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An exploratory inductive study of veteran transition assistance and underemployment
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An exploratory inductive study of veteran transition assistance and underemployment
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Content
An Exploratory Inductive Study
of
Veteran Transition Assistance and Underemployment
by
Derek E. Wilson
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
December 2023
© Copyright by Derek E. Wilson 2023
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Derek E. Wilson certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Douglas Lynch
Jennifer Phillips
Helena Seli, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023
iv
Abstract
This study investigated the experiences of enlisted non-infantry/police Veterans who transitioned
from active-duty service in the United States military between September 11th, 2005, and
September 11th, 2022. Semi-structured interviews of 14 Veterans were used to understand the
satisfaction obtained from TAP and VSO career services during the transition to civilian
employment. The study analyzed the data through coding and thematic analysis to identify key
patterns and themes. The study's purpose was to understand Veterans’ perceptions of TAP and
VSO career services and recommendations for improvement. The analysis used qualitative
research methods and software to support the analysis process. The key findings from the
research interviews indicate deficiencies exist in three main areas of the military transition
process: 1) adequacy of the Transition Assistance Program (TAP), 2) translation of military skills
and experience, and 3) support from military commands. Recommendations for practice are
provided as well.
v
Dedication
To my wife & daughters,
Thank you for your patience and understanding. I wish this was easier. Love You More.
To Veterans,
Thanks for standing ready while the rest of us slept peacefully.
To the 100 Veterans that volunteered to be interviewed for this research,
Thanks for continuing to be people of action.
I owe you all.
vi
Acknowledgements
Thank you, Dr. Phillips, for keeping me grounded. Thank You, Dr. Lynch, for ensuring it
was rigorous. Thank you, Dr. Seli, for saving the recipe and the day. Thank you, Dr. Harshman,
for refurbishing old tools.
Thank you #ThursdayStrong team! One beauty of the program is I got to learn from you
and now I know the science words for it. Thank you to the researchers listed in the References
section and to all the Veteran advocates making a difference. I welcome the opportunity to
connect with you.
DerekEWilson1@gmail.com
https://www.linkedin.com/in/derekewilson1/
I was previously affiliated with one of the Veteran Service Organizations (VSOs)
reported on by one interviewee (Pusher), but I was not affiliated with the VSO while Pusher used
their services. There is no conflict of interest. No funding was provided for this research, but I
did use the last of my GI Bill® for two semesters.
vii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ ix
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice.....................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................1
Field Context and Mission...................................................................................................4
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions.....................................................................6
Importance of the Study.......................................................................................................6
Methodology........................................................................................................................7
Definitions............................................................................................................................7
Organization of the Dissertation ..........................................................................................9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .........................................................................................10
Veteran Underemployment................................................................................................10
Initiatives to Reduce Veteran Underemployment and Unemployment .............................21
Summary............................................................................................................................40
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................41
Research Questions............................................................................................................41
Overview of Methodology.................................................................................................41
The Researcher...................................................................................................................42
Method: Interview..............................................................................................................43
Credibility and Trustworthiness.........................................................................................46
Ethics..................................................................................................................................47
Chapter Four: Findings..................................................................................................................49
viii
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations..........................................................................72
Discussion of Findings...................................................................................................................72
References......................................................................................................................................90
Appendix A: Key Employment Demographic Data ....................................................................106
Appendix B: Recruitment Questionnaire Instrument ..................................................................107
ix
List of Figures
Figure 1: VETS Index Performance Versus Common Key Indices.............................................. 39
x
1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
This study explored Veterans’ experiences with career services provided through the
Transition Assistance Program (TAP), and Veteran Service Organizations (VSOs), and how
these services support Veterans obtaining employment commensurate with their qualifications.
The onus of a successful transition from the military into civilian society is often put on Veterans
themselves (Kleykamp, 2013; Loughran, 2014; C. B. Stone et al., 2018; D. L. Stone & Colella,
1996). Research has shown that some White Vietnam Veterans faced a 15% wage penalty in the
1980s (Angrist, 1990), while in 2019, White male Veterans in the 90th percentile of earnings
were paid 26% less than their non-Veteran peers, and Black Veterans only received a wage
premium in the lower 50% of earners (MacLean, 2017; Renna & Weinstein, 2019; Richard &
Wilhite, 1990). Veterans are approximately 58% more likely than non-Veterans to face
unemployment (Kleykamp, 2013). Twenty-two percent of combat Veterans are unemployed
(Castro et al., 2015). During a time when the United States has promised to support them, many
Veterans start over upon leaving military service in lower-paying jobs (Keeling et al., 2019;
Richard & Wilhite, 1990), with 20% to 40% living below the poverty level (Castro et al., 2014)
and “15,000 being unsheltered or living on the street on any given night” (Perkins et al., 2020, p.
250). Meanwhile, discrimination against Veteran job seekers is considered a contributing
“inevitable fact” (Loughran, 2014, p. 22).
Background of the Problem
This section first presents the historical federal initiatives in Veteran employment. The
perception of discrimination against Veterans is discussed, and the concept of non-cumulative
self-improvement is described as a barrier to educated Veterans’ career growth. Finally, this
2
section concludes by providing reasons why Veteran underemployment is an important problem
to solve.
Research has found that employment status is directly related to physical and
psychological health (Bond, Al-Abdulmunem, Drake, et al., 2022; Bondet al., 2022; Hamilton et
al., 2015; Schulker, 2017). For example, a meta-analysis of 16 studies and 10,358 articles noted
that suicide and suicide attempts increase with unemployment duration (Milner et al., 2013).
Unemployed men are 2.6 times more likely to commit suicide than their employed peers
(Blakely & Collins, 2003). According to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA, 2019), an
average of 18 Veterans took their own lives every day in 2018. The Congressional Research
Service reported that 16.8 Veterans committed suicide every day in 2020.
At least seven federal acts have been enacted to improve Veterans’ employment, creating
a protected class. The first act examined in this study is the World War Adjusted Compensation
Act of 1924, also known as the “Bonus Act,” which is infamous because three Veterans were
killed by a Douglas MacArthur led Army while protesting for Veteran’s rights. Second, the
Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, commonly known as the GI Bill®, provided improved
education, housing, and employment benefits (Jolly, 2013). Seventy-seven years and five federal
acts later, the Johnny Isakson and David P. Roe, M.D. Veterans Health Care and Benefits
Improvement Act of 2020 (JIDR) ensured “resume assistance, interview training, job recruitment
training, and related services” (JIDR, 2021, p. 87) and “a one-year independent assessment of the
[TAP]” (p. 88). The JIDR was influenced by the research referenced in this section and the work
of Veteran advocates who highlighted the need to investigate the services afforded to Veterans.
There are numerous anti-war and anti-military organizations with members who may not
have positive opinions of Veterans. Nothing prevents these individuals from being hiring
3
managers or human resources (HR) managers, and research shows personal biases affect hiring
decisions (Shepherd et al., 2019). Research suggests Veterans are seen as rigid, cold, too strict
with subordinates, and lacking tact (Shepherd et al., 2019). Shepard et al. (2019) also
acknowledged Veterans are seen as heroes, and concluded “Although Hero is an honorable label
it may not always have positive consequences” (p. 86).
Fearing discrimination, 25% of Veterans exclude military service from their résumé
(Keeling et al., 2018). Discrimination against Veterans can occur as the negative effect of a
positive stereotype. “Black men are great athletes,” and “Asians are particularly good at math”
are examples of positive stereotypes with negative consequences, but no positive stereotype is as
communicated as–Veterans are heroes (Stanley, 2023, p. 24). Most people associate good
thoughts with hero, which is often used to describe Veterans. Veterans are heroes and heroes do
difficult jobs for less pay (Stanley, 2023). A 2023 report covering 11 studies including 6,500
participants concluded that the hero label contributed to funneling Veterans into lower-paying
organizations and lower-paying jobs because Veterans are seen as being selfless, heroes
(Stanley, 2023). This funneling occurs even if the Veteran has the skills for higher paying jobs,
even with a college degree. An experiment including 625 American civilian respondents resulted
in Veteran candidates who were well-suited for a marketing role at Goldman-Sachs being
funneled to Habitat for Humanity (H4H) instead. Further, the participants thought they were
doing the Veteran a favor—that due to Veterans’ selflessness nature, the Veteran job candidates
would be happier in the lower paying role at H4H with the same duties (Stanley, 2023).
Further, research indicates that educated Veterans are penalized for their military
experience (Kleykamp, 2013). An analysis of Current Population Survey data from 4.32 million
households found that enlisted Veterans who complete a college degree experienced a near-total
4
loss of the Veteran premium (Kleykamp, 2013). Veterans appear to forego fair wages as
additional service to society—the Veterans who forego the most wages relative to their civilian
peers are at the top of the wage distribution curve and are considered less in need of support
(Renna & Weinstein, 2019).
With a $31,379,000 federally funded transition assistance program, and 40,000+ VSOs
using donor money to provide services to Veterans, questions arise about how these services are
being used. TAP is a requirement for service members to separate and become Veterans. How
are Veterans benefiting from it? There is a “Sea of Goodwill” (Clifford and Graeser, 2016), but
is anyone navigating it? Federally funded TAP should be pivoting to be successful and
leveraging lessons learned to lower the Veteran unemployment rate which would lower the
homelessness rate, healthcare costs and suicide rate. Simply the first order effects of improving
employment for Veterans would help decrease national debt and expenditures on social services.
Further this would decrease the need for non-profit spending or enable the funding to be spent on
other social issues. Career services are the most requested service provided to Veterans by VSOs.
Field Context and Mission
This study focuses on career services provided to Veterans by the Department of Labor
(DOL) as part of the TAP, career services provided by VSOs, and career services provided by
commercial organizations. The TAP core curriculum provides information, tools, and training to
ensure service members and their spouses are prepared for the next step in civilian life, including
education, vocational and career counseling, résumé preparation and interview skills
development, an introduction to entrepreneurship, and an overview of VA and other federal
benefits (Veterans’ Employment and Training Service [VETS], 2022b). Participation in the TAP
is now mandatory, with exceptions, and must begin no later than one year before normal
5
separations or two years before retirement from active-duty service. However, TAP has
historically been described as ineffective and a “box-checking” exercise (Keeling et al., 2018).
The TAP is delivered in concert by the DOL, the Departments of Defense (DoD),
Education (DoE), Homeland Security (DHS), and Veterans Affairs (VA), the Small Business
Administration (SBA), and the Office of Personnel Management (OPM; VETS, 2022b).
According to data available from 2018, the VA was funded to $60M, the DOL to $14M, the DoD
estimated $100M, and the SBA to $8M to support transition assistance for Veterans (Kamarck,
2018). With 200,000 service members transitioning annually (Kamarck, 2018), these budgets
equate to $910 per service member. However, the 2022 budget request is substantially larger at
$324,831,000. The requested funding by program, according to the VETS 2022 budget
justification, is as follows (VETS, 2022a):
• Jobs for Veterans State Grants (JVSG): $180,000,000
• Transition Assistance Program (TAP): $31,379,000
• Homeless Veterans’ Reintegration Program (HVRP): $57,500,000
• National Veterans’ Training Institute (NVTI): $3,414,000
• Federal Administration and USERRA Enforcement: $52,538,000
The U.S. Census Bureau (Giefer & Loveless, 2021) estimates there are 17.8 million
Veterans in the United States, of whom 91% identify as male and 81% as White alone (Giefer &
Loveless, 2021). There are 200,000 Veterans created each year (Kamarck, 2018). Potential
participants in this study are enlisted non-infantry, non-police Veterans who transitioned from
active-duty service in the United States military between September 11th, 2005, and September
11th, 2022, attended TAP, used a VSO’s career services, and applied for civilian jobs in the
United States. Veterans are appropriate to interview as they are the stakeholders of focus for this
6
research. Assuming 200,000 Veterans transitioned per year over those 17 years, the possible
study population size is 3.4 million.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to explore the experience of Veterans with career services
provided through TAP and VSOs and how those services have supported Veterans in meeting
their post-service employment goals. The following research questions guided this study:
1. How do Veterans perceive the effectiveness of DOL TAP résumé courses in
contributing to their post-service employment goals, producing more effective résumés,
supporting higher salaries, and/or contributing to higher job satisfaction?
2. How do Veterans perceive the impact of interacting with VSOs on their post-service
employment goals, the quality of their résumés, salary levels, and/or job satisfaction?
3. What are the unfulfilled employment support needs of Veterans that are not met by
DOL, TAP and/or VSOs to help them achieve their post-service employment goals?
Importance of the Study
Veterans’ experiences today impact the nation’s ability to rally the appropriate volunteers
to combat future threats (Kleykamp, 2013; Renna & Weinstein, 2019; Schulker, 2017). If
Veteran underemployment and unemployment are not solved, Veterans will continue to face
higher rates of mental illness and homelessness. Economically, tax dollars will continue to treat
the symptoms instead of the causes. Strategically, the United States will face threats from
adversaries for which it is not prepared because the military will be unable to recruit appropriate
talent.
The economics of military service need to be enticing to attract talented people. For this
reason, military pay has been compared to civilian pay using the Quadrennial Review of Military
7
Compensation (QRMC) every 4 years since 1962 (DoD, 2012). The word “Veteran” occurs only
once in the QRMC. The ninth edition of the QRMC, released in 2002, concluded that military
pay only needed to be approximately 70% of that of similarly educated civilians to recruit the
level of talent required to maintain a volunteer fighting force (DoD, 2012). However, it also
concluded that existing pay scales did not provide enough compensation for a workforce that was
becoming more educated (DoD, 2012). Subsequently, regular military compensation (RMC)
increased to 85% of similarly educated civilians over 13 years (DoD, 2012). The 13th edition of
the QRMC, released in December 2020, cost taxpayers approximately $5.6M to produce (DoD,
2012). Despite the relationship between recruitment and retention, the only comparable report for
Veterans focused on changes to incremental compensation for service-connected disabilities, not
Veterans’ civilian salaries (DoD, 2012).
Methodology
This study employed an inductive qualitative approach through 14 interviews with
Veterans to gather evidence regarding their perceptions of the effectiveness of career services
provided by Transition Assistance Programs (TAP) and Veterans Service Organizations (VSOs)
in helping them achieve their post-service employment goals. A recruitment questionnaire was
used to recruit and identify participants eligible for interviews meeting specific participation
criteria. Semi-structured interviews provided an experience that allowed the interviewee to
provide unanticipated context, while keeping the interview focused on the transition.
Definitions
• Combat Veterans: Veterans who spend any time on active duty in a zone with hostile
weapon fire or imminent danger (Pleeter et al., 2011).
8
• Regular Military Compensation (RMC) is defined as the sum of basic pay, average basic
allowance for housing, basic allowance for subsistence, and the federal income tax
advantage that accrues because the allowances are not subject to federal income tax.
RMC represents a basic level of compensation which every service member receives,
directly or indirectly, in-cash or in-kind, and which is common to all military personnel
based on their pay grade, years of service, and family size.
• Unemployment: people are classified as unemployed if they do not have a job, have
actively looked for work in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently available for work (U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022b).
• Underemployment: includes unemployment, as unemployment is the maximum of
underemployment, but more generally refers to the condition of being employed but
earning below the poverty level; or in an entry-level role that does not use the individual's
knowledge, skills or abilities (Keeling et al., 2019)
• Veteran: a person who served in the active military, naval, or air service, and who was
discharged or released therefrom under conditions other than dishonorable. This is federal
code 38 U.S.C. § 101(2) (Social Security Administration, 2023)
• Veteran Service Organization (VSO): organizations that aid and serve veterans,
servicemembers, dependents, and survivors. VSOs may fall into one or more of the
following categories:
▪ congressionally chartered organizations
▪ organizations recognized by VA
▪ organizations recognized by VA to prepare, present, and prosecute claims
▪ national organizations
9
▪ state, county, or tribal governmental organizations
▪ regional or local organizations
▪ nonprofit organizations
▪ There is no uniformly applied statutory definition of the term VSO, but the
term may be defined in a specific way within certain statutes. For
example, the Veterans Appeals Improvement and Modernization Act of
2017 (P.L. 115-55) stated: “The term ‘veterans service organization’
means any organization recognized by the Secretary for the representation
of veterans under section 5902 of title 38, United States Code.” Also, the
Internal Revenue Code (IRC) defines veterans organizations for the
purpose of determining tax status in the IRC section 501(c)3 (Breslauer &
Davis, 2022, p. 4).
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter Two of this dissertation provides a literature review beginning with World War I.
Chapter Three provides an overview of the methodology of this study on the military-to-civilian
transition. Chapter Four presents the study’s results. Chapter Five summarizes the relevant
findings, discusses the outcomes’ implications, and presents the conclusions and
recommendations drawn from the study.
10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The Veteran employment problem has been debated for at least a century. Veterans of the
World Wars, Korea, the Vietnam conflict, Desert Storm, Operation Iraqi Freedom, and
Operation Enduring Freedom had different experiences when they came home (Teachman &
Tedrow, 2007). World War II Veterans enjoyed a life-changing GI Bill® and increased lifetime
earnings, but Vietnam Veterans had to use the same GI Bill® decades years later, not adjusted for
inflation. Officer Veterans are in better health, find jobs faster, face lower unemployment, and
have higher lifetime earnings than enlisted Veterans and the civilian population (Vogt et al.,
2020), which are some of the reasons why this study focuses on enlisted Veterans. Wherever the
research reports on enlisted Veterans discretely, that information is presented here. When
discrete enlisted information is unavailable, officers may be represented, resulting in reporting
information that appears more optimistic than is the case for enlisted Veterans.
Veteran Underemployment
The literature review is presented in four sections. The first section covers the federal
history of Veteran underemployment. Next, data are presented to quantitatively frame the
problem. Then the five hypothetical contributors to Veteran underemployment are discussed,
followed by a section on the main categories of organizations providing Veterans with transition
support.
11
History and Federal Legislation
The World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924, or “Bonus Act,” promised bonuses
for lost wages during World War I (1914–1918) to be paid in 1945. No interest was to be paid
for the 30-year difference. These funds were intended to compensate Veterans for the pay
difference between enlisted service compensation and civilian employment (Palmer, 2008). Eight
years later, in 1932, President Herbert Hoover ordered Army soldiers to intervene when
Veterans, frustrated and waiting to be paid, protested at the Capitol. This decision armed Soldiers
against the same Veterans who may have trained them and initiated an inflection point in
Veterans’ rights (Palmer, 2008). The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, landmark
legislation, commonly known as The GI Bill® was enacted 12 years later (Jolly, 2013). In 1974,
the Vietnam Era Veterans’ Readjustment Assistance Act prohibited federal contractors from
discriminating against and required affirmative action for Veterans (Vietnam Era Veterans’
Readjustment Assistance Act, 2021). The National Defense Authorization Act of 1990
established the TAP (Kamarck, 2018; Whitworth et al., 2020). The Uniformed Services
Employment and Reemployment Rights Act of 1994 protects reservists’ service and provides
additional protection for disabled Veterans (Hodgson & Kresin, 2006).
In addition, the Veterans Opportunity to Work (VOW) To Hire Heroes Act of 2011
provided easier entry into federal employment (Kamarck, 2018; Whitworth et al., 2020). It also
required participation in and modified the TAP to the Transition Goals, Plans, Success (GPS)
Program, but systemic deficiencies persisted (Whitworth et al., 2020). The Military Life Cycle
(MLC) transition model of 2015 initiated the transition process earlier in the military member’s
career to align military careers with civilian goals (DoD, 2015). January 5, 2021, brought
landmark legislation in the signing of the JIDR. This legislation directs grants for “resume
12
assistance, interview training, job recruitment training, and related services” (JIDR, 2021, p. 87)
and “a one-year independent assessment of the [TAP]” (p. 88).
TAP services have historically provided insufficient benefits to Veterans. According to a
2010 poll by the Society for Human Resource Management (2010), 60% of employers surveyed
felt that Veterans had difficulty translating military experience into civilian experience.
Similarly, 40% to 75% of separating military members self-reported having problems managing
the transition to civilian life (Keeling et al., 2018; Keeling et al., 2019). In an empirical analysis
using American Community Survey data from 2005 to 2015, researchers confirmed White male
Veterans face a wage penalty for their service (Renna & Weinstein, 2019). Renna and Weinstein
(2019) quantified the penalty for Veteran men earning in the 90th percentile to be 7% (ignoring
selection), or $6,392 on a $91,314 salary, 84% of one month’s pay, or 26 free days worked.
Veteran Underemployment Data
The BLS’ data collection method does not accurately represent the experiences of
Veterans in the workforce (Loughran, 2014; Keeling et al., 2019). The January 2023 seasonally
adjusted Veteran unemployment was 2.5%, and 3.4% for non-Veterans according to the DoL
(2023), based on BLS data. The media typically reports employment statistics at the average or
statistical mean and do not accurately represent issues Veterans face due to the mathematical
impact of using mean data across a large population (Loughran, 2014). Yet, according to the
BLS Veterans were only 0.9% more employed than non-Veterans in 2021 (BLS, 2022a). The
BLS information drives government and non-profit employment initiatives and contributes to the
social narrative, but it uses monthly Current Population Survey data that does not appropriately
represent Veterans (Loughran, 2014; Keeling et al., 2019). The data is collected in a manner that
attains relatively few Veterans due to the small percentage of Veterans relative to the overall
13
population, resulting in metrics that are much less accurate for Veterans than non-Veterans
(Loughran, 2014).
BLS data is proliferated through their “Employment Situation” reports and relied upon by
media outlets and delivered as the source of truth to most Americans. Kleykamp (2013) found
that unemployment figures reported in the media understated the effects of military service.
“Purpose-built” research portrays a more disturbing view of the Veteran employment situation
(Keeling et al., 2019, p. 693). Castro et al. (2015) discovered 46% of working Veterans earned
less than $36,000 per year compared to the median of $55,775 in the same year (Posey, 2016).
Unique Contributors to Veteran Underemployment and Unemployment
Loughran (2014) reported on five hypothetical contributors to Veteran unemployment
that will be explored in this literature review sub-section: poor health, selection, employer
discrimination, skills mismatch, and job search. There are likely more factors at play, but the
scope of this literature review is delimited to these five. These contributors are interconnected,
but they are individually analyzed in the following sections.
Poor Health
Research suggests that Veterans’ employment issues and those of individuals with
disabilities are similar because employers see Veterans as disabled (Rudstam et al., 2012; Stone
& Stone, 2015). Military service can lead to physical and mental disabilities, but disabled
Veterans still work at a rate higher than non-Veterans with any disability (Giefer & Loveless,
2021). Earning income from working does not reduce Veterans Affairs disability payments,
unlike Social Security disability (Bond, Al-Abdulmunem, Ressler et al., 2022). Therefore, the
income received from VA disability could theoretically demotivate Veterans from seeking
employment (Autor & Duggan, 2007). However, the BLS (2022a) reported that 94% of post-
14
9/11 Veterans with a service-connected disability rating of 30% or lower remained in the
workforce, 83% of those with ratings between 30% and 50% remained, and 63% with ratings of
60% or higher worked. In fact, the labor force participation rate for Veterans with disabilities is
higher than for Veterans without disabilities (BLS, 2022a). Loughran (2014) used linear
regression analysis on data collected in the American Community Survey between 2001 and
2007 to confirm that disabilities do not account for elevated Veteran unemployment. Veterans
may be able to accept lower paying jobs than they would have without disability compensation,
but those payments do not keep Veterans out of the workforce.
Perceptions of mental and physical disabilities as being prevalent among Veterans play a
role in the poor health hypothesis and the employer discrimination hypothesis. The public
perception of the care provided by the VA contributes to these perceptions (Jahnke et al., 2014).
Post-traumatic stress disorder is cited by 46% of human resources professionals as a challenge to
hiring Veterans (Society for Human Resources Management [SHRM], 2010). Due to their
personal and often unknown nature, disabilities are further discussed in a forthcoming employer
discrimination section. Keeling et al. (2019) cited the 2016 BLS report to identify the
unemployment rate between disabled and non-disabled Veterans as statistically insignificant and,
therefore, not the cause of Veteran underemployment.
Employer Discrimination
Kleykamp’s (2009) study only suggested discrimination, as Loughran (2014) noted in his
report to the federal government five years later. Despite the various federal acts to improve
Veteran hiring, the existence of discrimination against Veterans is still debated. Examining antiVeteran sentiment following the Vietnam conflict is beyond the scope of this study. However,
Rudstam et al. (2012) noted that it is critical to not repeat the mistakes of that conflict with our
15
Post-9/11 Veterans. Sixty-two percent of Americans thought Operation Enduring Freedom was
not worth fighting (NORC at the University of Chicago, 2021), and 71% thought it was a failure
(Montanaro, 2021). These ratings were similar to the Vietnam conflict’s ratings, as, at its lowest
approval rating in May of 1971, only 72% of Americans surveyed thought it was a mistake
(Lunch & Sperlich, 1979). Veterans of more popular wars (WWI, WWII) may have enjoyed
lower unemployment than Veterans of unpopular wars (Vietnam, Afghanistan, Iraq) because of
general public opinion (Renna & Weinstein, 2019).
Stone and Stone (2015) posited that employers perceive Veterans to have disabilities, and
Veterans experience discriminatory employment practices similar to those experienced by
individuals with disabilities. Sixty-one percent of employers feared workplace violence from
Veterans with PTSD, according to a poll of SHRM members representing the largest employers
in the United States (Rudstam et al., 2012). Discrimination negates benefits from the positive
perceptions commonly associated with the military’s selection criteria and process (Renna &
Weinstein, 2019). Veterans are seen as rigid, cold, too strict with subordinates, and lacking tact
(Shepherd et al., 2019). Thus, fearing discrimination, 25% of Veterans exclude military service
from their resume (Keeling et al., 2018). A 2019 multi-method quantitative study found that
hiring professionals and those responsible for evaluating personnel performance held the same
biases as the public, such as Veterans are less suitable for careers that require feelings and are
more mechanistic, and brought their biases into their hiring practices thus confirming hiring
prejudices fitting the application of stereotyping (Shepherd et al., 2019). The same study
(Shepard et al., 2019) concluded with “Although “Hero” is an honorable label it may not always
have positive consequences” (p. 86).
16
Rudstam et al. (2012) researched employers willingness and abilities to hire Veterans
with disabilities. They reported a discrepancy between employers’ outward projection of their
willingness to hire Veterans and their actual hiring. Rudstam et al. (2012) found that 61% of
employers thought accommodating workers with disabilities would require more effort and,
therefore, costs. Additionally, Rudstam et al. (2012) reported that their study over-represented
large private organizations and suggested smaller companies might have fewer Veteran hiring or
support programs. However, organizations with over 25,000 employees were three times more
likely to use Veteran specific recruiting sources (Rudstam et al., 2012). Considering 99% of
businesses in the United States are classified as small businesses with fewer than 500 employees
(Scuteri, 2015), providing research backed solutions to Veteran hiring barriers specifically for
small businesses could make it easier for small businesses to hire Veterans, therefore decreasing
Veteran underemployment.
Self-Selection Into the Military and the Military’s Selection of Individuals
Reasonably high aptitude, good health, completed basic education, and a clean criminal
background are basic filters for selection into the military (Loughran, 2014), and some research
indicates these characteristics are a benefit to employment (Renna & Weinstein, 2019; Stone &
Stone, 2015 Teachman & Tedrow, 2007. However, Kleykamp (2009) noted that selection into
the military could signal negative connotations to some individuals. Loughran (2014) explored
the possibility that potentially immeasurable characteristics often connected to the military, such
as drive, risk appetite, and respect for authority, would contribute to individuals’ unemployment
even if these individuals had never joined the military. In other words, these unemployed
individuals may have characteristics that could lead to employment differences even without
their military experience (Teachman & Tedrow, 2007). Loughran (2014) analyzed data from the
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1997 National Longitudinal Survey, which had 8,984 youth participants aged 12 to 16 beginning
in 1996, with the same individuals interviewed annually through 2011, and then biennially
(National Longitudinal Surveys Program, 2022). After controlling for age, race, and ethnicity,
Veterans had no observable characteristics that would make them less employable. Contrarily,
Veterans have observable characteristics that should make getting and keeping a job easier
(Loughran, 2014).
A 2019 study by the Pew Research Center that included 1,087 non-Veterans and 1,284
post-9/11 Veterans found that the public is more likely to associate emotional instability and
being prone to violence with military service than are Veterans. Twenty-five percent of the
public thinks Veterans are more likely to be emotionally unstable, and 21% believe Veterans are
more prone to violence (Parker et al., 2019). Further, public perception of some characteristics
commonly associated with Veterans and attributed to selection and Veteran status may not be as
strongly associated as once believed. Only 48% of the public more strongly associate loyalty
with Veterans, and 56% believe military service does not have much to do with the attribute of
being hard-working (Pew Research Center, 2019).
Simply serving sends a message about the opportunities one has had in life, which is left
to the receivers’ interpretation. Veteran status has both positive and negative effects on
employment (Renna & Weinstein, 2019; Richard & Wilhite, 1990). Joining the military and the
military selecting one for service has held different significance at different points in history
(Kleykamp, 2013). The details of a Veteran’s service provide a strong indication of their
education, job experience, and class. Most enlisted Veterans do not have a college education,
some have job experiences people like to glorify, but not employ, and the majority enlist from
proletariat families. Not serving during World War II meant one was likely disqualified from
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service due to a disability, thereby hurting lifetime wages. Later, not serving during Vietnam
signified advanced socioeconomic status (Kleykamp, 2013), and the resources to avoid being
drafted. In a California-based study, 83% of post-9/11 Veterans did not believe civilians
understood the problems Veterans face, and 64% did not believe civilians appreciated the
sacrifices made (Castro et al., 2015).
Skills Mismatch
Research often points to skills translation in the context of skills mismatch resulting in
poorly written résumés, applying for jobs that they are unqualified for, and being hired for jobs
they later find unrewarding because the Veteran did not understand the requirements, and the
recruiter did not understand the Veteran (Batka, 2016; Schulker, 2017). Skills mismatch is
typically associated with medium-skilled to high-skilled professions like mechanics, technicians,
and non-degreed medical staff, but enlisted Veterans may be at a disadvantage relative to their
peers (MacLean, 2017). The military is touted as a place to get training and develop skills–a
bridging environment for the disadvantaged (MacLean, 2017; Teachman & Tedrow, 2007).
However, researchers repeatedly identify that Veterans may not be learning technical skills
sought by civilian employers (MacLean, 2017; Teachman & Tedrow, 2007). All branches’
recruiting efforts rely to some degree on the attractiveness of formal education and on-the-job
training, as advertised in recruiting commercials (Tao & Campbell, 2020; Teachman & Tedrow,
2007).
The SHRM polled representatives of its 250,000 members and determined that 60%
believe Veterans have trouble translating their military skills to civilian employment, and 18%
are underqualified for the jobs they apply for (SHRM, 2010). Further, 59% of the public believe
Veterans are less tolerant, and 77% believe they are less capable of independent thought (Parker
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et al., 2019). Therefore, strong soft-skills may not close the gap left by actual civilian experience
(Curry Hall et al., 2014)
Education also cannot account for the skills mismatch considering educated Veterans are
penalized for their military experience. An analysis of Current Population Survey data sampling
4.32 million households found that enlisted Veterans who later completed a college degree
experienced a near-total loss of the Veteran premium (Kleykamp, 2013). Employers compensate
enlisted Veterans with a college degree as either educated or a Veteran, but Veterans’ salaries are
not commensurate with both their education and military experience.
The Job Search is Difficult for Everyone, Especially Veterans
Veteran status has both positive and negative effects on employment (Renna &
Weinstein, 2019; Richard & Wilhite, 1990). Getting a job is a matching process of available
openings in defined locations with available candidates that have the skills to do the job, and live
relatively close to those locations (unless remote), for an agreed compensation. The employer
and job-seeker typically both expend effort finding each other in the labor market. The skill of
the competition is as important as the skill of the candidate in the interview process as only the
most skilled individuals are hired (Lazear et al., 2018). Further, both underqualified and
overqualified individuals earn less salary in the roles they attain than they would in the roles they
are appropriately qualified for (Lazear et al., 2018).
Since Veterans are not necessarily learning employable skills in the military and
considering recruiters do not understand the skills Veterans do have (Blank, 2019; MacLean,
2017; Parker et al., 2019; Renna & Weinstein, 2019 SHRM; 2010 Teachman & Tedrow, 2007),
Veterans lose in the interview process to more qualified candidates (Lazear et al., 2018), or are
20
funneled to lower paying roles (Stanley, 2023). The opportunity cost of time served (in foregone
civilian experience) to Veterans’ social capital affects earnings (Renna & Weinstein, 2019).
Further, a 2020 report shows close ties among people result in employment and increased
salary, while weak ties only provide information (Wanberg et al., 2020). Considering Veterans
move frequently and build most of their close social ties with other Veterans, they have limited
close ties that have power and authority in civilian hiring. A 2020 report published by LinkedIn,
the world’s largest professional social network, used information from 660 million members to
determine that 70% of jobs were attained through a referral or a personal network (Steinhauer,
2020). According to the Pew Research Center (Parker et al., 2019), only 25% of Veterans
secured civilian employment prior to leaving the military, and 48% sought employment
immediately, while 21% took some time before beginning their job search. Some research
suggests the job search is more difficult for post-9/11 Veterans than civilian peers, and Veterans
from other eras, with 13% fewer post-9/11 Veterans having a job lined up when they separate
than Veterans of previous conflicts(Bond, Al-Abdulmunem, Ressler, et al., 2022). Employment
services are the most common support transitioning veterans seek (Bond, Al-Abdulmunem,
Ressler, et al., 2022). In a California-based study, 83% of post-9/11 Veterans did not believe
civilians understood the problems Veterans face, and 64% did not believe civilians appreciated
the sacrifices made (Castro et al., 2015).
Parker et al.’s (2019) research on the Post-9/11 Veteran experience included 1,087 nonVeterans and 1,284 Veterans and found that 42% of Veterans felt overqualified for their first
civilian job. Commissioned officers reported that the military gave them skills needed for
civilian employment at a rate of 78% versus approximately 57% for enlisted members (Parker et
al., 2019). Commissioned officers were also twice as likely as enlisted to have a job lined-up
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prior to separation (Parker et al., 2019). Some Veterans choose not to work immediately
following separation, but only 5% of separating service members report they did not look for a
job or retired fully (Parker et al., 2019). Twenty-six percent of Veterans enrolled in school fulltime, and 21% enrolled part-time (Parker et al., 2019). Of the 69% of post-9/11 Veterans who did
not have a job but looked for one, 57% found one within 6 months, 21% in a year, and 16% in
greater than a year (Parker et al., 2019). Six percent remained unemployed, not including the 5%
that did not look for a job or retired (Parker et al., 2019).
Initiatives to Reduce Veteran Underemployment and Unemployment
In his second inaugural address, March 4, 1865, President Abraham Lincoln described
the nation’s duty after war to include “to care for him who shall have borne the battle” (VA,
N.D.), describing the ethical accountability most citizens relationally accept in reparation for the
social costs paid by those who serve. The federal government is accountable to citizens,
especially Veterans, through 10 U.S.C. 1144 (United States Code, 2012) and other legal and
mechanical instruments to provide transition services. Nonetheless, challenges remain in
including Veterans in society without discrimination, giving rise to the Vietnam Era Veterans’
Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974 and the VOW to Hire Heroes Act of 2011. The report from
the 2008 Congressional hearings by the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform states,
In 1625, sir, Francis Bacon proclaimed, “In charity, there is no excess.” The American
people certainly agree as U.S. charitable giving in the United States reached a record of
almost $300 billion in 2006.” … Since 2001, contributions to military and veterans'
charities have increased by almost half a billion dollars, totaling $2.48 billion in 2007.
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The remainder of this chapter provides information about the main types of providers of
transition support, federally funded Veteran employment support, VSO, and commercial
initiatives to support Veteran employment.
Federally Funded Veteran Employment Support
This section of the literature review focuses on the organization of government agencies
delivering the TAP, VSOs, other federal initiatives to hire Veterans, and commercial initiatives
supporting Veteran employment. Veteran support is spatially displayed informally in the media
and formally in bills and acts by politicians and, therefore, by citizens with their votes. Elected
representatives carry the political accountability to represent the interests of their constituents.
Public ontology is constituted through the arts, music, television, movies, parades, awareness
campaigns, yellow ribbons, prisoners of war/missing in action flags, and non-profit organizations
dedicated to supporting the Veteran population, as well as legal protests and illegal
discrimination in dissent.
Transition Accountability
The Director in this binary is We the People of the United States of America. The
provider is the federal government, executed through five agencies under federal law 10 U.S.C.
1144 (United States Code, 2012). TAP is a cooperative effort among the Department of Labor,
and the Departments of Defense, Education, Homeland Security and Veterans Affairs, the Small
Business Administration and the Office of Personnel Management (VETS, 2022b). The adverse
selection problem in this binary has several degrees of separation. Directors elect government
officials who appoint secretaries, layers of program managers, and hands-on providers with weak
incentives in an environment with no professional standard or legal accountability to reference or
debate other than the definition of “provide.”
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Transition Assistance Program Curriculum
The National Defense Authorization Act of 1990 established the TAP with an
overarching purpose to help service members transition from active duty to civilian society
through “furnish[ing] counseling, assistance in identifying employment and training
opportunities, help in obtaining such employment and training, and other related information”
(Kamarck, 2018; Whitworth et al., 2020). TAP was originally intended for involuntary
separations during reductions in force (Kamarck, 2018; Whitworth et al., 2020).
In support of transition assistance in 2018, the VA was funded to $60M, the DOL to $14M, the
DOD estimated $100M, and the SBA was funded to $8M, for a total of at least $182M
(Kamarck, 2018). However, the 2022 budget request is much more substantial at $324,831,000.
Per VETS (2022a), the requested funding, by program, is:
• Jobs for Veterans State Grants (JVSG): $180,000,000
• Transition Assistance Program (TAP): $31,379,000
• Homeless Veterans’ Reintegration Program (HVRP): $57,500,000
• National Veterans’ Training Institute (NVTI): $3,414,000
• Federal Administration and USERRA Enforcement: $52,538,000
Functional responsibility is shared across the 50 states (Kamarck, 2018), further decentralizing
authority, and Governments have a tumultuous history with complex programs (Heinrich, 2002;
Pressman & Wildavsky, 1973). Federal law instructs the responsible agency secretaries to enter
into a detailed agreement for program execution. This agreement is a 54-page document titled
DOD Instruction 1332.35 Transition Assistance Program (TAP) for Military Personnel. In
summary, the agreement provides layers of tactical instructions with no success criteria for the
program or Veterans. There are no targets, metrics, results, or professional accountability. As
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Whitworth et al. (2020) reported, “until recently TAP has been an atheoretical program” (p.
27)—a program without a theory.
The VOW to Hire Heroes Act of 2011 required all service members to participate in TAP
and modified the program to the TAP-GPS Program following a redesign that included online
availability in 2014 (Hicks et al., 2017), but systemic deficiencies persisted (Whitworth et al.,
2020). The inclusion of the MLC transition model of 2015 initiated the transition process earlier
in the career to align the military career with civilian goals (DoD, 2015). The John S. McCain
National Defense Authorization Act of 2019 (JMNDAA) made MLC recommendations law,
most significantly the requirement to begin the transition process a year before separating, and
provided other structural changes (JMNDAA, 2018).
Veterans who served more than 180 consecutive days are eligible for and required to
participate in the TAP unless waived (Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel
and Readiness [USDP], 2019). The TAP’s modular curriculum is designed to help meet career
readiness standards. The VETS administers the delivery of the TAP curriculum. The courses are
delivered in-person at most major military installations and asynchronously online. The courses
required are a one-day DOL employment preparation class (named DoL One-Day) and a one-day
class from the DoD on resiliency, owning the transition, and military skills translation. Optional
two-day courses are also offered (VETS, 2022b). The DOL One-Day can be waived with proof
of acceptance into an accredited educational or vocational program or proof of civilian
employment (USDP, 2019)
Initial Counseling. Service members complete a self-assessment to identify their civilian
goals and determine the level of assistance they need no later than 365 days before their
separation date. These determine the optional courses recommended and guide the development
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of an individual transition plan. This plan is a “criteria-based Service created document that
evolves and is maintained by the Service member; it provides the framework to perform a
personal self-assessment and professional preparedness to achieve post-transition goals” (USDP,
2019, p. 49). They are designed and controlled by the Director of the Defense Personnel and
Family Support Center. Staff explain the plan’s purpose and use a review module. These plans
must be viable and meet career readiness standards prior to separation.
DoD Transition Day. DoD transition day focuses on the military side of the transition
process. The number of databases and systems transitioning service members must update is
extensive and causes cognitive overload at a bad time. The Managing Your Transition
(MyTransition) course is taught by DoD personnel and provides an overview of the TAP
curriculum and the transition process.
Course topics include personal and family transition concerns, workplace cultural
differences, and transition-related stressors (DoD Military-Civilian Transition Office [MCTO],
2022a). The Military Occupational Code Crosswalk course teaches skills translation. Again,
translating military skills into civilian skills is about words on a résumé and the shifting
(translating) of using skills learned and employed in the military to a civilian occupation.
Financial Planning. The Financial Planning for Transition course is a pseudo-capstone
for financial training started during the MLC component of TAP (MCTO, 2022a). The
differences in key financial responsibilities expected in the civilian market are discussed,
including healthcare, taxes, and childcare. Most important may be The Regular Military
Compensation (RMC) calculator, which helps service members understand important pay
differences.
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The RMC exposes the tax advantage Veterans benefited from while on active duty that
they will no longer enjoy as civilians. Some components of military pay are untaxed, such as
basic allowances for subsistence and housing. For example, a married Sergeant [5th level of 9 in
enlisted ranks (E-5)] stationed at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar in San Diego, California,
with six to eight years of service makes $39,280 in annual basic pay (Defense Finance and
Accounting Service, 2022) aka salary, which is taxed at the standard federal rates and the
appropriate state rate depending on where the service member claims residence. They also make
$39,336 in basic allowances for subsistence and housing, which is not taxed, for a total of
$78,615. However, due to the $4,370 in tax benefit to be lost at separation, the Veteran will need
to make $82,986 to maintain a similar financial utility (DoD, 2022b). The course also explores
the financial impact of geographical locations.
VA Benefits and Transition Fundamentals. VA employees teach the VA Benefits and
Services Training course. This course provides general information about the basic VA programs
and basic eligibility criteria, including disability and compensation benefit information;
memorial and burial benefits; education and economic support; housing benefits; and physical
and emotional health care options (VA, 2023). Benefits provided by the VA help close the gap
between Veteran salaries and civilian salaries. However, there is a history of difficulty attaining
many benefits (Heinrich, 2002).
TAP curriculum also includes the Department of Labor Employment Fundamentals of
Career Transition, also called the DoL One-Day. This course lays the transition foundation from
the DOL’s purview and focuses on essential transition tools and resources for career preparation
and the employment process. TAP documentation does not describe a supporting transition
theory as it was atheoretical.
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Optional Courses. Four optional courses are offered as tracks based on the Veterans
stated transition plans. These options focus on college, employment, and vocational education.
More than one can be taken.
• DoL Employment Track: The optional two-day DoL Employment Track is also
known as the Department of Labor Employment Workshop (MCTO, 2022b). The
workshop provides the DoL’s perspective on best practices for building résumés and
interview skills (MCTO, 2022). The MCTO (2022) trains participants to use new
technologies to network, and secure employment.
• DoD Education Track: The DoD Education track is also called the Managing Your
Education course (MCTO, 2022). The 2-day program covers college application
basics, institution selection, major selection, gaining admission, and higher
education funding sources (MCTO, 2022).
• DoL Vocational Track: This optional two-day course affords transitioning service
members the opportunity to complete an industry-standard occupational interests test
to create personalized reports reflecting their test answers (MCTO, 2022).
Instruction includes broad labor market predictions, existing apprenticeships, and
broad license and certification requirements (MCTO, 2022).
• Small Business Administration (SBA) Entrepreneurship Track: The SBA offers an
optional two-day Introduction to Entrepreneurship course (MCTO, 2022) covering
the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to operate a small business (MCTO,
2022). The course also provides an overview of available resources for launching a
small business (MCTO, 2022). The standard curriculum segues into complementary
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material available online as part of the affiliated “Boots to Business” program
(MCTO, 2022).
Pre-Separation Counseling. Pre-separation counseling begins no later than 365 days
before separation, just like initial counseling but must begin after that ends (MCTO, 2022). This
period of instruction is with a TAP counselor and covers legally required information regarding
benefits and resources available to Veterans (MCTO, 2022). This exercise begins the finalization
of the TAP curriculum.
Veterans are required to have their unit’s commander verify that they have met TAP
career readiness standards and have a viable plan 90 days before scheduled separation in the
TAP Capstone (MCTO, 2022d). The Veteran is referred to the VA or DOL if the commander
feels, or the Veteran desires, more support (MCTO, 2022d).
Veterans Readiness and Employment. The VA provides Veterans Readiness and
Employment (VR&E), also known as Chapter 31, formerly known as Veterans Rehabilitation
and Employment, to service members with an anticipated VA disability rating of 20% or
Veterans with a VA disability rating of at least 10% (VA, 2022c). Eligibility is a filter for this
program; in 2021, only 125,144 Veterans participated (VA, 2022a). In 2021, over 24% of the
92,247 new applicants were denied eligibility, leaving VR&E counselors to evaluate Veterans’
benefit entitlement.
The number of Veterans deemed entitled to VR&E is reduced by 42% to 40,287.
Roughly only 36% of new applications are approved. Only 8.5% of 2021 participants found
suitable employment (VA, 2022a). Also, VR&E only paid $1.4M in allowances, books, tuition,
and supplies in 2021(VA, 2022a). The available program tracks include:
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• Reemployment Track: help Veterans return to a former job and supporting the
employer in meeting their needs (VA, 2022).
• Rapid Access to Employment Track: provides placement assistance in a job that
uses your existing skill set (VA, 2022c).
• Self-Employment Track: helps eligible Veterans start their own business (VA,
2022).
• Employment Through Long-Term Services Track: helps by providing the
education or training necessary to find work in a different field (VA, 2022).
• Independent Living Track: is the most customizable track, with a holistic
approach (VA, 2022).
Veteran Rapid Retraining Assistance Program (VRRAP). VRRAP was initiated in
2021 in response to unemployment during the COVID-19 pandemic. It was funded by the
American Rescue Plan and provided up to 12 months of education benefits for one approved
education program supporting a high-demand job and a housing stipend mirroring the GI Bill®
for specific programs taught by specific institutions (VA, 2022b). To be eligible, Veterans had to
be ineligible for other VA education benefits, be between 22 and 66 years old, be unemployed
due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and not be enrolled in a federal or state jobs program (VA,
2022b).
The VRRAP faced scrutiny in 2022 due to the program being allocated $386 million and
only spending approximately half while only securing jobs for only 397 Veterans (Rein &
Torbati, 2022). Politics slowed the approval of the program intended to ease the effects of
COVID-related unemployment, which fell from 6.5% to 4.4% over the nearly one year between
the signing of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act on March 27,
30
2020, and the signing of the American Rescue Plan March 11, 2021 (Rein & Torbati, 2022).
Further, for-profit institutions previously accused of violating VA policy related to the GI Bill®
were somehow allowed to be approved for the program and re-offended (Rein & Torbati, 2022).
The rhetoric surrounding situations like this only further harms Veterans.
Employment Navigator and Partnership Pilot and SkillBridge
There are other federally funded programs to support Veterans’ transition. New and of
note is the DOL offers the Employment Navigator and Partnership Pilot at approximately 22
military installations (DoL, 2022a). The partnership provides self and skills assessments,
credentials counseling, labor market information, and résumé reviews (DOL, 2022). Off-Base
Transition Training is transition support offered by the DoL to Veterans through ten two-hour
workshops, with four offered in-person, and six offered virtually (DoL, 2022). The course topics
include marketing oneself and other job search tactics, résumé essentials, interview skills,
LinkedIn profiles and job searches, employment rights, and salary negotiations (DoL, 2022).
This is a step in the right direction, towards civilization.
SkillBridge is the most salient, given the ability to participate prior to separation. The
DoD SkillBridge program is essentially an internship program for transitioning service members
(DoD, 2022a). Participants can be authorized for up to 180 days in the program. They are
allowed to complete the transition process early and leave their military unit to work for one of
2,353 approved companies participating in the program while still receiving military pay and
benefits for up to 180 days (DoD, 2022a). Skillbridge provides opportunities to gain civilian
experience (DoD, 2022a). Hiring Our Heroes is a VSO component of the U.S. Chamber of
Commerce Foundation (a non-profit organization) that serves as a pseudo-broker for helping
companies and Veterans connect for SkillBridge.
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Veteran Service Organizations Initiatives to Support Veteran Employment
The formation of VSOs dates to the days following the War for Independence when
likeminded Veteran officers who had only partially been paid for their service banded together to
form the Society of Cincinnati in 1783 to hire advocates to challenge the government that had
been negligent on its promises to Veterans (Weiss & Castro, 2018). Enlisted Veterans formed the
St. Tammany Society in the 1780’s to care for Veterans, widows, and orphans for fallen Veterans
(Weiss & Castro, 2018). The Navy Mutual Aid Association was the first of such organizations to
be chartered by congress in 1879 (Weiss & Castro, 2018). In 2018, Weiss and Castro reported
that the GuideStar database featured 38,428 Veteran-focused nonprofits. These entities exist for
the benefit of Veterans, service members, and their families and can be organized as
congressionally chartered organizations, organizations recognized by the VA, national
organizations, state, county, or tribal governments, and non-profit organizations (Breslauer &
Davis, 2022). These VSOs often represent specific demographics, trades, disabilities, rank,
religions, and/or ethnicities. The following list provides examples of VSOs serving specific
communities discernable by the organizations’ names (VA, 2019):
• The African American Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Association
• Jewish War Veterans of the USA
• Catholic War Veterans, USA, Inc.
• Gold Star Wives of America, Inc. (Spouses of service members who died on duty)
• Italian American War Veterans of The United States
• Military Officers Association of America
• Swords To Plowshares: Veterans Rights Organization
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• TREA: The Enlisted Association
These and other organizations provide a wide range of services, including hosting job fairs,
organizing fund raisers, providing career services, and providing VA claim support and
representation (Breslauer & Davis, 2022). The VSOs have played many important roles in
American society throughout history, from helping hands-on with homeless Veterans to advising
Congress on federal budgets and pushing legislation (Weiss & Castro, 2018).
Historical VSOs still have a strong influence today and include the American Legion
(1919), Disabled American Veterans (1932), Veterans of Foreign Wars (1936), and American
Veterans (AMVETS; 1947), for example. Following the Vietnam War and attributable to a
common distrust for the federal government and inadequate federal programs, localized VSOs
emerged to deliver support to whom and how they deemed necessary. Even though the quantity
of VSOs “has increased exponentially to an unprecedented number” (Weiss & Castro, 2018, p.
610), Veteran participation in historical VSOs has decreased. Some believe these institutions
represent the needs of older Veterans and are not responsive to the emerging needs of younger
Veterans (Jahnke et al., 2014), although their inability to quickly change to support emerging
needs may be the downfall of having a congressional charter. Because congressional charters are
enacted just like federal laws, they can only be changed by a new federal law; thus, changes to
mission statements or bylaws require an act of Congress (Kosar, 2011).
The number of local posts of the VFW and American legion declined by approximately
3% between 2007 and 2009, with the VFW’s membership is down 40% from 1992 to 2009, and
the American Legion’s membership is down 22% from its high of 3.3 million in 1946 (Jahnke et
al., 2014). The shrinking of these organizations, potentially due to a leadership gap left due to the
33
stigma of the Vietnam Conflict, may represent a significant loss of dispersed face-to-face support
once enjoyed by WWII-era Veterans.
Research shows affiliation and participation with VSOs may create informal
environments that ease PTSD-related symptoms and provide face-to-face networking (Jahnke et
al., 2014) that leads to improved employment scenarios. In some ways, brick-and-mortar VSOs
once served as both regional pseudo-job-centers and entertainment hubs–and, therefore,
networking venues. The rise in social media and the sheer volume of Veterans from wars in Iraq
and Afghanistan and the global war on terror led to modern VSOs, such as Iraq and Afghanistan
Veterans of America (IAVA) with 2.4 million members in 2014, to forego the dispersed brickand-mortar model (Jahnke et al., 2014). The employment impact of shrinking in-person VSOs
may be worth researching.
Congressionally Chartered Veteran Service Organizations
In 2011, there were 92 Congressionally chartered organizations, including non-Veteran
related organizations. The process for obtaining a Congressional charter is clear in legislation
and first involves a state charter, just like any other business. There are exceptions, however, as
most congressionally chartered organizations only have to have their financial statements
independently audited and submitted to Congress, which typically simply receives them, unless
there are glaring issues (Kosar, 2011). However, the operations, funding and oversight have been
debated heavily in government and questioned by citizens throughout history (Kosar, 2011).
The line between public and private is unclear to average citizens, and many believe
these organizations receive congressional oversight (Kosar, 2011). The situation may have only
become murkier in the last 33 years. In 1989, a moratorium was passed by the House
Subcommittee on Administrative Law and Government Relations to end Congressional
34
chartering, later called a “nuisance” that falsely represented a congressional seal of approval by
Committee Chair Barney Frank (Kosar, 2014, p. 11). Despite the moratorium, several charters
were issued from 1996 through 2010 (Kosar, 2011).
The CCVSOs have more members than non-congressionally chartered VSOs and
typically operate nationally, albeit with the shrinking regional footprint and member base
reported by Jahnke et al. (2014) and presented in the previous section. There are various
coalitions formed by groups of individual VSOs that collaborate on large issues (Jahnke et al.,
2014). For example, The Military Coalition (TMC) is a team of 34 VSOs working on a joint
mission to improve compensation, educate the public, and represent Veterans’ interests in the
public (Jahnke et al., 2014). 35 organizations with a total of 3.5 million Veterans comprise the
National Military and Veteran Alliance to create a united front to engage with the federal
government (Jahnke et al., 2014). The alliance and coalition are often called upon to present to
Congress (Jahnke et al., 2014).
A 2014 study analyzed the legislative activities of 24 VSOs accurately representing the
population to identify implied priorities and determined 65% of VSO legislative activities
supported Veterans’ employment issues, including encouraging and funding Veteran hiring,
supporting Veteran entrepreneurs, vocational rehabilitation, transition assistance, and family
member employment support (Jahnke et al., 2014). The VA recognizes six VSOs as “traditional”
partners with whom they work closely: The American Legion, VFW, Disabled American
Veterans, Paralyzed Veterans of America (PVA), AMVETS, and Vietnam Veterans of America.
According to their websites, half of the organizations had dedicated employment programs
providing career services: The American Legion, PVA, and AMVETS.
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Some VSOs specialize in providing specific Veteran needs. The American Legion is one
of the oldest and largest VSOs and is one of the most active. Despite a long list of
accomplishments, the American Legion’s 2021 report to congress does not mention career, job,
résumé or employment (American Legion, 2022). The PVA focuses on serving Veterans with
disabilities and notes that 65% of PVA clients have significant impairments to employment
(Brown, 2021). The PVA reported revenues of $176,829,000 in 2021, with 71% spent on public
awareness: $56.6M on TV campaigns and $19.5M on printed campaigns (Brown, 2021). Only
$1.1M (0.6% of total revenue) was spent on Veteran employment and training services (Brown,
2021).
In 2019, AMVETS reported a program value of $24.3M and a contribution value of
$2.5M (10%) in military funeral honors services, $877k (4%) for clothing and food drives, and
$2.8M (11%) towards Americanism, but employment services contributions are not discretely
identified (AMVETS, 2022). AMVETS’ 2021 national convention report highlights a new
partnership with Military Hire, a commercial for-profit VSO, and a 3-month job placement and
readiness pilot that enrolled 50 women Veterans (AMVETS, 2021, p. 81).
The 2011 Congressional Research Service report summary begins with the following
sentence: “The chartering by Congress of organizations with a patriotic, charitable, historical, or
educational purpose is essentially a 20th century practice” (Kosar, 2011. p. 2). Perhaps only a
ceremonious artifact of the 20th century, maybe largely symbolic–but obtaining a Congressional
charter certainly brings credibility to the organization (Kosar, 2011). Despite the moratorium on
new Congressional Charters, those in existence remain. Further, contrary to the cynicism,
Congressionally Chartered organizations are not lining up to relinquish their 20th-century
nuisance.
36
Non-Congressionally Chartered VSOs
Civilian involvement with VSOs began in the 1940s with the formation of the United
Service Organization (USO; Weiss & Castro, 2018). New VSOs emerged following every war to
help Veterans fight the battles at home against bureaucracy and bias (Weiss & Castro, 2018). For
example, the Vietnam Veterans Leadership Program was formed in 1981 to help combat
stereotyping and high unemployment faced by Vietnam Veterans (Weiss & Castro, 2018). The
continued growth resulted in over 400,000 organizations aiming to serve Veterans but also
contributing to extraneous cognitive load and “pinballing” (Clifford & Graeser, 2016, p. 329)
between service providers. Some Veterans feel overwhelmed by the sheer preponderance of the
quantity of organizations (Castro et al., 2014). The magnitude of support was outlined in a 2010
white paper by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and monikered A Sea of Goodwill. In
2018, Weiss and Castro reported over 38,000 non-governmental non-profit VSOs. Clifford and
Graeser (2016) paid homage to the Joint Chief Chairman’s white paper in their study titled
Navigating the “Sea of Goodwill”: Lessons from Regional Veterans Collaboratives, and asked
the question, “Which systemic level is ultimately responsible for resourcing Veteran
collaboratives: regional, statewide, or the federal government?” (p. 328).
In response to the preponderance, the Veteran Metric Initiative is a public-private
collaborative longitudinal research project undertaken to understand Veterans’ use of support
programs in the first three years of their transition and the first longitudinal study on the topic
(Vogt et al., 2018). In their baseline report in 2020, the initiative reported 65% of Veterans using
at least one support program, with 53% using only an employment program such as online job
databases and résumé writing assistance (Perkins et al., 2020). It is noteworthy that 1,736 unique
organizations were identified from 21,286 programs (Perkins et al., 2020), potentially due to
37
confusingly similar organization names. Of the 9,566 participants, 819 employment programs
were identified (Perkins et al., 2020), which could be considered 12 participants per program on
average.
Veteran collaboratives serve to bring order as “quarterbacks” and collaboration in an
environment where there are “rival programs” (Clifford & Graeser, 2016, p. 327), akin to
companies seeking revenue in the commercial market. Further, Clifford and Graeser (2016)
posited the need for a developed national framework. Clifford and Graeser also provided an
effective segue into the next section on corporate initiatives, as the two organizations they
studied were funded by regional corporations and private philanthropy.
Commercial Initiatives to Improve Veteran Employment
As the consumer of Veteran talent, it seems only fitting that corporations would take an
interest in the issues surrounding hiring Veterans. Combat Veterans have profiles similar to the
transformational leaders Wall Street covets. CEOs with military experience stay in their roles
longer and are less likely to commit fraud, all while the company outperforms its peers. (Blank,
2019). Yet, in 2010 the SHRM found that only 50% of the companies surveyed had hired a
Veteran in the previous 36 months, and over half of those companies did so under special
initiatives (SHRM, 2010). Companies that hire Veterans outperform other companies in many
categories (Blank, 2019).
Human resources professionals have difficulty understanding how to leverage Veterans’
skills in their organizations (Blank, 2019) and could benefit from training (SHRM, 2010). Most
companies that have special initiatives to hire Veterans are considered large. Yet, 99.9% of all
businesses in the United States are small businesses, which accounted for approximately twothirds of the new jobs created since 2000 and employed over half of the U.S. private workforce
38
(Scuteri, 2015). Big businesses are working to improve their treatment of Veterans because they
have margins and resources to establish customized programs and train their HR and talent
acquisition personnel to speak Veteran, but small businesses may be turning away more Veteran
employees. A discrete study on small-business support for hiring Veterans may be beneficial.
Human resources professionals report “noise” in the Veteran employment space due to
the sheer quantity of organizations in the Veteran employment space, confusingly similar names,
confusingly similar company acronyms, overlapping missions, and unsubstantiated claims
(Blank, 2019; Hall, 2018). Companies that employ significant percentages of Veterans and/or
have dedicated Veteran hiring programs do better overall than those that do not (Blank, 2019).
MilitaryTimes.com, Monster.com, and Militaryfriendly.com each conduct independent surveys
of private companies in environmental, social, and governance (ESG) topics as they relate to
Veterans as well as synthesize marketplace data and use nominated experts’ opinions to identify
and rank U.S. companies. MilitaryTimes.com’s methodology resulted in 2,300 invited
organizations distilled down to 100 to make the 2018 list of best Veteran employers (Blank,
2019). The methodology is the most rigorous and is the basis for the Military Times Best for
VETS Index (Blank, 2019). The VETS index is the grouping of the publicly traded companies
that comprise the Military Times Best for Veterans organizations. Blank (2019) uses the VETS
index and compares it to other reputable indices, including the S&P 500, representing the
industry standard; Thomson Reuters/S-network ESG Best Practices Indices, representing ESG
conscience organizations; and the Russell 3000, providing representation of the larger market
with smaller businesses. The VETS Index outperformed all comparison indices from January
2013 through October 2018 with a significantly higher annual return, at 7.6%, than the S&P 500
(Blank, 2019).
39
Figure 1
VETS Index Performance Versus Common Key Indices
Note. Shows VETS Index performance versus other indices from January 2012 through October
2018. From “Corporate Treatment of Veterans,” by H. D. Blank, 2019, Review of Business
Interdisciplinary Journal On risk and Society, 1, 75–93. Copyright 2019 by St. John’s
University.
40
Summary
The research indicates a Veteran employment problem that needs to be solved. The
government is accountable for providing career services to transitioning service members and
Veterans after the transition. Although the TAP seems to be improving, thanks to a concerned
public and dedicated advocates, the progression lags the demand, as apparent in statistics
surrounding homelessness and suicide. One benefit that most Veterans have over civilians who
go through a job transition is that, generally, Veterans know when they will separate from the
military and, therefore, should be able to establish and execute a plan. Another is the vast variety
of low-cost or free resources available. This problem is too important to keep repeating the
mistakes of prior generations.
41
Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to explore the experience of Veterans with career services
provided through TAP and VSOs and how those services supported Veterans in meeting their
post-service employment goals. This chapter details the methodology employed by this research
study, the research questions, the researcher, and the population being researched. Then the data
sources and the analysis approach are discussed. This chapter closes with commentary regarding
the ethical considerations and limitations of the study.
Research Questions
1. How do Veterans perceive the effectiveness of DOL TAP résumé courses in
contributing to their post-service employment goals, producing more effective résumés,
supporting higher salaries, and/or contributing to higher job satisfaction?
2. How do Veterans perceive the impact of interacting with VSOs on their post-service
employment goals, the quality of their résumés, salary levels, and/or job satisfaction?
3. What are the unfulfilled employment support needs of Veterans that are not met by
DOL TAP and/or VSOs to help them achieve their post-service employment goals?
Overview of Methodology
This was an exploratory inductive study. The source of data is interviews with Veterans
who attended TAP courses and used VSO services. Interviews help a researcher describe shared
experiences through those of discrete group members (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This strategy
aligns with the overall research structure because it provides insight from Veterans who used
both types of service. This research provided examples of Veteran behaviors, TAP experiences,
VSO interactions, employment outcomes, and service gaps.
42
The Researcher
I am a heterosexual White male. My positionality is informed through service as an
enlisted United States Marine on active duty for five years, earning the rank of Sergeant in
approximately three years, and eight more years as a contractor embedded in a joint-forces,
mixed military-civilian unit. I earned an Associate of Science while enlisted and left active duty
in September 2007, right before the Great Recession. I was fortunate to have a military
occupational specialty (MOS) that translated well to civilian employment and a reputation that
prompted the senior military leadership at the organization in which I served as a Marine to
request the contractor hire me directly. I earned a Bachelor of Science and a Master of Business
Administration while working full-time in leadership roles. Along the way, I earned a Project
Management Professional® certification, a Capability Maturity Model Integration® Associate
certification, and completed various other professional development initiatives, including a
company-sponsored and curated leadership development program, and executive negotiations
courses with my manager and his. I share these details for context of a moderately successful
career in middle management, with approximately ten promotions/job changes through 15 years
of civilian employment. Over this same time, I observed friends and fellow Veterans—better
men and women than myself—struggle unnecessarily. I have struggled: with my salary level
compared to civilian peers, with rejection from roles in which I knew I would excel, working
with and for people that have less honor, courage, or commitment than I expected, taking on
more than I should at one time, not turning a blind eye when everyone else knew to, and not
knowing what I did not know. I hope to use my education and experience to improve the career
resources available to Veterans.
43
I came from humble beginnings and am gratefully aware of the opportunities available to
me through service. I maintain a love for the United States Marine Corps that only Marines
understand. Working in government contracting, finance, and higher education exposed me to
situations where I believe policies and procedures (macro and micro) negatively impact
Veterans’ careers. Further, I undertook this study with the assumption that there is either inequity
in Veteran salaries compared to their civilian counterparts, inaccuracy in the marketing of
civilian applicable job skills by military recruiting organizations, or the inability of some
Veterans to translate their MOS experience and training to civilian occupations.
Method: Interview
This study employed an inductive qualitative approach. This was an inductive qualitative
study. Data were collected by conducting semi-structured interviews of Veterans meeting the
recruitment criteria. Specific elements of the methodology are discussed in the sections below.
Participants
The criteria for participation in this study required that interviewees be enlisted, noninfantry/police Veterans who transitioned from active-duty service in the United States military
between September 11th
, 2005, and September 11th
, 2022, attended the TAP, used VSO services,
and applied for civilian jobs in the United States after transitioning. The intended sample
population was 10 to 15 veterans who met these criteria. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that
there is no correct answer for a qualitative sample size. The study purposefully did not include
Veterans whose only job was infantry and military police. This was to eliminate the skills
mismatch argument–“military skills” do not transfer to civilian occupations (Loughran, 2014).
All the interviewees here received training and had skills in occupations that can be used outside
of the military and police forces. These participants were trained in aviation, electronics,
44
information technology, facilities, marketing, human behavior, mechanical systems, and similar
non-lethal occupations.
A recruitment questionnaire, included as Appendix B, and accompanying message was
created and social media and email. Responses to this questionnaire were confidential but not
anonymous. The self-administered questionnaire (Robinson & Leonard, 2019) was active online
in May 2023 and June 2023.
Every non-profit organization listed on the recruitment questionnaire was invited to
distribute it. However, VSO’s participation was not required. A grassroots social media
campaign was initiated via LinkedIn. Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America (IAVA) shared
the recruiting post on LinkedIn. The recruitment questionnaire was also shared via multiple
personal posts on LinkedIn. The questionnaire was disseminated to the Veterans Employee
Resource Group at Alphabet (Google’s parent company), and to Veteran students and alumni of
California State University, Fullerton through the Veteran services office. VETS Indexes, the
designers of The VETS Employers Index featured as Figure 1: VETS Index Performance Versus
Common Key Indices also shared the recruitment questionnaire on the company LinkedIn page,
and their President shared it from his personal LinkedIn page.
Instrumentation
The recruitment questionnaire consisted of demographic and employment history
questions and was primarily to ensure accurate participant selection. The interview protocol
leveraged the inherent flexibility of a semistructured interview (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016) to
ensure detail-rich content while avoiding topics that may be unnerving for some (Merriam &
Tisdale, 2016). The interviews were meant to elicit responses to specific questions that were
highly desired. Other responses were secondary and could be used to break a dichotomous
45
response cycle (Patton, 2002) or if a speedy responder or non-talker left time to fill (Merriam &
Tisdale, 2016).
The interview protocol consisted of 24 questions and nearly as many potential probes.
The interview asked about the difficulty of transitioning to civilian society. The interview also
asked explicitly about résumé services received from TAP and VSOs. Three questions were
included from the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) to explore job satisfaction. The
median reliability for the MSQ was 0.9. Validity has been demonstrated at 0.001 significance.
Test-Retest reliability is 0.89 after one week and 0.7 after one year. In the case of this study, the
questions are adapted to a qualitative format to enable the participants to elaborate on their job
satisfaction. One question reminded interviewees about the TAP and asked about TAP
effectiveness. There was one question regarding interviewers’ understanding of the Veteran’s
résumé during job interviews and questions about VSO engagement.
Data Collection Procedures
Interviews occurred between May 30th, 2023 and June 29
th
, 2023. The average interview
time was 32 minutes. Fourteen interviews were conducted at a private home office in North San
Diego County via a video conference (12) and telephone call (2) at the interviewee's preference,
this flexibility ensured maximum participation. The interviews were recorded via Zoom, Otter.ai,
as well as a dedicated recording device. However, interviewees were requested to follow simple
requirements for their location selection.
Data Analysis
I evaluated participant responses in real-time for a preliminary assessment of the
interview protocol quality, as suggested by Merriam and Tisdale (2016). The raw data included
audio and potentially video recordings, which were transcribed for analysis. Transcribing the
46
data helped identify key themes and categorize the responses. As themes emerge, a coding
system was developed to aid in the analysis process. The coding process involves several
techniques, such as identifying patterns in the conversation, repetition of ideas, shared
experiences among participants, or gaps in the data. These techniques enable a better
understanding of the data collected. Interview data was coded around the principal words related
to employment issues to identify general themes guiding the organization of detailed descriptions
of participants’ experiences around the topics previously referenced as relevant to
underemployment. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), researchers should utilize
qualitative computer software programs to aid in the analysis of data. I use Otter.ai, Atlas.ai, and
Excel software to aid in coding the transcripts collected.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Convenience sampling introduces bias due to respondents’ proximal accessibility to the
recruitment questionnaire (Trochim, 2006). Respondents may be characterized as having greater
access to the internet, more interaction with survey distributors, and being more extroverted. It
could be argued that the interview participants did not reflect the experiences of less technically
sophisticated Veterans. In this case, those not represented would likely be worse off than the
sample. It could also be argued that non-represented Veterans are so well off that they do not use
the services provided by survey distributors; either argument makes non-probabilistic sampling
less generalizable (Pazzaglia et al., 2016).
Respondents could have exaggerated answers that skew the data. Some may have viewed
this research as potentially derogatory or defamatory and provide incorrect data. The survey
preface was carefully crafted to reflect the researcher’s positionality, including enlisted military
experience and the mission for this research to activate their willingness to participate.
47
Ethics
The recruitment questionnaire allowed potential participants to self-identify in response
to email campaigns from VSOs. Only the minimum amount of personally identifiable
information was required. There may be expert and legitimate power, which are appropriate.
Coercion was not an applicable concern due to the voluntary nature of participation, the nonexistence of leverage, and the researcher’s morals. The IRB process occurred in the University of
Southern California’s system. I was guided by experts who are experienced in operating within
the regulations of this IRB and motivated by successful outcomes.
This research serves the interest of Veterans, their families, the United States Military,
businesses operating in America, and U.S. taxpayers. If this research contributes to decreased
Veteran Underemployment, Veterans will have been helped through improved employment
opportunities. Businesses will benefit from a more prepared talent pool. Taxpayers will benefit
through increased GDP from properly employed Veterans and decreased spending on programs
that treat symptoms of underemployment such as homelessness and mental illness.
There are two categories of people or organizations this research may harm. One is
organizations/individuals that misuse resources identified for Veterans, and the other is Veteranfocused non-profit organizations. Non-profit organizations exist for a social mission, for which
they raise funds from individuals and other organizations to cover expenses. If this research
improves the Veteran employment situation, second-order effects include decreased market
demand for Veteran non-profit services. Veteran employment success satisfies Veteran
employment focused non-profit organizations’ missions but threatens their existence. If TAP
delivers higher quality services, fewer VSOs would be necessary.
48
This report is designed and framed from the informed perspective of the researcher who
is conducting this research from within the pool of potential candidates. My perspective has been
obtained through similar experiences as those researched, providing an informed perspective to
understand the research. Implications of this research include improved Veteran employment,
decreased spending on federally and non-profit-funded employment programs, and changes in
federal programming. This report will be disseminated to employment and economic
development departments at local, state, and federal governments, collegees and universities,
Veteran-focused non-profits, the researcher’s senator and congressional representative, the
Secretary of Veterans Affairs, and every major media outlet.
There is a question in the recruitment questionnaire that asks Would you like the
researcher to provide your information directly to VSO managers so they contact you to help you
find a better job? All respondents could select yes, even without being interviewed. This could
be seen as an incentive as this benefit could save an unknown number of hours of time finding
information, contacting the VSO, queueing and processing, and my intervention may present at
least the perception of the possibility of preferential treatment.
49
Chapter Four: Findings
This study explored Veterans’ perceptions of the transition services provided by the TAP
program and available from Veteran Service Organizations (VSOs) in their effectiveness in
contributing to their post-service employment goals, producing more effective résumés,
supporting higher salaries, and/or contributing to higher job satisfaction. Qualitative data were
collected from 14 participants through semi-structured interviews. All VSOs listed on the
recruitment questionnaire were contacted via email or their “contact us” page from their website
to request their participation in sharing the recruitment questionnaire with their network. Only
one organization decided to participate—Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America (IAVA).
The recruitment questionnaire was shared via multiple personal posts on LinkedIn. The
questionnaire was also disseminated to the Veterans Employee Resource Group at Alphabet
(Google’s parent company). California State University Fullerton Veterans Services department
was contacted for recruitment in a push to reach the 14 candidates. They were not initially
requested to distribute the questionnaire and they do not necessarily fit the group of VSOs
initially sought, but I am grateful they emailed the questionnaire to their Veteran students.
Nathan Ainspan, Senior Research Psychologist on Veterans Transition and Disability for the
DoD (DoD) Military-Civilian Transition Office (MCTO) shared the recruitment questionnaire
on his personal LinkedIn. VETS Indexes, the designers and managers of the VETS Employers
Index featured in this study as Figure 1: VETS Index Performance Versus Common Key
Indices, shared the recruitment questionnaire on their company LinkedIn page, and their
President shared it from his personal LinkedIn page.
Interviews of qualified candidates were conducted via Zoom and telephone and recorded
via Zoom, Otter.ai, and a stand-alone recording device. Real-time analysis was conducted
50
during the interviews to ensure the findings met the objectives of the research questions. As this
research is an inductive analysis of 14 individuals representing four different branches of the
military, reporting on courses conducted on 19 different military bases, and 20 VSOs from a
pool of over 40,000 where heterogeneous outcomes for end users are the standard, the threshold
for determining themes was four responses.
The first section of Chapter Four describes the research participants. Then findings for
Research Question One are presented in two themes. Research Question Two’s findings
represent Veterans’ perceptions of VSO support, and are described in Themes Three and Four.
Finally, the findings for Research Question Three are about missing elements reported by 14
interviewees of the transition experience and are discussed in two final themes, Theme 5:
Command Support & Dedicated Transition Time and Theme 6: Start Early and Use All of the
Resources Available; providing a great segue into Chapter Five’s recommendations.
Participants
The questionnaire sought enlisted, non-infantry/police Veterans who transitioned from
active-duty service in the United States military between September 11th, 2005, and September
11th, 2022, attended the TAP, used VSO services, and applied for civilian jobs in the United
States after transitioning. It received 185 responses. Replies to filtering questions eliminated 86%
of respondents. One hundred and thirty-five candidates (73% of all respondent), were eliminated
because they did not use VSO support, meaning only 27% did use VSO support. According to
Perkins et al. (2020), 53%-65% of Veterans use VSO support for career services. The
discrepancy between this study and Perkins et al. could be due to several factors: Perkins et al.
having a much larger sample size of 9,566, the lack of VSO participation in this study, or
LinkedIn as the primary recruiting source in this study. Twenty-five potential interviewees
51
emerged, and of those, 14 Veterans volunteered their time by making themselves available for an
interview and subsequent inclusion in this research.
One difference between the original assumptions that framed this research and facts
discovered during the interviews were this research assumed Veterans participate in TAP first
and then subsequently engage with VSOs. I framed my questions as if every Veteran uses TAP,
then looks for (and hopefully obtains) employment, and subsequently at some point later, they
seek and receive assistance from a VSO to obtain employment or their initial job if they were
still unemployed. However, interviewees experienced VSO support either before TAP or
immediately after. None of the interviewed Veterans worked in civilian jobs between attending
TAP and receiving VSO support. This resulted in minor adjustments to the semi-structured
interview protocol for some interviewees as this reality was discovered. However, the
interviewees made their assignment of impact from either the TAP or a VSOs easy to
understand.
Interviewee ranks ranged from E5 (an Army Sergeant) to E9 (an Army Sergeant Major),
with the average rank of E7 (Air/Space Force Master Sergeant, Army Sergeant First Class,
Marine Gunnery Sergeant, or a Navy/Coast Guard Chief). Eleven of the 14 interviewees had
retired from the military and reentered the workforce. The approximate average years served was
17 and ranged from four to 25. The expected demographic was approximately E5 and nonretirees. The higher rank and longer tenure may be due to LinkedIn as a central recruiting
method. The interviewees were 71% White, 14% Asian, and 14% Black. Women accounted for
14% of all participants. The sample is more diverse than the overall Veteran population, as the
U.S. Census Bureau (Giefer & Loveless, 2021) estimates there are 17.8 million Veterans in the
United States, of whom 91% identify as male and 81% as White alone (Giefer & Loveless,
52
2021). Table 1 includes relevant information about interviewees. Two interviewees attended
TAP via an asynchronous online course. It is noteworthy that these individuals were both special
forces and both attended THF and USC’s MBV. The date of approximate Last TAP Class is
captured from interviewees’ LinkedIn profile. Fitting with military tradition, interviewees are
anonymized with pseudonyms, also known as, “call signs” assigned by me.
53
Table 1
Select Demographics of Interviewees by Pseudonym in Random Order
Pseudonym Branch Rank E- Appr. Last TAP Class Occupational specialty
M&M Air Force 7 2020 Aviation
Northrup Navy 7 2017 Systems
WayMo Air Force 7 2016 Aviation
StarIT Army 5 2013 Information Tech.
POWER Marines 8 2016 Combat Engineering
meOW Navy 7 2016 Aviation
Flyest Air Force 7 2012 Aviation
Psyched Marines 6 2020 Psychological Ops.
Pusher Navy 6 2013 Healthcare
Gunz Marines 7 2016 Aviation
Director* Navy 8 2021 Special Operations
Piece* Navy 7 2021 Special Operations
BigTop Marines 8 2013 Aviation
DDoctor Army 9 2021 Combat Engineering
Note: * indicates Veteran attended online only TAP class. Approximate TAP date captured from
LinkedIn Profile.
54
Findings for Research Question 1
The first research question I sought to answer was regarding Veterans’ perceptions of the
effectiveness of the Department of Labor (DOL) TAP résumé courses in contributing to their
post-service employment goals, producing more effective résumés, supporting higher salaries,
and/or contributing to higher job satisfaction. The Veterans interviewed attended TAP at 19
locations across the United States and online. They also attended in different years, pre-, during,
and post-COVID pandemic, with two interviewees having attended an asynchronous virtual TAP
course during the COVID-19 pandemic. All participants reported having low employment
expectations considering their perception of their experience. Still, less than half of the
interviewees found TAP useful despite 71% reporting actively engaging with the courses,
materials, or instructors. Several shared themes emerged despite the heterogeneous experiences.
As is common in qualitative research, some of the themes are connected and I have annotated the
connections where appropriate.
Theme 1: TAP as a “Check-in-the-Box” Versus “You Get Out What You Put In”
There is a perception among service members that TAP can be a “check in the box”
activity while processing out of the military. The differing responses in the interview data
indicated TAP may be treated like part of the process by some and an opportunity by others.
StarIT, BigTop, Pusher, and Psyched all commented with variants of "check in the box.” meOW
used the phrase, “punch a ticket” to describe how they saw others approach TAP. Further,
Psyched expressed, “TAP was… a means to an end, I gotta do this one week, and then I'm
done!” However, all interviewees approached TAP with motivation and excitement, but became
jaded with the expectations of receiving either information overload or inadequate out-
55
processing. They enthusiastically engage with the curriculum, but do not leave with the
knowledge, skills, or abilities expected.
Six, which is less than half, of interviewees reported TAP as useful to any degree.
However, five interviewees discussed approaching the course intentionally and with an
understanding that TAP was a tool, and that they needed to do more than the TAP curriculum to
be successful. meOW’s full comment was that she “wasn’t there to punch a ticket, I think it's like
any course that you take with the military, you get out what you put in.” A mentor told her to pay
attention and do TAP twice. Further, Northrup informed, “TAP is a good overview of the all the
stuff that's available to you… very engaged, I did the homework afterwards. I read the pamphlets
and the books they gave me, did the highlighting and all that good stuff.” Flyest shared:
My personal level of engagement was strong, I went every single day, stayed as long as I
could, arrived early, left late… TAP is just a tool and you get out of it what you put into it,
but you have to put more into it than what they're laying out in front of you.
Flyest is a military employment expert as he was a military recruiter for well over a decade and
has had success as a civilian talent acquisition professional. Two subthemes emerged regarding
engagement with TAP and employment expectations and are presented in the forthcoming
subsections.
Despite Negative Expectations, Engagement in TAP is Reportedly High
Eighty-six percent of respondents (12) self-reported a high level of engagement during
their TAP experience. Their degree of engagement ranged from diligent participation to a
dedication to fully utilizing the resources provided by the program. These individuals
communicated participation beyond checking the box. POWER expressed a very high level of
engagement, “My level of engagement was very high. I participated. Matter of fact, I became
56
really good friends with one of the transition reps. So, I would say my participation was very
high.” The interviewees’ self-reported high levels of engagement suggest that they understood
the TAP course to be an opportunity to learn and actively prepare for their transition. StarIT
noted, "I tried a lot to raise my hand and be an example. I would participate. I feel like my effort
was there. So, I was able to get a lot of knowledge and information about the programs that were
available." This indicates a willingness to spend additional time on the course materials,
demonstrating a high level of dedication to absorbing the knowledge and tools presented in the
TAP program.
On the other hand, three participants expressed disengagement with the TAP courses.
DDoctor stated, “Disengaged, after day one I was Disengaged. A lot of us were disengaged.
They said it was a 5-day process, after day 1 day 2, like, this is not for me—TAP was for midcareer and junior soldiers." Nevertheless, the overarching narrative portrays a high level of
engagement from the Veterans in their TAP courses, suggesting that they took the process
seriously and were keen to gain as much knowledge and as many tools as possible from it. This
highlights the potential impact of TAP courses when they are viewed as more than just a
requirement and are actively engaged with by the participants.
Almost All Veterans had Low Initial Employment Expectations
Many interviewees reported low expectations for civilian employment. Thirteen out of 14
interviewees’ responses indicated they were seeking a lateral role or even a lower-level role “just
to have a job” (POWER). Two of the participants prioritized college before working. However,
only one Veteran was specifically seeking to “level up” (Piece). POWER was “shocked” at how
low he landed in the civilian job market upon separation. Psyched shared relevant insight
provided to him by a successful finance entrepreneur from Veterans on Wall Street, “You are on
57
a good track. Your résumé has United States Marine Corps and is going to have Columbia
University. Whatever you put on their next must add to it. Don’t settle for something you don’t
want to do.” Table 2 provides the essential elements of each interviewee’s response regarding
their initial civilian employment goals.
58
Table 2
Responses to the Questions about Veterans’ Initial Employment Goal
Pseudonym Rank E- Last TAP
Class
Occupational
specialty
Initial employment
goal
M&M 7 2020 Aviation “To make ~$3k per
month”
Northrup 7 2017 Ship Systems “McDonald's would
have been fine”
WayMo 7 2016 Aviation “Something using
my degree”
StarIT 5 2013 Information
Technology
“An IT role, even
Help Desk”
POWER 8 2016 Combat
Engineering
“To find
employment”
meOW 7 2016 Aviation “Just to find a job”
Flyest 7 2012 Aviation “A gov’t role in San
Diego”
Psyched 6 2020 Psychological
Operations
“Something in
finance”
Pusher 6 2013 Healthcare “To focus on
school”
Gunz 7 2016 Aviation “A government
role”
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Pseudonym Rank E- Last TAP
Class
Occupational
specialty
Initial employment
goal
Director 8 2021* Special Operations “Going to school
first”
Piece 7 2021* Special Operations “I wanted to level
up”
BigTop 8 2013 Aviation “To help other
people”
DDoctor 9 2021 Combat
Engineering
“Something
satisfying”
Theme 2: TAP Overloads Individuals with Information but Provides Inadequate Support
The interviews highlight the perception that TAP is “inadequate” (POWER) in their
mission to “furnish counseling, assistance in identifying employment and training opportunities,
help in obtaining such employment and training, and other related information and services”
described in 10 U.S.C. 1144 (United States Code, 2012) but also overloads the Veteran with
information at the same time. The findings included nine comments that expectations were not
met and five more that their low expectations became a reality. POWER’s perspective captures
the overall tone of the group, “I would say [TAP] was inadequate. Not fully and completely
inadequate, but inadequate.”
Most interviewees who reported attending TAP more than once did so because they were
warned about the information overload by people who transitioned before them. The fact that
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there is a perceived need to do TAP twice to capture and retain the information is an indication
of inadequacy discussed in Chapter Five. Multiple TAP attendances is covered in additional
detail under Theme 6: Start Early and Use All of the Resources Available. This quote from
“meOW” reports an “information by firehose” issue, but also brings up frustrations with being
deployed right before retirement:
I left with so much data when I went through TAP the first time, it was like information
by firehose, like there was just so much that when I signed up to go the second time, I
tried to do as much of it online as I could, but it was very difficult to do that because I
deployed right before I retired. The guy who wrote my orders didn't give me the entire
transition time…they don't really take that into consideration when they're writing your
orders (meOW).
The scheduling issue mentioned by meOW is addressed further under Theme 5: Command
Support and Dedicated Transition Time.
There is too much information provided in the short TAP duration, according to six
participants. The TAP course takes up to five days, but not long enough for the information
covered as indicated in the following statement by Northrup:
TAP is a good overview of the ALL the stuff that's available to you. It's beautiful because
it does give you a broad scope, SO broad. I wish it would have focused on some detail,
like, just focusing on the résumé and LinkedIn, and then primary programs.
Although some interviewees would have preferred to forego TAP and work only with VSOs
(DDoctor, Director, Piece), no one said TAP was too long. Further, one interviewee paid $900 to
a commercial résumé provider after receiving service from TAP and the Wounder Warriors
Project (WWP).
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Two interviewees reported different cohorts being available for Veterans who were
retiring than those who were not. But two interviewees also suggested different cohorts should
exists, as if they did not. DDoctor an E9 Army Sergeant Major attended the “executive” cohort
and still reported the material being inadequate, as discussed in Theme 1. meOW described a
TAP cohort of retiring Chiefs.” BigTop, an E8, was informed of an “executive” course available
for E9s and officers at a different military base 40 minutes away, but attended the regular
version. WayMo shared a secondhand story from a 30-year retiring Chief Master Sergeant
complaining about being in a class full of single-term enlistees, which WayMo then experienced
himself as well.
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Findings for Research Question Two
The second research question asked, “How do Veterans perceive the impact of interacting
with VSOs on their post-service employment goals, the quality of their résumés, salary levels,
and/or job satisfaction?” The same or very similar questions were asked about VSOs as were
asked about TAP. The findings that emerged are nearly opposite. The participants reported the
impact of VSOs as much greater than the impact of TAP. The core findings covered in the
following sections describe the perceptions of a great impact from VSOs, largely in changing the
language and the communities of transitioning Veterans. There were 28 total instances of VSO
use representing 20 unique VSOs used by 14 interviewees. Interviewees used an average of two
VSOs each for their transitions, with Piece using the most, at four VSOs. Table 3 also provides
the tally of each VSO used by the interviewees and the number of times they attended TAP. The
results from Research Question 1 regarding interviewees’ perceptions of services received from
TAP and Research Question 2 regarding interviewees’ perceptions of services received from
VSOs are compared and discussed in Chapter 5.
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Table 3
VSOs Used by Each Interviewee
Pseudonym # TAPs
Attended
Count of
VSO
VSOs Used for Career Support
M&M 1 1 Hiring Our Heroes SkillBridge
Northrup 2 3 Hiring Our Heroes SkillBridge, Fleet & Family Service Center, Marine Corps
Community Services
WayMo 1 1 Disabled American Veterans
StarIT 1 2 Hiring Our Heroes SkillBridge, Recruit Military
POWER 2 1 Veteran Career Transition Assistance Program (VetCTAP)
meOW 2 1 Fleet & Family Service Center
Flyest 2 2 Disabled American Veterans, Hiring our Heroes
Psyched 1 3 Warriors 2 Scholars, American Corporate Partners (ACP), Veterans on Wall
Street
Pusher 1 2 HireVeterans.com, Veterans to Energy Careers (VTEC)
Gunz 1 2 Hiring Our Heroes, American Veterans (AMVETS)
Director 1* 2 The Honor Foundation (THF),
University of Southern California Master of Business for Veterans (MBV)
Piece 1* 4 The Honor Foundation (THF), COMMIT Foundation, With Your Shield: A
McMorrow Veterans Initiative, MBV
BigTop 2 1 Disabled American Veterans
DDoctor 1 2** Hiring Our Heroes, **Wounded Warriors Project (WWP), ***Résumé Company
Averages 1.35 1.93 Averages
Note. VSOs used for services other than career support are not included. * Special Operations Required, **WWP subcontracts résumé
services to a foreign commercial company, ***Interviewee paid out of pocket for commercial résumé support.
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Theme 3: The Majority of Interviewees had Extremely High Ratings of VSOs
Nine of the interviewees (64%) rated their VSO satisfaction with comments at or
approaching extreme satisfaction, indicating a majority of Veterans find greater satisfaction in
employment after working with VSOs. Piece expressed a concise but powerful endorsement of
their experience with the VSO they worked with, merely saying "Massively." Director offered
similarly positive feedback, simply stating they were "Extremely satisfied." DDoctor felt
passionately that VSOs cared more than TAP, "Extremely satisfied, it's like they really cared
about and understood what you are really about to go into.” These responses indicate a profound
level of satisfaction, suggesting that VSOs provided substantial support that exceeded service
members’ expectations.
Five participants provided responses indicating they were highly satisfied with their VSO
experiences. Psyched commented “…really good…,” and Northrup, “…pretty high…” regarding
satisfaction with VSOs. Psyched reported satisfaction with the opportunities Veterans on Wall
Street and Warriors 2 Scholars Project opened to him, revealing that VSOs played a significant
role in expanding their career horizons:
I thought it was really good. I think the biggest benefit is seeing what opportunities are
out there. As a veteran, you're told you can go be a cop. You can go work for the
government. If you’re ambitious, you can try and be a politician. But, there’s not
someone who’s showing the way to more high paying and specialized careers. Doing
things like Veterans on Wall Street and then getting exposure to the Ivy League
institutions from Warrior Scholar Project, I think that kind of opened up my eyes. Like,
Wow! There are much better options out here.
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Two participants reported a slightly lower but still very favorable level of satisfaction: “Happy,”
and “Better than TAP for sure.” Overall, the participant responses illustrate a robust endorsement
of VSOs among those that use them, with high satisfaction levels indicating the Veterans
perceived they received successful transition support.
Theme 4: Résumé Translation and Networking are Key Services Veterans Receive
It is noteworthy that all the nine individuals (64%) who participated in a cohort style
program described their experience with VSOs as extremely beneficial. DDoctor and Piece both
advocated for a cohort style program for higher tenure service members that begins one year
before separation. WayMo reported service members should experience TAP in cohorts based on
service length and shared his own story and a secondhand story from a mentor who retired with
over 20 years and receiving only the same TAP support as individuals separating with less than
one complete enlistment. Some interviewees commented that VSOs brought Human Resources
managers from industry into the transition class and described the interactions as beneficial.
Sixty-five percent (9) of interviewees mentioned skills’ translation for their résumés as a
major benefit from VSOs. VSOs were reported as critical in assisting veterans in the translation
of their résumés from military to civilian language. The participants discussed this translation as
being essential, given the specialized nature of military roles, and the consequent challenges in
effectively communicating these experiences to civilian employers. Responses to the question,
“How well, if at all, did interviewers understand your résumé content after you received help
from VSOs?” include, "100%, absolutely, 100% (BigTop).” DDoctor claimed a "90%
improvement" in his résumé after the move from TAP to VSO support. Director stated:
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…really well. It made a lot more sense to them instead of having to try to understand
some of the jargon and also, I think there's a lot of bias for military resumes nowadays.
So, (HR) sees military stuff on there and they automatically just sort of tune it out.”
Director’s experience underscores the invaluable support VSOs provide in helping
veterans effectively present their military experiences in ways that align with civilian roles. This
comment also highlights the bias some Veterans perceive when looking for employment. VSOs
play an essential role in helping Veterans transition to civilian employment by providing
effective résumé skills translation services. The task of translating highly specialized military
roles into civilian-equivalent skills may be challenging but is critical. Translation was part of
interviewees’ responses to seven different questions.
Ten Veterans asserted that VSOs offered critical networking opportunities that provided
essential connections within the civilian job market. Flyest emphasized the importance of using
the network but cautioned against inappropriate utilization: "Don’t just throw your résumé over
the fence… Do some recon and come to the conversation showing that you care." LinkedIn was
mentioned as a networking tool by eight interviewees. Pusher commended on the value of a
LinkedIn class provided by a VSO, saying, "I was given a LinkedIn class, and they showed how
to properly use it. So that was something that was really beneficial." Nine interviewees
mentioned LinkedIn as a tool for networking.
However, some participants reported access to what may be deemed premier support
through specific VSOs. For example, Piece and Director were both special operations Sailors
who attended The Honor Foundation (THF) (exclusive to special operations) and were accepted
into the University of Southern California (USC) Master of Business for Veterans (MBV)
program. Director reported:
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…the networking through The Honor Foundation is really good. It's similar to the way
USC is–where you know—once a Trojan always a Trojan. Everybody, no matter what
position they have in the company…you reach out and they get back in touch with you,
or interview you, or sit and have a cup of coffee, or at least speak to you a little bit. And
THF I think because it's a little bit smaller, and it's all special operations. It's a little bit
better, just smaller.
Piece said his initial job search consisted of “Cups of Coffee networking,” in reference to the
“Cups of Coffee Directory” from THF. This “Cups of Coffee Directory” is simply a list of
people in companies and positions that may be able to help a Veteran, but are certainly willing to
talk about it over a cup of coffee. He was delighted by the USC alumni network and MBV
“Executive Partner Panel of Coaches,” reporting, “the network from THF and MBV are robust
and all I really needed.” Piece added “I had access to real hiring managers from real big firms
that I could send my résumés to and gave me real HR feedback.” This sentiment exemplifies the
amazing benefits of these opportunities, extending beyond the written credentials provided
through résumés and cover letters.
Findings for Research Question 3
Analyzing the interviews in the context of Research Question Three, data demonstrated
that the most significant unmet employment related need interviewees perceived for transitioning
veterans, which both the DOL TAP and VSOs fail to address, is the need for the military to
allocate more time for veterans to adequately prepare for their transition to civilian life and
employment. Further, service members in transition are not always appropriately supported by
their leaders. Four Veterans made concerning comments about their ability to participate in TAP
and SkillBridge when or how they should have been allowed to. Additionally, interviewees
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emphasized the need to use all resources available and for those who are retiring or separating to
“be selfish with time away from their command” to engage in the TAP class (Piece). They also
emphasized the need for military members to “take advantage of every experience possible” in
transition.
There are over 40,000 VSOs providing services, but it is less clear how many Veterans
use them. A question on the recruiting questionnaire for participation in this research asked if the
survey participants had used VSOs. This one question eliminated 135 out of 190 questionnaires–
71% of potential participants, suggesting only 29% use VSOs. Two themes emerged from
analysis of the data in response to this research question: (a) the need for command support and
dedicated transition time, and (b) start early and use all available resources.
Theme 5: Need for Command Support and Dedicated Transition Time
Six interviewees reported less than optimal conditions afforded by their chains of
command relative to what is permissible and available for the Veterans. The lack of sufficient
command support for TAP engagement and internship participation, as well as dedicated time for
these initiatives, appeared to be a significant issue. Flyest reported that their boss called them on
their cell phone consistently during the scheduled TAPs class.
Three interviewees reported being treated differently after beginning the transition
process. Piece said that there are always requirements at service members’ actual jobs that do not
go away while attending the TAP, and “you must be willing to attend the TAP during the day, do
military requirement work in the evening, and transition work at night to get it all in.” He
advocated that people with longer tenure might need more time, but most significantly he
provided, “It's unfortunate, people [remaining in the military]… think you are leaving them, and
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you get treated differently.” Gunz reported not being afforded the opportunity to complete TAP
more than once, and meOW was deployed until six months before their scheduled retirement.
StarIT shared that they had to report to their command that they were an “At-Risk
Soldier” to get their permission to do SkillBridge. Ironically, at the time of interview, they
worked for a company participating in the SkillBridge transition process where their primary job
was to help Veterans enroll into their program. StarIT said that this contributed significantly to
their sense of satisfaction. StarIT also reported there is a consistent issue that transitioning
service members will be ready to start the program, except for a signature from their command,
and “that signature never comes.” The company’s intake questions now include “How is your
relationship with your command (StarIT)?” meOW was deployed until six months before her
scheduled separation, not allowing them the entire time allotted to participate in the process.
Gunz was uninformed that they could attend TAP multiple times, and much earlier than they did
until they were in their one and only TAPS class–six months before separation.
Theme 6: “Start Early and Use All of the Resources Available to You”
The analysis of the interviews illuminated the need for Veterans to start their process
early and take advantage of all available resources. There is a cultural understanding among
service members that TAP is a “Check-in-the-Box,” as discussed in prior sections. Nevertheless,
five interviewees were aware of and exercised their ability to attend TAP multiple times.
Fourteen responses across the two questions of “If you could start over, how would you
change your engagement with TAP and VSOs?” and “What advice, if any, do you have for
future transitioning Veterans to achieve their career goals?” included “start early” and/or “better
planning.” meOW emphasized the necessity of early planning, "Have a plan and start planning at
least three years out. Because six months is not enough time." This advice resonates that
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adequate preparation can help to mitigate potential career transition challenges and provides an
opportunity to explore different career paths before committing to a decision. StarIT echoed a
similar sentiment, stressing the importance of research early on, "do your research even as soon
as you start getting into the military, start looking at what's available outside of the military
because you just never know." This outlook is a testament to the unpredictability of military
careers and the importance of remaining adaptable and informed about potential career
trajectories. (StarIT enlisted with the intent to do a 20-year career, but had two knee surgeries in
one enlistment and chose to separate.) Northrup's advice encapsulated the essence of early
planning, "start early, like the 15-year mark, even if you plan to stay for 26.” Long-term career
planning could enable a new MOS and additional military provided training and experience in a
lifelong career field one enjoys while still enlisted.
Piece, as advice for future transitioning service members, shared “Be selfish. Think about
yourself. You need to focus on the transition because if you wait until you got two weeks you're
gonna be lost for about six months. Do what you need to do for you and your family.” M&M,
who reported that he and his family “prepped enough, so [they] never were stressed,” succinctly
summed up this theme, saying, “Take advantage of every program and opportunity you get.” In
the interview, he laughed out loud and said, “Use the resources given because… it's like
everything in life, you don't know what you know!” This reflects the volatility faced when so
many facets of the individual’s life are changing at one time.
Summary of Findings
These findings provide insight into the unique challenges faced by transitioning Veterans,
as well as the role of the TAP and VSOs in mitigating these challenges. The narratives of these
Veterans shine a light on the multi-dimensional complexities of the transition. The TAP’s low
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satisfaction may provide the opportunity to VSOs to deliver exceptionally perceived support.
Chapter Five compares the interviewees perspectives of TAP and VSOs, and provides
recommendations for improving select topics discussed here.
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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
This final chapter discusses the key findings from the research and provides
recommendations to address deficiencies in the transition process for veterans. The chapter also
explores limitations of the study and implications for improving equity. The most significant
findings indicate gaps exist in transition support from military commands, the adequacy of TAP,
and translation of military skills to civilian occupations. However, Veterans report higher
satisfaction with VSOs, underscoring their value in the transition process. The experiences of
Veterans in this study reveal areas needing improvement to facilitate successful transitions to
civilian life.
Discussion of Findings
The key findings from the research interviews discussed as six themes in Chapter Four
indicate deficiencies in three components of the military transition process: 1) Adequacy of the
Transition Assistance Program (TAP), 2) translation of military skills and experience, and 3)
support from military commands. Over two-thirds of veterans interviewed expressed
dissatisfaction with the adequacy of the TAP classes in preparing them for civilian employment.
In contrast, most veterans reported positive, helpful experiences from engaging with Veteran
Service Organizations (VSOs) during their transition. This significant boost underscores the
value of VSOs in facilitating successful transitions. Specific areas needing improvement include
command support for transition, dedicated transition timelines, personalized assistance based on
length of service, and better translation tools for conveying military skills to civilian employers.
Overall, the data indicates that while TAP provides a baseline, VSOs offer critical supplemental
support that better enables military-to-civilian transitions.
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Comparing Reported Satisfaction from TAP to Reported Satisfaction from VSOs
A key finding was the difference in satisfaction with TAP versus VSOs. Fourteen of 15
veterans interviewed expressed insufficient satisfaction with TAP. In contrast, most veterans
reported positive experiences with VSO support. The data reveals substantially higher
satisfaction when veterans utilize VSO career services versus the government-provided TAP.
The data provided a robust juxtaposition between Veterans' satisfaction levels after
attending the DOL TAP course and their experience with various VSOs. Table 4 presents
interviewee responses with the pseudonym of the interviewee, a quote about their experience
with TAP, and a quote about their perception of VSOs, displayed left to right for easy
comparison. A comparative analysis reveals a significant increase in job satisfaction for 12 of the
14 participants after engaging with VSOs. More observations from the comparative analysis
follow Table 5.
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Table 4
TAP and VSOs Related Satisfaction Comments
Pseudonym Comment about TAP Comment about VSOs
meOW “Midline” “Midline”
StarIT “I got a lot of growth from it.
But yeah, I would say it's
pretty good.”
“better than TAP for sure”
Northrup “very good. I think TAP taught
me skills that I was able to
use and to enjoy my job...”
“both TAP and VSOs or at least the
Veterans Administration gave me
tools... I'd say pretty high...”
Psyched “…gave a baseline exposure
then I had to go do follow on
research”
“High, I thought it was really good...”
Flyest “Six” “Seven”
Piece “The job satisfaction was good
because I did my work, but it
had nothing to do with TAP”
“massively”
BigTop “I got them together” “Initially coming out of the military,
you're eager... I was initially very
happy...”
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Pseudonym Comment about TAP Comment about VSOs
DDoctor “Not satisfied at all” “extremely satisfied, it's like they
really cared...”
Pusher “…it wasn't good” “…I would say satisfaction is good.”
M&M “Pretty good” “Happy”
WayMo “the only thing that… I
remember taking out of it
was some of the resources
that I ended up using to
navigate the whole VA
system. And… of course,
résumé writing.”
“Good résumé support, but no job
from them”
Director “Seeing as how TAP didn’t help
with really anything I'd say,
for them, not very good.”
“extremely satisfied”
Gunz “I was disappointed, I thought
I’d have more...”
“I didn’t find anything through
them...”
POWER “HAHA So now, I wouldn't
correlate those two (TAP and
Satisfaction) together.”
“TEN!”
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meOW described their experience with both the TAP and VSOs as “midline,” suggesting
neither were particularly impactful nor disappointing. StarIT and Northrup reported similar
satisfaction from their experiences with TAP. However, their satisfaction increased after
engaging with VSOs. BigTop self-reported that while he did not find his job through a VSO, he
appreciated the personalized support. Pusher said, “pretty good with helping out with my big
foundational skills, …really good with helping with networking, and… more advanced stuff.”
WayMo’s satisfaction after engaging with VSOs highlights a perceived positive influence of a
VSO on a Veterans employment even though they did not present the employment opportunity.
Specifically, DAV offered him unsolicited résumé support while interacting regarding his
disability claim and provided excellent one-on-one service. He eventually started working as a
contractor for Google, and later became an employee; now of the self-driving spin-off firm
WayMo. Despite a 20+ year career in the United States Air Force, WayMo said, “This is the best
job I’ve ever had. Even my bad days are good days.” However, his struggle to gain initial
employment, the extended duration between VSO intervention and employment, and the
depression he experienced when his “dream job” was ripped away right after separation due to
government bureaucracy were detrimental to his satisfaction. He was initially selected for a
government program designed to transition new college graduates into federal roles. Yet, after
being informed he was selected, the government informed him they had made a mistake, he
graduated a semester too early and was ineligible.
Five interviewees reported experiencing drastic increases in satisfaction between the two
service types. Psyched’s comments about TAP include: “check in the box,” “means to an end,”
“I gotta do this one week, and then I'm done,” “Honestly, I don't think it really did (help with his
résumé).” “I didn't put too much weight on their résumé building abilities.” However, he stated
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that VSOs were “really good at showcasing opportunities”, and that “ACP was huge… he (his
ACP Mentor) has been hugely beneficial to my career and continues to be.” Further, comments
including: “I thought it was really good,” and “getting exposure to Veterans on Wall Street, and
then to the Ivy League institutions from Warrior 2 Scholars… opened up my eyes like: WOW!
There are much better options out here.” Piece reported, “the job satisfaction was good because I
did my work, but it had nothing to do with TAP.” He also reported being “Massively” satisfied
with VSOs. DDoctor, said he was “Not satisfied at All.” with TAP and reported the following
regarding VSOs: “extremely satisfied, it's like they really cared.” Director, reported TAP, “didn’t
help with really anything.” Meanwhile, he was “extremely satisfied” with VSOs. POWER
laughed before he said he “would not correlate satisfaction with TAP,” and emphatically
reported his experience with VetCTAP as a “TEN!”
However, not all interviewees had entirely positive interactions with VSOs. Gunz’
satisfaction decreased after engaging with VSOs. He expressed the feeling of being seen as “just
a number” rather than receiving individualized support. “Flyest” expressed that Hire our Heroes
is only beneficial for the people who want to work at the companies with which they have
agreements. Northrup reported that he observed Northrup Grumman be “kicked out” of the
SkillBridge program because they were hiring too many of “the top graduates,” causing other
companies to threaten to leave. He proudly asserted that Northrup Grumman established their
own internship program. Complementary to these points, meOW reported being told to “go talk
to people in the industry and come back” when they approached Hire our Heroes SkillBridge.
meOW had no desire to work in the civilian industry related to their MOS. They shared feeling
discouraged and did not return. Instead, they sought help from the Fleet & Family Services
Center (FFSC) and the “Chief’s Mess,” referring to the informal network of Navy E7s-E9s,
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which meOW adamantly and jovially insisted should be considered a nonprofit. Ironically, they
now happily work in a government role mostly surrounded by retired military personnel. StarIT
reported Hire our Heroes companies did not engage with them because they did not have a
degree. These comments, and others forthcoming in this report cause concern for the scope of
support provided by some organizations Veterans count on.
Skills Translation Remains Highly Sought by Veterans
Nine out of 14 interviewees referenced skills translation for their résumé. More care and
intention should be placed into understanding the realities of civilian employment earlier in
military service so the individual plans to learn to develop their abilities such that their skills
apply more broadly. Some might posit that temporary military assignments such as those of a
recruiter, drill instructor, MOS school instructor, embassy duty, and similar contribute to crossindustry application. The recommendation is for increased opportunities to learn about the
periphery of MOS duties through collaboration with civilian suppliers, universities, economic
development corporations, and other infrastructure-focused organizations.
While not in scope of the literature review from Chapter Two, the following quote is
shared here, regarding for the need to translate résumés, as a reminder of the power of language,
“The limits of my language are the limits of my world (Wittgenstein, 1922, p. 149).” This 101-
year-old statement from Austrian World War I Veteran Ludwig Wittgenstein (1989-1981),
“considered by some to be the greatest philosopher of the 20th century” (Biletzki et al., 2021),
was written while he was home on leave from the front lines. It remains true for Veterans today.
This small study confirmed prior findings from large projects involving multiple large
organizations. For example, the 100,000 Jobs Mission, founded in 2011 by 11 companies, and
having accomplished and doubled their initial mission to help 100,000 Vets get hired, informed
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readers that Veterans struggle with skills translation (Curry Hall et al., 2014). Additionally, the
same report highlighted corporate recruiters also have difficulty with translating military skills to
their organizations. Further, some organizations create skills translator tools or use tools created
by others (Curry Hall et al., 2014). The United States’ Office of the Under Secretary of Defense
for Personnel and Readiness commissioned a renown non-partisan research organization to
develop military skills translation toolkits for Veterans and employers (Hardison et al., 2017).
Harrell and Berglass (2014) interviewed 87 representatives from 69 companies and determined
skills translation might be the number biggest barrier to hiring Veterans, as reported by 60% of
participants. This figure is consistent with reports from the Society of Human Resources
(SHRM) 2010 poll of its 250,000 members that determined 60% of members believe Veterans
have trouble translating their military skills to civilian employment (SHRM, 2010).
Military tradition keeps old words and phrases in place for nostalgia, but this practice
may be detrimental to Veteran Success. Tasks as seemingly simple as understanding inter-office
implications of the “scuttlebutt” around the “scuttlebutt,” or gossip around the watercooler
(Merriam-Webster, n.d.) are harder for Veterans because they are forced to memorize and use
words that lack practical meaning for the sake of tradition instead of learning the civilian
industry lexicon. This increases the learning required for Veterans when they do reach the
civilian workforce.
Some Commands May Not Support Transitioning Service Members Once They Start
A frequent challenge mentioned by interviewees was a lack of support from their military
command once the decision to leave service was made. Several interviewees reported resistance
from their command when trying to access transition programs and resources. TSMs should be
allowed to prepare for their transition without be treated as if they are abandoning their duty.
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While military readiness is understandably the priority, commanders need to find better ways to
balance transition support with retention needs. Being able and authorized to use transition
resources beyond the TAP is considered an opportunity–like a scholarship. Programs that
provide transitioning service members the opportunity to work in civilian organizations while
still receiving salary and benefits from the military would be beneficial as the standard, not the
exception. This could be accomplished be shifting the opportunity to after the end of obligated
active duty service to individual ready reserve time for single term enlistees. This would satisfy
commanders’ personnel needs and TSM’s transition needs. Routinely denying or resisting
transition opportunities for interviewees can make it very difficult for interviewees to take full
advantage of valuable skill-building and career development opportunities afforded during
transition. Having to repeatedly justify and fight for access to transition programs, sometimes
unsuccessfully, adds unnecessary stress during an already challenging transition period.
Overall, the military could better support our national defense by improving its transition
culture, and doing more to prioritize transition support, even if it means compromising some
retention efforts. Greater command support enabling full utilization of transition opportunities is
vital for Veterans’ success after military life. We the People have an obligation to ensure success
for transitioning Veterans that is to be formally carried by the federal government. This
obligation is exercised through five agencies under federal law 10 U.S.C. 1144 (United States
Code, 2012) in a cooperative effort among the Department of Labor, and the Departments of
Defense, Education, Homeland Security and Veterans Affairs, the Small Business
Administration, and the Office of Personnel Management (VETS, 2022b).
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Recommendations for Practice
One recommendation for each for the three components of the military transition process
addressed by the six findings discussed in Chapter Four are provided herein: 1) improve TAP
with lessons learned from effective VSO programs, 2) increase awareness of the importance of
and motivation to transition, and 3) use artificial intelligence (AI) and a civilianized lexicon to
eliminate the need for skill translation in Veteran résumés. The recommendations provided are
anticipated to have the most immediate impact for Veterans. Some portions of the
recommendations may be difficult or costly to implement, which are topics for future research.
Recommendation 1: Improve TAP with Lessons Learned from Effective VSO Programs
The nine individuals (64%) who participated in a cohort-style VSO program each
described their experience as extremely beneficial. To address TAP inadequacy, the suggested
course of action involves a comprehensive revision of the TAP curriculum in collaboration with
the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), or an equivalent authority with an
overarching mission supporting equity for employment in civilian organizations. This initiative
should include the involvement of dedicated representatives from both large and small
businesses who are enthusiastic about ensuring the success of veterans. The proposed approach
involves transitioning from the fortunate-to-receive up-to-six-month internship window during
the active-duty portion of the contract, to a standard, but refusable, six-month incentivized cohort
model. An ongoing continuous improvement cycle should be implemented to ensure current and
relevant content, teaching aids, and reference materials about industry trends and the future of
employment. Applying this recommendation would provide unit commanders the personnel they
need for the entirety of their active duty contract, TSMs the dedicated time they need, as well as
an evergreen curriculum.
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Social cognitive theory provides significant evidence that desired change is more likely to
occur when people are in a group or community (Bandura, 1986, 1989, 1991). Increasing the
cohort effect of TAP should prove beneficial. Some VSO cohort programs have exclusions, for
example, THF requires the service member to be a special operations Veteran and pay a fee,
USC MBV requires a bachelor’s degree, demonstrated leadership, tuition, and fees (usually
covered by the GI Bill®), and WWP has disability requirements. Veteran Career Transition
Assistance Program (VetCTAP) does not require special operations experience, disability, or
tuition, but does occur over eight evenings in four weeks. A list of lessons learned from VSOs
from this study include the below:
• Incorporate civilian human resource professionals deeply into the curriculum
• Teach and facilitate electronic and in-person networking
• Embrace and bolster the cohort model
• Teach Appropriate goal setting
• Introduce other opportunities
• Increase ease of attendance
• Create uninterrupted space
• Translate hard skills
• Uncover soft skills
• Provide mentors
Recommendation 2: Increase Awareness of the Importance of and Motivation to Transition
Ten Veterans indicated their transition was unsupported by their command. The
recommendation to correct this finding begins with senior leaders positively influencing the
narrative around civilian career preparation through official direction and enthusiastic
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endorsement. Senior leaders must encourage service members to engage in the transition process
rigorously. Junior members need to see and hear from the senior members that investing time in
transitioning is part of their job. This formal correspondence should be accompanied by vision
and mission statements developed by stakeholders and funding to support changes.
Service members should set employment goals commensurate to their experience when
they transition. Low initial goals may be detrimental to long-term employment satisfaction. The
effects of career downgrades or setbacks are not anecdotal. Bryant and Wilhite (1990, p. 73)
referenced Birnbaum (1976) in informing readers that “initial jobs and career origins are
‘crucial’ determinants of lifetime earnings” (p. 73). Many Veterans start over in lower-paying
jobs upon leaving military service (Keeling et al., 2019; Richard & Wilhite, 1990), with 20% to
40% living below the poverty level (Castro et al., 2014). Table 3 provided the essential elements
of each interviewees’ response regarding their initial civilian employment goals. Transitioning
service members appear to be willing to take just about any job, and that desperation does not
contribute to equity in the job market. Each military occupational specialty (MOS) personnel
planner should launch an awareness campaign for the MOS they are responsible for supporting,
ensuring median salary, and employment outlook are posted in the same conspicuous places as
fraud, discrimination, and sexual harassment prevention information. The first recommendation
involves creating awareness of the true transition struggles and desire to transition as honorably
as they served. Successful transitions will be modeled at existing “safety stand downs”
(companywide safety briefs) and other important events, such as the annual Marine Corps Ball,
and every change of command and retirement ceremony. Modeled success will reinforce critical
behaviors demonstrating it is honorable to strive for individual success after service (Smith,
2002).
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Recommendation 3: Use Artificial Intelligence (AI) and a Civilianized Lexicon to Eliminate
the Need for Skill Translation in Veteran Résumés
Nine out of 14 interviewees relied on VSOs to translate their résumés. According to a
2010 poll by the Society for Human Resource Management (2010), 60% of employers surveyed
felt that Veterans had difficulty translating military experience into civilian experience. Skills’
mismatch is typically associated with medium-skilled to high-skilled professions such as
mechanics, technicians, and non-degreed medical staff, but enlisted Veterans may be
disadvantaged relative to their peers (MacLean, 2017). Research often points to skills translation
in the context of skills mismatch resulting in poorly written résumés, applying for jobs for which
individuals are unqualified, and being hired for jobs they later find unrewarding because the
Veteran did not understand the requirements, and the recruiter did not understand the Veteran
(Batka, 2016; Schulker, 2017).
The immediate recommendation with is to teach the use of modern artificial intelligence
in résumé preparation. Transitioning service members should be automatically enrolled in an
asynchronous résumé course upon reaching one year remaining on their initial contract, and at
their discretion with one year remaining on subsequent contracts, but required two years before
retirement. However, they should be invited and encouraged to participate in asynchronous
materials as early as they like. After completing the asynchronous course, TSMs will complete
their initial draft of their master résumé with a certified professional at the government’s
expense.
This recommendation is appropriate because there are novel solutions that can assist with
this specific use case of mapping military skills to civilian skills. Numerous resources for skills
translation have been introduced over the years, but the new artificially intelligent (AI) large
85
language models (LLMs) have redefined what is possible. These novel solutions enable easy
translation for novice users, and scalability for professionals integrating AI into their career
services practices. AI can help Veterans and current transitioning service members make
immediate changes to their résumés. With training, AI can even improve their ability to be
competitive in a broader set of careers.
However, the most benefit to the Veteran, and society, may come from bringing military
language and communication into the 21st century. The long-term portion of this
recommendation is to modernize the military lexicon. Beyond tradition and nostalgia,
considering modern communication protocols, there are few reasons to keep using antiquated
words. Situations where different industries call the same thing by a different name can be dealt
with on a case-by-case basis by senior-level career planners. The argument that strict
homogeneity is required for language due to combat communication requirements would not
stand up to criticism, considering different branches of the military sometimes have different
names for the same thing.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations and delimitations are critical concepts in research. Limitations refer to factors
beyond the researcher or participant control that may affect the study’s findings. Limitations
include inadequate measurement tools, design constraints, and restricted access to research
participants (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). Delimitations are boundaries set by the researcher to
define the scope of research, improve its validity and reliability, and ensure that it is focused on
the research questions (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). Delimitations include setting inclusion and
exclusion criteria, restricting the study to a specific population or demographic, or limiting the
study to a particular time frame or geographic location (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016).
86
This study has limitations, or issues related to conditions beyond the researchers’ control.
First, the interviewees may not have remembered each of the VSOs from which they received
support or could be confused regarding the actual name of the organization. Some respondents
may have been disgruntled with the government and military or overly nationalistic and falsified
information. Some may not have provided accurate information due to privacy or other personal
concerns. The limitations could have been extensive, but with the study having been voluntary
and with respondents having been Veterans, the most anticipated issues were that interviewees
may under- or overshare or forget the benefits they received from these organizations.
Delimitations, issues related to conditions caused by deliberate research decisions, of this
research pertain to the populations not invited to participate. Restricting participation to
interviewees who held military jobs other than infantry and military police, and who served
during specific years excluded many veterans. This study also excluded military spouses. Lastly,
focusing primarily on electronic circulation methods for the recruitment questionnaire may have
prevented some Veterans from being informed of the study.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study deliberately concentrated on enlisted personnel. It is essential to acknowledge
that officers and warrant officers also encounter challenges during their transitions. Some
individuals may contend that their transition is even more arduous, underscoring the importance
of conducting research in this area. It is crucial to recognize the distinctiveness of everyone’s
journey. Notably, service members with backgrounds in infantry and military police may
encounter formidable obstacles in securing post-service employment.
Five interviewees made comments connected to transition self-efficacy or having to do
more than what is prescribed by TAP to be successful. The onus of a successful transition from
87
the military into civilian society is often put on Veterans themselves (Kleykamp, 2013;
Loughran, 2014; C. B. Stone et al., 2018; D. L. Stone & Colella, 1996). Researching transition
self-efficacy may provide insight to successful transition strategies. With the advances in
artificial intelligence, self-efficacious Veterans may be able to supplement the training they
receive from TAP and VSOs.
Implications for Equity
Gainful employment is crucial for veterans to reintegrate into civilian life successfully.
However, research shows many veterans face underemployment, wage penalties, and difficulty
finding rewarding careers that use their skills and experiences fully. Implementing personalized
transition plans, increased command support, military language modernization, and other
improvements could help strengthen Veterans’ employment outcomes and career satisfaction.
Enhancing equity in veterans' economic opportunities and social standing has benefits for
their wellbeing. It also enables society to leverage veterans' skills fully rather than lose their
potential contributions. Research has found that employment status is directly related to physical
and psychological health (Bond, Al-Abdulmunem, Drake, et al., 2022; Bond et al., 2022;
Hamilton et al., 2015; Schulker, 2017). Implementing these recommendations could improve
economic and social equity and provide career fulfillment for Veterans.
Despite the existence of federal programs to educate and assist veterans in their transition
to civilian employment, and the numerous federal regulations, there is a glaring disconnect
between the government services provided and the actual outcomes veterans experience. This
disparity is not merely a matter of economic inequity but also a profound failure to recognize and
address the complex socio-psychological dimensions of veterans’ reintegration into civilian life.
Stereotypes create barriers to fair employment, inadvertently funneling veterans into roles that
88
underutilize their skills or do not provide equitable compensation. Moreover, the systemic
devaluation of enlisted Veterans’ service, as manifested in wage penalties—even for those with
advanced education—suggests a deeper societal misunderstanding of what Veterans can
contribute to a work force.
Conclusion
The term lost in translation is often used to describe the situation when the meaning of a
phrase is lost when translated from one language to another. The applicability of Veteran skills
seems to be lost in translation from military English to commercial English. That may be the
case for this next phrase, but it describes the attitudes of many Veterans in general, and certainly
many of those interviewed for this research. “Embrace the suck” is a modern military mantra,
brought to mainstream as the title to a Veteran authored self-help book, Embrace the Suck: The
Navy SEAL Way to an Extraordinary Life (Gleeson, 2020; Sicard, 2022). The term generalizes
the concept of expecting to suffer and understanding there is learning in the process as a way to
succeed in difficult situations (Gleeson, 2020). Interviewee comments connected to transition
self-efficacy or about having to do more than what is prescribed by TAP to be successful reflect
the grit of Veterans and their continued embrace of such an inadequate system. These should not
be the conditions Veterans have to transition through at a time when they may need the most
support.
The US is in the middle of a recruiting crisis (Lin, 2023), every branch except the Marine
Corps has struggled to meet or missed its target in at least one of the last two years (Cooper,
2023); the Army missed 2022 targets by 25% (Lin, 2023). The global politcal climate has
changed drastically since the first words of this research were drafted approximately 34 months
ago with the start of conflicts in the Ukraine and Isreal, and ratcheting tensions with China over a
89
plethora of concerns. Veterans’ experiences yesterday impact the nation’s ability to rally the
appropriate volunteers today to combat current and future threats (Kleykamp, 2013; Renna &
Weinstein, 2019; Schulker, 2017). If Veteran underemployment and unemployment are not
solved, Veterans will continue to face higher rates of mental illness and homelessness. Fewer and
fewer people will be willing to volunteer to join the military as this problem perpetuates and
compounds. Economically, tax dollars will continue to treat the symptoms instead of the causes.
Strategically, the United States will face threats from adversaries for which it is not prepared
because the military will be unable to recruit appropriate talent.
90
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106
Appendix A: Key Employment Demographic Data
107
Appendix B: Recruitment Questionnaire Instrument
Question Response
Options
Research Question Supported
Are you an enlisted Veteran of the United States
Military that separated from active-duty service
BETWEEN 9/11/2005 and 9/11/2022?
Yes
No
Criterion
Was your only Military Occupational Specialties
(MOS) infantry and/or law enforcement?
Yes
No
Criterion
Did you attend The Transition Assistance Program
(TAP)?
Yes
No
Criterion
Did you use any Veteran Service Organizations
(VSOs) for résumé support?
Examples:
Disabled American Veterans (DAV),
American Veterans (AmVets),
Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW),
American Legion, Iraq & Afghanistan Veterans of
America (IAVA),
Hire Heroes USA,
Wounded Warriors,
50Strong
Yes
No
Criterion
What was the last branch of the military you served
in?
Marines
Air Force
Army
Coast Guard
Navy
Space Force
Demographic
What was your rank at separation Slider 1-9 (E) Demographic
If a VSO sent you the link that you clicked to asceses
this questionnaire, which one was it? If not from a
VSO how did you hear about this study?
Open Demographic
108
Question Response
Options
Research Question Supported
Would you like the researcher to provide your
information directly to VSO managers so they contact
you to help you find a better job?
Yes
No
N/A
Are you interested in participating in a short, no more
than one hour, interview to help improve the
employment situation of Veterans?
Name
Phone Number
Email Address
Yes
No
Criterion
109
Appendix C: Interview Protocol Instrument
Research Questions:
1. How do Veterans perceive the effectiveness of DOL TAP résumé courses in
contributing to their post-service employment goals, producing more effective résumés,
supporting higher salaries, and/or contributing to higher job satisfaction?
2. How do Veterans perceive the impact of interacting with VSOs on their post-service
employment goals, the quality of their résumés, salary levels, and/or job satisfaction?
3. What are the unfulfilled employment support needs of Veterans that are not met by DOL
TAP and/or VSOs to help them achieve their post-service employment goals?
Introduction to the Interview:
Thank you for your time in completing this interview. I am Derek Wilson, a Veteran and Veteran
advocate. This research addresses the problem of Veteran unemployment, and underemployment
in the United States.
To proceed with the interview please tell me you consent and I will turn on the reordering
devices. I will then state my name and information and request you to do the same and state that
you consent to this interview. I will then proceed with the questions.
Question # Interview questions Potential probes RQ alignment
1 How would you describe
your level of engagement
during the TAP courses?
Why? How has it
served you?
Icebreaker
2 How many months before
or after separation did
you begin your job
search?
What was the
indication to you
it was time to
begin that search?
Icebreaker
3 Describe your initial job
search?
When did you
begin?
Icebreaker
4 What was your immediate
employment goal when
you separated?
Why? 1, 2, 3
5 How, if at all, has your goal
change?
Why 1, 2, 3
6 What was your long-term
career goal before and at
separation?
Did you tell anyone
at TAP or VSOs
what your goal
was?
1, 2, 3
7 How important, if at all, do
you think your résumé
Why? 1, 2
110
Question # Interview questions Potential probes RQ alignment
was in getting your first
job after transitioning?
8 Describe how working with
TAP influenced your
resume.
What kind of
interview
questions did you
get regarding
your résumé
content and
format, if any?
1
9 Describe how working with
a VSO after TAP help to
improve your resume.
2
10 To what extent did you use
Veteran Service
Organizations (VSOs)
for résumé support
before getting your first
civilian job?
Which ones 1
11 Which Veteran Service
Organizations (VSOs)
did you receive résumé
and/or interview support
from, before you got
your 1st civilian job.
Tell me about the
services you
received from
them. To what
extent, if at all,
were you
satisfied with the
support you
received?
2
12 Which ones, if any, did you
use after you got your
first civilian job?
Why did/did not use
the same one?
2
13 Describe the résumé and
cover letter support
services provided by
each VSO?
What, if anything,
did they do for
you? How did it
help? How long
did it take?
2
14 How well, if at all, did
interviewers understand
your résumé content
after you received help
from VSOs?
To what extent, if at
all, were you
satisfied with the
level of
improvement in
your resume?
2
111
Question # Interview questions Potential probes RQ alignment
15 How would you describe
your job satisfaction
after attending TAP?
1, 2
16 What was your level of
satisfaction after
engaging the help of
VSOs?
17 Did you find job
opportunities that
allowed you to do things
that align to your values
since after TAP?
1
18 Did you find job
opportunities that
allowed you to do things
that align to your values
since after VSOs?
2
19 What is your level of level
of satisfaction with
having a job that
provides the chance to do
something that makes use
of your abilities since
using TAP?
1, 3
20 What is your level of level
of satisfaction with
having a job that
provides the chance to do
something that makes use
of your abilities since
using VSOs?
2,3
21 What is your level of
satisfaction with the
feeling of
accomplishment you get
from jobs since since
using TAP ?
1, 2, 3
112
Conclusion to the Interview:
That is the end of my questions. I thank you, again, and on behalf of my research partners and
dissertation chair and supporting committee. Do you have any questions for me? This concludes
our interview. Have a great day.
Question # Interview questions Potential probes RQ alignment
22 What is your level of
satisfaction with the
feeling of
accomplishment you get
from jobs since using
VSOs?
1, 2, 3
23 What, if anything, would
have made the career
related aspects of your
transition easier?
Where did you look
for theses
services, if at all?
3
24 How, if at all, do you think
your story is different
than other successful
Veterans who have
engaged with TAP and
VSOs?
If you could start
over, how would
you change your
engagement with
TAP and VSOs?
1, 2, 3
25 What advice, if any, do you
have for future
transitioning Veterans to
achieve their career
goals?
Why? 3
113
Appendix D: Information Sheet for Exempt Research
STUDY TITLE: An Exploratory Inductive Study of Veteran Transition Assistance and
Underemployment
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Derek Wilson
FACULTY ADVISOR: Drs. Helena Seli & Jennifer Phillips
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to examine the experiences of Veterans with career services offered
through the Transition Assistance Program (TAP) and Veterans Service Organizations (VSOs).
The study aims to understand if/how these services have contributed to Veterans securing
employment aligned with their career goals. You are invited as a possible participant because
you meet the criteria for participation. Potential participants in this study are enlisted Veterans
that transitioned from active-duty service in the United States military between 9/11/2005 and
9/11/2022, attended the TAP, used VSOs, and applied for civilian jobs in the United States after
separating from the military.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you decide to take part in the study, you will be asked to complete a 45-minute Zoom or
telephone meeting. The meeting will be based on simple questions regarding the career transition
TAP and VSO support and gaps in services available.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be compensated for your participation. However, if you want help getting a better
job, we can provide your information to managers at VSOs so they can contact you directly. We
hope everyone that needs a job selects “Yes” so we can help them.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data observed. The IRB reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. When the results of the research are
published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information will be used. The data
collected for this study via the survey will be anonymous. The data will be stored in a password
protected computer and will be destroyed after 3 years.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Derek E. Wilson at (858) 952-8013 or
derekewi@usc.edu.
114
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.
115
Appendix E:
Alphabetical List of VSOs Contacted for Recruitment Questionnaire Distribution
• 50Strong
• American Veterans (AMVETS)
• American Legion
• Disabled American Veterans (DAV)
• Hire Heroes USA (HHUSA)
• Iraq & Afghanistan Veterans of America (IAVA)
• Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW)
• Wounded Warriors Project (WWP)
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study investigated the experiences of enlisted non-infantry/police Veterans who transitioned from active-duty service in the United States military between September 11th, 2005, and September 11th, 2022. Semi-structured interviews of 14 Veterans were used to understand the satisfaction obtained from TAP and VSO career services during the transition to civilian employment. The study analyzed the data through coding and thematic analysis to identify key patterns and themes. The study's purpose was to understand Veterans’ perceptions of TAP and VSO career services and recommendations for improvement. The analysis used qualitative research methods and software to support the analysis process. The key findings from the research interviews indicate deficiencies exist in three main areas of the military transition process: 1) adequacy of the Transition Assistance Program (TAP), 2) translation of military skills and experience, and 3) support from military commands. Recommendations for practice are provided as well.
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Asset Metadata
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Wilson, Derek Edward
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Core Title
An exploratory inductive study of veteran transition assistance and underemployment
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Degree Conferral Date
2023-12
Publication Date
12/07/2023
Defense Date
11/28/2023
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