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Media literacy education: a qualitative inquiry into the perspectives teachers hold about teaching media literacy

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Media literacy education: a qualitative inquiry into the perspectives teachers hold about teaching media literacy

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Content 1
Media Literacy Education:
A Qualitative Inquiry into The Perspectives Teachers Hold About Teaching Media Literacy
Jerry W. Washington
ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
A diss ertation submitted to the faculty
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
December 2023

© Copyright by Jerry Washington, 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Jerry Washington certifies the approval of the Dissertation
Jane Rosenthal Dieken
Matthew Korona
John Pascarella
Robert A. Filback, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

Abstract
This study delves into the perceptions of California teachers regarding their self-efficacy and
collective efficacy in teaching media literacy. To frame the research, Bandura's Social Cognitive
Theory and Human Agency Theory were utilized, which explore cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental factors such as perceived knowledge, attitude, expectation, skill, practices, selfefficacy, social norms, access to curricula, and teacher autonomy. The study employed qualitative
methodologies through an online survey and follow-up interviews. The survey had three selfscreening questions, two demographic questions, and 18 topic questions, four of which were
open-ended to encourage elaboration on the 14 Likert-type questions. The 12 interviews were
30-60 minutes long and followed similar questions as the survey, using open-ended questions
and probes for elaboration. Qualitative open and axial thematic analysis was used to process the
data, utilizing emergent themes and a priori codes grounded in SCT’s cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental factors. The study's findings revealed that 74% of respondents felt somewhat
knowledgeable due to the time since professional development training. 95% of respondents
agreed that media literacy education is extremely important. 80% of participants believed that
media literacy education would remain unchanged. 42% felt their skill level was somewhat low
due to a lack of opportunities to practice, while 41% felt they were highly skilled in teaching
media literacy due to their primary teaching skills. 78% said they do not practice teaching media
literacy often because of competing priorities and time constraints. 47% were somewhat
confident about teaching media literacy, mainly because of their skill level for teaching, while
37% had high confidence in teaching media literacy if they could access the curriculum. 69%
said they were somewhat dissatisfied with the level of support from management and other
teachers. 82% were unaware of the California Department of Education (CDE) website for media

literacy resources, 25% used resources from a non-profit organization, and 15% used the CDE
website. 70% said their peers were not teaching media literacy, while 9% said they were highly
influential in teaching media literacy. Finally, participants felt empowered to teach what was
necessary as long as there was a policy or mandate for teaching media literacy.

Dedication
I deeply thank my dear friend and Marine brother, Abdiel Maldonado. His simple words of
encouragement, "Why not you?" have been a great source of inspiration during my moments of
self-doubt. Though he is not here to witness it, I know he would be proud of my achievements.
Abdiel, my dear brother, you can always count on me.

Acknowledgments
I am grateful for the love, support, forgiveness, and encouragement from those in my
circle. Without them, I couldn't have come this far. Their contributions have been invaluable, and
I feel like I'm standing on the shoulders of giants. This adventure has been an unforgettable
experience, and I'm forever humbled. It will remain in my heart for a long time.
I would like to express my gratitude to my dissertation committee for their invaluable
support. Firstly, I extend a heartfelt thanks to my dissertation chair, Dr. Robert Filback, for his
unwavering encouragement and patience throughout the process. His guidance, leadership, and
flexibility are truly commendable. I am also grateful to my dissertation committee members, Dr.
Jane Rosenthal Dieken, Dr. Matthew Korona, and Dr. John Pascarella, for taking time out of their
busy schedules to share their deep insights, wisdom, and inspiration. I appreciate their efforts in
pushing me to examine my research critically. I am particularly thankful to Dr. Korona and Dr.
Pascarella for extending their help to a stranger. Furthermore, to Dr. Rosenthal Dieken, I am
grateful for her constant support over the past three and a half years.
I want to express my gratitude to the participants of this study. Your willingness to take
the time to complete the survey has been instrumental in moving this study forward. I would also
like to extend a special thank you to those who sat with me for the interviews. Thank you for
allowing me to delve deeper into the subject matter.
I could not have learned this valuable life lesson without my new family's unwavering
support and friendship - Jay, Wanda, Zach, and Kim. They were the icing on the cake!
I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to my wife, Yesenia; my lovely children, Victoria, Daisy,
and Maya; my Mom, Stephan; and my Big Brother, Tony, furthermore, to my niece and nephew,

Michelle and Chase. We did it! I love and appreciate you all for being there every step of the
way.

Table of Contents
Abstract 4
Dedication 6
Acknowledgments 7
Table of Contents 9
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 15
Statement of the Problem 16
Purpose of the Study 18
Methodology 19
Significance of the Study 20
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions 21
Definitions 22
Organization of the Dissertation 24
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 25
The Current Condition in Society: Post-Truth 25
Post-Truth from Postmodernism 26
Theoretical Postmodernism 28
Cultural Postmodernism 29
Postmodernity 30
Catalysts 35

Rise of Digital and Social Media 35
Change in Media Gatekeepers 37
Epistemic Cognition 38
Education as the Solution 40
Media Literacy Education (MLE) 41
The Epidemiology Metaphor 43
Meaning Behind the Practice 44
Beginnings 46
Figure 2 Big Tent Model of MLE 50
Protectionism 51
Empowerment 52
Studies of Media literacy 53
Theoretical Framework 59
Implications for this Study 60
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 62
Research Questions 63
Study Context 63
Population and Sample 64
Qualitative Method Design 65
Data Analysis: Qualitative Content Analysis 66

Trustworthiness 69
Limitations and Delimitations 70
Role of the Researcher 71
Conclusion 72
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 73
Research Question 1: What are teachers’ perceived knowledge, attitudes, and
expectations concerning teaching media literacy? 73
Perceived Knowledge for Teaching Media Literacy 74
A Small Subset of Respondents Perceived Themselves to be Very Knowledgeable in
Teaching Media Literacy 74
62 Respondents Reported being Somewhat Knowledgeable in Teaching Media
Literacy 76
Respondents Reported Not Very Knowledgeable in Teaching Media Literacy 77
Perceived Attitude Toward Teaching Media Literacy 78
Reported Future Expectations for Teaching Media Literacy 79
Future Increase in Teaching Media Literacy 80
Expect Status Quo Will Remain Unchanged 81
No Expectations Unsure of the Future 82
Research Question 2: What practices and levels of self-efficacy for teaching media
literacy do they report? 82
Perceived Skills for Teaching Media Literacy 83

Respondents Reported Very Low Skill in Teaching Media Literacy 83
Respondents Reported Highly Skill in Teaching Media Literacy 86
Reported Level of Practice for Teaching Media Literacy 86
Perceived Self-efficacy Toward Teaching Media Literacy 87
Research Question 3: How do school environment factors, including social norms, access
to curricula, and level of teacher autonomy, support or hinder teachers in teaching media
literacy? 89
Access to Curriculum 90
Social Norms 93
Social Influence on Teaching Media Literacy 94
Reported Teacher Autonomy 95
Summary and Implication of Findings 96
CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS 98
Usefulness of the Theoretical Framework Error! Bookmark not defined.
Discussion of Findings 98
Recommendations for Practice 102
Recommendation 1: Increase Exposure to Master Experiences Opportunities 102
Recommendation 2: Generate More Opportunities for Vicarious Experiences 104
Recommendation 3: Enhance Media Literacy Education Visibility Through Social
Networks 105

Recommendation 4: Solidify a Sense of Collective Mission and Future Orientation 106
Recommendation 5: Kilpatrick New World Model as a Training and Evaluation Plan 107
Overview of the Levels Error! Bookmark not defined.
Recommendations for Future Research 110
College and University Impact on Teacher Education to Teach Media Literacy 110
Examining a Media Literacy Education Promising Practice 111
The Impact of Generative AI on Media Literacy Education and Practice 112
Conclusion 114
References 116
Appendix A: Survey and Interview Conceptual Framework 128
Appendix D: Code and Labeling Matrix 135
Appendix E: Table 1 Four educational lenses on the post-truth condition. 141
Appendix F: Table 2 Seven Propaganda Devices 142
Appendix G: Table 3 Code Template – Social cognitive theory constructs and definitions
144

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
In response to the rising prevalence of disinformation, misinformation, and fake news,
California has taken action to combat this issue. Senate Bill (S.B.) 830 mandates that the
California State Department of Education provide media literacy resources and instructional
materials on its website, including teacher professional development resources. The bill defines
media literacy as "the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and use media," and emphasizes the
importance of cultivating the foundational skills necessary for digital citizenship (SB 830, 2018,
p. 2). Digital citizenship is defined as the proficiency in media technology and social media sites,
as well as the ability to mediate behaviors that promote healthy, responsible, and appropriate
social norms (SB 830, 2018). These definitions and initiatives underscore the importance of
personal and collective responsibility in discerning information that is consumed.
There is a growing need for media literacy education and awareness, as research has
shown that a significant portion of adults have been exposed to fake news and misleading
information. SB 830 reports that two-thirds of adults have seen fake news, leading to confusion
about what is true. Pew Research Center's 2019 study found that over 40% of citizens have dealt
with false or misleading information. In contrast, a 2021 Pew Research Center study showed that
53% of US adults now get their news from less regulated social media sites. This highlights the
importance of educating citizens to critically examine and discern media information (Mitchell,
2021; Butler, 2019; Kellner & Share, 2019; Rubin, 2019). The evidence also underscores the
crucial role that teachers and educational institutions play in educating citizens to examine media
messaging critically.

Statement of the Problem
The aim of the research is to explore the effectiveness of teachers and institutions in
cultivating media-literate digital citizens. Studies suggest that teacher self-efficacy (TSE) beliefs
have a positive impact on their well-being, job satisfaction, and commitment to achieving highquality outcomes for their students and themselves (Zee & Koomen, 2016). Efficacy is a term
that refers to the extent to which an action, treatment, intervention, or program produces the
desired outcome. According to a study published in the Journal of Educational Psychology,
efficacy is a critical factor in determining the success of educational interventions (Schunk,
2012). Moreover, institutional efficacy, or collective efficacy, refers to a group's shared
perception of their ability to perform a task or attain a goal successfully (Bandura, 2001).
Collective efficacy has a comparable effect to TSE, but its influence is at an organizational or
global level (Loughland & Nguyen, 2020).
Research has shown that teachers' self-efficacy plays a crucial role in promoting
collective efficacy in educational institutions and the successful integration of media literacy into
the curriculum (Scull & Kupersmidt, 2011). In fact, Scull and Kupersmidt found that teachers
who received media literacy training demonstrated a stronger belief in the importance of media
literacy, scored higher in media deconstruction competencies, and had a more sophisticated
understanding of media literacy than those who did not receive the training. The researchers also
noted an increase in motivation, interest, and fidelity of implementation of a school-based
program among the trained group. Similarly, Schroeder and Curcio (2022) found that pre-service
teachers who received media literacy training were better equipped to critically examine the
textbooks and curriculum used in their classes, allowing them to recognize inherent biases in
some resources. Overall, these studies suggest that media literacy education can enhance teacher

beliefs in the importance of media literacy skills and equip them with the knowledge and skills to
integrate media literacy across the curriculum.
Teachers play a critical role in instilling in students a desire to critically analyze media.
According to Schwarz (2001), media literacy education provides an opportunity for teachers to
engage students in new ways by helping them understand the relationship between everyday
situations, the school environment, and the community. Kellner and Share (2019) recommend
that teachers should be aware of the various curricula that can help students learn how to
critically question media and look for alternatives to the messages they see daily. Similarly,
Butler (2019) emphasizes the importance of professional training for teachers to deliver media
literacy education effectively. These experts all advocate for teachers' essential role in media
literacy education.
The National Association of Media Literacy Education (NAMLE) conducted a study that
identified several factors that influence media literacy efficacy, including teacher and
institutional efficacy. The study aimed to take a snapshot of the field and found that there is a
need to expand media literacy training and professional development. It also suggested
supporting inquiry into practice, particularly qualitative research investigating constructs that
support and inhibit media literacy practice, thereby gaining a more precise picture of how
teachers implement, maintain, and evaluate media literacy. Lastly, the study strongly indicated a
need to increase public awareness and immediacy of media literacy education (Culver &
Redmond, 2019). These factors impact the ability of teachers and institutions to create medialiterate digital citizens.
It is crucial to address the matter of teacher and institutional efficacy in producing media
literate digital citizens. This is because democracy thrives when citizens are concerned about the

authenticity of truth claims (Kahne & Bowyer, 2017) and possess the ability to critically analyze
the dichotomy between producers and consumers, information, and attempts to exert control
(Kellner & Share, 2007). According to Saal & Shaw (2020), "an informed citizenry is the
cornerstone of democracy, and citizens' self-determination and freedom suffer without adequate
literacy tools or information" (p. 221). These statements underscore the importance of assessing
media literacy efficacy and motivating educators and students to relentlessly seek reliable
information and question preexisting personal beliefs.
Purpose of the Study
The aim of this investigation is to gain a better understanding of the perspectives held by
California's educators concerning their self-efficacy and group efficacy in teaching media
literacy. In order to perform this qualitative study in the field, the research will employ Social
Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Human Agency Theory, as developed by Bandura (2001). These
selected theories are appropriate for the study, as they provide a framework for evaluating the
vital role of self- and group efficacy by analyzing the expectations, knowledge, and experiences
of teachers at the individual, proxy, and collective levels.
Three factors of SCT: cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors

Figure 1
SCT, or social cognitive theory, is a framework that explains how members of a group
work together to achieve shared goals (Beverly & Wray, 2010). According to Bandura (1986),
SCT identifies three key factors that impact human functioning: cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental. These factors provide insight into how individuals and groups view their own
abilities to accomplish tasks. Human Agency Theory builds on SCT by introducing three modes
of agency: direct personal agency, proxy agency, and collective agency (Bandura, 2001). These
modes help to describe efficacy at the personal, proxy, and collective levels. The concepts of
SCT and Human Agency Theory are particularly relevant to the study of media literacy
education, as teachers are both producers and products of the larger social system (Beverly &
Wray, 2010, p. 1).
Methodology
Three questions guide this study:
1. What are teachers’ perceived knowledge, attitudes, and expectations concerning teaching
media literacy?
2. What practices and levels of self-efficacy for teaching media literacy do they report?

3. How do school environment factors, including social norms, access to curricula, and level
of teacher autonomy, support or hinder teachers in teaching media literacy?
The aim of this research is to gain a comprehensive understanding of participants'
perspectives by conducting an online qualitative survey and follow-up interviews. To design the
survey, the study will make use of qualitative survey methodologies as discussed in Toepoel's
(2016) and Braun et al.'s (2021) works. According to Braun et al. (2021), qualitative surveys are
often overlooked despite their novelty and potential. More details on the methodology will be
discussed in chapter three. The study will focus on California teachers and will utilize social
media and social networks to circulate the surveys and generate interest for interviews.
Significance of the Study
The research delves deeper into the realm of media literacy education by exploring the
perspectives of teachers on the subject matter. It aims to uncover their perceived knowledge,
attitudes, and expectations, as well as their reported feelings of self-efficacy. In addition, the
study also analyzes school environments, such as social norms, curricula access, and teacher
autonomy level, that either support or hinder teachers in teaching media literacy, as well as their
reported collective efficacy. In light of the current societal conditions, this study holds immense
significance.
Recent research suggests that we are living in a post-truth era, where objective facts are
less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief (Benesch,
2020; Chinn et al., 2021; Conrad, 2021; McIntyre, 2018; Sinatra & Lombardi, 2020; Sismondo,
2017; Strom et al., 2018). While the term ‘post-truth’ is partially satirical, it also has a specific
meaning. It does not necessarily mean that truth no longer exists, but rather that truth no longer
matters (Chinn et al., 2021). The post-truth concept is characterized by audiences who are

seemingly indifferent about the factual veracity of the information they are exposed to (Conrad,
2021, p.302). According to other interpretations, the post-truth condition is distinguished by
disagreement regarding primary evidence, facts, and validated knowledge. Individuals depend
more on beliefs and feelings to make daily life decisions than observable facts and evidence
(Sinatra & Lombardi, 2020).
Benesch (2020) presents a compelling argument against the concept of the post-truth era,
suggesting that the issue is not rooted in an "unprecedented epistemological crisis" (p. 2), but
rather in the collapse of trust within democratic societies. This collapse affects the credibility of
both information institutions and governmental claims, leading to widespread distrust. While the
existence of post-truth may be up for debate, the concept still provides valuable insights and
prompts further research into current societal trends. The sources cited in Benesch's argument
serve to strengthen the validity of this perspective.
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions
There are a few limitations to this study that need to be addressed. One of the major
challenges is the time constraints imposed by the data collection process. The study was
conducted during the fall and winter months, which are busy times for most teachers due to
several holidays and vacations. This limited the number of participants available for the study.
Additionally, the study mainly focused on California teachers, which was not representative of
teachers in other states or regions. These limitations affected the generalizability of the study's
findings and should be taken into consideration when interpreting the results.
The scope of this study was limited to media literacy and its potential as a solution to the
pervasive issue of misinformation, disinformation, and fake news in society. It should be noted
that the study does not suggest that media literacy is the sole approach to tackling this problem.

However, based on its extensive history in literature and its evolution, it is believed to be a
suitable option. By combining its foundations with human and collective agency, media literacy
has the potential to significantly reduce the propagation of misinformation, disinformation, and
fake news. As Bandura (1997) attests:
If people are to pool their resources and work together successfully, the members
of a group have to perform their roles and coordinated activities with a high sense
of efficacy. One cannot achieve an efficacious collectivity with members who
approach life consumed by nagging self-doubts about their ability to succeed and
their staying power in the face of difficulties. (p. 238)
Definitions
Media Literacy: the ability of a citizen to access, analyze, and produce information for
specific outcomes.
Critical Media Literacy: is to engage with media through critically examining
representations, systems, structures, ideologies, and power dynamics that shape and
reproduce culture and society. It is an inquiry-based process for analyzing and creating
media by interrogating the relationships between power and knowledge (steering
committee of the Critical Media Literacy Conference of the Americas, 2021).
Self-efficacy: the set of beliefs we hold about our ability to complete a particular task.
Collective efficacy: a group’s shared perception of its capability to successfully perform a
behavior or achieve a goal.
Pre-service teacher (PST): recent graduates of teacher education and credentialing
programs.
In-service teachers (IST): current teachers in the field.

Postmodernism: is a cultural movement that emerged in the mid-20th century,
characterized by a rejection of grand narratives and ideologies and an emphasis on the
fragmentation of knowledge and experience. It involves a skepticism towards universal
values and a focus on the individual's subjective experience and interpretation of reality.
Postmodernism is often associated with a blurring of boundaries between high and low
culture, as well as a self-reflexivity in art and literature.
Post-Truth: relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less
influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief.
Epistemic Cognition: is the meta-cognition process that involves the standardizing
characteristics of truth and the evidence of knowledge.
Epistemic Aims: correlated to desires for inquiry, understanding, and learning.
Epistemic Ends: knowledge, understanding, explanation, justification, true belief, the
avoidance of false belief, applicable scientific models, and wisdom.
Epistemic Ideas: a person's standards to evaluate whether epistemic ends have been
achieved.
Misinformation: false or inaccurate information, especially that which is not deliberately
intended to deceive.
Disinformation: false information, which is intended to mislead, especially propaganda
issued by a government organization to a rival power or the media
Fake news: false information that is broadcast or published as news for fraudulent or
politically motivated purposes.

Organization of the Dissertation
The study is organized into five chapters. The first chapter addresses the problem,
provides background information, and outlines the methodology. It also introduces key
terminologies, focus, and the theoretical framework. The second chapter reviews literature on
media literacy, current societal conditions, previous media literacy studies, and studies that
utilize SCT and Human Agency Theory. Chapter three details the methodology and the process
for selecting study participants, data collection methods, and data analysis. Chapter four
discusses the results of the collected data, while chapter five provides recommendations for
moving forward. This includes possible future studies and strategies for better understanding and
supporting teachers in teaching media literacy. The literature and findings inform a strategy that
presents the best way forward.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review delves into four key concepts to provide background context for
understanding the issue at hand. These concepts include: (1) the current state of society, (2) the
history and significance of Media Literacy Education (MLE), (3) relevant research on media
literacy, and (4) research on the effectiveness of SCT's self-efficacy and collective efficacy and
its usefulness as a theoretical framework. The review will begin by exploring the current societal
conditions that necessitate media literacy education. This section will build on the information
presented in chapter one, examining the post-truth era, its precursors, and underlying factors. The
review will then trace the history of media literacy, starting with America's relationship with
propaganda and looking at various organizations and individuals who aimed to manipulate public
opinion or protect citizens from propaganda. Next, the review will analyze a selection of studies
on media literacy. Finally, the review will consider research that employs SCT's self-efficacy and
collective efficacy to investigate a specific problem and identify potential solutions. This section
will also touch on qualitative research methods, including the use of surveys.
The Current Condition in Society: Post-Truth
The rise of post-truth has become a pressing issue in modern society, and it is essential to
understand its roots. Some scholars argue that post-truth emerged from the transition from
postmodernism to post-truth. The term post-truth gained significant attention in November 2016
and was even named the word of the year (Conrad, 2021; McIntyre, 2018; Sinatra & Lombardi,
2020; Strom et al., 2018).
A recent online research query produced an overwhelming number of peer-reviewed
journal articles and books on the topic. Specifically, 4,775 peer-reviewed journal articles were
published between 2016 and 2022, and another 373 books describe and examine post-truth (USC

Libraries Search and Catalog - Post-Truth, 2022). Moreover, numerous news articles employ the
concept of post-truth, indicating its growing relevance.
It is crucial to note that the rise of post-truth has serious implications for society. It
represents a shift away from objective truth and towards subjective interpretation, often leading
to the spread of disinformation and conspiracies. Therefore, understanding post-truth is essential
to navigating the complex landscape of modern information.
Post-Truth from Postmodernism
According to McIntyre's analysis in 2018, the post-truth phenomenon can be traced back
to the concepts of postmodernism that emerged from colleges and universities. McIntyre
suggests that postmodernism concepts gained traction from literary criticism in the 1980s
academic environment. During this time, influential academics such as Michel Foucault, Jacques
Derrida, Martin Heidegger, and Jean-Francois Lyotard were exploring topics like cognitive bias,
critical thinking, empirical evidence, and skepticism. These scholars challenged traditional
knowledge, truth claims, and expressions of power and influence through their literary criticism.
Moreover, scholars have linked the rise of post-truth to a number of other factors,
including the increasing polarization of political discourse, the rise of social media, and the
decline of traditional news media. The 2016 US Presidential election, for example, was marked
by a flood of false and misleading information spread on social media platforms, which
ultimately played a role in shaping public opinion.
Despite these challenges, scholars and educators continue to emphasize the importance of
critical thinking, empirical evidence, and skepticism in evaluating claims and making informed
decisions. McIntyre's work serves as a reminder that the roots of post-truth run deep, and that
combatting this phenomenon will require sustained effort and a commitment to truth-seeking.

Postmodernism is an elusive concept that has been around for over a century and seeks to
deconstruct literature, art, music, and other artistic disciplines to reveal the underlying meaning
derived from political, social, and temporal implications. According to McIntyre (2018),
postmodernism challenges traditional notions of reality and representation. It is an approach to
culture that questions the concept of objective truth and asserts that there are no absolute truths
or universal values.
Lăzăroiu (2019) explains that postmodernism's deconstruction process is critical of
culture and the difference of opinion in different areas of life. Postmodernists have reservations
about representation and the intrinsic acceptance of a reality that is autonomous of
representation. In other words, what is written or said is not necessarily what happened or
reality—it is only a constructed representation of the occurrence or utterance. This suggests that
because of the political, social, temporal, and economic aims inherently embedded in the
utterance, what is written or spoken is not expressing reality but is instead expressing a
perspective and seeding power.
Postmodernism has been influential in various fields such as literature, philosophy, art,
and architecture. It has helped to reshape the cultural landscape and challenge traditional beliefs
and values. However, postmodernism has also been criticized for its perceived nihilism and
rejection of objective truth.
Postmodernism is a complex concept that challenges traditional notions of reality and
representation. It seeks to deconstruct culture to reveal the underlying meaning derived from
political, social, and temporal implications. While it has been influential in various fields, it has
also been criticized for its perceived nihilism and rejection of objective truth.

In his book Postmodernism and the Postmodern Novel, Geyh (1998) delves into the
complexity of postmodernist thought and attempts to provide a more nuanced explanation.
According to Geyh, postmodernism has three distinct but interrelated meanings: theoretical
postmodernism, cultural postmodernism, and post-modernity (p. 3). Understanding each of these
perspectives is crucial to comprehending how postmodernism influenced the concept of posttruth.
Moreover, as McIntire (2018) suggests, these meanings can be co-opted to manipulate
truth and deceive unsuspecting citizens (Chinn et al., 2021; McIntyre, 2018; Rubin, 2019).
McIntire specifically argues that “right-wing political operatives have seized upon
postmodernism concepts for their own purposes” (2018, p. 6). This is not to say, however, that
only right-wing political operatives are guilty of this. Political outsiders across the political
spectrum may also use postmodernism concepts to control the narrative and shape public
opinion.
To fully understand the impact of postmodernism on post-truth, it is necessary to consider
the various ways in which its concepts have been co-opted and how this has affected public
discourse. By examining this phenomenon in detail, we can gain a deeper understanding of the
complex interplay between ideology and truth in our society.
Theoretical Postmodernism
The concept of postmodernism has been co-opted by political operatives seeking to
manipulate the truth. Christopher Rufo, an activist, is known to be a fan of postmodernist
thinkers and has emphasized the importance of meta-narratives, a term primarily associated with
the work of Jean-Francois Lyotard. Lyotard's writings focus on the narrative or metanarratives,
and he defines postmodernism as being characterized primarily by “incredulity” towards

narrative and metanarratives. This idea of incredulity refers to being unwilling to believe the
narratives of the world purported to be accurate by those in power. However, it is essential to
note that postmodernism is not a monolithic movement, and different scholars have different
interpretations of its tenets.
In his book The Postmodern Condition, Lyotard (1979) critiques conventional beliefs
regarding truth, meaning, and communication. He argues that narratives are not neutral, but they
are constructed and influenced by power structures. As such, he encourages people to be
skeptical of grand narratives and to question the legitimacy of knowledge claims. This idea of
skepticism towards established knowledge claims has been misinterpreted by some political
operatives to discredit legitimate scientific research, leading to the spread of misinformation. It is
crucial to note that postmodernism does not reject the idea of truth altogether but rather
acknowledges that truth is not always fixed or objective but consists of bits and pieces of
evidence. However, this idea of truth being subjective leads to skepticism and a critical
evaluation of knowledge claims. Postmodernism encourages people to question the assumptions
and biases that underpin knowledge claims, leading to a more nuanced understanding of the
world.
While postmodernism can be co-opted and weaponized by political operatives, it is a
complex and nuanced movement that encourages critical thinking and skepticism towards
established knowledge claims. It is essential to understand the nuances of postmodernism before
dismissing it outright or using it to discredit legitimate scientific research.
Cultural Postmodernism
Cultural postmodernism at its core—through dialectical criticism— seeks to uncover the
hidden agenda of capitalism and allows citizens to live for the future by protecting against

single-thought conformity. However, these cultural postmodernism concepts can cause ambiguity
and confusion about shared beliefs.
According to Geyh, cultural postmodernism can be associated with works by Fredrick
Jameson, a diehard Marxist literary theorist or self-described dialectical materialist (de Cock,
2009; Geyh, 1998). Jameson saw postmodernism regarding technology's impact on the economy
and governmental and political transformations. In Jameson’s literature, Geyh notes that he
points specifically to the destabilizing forces of the computer and globalization—explicitly the
“proliferation of an all-pervasive media culture” (p. 4). The transformations, because of the
media culture, for Jameson, caused a “fragmentation of subjectivity” (p.4) that makes it difficult
to make political decisions (Geyh, 1998) and susceptible to political manipulation.
Subjectivity is already fragmented in the community, so fragmenting further points away
from a unified truth. Moreover, De Cock (2009) offers that Jameson believed that “dialectical
criticism offers the proper mediation between our individual perception of society as fractured
and fragmented on the one hand, and the ‘real’ state of affairs of social totality on the other” (p.
438). These concepts by Jameson can seed doubt about agreed-upon truths espoused by the
powerful (de Cock, 2009) and create uncertainty in the citizenry if citizens are not afforded the
education to develop reliable processes to discern information.
Postmodernity
Postmodernity is a literary period that emerged in the 1960s and continued until the rise
of post-truth. This era brought about a critical examination of beliefs and logical thoughts, which
deserves a more profound analysis compared to theoretical and cultural postmodernism.
According to Geyh (1998), postmodernity presages things to come, and the creation of
ARPANET, which was a military system designed to link computer communications in a

network capable of surviving a nuclear attack, is an excellent example. ARPANET later became
the most transformative invention of the 20th century, which is the internet. This emphasizes the
impact technology has and will continue to have on society.
Both McIntyre (2018) and Geyh (1998) point to Derrida's theory of deconstruction,
which examines literature for its political, social, and historical functions, including any cultural
implications. Deconstruction assumes that a reader cannot understand the meaning of literature
without first deconstructing it (McIntyre, 2018). Therefore, literature both means what the words
say and has meaning attached to the political, social, historical function and temporal aspects in
which it rests.
Another strain of postmodernity was Martin Heidegger's writings, where language and
literature are performative activities containing ambiguity and untruths (Benesch, 2020). In
alignment with Heidegger, Benesch (2020) references Michel Foucault, as did McIntyre (2018)
and Geyh (1998), emphasizing Foucault's discussion on parrhesia, meaning "not to withhold
anything you have to say and to say it in the most direct and straightforward fashion" (p.6). This
means that one should speak the truth, even if it is dangerous, such as a politician speaking the
truth about an opponent, even if it does not benefit their political aims.
Postmodernist authors' thinking and literature have significantly impacted European and
North American Colleges and University Humanities departments, which excessively explored
postmodernism ideas and used them to question great works of literature. These concepts were
later adopted by anthropologists (Barrett, 2011), sociologists (McIntyre, 2018), and feminists
(Marchand & Parpart, 1995).
Barrett (2011) points out that postmodernism had a profound impact on anthropology,
which challenged its "twin pillars: culture and fieldwork" (p. 323). Postmodernists used diverse

tools and a destructive force to examine the influence of "authority, discourse, resistance, and
representation" contained in ethnographic texts, which are juxtaposed between the ethnographer
and "the Other" or "the native" (p. 323). This exposed the dual-edge focus of fieldwork, which
includes creating relationships purely to collect data and exposing dehumanization.
Marchand and Parpart (1995) argue that postmodernism ideas have permeated humanities
departments and social sciences. They examined how postmodern ideas have been synthesized
into feminist approaches and encouraged writers to implement "postmodernist feminist thought"
(p.1) and write from their specific position. Postmodernist thinking sought to deconstruct
literature into its political, social, cultural, and historical function, which feminism could use to
examine problems facing women of color in the North and all women in the South (Marchand &
Parpart, 1995).
Postmodernity is a period of literature that has significantly impacted various fields,
including anthropology, sociology, and feminism, among others. It challenges traditional beliefs
and approaches to literature and examines it for its political, social, and historical function,
including any cultural implications. The impact of technology on society, the concept of
deconstruction, and the use of postmodernist feminist thought are just some examples of the
significant contribution of this literary period.
Marchand and Parpart (1995) drew from Jean-Francois Lyotard's concept of
postmodernism, particularly on his "incredulity toward metanarratives" (p. 2), which questions
the validity of overarching narratives. In other words, they suggested that we should not simply
believe what is being said about a text but rather read and analyze it critically. Postmodernism is
centered on the idea of questioning what is perceived as true or factual. This aligns with
McIntyre's (2018) argument that postmodernism has led to "post-truth" culture, where objective

truth is deemed non-existent, and any claim of truth is seen as a political belief that is driven by
the ideology of the individual. McIntyre (2018) further argues that those who claim to know the
truth are actually using their perceived power to control the narrative and shape the world as they
see fit. Thus, it becomes essential to question all narratives and analyze them critically, keeping
in mind the importance of understanding the underlying ideology.
The postmodernism movement explores the complex relationship between truth and
power, particularly in light of the increase in available information. However, some later authors,
such as Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, and Judith Butler, took the movement
in an eccentric direction, distorting the usefulness of Jean-François Lyotard's work on
postmodernism (Illings, 2019). These authors not only challenged meta-narratives but also "big
T" truths, leading to a broader challenge of truth itself. According to Kennedy (2020), Derrida
and Foucault's work on "Truth as Rhetoric" suggests that the appearance of fundamental truth,
untouched by the differential nature of the sign, is deferred indefinitely, meaning that the
complete knowledge of truth is impossible to attain (p.30).
The postmodernism movement recognizes the complexity of truth and power in modern
society. However, the eccentric direction taken by some later authors has led to a broader
challenge of truth itself. Derrida and Foucault's work suggests that the complete knowledge of
truth is impossible, highlighting the ongoing debate surrounding the nature of truth in
postmodernism. (Illings, 2019; Kennedy, 2020).
According to McIntyre (2018), a small group of political operatives who were initially
opposed to postmodernism thought, realized that they could use the concepts to obfuscate reality
and control the truth. Their tactics began with science denialism, using techniques found in
postmodernism to undermine scientific claims like evolution, the hole in the ozone layer, and

global warming. By challenging scientific claims and fundamental “truths,” these select few
political operatives used “doubts about truth, objectivity, and power to assert that all truth claims
are politicized” (McIntyre, 2018, p. 133).
There is evidence to support McIntryre’s assertions about the political operatives.
According to Davis (2020), a group of conservative intellectuals who were critical of
postmodernism started to use postmodern techniques to undermine scientific claims in the 1990s.
They argued that scientific truth was subjective and that there were no objective standards for
determining what was true or false. They also claimed that science was a tool of political power,
and that scientists were manipulating data to support their political agendas.
Research suggests that the use of postmodern techniques to undermine scientific claims
has been ongoing for decades. According to Pomeroy (2020), conservative politicians and media
outlets have been using postmodernism to attack science since the 1980s. They have used
postmodern techniques to question the validity of scientific research on issues like climate
change, evolution, and vaccination. As a result, public trust in science has been eroded, and
scientific evidence has been dismissed as partisan opinion.
This highlights the complexity of the nature of truth and the human ability to discern
evidence and understand the complexity of our society and reality. The use of postmodernism as
a tool raises questions about the role of philosophy and theory in shaping the political landscape,
and how these ideas can be manipulated to serve certain agendas. It is important to remain
vigilant and critically evaluate claims and evidence, particularly in the face of attempts to
undermine scientific consensus and objective truth.

Catalysts
The transition from postmodernism to post-truth was not an abrupt occurrence, but rather
a gradual development that was driven by a combination of technological advancements, the
proliferation of information, and concerns surrounding epistemic cognition. These factors have
given rise to an environment where political extremists are able to exploit individuals who lack
the necessary discernment to differentiate between reliable and unreliable information. To
counteract this trend, it is essential to proactively seek out trustworthy sources of information
and to maintain a willingness to challenge our own assumptions.
Rise of Digital and Social Media
In today's society, life is predominantly lived in the digital media space, which has
completely transformed social, cultural, and political environments. This has also led to a
significant overhaul in the way economies interact and exchange information. According to
Jungherr et al. (2019), digital media can be defined as "the set of institutions and infrastructures
allowing the production, distribution, and searching of information online" (p. 2).
Social media sites such as Facebook (now Meta), Twitter, and Instagram serve as the
community where people come together to share and spread information. The set of institutions
and infrastructures that undergird digital media provide a repository of information, whether
accurate or not, for distribution and production (Plantin & Punathambekar, 2019; Twenge et al.,
2019). However, the environment can also cause the digital media space to be a catalyst for the
post-truth condition, where people tend to believe and spread false information.
In their study of digital media infrastructures, Plantin and Punathambekar (2019)
examined the influence and significance that digital platforms have on social, cultural, and
political environments. They found that digital platforms now operate as the underlying

infrastructure that supports information nodes and governs worldwide values. The authors note
that funds directed toward digital infrastructures have led to ubiquitous access to the Internet
worldwide, which has further accelerated the digital revolution (Plantin & Punathambekar,
2019).
As the digital media space continues to evolve, it is essential to consider how it impacts
various aspects of society. Governments, companies, and individuals must be aware of the
consequences of the information shared online and how it can influence people's beliefs and
actions. The digital media space is now an integral part of life, and its impact on society will
continue to grow in the future.
The shift towards digital media consumption has had a profound impact on society, with
individuals now spending more time engaging with digital media than reading or watching
television (Twenge et al., 2019). In fact, the average person in 2016 consumed over twice as
much digital media as their 2006 counterpart, leading to a corresponding decline in legacy media
such as magazines, books, and newspapers (Twenge et al., 2019).
This transition has significant implications for access to information and levels the media
playing field between both moral actors and selfish agents (Frimer et al., 2014). However, the
omnipresent access to digital media has also allowed opportunistic fringe political actors to
influence social, cultural, and political environments, challenging previously held norms
(Twenge et al., 2019).
The migration from legacy media to digital media has also impacted journalism and
democracy (Coleman, 2010). In particular, news serves as one of the most public and politically
significant genres of digital media accessed through the internet (Coleman, 2010). However, the
shift towards digital media has led to an increasing reliance on social media for news

consumption, creating a problem where opportunistic fringe political actors, or “political
outsiders,” have the same influence and reach as legitimate and established media and political
institutions (Jungherr et al., 2019). This has weakened the role of gatekeepers in ensuring
accurate and reliable news, leading to a rise in misinformation and the spread of fake news
(Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017).
The shift towards digital media consumption has had far-reaching implications for both
access to information and the influence of political actors. While digital media has the potential
to democratize access to information, it has also created new challenges for ensuring the
accuracy and reliability of news. It is crucial for individuals to be aware of these challenges and
take an active role in verifying the information they consume.
Change in Media Gatekeepers
The complex dynamics of information flow in digital media require a more explicit
conceptualization of gatekeepers to understand it fully (Barzilai-Nahon, 2008, 2009; Nielsen,
2016). In media, gatekeeping is defined as the selection, filtering, consolidation, direction,
influence, validation, and indulgence in media content creation and dissemination by journalists
(Barzilai-Nahon, 2008, 2009; Lindner, 2017; Nielsen, 2016). Initially, gatekeepers were subject
to peer review and community scrutiny to a certain extent. However, with the shift from legacy
media to digital and social media, the power balance has changed. The influence of citizen
journalists (C.J.) and political outsiders has increased, while that of professional journalists (PJ)
as gatekeepers has decreased (Lindner, 2017). Nielsen (2016) acknowledges this shift in
influence between P.J. and C.J. and states that "news organizations no longer enjoy the kind of
control over their relationship with users that broadcasters and print publishers formerly had" (p.
82).

Lindner (2017) compares the news routines and patterns of content creation between P.J.
and C.J. Lindner notes that C.J. do not adhere to the "objectivity norms" that journalists and
scientists follow, which propose that they should "get out of the way and let the facts or story
speak for themselves" (Meyers, 2020, p. 184). In other words, journalists, especially P.J., write
what they found from a place of neutrality to the extent possible. However, C.J. often express
their opinions freely, often overtly rejecting the standards. In addition, C.J. often link to other
C.J. sites instead of confirming their opinions with professional or governmental sites.
Furthermore, C.J. that do not have an editorial staff are less likely to use P.J. practices that
improve epistemic legitimacy in journalism (Carlson et al., 2021; Lindner, 2017), which
ultimately shifts the epistemic responsibility to the reader.
Epistemic Cognition
In today's society, the post-truth condition is a growing concern. One of the catalysts for
this condition is epistemic cognition. Epistemic cognition refers to the meta-cognition process
that involves the standardizing characteristics of truth and the evidence of knowledge (Moshman,
2015). It refers to thinking about what is known, how to know, and who to trust, and thinking
through to clear epistemic ends. Epistemic ends include understandings, insights, practical
models, and descriptions. Essentially, epistemic ends are the tools used in reasoning.
Chinn et al. (2021) suggest that confusion is prevalent in this post-truth world because
there is pervasive uncertainty and misunderstanding on “what is known, how to know, and who
to trust” (p. 51) that lead to epistemic closure. The authors further explore the nature of knowing,
proposing three structures underlying epistemic cognition: epistemic aims, ideals, and reliable
processes for achieving epistemic ends.

Epistemic aims are correlated to desires for inquiry, understanding, and learning (Chinn
et al., 2011). Therefore, low epistemic aims would be a low desire or indifference to inquiry,
understanding, and learning regarding information that does not align with personal beliefs.
Chinn et al. (2021) highlight the importance of examining epistemic cognition and its underlying
structure in relation to the post-truth condition. One of the most critical structures underlying
epistemic cognition and, therefore, the post-truth condition is low-epistemic aims.
Epistemic Ideals are also an essential factor to consider. According to Chinn et al. (2018),
Epistemic Ideals refer to the standards that a person uses to evaluate whether epistemic ends
have been achieved. Achieving these ideals requires rigor, persistence, and, in some cases,
restraint. Rigor, persistence, and restraint lend themselves to the last concept of epistemic
cognition: a reliable process to achieve epistemic ends. Those processes consist of informal
connections that identify reproducible ways of accessing, producing, and discerning trustworthy
information.
Epistemic cognition and its underlying structures are extremely important to examine in
relation to the post-truth condition. Knowing, understanding, and caring about truth knowledge is
the best way to reduce the effects of false information and is key in media literacy development.
By examining epistemic cognition's structures, we can develop effective strategies for addressing
the post-truth condition and promoting critical thinking.
In conclusion, epistemic cognition and its underlying structures are critical factors to
consider in our current society. By understanding and evaluating epistemic aims, ideals, and
reliable processes, we can promote critical thinking and reduce the effects of false information. It
is essential to continue examining these structures to develop effective strategies for addressing
the post-truth condition and promoting media literacy.

Education as the Solution
As discussed briefly in chapter one, education is the most effective and democratic way
to influence the catalysts exacerbating the post-truth condition (Barzilai & Chinn, 2020). Barzilai
and Chinn examined how the problems stemming from the post-truth condition could be
addressed through education. They use concepts from epistemic cognition and a thorough
literature review to suggest “four educational lenses on the post-truth condition” (p. 111).
According to the study, the “lenses naturally focus on educationally tractable factors that
contribute to post-truth trends” (p. 110). In other words, each lens is manageable through
educational means. Barzilai and Chinn state that the lenses provide (a) an explanation of how
people’s ways of knowing can drive post-truth trends, (b) an analysis of how education might
aggravate the problem, and (c) corresponding proposals for how education could mitigate the
problem (p. 110). (see table 1 for reference).
Various studies support the assertion that education can address the post-truth condition.
For instance, Pennycook and Rand (2020) found that cognitive reflection, a form of critical
thinking, negatively correlates with belief in misinformation. They suggest that interventions
promoting cognitive reflection and critical thinking can reduce the spread of misinformation.
Similarly, Roozenbeek and van der Linden (2019) found that inoculation messages, which
expose individuals to weakened versions of misinformation, can increase resistance to
misinformation. They argue that incorporating such messages into educational curricula can help
prevent the spread of misinformation.
Barzilai and Chinn (2020) suggest that to address the post-truth condition; future research
should focus on developing pedagogical approaches for educational institutions, teacher
educators, teachers, and policymakers to promote critical thinking when consuming media. They

argue that such multidisciplinary efforts are necessary to educate people and prevent the spread
of misinformation. Furthermore, the authors propose that these efforts should be grounded in
empirical research and practical applications in the classroom. They emphasize the importance of
incorporating media literacy skills into educational curricula, such as teaching students how to
evaluate the credibility of sources and identify biases in media messages. Additionally, they
suggest that teacher educators should provide professional development opportunities for
teachers to enhance their own media literacy skills and pedagogical strategies (Barzilai & Chinn,
2020).
Barzilai and Chinn (2020), along with other researchers, provide insightful suggestions
for tackling the post-truth condition through pedagogical interventions. Their recommendations
highlight the need for collaborative efforts among various stakeholders to promote critical
thinking and media literacy skills. By adopting these strategies, educational institutions and
individuals alike can work towards combating the spread of misinformation and promoting
informed decision-making.
Media Literacy Education (MLE)
Media literacy education plays a critical role in preparing individuals to navigate and
thrive in a diverse, interconnected, and democratic society. To fully understand the significance
of media literacy education, it is important to examine its history and evolution. In this section,
we will explore the development of media literacy education, beginning with an analysis of
metaphorical thinking through the epidemiology metaphor. We will then provide an in-depth
definition of media literacy, highlighting its importance and relevance. Finally, we will trace the
history of media literacy education by examining America's relationship with propaganda and
truth over the past century.

According to the epidemiology metaphor, ideas and information can spread like a virus,
infecting individuals and communities. Therefore, it is essential to develop immunity to
misinformation and propaganda through media literacy education. Media literacy can be defined
as the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media content in various forms. This
includes traditional media such as newspapers, radio, and television, as well as new media such
as social media and digital platforms. By developing media literacy skills, individuals can
effectively navigate the complex media landscape, critically evaluate information, and make
informed decisions.
The history of media literacy education can be traced back to early initiatives in the
1930s, which aimed to develop critical thinking skills and promote democracy by educating
citizens on media propaganda. However, the modern media literacy movement emerged in the
1970s, driven by concerns over the impact of mass media on society. In the United States, media
literacy education gained momentum in the 1980s and 1990s, with the development of media
literacy curricula and the establishment of media literacy organizations. Today, media literacy
education is recognized as a key component of education, with many schools and universities
integrating media literacy into their curriculum.
Media literacy education is an essential tool for navigating the complex and dynamic
media landscape of today's society. By developing media literacy skills, individuals can critically
analyze and evaluate information, make informed decisions, and contribute to a thriving and
democratic society (Aufderheide & Firestone, 1993). As we continue to face new challenges in
the media landscape, it is crucial to prioritize media literacy education and ensure that it remains
a core component of education.

The Epidemiology Metaphor
Metaphors have proven to be a powerful tool for framing and examining concepts in
various domains. In recent years, the epidemiology metaphor has been used by several authors to
investigate solutions for the post-truth condition. In this metaphor, post-truth is viewed as a
societal disease, and disinformation, misinformation, and fake news are likened to the novel
coronavirus, while the post-truth condition is compared to the respiratory disease COVID-19.
Tiaglo (2021) uses the epidemiology metaphor to understand and argue for and against
various methods to reduce the negative impact of misinformation, disinformation, and fake news.
Tiaglo examines the effectiveness of imposing bans on individuals spreading misinformation and
disinformation. However, he points out that this approach is a slippery slope towards limiting
free speech, which is antithetical to democracy. Tiaglo suggests that the better solution for the
post-truth condition is the "mind vaccine," which is critical thinking.
Rubin (2019) can help in understanding Tiaglo's work by proposing the "disinformation
and misinformation triangle" conceptual model. This model integrates the epidemiological
disease triangle model, natural language processing (NLP), journalism, media studies, library
and information science, and machine learning (ML) to predict the occurrence, spread, and
proportions of the dis-/misinformation epidemic. Rubin's model predicts three intervention
methods: automation, regulation, and education.
Of the three intervention methods, education is seen as the most democratic and effective
approach to addressing the post-truth condition. According to Rubin, education can help
individuals develop critical thinking skills, which are essential for identifying and countering
misinformation, disinformation, and fake news.

The use of metaphors such as the epidemiology metaphor can be a useful tool for
examining and conceptualizing complex concepts. By using this metaphor, researchers can
develop effective solutions to address societal challenges such as the post-truth condition.
However, it is important to note that solutions that limit free speech or democracy should be
avoided, and education should be promoted as the most effective and democratic approach to
solving the post-truth condition.
Figure 1
The Disinformation and Misinformation Triangle
Note. Adapted from Rubin, V. (2019). Disinformation and misinformation triangle: A conceptual
model for “fake news” epidemic, causal factors and interventions
Meaning Behind the Practice
Media literacy is a crucial skill that goes beyond simply understanding how to read in
analog or digital forms. Aufderheide (1993) provides the most commonly used definition of
media literacy, which she defined as “the ability of a citizen to access, analyze, and produce
information for specific outcomes” (p. 6). This definition emphasizes the importance of media

literacy as a necessary tool for all individuals to possess in order to participate in democracy and
make informed decisions. The concept of media literacy goes beyond basic reading and writing
skills and requires individuals to develop the ability to decode, evaluate, analyze and produce
both print and electronic media (Aufderheide, 1993, p. 9).
Media literacy educators must understand the socially constructed reality produced by
media and the impact it has on individuals. To do this, Aufderheide (1993) provides three
concrete concepts for media literacy educators to understand: production process, the text, and
the audience/receiver/end-user (p. 10). The production process refers to understanding how
media is created and distributed. The text refers to the content of the media itself, and the
audience/receiver/end-user refers to understanding the intended audience and the impact the
media has on them.
There is a strong connection between media literacy and critical pedagogy. Critical
pedagogy is a theoretical viewpoint that uses critical theory to recognize and modify how people
are educated (Sanders, 2017). Critical theory is an umbrella term that covers theories like
feminism, antiracism, and anti-colonialism (Paradis et al., 2020). The original practitioners of
critical theory disagreed with positivistic ontologies that believed in the objective and knowable
reality and instead focused on the individual’s material conditions of existence and the impact on
social and intellectual life (Hinga, 2019, p. 842).
Aufderheide (1993) suggests that there is a “natural-link” between media literacy and
critical pedagogy, emphasizing the “empowerment goals” (p. 14) of both. As RobbGrieco (2014)
notes, media literacy is a tool for individuals to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to
participate and claim power in societies where media play increasingly important roles (p. 4).

The critical aspects of critical pedagogy and theory took time and development to be
incorporated into media literacy education.
Media literacy is a necessary skill for individuals to possess in order to participate in
democracy and make informed decisions. Media literacy educators must understand the socially
constructed reality produced by media and the impact it has on individuals. The connection
between media literacy and critical pedagogy emphasizes the importance of empowering
individuals to claim power in societies where media play increasingly important roles.
Beginnings
Media literacy has a long history that can be traced back to ancient times. However, in
modern times, the link between media literacy and propaganda is particularly significant. Media
literacy is a concept that can be traced back to philosophical investigations into skepticism, as
postulated by Plato. In his dialogues, Plato's Socrates is portrayed as one who does not answer
questions himself but gets others to doubt their own beliefs (Lagerlund, 2020). However, the
historical investigation for this study will begin with a more recent link to media literacy:
America's connection to propaganda.
Propaganda is the practice of crafting language used to alter behaviors through rhetoric,
opinions, facts, logic, and emotions. It is embedded in communication and used by everyone.
The power of propaganda to influence public opinion was recognized by the United States,
Britain, and Germany during World War I (Hobbs & McGee, 2008).
In the United States, President Woodrow Wilson established the Committee on Public
Information (CPI) during the Great War in 1917. The goal of the CPI was to regulate public
communication and promote the United States government in the war effort (Funk, 2011).
Propaganda was the most productive method to shape public opinion, and the CPI was the

"nation's first 'propaganda ministry'" (Hobbs & McGee, 2008, p. 58). The CPI's use of
propaganda during World War I had a profound impact on American society and helped regulate
mass communication and education to shape public opinion.
The CPI crafted news stories and closely observed media outlets, including films and
newspapers. The CPI used "Four Minute Men" - 75,000 leaders in the community with
considerable influence - to deliver war-time updates (Hobbs & McGee, 2008). According to
Funk (2011), the CPI methods were meant to "romanticize the war" (p. 68) through persuasive
advertising in school curriculum.
The CPI's use of propaganda was so successful that its process became the basis of Adolf
Hitler's skilled use of propaganda to exert political control and galvanize German nationalism
(Hobbs & McGee, 2008). The CPI had a tremendous effect and helped the United States
government regulate mass communication and education to shape public opinion (Funk, 2011).
During the mid-20th century, individuals from various professions such as educators,
journalists, and businesspeople were motivated to bring the effects of propaganda into view for
the average citizen (Hobbs & McGee, 2008). It was during this time that the Institute for
Propaganda Analysis (IPA) was created in 1937 by Edward Filene and Clyde Miller with the goal
of raising awareness of using propaganda to control society (Hobbs & McGee, 2008; Fondren,
2021). The IPA was an independent organization that included journalists, college faculty, and
secondary teachers who functioned as a proto-media literacy group of its time (Hobbs & McGee,
2008; Fondren, 2021). The organization operated from 1937 to 1942 alongside the growing
nationalist movement in America leading up to World War II (Fondren, 2021). According to
Fondren (2021), by the 1930s, propaganda had become inescapable, which prompted the IPA to

educate the American people to identify and examine propaganda as a “means of mass
persuasion” (p. 258).
Miller & Edwards (1936) created the Seven Propaganda Devices that served as the bases
of IPA’s curriculum. Miller and Edwards claimed that the seven principles, termed “Spotting
Campaign Propaganda Trick,” “keeps people from being fooled or manipulated” (Hobbs &
McGee, 2008, p. 24). These seven propaganda devices included name-calling, glittering
generalities, transfer, testimonial, plain folks, card-stacking, and bandwagon (Miller and
Edwards, 1936; Hobbs & McGee, 2008). These propaganda devices were designed to help
individuals recognize the various techniques used to persuade and manipulate individuals.
In the winter of 1941, Clyde Miller wrote an article for The Public Opinion Quarterly
(Hobbs & McGee, 2008). In this article, Miller pushes propaganda education past the Seven
Propaganda Devices, discussing the nuance of analyzing propaganda and speaks on concepts
seen in current media literacy and critical media literacy education programs (Hobbs & McGee,
2008; Miller, 1941). Miller speaks to the self-reflecting nature of analyzing propaganda and how
individuals must examine their own biases and values when analyzing propaganda (Miller,
1941).
The creation of the IPA in 1937 by Edward Filene and Clyde Miller helped raise
awareness of using propaganda to control society. The IPA’s goal was to educate the American
people to identify and examine propaganda as a “means of mass persuasion” (Fondren, 2021, p.
258). The Seven Propaganda Devices that served as the bases of IPA’s curriculum were designed
to help individuals recognize the various techniques used to persuade and manipulate individuals
(Miller and Edwards, 1936; Hobbs & McGee, 2008). Clyde Miller's article in The Public
Opinion Quarterly in 1941 further pushed propaganda education past the Seven Propaganda

Devices, discussing the nuance of analyzing propaganda and encouraging individuals to examine
their own biases and values when analyzing propaganda (Miller, 1941). Miller wrote that
It [The Institute for Propaganda Analysis] would have students examine their own goals,
ideals, purposes, and prejudices, and try to discover how they came to have them. This
approach brings home to students basic facts in psychology and sociology. It reveals the
play of conditioning influences that have made them what they are today. (p. 658)
Miller was clearly ahead of the times and served as a contributor to the history of media literacy
through propaganda education.
Media literacy has a rich history that can be traced back to the works of Sister Elizabeth
Thoman and the Media&Values magazine that was published from 1977 to 1993 (RobbGrieco,
2014). During this time, the magazine thrived in a cultural era that was shaped by special interest
magazines (RobbGrieco, 2014). According to Abrahamson (2007), special interest magazines of
the 1970s were a product of culture fracturing and served as a catalyst for transformation.
Media&Values magazine and Sister Elizabeth Thoman embodied Abrahamson’s assertion.
Media&Values magazine published 63 issues during its run and rose to 10,000 in
distribution at the end of its publication (RobbGrieco, 2014). The works of Thonman are
particularly notable for their emphasis on media literacy concepts, which are often divided into
two paradigms of thought: a protectionist approach and an empowerment approach (Butler,
2019; Kellner & Share, 2019; Rubin, 2019). Through a review of archives for Media&Values and
letters written by Sister Elizabeth Thoman, RobbGreico (2014) observes that the magazine and
Thoman’s positionality shifted from a protectionist approach to an empowerment approach.

To help clients understand the multiple concepts that claim media literacy as their
foundation, RobbGrieco (2013, 2014) provides a visual metaphor called the “Big Tent Model of
MLE” (see figure 2). The visual metaphor provides an in-depth review of media literacy
education's protectionism and empowerment frames, which is particularly useful for
understanding their different perspectives and approaches. Additionally, it serves as a valuable
resource for researchers and educators who are interested in exploring the nuances of media
literacy education and its evolution over time.
Overall, Sister Elizabeth Thoman and Media & Values magazine have made significant
contributions to the field of media literacy education. The protectionist and empowerment
approaches to media literacy that they advocated for continue to be debated and studied by
scholars and practitioners alike. Their work has paved the way for a better understanding of
media literacy education and its importance in our rapidly changing media landscape.
Figure 2 Big Tent Model of MLE

Note: This model was adopted from RobbGrieco and Hobbs (2013) “Field Guide to Media
Literacy” and RobbGrieco (2014) “Why History Matters for Media Literacy Education.”
Protectionism
Media literacy is a crucial skill for young people in the modern world, as they are
constantly bombarded with media messages that can have both positive and negative effects on
their well-being. One perspective on media literacy is protectionism, which seeks to protect
young people from the harmful influences of media (Buckingham, 1998). This approach uses the
epidemiology metaphor to "inoculate" young people against negative media effects (Kellner &
Share, 2005).
Protectionism is based on a number of different tools and strategies, including ethics,
safety, public health, education reform, activism, cultural studies, and critical media literacy
(RobbGrieco, 2014). By focusing on these areas, protectionism aims to defend students against
the negative cultural, moral, or ideological influences of the media (Buckingham, 1998). For
example, protectionism can help young people learn how to critically evaluate media messages
and resist harmful propaganda techniques (Miller & Edwards, 1936).
To implement protectionism effectively, educators and parents must be well-versed in the
tools and strategies that are most effective for protecting young people from negative media
influences. This may involve teaching critical media literacy skills, promoting ethical media
practices, and advocating for safer and more responsible media policies (Kellner & Share, 2005).
Overall, protectionism is an important perspective on media literacy that can help young
people navigate the complex media landscape of the modern world. By focusing on ethics,
safety, public health, education reform, activism, cultural studies, and critical media literacy,

protectionism can provide young people with the tools they need to protect themselves from the
negative effects of media.
Empowerment
Media literacy has evolved to encompass a newer perspective known as empowerment.
RobbGrieco and Hobbs (2014) define empowerment as an approach that focuses on visual, news,
information, and digital literacy, combined with digital media and learning, youth media, value
education, civic engagement, self-governance, inquiry learning, and broadband adoption. The
aim of this approach is to give historically oppressed and underrepresented groups a voice in
society by providing access and dissemination of information through media infrastructures.
Kellner and Share (2005) explain that transformative education, like media literacy,
through the empowerment process can empower historically oppressed and underrepresented
groups to voice their opposition to social problems. This process goes beyond media literacy,
which is linked to critical pedagogy, and "calls for critical approaches that make us aware of how
media construct meanings, influence and educate audiences, and impose their messages and
values" (Kellner & Share, 2005, p. 372).
Furthermore, the empowerment approach emphasizes the need for a more detailed
understanding of media literacy, including how it can be used to address social problems.
According to Hobbs (2010), media literacy is an essential tool for individuals to understand,
analyze, and evaluate media messages. This comprehension is crucial in today's society, where
media is ubiquitous, and messages can be easily manipulated.
The empowerment approach to media literacy seeks to give historically oppressed and
underrepresented groups a voice in society by providing access and dissemination of information
through media infrastructures. To achieve this, the approach emphasizes the need for a more

detailed understanding of media literacy, including how it can be used to address social
problems, and calls for critical approaches that make people aware of how media construct
meanings, influence and educate audiences, and impose their messages and values.
Studies of Media literacy
Media literacy education has become increasingly important in the 21st century due to
the proliferation of media platforms and the exponential growth of digital information. Research
studies have shown that media literacy education has a broad and profound impact on positive
behavioral outcomes. For instance, Scull et al. (2022) reported on the positive influence media
literacy education has on sexual health. Similarly, Al Zou'bi (2022) found that media literacy
education has a positive effect on detecting fake news and Ruben (2019) emphasized how media
literacy can reduce the impact media has on misinformation and disinformation. Additionally,
media literacy education has been shown to reduce the impact media has on eating disorders
(Wilksch et al., 2006).
Critical Media Literacy (CML) is a form of media literacy education that shapes the
pedagogical structure for 21st-century literacy practices (Kersch & Lesley, 2019). In the Big Tent
formation supporting Media Literacy Education (MLE), CML is fundamentally important in
teacher education programs and its implementation into the K12 curriculum, especially
considering the current conditions in society. Researchers continue to advocate for the inclusion
of media literacy in teacher education programs because it encourages critical thinking (Schwarz,
2001), provides a system to critically question and create alternative messaging (Kellner &
Share, 2019), and underscores the epistemic and ethical responsibilities of media participation
and creation (Parker, 2013).

CML enables practitioners to examine material conditions of existence expressed in
media and how it impacts social and intellectual life around them. As RobbGreico and Hobbs
(2014) expressed, CML "oscillates between the poles of protectionist and empowerment
paradigms" (p.14). This means that CML aims to create media-literate people who are both
empowered by and protected against media messaging.
What makes CML so compelling is the integration of critical pedagogy, constructivism,
and constructionism practices. Kellner and Share (2005) explain the effectiveness of CML by
making the connection between media literacy to critical pedagogy more explicit. They state that
CML cultivates "skills in analyzing media codes and conventions, abilities to criticize
stereotypes, dominant values, and ideologies, and competencies to interpret the multiple
meanings and messages generated by media texts" (p.372). Protectionism and empowerment can
be seen in the above definition: empowerment (abilities to criticize stereotypes, dominant values,
and ideologies) and protectionism (analyzing media codes and conventions).
Media literacy education has significant benefits for individuals and society at large.
Critical Media Literacy, in particular, is a valuable tool for empowering individuals to think
critically about media and to question dominant narratives. It is essential to continue to advocate
for the inclusion of media literacy in teacher education programs and the K12 curriculum to
equip individuals with the skills necessary to navigate the complex media landscape of the 21st
century.
Kersch and Lesley (2019) argue that critical media literacy (CML) is essential in today's
21st-century literacy practices, given the increasing pervasiveness of social media and the
evolving role of gatekeepers. They propose a pedagogical framework that takes into account the
complex facets of equity in media literacy education. This framework emphasizes the need to

cultivate epistemic cognition in learners, which involves the development of critical thinking
skills and the ability to evaluate the credibility of information sources.
To further support their argument, Kersch and Lesley (2019) provide examples of how
media literacy can be taught in the classroom. They suggest using inquiry-based learning
activities that encourage students to analyze media messages critically. For instance, students can
be asked to deconstruct advertisements or news articles and identify the persuasive techniques
used by the creators to influence the audience.
Moreover, Kersch and Lesley (2019) stress the importance of creating a safe and
inclusive learning environment that values diversity and respects different perspectives. They
recommend incorporating social justice issues into media literacy education to foster empathy
and promote civic engagement among students.
Kersch and Lesley's (2019) framework for critical media literacy pedagogy provides a
comprehensive approach to teaching 21st-century literacy practices that are relevant to the
present and the future. By cultivating epistemic cognition, encouraging critical thinking, and
promoting social justice, media literacy education can empower learners to become informed and
responsible citizens in a rapidly changing media landscape. The authors propose six principles
that comprise their framework: (1) multiliteracies and new technologies, (2) equity and access to
technologies, (3) examining multiple viewpoints and representation from the perspective of

nondominant groups, (4) student-centered inquiry, (5) testimony and healing (telling one’s story
is part of the pedagogy), and production and transformation. (p. 43)
Adopted from Kersch & Lesley (2019) Framework for Critical Media Literacy Pedagogy
A crucial aspect of the critical media literacy pedagogy framework is its adaptability to
address the unique needs of each community. Teachers must analyze the community and student
needs to determine the areas that require more focus or balance. For instance, Kersch and Lesley
(2019) suggest that some communities may require an emphasis on multiliteracies, which refer to
the diverse modes of communication and cultural diversity. On the other hand, students may
need to develop skills to assess how equity and access to technology affect their understanding of
their socially constructed community. It is essential to note that access to technology influences

the ability to examine various perspectives, including those of dominant and nondominant
groups, and is therefore crucial to the student-centered inquiry.
According to Luke's (2012) assertion, the classroom should be a place where "everyone
teaches, and everyone learns" (p. 45), underscoring the importance of critical media literacy
pedagogy. This approach internalizes essential pedagogical practices, with the goal of enabling
students to become active participants in their learning process.
Research has shown that incorporating media literacy education in sexual health
education can have positive outcomes. In a study conducted by Scull et al. (2022), involving 590
9th and 10th-grade students in 17 schools across the United States, an online program called
Media Aware was used to teach media literacy education. The study focused on three areas:
media, sexual health, and communication. The results indicated that the Media Aware program
had a positive impact on high school students' media, sexual health, and sexual health
communication outcomes (Scull et al., 2022, p. 708). The study also showed that the web-based
media literacy program was effective, with an immediate improvement in participants' critical
thinking skills, normative beliefs about sexual health for boys, and improved perceptions of
communications about sexual health with parents for girls (Scull et al., 2022). Therefore,
integrating media literacy education into various areas of the curriculum, including sexual health
education, can enhance students' learning outcomes.
In a recent study conducted by Korona (2020) to evaluate the attitudes and practices of
secondary English Language Arts teachers, a question was raised about the adequacy of teacher
training in teaching students how to evaluate online information. The study revealed that there
was no significant relationship between the importance placed on media literacy skills and the

frequency of teaching them (Korona, 2020, p. 54). This finding suggests that the importance of
media literacy skills does not influence the frequency of teaching them.
However, it is essential to note that Korona's study has some limitations. The sample size
of the study was relatively small, as only 77 out of 635 teachers responded to the survey.
Therefore, it would be challenging to generalize the results to a larger population, especially the
300,000 teachers in California. Nevertheless, the study raises an interesting question about how
teachers feel about their ability to teach media literacy skills and the collective ability of
institutions to prepare them to integrate media literacy across the curriculum.
Several studies support the importance of media literacy skills in the current digital age.
According to Hobbs (2018), media literacy is a crucial component of education in the 21st
century. Hobbs (2018) argues that media literacy skills are essential to help students navigate the
complex digital landscape and make informed decisions. Similarly, Jenkins, et al., (2016)
emphasize the significance of media literacy skills in fostering critical thinking, creativity, and
civic engagement. They suggest that media literacy education should be integrated across the
curriculum to enable students to become active and informed citizens.
Media literacy skills are essential in the current digital age, and teachers must be
adequately trained to teach them effectively. The findings of Korona's (2020) study raise
important questions about the collective ability of institutions to prepare teachers to integrate
media literacy across the curriculum. Therefore, it is essential to continue exploring this area of
research to ensure that students are equipped with the necessary skills to navigate the digital
landscape.

Theoretical Framework
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Human Agency Theory provide essential
frameworks for understanding individual and collective behaviors. According to Bandura (1986),
SCT emphasizes the importance of observational learning, self-efficacy, and the reciprocal
interaction between personal, environmental, and behavioral factors. Human Agency Theory, on
the other hand, focuses on individual and collective agency, suggesting that people actively
shape their lives by setting goals, making choices, and taking actions to achieve desired
outcomes (Bandura, 2001).
Many researchers have incorporated Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), Human Agency
Theory, including Teacher Self-Efficacy as a subset of SCT, to examine educational problems
and provide insights into effective teaching practices. One such study by Pajares and Miller
(1994) explored how teacher self-efficacy affects student achievement. The researchers found
that teachers with a strong sense of self-efficacy were more likely to have students who
performed better academically. This finding suggests that teacher self-efficacy is a critical factor
in student achievement and can be enhanced through professional development programs.
Another study by Bandura (2001) applied Human Agency Theory to examine the role of
student agency in learning. The results showed that students who had a sense of agency in their
learning were more likely to set goals and take actions to achieve them. The study also found that
teachers who supported student agency had more engaged and motivated learners. This finding
highlights the importance of incorporating student agency into teaching practices and creating a
supportive learning environment.
A third study by Zimmerman and Schunk (2011) examined the use of SCT to improve
academic performance through self-regulated learning. The researchers found that students who

were taught self-regulation strategies, such as goal-setting and self-monitoring, had higher
academic achievement than those who did not receive the intervention. This finding suggests that
incorporating SCT into teaching practices can improve student outcomes by empowering them to
take control of their own learning.
These studies demonstrate the value of incorporating SCT, Human Agency Theory, and
Teacher Self-Efficacy into teaching practices. By understanding how these theories impact
student learning, teachers can develop strategies to improve student outcomes and create a more
supportive learning environment. As educators continue to face new challenges, it is important to
remain informed of the latest research and adapt teaching practices accordingly.
Implications for this Study
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Human Agency Theory can provide valuable insight
into teachers' feelings about teaching media literacy (Bandura, 1997; Zimmerman, 2000).
According to SCT, teachers' self-efficacy can influence their students' academic achievement
(Bandura, 1997). This suggests that teachers who feel confident in teaching media literacy are
likelier to have successful students in this subject. By understanding the importance of teacher
self-efficacy, educators can develop professional development programs that focus on building
confidence and skills related to teaching media literacy (Bandura, 1997).
Human Agency Theory can also be useful in examining how teachers feel about teaching
media literacy (Zimmerman, 2000). This theory emphasizes individual and collective agency,
suggesting that people actively shape their lives. In teaching media literacy, teachers need to feel
empowered to choose how to teach this subject and create a supportive learning environment that
encourages student agency. By incorporating this theory into teaching practices, educators can
create a more engaging and effective learning experience for students (Zimmerman, 2000).

Finally, SCT can be used to improve academic performance through self-regulated
learning (Zimmerman, 2000). Teachers can help students take control of their learning and
achieve their desired outcomes by teaching them self-regulation strategies, such as goal-setting
and self-monitoring. This is especially important in teaching media literacy, where students need
to develop critical thinking skills and evaluate information from multiple sources. By
incorporating SCT into teaching practices, educators can help students become more effective
learners and better equipped to navigate the complex media landscape (Bandura, 1997).

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
The literature review provided a thorough examination of the current educational
environment in the United States, delving into the history and aims of media literacy, recent
media literacy education studies, and studies that utilized Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) to
examine an educational problem. This chapter will discuss the study's research design, data
collection methods, and data analysis methodology in greater detail. Additionally, it will describe
the stakeholders participating in this study, including teachers and students, and the
instrumentations used to collect data. The chapter will also outline the strategies employed to
ensure trustworthiness, credibility, and ethical implications for this study, including obtaining
informed consent from all participants and ensuring their anonymity and confidentiality.
As discussed in Chapter two, research shows that teacher self-efficacy (TSE) has a
significant positive link with patterns of teacher behavior, practices related to classroom quality,
teachers’ personal accomplishment, job satisfaction, and commitment (Zee & Koomen, 2016).
Other studies have demonstrated that the belief in collective efficacy as a team has a tremendous
impact on the educational outcomes of the teachers’ students (Loughland & Nguyen, 2020). As
such, this study delved deeper into teachers' knowledge, attitudes, and expectations regarding
media literacy education. Specifically, it uncovered California study participants’ reported levels
of self-efficacy and collective efficacy when teaching media literacy, as well as how various
school environment factors, such as social norms, access to curricula, teacher autonomy, and
other factors, supported or hindered effectively teaching media literacy.
To achieve these aims, this study utilized Bandura’s (2001) Social Cognitive Theory
(SCT) as its theoretical framework and drew from his formulations of Human Agency Theory.
SCT and Human Agency Theory underpinned this study's key concepts, including self-efficacy

and collective efficacy. Therefore, the study comprehensively studied and realized participants'
perceptions of their self-efficacy and collective efficacy when teaching media literacy, as well as
the cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors that they believe contributed to or inhibited
their success in this area.
This study provided a deeper understanding of the factors that impacted teachers' ability
to teach media literacy effectively. By utilizing established theoretical frameworks and
employing rigorous research methods, this study contributes to the ongoing conversation
surrounding media literacy education and supported efforts to improve media literacy instruction
in American schools.
Research Questions
The questions that guided this study are below.
1. What are teachers’ perceived knowledge, attitudes, and expectations concerning teaching
media literacy?
2. What practices and levels of self-efficacy for teaching media literacy do they report?
3. How do school environment factors, including social norms, access to curricula, and level
of teacher autonomy, support or hinder teachers in teaching media literacy?
Study Context
The California Department of Education is committed to providing a world-class
education for all students, from early childhood to adulthood, by working in collaboration with
educators, schools, parents, and community partners. The department aims to prepare students to
live, work, and thrive in a multicultural, multilingual, and highly connected world.
There are over 300,000 teachers teaching in public-school classrooms in California, and
the state recognizes a range of teaching credentials. These include multiple subjects, which are

typically for elementary school teachers, single subject, which are typically for middle and high
school teachers, specialist, which is for reading and special education, and adult or vocational
education. The Bilingual Cross-cultural, Language, and Academic Development (BCLAD)
credential is also recognized by the state and is a requirement for teaching bilingual students.
According to Ed-data, the demographics of educators in SDE are over 60% white, with
Hispanics making up the next largest group at approximately 20%. However, the student
population is inverted, with over half being Hispanic and approximately 20% white. This
suggests that there is a significant need for diversity in the teaching profession in California,
especially to better represent the student population.
To address this need, the California Department of Education has implemented various
programs and initiatives to recruit and retain diverse teachers. For example, the California
Classified School Employee Teacher Credentialing program provides financial assistance to
classified school employees who wish to become credentialed teachers. Additionally, the
California Teacher Residency Grant Program provides funding to partnerships between school
districts and teacher preparation programs to create residency programs for aspiring teachers
from underrepresented backgrounds.
Overall, the California Department of Education is committed to providing a high-quality
education for all students and is actively working to address the need for diversity in the teaching
profession to include media literacy education.
Population and Sample
This research study gathered insights from self-reported California teachers to better
understand their experiences and perspectives on various aspects of teaching media literacy. To
ensure a diverse and representative sample, the study utilized social media platforms to

disseminate surveys and build interest for potential interviews. In addition, the researcher worked
with a teacher organization and was able to reach out to their members and encourage
participation.
The study garnered 83 responses and 12 subsequent interviews with participants from
northern, central, and southern California. The researcher observed a pattern in the data
collection process, noting a slight uptick in participation from the respective regions following
each follow-up interview.
Qualitative Method Design
In order to gain a deeper understanding of the participant’s comments, this study
employed an online qualitative survey (n=83) and conducted 12 follow-up interviews with
survey participants—prioritizing qualitative information. The qualitative survey consisted of
three self-screening questions, two demographic questions, and 18 topic questions. Among the
18 topic questions, four were open-ended which encouraged respondents to elaborate on the
other 14 Likert-type questions. The study offered opportunities for follow-up interviews, which
consisted of 30-60 minute discussions following a similar question format as the survey,
allowing for more open-ended questions, probes and discussions for elaboration.
According to Braun et al. (2021), qualitative surveys are often underutilized, and have
limited qualitative methodological foundations in literature. However, wholly qualitative surveys
have the potential to collect rich data and can provide an opportunity for new understandings of
social issues. Therefore, this study centered its questions around the conceptual frames of SCT,
which included cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors, as well as perceived self- and
collective efficacy. The questions also used Human Agency positioned questions to gain
information about participants’ activities.

In the initial stages of the data collection phase, the study employed the use of Qualtrics
as the data collection platform. However, it became apparent that certain limitations associated
with the platform were hampering the quality of responses. In particular, there were instances
where participants did not complete the survey, or were being cut short, which was both
frustrating for the researcher and for the participant.
In fact, the researcher received four emails from participants who expressed
dissatisfaction with the survey experience, citing the issue of being cut short as a source of
frustration. In response to this feedback, the researcher conducted several test runs of the survey
and observed the problem firsthand. The researcher made the decision after researching the
problem that it was time to switch to SurveyMonkey as the data collection platform for the
surveys.
The transition to SurveyMonkey proved to be a wise choice. The researcher immediately
noticed an improvement in the quality of the responses. This was further evidenced by the fact of
an uptick in requests for follow-up interviews from participants. It is important to note that
selecting the right tools is crucial to the success of any research project, and in this case,
SurveyMonkey proved to be the superior choice for the research.
Overall, this study gained a deeper understanding of the factors that influence teachers'
perceptions about teaching media literacy. By utilizing both a qualitative survey and follow-on
interviews, the study provided new insights into this important topic.
Data Analysis: Qualitative Content Analysis
The present study utilized content analysis as a research method to analyze data
systematically and objectively to draw conclusions and insights. The study adopted a deductive
approach to content analysis and operationalized survey questions around the predetermined

Social Cognitive and Human Agency Theory categories (Elo & Kygas, 2008). A deductive
approach to data analysis involves starting with a predetermined theory or hypothesis and then
collecting data to test or support that theory (Bryman, 2016). The researcher begins with a set of
predetermined categories or concepts and then uses data to confirm or disprove those categories.
This approach is often used in quantitative research. It can be contrasted with an inductive
approach, where the researcher starts with the data and develops theories or categories based on
observations and patterns in the data (Bryman, 2016). This approach also enabled the researcher
to test and validate previous theories and concepts. However, new themes and categories
emerged from the data, which were examined and interpreted carefully.
The study adopted the model proposed by Elo and Kygas (2008), which involved several
steps, including data preparation, unitizing, coding, and analyzing. In the data preparation phase,
survey responses were collected and organized. Then, data were unitized by identifying discrete
units of analysis, such as words, phrases, or sentences. Next, the data were coded by assigning
labels, categories, or amounts to the units of analysis based on the predetermined theoretical
framework. Finally, the data were analyzed by examining the frequency and patterns of the codes
and categories.
The process of data analysis was an iterative process for the researcher. As the study
adopted the model proposed by Elo and Kygas (2008), the data preparation, unitizing, coding,
and analyzing phases were all carried out multiple times. The researcher reviewed the data,
created various Excel spreadsheets, downloaded fresh data, compared it to various observations,
talked with colleagues, recoded, and analyzed multiple times. This iterative process allowed for a
more thorough examination of the data and ensured that the findings were accurate and reliable.

When analyzing the survey data, it was found that unitizing was a relatively simple
process. This was largely because the open response section of the survey forced participants to
be concise in their explanations. However, the researcher had to be more cautious when
analyzing the interview responses. Since participants were speaking on the spot, they tended to
elaborate more in their answers, making isolating specific units of meaning more challenging.
Moreover, the study learned how participants interpreted their cognitive abilities,
behavior, and environment, which presented other categories. Therefore, an inductive approach
was also used to analyze the data, which allowed generating new categories and themes that were
not predetermined by the theoretical framework. An inductive approach is a research
methodology that involves analyzing data to generate new categories and themes that were not
predetermined by the theoretical framework (Bryman & Bell, 2015). This approach is commonly
used in qualitative research methods to discover patterns and develop new theories from the data
collected (Thomas, 2006). This approach helped to gain a deeper understanding of the
participants' experiences and perspectives.
Content analysis was a valuable research method that allowed the researcher to
systematically analyze and interpret large volumes of qualitative data. By adopting a deductive
and inductive approach, the researcher could test existing theories and generate new insights that
enriched the understanding of the complex information that emerged from the data.
During the research process, the researcher encountered a complication. To maintain
anonymity, the surveys were not linked to the participants' identities, and the requests for followup interviews did not connect back to their survey responses. As a result, the researcher could not
compare the responses from the follow-up interviews to the initial survey, which made it difficult
to display the data accurately without double-counting. One option was to present the data as a

whole, double counting the interview and survey responses. However, after discussions with the
committee members and the dissertation chair, it was decided to specifically note if the finding
originated from the survey or from the interviews when presenting the findings. For clarity when
reading the findings, the survey participation was used to count the participation and the Likert
type data was used to identify and categorize the themes. The open-ended responses in the
survey and the interview responses were used to elaborate on the themes and validate the
findings. Despite these challenges, the researcher made valuable conclusions and insights from
the data analysis process and succinctly presented the information in chapter four.
Trustworthiness
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2015), rigorous methods are essential to ensuring the
credibility of qualitative research. In order to ensure the credibility of this study, input was
sought from experienced researchers in the field, and the literature was heavily relied upon.
Additionally, all ethical guidelines and policies developed by governing institutions were
adhered to, including seeking Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval before initiating and
distributing the survey (National Institutes of Health, 2018).
To further ensure the credibility of this study, the researcher took steps to self-reflect on
their role and biases regularly. The researcher recognized that their personal experiences and
beliefs may impact their interpretation of the data collected. Thus, they acknowledged and
addressed any biases that may have arisen during the study.
This section aimed to provide a detailed description of the research methodology that was
employed in the study. Doing so provided a clear picture of how the data was collected,
analyzed, and interpreted. This transparency enhanced the credibility of the study and allowed
for future researchers to build upon the findings.

In conclusion, to ensure the credibility of this study, the researcher employed rigorous
methods, sought input from experienced researchers, adhered to ethical guidelines and policies,
sought IRB approval, self-reflected on their role and biases, and provided a detailed description
of the research methodology. The study maintained its credibility and contributed to the broader
body of knowledge on the topic.
Limitations and Delimitations
As outlined in the first chapter of this research project, time constraints posed a
significant challenge to the data collection process. The study was conducted during the fall and
winter seasons and into the spring, which coincided with multiple holidays and vacations for
most teachers. During these months, teachers were preoccupied with wrapping up the previous
academic year and gearing up for the next one, leaving little time for additional tasks.
In addition to the time constraints posed by the academic calendar, the researcher was
also preoccupied with various personal and professional obligations. Balancing work, parenting,
mentoring others, and being mentored proved to be a challenge. However, through careful
planning and prioritization, the researcher managed their time and completed the data collection
and analysis process. It is important to acknowledge the various responsibilities and
commitments that individuals may have outside of their research, as these can significantly
impact the research process.
To minimize disruption to the teachers' schedules, the researcher strived to make the
surveys and interviews as unobtrusive as possible. This study's core objective was to thoroughly
explore the various factors that either promote or impede the teaching of media literacy in
classrooms. Rather than approaching this topic from a single perspective, the study examined a
range of viewpoints to gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

The researcher distributed surveys to gather specific qualitative data on the prevalence of
media literacy education in schools and the factors influencing its success. The researcher
conducted follow-up interviews to gain insights into their experiences with media literacy,
including the challenges they face and the strategies they use to overcome these challenges. This
study aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of school media literacy education and
identify strategies for improving its implementation through qualitative methods.
Role of the Researcher
As part of the preparation for this qualitative study, I reflected on my ontological,
epistemological, and axiological perspectives in conducting the research (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Creswell & Creswell, 2020). In line with the interpretive research paradigm, I
acknowledged that reality is socially constructed, and there is no single observable reality
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This perspective informed my understanding of media literacy as a
crucial tool for critical thinking, analyzing and evaluating media messages, and protecting and
empowering individuals and families.
During the study, I applied the principles of media literacy to analyze and evaluate media
messages and understand their impact on individuals and society. Drawing from the works of
media literacy researchers such as Renee Hobbs and Douglas Kellner, I recognized the
importance of media literacy in education and social justice and its potential to combat the
proliferation of fake news, cyberbullying, and hate speech (Hobbs, 2010; Kellner, 2019).
As a media literacy practitioner, I sought to maintain a balanced and neutral perspective
in conducting this qualitative study by incorporating the works of media literacy researchers and
philosophers. To this end, I drew insights from the works of Albert Korzybski, Hannah Arendt,
Gilbert Ryle, Martin Heidegger, and Ludwig Wittgenstein, who expressed a constructivist

perspective and were heavily influenced by postmodern thought. While recognizing that their
writings are products of their time, I applied their concepts to my views to limit my biases and
ensure a rigorous and impartial data analysis.
I must confess that I doubted some teachers' motivation to teach media literacy. However,
my concerns have been alleviated, as shown in Chapter Four. The level of dedication and
enthusiasm demonstrated by these educators is truly impressive. It is clear that they understand
the importance of media literacy and are committed to equipping their students with the skills
needed to navigate our ever-changing media landscape. I am grateful for their hard work and
look forward to continuing our exploration of this critical topic, especially regarding the recent
developments of AI.
Conclusion
Chapter three provided an in-depth explanation of the techniques used to gather and
scrutinize data for this study. The chapter reiterated the purpose of the research, the process of
selecting the study site, the demographics of the study population, ethical considerations, and the
researcher's role in the study. Additionally, chapter three highlighted the limitations of the
research, including constraints in time and resources. Moving forward, chapter four will delve
into the findings of the gathered data, which will provide insights into the research's objectives
and goals. The results will be presented clearly and concisely, comprehensively analyzing the
data collected, and minimizing researcher bias.

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This chapter discusses the results and the findings of this study. As discussed, this
research delved into how teachers and institutions perceive their ability to teach media literacy.
The researcher employed Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (2001) along with Human
Agency Theory and Teacher Self-Efficacy as the theoretical framework to analyze the
knowledge, attitudes, skills, expectations, and practices of teachers. The research also aimed to
explore the impact of school environmental factors including social norms, access to curricula,
and level of teacher autonomy related to the teaching of media literacy.
The following research questions guided the study:
1. What are teachers’ perceived knowledge, attitudes, and expectations concerning teaching
media literacy?
2. What practices and levels of self-efficacy for teaching media literacy do they report?
3. How do school environment factors, including social norms, access to curricula, and level
of teacher autonomy, support or hinder teachers in teaching media literacy?
In this chapter, the research data, findings, and analysis will be presented. The
organization follows the research questions, a priori coding, and emergent themes, analyzed
through the perspective of Bandura's (2001) Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Human Agency
Theory.
Research Question 1: What are teachers’ perceived knowledge, attitudes, and expectations
concerning teaching media literacy?
Research question one explored the perceptions of educators regarding teaching media
literacy. This inquiry delved into the participants' knowledge, attitudes, and expectations
concerning media literacy instruction. The primary aim of RQ one was to comprehend the

cognitive factors involved in media literacy education. The following section will discuss the
findings and themes related to participants’ perceived knowledge, attitude, and expectations.
Perceived Knowledge for Teaching Media Literacy
In the realm of media literacy, there are varying levels of perceived knowledge among
individuals. Out of a total of 83 respondents, 9 expressed a high level of confidence in their
understanding of teaching media literacy. Meanwhile, 62 respondents indicated they were
somewhat knowledgeable, suggesting that they have some understanding but may benefit from
additional education or training. Interestingly, 12 participants expressed a lack of confidence in
their knowledge of media literacy, indicating a need for more support and resources in this area.
This highlights the importance of providing accessible and effective media literacy education to
ensure individuals are equipped with the necessary skills to navigate the complex media
landscape of today's society. Each of these groups will be discussed in more detail below.
A Small Subset of Respondents Perceived Themselves to be Very Knowledgeable in Teaching
Media Literacy
Nine participants who were surveyed expressed a high level of knowledge and
proficiency in teaching media literacy. Interestingly, a majority of these participants (seven out of
ten) were located in the Bay area. These individuals shared their plans to create or have already
developed programs to educate students and parents about digital and media literacy.
In order to gain their expertise, the respondents cited various sources of learning,
including professional development training, workshops, curriculum development, professional
group membership, personal learning, and graduate programs. Professional development training
was the most common source of media literacy teaching knowledge. (See Figure 1)

Overall, the survey results highlight the importance of media literacy education in today's
digital age and the dedication of educators to equip their students with the necessary skills and
knowledge to navigate the complexities of the media landscape.
Figure 1
Ten participants in the study indicated that media literacy training was a regular part of
their teaching practice, with varying frequencies of training reported. The majority cited
receiving yearly training, while others reported receiving training on a monthly, bi-yearly, or
several times per year basis. This suggests a commitment to ongoing professional development
and a recognition of the importance of equipping students with the skills needed to navigate
today's media landscape. (as shown in Figure 2).

Figure 2
Reported Media Literacy Training Frequency
62 Respondents Reported being Somewhat Knowledgeable in Teaching Media Literacy
According to the data, out of the 62 participants, the majority (53) reported that attending
professional development sessions helped them become somewhat knowledgeable in teaching
media literacy. Additionally, almost three-quarters of these participants also reported that
attending workshops aided in their understanding of media literacy. Furthermore, a smaller
proportion (18) attributed their knowledge to personal research. These findings suggest that
professional development opportunities may be a valuable resource for educators seeking to
enhance their media literacy teaching skills. (see Figure 3).

Figure 3
Forty-two respondents expressed concern about the lack of media literacy training
provided to them over an extended period of time. One participant stated, "It has been so long
since I've had any PD around teaching media literacy, not just social media, all media." Another
educator echoed this sentiment with, "It's been too long since my last PD. We are so focused on
other topics that we don't have time to attend media literacy training." Another respondent stated,
"It has been at least five years since I attended a workshop on teaching media literacy." These
respondents expressed a desire for more opportunities in media literacy training to stay up-todate and effective in their teaching methods.
Respondents Reported Not Very Knowledgeable in Teaching Media Literacy
According to the survey results, 14 out of the 83 respondents expressed that they do not
feel very knowledgeable about teaching media literacy. These participants shared that they have
never received any training on how to teach media literacy. A common thread among this group
was that they teach subjects that are not directly related to media literacy, such as math or
hospitality. One respondent stated, "I teach math primarily, so I don't need to teach media
literacy," while another mentioned, "As mentioned, I teach CTE Hospitality, tourism, and

recreation, which doesn't require me to teach media." Another respondent shared that, "Teaching
media literacy would be more critical for literature and other literacy subjects." These responses
highlight the need for increased awareness and training on media literacy education for educators
across different subjects.
Perceived Attitude Toward Teaching Media Literacy
Based on the gathered data, it is evident that respondents have a positive attitude towards
media literacy education. Approximately 79 individuals out of the total respondents expressed a
favorable outlook on media literacy education. They consider it significant, if not of utmost
importance. However, four respondents showed indifference towards media literacy, meaning
they were unsure about positives or negatives of media literacy education.
The respondents overwhelmingly agree that media literacy education positively affects
students and that the absence of such education is harmful to both students and society. This
belief is shared by 79 individuals who participated (see Figure 4). One teacher expressed that
media literacy education enhances participation in society, and the absence of this education
leads to misinterpretation of media, which contributes to violence. This statement highlights the
significance of media literacy education in promoting a non-violent society. Similarly, another
respondent pointed out that having media literacy will help students make the best decisions for
themselves and their families.
Lastly, the following statement captures a preponderance of the attitudes toward media
literacy education: “I think teaching media literacy is extremely important, and I wish my district
and school were focusing on it more than reading wars and constant changing of curriculum
which must be bought!” This statement highlights the need for schools to prioritize media
literacy education over other curriculum changes that may not be as beneficial to students.

Overall, the data collected suggests that media literacy education is crucial in promoting
critical thinking and preventing misinterpretation of media, violence, and disinformation. It is
essential for schools to prioritize media literacy education to ensure that students are equipped
with the necessary skills to navigate the ever-evolving media landscape.
The following figure presents a graphical depiction of the overwhelmingly positive
perspective on the instruction of media literacy.
Figure 4
Reported Attitude Toward the Outcomes of Teaching Media Literacy
Reported Future Expectations for Teaching Media Literacy
According to the survey results, 66 respondents believe that there will be no significant
changes in teaching media literacy in the near future. However, 12 respondents have expressed
their belief in an increase in media literacy education. It is interesting to note that five
respondents have no expectations, which could be due to a lack of knowledge or interest in the
topic. Overall, there is a need for more emphasis on media literacy education to equip individuals
with the necessary skills to navigate the complex media landscape effectively. (see Figure 5).

Figure 5
Reported Future Expectations for Teaching Media Literacy
Future Increase in Teaching Media Literacy
Twelve individuals from the Bay area have expressed a strong belief in the importance of
media literacy education, citing their extensive knowledge, skills, and confidence in teaching it.
These advocates either currently teach media literacy or are part of a program that prioritizes
media literacy education and will be teaching it soon. Their unwavering support for media
literacy education is rooted in the understanding that this skill is essential in navigating the
complexities of the media landscape.
One respondent shared, "I expect that we will teach it more. We are developing a program
to fight against misinformation." This sentiment highlights the increasing need for media literacy
education, especially in light of the current challenges posed by the spread of misinformation.
Another respondent from an adjacent district stated, "We are developing a program to
teach digital literacy to students and will offer classes to their parents as well. That said, I expect
we will teach media literacy more in the future. We sure need it." This response underscores the
importance of media literacy in today's digital age and the role that educators can play in

equipping students and their families with the necessary skills to navigate the media landscape.
Another participant said,
Media literacy is a regular part of our technology program that we teach. We've noticed a
growing interest among educators in this topic and anticipate that more teachers will
incorporate media literacy into their curriculum in the coming years.
Expect Status Quo Will Remain Unchanged
66 participants determined that teaching media literacy will remain unchanged. However,
upon further analysis, three significant themes emerged from this group. The first theme was the
negative impact of political polarization on progress. Many respondents mentioned that political
polarization was hindering the advancement of media literacy education. The second theme was
competing priorities, with respondents citing various issues such as state testing mandates and
budgeting as major distractions from media literacy education. Finally, the third theme was time
constraints. Respondents felt that they simply did not have enough time in their schedules to give
media literacy the attention it deserves. These themes illustrate the complex challenges facing
media literacy educators and highlight the need for innovative solutions to overcome these
obstacles. (See Figure 6)

Figure 6
Factors that keep the status quo

No Expectations Unsure of the Future
Some participants expressed cautious optimism about the future of media literacy,
acknowledging its importance while remaining uncertain about its evolution. One individual
captured this sentiment when they said, "I understand the significance, but I'm not sure what to
expect. Finding time is also a challenge." The lack of standardized assessments for media literacy
was identified as a significant limitation to progress, as another participant noted, "Although we
could do better, we face limitations due to the lack of standardized assessments for media
literacy." Overall, the data suggests that educators have modest expectations for the future of
media literacy.
Research Question 2: What practices and levels of self-efficacy for teaching media literacy
do they report?
Research question two explored the perceived behaviors regarding teaching media
literacy. This inquiry delved into the participants' observed skills, practice, and self-efficacy
toward teaching media literacy.

Perceived Skills for Teaching Media Literacy
After gathering responses from 83 individuals, it was found that the majority reported
having lower skills. Specifically, 16 respondents reported very low skills, 37 reported somewhat
low skills, and only 30 considered their skills to be high. This data highlights the need for
continued education and skill-building opportunities in order to help individuals improve and
succeed in their respective fields. By investing in these opportunities, we can help individuals
reach their full potential and contribute to a more skilled and prosperous workforce. (see Figure
7).
Figure 7
Reported Level of Skills
Respondents Reported Very Low Skill in Teaching Media Literacy
The study revealed concerning results about the lack of media literacy training among
educators. Specifically, 16 respondents admitted to having a very low skill level in teaching
media literacy. Upon analyzing their responses, three primary themes emerged. One participant
shared their lack of formal training, stating, "I have never been trained to teach media literacy

and I have been actively teaching for 12 years." Another participant expressed the need for
appropriate training, saying, "My skills and confidence are very low because I haven't received
appropriate training to teach media literacy." The finding highlights the importance of
incorporating media literacy education into professional development and curriculum to ensure
that educators have the necessary tools to teach this vital skill to their students. Respondents
Reported Somewhat Low Skill in Teaching Media Literacy
After analyzing the collected data, it became apparent that a significant portion of the
participants (n=37) expressed concerns about their abilities in teaching media literacy. From this
group, two prominent themes emerged: the need for further professional development
opportunities and the requirement for additional practice time. In terms of practice, the
respondents identified two sub-themes: the necessity to apply their skills practically outside the
classroom to feel more confident and competent in teaching media literacy, and the lack of
sufficient practice time due to competing priorities.
These findings highlight the importance of equipping educators with the necessary skills
and resources to effectively teach media literacy. Professional development opportunities should
be made available and easily accessible, to ensure educators are equipped with the latest
knowledge and practices in this area. Additionally, educators would benefit from more time to
apply their skills outside the classroom, as this can enhance their confidence and competence in
teaching media literacy to their students.
Chapter Five will delve deeper into the relationship between knowledge, self-efficacy,
practice, and skills, providing further insights into how educators can effectively teach media
literacy to their students. (see table 1 below)

Table 1
Comments Organized by Themes for Participants Reporting Somewhat Low Skill in Teaching
Media Literacy
Theme Need more professional
development
More time for
practice
Practically apply
their skills outside
the classroom
Limited practice
time due to
competing
priorities
Comments It has been so long
since I've had any PD
around teaching media
literacy
Management
should allow more
time for practice.
I’ve mentioned it
before in meetings
It would great to
practice teaching
media literacy
other than only in
the classroom…
Students need so
many other
skills that there
is no time to
teach media
literacy.
It's been too long since
my last PD
I need more
practice
I believe we all
need to have more
professional
development
opportunities so we
can practice before
we bring it to the
classroom.
Math, science,
English, and
other skills take
presence with
little time to
teach other skills
It has been ten years
since my last media
literacy related
professional
development
More practice is
necessary to be
skilled in any
subject
It would be
beneficial to have
opportunities to
teach media
literacy outside of
just the classroom
setting.
Currently, media
literacy is not a
priority that is
tested for…
It has been at least five
years since I attended a
workshop on teaching
media literacy
I am skilled, sort
of, but need more
time to add it to
lesson plans
I haven't had any
professional
development on
teaching media literacy
in a long time.
I have some skills,
but I require more
time to incorporate
them into my class.
It's been a decade since
I last engaged in any
media literacy PD.
Note: Comments are specific to each column and do not represent a continuous thought across
rows.

Respondents Reported Highly Skill in Teaching Media Literacy
Thirty individuals claimed to have high skills in teaching media literacy, one main theme
emerged: access to knowledge. These individuals believed that their teaching abilities would
contribute to their success in teaching media literacy if they had access to proper curriculum or
well-planned lesson plans. One respondent eloquently stated, "I am capable of teaching anything
with a well-planned lesson." Another participant expressed confidence in their ability to teach
media literacy with proper preparation and time to review, stating, "Although I have not taught
media literacy before, I am confident in my ability to teach it effectively. I would naturally
improve over time as well." The sentiment that teaching media literacy is no different from
teaching any other subject was echoed by another participant who said, "Teaching media literacy
would be no different than teaching any other subject. I simply need curriculum and motivated
students." Lastly, one respondent compared teaching media literacy to teaching other forms of
literacy, stating, "I have taught various subjects in the past, and media literacy appears to be
similar to teaching reading, writing, and other forms of literacy." These insights highlight the
importance of having access to proper resources when it comes to teaching media literacy. As the
saying goes, "proper preparation prevents poor performance."
Reported Level of Practice for Teaching Media Literacy
The data analysis revealed some interesting insights regarding the participants' teaching
practices and knowledge of media literacy. Specifically, out of the 83 participants surveyed, 63
reported not practicing teaching media frequently, while only 10 reported practicing very often.
Further, seven participants reported never having practiced teaching media. This data mirrors the
participants' self-reported knowledge of media literacy, suggesting that knowledge and practice
are indeed linked.

Upon closer analysis of the data, it was found that the group of respondents from the Bay
area reported the highest frequency of practicing teaching media literacy. On the other hand, the
group that reported not often practicing coincided with the group that reported being somewhat
knowledgeable. Lastly, the group that reported never practicing coincided with the not very
knowledgeable group.
These findings indicate that there is a strong correlation between one's level of
knowledge and their frequency of practicing teaching media literacy. This information will be
further discussed in chapter five, where we delve deeper into the implications of these findings
on media literacy education. (see figure 8 to see correlations)
Figure 8
Reported Level of Knowledge and Practice Comparison
Perceived Self-efficacy Toward Teaching Media Literacy
After analyzing the data, it was found that a significant number of respondents, 45 to be
exact, expressed a lack of confidence in their ability to teach media literacy. On the other hand,
36 respondents reported high confidence, while only 14 reported very low confidence in teaching
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Knowledgeable Practice

media literacy. It was observed that there is a strong link between self-efficacy and skills, as
expected. Only three respondents claimed to have high skills but reported somewhat low selfefficacy. Interestingly, all respondents from the Bay area claimed to have high self-efficacy,
including those from the group that reported somewhat low skills. This indicates that location
and confidence are closely linked. Lastly, it was noted that the group that reported very low selfefficacy coincides with the group that reported very low skill. This finding highlights the need
for targeted training and support for these individuals. Overall, these results provide valuable
insights into the current state of media literacy teaching and perhaps the areas that require
improvement.
Figure 9
Reported Level of Skills and Reported Confidence Comparison
The valuable feedback from the participants sheds light on their underlying lack of
confidence, which seems to be rooted in the scarcity of opportunities available to them for
professional growth, skill refinement, and practical application. A poignant example shared by
one teacher underscores the gravity of this issue.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Very low Somewhat low High
Skill Self-efficacy

…having never been trained in media literacy, I can only go off of personal
experience to design a lesson or unit based on experience. As such, I can't be
confident that what I'm teaching is truly beneficial to my students or if it's even
accurate.
One teacher shared, "It has been quite a while since my last professional development
session, and unfortunately, I don't get many chances to put what I've learned into practice."
Similarly, another teacher said, "I have been trained in these skills, but unfortunately, I have not
had many consistent opportunities to apply them in my teaching practice." It is clear that these
educators recognize the importance of ongoing training and are eager to apply new skills in their
classrooms.
Research Question 3: How do school environment factors, including social norms, access to
curricula, and level of teacher autonomy, support or hinder teachers in teaching media
literacy?
The study's third research question delves into the environmental factors that either
hinder or promote teachers' ability to impart media literacy knowledge. The data collected from
the study revealed three critical themes. Firstly, the study found that teachers have limited
exposure to media literacy training information and curriculum, even though the California
Department of Education adheres to S.B. 830. According to the study by Hobbs et al. (2019), a
lack of teacher expertise and training in media literacy has been identified as a significant barrier
to its effective integration into the classroom. This finding underscores the need for more
comprehensive training programs for teachers to enhance their media literacy skills.
Secondly, the study found that respondents lacked access to media literacy mentorship
programs, and most believed their colleagues do not regularly teach media literacy. This result

corroborates the findings of De Abreu and Mihailidis (2018), who argue that the lack of
collaboration and mentorship opportunities for teachers is a significant barrier to the effective
implementation of media literacy in schools.
Thirdly, some teachers have access to the curriculum but are unaware of additional
support to integrate it. This finding highlights the need for more comprehensive and accessible
support systems to help teachers integrate media literacy into their teaching practices. As argued
by Livingstone et al. (2017), teachers need ongoing support and professional development
opportunities to effectively teach media literacy.
Lastly, respondents do not feel that they receive support from their immediate leadership
to remove obstacles or that other teachers are teaching media literacy or can influence others.
This finding underscores the importance of strong leadership and support structures within
schools to promote the effective implementation of media literacy. As argued by Kellner and
Share (2007), school leaders need to create a supportive environment that fosters collaboration
and encourages teachers to experiment with new teaching methods.
In sum, the themes identified in this study are closely interconnected and provide insights
into the dynamics at play when it comes to the effective integration of media literacy in schools.
The study's findings highlight the need for more comprehensive training and support systems for
teachers and strong leadership to promote a supportive and collaborative environment.
Access to Curriculum
Participants were asked about their preferred sources of media literacy information. The
results showed that while some participants relied on sources such as non-profit organizations
like NAMLE, Media Literacy Now, or the News Literacy Project, and the California Department
of Education Media Literacy website, respondents typically chose to search for information on

media literacy through an internet search engine, such as Google or Bing. This finding is in line
with previous studies that have shown how online search engines have become the go-to source
for information on a wide range of topics (Brodie et al., 2000).
Of those who chose to use an internet search engine, 56 individuals did not choose the
California Department of Education or a non-profit group as their source of information. This
suggests that there may be a need for these organizations to improve their online presence and
search engine optimization strategies to ensure that their websites and resources are easily
discoverable by those seeking information on media literacy.
On the other hand, the 24 respondents who stated that they had utilized a non-profit group
for media literacy information demonstrate the value and importance of these organizations in
promoting media literacy skills. The California Department of Education Media Literacy website
was utilized by 15 participants, indicating that it is a valuable resource for those seeking
information on media literacy in California.
The results of this survey highlight the need for a multi-faceted approach to media
literacy education, which includes both online resources and non-profit organizations dedicated
to promoting media literacy skills.
The open text box in the survey revealed that some participants lacked knowledge of
resources available to them when incorporating media literacy into their curriculum. One
participant expressed their lack of diversity in their curriculum and their unawareness of a media
literacy site, stating, "I don’t incorporate various practices in my curriculum very much. I also
didn’t know there was a media literacy site where I could get curriculum." This sentiment was
echoed by many respondents, highlighting the need for increased accessibility to resources that
can enhance media literacy education.

However, there were also participants who were already incorporating media literacy
practices in their curricula but were not aware of additional resources available to them. One
respondent shared their use of Google research when incorporating media literacy education in
their class, stating, "When I do incorporate media literacy education in my class, I use Google
research. I didn’t know about the Department of Education website."
Similarly, another participant noted their use of Google to search for media literacy
information to add to their lesson plans, stating, "I would use Google to search for media literacy
information to add to lesson plans. I didn't know there was a media literacy site with the
education department." Another stated,
When teaching media literacy, I utilize real life examples gleaned from my everyday life
such as political ads, targeted ads on Instagram, ads on YouTube, or print ads in
magazines. Taught in conjunction with fallacies, I determine what's important and base
my teaching practice on those points. I also supplement with an internet search.
It is important for educators to have access to a variety of resources when incorporating
media literacy into their curricula. The Department of Education website offers a wealth of
information and resources for educators to utilize in their classrooms. By increasing awareness
and accessibility to these resources, educators can enhance their students' media literacy skills
and promote critical thinking in the digital age.
When it comes to developing course content and lesson plans, it's important to have
reliable and trustworthy resources to guide you. One respondent from the Bay area recommended
using the CDE website and content from the National Association for Media Literacy Education
(NAMLE). This organization offers workshops and training for experts in the field, ensuring that

the information provided is up-to-date and credible by utilizing resources like NAMLE and the
CDE website, educators can help their students become more critical consumers of media.
Social Norms
The social norms within a group can be shaped by various factors, such as the
leadership's support and the influence of peers. Participants expressed their desire for increased
assistance and support from their educational institution or district. This sentiment is echoed by
scholars who argue that teachers require more support to effectively teach media literacy (Potter,
2016).
Additionally, the study found that a vast majority of participants believed that their fellow
teachers lacked a deep understanding of teaching media literacy. This observation is supported
by research that highlights the challenges teachers face in teaching media literacy due to a lack of
training and resources (Hobbs, 2010).
However, participants from the Bay area reported a sense of empowerment from their
leaders and were found to be heavily influenced by, or exerting influence on, their peers. This
finding supports the idea that effective leadership and peer support can positively impact social
norms within a group (Gittell & Douglass, 2012).
While there is a range of satisfaction levels reported by respondents regarding the support
they receive for teaching media literacy, it is interesting to note that a majority of participants
(n=66) expressed some level of dissatisfaction. However, it is encouraging to see that 13
individuals reported being satisfied with the support they receive. This suggests that there may be
room for improvement in terms of providing more comprehensive and tailored support for
educators teaching media literacy. By delving deeper into the specific needs of these individuals,
it may be possible to address their concerns and improve overall satisfaction levels.

Participants shared their thoughts on the level of support provided in their respective
areas. One respondent admitted, "It's not bad, but there is always room for improvement."
However, a group of respondents from the Bay area felt differently about the support they
received. As one respondent shared, "We receive lots [of support]. We have opportunities for
training and working with peers and mentorship programs too. They support us by encouraging
us. I can't think of anything that hinders us."
Interestingly, another respondent addressed the importance of media literacy education in
schools. The respondent stated,
"I think media literacy is important and not something that is taught to our students. I
think this really stems from a lack of understanding about the importance of media
literacy as policy is dictated by people with little understanding of the changing digital
world. Much of our testing revolves around old methods without taking into
consideration the changing digital landscape."
This claim is supported by existing literature, which suggests that current social norms
play a significant role in the decision not to incorporate media literacy education regularly.
However, it is worth noting that most teachers strongly believe that media literacy is of utmost
importance.
Social Influence on Teaching Media Literacy
According to the findings, when asked to describe the impact of themselves or their
colleagues on teaching media literacy, only ten respondents reported a significant impact while
the remaining reported minimal or no impact. This finding underscores the challenges educators
face in effectively teaching media literacy skills. However, the study also revealed a notable
trend among individuals from the Bay area, who tend to be influenced by the opinions of experts

within their social circles and benefit from mentorship programs. These insights can inform
future efforts to improve media literacy education and support educators in achieving greater
impact.
The influence of participants and their colleagues on teaching media literacy was an area
where few comments were provided. One respondent expressed concern over the issue, stating,
"It's non-existent." Another participant acknowledged that more could be done, but also
highlighted the constraints posed by the fact that media literacy is neither a state standard nor
tested. A third participant felt unable to answer the question, explaining that media literacy was
not often taught by their colleagues. However, a respondent from the Bay area offered a more
positive outlook, stating,
We have lots of discussions about the news, especially the Fox scandal. We wonder how
much truth there is in the allegations. We often have discussions with news events experts
and think of ways to get to the bottom of events.
These insights highlight the need for greater emphasis on media literacy education and the
potential benefits of promoting open discussions and engaging with experts in the field.
Reported Teacher Autonomy
Media literacy is a crucial skill in today's society, and it is important for teachers to feel
empowered to teach it effectively. In follow-up interviews, respondents were able to expressed
their autonomy in designing curriculum and lesson plans to meet the needs of their students.
However, when it came to media literacy specifically, some teachers felt that it should be a
mandated subject or that more support from leadership was needed.
Despite the importance of media literacy, it is not always a focus in educational curricula.
As one participant stated, "There is so much we have to teach, and media literacy has not been a

focus for me." However, research suggests that media literacy should be integrated into all
subjects, not just media studies (Hobbs, 2010). This approach can help students develop critical
thinking skills and become more engaged in their learning. Additionally, some teachers
expressed concerns about potential backlash from teaching media literacy, especially if it touches
on political or controversial topics. However, as stated by Kellner and Share (2007), media
literacy education should encourage students to engage in constructive dialogue and debate,
rather than simply accepting or rejecting information based on their preconceived beliefs.
While the repondentss feel empowered to design curriculum and lesson plans that meet
their students' needs, media literacy education is not always a priority. However, integrating
media literacy into all subjects can help students develop critical thinking skills and become
more engaged in their learning. Furthermore, media literacy education should encourage
constructive dialogue and debate, rather than simply accepting or rejecting information based on
preconceived beliefs (Kellner & Share, 2007).
Summary and Implication of Findings
After analyzing the data, it is evident that media literacy education is not being
sufficiently addressed in many classrooms. While there are a few respondents in the San
Francisco Bay area who possess extensive knowledge on the topic, the majority of teachers lack
the necessary skills and knowledge to teach media literacy effectively. Despite this, respondents
recognize the importance of media literacy education and its impact on students' social
outcomes.
However, it is concerning that the majority of respondents believe that the current state of
affairs will continue, with only a few predicting an increase in the frequency of media literacy
education for both students and parents. This lack of confidence in the future of media literacy

education is likely due to teachers' moderate skill levels in the subject and limited exposure to
training information and mentorship programs.
It is essential to note that teachers' confidence in teaching media literacy is closely tied to
their proficiency, practice, and perception of skills. Therefore, it is crucial to provide educators
with opportunities to practice and attend media literacy professional development courses to
improve their skills and knowledge.
Unfortunately, teachers' access to media literacy training information is limited, and they
lack access to mentorship programs. Furthermore, many teachers believe that their colleagues do
not regularly teach media literacy and are unaware of additional support to integrate it into the
curriculum. This lack of support from colleagues and leadership can make it challenging for
teachers to feel confident and successful in teaching media literacy.
In conclusion, it is clear that more needs to be done to support teachers in teaching media
literacy effectively. Providing teachers with access to training information, mentorship programs,
and professional development opportunities can significantly improve their skills and confidence
in teaching media literacy. By doing so, we can ensure that students are equipped with the
necessary skills to navigate the ever-changing media landscape.

CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS
This research delved into how teachers and institutions perceive their ability to foster
creating media-literate digital citizens. Studies have shown that teachers with a strong sense of
self-efficacy tend to experience greater job satisfaction, well-being, and commitment to
achieving positive outcomes for their students and themselves (Zee & Koomen, 2016). Efficacy
refers to the capability to attain a desired outcome. Meanwhile, institutional or collective efficacy
pertains to a group's shared perception of their capacity to achieve a certain objective or perform
a particular behavior (Bandura, 2001). Collective efficacy yields similar results to teacher selfefficacy (TSE) but on a larger organizational or global scale (Loughland & Nguyen, 2020).
In chapter four, the study presented its discoveries regarding how California teachers
perceive their self-efficacy and collective efficacy when teaching media literacy. Subsequently,
chapter five will examine the conclusions drawn from the discoveries and offer five practice
recommendations. Lastly, this chapter will suggest topics for further research and end with a
concluding statement.
Discussion of Findings
This section discusses the
According to Grant and Osanloo (2014) selecting and integrating a theoretical framework
is like creating the blueprint for your house. However, as indicated by Grant and Osanloo,
blueprints have their limitations and potential flaws and so do the application of a theoretical
framework. This section will explore the usefulness and limitations of the conceptual framework
for this study.
In conducting the research, Social Cognitive Theory and Human Agency Theory were
found to be well tested theories that proved to be incredibly helpful in identifying themes. These

theories provided a framework for understanding how people's beliefs, thoughts, and actions are
shaped by their social environment and personal agency. Through the lens of these theories, the
researcher was able to analyze the data and draw meaningful conclusions about the behavior and
attitudes of the participants. Overall, the researcher found that the use of these theories was
indispensable in providing a deeper understanding of the research topic.
As the digital age continues to evolve and shape our daily lives, media literacy education
has become increasingly important. In California and across the country, there is a growing need
to equip students with the skills necessary to become media-literate digital citizens. Mitchell
(2021), Butler (2019), Kellner and Share (2019), and Rubin (2019) have all emphasized the
critical role that media literacy plays in shaping how students engage with the world around
them.
To achieve high-quality outcomes for both students and teachers, it is essential to have
knowledgeable and committed educators who are dedicated to instilling in their students a desire
to analyze media critically. Zee & Koomen (2016) argue that teachers play a critical role in this
process and must be equipped with the tools necessary to achieve success.
In addition to having skilled educators, it is also important for teachers to have faith in
the organizations where they teach media literacy. Butler (2019) stresses the significance of
having a supportive and trustworthy institution that empowers teachers to succeed in their roles.
As we continue to navigate the complex landscape of digital media, it is clear that media
literacy education is more important than ever. By equipping students with the skills necessary to
analyze media critically, we can help them become informed and engaged participants in our
ever-changing world.

Upon concluding this study, it was found that providing recurring professional
development opportunities can significantly increase knowledge, skill, and practice opportunities
for teachers. In fact, 74 percent of the participants attributed their lack of knowledge about media
literacy education to the absence of professional development for teaching media literacy or due
to the time since their last PD. This result is consistent with the research conducted by
Loughland & Nguyen (2020) that emphasizes the value of specific professional development
opportunities and their impact on both direct and vicarious learning experiences.
Moreover, vicarious experience is a crucial efficacy builder (Capalbo, 2002; DarlingHammond, 2017; Goddard et al., 2007; Loughland & Nguyen, 2020). According to Capalbo
(2002), vicarious experience refers to the process of observing the behavior of others and the
subsequent effects of that behavior. This type of experience can help individuals learn what to do
and what not to do, leading to increased efficacy. Similarly, Darling-Hammond (2017) suggests
that vicarious learning is an essential component of teacher professional development as it
enables educators to learn from the experiences of others. Furthermore, Goddard et al. (2007)
highlight that vicarious experience is particularly effective in building self-efficacy, which refers
to the belief in one's ability to accomplish a task successfully.
Providing recurring professional development opportunities can have a significant impact
on teacher knowledge, skill, and practice opportunities. Additionally, vicarious experience is a
crucial efficacy builder that can be leveraged to enhance the effectiveness of professional
development initiatives.
The findings showed 95% of respondents emphasized the significance of media literacy
education. A teacher's perspective towards instructing a particular subject plays a crucial role in
media literacy education as it can impact their eagerness to teach and enhance their skills. This

discovery coincides with a study by Tekin (2023), which demonstrated a direct correlation
between a teacher's self-efficacy and attitude. Specifically, the importance of attitudes was found
to have a notable impact on a teacher's overall ability to develop self-efficacy beliefs.
The participants expressed a sense of empowerment in their ability to educate on the
subject of media literacy, indicating that they would willingly impart their knowledge if there
existed a policy or mandate regarding media literacy education. The implementation of policies
that encourage media literacy education can instill confidence in teachers to prioritize it in their
curriculum. The participants' attitudes towards policy development are closely tied to their views
on media literacy's significance. Given their belief that media literacy education is of utmost
importance and should be mandated, it is critical to involve teachers in policy formulation. In
Zancanella and Rice's (2021) research, they highlighted the importance of transparent, debated,
and publicized policy development.
The study found a connection between knowledge, practice, skill, and confidence in the
responses from the participants. To enhance these areas, providing ample practice opportunities
both in and outside the classroom is crucial. Additionally, professional development can offer
mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and positive affective states, all of
which contribute to teachers’ collective efficacy (Loughland & Nguyen, 2020), well-being, job
satisfaction, and commitment to producing favorable student and teacher outcomes (Zee &
Koomen, 2016). This emphasizes the importance of investing in professional development for
educators.
Promoting where media literacy curriculum and training can be accessed will influence
how often they teach it. Participants believed that because of their background in teaching in
general, they could teach media literacy if they had access to the curriculum and policies that

supported the effort. This can be accomplished by advertising the CDE media literacy website
and increasing professional development training focused on media literacy curriculum selection
and development. The report generated by the National Association for Media Literacy
Education supports this finding, stating a need to “facilitate general public awareness and
discourse in media literacy” (Culver & Redmond, 2019, p. 10). The data shows that the idea
must also be extended to teachers and educational institutions.
The study revealed that a significant majority, 78% to be exact, of participants do not
regularly teach media literacy due to other pressing demands on their time. However, despite this
challenge, respondents expressed a strong willingness to integrate media literacy into their
instruction if provided with the necessary resources, institutional support, and policies. Experts
believe that incorporating media literacy into existing curricula would be a viable solution to
alleviate the perceived time constraints and competing priorities that currently inhibit educators
from teaching this essential skill. As Butler (2019) and Kellner & Share (2019) suggested,
educators can successfully tackle this challenge by integrating media literacy into their current
teaching strategies.
Recommendations for Practice
The following section will outline the five recommendations for practice. The
recommendations follow the study’s findings and provide solutions focused on improvements
that align with current literature.
Recommendation 1: Increase Exposure to Master Experiences Opportunities
It is crucial to provide California teachers with more opportunities to master media
literacy education, as this can enhance their knowledge, skills, practice frequency, expectations,
and self-efficacy. Studies reveal that fostering a workplace culture that prioritizes mastery and

offers skill improvement opportunities is the most effective way to achieve work-related goals
(Caniëls et al., 2018).
Mastery experience is the belief that one can successfully perform a task or skill based on
previous achievements or practice (Bingen et al., 2020). One of the sources of self-efficacy is
confidence in one's ability to learn and perform (Bandura, 2001). Teaching media literacy, the
ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media messages, requires a high level of mastery
and experience to overcome challenges and uncertainties. Here are four ways to gain mastery
experience in teaching media literacy.
To boost your media literacy skills, take the lead in expanding your knowledge of the
subject. This can be accomplished by delving into books, articles, blogs, and podcasts, or by
watching informative videos that cover different aspects of media literacy, such as media history,
media ethics, media effects, media activism, and media production (Butler, 2019). You can also
seek guidance by enrolling in either formal or informal courses, workshops, webinars, or
conferences that offer training and support on teaching media literacy. These avenues present
opportunities to learn from experts and peers who possess more experience and knowledge in the
field, and to apply what you learn in a safe and supportive environment. Experiment with various
media formats, genres, styles, and techniques, and express yourself by creating media messages
on different platforms and tools. Lastly, keep a journal, blog, or portfolio to record your teaching
goals, strategies, outcomes, and challenges, and to reflect on your successes and failures as a
media literacy educator. This way, you can identify your strengths and weaknesses, celebrate
your achievements, and learn from your mistakes to enhance your teaching experiences.

Recommendation 2: Generate More Opportunities for Vicarious Experiences
In addition to creating opportunities for mastery experiences, experiencing teaching
media literacy through observing others is equally important. Studies have indicated that
observation is a highly efficacious approach to acquiring knowledge and skills. This method,
referred to as vicarious learning or vicarious experience, allows individuals to learn from the
experiences of others, thereby enhancing both individual and group efficacy (El-Abd & Chaaban,
2020). It is a natural and intuitive technique that fosters self-efficacy and encourages collective
efficacy, making it a crucial instrument for personal and professional growth. Here are methods
for generating vicarious experience opportunities for teaching media literacy:
Be eager to develop your media literacy skills—there are numerous ways to do so. One
effective method is to watch documentaries or educational videos that delve into the production,
distribution, and consumption of media across various cultures and contexts (Butler, 2019;
Kellner & Share, 2019; Noguera et al., 2006). For instance, The Social Dilemma documentary
offers a comprehensive exploration of how social media affects both individuals and society at
large. Additionally, you can gain valuable insights from media professionals or experts by
following them on social media platforms or reading their blogs. The California Department of
Education website is an exceptional resource for identifying reliable media professionals worth
following. Notably, you can also enroll in online courses or workshops that are dedicated to
teaching media literacy skills and concepts. Coursera's Media Literacy for Educators course, for
example, covers a range of topics such as media analysis, creation, and activism. Most of these
courses are either free or low-cost. Lastly, engaging in conversations or debates with peers or
mentors who possess varying degrees of media literacy or exposure to different media types can

broaden your understanding. You may want to consider joining a media literacy club or forum to
exchange ideas and opinions with other members.
Recommendation 3: Enhance Media Literacy Education Visibility Through Social
Networks
Social media is a great way for people to connect and work together, and it's also a good
opportunity to address new challenges. When it comes to media literacy instruction, having a
strong social network can help teachers feel more confident. Getting feedback on your
proficiency level can be really helpful for self-evaluation (Argyis & Xu, 2016). Here are some
effective ways to promote media literacy.
One way to get people interested in media literacy is to create and share engaging content
that uses hashtags, keywords, images, videos, and podcasts. This can grab people's attention and
encourage them to join in the conversation. Another helpful approach is to follow and interact
with experts, organizations, educators, and activists who are involved in media literacy on social
media. Learning from their experiences and resources can help people share their own stories
and posts, join groups and communities, and participate in events and campaigns. Hosting online
events like webinars, workshops, quizzes, games, and challenges can be really effective in
promoting media literacy as well. Using social media tools like live streaming, polls, and surveys
can make it easy to interact with people and get feedback and can encourage interested
individuals to get involved. Collaborating and networking with other media literacy educators
and advocates on social media can also be really helpful, as it allows for exchanging ideas,
sharing best practices, discussing challenges, and finding solutions. Joint projects and campaigns
can also be created to amplify the impact and reach of media literacy education. Finally, it's
important to celebrate and showcase the positive outcomes and achievements of media literacy

education on social media. Sharing stories and testimonials from students, colleagues, and
partners who have benefited from media literacy education can highlight the positive changes
and impacts of media literacy education on individuals, communities, and society as a whole.
Recommendation 4: Solidify a Sense of Collective Mission and Future Orientation
Intentionality—merging self-interests in concert with a common goal and forethought—
guiding one’s perspectives toward future orientation is the basis for increasing human agency,
self, and collective efficacy (Badura, 2001). One of the challenges of teaching media literacy is
to foster a sense of collective mission and future orientation among teachers, especially in a
diverse and complex media landscape. Here are some methods to achieve this goal:
Encouraging teachers to engage in open and respectful dialogue with one another, sharing
their personal experiences and perspectives, can be a valuable tool in fostering empathy,
curiosity, and an appreciation for diversity in the classroom. By collaborating on media teaching
projects that address real-world issues and sharing these projects with other educators, teachers
can further develop their skills, confidence, and motivation to teach media literacy as a powerful
tool for social change.
Integrating media literacy into the curriculum and aligning it with the school and
community's core values and goals can help teachers and students alike to understand the
relevance and importance of this subject for their academic achievement and civic engagement.
This approach can also help to ensure that media literacy education is seen as an integral part of
the school's overall mission and vision.
In addition, inviting guest speakers from diverse media fields and sectors to share their
insights and experiences can expand teachers' knowledge of media literacy education and inspire
them to contribute even more effectively to the classroom. By modeling and promoting a positive

and proactive attitude towards media literacy education, and committing to lifelong learning and
improvement, teachers can cultivate a growth mindset, a sense of agency, and a strong sense of
responsibility for enhancing media literacy education for all students.
Recommendation 5: Kilpatrick New World Model as a Training and Evaluation Plan
Media literacy education is a crucial aspect of modern society, particularly in California
where the media landscape is constantly evolving. As such, it is important to evaluate the
effectiveness of media literacy education training programs using a comprehensive and
manageable process. The New World Kirkpatrick Model is a valuable tool for trainers and
business leaders in California as it provides clear evaluative steps and can be used to evaluate
any educational or interactive program (Kilpatrick, 2008).
The New World Kirkpatrick Model is a four-level model that assesses the effectiveness of
training programs. The first level measures participants' reaction to the training or changes, while
the second level measures what they have learned. The third level measures whether the learning
is being applied on the job, and the fourth level measures whether the application of training is
achieving the desired results.
According to Tan and Newman (2013), the New World Kirkpatrick Model is a
comprehensive and manageable process that can evaluate both traditional and digital learning
programs, whether conducted in-person or online. This means that media literacy education
programs can be evaluated regardless of their format or delivery method.
Moreover, the New World Kirkpatrick Model is a valuable tool for trainers and business
leaders as it allows them to assess the effectiveness of training programs in a systematic and
objective manner. By evaluating the four levels of the model, trainers and business leaders can

identify areas of improvement and make necessary adjustments to the training programs to
ensure that they are effective in achieving the desired results.
Media literacy education is an important aspect of modern society, particularly in
California where the media landscape is constantly evolving. The New World Kirkpatrick Model
is a valuable tool for evaluating the effectiveness of media literacy education training programs
as it provides clear evaluative steps and can be used to assess any educational or interactive
program (Kilpatrick, 2008). By utilizing the New World Kirkpatrick Model, trainers and business
leaders can ensure that their media literacy education programs are effective in achieving the
desired resul
The New World Kilpatrick Model provides a framework for evaluating the effectiveness
of media literacy education. To effectively implement media literacy education, teachers must be
fully engaged in teaching media literacy as level one (Kilpatrick, 2014). This involves discussing
the importance of teaching media literacy and measuring how satisfied teachers are with the new
level of support. According to Hobbs (2010), media literacy education should empower students
to access, analyze, evaluate, create, and communicate using media in all its forms. As teachers
gain a deeper understanding of the importance of media literacy education, they are better
equipped to teach and assess students' progress in these areas.
The second level of the New World Kilpatrick Model involves evaluating and assessing
the knowledge gained from professional development (P.D.) (Kilpatrick, 2014). According to the
National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE), media literacy education should
be interdisciplinary, engaging, and participatory (NAMLE, 2019). This should result in an
increase in knowledge, skills, and self-efficacy. Teachers should also report an increase in skill
levels and speak highly of teaching media literacy. At this level, teachers show an increased

confidence (efficacy) in teaching media literacy, and there is a noticeable increase in media
literacy being taught across all districts.
The third level of the New World Kilpatrick Model should examine whether teachers are
applying their learning on the job and whether they are encouraging others and earning awards
for their work (Kilpatrick, 2014). According to a study by the Center for Media Literacy (CML),
media literacy education should promote critical thinking, creative expression, and responsible
citizenship (CML, 2018). Surveys should measure teachers' effort and support from leadership.
Teachers who are supported and encouraged to teach media literacy are more likely to integrate it
into their curriculum.
The fourth level of the New World Kilpatrick Model should indicate that teachers are
integrating media literacy across the curriculum and attending media literacy professional
development (P.D.) and workshops regularly (Kilpatrick, 2014). According to the Partnership for
21st Century Skills (P21), media literacy education should prepare students to be effective
communicators, collaborators, and problem-solvers in a global society (P21, 2019). Teachers
who attend professional development and workshops regularly are better equipped to integrate
media literacy into their curriculum and prepare students for the 21st century workforce.
In conclusion, media literacy education is essential for preparing students for the
challenges of the 21st century. The New World Kilpatrick Model provides a framework for
evaluating the effectiveness of media literacy education. By engaging teachers in professional
development, assessing their knowledge and self-efficacy, promoting application of learning, and
encouraging integration across the curriculum, media literacy education can empower students to
become critical thinkers, creative communicators, and responsible citizens.

Recommendations for Future Research
The purpose of this study was to uncover the perspectives of K-12 educators in California
on teaching media literacy, including their knowledge, beliefs, and expectations. The study also
explored the impact of societal norms, curriculum accessibility, and teacher autonomy on their
ability to effectively teach media literacy. Based on the findings, there are four recommendations
for future research. Firstly, future studies should be expanded to include colleges and universities
as few respondents reported receiving media literacy education through their teacher training.
Secondly, a promising practice study of educators in the Bay area could be conducted. Lastly, it
is recommended to investigate the impact of Generative AI on media literacy education to
determine whether it helps or exacerbates issues such as misinformation, disinformation, and
fake news which are prevalent in today's society. These recommendations aim to improve the
effectiveness of media literacy education and contribute to the ongoing discussion on media
literacy in today's rapidly changing media landscape. The findings of such research could help
educators overcome new challenges they may face.
College and University Impact on Teacher Education to Teach Media Literacy
As media consumption continues to increase, it's crucial that students learn how to
navigate and critically evaluate the information they encounter. However, teachers must also
possess these skills to effectively teach media literacy to their students. Therefore, it's important
to research the extent to which media literacy education is being taught to teachers through
colleges and universities.
One approach to this research is conducting surveys and interviews with teachers and
teacher education programs. This can help determine the frequency and effectiveness of media

literacy education being taught. Questions can include what types of media literacy education are
being taught and how prepared teachers feel to teach their students about media literacy.
Another method is conducting a literature review of existing research on media literacy
education for teachers. This can help identify gaps in the research and provide insights into what
types of media literacy education are most effective for teachers. For example, a study by Hobbs
and Jensen (2009) found that case-based learning was an effective method for teaching media
literacy to teachers.
Furthermore, it's important to consider the role of colleges and universities in providing
media literacy education to teachers. A study by the National Association for Media Literacy
Education (2017) found that only 37% of teacher education programs surveyed included media
literacy in their curriculum. This highlights the need for increased emphasis on media literacy
education in teacher education programs.
Researching the extent to which media literacy education is being taught to teachers is
crucial for ensuring that students receive the necessary skills to navigate and evaluate media.
Surveys, interviews, and literature reviews can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of
media literacy education, while also highlighting areas for improvement.
Examining a Media Literacy Education Promising Practice
Research has shown that media literacy education is crucial in today's world. Educators
in the Bay area have been particularly successful in promoting media literacy education.
However, there is a need to understand the factors that have contributed to their success. By
conducting a thorough study, researchers can gain valuable insights into the practices and
strategies that have worked for these educators.

There is a growing body of literature on the benefits of media literacy education.
Research has shown that it can help students develop critical thinking skills, become more media
savvy, and better understand the impact of media on society. In addition, media literacy
education can help students become more engaged and informed citizens.
Examining promising practices in media literacy education is crucial for developing a
comprehensive framework that can be implemented by other districts and states. By
understanding the factors that have contributed to the success of educators in the Bay area,
researchers can develop evidence-based strategies that can be scaled up to benefit students across
the country.
The Impact of Generative AI on Media Literacy Education and Practice
This study showed that fake news, misinformation, and disinformation has become a
significant issue in recent years, leading to a growing interest in using AI to combat this problem
and improve media literacy education. While AI has the potential to help identify and flag fake
news and misinformation, there are also concerns about the negative impact that AI could have
on media literacy.
One of the significant benefits of AI in media literacy is its ability to identify and flag
fake news and misinformation. According to a study by researchers at the University of
Michigan, machine learning algorithms can accurately identify fake news articles with an
accuracy rate of up to 90% (Lazer et al., 2018). AI algorithms can be trained to recognize
patterns in language and content commonly associated with fake news and misinformation. By
analyzing the language and content of an article, AI can determine the source’s credibility and
help users identify whether the information is accurate.

Another potential benefit of AI is its ability to personalize content and provide tailored
recommendations. AI algorithms can recommend relevant and trustworthy content by analyzing
users' browsing and search histories. This can help users avoid fake news and misinformation
and increase their media literacy skills. For instance, the AI system developed by the startup,
Cognitivescale, helps users identify fake news by providing them with real-time insights that
allow them to verify information (Robitzski, 2017).
However, there are also concerns about the negative impact of AI on media literacy. One
concern is that AI could be used to create more sophisticated forms of fake news and
misinformation. For example, AI could generate deepfake videos that are difficult to distinguish
from actual footage. This could make it even more difficult for users to discern what is real and
fake. A recent report by the Brookings Institution highlighted the potential dangers of deepfake
videos and the need for more research to address this issue (West & Bhargava, 2019).
Another concern is that AI could perpetuate biases and stereotypes. AI algorithms trained
on biased data could perpetuate those biases in their recommendations. This could expose users
to content that reinforces existing stereotypes and prejudices. For example, a study by the Pew
Research Center found that YouTube's recommendation algorithm tends to push users towards
more extreme content (Anderson & Rainie, 2018).
Thorough research is necessary to fully understand the advantages and disadvantages of
incorporating AI into media literacy and education. According to a study, AI can help identify
fake news and misinformation, but it should not be relied upon as the only solution to these
issues (Pennycook & Rand, 2019). Additionally, there are concerns about the perpetuation of
biases and stereotypes through AI in media literacy education, as AI algorithms may not always
be objective (Van Dijck & Poell, 2018). Therefore, it is essential to continue researching and

carefully considering the impact of AI on media literacy to ensure the dissemination of accurate
and reliable information in society.
Conclusion
In today's digital age, media literacy has become increasingly essential to help individuals
navigate the vast sea of information available online. However, many people lack the necessary
skills and knowledge to effectively analyze and interpret media messages. Therefore, it is crucial
to provide more extensive exposure and educational opportunities in media literacy.
According to a study conducted by the National Association for Media Literacy
Education (NAMLE), students who receive media literacy education have shown significant
improvement in critical thinking, communication, and social skills. Moreover, they are better
equipped to recognize bias, propaganda, and misinformation in media messages.
To address the growing need for media literacy education, it is imperative to offer more
experiential and observational learning opportunities. This includes hands-on workshops, media
production projects, and critical analysis exercises. Additionally, building a collective sense of
mission and future direction can enhance the visibility of media literacy education through social
networks. By doing so, it is possible to enhance the support, impact, autonomy, and effectiveness
of media literacy education.
Furthermore, the incorporation of technology in media literacy education has proven to
be effective in engaging students. For example, using virtual reality and augmented reality tools
can provide immersive experiences that help students develop critical thinking and problemsolving skills. Additionally, online resources such as the Media Literacy Now website provide
teachers and parents with practical tools and guidance on how to incorporate media literacy
education into their curricula.

In conclusion, media literacy education is a crucial skill that should be integrated into our
education system. By offering more extensive exposure and educational opportunities, building a
collective sense of mission, and incorporating technology, we can equip individuals with the
necessary skills to navigate the complexities of the media landscape and excel in the digital age.

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Appendix A: Survey and Interview Conceptual Framework

Appendix B: Survey Protocol Draft
1. What are teachers’ perceived knowledge, attitudes, and expectations concerning teaching
media literacy?
2. What practices and levels of self-efficacy for teaching media literacy do they report?
3. How do school environment factors, including social norms, access to curricula, and level
of teacher autonomy, support or hinder teachers in teaching media literacy?
1 What district do you teach? Demographics
2 Do you teach in private, public, or other? If other,
please describe.
Demographics
3 How many years have you taught in the classroom? Demographics
4 What subject(s) do you teach? Demographics
5 How frequently do you teach media literacy in the
classroom?
Likert style: Very often, somewhat often, not
often, never)
Q2/Behavioral
6 To what extent have you received preparation to
teach media literacy? (Likert style: Very often,
somewhat often, not often, never)
a) Teacher prep program
b) Professional development
c) Peers
d) Personal research
e) Other (with open text)
Q3/Environmental
7 How would you rate your level of knowledge
concerning the teaching of media literacy? (Likert
style: Very knowledgeable, somewhat
knowledgeable, not very knowledgeable, no
knowledge at all)
Q1/Cognitive
8 In your own words, please define “media literacy
education” in a sentence or two.
(short text)
Q1/Cognitive
9 In your opinion, to what extent does teaching media
literacy positively influence students? (Likert style:
Very much, somewhat, not much, not at all)
Q1/Cognitive

10 If you answered “very much” or “somewhat” to
question 9, please describe in a sentence or two an
example of teaching media literacy's positive
influence on students.
(long text)
Q1/Cognitive
11 To what extent do you incorporate the following
practices when teaching media literacy (Likert style:
Very often, somewhat, not often, never)
1. Integrate the teaching of media literacy across
the subjects you teach
2. Critical Media Literacy Instruction
3. Content from the California Department of
Education media literacy site
4. Content from a Non-profit media literacy
organization
Q3/Environmental
12 How would you rate your overall skill level in teaching
media literacy? (Likert style: very high, high,
somewhat low, very low)
Q2/Behavioral
13 How would you rate your confidence level in teaching
media literacy? (Likert style: very high, high,
somewhat low, very low)
Q2/Behavioral
14 Please explain your responses to the two questions
above about your skill and confidence levels in
teaching social media (long text)
Q2/Behavioral
15 What support does your organization provide in
teaching media literacy? (multiple choice multiple
responses)
a. Professional learning opportunities
b. Tuition assistance programs
c. Informal learning opportunities
d. Mentor parring opportunities
e. Other
Q3/Environmental
16 How satisfied are you with your organization’s level
of support for teaching media literacy? (Likert style:
very high, high, somewhat low, very low)
Q3/Environmental
17 To what extent do certain environmental factors at
your school support or hinder your teaching of media
literacy?
(matrix slider on a continuum between
“support” and “hinder”)
a. Social norms
Q3/Environmental

b. Access to curricula
c. Level of teacher autonomy
18 How would you describe your or your colleague's
impact on teaching media literacy?
Q3/Environmental
20 What are your expectations about your future with
teaching media literacy?
a. I expect to teach it a lot more
b. I expect to teach it about as much as I do
now
c. I expect I will teach it less
Q1/Cognitive
21 Are there any additional comments not
covered by the answers to the previous questions?
22 Are you interested in a follow-up interview?
Would you like to be entered into the $20 gift card
drawing?

Semi-structured Interview Protocol
Introduction:
[Greetings] Thank you for sitting with me and participating in this study. As discussed, I
expect this interview to last approximately an hour. Is that Okay for you?
Let’s talk about this study. Were you able to read the overview that was sent to you? Do
you have any questions about participating in this interview?
As you know, I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California. I am
examining how teachers feel about their ability to teach media literacy. I am particularly
interested in understanding what educational skills, motivational influences, and organizational
factors improve or hinder educators’ ability to teach media literacy skills. I am talking to multiple
practicing teachers at educational institutions to gain insight.
I will wear a researcher’s hat and will not pass any judgment. My goal is to understand
your perspective and aggregate information to get a better understanding from you and others.
As discussed, this interview is confidential. That means I will not share your name or the
name of the educational institution with anyone. I plan to use direct quotes; however, none will
be attributed to you or your institution. I will provide you with a copy of the final report upon
request.
I will be recording to capture the information you share with me accurately. The
recording will be used by the research team and me only.
May I have your permission to record?

133
1 What district do you teach? Demographics
2 Do you teach in private, public, or other? If other, please describe. Demographics
3 How many years have you taught in the classroom? Demographics
4 What subject(s) do you teach? Demographics
5 How frequently do you teach media literacy in the classroom? Q2/Behavioral
6 To what extent have you received preparation to teach media literacy? Q3/Environmental
7 How would you rate your level of knowledge concerning the teaching of media literacy?
Why do you feel that way?
Q1/Cognitive
8 In your own words, please define “media literacy education.” Q1/Cognitive
9 In your opinion, to what extent does teaching media literacy have a positive influence on
students?
Q1/Cognitive
10 Can you describe an example of the positive influence teaching media literacy has on
students?
Q1/Cognitive
11 What practices do you use when teaching media literacy
Prompt:
Integrate the teaching of media literacy across the subjects you teach
Critical Media Literacy Instruction
Content from the California Department of Education media literacy site
Content from a Non-profit media literacy organization
Q3/Environmental

12 How would you describe your overall skill level in teaching media literacy? Q2/Behavioral
13 How would you describe your confidence level in teaching media literacy? Q2/Behavioral
14 Please explain your responses to the two questions above about your skill and confidence
levels in teaching social media (long text)
Q2/Behavioral
15 What support does your organization provide in teaching media literacy?
Prompt:
Professional learning opportunities
Tuition assistance programs
Informal learning opportunities
Mentor parring opportunities
Q3/Environmental
16 Describe how satisfied you are with your organization’s level of support for teaching media
literacy.
Q3/Environmental
17 What environmental factors at your school support or hinder teaching media literacy?
Prompt:
Social norms
Access to curricula
Level of teacher autonomy
Q3/Environmental
18 How would you describe your or your colleague's impact on teaching media literacy? Q3/Environmental
20 What are your expectations about your future with teaching media literacy? Q1/Cognitive
21 Are there any additional comments not covered by the answers to the previous questions?

Appendix D: Code and Labeling Matrix
Code and label Definition Description
Collective Efficacy
Self-efficacy
Lack of enactive
attainment
A group’s shared perception of its capability to
successfully perform a behavior or achieve a goal.
How strongly a person believes in their ability to be
able to attain a level of performance in a particular
situation or whether they avoid the situation if they
do not believe they are capable of achieving their
desired outcome (Bandura 1977; Bandura 1986).
Failure lowers self-efficacy, particularly if something
goes wrong in the first few attempts despite effort
and no unfavorable circumstances (Bandura 1977;
Bandura 1986).
By watching other people model behavior especially
social behavior or perform an activity/task, a concept
Statements about how well the group teaches or
supports media literacy education.
Statements about how well a person thinks they
can or can’t do something.
Where teaching media literacy goes wrong/where
teacher try but just don’t know what to do when
they don’t know how to teach it and don’t feel
supported.

Code and label Definition Description
Vicarious experience
Verbal/social
encouragement
is formed of the behavior and how the performance
of this behavior affects the other person.
Seeing others coping and persevering can encourage
performance. Watching someone like themselves
succeeding, who they can identify with, helps
(Bandura 1977; Bandura 1986; Bandura 1989).
Similarly if watching another person they identify
with and who tries hard but fails at the activity/task
then this can reduce feelings of self-efficacy
(Bandura 1986).
If a person is encouraged to think they are capable of
a task they may make more effort (Bandura 1986).
People can be influenced by suggestions that they
could perform the activity/task especially by
someone they find credible but only if the strategies
Role models of people teaching or seeking media
literacy skills
Statements about supportive
helpful/practical/emotional encouragement or
importance.

Code and label Definition Description
Physiological/psycholog
ical state
Outcome expectancies
to help them succeed are also in place (Bandura
1977)
Success is more likely if the person is not highly
anxious as the activity/task may increase the anxiety.
A person considers how anxious or physically
hampered they are when assessing their ability to
complete a task (Bandura 1977; Bandura 1986).
Outcome expectation is the judgement by a person of
the likely consequences of behavior is performed.
This influences the choice of what a person may try
to do. Behavior that can be anticipated to be
beneficial can increase self-motivation (Bandura
1977; Bandura 1997).
An ability to consider future events where people are
motivated to do something by thinking about how
Positive statements about abilities or attending
workshops.
Negative statements about feelings/emotions
Eg. Sadness, guilt, anger
This will be a description of what the person
anticipates as the consequences of their behavior,
physical, social or self-evaluative.

Code and label Definition Description
Motivation
well they might be able to perform and also to
anticipate the positive and negative aspects of their
actions. A person then plans to do what they think
will be worthwhile and highly valued (Bandura 1997)
A person’s belief in their self-efficacy is a large part
of this motivation (Bandura 1989; Bandura 1997).
Thinking about and anticipating what they plan to do
can motivate a person even when the circumstances
are not especially favorable (forethought) (Bandura
1986; Bandura 1989) People who don’t think of
themselves as efficacious think more of how they will
fail, and the thought of problems can lead to
exaggeration of the anticipated level of difficulty if
people doubt their own abilities (Bandura 1986l
Bandura 1989).
Influence on decision to teach media literacy.
Not teaching because of the lack of
awareness/knowledge/importance.

Code and label Definition Description
Self-regulation
Agency and Goals
Self-appraisal plays a large part in the actions people
take as action is not simply influenced by others. The
self-directed efforts people make include arranging
their surroundings to be helpful, having prompts and
incentives as well as being influenced by others
(Bandura 1986).
People judge how capable they think they are to be
able to achieve a level of performance which is there
perceived self-efficacy (Bandura 1986).
Goals incentivize the person and the more immediate
specific goals guide behavior (Luszczynska &
Schwartzer 2005).
The goals people set for themselves are affected by
the progress they make especially if the person has
doubts about their capability (Bandura 1989).
Statements explaining what teachers thought they
would be able to do.
Statements about what the person intends to do.
Statements about changing plans.

Code and label Definition Description
Reflection
Effort and persistence
An ability to think through experiences and thoughts
of these experiences. This can enable a person to
learn about themselves and their surroundings and to
modify how they think about things (Bandura 1986).
Development of perseverance is important in helping
to raise efficacy expectations as some difficulties that
can be overcome tach that some sustained effort is
needed (Bandura 1977). The more self-efficacy a
person feels the more effort is made and the longer
he/she will keep trying even if the activity/task is not
easy especially if they expect eventual success
(Bandura 1977; Badura 1982; Bandura 1986).
Statements about changing thought of an
experience or event.
Statements that convey the person makes
persistent effort to achieve their goal.
Adapted from Edwards et al., 2017

Appendix E: Table 1 Four educational lenses on the post-truth condition.
Lenses How people’s way of
knowing can drive posttruth trends
How education might aggravate this
problem
How education might mitigate this
problem
#1 Not knowing
how to know
Post-truth trends arise from
gaps or deficiencies in
people’s knowledge and
skills for critically dealing
with information in the
digital sphere
● Inadequate media and digital
literacy skills instruction
● Insufficient representation of
authentic scientific inquiry
● Neglecting lay competencies for
interacting with science
● Developing civic media and
digital literacy competencies
● Promoting scientific literacy
that addresses lay everyday
concerns
● Inoculating against
misleading scientific
communication
#2 Fallible ways
of knowing
Post-truth trends result from
cognitive biases and
cognitive limitations that
are amplified by the current
information environment
● Providing greater knowledge and
skills might facilitate biased
reasoning.
● Schooling might not develop
sufficient awareness of the
limitations of lay knowledge and
reasoning
● Increasing students’ epistemic
vigilance
● Teaching how to cope with
cognitive biases and
limitations
#3 Not caring
about truth
(enough)
Post-truth trends occur
because people are not
committed enough
to pursuing epistemic aims
and ideals and to engaging
in reliable
ways of knowing
● School and higher-education
cultures overly emphasize nonepistemic values.
● “Safe” epistemic environments
might not encourage dispositions
of epistemic responsibility and
carefulness
● Cultivating dispositional
intellectual virtues
● Fostering intellectual
identities and agency
● Connecting epistemic pursuits
to what matters to people
#4 Disagreeing
about how to
know
Post-truth trends stem from
a loss of shared
epistemology and the
increasing influence of
alternative, competing
epistemologies
1. Ways of knowing are oversimplified and their social nature is
often neglected.
2. Ways of knowing are typically
taught as givens
4. Reestablishing the epistemic
authority of science
5. Learning to discuss and
evaluate disagreements about
how to know

Lenses How people’s way of
knowing can drive posttruth trends
How education might aggravate this
problem
How education might mitigate this
problem
3. The epistemologies of students’
communities are often ignored
6. Acknowledging and
coordinating multiple
epistemologies
Note: Adopted from Barzilai & Chinn (2020)
Appendix F: Table 2 Seven Propaganda Devices
Name Definition Example
Name Calling Trick to make us accept a conclusion without full
consideration of essential facts in the case.
Father Coughlin calls President Franklin D.
Roosevelt “a liar.”
Band Wagon A trick used to seize our emotions, to make us follow
the political Pied Pipers and bring others along with us.
Everybody’s doing it.
Glittering Generalities An attempt to sway emotions through the use of
shining ideals or virtues, such as freedom, justice, truth,
education, democracy in a large, general way.
"What America needs," says Roosevelt, "is
economic security for all."
Flag Waving A trick in which the propagandist holds up a symbol,
such a flag, that we recognized and respect.
Roosevelt made a symbol of the horse and
buggy when he spoke of an anti-New Deal
Supreme Court decision.

Name Definition Example
“Plain Folks” A trick in which the propagandist demonstrates they are
like the rest of us or just plain folk.
It is proverbial that political candidates always
kiss babies.
Testimonial Best represented by the straw vote, this trick involves
getting not only good, plain, solid citizens, but also
social and business leaders to endorse the party or the
candidate.
If large numbers of individuals can be seen
voting for Roosevelt or for Landon, it is likely
to cause many additional votes for them.
Stacking the Cards A trick in which the propagandist intentionally or
unintentionally stacks the cards against the facts.
In 1936, with unemployment still the serious
issue in America, the Republican
propagandists blames the Democrats for not
ending it.
Note. Adapted from Hobbs & McGee (2008). Teaching about Propaganda: An Examination of the Historical Roots of Media Literacy.
Journal of Media Literacy Education 6

Appendix G: Table 3 Code Template – Social cognitive theory constructs and definitions
Construct Definition
Outcomes Expectations
Self-Efficacy
Self-Regulation
Social Support
Beliefs about the value and results (i.e. outcomes) of physical activity
Confidence in one’s ability to perform physical activity
Strategies to facilitate physical activity, including self-monitoring, planning, problemsolving, and reward
Perceived support from other people for physical activity, including assistance,
encouragement, and feedback

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study delves into the perceptions of California teachers regarding their self-efficacy and collective efficacy in teaching media literacy. To frame the research, Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory and Human Agency Theory were utilized, which explore cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors such as perceived knowledge, attitude, expectation, skill, practices, self-efficacy, social norms, access to curricula, and teacher autonomy. The study employed qualitative methodologies through an online survey and follow-up interviews. The survey had three self-screening questions, two demographic questions, and 18 topic questions, four of which were open-ended to encourage elaboration on the 14 Likert-type questions. The 12 interviews were 30-60 minutes long and followed similar questions as the survey, using open-ended questions and probes for elaboration. Qualitative open and axial thematic analysis was used to process the data, utilizing emergent themes and a priori codes grounded in SCT’s cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors. The study's findings revealed that 74% of respondents felt somewhat knowledgeable due to the time since professional development training. 95% of respondents agreed that media literacy education is extremely important. 80% of participants believed that media literacy education would remain unchanged. 42% felt their skill level was somewhat low due to a lack of opportunities to practice, while 41% felt they were highly skilled in teaching media literacy due to their primary teaching skills. 78% said they do not practice teaching media literacy often because of competing priorities and time constraints. 47% were somewhat confident about teaching media literacy, mainly because of their skill level for teaching, while 37% had high confidence in teaching media literacy if they could access the curriculum. 69% said they were somewhat dissatisfied with the level of support from management and other teachers. 82% were unaware of the California Department of Education (CDE) website for media literacy resources, 25% used resources from a non-profit organization, and 15% used the CDE website. 70% said their peers were not teaching media literacy, while 9% said they were highly influential in teaching media literacy. Finally, participants felt empowered to teach what was necessary as long as there was a policy or mandate for teaching media literacy.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Washington, Jerry Wayne (author)

Core Title Media literacy education: a qualitative inquiry into the perspectives teachers hold about teaching media literacy

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-12

Publication Date 11/29/2023

Defense Date 07/12/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag and environmental factors,attitudes,Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory,behavioral,California Department of Education Resources,cognitive,collective efficacy,competing priorities,curriculum access,expectations,follow-up interviews,Human Agency Theory,media literacy education,OAI-PMH Harvest,online survey,perceived knowledge,policy and mandate for teaching media literacy,professional development,qualitative methodologies,self-efficacy,skill practices,support from management,teacher autonomy,teacher perceptions,teaching competence,time constraints

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Advisor Filback, Robert A. (committee chair), Korona, Matthew (committee member), Pascarella, John (committee member), Rosenthal Dieken, Jane (committee member)

Creator Email jerrywash@gmail.com,jwwashin@usc.edu

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