. Tuck & Yang (2014) clearly articulate
the need to interrogate systems of power that continue to provide a platform for settler colonial
power.
Ethical awareness must be taken into consideration in every step of the research process.
Glesne (2011) points out that ethical considerations are part of each stage of research and must
stay at the forefront throughout the process including from selecting a topic and its implications
to data collection and storage. It is important to remember that ethics varies according to the
respondents' culture and much of our “correct'' ethical frameworks are rooted in Western culture;
therefore, we have a duty to understand how this might vary when working with individuals from
diverse backgrounds (Glesne, 2011). As the researcher, I must be aware of the impact of my
work on the staff that participate as well as the students that they work with and that have faced
exclusionary discipline. Lockmiller & Lester (2017) remind us that it is essential to maintain a

51
secure dataset, to thoughtfully handle data once it is collected, and that research should do no
harm. I am committed to conducting an ethical study that ensures the anonymity of the
participants and the confidentiality of their responses. It will be pivotal to work through the
dangers and reconsider racialized and cultural positionality of myself and participants when
considering the research (Milner, 2007). Ethical research includes demonstrating respect and
seeking to listen and observe intently (Smith, 2002). Research in and of itself has the power to
make a statement. As researchers, we must choose wisely.
The Researcher
As the Director of Student Support Services for the school district, I oversee disciplinary
practices and interventions. I am colleagues with the “gatekeepers” and have a direct
communication line to the director that is their direct evaluator. The title “director” and my
working relationship with members of the cabinet places me in a position of perceived power.
There is a perception that because I am white and middle class that I may not understand the
experience that many of our students and teachers come from. Race and culture are central to
research for all involved in the study (Milner, 2007). Very few know my story and it is my story
that has made me empathetic towards our student population. I grew up in a house with
substance use as well physical and emotional abuse. My grandparents were my rock but were not
always permitted in my life. While I was strong academically, I did not fit in socially and many
teachers wrote me off. It was those few that had faith in me and my ability that helped me
persevere and empathize with our students that struggle. This empathy can be misinterpreted as
not supporting the staff when it comes to issuing discipline. Even though I taught high school for
twelve years, I understand many teachers think that I am too far removed from the classroom.
Admittedly, I have not been a classroom teacher in seven years. I am also aware that many of the

52
male teachers do not think that I am qualified for the position because of my gender; there is this
old school mentality by some of the more veteran male teachers. I believe that some believe me
to be too “soft on crime” because I am a woman. I have an awareness of how I am perceived in
relation to the varying experiences of the classroom teachers I will be working with in this study.
Maxwell (2013) addresses the importance of understanding the meaning and the context of the
study for the participants as well as not losing sight of my own positionality while conducting
research. I will address issues of power and positionality by always keeping my purpose at the
forefront to, as Maxwell (2013) describes, maintain insight and to help prevent bias.
Transparency in the process will be critical in developing trust with the participants.

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Chapter Four: Findings
This study examines what the teaching staff’s perception of a school’s culture is when
there are high rates of exclusionary discipline practices utilized with African American Students.
The purpose of the study is to expose gaps in current practices used to manage student behaviors
in secondary education. The following research questions provide the opportunity to understand
current discipline practices and how they impact the classroom and school culture:
1. How do secondary teachers in a district identified as having disproportionate discipline
practices for African American students describe the school culture and education
experience of these students?
2. What do secondary teachers in HUSD perceive is the impact of exclusionary discipline
practices on their classroom pedagogy?
The theoretical framework guiding this research study is critical theory as the study examines
power and inequities that exist for many students. Critical theory questions the relationship that
exists between teachers and students in the classroom and whether the classroom is a
microcosm of social injustice, replicating the inequities through exclusionary practices.
Interview responses were captured via the Zoom recording and transcribing feature in
addition to field notes; these responses were then analyzed and identified themes were
documented in an Excel spreadsheet.
Participants
The participants in this study were core or Special Education, secondary teachers with a
minimum of two years teaching experience. Of the participants six identified as White and five
identified as African American. Three of the participants were Special Education teachers and
the remaining teachers were as follows: three English, two Math, two Social Sciences, and one

54
Science. Three of the teachers had been in the role for five or less years, four had been in the role
for twenty or more years, and the remaining taught between nine and eighteen years. Two of the
African American teachers were co-advisors for their sites Black Student Union (BSU) and one
of the other African American teachers was a BSU advisor on a different secondary site. Six of
the participants identified as cis male and five identified as cis female. The breakdown of
participants is outlined in Table 2. All had extensive experience working with students returning
from both suspension and expulsion.
Table 2: Participant’s Years of Experience, Content Area, and Race
Participant Content Area Years of Experience Race
# 1 English 5 years White
# 2 Social Studies / Special Education 9 years African American
# 3 Math 20+ years White
# 4 English 3 years African American
# 5 Social Science 20+ years White
# 6 English 10 years African American
#7 Social Science 18 years African American
#8 Math 5 years White
#9 Science 3 years White
#10 Special Education 20+ years White
#11 Special Education 20+ years African American

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Findings for Research Question 1: How do secondary teachers in a district identified as having
disproportionate discipline practices for African American students describe the school culture
and education experience of these students?
All eleven teachers that participated in the interview process indicated that African
American students did not feel as connected to the school community as their peers from other
racial groups and felt a sense that they were negatively labeled and subsequently disciplined
differently. Participant #2 indicated that African American students often commented that they
felt “misunderstood” and that they were expected to “live up to the label” of being a behavior
problem. Ladson-Billings (2014) explains that the perception of African American students is
negative and academic excellence is not associated with them. Teachers validated this mindset
when they shared that African American students often spoke about feeling like they carried the
label of being a discipline problem and not academically inclined. Participant 8 commented,
“some students may act in a way that solicits teachers to label them as a "bad kid", but teachers
need to be careful not to jump to that label.” While all eleven teachers described the culture of
their classrooms as being overall inclusive, they revealed later in the interview that African
American students did not feel included in the overall campus culture and classroom inclusion
varied by teacher. All five of the African American teachers interviewed indicated that the
inclusive nature of the campus was only as such for certain students and this did not include
African American students. For example, Participant 6 revealed that African American students
have stated that they felt “mislabeled and like teachers are pushing them out of classes.” While
Participant 4 remarked, “the school tries to be inclusive, but BSU students express they still feel
left out.” Documents reviewed revealed that in 2018/2019, HUSD staff was 4.2% African
American and the African American student population was 8.7%; this was the last year where

56
both data sets were reported (Riverside County Demographics). Students are disproportionately
excluded from school for behaviors and lack having an advocate for change on their behalf when
they have little same-race representation on staff (Wang, 2022). This is evident in HUSD’s data
and is corroborated by the teachers that were interviewed. Three themes that emerged from the
participants' responses were: 1) African American students are ostracized from the education
system; 2) The varying experiences of school culture are dependent on race; and 3) Students that
face exclusion lack an adult to advocate on their behalf.
Theme 1: African American students are ostracized from the education system.
All eleven participants reported during the interview that African American students had
indicated they did not feel like they were a part of the general school’s culture. Zero tolerance
policies that have resulted in exclusionary practices have shown to result in African American
students and students with disabilities being suspended at higher rates than their white, general
education counterparts that have violated the same rules, and have proven detrimental to the
relationship between these students and the education system (American Psychological
Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008). Participant 2 noted that African American
students in Black Student Union (BSU) have remarked, “White kids don’t get suspended for the
same reasons as us.” Participant 5 noted that African American students reported “feeling
ignored” and that suspension did not matter because “they are labeled regardless.” According to
one participant, students also reported during a BSU meeting that they “felt labeled” as soon as
they entered some teacher’s classrooms (Participant 6). Participant 1 noted observations about
class demographics:
There are less African American students in higher achieving classes, not because of
capability, but because of some unnamed external factor, ‘cause I've had conversations

57
with kids where I'll talk them into going into a higher level class and I have more success
with other populations than I've had generally speaking with African-American students,
again, not due to their skill level or the capabilities, but some other external trait.
African American teachers reported that students from the same cultural backgrounds strived to
create their own microcosm within the general community. White teachers acknowledged that
African American students tended to maintain their own social groups. Participant 8 described
the social groupings he observed:
One thing I do appreciate is that African American kids generally have a community
though with each other. I think that's really…. I don't really see a kid like that who is an
African American student alone very much. And I think that's kind of cool…Like that is
a community. Their culture generally has this community and I think that's really
something to be admired. I rarely see those kids just walking around by themselves. They
have multiple friends that they're hanging out with and laughing and really in my mind
I'm like that's the happiest kid. I want those kids in my class to have this wonderful
community, but I don't know if it's out of necessity.
The consensus was that African American students tended to maintain homogenous social
groupings and were rarely alone on campus. Table 3 provides specific quotes that describe
barriers that prevent students from feeling included in the education system.

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Table 3: Ostracization of African American Students
Barrier Type Example Quote
Teacher
Perception of
African American
Students
“African American students are held to a higher moral standard; students
know they are more likely to be disciplined. They have educational
trauma because they feel wronged by the system." (Participant 2).
“African American students are driven towards each other and seek each
other out. They have stuff in common; it is safe” (Participant 9).
“The ideal classroom experience for African American students would be
a room where they feel safe, included, valued, encouraged, and like any
other student. They should feel and know that they can accomplish
anything they set their minds to, and that we are here to support them
anyway we can. I would also like them to feel like their opinions, culture,
and selves are valued, and we want them to be successful. They do not
have this" (Participant 3).
The educational experience for African American students varies tremendously from that of
many of their peers on campus. African American students reported a feeling to participants that
they were held to higher standards than their White peers. According to participants, African
American students tend to maintain homogenous social groups because they have a cultural
understanding of each other. Students create their own culture and sense of belonging with each
other to compensate for the lack of representation and inclusion on campus.
Theme 2: The varying experiences of school culture depends on race.
All eleven participants responded that they felt that the site they worked on had a positive
school culture; however, it became evident as the interviews progressed that the experiences
were not consistent for all student groups. Participant 4 commented, “the school tries to be
inclusive, but BSU students still feel left out.” It was reported that “African American students
want to feel connected and see themselves in the curriculum, but that rarely happens”
(Participant 1). Participant 7 commented, “I try to encourage students to have their own voices;
they need to feel like their voice counts; they need to see themselves represented in the materials

59
we are teaching.” Ladson-Billings (2014) explains that culturally relevant pedagogy has become
nothing more than a buzzword but is not actively utilized in order to create an equitable
educational experience for African American students. It was also reported that African
American students clearly have a sense that they are treated differently because of their race;
they develop a defeatist attitude. Participant 2 explained how students have explained her
experience when listening to African American students:
I will wonder if students that are white were suspended for the same thing. That's a battle
that I've had with the administration before. Like, hey, I've seen this student have the
same behavior. They didn't get the same consequence. So why are we giving a more
punitive consequence to one of my students or why are we assuming that my student was
more aggressive than the other student when they were doing the same thing. And so, I
taught my students a lot about this school to prison pipeline and how that unfortunately,
Black people in general are held at a higher moral standard compared to most other
ethnicities. So they're aware and, well, I can't react the way that I want to because I'm
more likely to have discipline, whether it's in the community or at school.
Nine of the eleven participants reported that African American students get a sense that no
matter what they do, they will never be included in the culture of the school because they are
aggressive and non-academic. Participant 2 described students as suffering from “educational
trauma” and having been “wronged” by the school system. While Participant 1 indicated, “there
are less African American students in higher level courses and the general perception is that
African American students are less behaved because of social traits demonstrated....I see staff
make snap judgements” African American students perceive that they were suspended because
of racial bias and therefore perceive the education system as racially biased; Research shows

60
that African American students are punished more harshly for the same infraction as White
students (Rosenbaum, 2020). Table 4 provides responses from participants describing the lack of
inclusive cultural practices and the lack of representation that led to experiences being dependent
on a student’s race.
Table 4:Cultural Experience Depended on Race
Barrier Type Example Quote
Lack of
inclusive
cultural
practices
“They have a feeling that white students don't get suspended for the same
things as they do; African American students feel there is an assumption that
they are aggressive and are aware of the school to prison pipeline”
(Participant 2).
“African American students on campus are valued for athletics and driven by
stereotypes. I wish it was the same for academics for African American
students. African American students are not given the same academic push or
given the same benefit of the doubt like other students for behavior. They
know they are a token” (Participant 8).
“BSU students tell me they feel left out. They want a curriculum geared
towards them beyond MLK and Rosa Parks” (Participant 4).
African American students do not have the same educational experience as their White peers
because they are punished more harshly and there is a lack of diverse representation in the
curriculum. African American students are aware that teachers make assumptions about their
behavior and academic aptitude based exclusively on race.
Theme 3: Students that face exclusion lacks an adult to advocate on their behalf.
Ten participants noted that African American students often lack representation to
advocate for them. Research shows that students may respond more favorably to those that they
have a shared cultural understanding, and same-race teachers know how to advocate for changes
that would benefit same-race students; in fact, findings showed that African American students
were suspended at higher rates in schools with less African American teachers (Wang, 2022). Of
the eleven teachers interviewed, the five African American teachers indicated that African

61
American students were exceptionally drawn to them because they connected culturally and
understood each other. Participant 4 stated, “students like being able to identify with teachers.”
Participant 2 noted, “students trust me because I look like them and understand them.” Two of
the six White teachers indicated that they knew African American students had challenges but
did not know what they were nor did they feel comfortable broaching the subject or getting
involved. Participant 7 noted his experience as an African American teacher with few colleagues
like himself:
For many of the African American students at our school, I’m gonna say this and I'm
gonna be honest. I was the first non-white teacher there for probably about 14 or 15
years. It was all white. The teachers were all white. We had a few classified staff that
were Hispanic, but I still remain the only non-white teacher here. We have an African
American Office manager, so classified management, and then we just got our AP who's
African American. So outside of them. We 3 are probably the only African Americans
here, so students’ kind of gravitate towards you. And they understand that if they need to
talk to someone. They can reach out to us. But before that, it was just simply me and our
office manager. So, we really try to talk to the African American students.
Every participant expressed that building relationships with students was very important, but also
noted that not all students had this experience with every teacher. Participant 2 indicated, “I
know other teachers spread rumors about the kids and don’t even try to work with them.” Two
participants noted that students carry past traumas and are hesitant to trust teachers because the
teachers are a part of the system that has either “wronged” them or a member of their family or
social group (Participant 1 & 7). Table 5 provides specific quotes explaining how the lack of
adult connections having so that they can advocate on a student’s behalf can lead to exclusion.

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Table 5: Exclusion because of not having an adult as an advocate.
Barrier Type Example Quote
Lack of adult
connections
“I am currently the only African American teacher...first in nearly two
decades and now we also have an African American administrator. Students
gravitate to the African American staff. Parents are apprehensive because
there is no one like them” (Participant 7).
“Students like being able to connect with adults. It is hard to go into a room
knowing that the teacher is racist; the kid knows they are labeled and will
never have a positive relationship with that teacher” (Participant 4).
“African American students talk to me because I am like them. I can talk to
them about choice. They don’t connect the same way with other teachers
because they feel misunderstood” (Participant 2).
“Everyone needs someone to connect with–educators need to understand that
kids are no different” (Participant 10).
An emerging theme from participants indicated that relationships were critical to student
academic success. Students need to feel that the adult in the classroom is going to support them.
It is difficult for African American students to go to school every day knowing that their
teacher(s) think so little of them.
Discussion for Research Question 1
Nine of the eleven participants explicitly shared those African American students
experienced racism from various teachers; the other two implied that there was racism.
Participant 6 commented, “African American students feel ignored in class.” Participant 4 noted,
“students have told me that they feel like teachers are racist because of how they treat certain
students.” Skiba, et al. (2014) found that race as a contributing factor to exclusionary practices
stands alone regardless of the severity of the infraction. Participants validated this as they
reported many students reported a feeling that they were punished more severely for lesser
infractions than their White peers. Participant 8 remarked, “kids don’t like to be publicly
shamed…some teachers will single African American students out in a way you just don’t see

63
with White students.” Participant 11 noted, “I see other teachers suspend African American kids
from class for things that they would never suspend a White student for.” Research also shows
that there are rates of variability when it comes to consequences administered and while the most
exclusionary should be reserved for the most severe infractions, this is not always the case (Skiba
et al., 2014). Upon a review of additional documents, 0.24% of suspension for only defiance
were White where 0.39% were African American (Riverside County Demographics). This is
significant as 8.3% of the total student population was African American and 19.4% were White
(Riverside County Demographics).
All eleven participants also noted that making connections and developing relationships
were extremely critical for student success. The five African American participants elaborated
that African American students were more likely to connect with them because they shared a
cultural understanding, but there were not many African American teachers for students to
confide in and develop positive teacher/student relationships. Participant 6 noted, “we need to
build relationships and need to include things that kids can connect to [in our lessons].” The six
white participants expressed the need to develop relationships, but that they needed to work to
help students overcome past traumas that they experienced in the education system. Research
validates these results as students are more likely to connect with teachers that share similar
cultural values and those that strive to understand students beyond the classrooms (Wang, 2022;
Santoro, 2007). Participant 7 validated the research when stating, “I try to learn the background
of all students to meet their individual needs. I need to understand to be tolerant of the extra
baggage they carry to act in their best interest” While Participant 8 explained, “getting to know
each student is very important.” Both the research and participant responses support the idea that

64
adults are pivotal in creating an environment where African American students feel authentically
included.
Findings for Research Question 2: What do secondary teachers in HUSD perceive is the
impact of exclusionary discipline practices on their classroom pedagogy?
While participants indicated that exclusionary practices really did not explicitly impact
their classroom pedagogy, there were subtle indications that this was not the case for some of
their colleagues. Santoro (2007) explains how relationships are important and students feel safer
and more welcome when the teacher takes the time to understand them beyond the classroom.
The participants explained that they too noticed the difference for a student returning from
suspension when it was with a teacher that focused on making connections with students versus
those that did not. Participant 3 noted, “nothing should change in how a teacher treats a student
when they return from suspension; they need to support and help. They can't hold a grudge, but
many do.” Participant 2 commented, “suspended students struggle. School is their safe space.
When we push them away and then mot work with them when they return, they fall farther
behind. The disconnect.” Losen and Skiba (2010) point out that school systems are built on a
hierarchical system of punishment that perpetuate the continued exclusion of students already
furthest from opportunity. Accordingly, disciplinary removal has a negative impact on both
school culture and climate and is directly influenced by the principal’s attitude (Losen & Skiba,
2010). The eleven teachers that participated were adamant that they did not really care if a
student had been suspended from their class and that their role as an education was to help the
student move forward; however, they followed up by revealing that they had to adjust practices
to accommodate a student’s return to class and sometimes address peer responses to the student
returning. Participant 9 explained, “I don’t care to know discipline history…it makes no

65
difference.” Participant 4 explained, “African American students carry a heavier burden…[we]
need to welcome them back when they get suspended. It doesn't matter if a student is
suspended...treat the same and get them caught up.” One indicated a level of concern when
students return following being expelled for violent behavior though (Participant 5). Griffith &
Tyner (2019) reported from teachers surveyed that there is greater power in connecting
disruptive students to the learning environment and providing necessary resources; this sentiment
was also reported by the teachers interviewed for this study. Three themes that emerged from the
teachers interviewed include: 1) Student experience varies by teacher; 2) Teacher response varies
by student; and 3) Teachers control their classroom practices but desire a principal to take the
lead.
Theme 1: Student experience varies by teacher.
Responses from all eleven participants indicated that a student's educational experience
varies tremendously from teacher to teacher. Participant 3 explained that teachers should
approach students returning from suspension as, “you messed up…let’s learn from it and move
on.” Participant 9 described colleagues who are unfortunately inclined to “ostracize and ignore”
students that return from suspension. According to other survey responses in published research,
there is a need to work at connecting students that are disruptive to the learning environment
with the necessary services (Griffith & Tyner, 2019). All eleven participants in this study
revealed that they are committed to building relationships, ensuring that students feel a sense of
psychological safety, and strive to make sure that every student has an opportunity to be
successful in their class regardless of the student’s race or background. Participant 6 explained,
“the classroom needs to be an inclusive, positive space.” Participants also noted that this was not
always the case with their colleagues. One participant noted that there are some teachers that

66
regularly engage in negative conversations about students they have deemed to be “bad kids” and
that he tries to avoid these conversations (Participant 8). All agreed that they have colleagues that
are just not good for kids and this attitude takes away from the possibly positive outcomes
students can have. Participant 3 went on to explain the approach taken with students that have
previously carried the label of a “bad kid”:
Working with the kids I work with; they are often referred to as “bad kids” whether
they’ve been suspended or not. The fact that they have landed at our continuation school
makes them “bad” in the eyes of many. I actually have found that these “bad” kids just
need an alternative setting. They’re actually some of the best kids when given the right
setting. They need smaller class sizes, teachers who don’t get mad at stupid things, like if
they get up to sharpen their pencil without asking for permission...hey...I’m just happy
they’re using their pencil and getting work done, but some teachers will write them up for
this. When we listen to these kids and show them the support they need, I think they defy
those labels, and really surprise everyone. Also, some of those “bad kids” are dealing
with all kinds of other things in life, at home, wherever. They just need help figuring out
how to appropriately deal with things, something they often don’t get from other adults in
their lives. Like I tell my kids, you’re not bad, you just made some poor choices, which
we’ve all done at some point in our lives, and we’re here to help them be successful,
despite those choices.
They also expressed how students carry these negative experiences with them as they
matriculate through the system; oftentimes, making their jobs harder because they must undo
previous damage. Table 6 provides quotes that exemplify the perception teachers have of their
less inclusive colleagues.

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Table 6: Student experience depends on the teacher.
Issue Example Quote
Teachers with
preconceived
notions about
students
Teachers without
cultural proficiency
“Students get mislabeled, and teachers will send emails warning others
to watch out for “those kids” (Participant 6).
“I hear students regularly say that they are misunderstood and even if
they don’t fit a label [of a bad kid], they are expected to live up to it”
(Participant 2).
“I have heard many times that kids were "bad", but they aren't. [They}
may have made poor choices, but they can move forward. [I] urge them
to defy labels” (Participant 3).
“Students that are suspended are either ostracized or are heroes with
their peers…but they are all kids being kids…can’t hold them to a
higher standard than we hold ourselves as adults. They made a mistake,
and we need to move on” (Participant 9).
“Teachers need to understand African American students, but not single
them out– awareness of cultural differences is important. It’s hard to be
African American in America. American culture dictates how people
should act and it is often the opposite of our culture. I see the lack of
understanding and it hurts students that look like me” (Participant 7).
Teacher attitude towards students is critical to student success. Additionally, participants were
clear that they had an obligation to try and understand where students are coming from. They
also noted that cultural awareness and helping students see themselves in the curriculum were
crucial factors that can help students experience academic success.
Theme 2: Teacher response varies by student.
Participants noted how a teacher responds to a student varies and can be highly dependent
on who the student is for some of their colleagues. Participant 8 described, “teachers don't need
to label students returning from a suspension; they need to check on them and make sure they are
okay.” A white teaching population teaches an ever-diverse student population bringing
predisposed bias against African American students, specifically male; this dictates behavior
management and results in disproportionate outcomes (Welsh & Little, 2018; Lindsay & Hart,

68
2017). While the eleven participants indicated that a student returning from exclusionary
discipline does not impact how they work with that student, they acknowledged that there are
colleagues that hold a behavior record against a student. One noted, “students feel defeated
before they even get in the room” of these colleagues (Participant 1). Participant 8 commented,
“high rates of suspension can indicate standards, but more often exclude and remove student
from the school community that many already feel removed from. It is tragic that the school
system looks to further remove students from the community.” All agreed that they have an
obligation to get students back on track when they return. Participant 11 explained how they
approach to working with these students compared with some colleagues:
I personally don't really take that into account for my experience when I meet the quote
unquote troublesome students. Those typically turn out to be some of my best students.
They like to talk, and we laugh more than anything. They might not have the best grades,
but for the most part, I find that those students aren't the worst. They just need someone
to just talk to them just a little bit more or at least just recognizes that yes, I'm a student,
but at the same time I am dealing with other things that children or students should not
deal with. And I feel like once you understand that and you let them know that I
understand that, then they can sort of ease up a little bit.
The consensus from all eleven participants was that while suspension and expulsion may
sometimes be necessary, it does not resolve a problem. Participant 5 commented, “it is merely a
temporary fix to a problem and most agreed that it does more harm than good.” Participant 2
explained, “discipline needs to be specific to the students and their needs.” Table 7 provides
quotes that clarify how teacher colleagues’ biases influence the way they work with students
returning from a suspension and/or expulsion.

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Table 7: Teachers respond differently to different students.
Issue Example Quote
Teachers with biases
against students that
have been excluded
from school for
behaviors.
“Staff labels suspended African American students--treated like "bad
kids". Teachers gossip about students and give up on students. They
don't try to work with them” (Participant 2).
“Some teachers don't treat students right. They keep reminding
students of what they did wrong” (Participant 8).
“There are three types of teachers: 1) the ones that go above and
beyond to contact suspended students; 2) the ones that make minimal
effort to make contact, but the work is available; and 3) some don't
even allow make-up if the work isn't completed while suspended.
Ideally students would complete assignments while suspended. [It’s]
more common to need to get kids caught-up when they return.
Students need positive affirmation. I’ve noticed that kids appreciate
the teacher asking what happens when they return from suspension,
what was their experience. It is a chance for kids to tell their side.
They need a feeling that someone understands and advises…no
spectacle though” (Participant 1).
“There is a feeling that there are some teachers that are racist and it
is evident in how they treat African American students. They need to
talk with students instead and let them know you understand.
Students aren't bad; they have other things going on in their life.
African American students carry a heavier burden...need to welcome
them back when they get suspended. It doesn't matter if a student is
suspended...treat them the same and get them caught up. Other
teachers just aren't as accommodating when they return from
suspension” (Participant 4).
A common theme in participant responses was the need to help students acclimate back to class
when they return from being excluded; however, the exclusion should not be the go-to discipline.
While the participants emphasized the need to maintain the relationship through compassion and
understanding, they recognized that their colleagues are not always very forgiving and often seek
to continue to punish a student. As Participant 9 noted, “cynicism towards kids is wrong.”

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Theme 3: Teachers control their classroom practices but desire a principal to take the lead.
All eleven participants indicated that leadership is important when establishing a school’s
culture. Teachers can control the classroom, but need a principal to be strong and take the lead
when it comes to what happens outside their classroom. Participant 7 stated, “students need
access to administration--they need to be a resource for them and need to humanize themselves.”
While suspension may seem effective in the short-term, administrators fail to see the long-term
consequences of suspension in the lack of educational attainment and criminal justice
involvement (Rosenbaum, 2020). Participant 3 explained:
I believe if you have site administrators who support and empower their teachers and
their students, it’s a positive impact on the culture. Administrators need to listen to both
of those groups, and I mean really listen. If teachers are expressing concerns about a
particular student, or group of students, the site administrators should be able to call those
students in and talk with them or send them to the appropriate counseling or place to get
help. If students are expressing concerns about other students, or even staff,
administration should be listening to them too. No matter what, it makes those
stakeholders feel empowered, and worth something, and that we’re all in it together.
One teacher commented, “the administration needs to scaffold for teachers and need to be
visible” (Participant 5). Another made it clear, “it is just as important for the principal and their
administrative team to make connections and build relationships with students as well as
participate and be present for activities and events as for other staff” (Participant 6). Upon review
of student handbooks, all listed infractions that were followed by steps in consequences. Student
handbooks are typically influenced by the administrative team and provide an opportunity for
principals to utilize restorative justice practices. The handbooks in HUSD continually reflected

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deficit language where the terms interventions and consequences were used interchangeably.
Upon first offense, the recommendations in one handbook clearly stated “out of school
suspension”; however, no actual interventions were listed (THS, August 17, 2022). All indicated
participants that while they try not to let a student returning to school following exclusionary
discipline impact their classroom practices, the consequences of suspension are still felt by the
room. Participant 4 explained, “suspension matters–it carries a stigma.” Participant 10 noted,
“student response to kids returning from a suspension depends on the offense. Drug offenders are
isolated, and some fighters are heroes. It depends. The teacher must take responsibility for how
the class responds.” They also indicated that this can also impact a campus culture for those
students impacted by the exclusionary practices. Participant 10 explained how to combat the
effects of exclusion:
The school culture has to be where everyone is focused on good outcomes for students
and that might not even be graduation. I mean we focus a lot on graduation, but I've had
good outcomes with students who didn't graduate you know. But every staff member,
teacher, administrator, whatever…we're all there for the same reason and a lot of times on
school sites you don't get that. You don't get the feeling staff are involved. And I don't
know if that's something that's an administrative thing or just the way the school is set up.
The five African American participants noted that this is felt even more by African American
students. Participant 2 noted, “they tell me they feel that they are more likely to face more severe
discipline than their White peers.” Participant 8 clarified, “African American students know they
are a minority and that they are treated differently.” Table 8 provides specific examples of how
teachers believe that leadership can influence a school’s culture.

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Table 8: Schools with a good culture need strong leadership.
How this is
accomplished
Example Quote
Principals that lead
by example
Principals that
create an inclusive
campus
“Culture has to be where everyone is focused on good outcomes for
students…whatever the outcome may be. It’s different for each student.
Administration makes culture. Some things they [students] get suspended
for are ridiculous. The adult doesn’t know how to deal” (Participant 10).
“Administrators are leaders and should be an example. They need to
model implementation of the vision and mission--trickle down”
(Participant 4).
“An ideal school culture on campus, I believe this is where everyone on
campus feels included. No matter who you are, or what you’ve done in
the past, your part of this “family” we call school. We’re all in this
together. We listen to, support, and encourage one another, and we don’t
judge. We build each other up. What you did in the past doesn’t matter.
It’s what you’re doing in the present that matters. This starts with
leadership” (Participant 3).
“The principal is the first teacher. Suspension undermines authority and
damages relationships” (Participant 7).
“Administration that is too punitive makes kids rebel…if they are too
lenient, kids test what they can get away with. Discipline needs to be
specific to the students and their needs though. Being collaborative
makes a good culture” (Participant 2).
“Good culture is where everyone feels connected” (Participant 8).
“Good culture is camaraderie. Teachers and administrators need to be
involved with students and it needs to be inclusive--clubs for all types”
(Participant 4).
“Good culture is when students are excited and recognize the value of
being at school. All roads to opportunity come from the school and
educators, but this starts at the top. Every door opens for kids through
education” (Participant 10).
Good culture is when everyone feels a sense of belonging and connected to the site. Culture
starts with leadership though; administrators, especially the principal, must model inclusivity,
compassion, and empathy. As Participant 9 explained, “administrators are a major factor.

73
Veteran teachers feel they run the school. Administrators needs to lead teachers and have norms
to stick to/with. Teachers need to feel valued and supported.” All stakeholders need to work
together toward a common goal to improve student outcomes.
Discussion for Research Question 2
Participants indicated the importance of strong leadership and the power that the principal
and their administration have in creating school culture. Culture can be negatively impacted
because of systemic issues including the principal mindset and the use of exclusion for
infractions that are more subjective (Skiba et al., 2014). It was also noted throughout the
interviews that teachers' perception of students played a significant part in how they worked with
students. Historically, there has been a failure to focus on school policies and practices—
principal leadership, achievement orientation, and the possible contributions of implicit bias
(Skiba et al., 2014). Actions described by participants are geared towards punitive consequences
for infractions rather than progressive discipline or restorative practices, even though California
Education Code 48900.5 emphasizes progressive discipline and utilizing other means of
correction (“California Educational Code”). A review of student handbooks demonstrated an
overall focus on punitive and exclusionary discipline practices by site administrators rather than
inclusive and restorative. Participant 9 noted, “we need alternatives to suspension.” Ideally,
principals should foster an environment that connects students to the site and utilizes a tiered
approach to interventions that correlate to the severity of behavior. Exposure to African
American teachers is associated with lower rates of negative discipline outcomes for African
American students on average; the disproportionate matchups of teachers and students are at the
root cause of inequitable student outcomes (Lindsay & Hart, 2017). Participants even noted a
need to have an individualized, differentiated approach to discipline. Participant 1 explained,

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“we need to give students what they need rather than what the system thinks they may need.”
Exclusionary practices also serve to disengage these students perceived as being low risk or good
kids at later points in time. There is great value in having an individualized approach to
discipline, rather than the universal zero tolerance policies (Monahan et al., 2014). Student
handbooks revealed behavior policies that were rigid and did not allow for much differentiation
to meet the needs of the individual student. There is also a need for more options than suspension
and expulsion as research and participants highlight that these types of exclusionary practices do
little to resolve behaviors and help the student.
Summary
Each of the volunteers interviewed in the study acknowledged the significance of high
exclusionary discipline practices of African American students on school culture and classroom
pedagogy. Research shows that African American teachers have a more favorable view of
African American students and given their cultural understanding, the way by which discipline is
applied differs from their white colleagues and is even more evident where the infraction lacks
clarity and the perception of the teacher is subjective with regards to the behavior (Lindsay &
Hart, 2017). The interview data supported the research that exclusionary discipline is more
severe towards African American students and serves to be detrimental to their educational
experience. Participants also highlighted that because African American students feel labeled and
excluded, they find solace in seeking out homogenous social groups. While the participants
indicated that they strive to build relationships with students and not let those returning from
exclusion for discipline matters impact practices, they also indicated that they only control what
happens in their classrooms. Classroom teachers are heavily dependent, according to
respondents, on the example set forth by site administration. There might be a benefit to further

75
research on the pedagogical and classroom-management strategies utilized by African American
teachers. Table 9 summarizes the research findings and key themes which emerged during the
data analysis.
These research findings are discussed in chapter five along with recommendations which
may enable policy makers and administrators to improve discipline practices and professional
development for site educators to create greater opportunities for success with African American
students.

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Table 9: Summary of Themes and Findings of the Study
Themes Findings
African American students are
ostracized from the education
system.
• African American students are often negatively
labeled by staff.
• African American students are pushed to find
camaraderie amongst other African American
students.
• African American students do not feel valued or that
they matter.
The varying experiences of
school culture depends on
race.
Students that face exclusion
lack an adult to advocate on
their behalf.
Student experience varies by
teacher.
Teacher response varies by
student.
Teachers control their
classroom practices but desire
a principal to take the lead.
• African American students are punished more harshly
than their White peers.
• African American students feel left out and feel that
they lack representation in the curriculum.
• Students seek out other African American teachers,
but there are not many for them to connect with on
campuses.
• African American students struggle when they feel
that there are teachers that are racist.
• Students feel misunderstood by teachers.
• Students that are excluded from school for behavior
via suspension/expulsion face further exclusion from
the school culture upon return.
• African American students feel like they are
automatically labeled as “bad kids” by racist
teachers.
• Some teachers refuse to work with students that have
been excluded for behavior issues.
• Administrations (principals) need to lead by example
and create a collaborative, inclusive culture.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations for Practice
The purpose of the study is to expose gaps in current practices used to manage student
behaviors in secondary education and utilize this information to build capacity in staff and
improve the perception of school culture to decrease suspensions and expulsions for African
American students. The following research questions will guide this study:
1. How do secondary teachers in a district identified as having disproportionate discipline
practices for African American students describe the school culture and education
experience of these students?
2. What do secondary teachers in HUSD perceive is the impact of exclusionary discipline
practices on their classroom pedagogy?
This chapter will provide a brief overview of the findings in this study and how they
connect to both the literature and theoretical framework. The chapter will then address the four
recommendations for practice and how they can be practically applied to improve outcomes for
African American students. The four recommendations include:
1. Develop mandatory professional development opportunities that address implicit bias,
cultural proficiency, and empathy for teachers.
2. Develop programs on campuses that support racial inclusivity.
3. Establish disciplinary practices that meet the individual needs of students and incorporate
cultural understanding.
4. Develop practices that reflect diverse hiring practices to ensure staff demographics
accurately reflect the student population.

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Discussion of Findings
RQ #1: How do secondary teachers in a district identified as having disproportionate discipline
practices for African American students describe the school culture and education experience of
these students?
Participants shared three common themes when describing school culture and African
American students’ education experience. The three themes that captured the findings include: 1)
African American students are ostracized from the education system; 2) the varying experiences
of school culture depends on race; and 3) students that face exclusion lack an adult to advocate
on their behalf. Findings are congruent with Critical Theory in that the relationship that exists
between teachers and students in the classroom is a microcosm of social injustice and can
replicate the inequities between those in a position of power and those that are subject to
them (Bohman et al., 2002). The African American experience is built from institutionalized
oppression and the school system is built on a hierarchical system of punishment that serves to
exclude those that are already systematically disadvantaged (Losen & Skiba, 2010). Findings
also support the foundational claims identified in the research. Race is a contributing factor
to the disproportionate exclusionary practices of African American students and these
practices prevent students from accessing their education thus feeding the school to prison
pipeline (Skiba et al., 2016; Henry et al., 2021; Rumberger & Losen, 2016; Rosenbaum,
2020; Smolkowski et al., 2016). This information demands that education leaders and advocates
explore ways to dismantle the existing hierarchies currently in place in the American public
school system.

79
RQ #2: What do secondary teachers in HUSD perceive is the impact of exclusionary discipline
practices on their classroom pedagogy?
Participants shared three common themes when describing the impact of exclusionary
practices on their classroom pedagogy. The three themes that articulate the findings include: 1)
student experience varies by teacher; 2) teacher response varies by student; and 3) teachers
control their classroom practices but desire a principal to take the lead. Findings align with
Critical Theory in that the education system follows the model of the oppressor and the
oppressed (Friere, 2000). Losen and Skiba (2010) explain how school systems are built upon a
hierarchical system of punishment that perpetuate the continued exclusion of students that are
not part of the majoritarian dynamic. The findings of this study also align with the literature
researched for this study. Both the findings and the research demonstrated the variability in
teacher practices that are contingent on the student and the significance of administrative
leadership for the school site and culture. Disciplinary removal has a negative impact on both
school culture and climate and is directly influenced by the principal’s attitude (Losen & Skiba,
2010). When there is a lack of clarity in practices, African American students are vulnerable to
bias from administrators and teachers (Stokowski et al., 2016; Welsh & Little, 2018; Losen &
Skiba, 2010). The lack of context taken into consideration during the discipline process emulates
the criminal justice system making schools a microcosm of trending social injustices (Hughes,
2022). Clearly, this system is not working and provides an opportunity to explore approaches to
student behavior that break away from the criminal justice system to dismantle the school to
prison pipeline.

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Recommendations for Practice
Table 10: Connection of RQ’s to Findings and Literature
Research Questions Findings Literature
How do secondary teachers in a
district identified as having
disproportionate discipline practices
for African American students
describe the school culture and
education experience of these
students?
• African American students are
often negatively labeled by staff.
• African American students are
pushed to find camaraderie
amongst other African American
students.
• African American students do not
feel valued or that they matter.
• African American students are
punished more harshly than their
White peers.
• African American students feel
left out and feel that they lack
representation in the curriculum.
• Students seek out other African
American teachers, but there are
not many for them to connect
with on campuses.
• African American students
struggle when they feel that there
are teachers that are racist.
Skiba et al.,
2014
Lindsay &
Hart, 2017
Minahan et
al., 2014
What do secondary teachers in
HUSD perceive is the impact of
exclusionary discipline practices on
their classroom pedagogy?
• Students feel misunderstood by
teachers.
• Students that are excluded from
school for behavior via
suspension/expulsion face further
exclusion from the school culture
upon return.
• African American students feel
like they are automatically
labeled as “bad kids” by racist
teachers.
• Some teachers refuse to work
with students that have been
excluded for behavior issues.
• Administrations (principals) need
to lead by example and create a
collaborative, inclusive culture.
Skiba et al.,
2014
Santoro,
2007
Wang, 2022

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The following recommendations can provide equitable opportunities for African
American students to access their education by eliminating the disproportionate removal from
school for behavioral reasons.
Recommendation 1: Develop mandatory professional development opportunities in culturally
relevant pedagogical practices while addressing implicit bias, cultural proficiency, and
empathy for teachers
Findings from the study demonstrate that a student's experience varies by teacher and
teacher response varies by student. There is a disconnect between teaching staff and students.
Evidence shows that staff carry both unconscious and conscious bias along with negative
perceptions of African American students (Losen & Skiba, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2014). While
the term culturally relevant pedagogy is utilized by schools to demonstrate efforts at providing an
equitable educational experience, few schools implement this with fidelity. Ladson-Billings
(2014) calls for educators to examine and critique their own positions of privilege and examine
their everyday transactions to understand how people give meaning to their experiences.
Understanding one’s own positionality and intersectionality is critical to understanding the self in
relation to others. Studies have shown that one cause for the disproportionate discipline towards
African Americans is the lack of cultural understanding on part of White teachers. Lindsay and
Hart (2017) recommend that there may be value in further research of the pedagogical and
classroom management strategies used by African American teachers to replicate them. The
other cause of disparities in discipline are the subjective perceptions of teachers and
administrators administering consequences (Losen & Skiba, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2014).
Discipline policies that consider students’ individual needs and context are one step towards
reducing disparities in exclusionary practices.

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Clearly defined protocols that utilize tools associated with School-Wide Positive
Behavior and Intervention Support as well as training in Restorative Justice Practices would help
to alleviate these discrepancies. In the context of a high school, this would mean staff receive
specific training in School-Wide Positive Behavioral Intervention and Support (SWPBIS),
Restorative Justice practices, and culturally relevant applications by professionals that identify as
African American and have similar lived experiences to that of the students served. All three
approaches emphasize the value of relationship building and making amends when there is a
conflict. An element of restorative practices that would reap major benefits includes having
student panels where students have an opportunity to elevate their voices and inform staff about
their culture and explain strategies that they feel work best for them. The relationships that are
forged utilizing these practices also prompt students to self-report when they feel frustrated or
when they may feel that they want to engage in conflict so that they can de-escalate and forgo
engaging in a negative manner. Staff would also benefit by observing how successful teachers
work with African American students and then by having an opportunity to debrief with the
model teacher. In some cases, teachers might benefit from working with a coach or having a
mentor to help guide their practices.
Recommendation 2: Develop programs on campuses that support racial inclusivity.
Findings indicate that while campuses may present as being inclusive, they fail to meet
the unique cultural needs of African American students that are often in the minority at school.
Interventions that incorporate cultural adaptations are more likely to be successful. Given that
students of color are more likely to be excluded, there is a need to tailor proactive approaches to
social, emotional, and behavioral interventions that explicitly consider cultural characteristics
(Brown et al., 2018). Current practices also fail to consider institutionalized racism based in

83
ethnocentrism and that have a negative perspective of students of color (Gregory, 2021).
Programs must take into consideration the historical and institutionalized racism to rectify
practices based in White supremacy culture and become inclusive for African American
students.
Campus programs need to undergo a deconstruction of policies, practice, curriculum, and
resources to identify elements associated with a White supremacy culture. These practices should
be eliminated and replaced with practices that incorporate the unique social, emotional, and
behavioral cultural needs of African American students. Additionally, the curriculum needs to
represent student positionality. Students can significantly contribute to the diversity of a
classroom and can benefit from seeing themselves beyond the typical, mainstream examples.
Measures should be implemented that include resources and texts that reflect creators and
authors from diverse backgrounds and that represent the student demographics. Restorative
justice programs can assist by building a culture of trust though relationships developed.
Restorative justice practices have been shown to be more proactive than reactive because they
provide a forum for students to engage in a healthy manner. This would require the commitment
of administrators and teachers in addition to input from parents, the community, and students.
Recommendation 3: Establish disciplinary practices that meet the individual needs of students
and incorporate cultural understanding.
Findings show that African American students report being disciplined more harshly than
their white peers for infractions that are oftentimes less severe in nature. While exclusion is most
likely used for severe infraction such as physical aggression and drugs, most exclusionary
methods issued are for minor to moderate infractions such as disruption and defiance (Skiba et
al. 2014). Programs need to acknowledge cultural differences and connect students to the

84
school's environment. Griffith and Tyner (2014) found from teachers they surveyed that there is
a need to work at connecting students that are disruptive to the learning environment. There is
also obvious value in connecting students with necessary services that meet their individual
needs utilizing interventions with cultural adaptations while also exploring other options besides
suspension or expulsion for infractions (Griffith & Tyner, 2014; Monahan et al., 2014; Brown &
Burren, 2018). Research has also shown that a school-wide implementation of Positive Behavior
Intervention and Supports along with restorative practices can dramatically improve academic
and behavioral outcomes for students since this is a proactive methodology that utilizes data
driven decision making in a multi-tiered approach to meeting the individual needs of students
(Childs et al., 2016; Welsh & Little, 2018; Gage et al., 2020). Data indicates that suspension is
not a deterrent for behavior and schools with more positive to negative consequences reported
lower suspension rates (Camacho, & Krezmien, 2020). Given that students of color are more
likely to be excluded, there is a need to tailor proactive approaches to social, emotional, and
behavioral interventions that take into consideration a student’s cultural characteristics (Brown et
al., 2018). Schools that implemented restorative practices witnessed overall improvements in
student grade, graduation rates, test scores, and reduced suspensions while also minimizing racial
disparities (Welsh & Little, 2018). Students are more likely to experience success and contribute
to a positive school culture when they feel it is a safe space where they can get help rather than
an institution that is seeking ways to remove them.
Campuses need to develop multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS) that utilize data
collected via qualitative and qualitative methods to identify students that may be considered atrisk for behavioral, emotional, and/or academic issues. These MTSS teams would develop
individualized plans for these students that connect them and possibly their families with school

85
and community support while also identifying adults that the student can safely access on
campus. Restorative justice practices can be layered within the MTSS approach by addressing
behaviors through a tiered system. All students can be provided a forum to express concerns and
elevate their concerns, specific conflicts can be addressed utilizing small groups, and students
returning from exclusion can be afforded a one-on-one melting to support their acclimation back
to campus (Davis, 2015). Additionally, this system allows for specific criteria to be established
regarding behavior and the appropriate consequence in conjunction with restorative practices;
thus, eliminating the subjective that is often in place when administrators administer discipline.
Recommendation 4: Develop practices that reflect diverse hiring practices to ensure staff
demographics accurately reflect the student population.
Findings show that students seek teaching staff that are like them and find acceptance
with these staff members because they understand the student’s diverse and unique cultural
needs. Students are more likely to experience success and feel safe when they have a teacher that
understands their unique cultural needs (Santoro, 2007). Exposure to African American teachers
is associated with lower rates of negative discipline outcomes for African American students on
average because African American teachers have a cultural understanding of African American
Students and perceive them in a more favorable way (Lindsay & Hart, 2017; Wang, 2022).
According to Wang (2022), African American students were suspended less in schools with
more African American teachers and studies confirm that African American teachers have higher
expectations for their African American students.
To develop a system where the teaching population starts to mirror the student
population, Human Resources departments need to be cautious in their hiring practices. They
need to recruit teachers that reflect the demographics at the schools they serve. One way this

86
could be accomplished is for districts to attend recruiting fairs at diverse universities such as
Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). Districts could offer signing bonuses
along with covering the costs of relocation for candidates that reflect the demographics of the
school system. Another approach to building more diversity in the teaching staff is to develop
programs that ensure access to higher education and financial assistance for African American
college students to go into the field of education. Intentional systems must be created at the
universities and in school districts to create a pool of teachers to meet the needs of African
American students. The following table is a sample guide that can be broadly applied for districts
considering making changes to changes that improve school climate and outcomes for students:
Table 11: Recommendation Timetable, Resources, and Staff Responsible
Recommendation Timeline / Resources Staff
Responsible
Recommendation 1: Develop mandatory
professional development opportunities
in culturally relevant pedagogical
practices while addressing implicit bias,
cultural proficiency, and empathy for
teachers
Within the current academic
year and in preparation for the
next academic year.
This requires ongoing attention.
Significant fiscal implications
for contracted professional
development services.
Student/Pupil
Services
Department
Educational
Services
Department
Site
Administration
Recommendation 2: Develop programs
on campuses that support racial
inclusivity.
Within the next one to two
years.
Programs and practices need to
be evaluated regularly to be
maintained and kept current.
Minimal fiscal implications to
cover costs associated with
additional time needed to plan.
Student/Pupil
Services
Department
Educational
Services
Department
Site
Administration

87
Community
stakeholders.
Recommendation 3: Establish
disciplinary practices that meet the
individual needs of students and
incorporate cultural understanding.
Within the next one to two
years.
Programs and practices need to
be evaluated regularly to be
maintained and kept current.
Minimal fiscal implications for
consultation services regarding
discipline practices and training
for site staff and administration
concocted by central office
leadership.
Student/Pupil
Services
Department
Site
Administration
Teaching and
Support Staff
Recommendation 4: Develop practices
that reflect diverse hiring practices to
ensure staff demographics accurately
reflect the student population.
Within the next two to three
years.
This practice will take time to
plan and implement.
Significant fiscal implications to
support travel for recruitment
and salary.
Human
Resources
Departments
Business
Services
Site
Administrators
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations reflect the deficiencies of a study, based on practical or theoretical
restrictions faced by the researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). One critical limitation was the
lack of firsthand student voice in the study; the study was reliant on staff speaking on their
behalf. Given the nature of the qualitative study though, the greatest limitation was the sample
size is small. This limited the breadth of data collected; however, it provided data to support an
in-depth analysis of the individual teacher experience. Findings are not generalized, but rather
specific to the participants' context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Some respondents may have felt

88
an obligation to participate because of my positionality; however, participants did not appear to
hold back in their responses. They did not appear to feel that harm could come from responses
provided that are not in alignment with what another party might believe in with regards to
discipline practices and school culture. The participants were confident in the confidentiality of
their responses and did indicate any concerns that administration may retaliate if a response to a
question was not favorable towards administration.
Delimitations reflect the decisions made by the researcher in terms of the focus and scope
of the research goals and research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). One delimitation that
emerged in this study was that some questions resulted in similar responses to previous
questions. While some participants were able to elaborate, others were not and preferred to move
on to the next question. Participants' positionality and intersectionality became evident in their
responses though. Fortunately, participants did not appear to be triggered by their own
experiences as students in public education or participants that have been the victim of violence
at the hands of students. This was evident as all completed the interview process. Milner (2007)
cautions that researchers need to be actively engaged, introspective, and straightforward with
regards to the tension and apprehension that can come to light when conducting research where
issues of race and culture are addressed. I made sure to engage in the practice of self-reflection
on my background and the background of others given the impact that has on teaching, learning,
and research throughout the study. I also reassured participants and created a safe environment
for them to freely share in response to the interview protocol.
Recommendations for Future Research
Moving forward, there is a need to continue researching teacher pedagogical practices in
relation to African American students. One question that still lingers is what explicitly are

89
teachers doing in terms of making connections and building relationships that explicitly impact
African American students’ outcomes and how can this be replicated? By identifying specific
methodologies and strategies utilized by teachers that utilize culturally appropriate interventions,
professional development and teacher preparation programs could be redesigned to include
these.
Additionally, the limitation of sample size could prompt further research to expand the
teachers sample size and include a student component. African American students that have
faced racism in school and/or exclusionary practices could provide the greatest insight into what
teachers do in the classroom that works for them and what does not work for them. Ultimately,
the continued interrogation of race and racism in teacher pedagogy are essential to understanding
the impact on school culture.
Conclusion
The consequences of zero tolerance policies are evident in the continued exclusion of
students and the detrimental educational outcomes. Excluded students are denied access to an
equitable education and exclusion is often the result of race. This study provides insight into the
reality of exclusionary practices that are disproportionately utilized with African American
students and the negative impact this has on these students’ academic outcomes, school culture,
and classroom pedagogy. These findings can provide insight into ways educators can close the
gap in research that focuses on teacher satisfaction and confidence in working with students as
well as the overall educational experience for African American students. Teachers are pivotal to
the academic experience for students; findings and research indicate that they simply are not
equipped with the skills to address diverse student populations that may differ from their own
positionality. It also provides evidence into the importance that the principal has in setting the

90
cultural tone and expectations for a campus. Leadership matters and teachers crave strong
leadership. It is critical that administrators lead by example; therefore, they also require training
that equips them with methodologies to apply culturally relevant adaptations to practices.
Culturally relevant professional development and preparation programs, systems of support and
restorative justice practices, as well as equitable hiring practices can improve school culture and
provide an opportunity for teachers and administrators to feel confident in meeting the needs of
their diverse learners.

91
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Appendix A
Interview Protocol
Introduction
Thank-you for taking the time and allowing me to interview you. This study will examine
teaching staff’s perception of a student’s experience and school culture when there are high rates
of exclusionary discipline practices utilized with African American Students.
This study is important as it can expose gaps in current practices used to manage student
behaviors. This information can then be used to build capacity in staff to decrease suspensions
and expulsions to improve the perception of school culture. This study specifically looks to
improve the experience for African American students as they are disproportionately suspended
and expelled from school.
As indicated in the Study Information Sheet you were provided prior to our meeting, you
have been selected to participate in this study because of your experience as a secondary teacher
in a high school classroom that has worked in a district with high suspension rates, with a
disproportionate amount of those suspensions composed of African American students. Your
identity will remain confidential, and all identifiers will be removed from this study. You may
also skip questions should you not be comfortable providing an answer. At this time, I would like
to ask your permission to record the audio content of this interview to accurately capture your
responses.
Questions (with transitions)
Transition: I want to begin by getting to know about your professional experience.
1. Tell me about your background working in secondary education. (RQ #1&2
/Background)
2. Describe the climate and culture of your site. (RQ #1/Background)
3. Describe your current classroom culture. (RQ #1/Background)
4. How are you finding, if at all, your practices being impacted given the current social
climate from what you thought they would be? (RQ #1/Interpretive)
5. Explain how you think your students’ classroom academic experience has changed over
the last three years, if at all. (RQ #1/Opinion)
6. Explain how you think your students’ classroom social experience has changed over the
last three years, if at all. (RQ#1/Opinion)
Transition: Thank-you for your responses. Now, I would like to ask you some questions about
what your perception is of a student's classroom experience at your school.
7. What is your perception of the classroom experience for African American students in
your school? (RQ#1/Experience)

100
8. How would you describe your response to students that are identified in the student
management system as having been suspended? (RQ #1/Experience)
9. How would you describe the ideal classroom experience for African American students
overall? (RQ #1/Ideal Position)
10. Some teachers might say that students that are suspended are “bad kids”. Have you heard
this terminology and what is your response to this? (RQ #2/Devil’s Advocate)
11. How would you describe the ideal classroom experience specifically for African
American students that return from suspension? (RQ#1/Ideal Position)
Transition: I appreciate your willingness to share. Now, I would like to ask some questions about
professional practices when working with students returning from suspension and your school’s
culture.
12. Describe an experience about a student in your class returning from a five-day
suspension, how would you work with this student? (RQ#2/Hypothetical).
13. Assuming there is an incident on campus by which a large group of students are
suspended, how do you think your colleagues would work with these students as they
returned from their suspensions? (RQ #2/Hypothetical)
14. How are you finding that your classroom’s culture is impacted in a way that you may not
have expected when a student returns from suspension, if at all? (RQ #2/Interpretive)
15. Some may say that high suspension rates do not impact a school culture either positively
or negatively. How would you respond to this statement? (RQ #2/Devil’s Advocate)
16. How do you believe site administration influences a school’s culture? (RQ #2/Opinion)
17. Describe what an ideal school culture feels like on campus. (RQ #1/Ideal Position)
Closing
Your time and feedback are greatly appreciated. At this time, is there anything that you would
like to add? Please know that your candid responses will provide valuable insight into this work
and help with initiatives to not only support students but staff as well. Should you think of
anything that you would like to add, please do not hesitate to email, text, or call. I can assure you
that any further comments provided will be subject to the same confidentiality of this interview.

101
Appendix B
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH
STUDY TITLE: TEACHERS’ CLASSROOM PEDAGOGY AND PERCEPTION:
IN SCHOOLS WITH HIGH RATES OF EXCLUSIONARY DISCIPLINE PRACTICES
FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Shannyn L. Cahoon
FACULTY ADVISOR: Kim Ferrario, Ph.D.
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This
document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about
anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of the study is to expose gaps in current practices used to manage student
behaviors in secondary education. This will be accomplished by examining what the
teaching staff’s perception of a school’s culture is when there are high rates of
exclusionary discipline practices utilized with African American Students. We hope to
learn how this information can be used to build capacity in staff and improve the
perception of school culture to decrease suspensions and expulsions, specifically for
African American students as they are disproportionately suspended and expelled from
school. You are invited as a possible participant because you currently teach a core
class at the secondary level and identify as either African American or White.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Participants will be asked to participate in an interview via Zoom outside of their work
hours. The interview will last for approximately one hour. The interview will be recorded
utilizing the built in recording feature in Zoom. Participants that do not wish to be
recorded can choose not to participate in the study.
If you decide to take part, you will be asked to consent to being recorded.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
There is no cost to you for taking part in this study.
You will not be compensated for your participation.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

102
Information will be kept confidential as all identifiable components will be removed and
data will be secured in a confidential Google Drive.
Data will be kept until the successful defense of the dissertation.
You will have a right to request access to the Zoom recording when it becomes
available. Only the principal investigator and the IRB will have access to recording or
transcripts. Recordings will be deleted once transcribed.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact the principal investigator,
Shannyn Cahoon at 951-334-5526 or at scahoon@usc.edu. You may also contact the
faculty advisor, Kim Ferrario, Ph.D. at kferrari@usc.edu.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Cahoon, Shannyn Lynn (author)

Core Title Teachers' classroom pedagogy and perception: In schools with high rates of exclusionary discipline practices for African American students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 11/17/2023

Defense Date 11/13/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag critical theory,exclusionary discipline practices,OAI-PMH Harvest,pedagogy,positive behavior intervention support,restorative justice,school culture,social injustice

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ermeling, Bradley (committee member), Ferrario, Kim (committee member), Ott, Maria (committee member)

Creator Email slcahoon@usc.edu,slcahoon7@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113774177

Unique identifier UC113774177

Identifier etd-CahoonShan-12479.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-CahoonShan-12479

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Cahoon, Shannyn Lynn

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20231120-usctheses-batch-1107 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu