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An evaluation of the effectiveness of positive behavior intervention system at the high school level

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An evaluation of the effectiveness of positive behavior intervention system at the high school level

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Content An Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Positive Behavior Intervention System at the High School
Level
by
Josephine Wade
______________________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2023
2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to the teachers who volunteered to share their thoughts and
hearts with me for this project. Their support provided me with invaluable information regarding
high school discipline. Thank you.
This dissertation is also dedicated to Barbara Lane. Without her constant support, I would
never have considered this doctorate program. Thank you for being unwavering in your belief in
me. You are my constant cheerleader, and while I don’t deserve you, I am forever grateful.
This dissertation is also dedicated to my daughter, Mellonie. Thank you for being so
understanding about the missed dance competitions and missed time together so that I could
successfully complete this program. Being “away” from you was the most difficult part of this
program. You’re my favorite.
Lastly, I have to wholeheartedly thank my husband, Dale. He has pushed me to be my
best self since we were teenagers. He truly believes in me and will listen to my frustration, but he
helps me to realize that I can always reach my goals. He has always supported me, and he has
never given up on me, even when I wanted to give up on myself.
3
Acknowledgements
I would not be able to complete this program without the perfect pairing with my
dissertation chair, Dr. Darline Robles, who offered a balance of support and empathy, and truly
supported me every step of the way. Her advice and reassurance are unmeasured, and I am
forever grateful for her lending an ear, even when I just needed someone to listen to me cry. I am
eternally grateful.
I would also like to thank Dr. Ott and Dr. Ermeling., my dissertation committee
members. Their wisdom and kindness have been unmatched throughout this process, and I am
grateful for their patience as I maneuvered through this process. Thank you.
4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 9
Abstract 11
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 12
Background of the Problem 13
Importance of Addressing the Problem 16
Organizational Context and Mission 17
Organizational Performance Status 17
Organizational Performance Goal 18
Description of Stakeholder Group 19
Stakeholder Group for the Study 20
Purpose of the Project and Questions 20
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 21
Definitions 22
Organization of the Project 23
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 24
Influences on the Problem of Practice 25
Historical Practice in School Discipline in the United States 25
Federal Legislation Regarding Discipline 26
California Legislation Regarding Discipline 27
Equal Access 28
Racial Disparities in School Discipline 28
Implicit Bias 29
Systemic Racism 30
Achievement Gap 32
Social Implications 33
School-to-Prison Pipeline 34
Conceptual Framework 35
Stakeholder Knowledge Motivation and Organizational Influences 35
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Adaption of the Gap Analysis Framework as a Promising Practice 36
Knowledge and Skills 36
Procedural Knowledge Influences 36
Metacognitive Knowledge Influences 36
Motivation 37
Value 38
Self-Efficacy 38
Organization 40
Resources 40
Cultural Setting 40
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 43
Purpose of the Project and Questions 43
Adaptation of the Gap Analysis Framework as an Evaluative Study 46
Assessment of Performance Influences 47
Knowledge Assessment 47
Procedural Knowledge 48
Metacognitive Knowledge 48
Motivation Assessment 49
Value 49
Self-Efficacy 50
Organizational Assessment 51
Resources 51
Cultural Settings 52
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection 53
Sampling 53
Instrumentation 54
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Interview Protocol Design 54
Data Collection 54
Interviews 54
Data Analysis 55
Trustworthiness of Data 55
Role of Investigator 55
Limitations and Delimitations 56
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS 57
Participating Stakeholders 57
Interview Participants 58
Determination of Assets and Needs 58
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes 59
Procedural Knowledge 60
Metacognitive Knowledge 65
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes 66
Value 66
Self-Efficacy 67
Results and Findings for Organization Cause 70
Resources 71
Cultural Settings 72
Summary of Validated Influences 74
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION 77
Purpose of the Project and Questions 77
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Organizational Context and Mission 77
Organizational Performance Status 78
Description of Stakeholder Groups 78
Stakeholder Group for the Study 78
Purpose of the Project and Questions 79
Recommendation to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influence 79
Knowledge Recommendations 80
Procedural Knowledge Solutions 81
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions 84
Motivation Recommendations 85
Value Solutions 87
Self-Efficacy Solutions 87
Organization Recommendations 89
Cultural Setting Solutions 91
Resources Solutions 92
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Recommendation 93
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 94
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations 94
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 95
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 94
Level 3: Behavior 97
Level 2: Learning 99
Level 1: Reaction 102
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Limitations 104
Recommendations for Future Research 105
Conclusion 105
References 108
Appendix 117
Appendix A 117
Appendix B 120
Appendix C 121
Appendix D 123
Appendix E 124
Appendix F 125
Appendix G 126

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholders’ Ability to
Achieve the Performance Goal 33
Table 2 Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholders’ Ability to
Achieve the Performance Goal 35
Table 3 Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholders’ Ability to
Achieve the Performance Goal 38
Table 4 Summary of Knowledge Influence and Method of Assessment 43
Table 5 Summary of Motivation Influences and Methods of Assessment 45
Table 6 Summary of Organization Influences and Methods of Assessment 47
Table 7 Interview Participants 55
Table 8 Enrollment at MKAW, disaggregated by student race 56
Table 9 School at MKAW, disaggregated by race 57
Table 10 Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 73
Table 11 Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 73
Table 12 Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 74
Table 13 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 80
Table 14 Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 85
Table 15 Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 89
Table 16 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 95
Table 17 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 96
Table 18 Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 97
Table 19 Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 100
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Table 20 Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 101
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 GAP Analysis Process 41

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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to evaluate racial disparities in school discipline in one high
school. Interview participants included PBIS committee teachers. The knowledge and motivation
of teachers as well as organizational factors that contribute to exclusionary practices were
examined. Results include the needs and assets for teachers to successfully implement PBIS at
MKAW High School. Results include an apparent lack of knowledge of PBIS strategies, how to
use data successfully, being supplied the necessary resources, and administration buy-in.
Recommendations include a framework to develop PBIS at MKAW High School in 3 years.
Continuous drivers include self-reflection, evaluation, and monitoring.
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Across the United States, students of color continue to be plagued by school inequalities
(Gregory et al., 2010). The suspensions and expulsions that result from the “Zero Tolerance”
policy have negatively affected students of color for decades (Schiff, 2013). According to
research, in 2013–2014, about 2.6 million public school students, equivalent to 5%, were
suspended at least once during the school year (National Center for Educational Statistics
[NCES], 2019). Of those suspended, Black students represented 13.7% more than any other
racial/ethnic group (NCES, 2019). The percentage of Latino students retained was higher than
that of white students; however, the difference between the two ethnic groups was not
measurable (NCES, 2019). In 2019, California Governor Gavin Newsom made exclusionary
discipline, such as suspensions and expulsions, prohibitive for students in kindergarten–eighth
grade (Losen, 2020); however, this provision does not address the exclusionary practices that
continue to be employed at the high school level. The California State superintendent, Tony
Thurmond (2021), has recognized the harsh reality that students, particularly Black and Latino
students, face when a school environment does not foster their academic success. Superintendent
Thurmond enacted other provisions designed to address the exclusionary practices of suspension
and expulsions and to improve students’ academic success. California Education Code (EC)
489009w) (1) states that schools must find an alternative to suspensions when a student is
habitually truant, tardy, or absent from school (Thurmond, 2021). EC Section 48900(v) also
encourages superintendents to provide alternatives to suspensions and expulsions when dealing
with discipline issues. The direction is that suspensions and expulsions should be a last resort for
students—especially the most disenfranchised students.
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MKAW School District (a pseudonym) in Southern California has vowed to lower the
number of suspensions and expulsions to 3% for all students, according to their LCAP, by
implementing positive behavior intervention support systems and other mediations to try to
lessen exclusionary practices. Their high school, MKAW High School (a pseudonym), had
implemented positive behavior intervention support (PBIS), which it used almost solely for the
purpose of reducing expulsions and suspensions and has since 2018. This study evaluated the
effectiveness of the implementation of PBIS to meet the goal of reducing suspension and
expulsion to 3% or less.
Background of the Problem
According to the U.S. Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights, students
suspended or expelled across the country nearly doubled—from 3% in 1974 to 6% in 2009–
2010. In the early 1990s, schools began taking a get-tough approach to discipline. This approach,
aptly named the Zero-Tolerance policy, doubled school suspensions, and led to the policing of
Black and Brown students and the enactment of laws that required children to be referred to law
enforcement for a variety of school code violations (Wald & Losen, 2003). These students
become victims of the system because these so-called infractions were generally nonviolent.
Black and Brown students are overly surveilled and excluded from their education. In 2017–
2018, the State of California had 6,384,919 students enrolled in K–12 (California Department of
Education, 2017–2018 [CDE]). Five percent of the enrolled students were Black, yet they
represented 15.1% of the suspensions, while 54.2% of the students enrolled were Latino and
represented 55.3% of the suspensions that year (CDE, 2017–2018). Of all the students enrolled
that year, 23.2% of the students were White, yet they only represented 19.9% of the suspensions
(CDE, 2017–2018). The track to graduation became more difficult as students of color faced
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teachers unqualified to teach them, repeated suspensions, and exclusion from the classrooms,
leading to academic failure (Okilwa & Broscoe, 2017). Ultimately, administrators across the
nation banished the students to alternative schools (Wald & Losen, 2003). After such punitive
measures, students were pushed out or dropped out of school, thus increasing the likelihood of
incarceration. In 2019, 5% of high school students aged 16 to 24 dropped out of high school
(NCES). Four percent of those students were White, 6% were Black, and 8% were “Hispanic”
(NCES). These tragic outcomes are due to the exclusionary practices of schools nationwide. As
a result of such exclusionary practices, students were funneled into the school-to-prison pipeline
(Schiff, 2013).
The term “school-to-prison pipeline” was coined to describe how disciplinary practices
lead to an increased risk of incarcerated youth (Skiba et al., 2014). Adult prisons and juvenile
halls present ample evidence of the children who suffered from the harshness of the Zero-
Tolerance policy, and the racial disparities are glaring. According to Prison Policy Initiative, in
2019, 15% of the U.S. population younger than 18 was Black, yet 35% of the youth arrests made
that same year were of Black youth (Sawyer, 2020). Latino children fared better as they
represented 25% of the youth population that same year and 23% of the youth arrests made
(Sawyer, 2020). The disparity is evident when their White counterparts are considered. In 2019,
72% of the population was White minors, yet 62% of the youth arrests were of white minors
(Sawyer, 2020). The more exclusionary practices used to discipline students, the more likely it is
that these same students will become incarcerated later in life, especially Black and Latino
students (Skiba et al., 2011). The zero-tolerance policy has affected communities with the
highest poverty rate, especially those with a high percentage of minority students (Skiba et al.,
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2014). Expulsions and suspensions continue to be overutilized when students are disciplined
(Skiba et al., 2014).
Expulsion and suspension have increased since the 1970s (Skiba et al., 2014). According
to the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights, students suspended or expelled
across the country almost doubled from 1974 from 4% to 7% suspended in 2009-2010. These
students become victims of the system because these so-called infractions were generally
nonviolent. For the 2011–2012 school year, Black students represented 18% of preschool
enrollment, yet 48% of Black preschool students were suspended (U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Civil Rights, 2014). Meanwhile, their White counterparts, who made up
48% of the enrolled preschool population, received 26% of the suspensions (U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Civil Rights, 2014). Black students were suspended and expelled three
times more than White students; 5% of White students were suspended compared to 16% of
Black students (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Civil Rights, 2014). The data clearly
indicate that Black and Latino students are losing critical instructional minutes. Because of
systemic issues in the education system, students are more likely to drop out of school if they
have been suspended or expelled. In 2019, 5% of high school students aged 16 to 24 dropped out
of high school (National Center for Education Statistics). Five percent of those students were
White, six percent were Black students, and eight percent were “Hispanic” students (NCES).
These tragic outcomes are due to exclusionary practices of schools nationwide.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
Solving the problem of exclusionary practices is essential for various reasons. Students
removed from the classroom for disciplinary measures show a negative correlation between
educational opportunity and school engagement (Muscott et al., 2008). Evidence suggests that
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suspensions and expulsions could correlate with state accountability factors, such as academic
achievement (Skiba et al., 2014). The purpose of suspension is to reduce disruptive behaviors
that impact student learning in the classroom; however, suspensions seem to have the opposite
effect. Students who have been suspended have a higher chance of being suspended again later in
their educational years, especially if they were suspended in the fourth or fifth grades (Mendez &
Knoff, 2003). Raffaele Mendez found that student suspension early in the primary years was the
strongest indicator of being a repeat offender for suspensions (Mendez & Knoff, 2003).
Extensive data also demonstrate how students who have been a part of exclusionary disciplinary
practices are more at risk of dropping out of school. If a student is suspended just once, the
likelihood of dropping out is increased by 77.5%; suspensions appear to be a better predictor of
at-risk youth than low grade point average or socioeconomic status (Suh & Suh, 2007). One of
the most significant issues is evidence of racial disproportionality in cases where students have
been suspended in the past and later are referred to the juvenile court system. Black students are
referred to at a higher rate than their White counterparts, even when factors such as poverty
levels and demographics are factored in (Nicholson-Crotty et al., 2009). These exclusionary
practices also impact students’ overall well-being, thereby affecting all people in society
(Thurmond, 2021). Society is impacted because students who drop out of school tend to struggle
with unemployment and make significantly less than high school graduates, resulting in higher
incarceration rates, more single mothers, and more health issues (Lee-St et al., 2018).
Organizational Context and Mission
The MKAW Unified School District is located in Southern California. Both the school
district name and the city name are pseudonyms. The school district serves over 13,000 students
in grades ranging from preschool to high school and adult education. MKAW Unified School
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District provides honors classes, Advanced Placement courses, Advancement Via Individual
Determination (AVID) courses, Career and Technical Pathways, and articulated college classes.
The motto for the school district is “Preparing Students for Their Successful Future.”
The school’s mission statement reads: “MKAW will meet the academic, behavioral, and
social-emotional needs of all students to successfully navigate the world after graduation.”
According to the California School Dashboard’s most recent data, 14,358 students were enrolled
in the district in 2019. The demographics are diverse, as 9% report their race as Black, 50.7%
report as Hispanic, and 35.6% report as White (California School Dashboard, 2022), which
leaves 2% reporting two or more races, 2% reporting as Asian, and the rest reporting as other
racial/ethnicity groups. The Board of Trustees is comprised of five members: four males and one
female. The female is the only African American on the board and the only member who has
ever served in a classroom. Six administrators, eight counselors, and 93 teachers are employed at
the high school.
Organizational Performance Status
At the root of this study, the organizational performance problem is noncompliance with
the district’s Local Control and Accountability Plan (LCAP) goal. All schools must develop an
LCAP. The LCAP is a part of California Ed. Code. LCAP determines some of the funding for
schools; however, the goals listed in the plan must align with the stated goals in LCAP.
According to the district's previously stated LCAP, Goal 3 states that teachers must provide
Multi-Tiered Systems of Support: Interventions to support positive student growth and
development academically, behaviorally, and emotionally, and maintain a positive school
climate with parents and staff working together to better all children in the community. While
some structures to improve the school climate were initially implemented for the 2019–2020
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school year, the school district has failed to ensure that the structures were continuously
implemented successfully and, in some cases, ultimately eliminated the support. Because
COVID-19 delayed the implementation process, the district used COVID-19 as an excuse for
why these structures were not implemented when the schools reopened from distance learning
(LCAP). More importantly, this failure negatively affects students, especially Black and Latino
students. While the California Dashboard did not publish data for suspensions and expulsions in
2021, the graduation rates were published. Only 72% of Black students graduated from this
school, while 93% of Latino students graduated, and 96% of White students graduated
(California Dashboard).
Organizational Performance Goal
MKAW’s previously stated LCAP goal, to be met by the end of the 2024 school year, is
to have a 3% or less suspension rate for all students, regardless of their subgroup. This goal was
created by the District Advisory Committee. According to their baseline data from the 2019–
2020 school year, the overall suspension rate was 5%. The following subgroup percentages are
as follows: 11.1% of the African American students were suspended, while only 4% of White
students were suspended. The suspension rate for Latinx students is 4%. Black students'
suspension rates were measured through a software program that gathers data about attendance,
discipline, grades, and demographics.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Stakeholders consist of teachers, counselors, and administration who have been a part of
the Positive Behavior and Intervention Support systems (PBIS) committee since 2019 and
contribute to the organization's goal. Teachers that served on the committee were the
stakeholders for this study. For instance, at MKAW High School, during the 2021–2022 school
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year, the PBIS committee had nine teachers. Three of the teachers on the committee taught
special education, three teachers taught general education, one taught world languages, and two
served as CTE teachers. Two school counselors served on the committee with a behavior
interventionist, as did two instructional coaches. One coach was a technology coach and the
other a school coach. Three administrators served on the committee. One administrator was the
assistant principal, and the other two administrators on the committee were the Deans of
Discipline. During other years, the PBIS committee had varied participation from different
teachers and rarely has there been continuity due to turnover at the school or teachers leaving the
committee due to other commitments.
The district has pledged the following support to ensure the implementation of PBIS:
Teachers will have access to release time, training, and support to ensure the implementation of
Positive Behavior and Intervention Support systems, restorative justice training, trauma-
informed instructional practices training, and other related programs to ensure the improvement
of school culture to ultimately reduce chronic absenteeism and suspension rates for all students
(LCAP, Action #5). All teachers in the school are also responsible for teaching the PBIS
expectations in their classroom and using them with fidelity.
Counselors are responsible for additional support for low-income students and foster
youth and will provide academic, mental health, social-emotional, behavioral, and career
guidance counseling. One of the administrators was tasked with training all teachers on campus
in PBIS and how to implement it in their classrooms. The administrators were ultimately
responsible for ensuring that the suspension and expulsion rate decreases through the
intervention program. According to the district’s LCAP, the program's success will be measured
by increasing the graduation rate and attendance for “unduplicated” students.
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Stakeholder Group for the Study
While all stakeholders contribute to the district's overarching goals, it is essential to
understand how the PBIS teacher committee members responded to the goals set by the MKAW
District and whether they have been genuinely offered the tools to improve the schoolwide
system of behavior management. Therefore, the PBIS committee teachers of the MKAW Unified
School District's traditional high schools were the focus stakeholders for this study for the entire
MKAW School District. Due to the high turnover at the high schools, the study targeted
committee members from 2019 to 2021. The past members were from the first year of data
keeping of PBIS notes to the previous school year. The LCAP goals state that release time,
training, and support for the PBIS committees to attend and implement behavior support
programs, restorative justice programs, trauma-informed practices, and any other related training
deemed relevant to reducing student suspensions and expulsions will be provided.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
This project aimed to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that interfere with MKAW Unified School District’s ability to provide
interventions to students that assist in their academic, behavior, and emotional growth (LCAP,
2021). Analysis began by generating a list of possible or presumed interfering influences that
were examined systematically to focus on actual or validated interfering influences. While a
complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the PBIS teacher
committee members from 2019-2021 were the stakeholders focused in the analysis of this study.
While the study was originally intended to evaluate how the implementation of PBIS was fairing
at MKAW High School, due to the program’s complete elimination, the study turned to what is
needed for the school to meet its LCAP goal, while implementing the PBIS program. The study
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became more of a reflection of what PBIS was at the school and how support is needed to
implement it again.
As such, the questions that guided this study were as follows:
1. What knowledge, skills, and motivations do PBIS members at MKAW traditional high
school perceive have hindered and/or supported successful implementation of
interventions to reduce suspensions and expulsions of Black and Latino students?
2. What organizational factors do PBIS members at MKAW traditional high school
perceive have hindered and/or supported the successful implementation of interventions
to reduce suspensions and expulsions of Black and Latino students?
3. What are MKAW traditional high school PBIS members’ recommendations to
successfully implement interventions that reduce suspensions and expulsions of Black
and Latino students?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify
organizational goals and identify the gap between actual performance level and preferred
performance level within an organization was implemented as the conceptual framework. The
methodological framework was a qualitative case study. Assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that interfere with organizational goal achievement were generated
based on personal knowledge and related literature. These influences were assessed using
document analysis and interviews. Research-based solutions were recommended and evaluated
in a comprehensive manner.

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Definitions
Local Control and Accountability Plan: Districts are required to write and update LCAPs
to assist with the budgeting process. Each district builds goals around eight priorities: access to
core services, implementing California state standards, access to a comprehensive course of
study, student achievement, student engagement, parent involvement, school climate, and other
student outcomes. The goals and targets are dictated by the district and help to ensure that the
school resources are spent in a manner that better aligns with the district’s specific community.
Multi-Tiered System of Support: A framework that focuses on Common Core State
Standards, core instruction, differentiated learning, student-centered learning, and individualized
students’ needs and aligns all critical systems for students’ emotional, behavioral, academic, and
mental success.
Positive Behavior Intervention Support (PBIS): An evidence-based framework that
implements best practices and interventions to support students academically, socially, and
behaviorally.
Positive Behavior Intervention Support (PBIS) Committee: The stakeholders who serve
on the committee provide proactive and positive support for students at the universal level.
Stakeholders may include parents, students, teachers, administrators, and counselors.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided a brief introduction
to the exclusionary discipline practices and the harm they cause Black and Latino students. The
organizations mission, goals, stakeholders, and the initial concepts of gap analysis were also
introduced. Chapter 2 presents a review of the current literature related to the scope of the study.
Topics of exclusionary discipline practices, policy, and interventions are addressed. Chapter 3
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details the presumed interfering elements, methodology for the PBIS committee, and data
collection. In chapter 4, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Based on data and the
literature, chapter 5 offers solutions for closing the perceived gaps and recommendations for an
implementing and evaluating plan for the solutions.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Black and Brown students across the United States are being disciplined at a much higher
rate than their White counterparts (Gregory et al., 2010). They face exclusionary practices that
have far-reaching effects on their future. When suspended or expelled, they face systemic
societal issues impacting everyone.
The first section of chapter 2 is the literature review of exclusionary practices. The first
section looks at discipline practices and how they progressed to the systematic issues that
students and educators face today. It includes an overview of the history and issue of disciplinary
practices. Equal access to education for students of color is also explored. Problems that continue
to hinder students’ rights to access, such as implicit bias, racism, and racial disparities in the
school system, are also reviewed, followed by analysis of the outcomes of exclusionary practices
and how they continuously hurt students of color. Then, I examine how PBIS is implemented at
MKAW and the role teachers play in that implementation.
The second section of the literature review will use Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis
framework. I provide an explanation of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
lens used in this study. I also review the following KMO influences for the focus stakeholders
and the conceptual framework: procedural, metacognitive, value, self-efficacy, cultural settings,
and cultural models.
Influences on the Problem of Practice
This part of the first section briefly explains the history of discipline practices that
generated the discipline issues that Black and Brown students face today.

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Historical Practice in School Discipline in the United States
Discipline practices should help all students be successful in the classroom environment;
however, discipline practices historically have proven ineffective. School became a place of fear
and punishment early in the 18th century (Weaver, 2012). The dunce cap has long represented
the failings and idiocy of a child and was used to humiliate and chastise children into
submission. The dunce cap punishment required students to stand on a stool or sit on a replica of
a “jackass,” which caused the student to be isolated and a beacon for taunting (Weaver, 2012).
The word dunce literally means a stupid person, so the self-efficacy of students who had to don
the dunce cap would be diminished. The school was clearly a place in which students were
admonished.
Schools continued to create punishments that encouraged floggings and humiliation.
Typically, a well-behaved student was defined as one that followed their leader (teacher) without
question (Adams, 2000); however, students have not been so easily placated, and “school
violence” has been a focal point of education for generations (Adams, 2000). In the not-so-
distant past, teachers used floggings and other forms of corporal punishment to force
acquiescence (Adams, 2000). Students have also been diagnosed and put in medically induced
stupors. Unfortunately, these actions were occurring at a higher rate in urban schools with a
higher population of students of color (Adams, 2000). Many schools began using exclusionary
practices when corporal punishment lost support from the community (Adams, 2000). This
history of violence has culminated in issues that seem intrinsic today. Teachers must understand
the historical context of discipline so they can incorporate nonviolent, systemic practices that
benefit all students.

26

Federal Legislation Regarding Discipline
Federal legislation has caused harm to our students, particularly Black and Brown
students. Corporal punishment is still legal in 19 states due to a Supreme Court ruling in 1977;
thus discipline policy was left to states to decide whether to allow it (Elson, 1980). There are
racial, gender, and children with disabilities disparities in the data that demonstrate which states
used corporal punishment and on whom (Elson, 1980). Children of color have typically borne the
brunt of corporal punishment (Elson, 1980), and increasing evidence indicates that schools have
become more segregated since the passing of the Brown v. Board of Education, and students do
not have equal access to education (Orfield & Frankenberg, 2014). Schools resegregated due to
the end of bussing and “white flight,” which saw White people leave cities for settings in
suburban areas so their children would not to have to attend school with children of color
(Orfield & Frankenberg, 2014).
Zero-tolerance policies have had unintended consequences for children of color.
According to Skiba (2008), zero-tolerance policies were born in the 1990s and were heavily
influenced by the Columbine High School shooting in 1999. Ambiguity in the definition of the
Zero-Tolerance in school policy has left the policy one of the worst offenders in harming Black
and Brown children (Curran, 2019). The assumption behind Zero-Tolerance is that if disruptive
students are removed from the classroom, the classroom environment improve (Curran, 2019);
thus, the Zero-Tolerance policy has typically resulted in many suspensions and expulsions.
Because of ambiguous and inconsistent application between counties and school districts,
implementation has been based upon characteristics such as urban location, diversity of the
population, and socioeconomic status (Curran, 2019), with Black and Brown students in urban
areas suffering the most.
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Zero-tolerance policies have exacerbated exclusionary practices in the U.S. classroom
(Allman & Slate, 2011), increasing students’ feelings of “alienation, anxiety, and rejection”
(APA, 2008). Despite evidence that out-of-school suspension (OSS) and in-school suspensions
(ISS) are causing more harm, school suspensions have been and continue to be a common
consequence for students (Allman & Slate, 2011). Federal policies continue to negatively impact
student achievement and overall student welfare.
California Legislation Regarding Discipline
In decades past, California state legislation has consistently been at the forefront of
school policies that hurt students of color, especially Black and Latino students. The
criminalization of truants began in Los Angeles (Sojoyner, 2014), and Los Angeles led the
country on the model of criminalizing Black students. In 1956, Los Angeles became the first city
to implement a district-wide discipline policy at a time when Los Angeles’s population was
growing, and the social and racial forefront was changing (Kafka, 2009). The Welfare Planning
Council (WPC) released a report that focused on the “gangs” of “South Central,” neutralizing the
impact of Black organizations on Black youth and establishing a set of processes that controlled
education through the state via surveillance and monitoring with the implementation of tools like
metal detectors (Sojoyner, 2014). The movement of bureaucratic decision-making in discipline
policies helped sow the seeds for sweeping national reform, such as the zero-tolerance
movement.
Equal Access
Racial Disparities in School Discipline
Expected educational outcomes for students of color remain unattainable because of the
inaccessibility of an equal education compared to their White counterparts. Black students are
28

three to four times more likely to be suspended than White students for the same infraction for
which the students were referred to discipline in the first place (Hilberth & Slate, 2014). Black
students are more likely to receive both in-school and out-of-school suspensions or referrals to an
alternative setting than their White counterparts (Hilberth & Slate, 2014). Clearly, Black
students are overrepresented in discipline data.
Discipline disparities have enormous implications for the quality of experience that
students of color receive, as the disparities significantly reduce a student of color's opportunity to
learn (Okonofua et al., 2016). Students lose a sense of belonging when racially stigmatized.
Moreover, they are more likely to be viewed as violent if they are Black or Brown students
compared to their White and Asian counterparts, thus resulting in harsher penalties (Okonofua et
al., 2016). Students of color are more likely to be stereotyped as less intelligent, lazy, or
disrespectful, which results in a teacher changing expectations for the students and mistreating
them when disciplined (Okonofua & Eberhardt, 2016).
In response to growing concern over students of color being disciplined at a much higher
rate than their White peers, President Obama enacted the “Rethink Discipline” policy, which
aimed at to reduce the number of suspensions and expulsions for students of color (Sparks &
Klein, 2018). Part of the "”Every Student Succeeds Act,” which President Obama enacted to try
to curb the inequities, requires schools to report on civil rights data (Sparks & Klein, 2018).
President Trump and his secretary of education rescinded the “Rethink Discipline” policy in
2018 under the guise that schools faced more violence and fewer strategies in which to address
the violence (Sparks & Klein, 2018)—despite impassioned pleas to keep civil rights on the
forefront of the educational agenda by organizations like charter schools, superintendents, and
others. Biden’s administration claimed that the issue of discipline for students of color would be
29

revisited; however, no strides have been made in this area. Despite efforts to end the
disproportionality prevalent in American history, students of color remain wholly unprotected
from discipline disparities. Because of implicit bias, policymakers have created an environment
that negatively impacts students of color, such as the zero-tolerance policy (Warikoo et al.,
2016).
Implicit Bias
Racism is endemic and ingrained in all facets of society, including education (Picower,
2009). Disparities persist in education and affect the lives of Black and Brown students, and
implicit bias could be an attributing factor. Unlike overt discrimination, implicit bias is the
unconscious attitude and perception that people harbor (Scott, 2021). Most Americans exhibit
some pro-White and anti-Black biases (Scott, 2021). Through lived experiences, teachers accrue
hegemonic ideals and strategically protect dominant understandings of race (Picower, 2009). In
the classroom, implicit bias may look like teachers are lowering their standards for Black
students, resulting in more significant achievement gaps (Scott, 2021). Teachers are more likely
to assume that any discipline issue reflects a gang issue if the students are Black, another form of
implicit bias (Scott, 2021). Because most teachers in America are White and female, many of
these teachers carry a preconceived notion that Black male students are combative and
argumentative (Scott, 2021), and many teachers respond by using exclusionary practices. The
way teachers instruct their students has an impact as teachers with a negative bias toward their
student of color tend to have more anxiety about teaching these students, which results in lower-
quality lessons (Warikoo et al., 2016). Implicit bias also affects the way White students treat
their Black and Brown counterparts, as the student can sense the teacher's implicit response and
will treat the students the same way, creating a hostile environment (Warikoo et al., 2016). Black
30

males receive more negative attention from their teachers than their peers, regardless of ethnicity
(Scott, 2021).
Similarly, one study found that Latinx and Black students were written referrals for more
subjective issues such as disrespect and loitering (Skiba et al., 2011). Skiba et al. (2011) also
found evidence that a “stroll” type of walk was often associated with Black students and was
thus judged as aggressive (2011). Teachers must develop the cultural competence to become
better educators by considering their epistemologies and positionalities and challenging the
status quo (Picower, 2009). Teachers should become aware of their biases and frequently reflect
on whether their biases are hindering the success of their students of color. A focus on biases
could enhance teaching and learning opportunities for students of color.
Systemic Racism
Systemic racism is a system of anti-Black practices that favor White people in gaining
economic, social, and political power through White supremacist ideologies (Bland, 2020).
Institutional racism is the system of granting advantages to White people through hierarchy and
inequity at the expense of people of color (Bland, 2020). White people have also benefited from
civil rights legislation (Ladson-Billings, 1998). Aspects of school culture, such as educational
pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, and school funding, reflect the systemic practices from which
White people have benefited (Ladson-Billings, 1998). The history of education began with Black
students being blocked from education, although some parochial schools supplied an education
on the condition of Christian learning (Bland, 2020). Black and Latinx students typically attend
underfunded, under-resourced schools that do not represent the students or their culture. Jim
Crow laws implemented legal racial segregation in 1896; schools were not de jure desegregated
in 1954 with Brown v. Board of Education (Bland, 2020). Desegregation has benefited White
31

students because it has only been promoted to benefit White students (Ladson-Billings, 1998).
Despite all evidence that desegregation hurts Black students because of harsh exclusion practices
and that drop-out rates continue to increase, desegregation has been viewed as a positive because
White students were able to join gifted and talented programs and were offered free extended
childcare (Ladson-Billings, 1998). Basically, the message to society is that as long as White
people are happy, the program is successful. Thus, despite desegregation, students of color
continue to face educational inequities due to historical, cultural, and social factors because of
the struggle for power from White people (Bland, 2020).
Studies have proven that systemic barriers affect Black and Brown students’ academic
achievement (Harper, 2012). However, the way that scholars speak about race-related factors has
an impact on academics proceeding with these systemic issues; that is, academics have rarely
spoken about the possibility of institutional norms as a barrier and have instead focused on
socioeconomic struggles to explain discipline issues (Harper, 2012). Because of the number of
interactions between Black and Brown students and instructors—versus white students and
instructors, instructors wrongly assumed that Black and Brown students were less engaged with
their studies instead of considering that systemic issues may have contributed to the student's
lack of interaction. Instructors wrongly assume that Black and Brown students do not care about
their education—rather than considering how past systemic issues have affected their
perspectives (Harper, 2012). White people benefit more when they come to college because they
have, more than likely, interacted less with people of color, so they have more to gain by
interacting with people who are unlike themselves. In contrast, people of color are more likely to
isolate due to their negative race-related interactions (Harper, 2012). Systemic racism continues
32

to inhibit students of color, and students of color continue to pay the price of the deficit mindset
that White teachers continue to have about Black and Brown students.
Achievement Gap
A disproportionate number of Black and Latinx students are expelled and suspended,
contributing to the educational debt (Ladson-Billings, 2006). In 2002, White and Asian/Pacific
Islander students scored higher on math and reading assessments in all tested grades (Gregory &
Mosley, 2004). White and Asian eighth-grade students are three times more likely to follow a
graduation timeline than Black and Latinx students (Gregory & Mosley, 2004). They are also
three times more likely to graduate with a 2-year degree (Gregory & Mosley, 2004). In general,
White and Asian students are more likely to be enrolled in Advanced Placement courses, while
Black and Latinx students occupy the more remedial classes (Gregory & Mosley, 2004). At the
same time, Black students are over-disciplined in school (Gregory & Mosley, 2004). Using
exclusionary practices contributes to the achievement gap, especially when students of color are
suspended and expelled at a much higher rate (Gregory et al., 2010). Clear evidence indicates
that academic failure is linked to exclusionary discipline; for instance, the more times a student is
suspended, the more likely they will fall behind academically (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017).
Discipline begins in the classroom, and studies have shown that teachers overreact to Black and
Brown students (Gregory et al., 2010). Communication is hindered when teachers fail to
understand the community in which they teach (Gregory et al., 2010).
Because of their exclusion from education from the settler-colonial times to the present, a
historical debt is owed to Black and Latinx students (Ladson-Billings, 2006). And, centuries of
inequitable funding mean that an economic debt owed to students of color has hindered student
achievement (Ladson-Billings, 2006). A sociopolitical debt exists because communities of color
33

have continuously been excluded from decision-making processes (Ladson-Billings, 2006). A
moral debt is owed to the students due to the inequitable treatment by White people for centuries
(Ladson-Billings, 2006). The achievement gap is much more than just a difference in reading,
writing, and math scores. The achievement gap represents centuries of failure caused by the
systemic issues currently plaguing our students of color.
Societal Implications
Students of color who are disciplined through exclusionary practices often suffer from
preconceived notions by their teachers, which can have a negative impact on their future societal
selves. The use of some exclusionary practices, such as school arrests, is much more
commonplace than they were 2 decades ago (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). A correlation exists
between suspension and failing to graduate (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). The less educated a student
is, the more likely they are to commit criminal offenses (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). And,
suspended students are at a higher risk of contact with law enforcement (Mowen & Brent, 2016).
Students who have been suspended have more chances of experiencing arrest than students who
have not been suspended (Mowen & Brent, 2016). These exclusionary practices consistently
have a negative impact that typically begins with dropping out of high school (Mowen & Brent,
2016). Through excessive use of exclusionary practices, Black and Latinx students have been
subject to higher risks of societal hardship, including being exposed to the justice system and
higher unemployment rates. Because of these hardships, these students may also experience the
cycle of poverty.
School-to-Prison Pipeline
Certain school policies have increased the likelihood of creating a school-to-prison
pipeline for students of color. The school-to-prison pipeline phenomenon can best be described
34

as a school pathway to the juvenile justice system. The pipeline is based upon a set of school
policies and practices that create more opportunities for students to face criminal activity,
especially students of color (Mallett, 2015). Many students are unjustifiably involved in the
discipline system as they pose minimal safety concerns (Mallett, 2015). The “Three Strikes and
You're Out” laws of the 1980s contributed to the establishment of the school-to-prison pipeline
(Mallett, 2015). Another factor that fortified the school-to-prison pipeline was an irrational fear
of young people of color and the incorrect assumption that students of color were dangerous
(Mallett, 2015). In 1994, Congress enacted the Gun-Free Schools Act and promoted a Zero-
Tolerance policy that hurt students of color, as many students were automatically expelled for 1
year if they were found with a gun on school grounds. The focus was broadened to other types of
weapons (Mallett, 2015). After the 1999 shooting at Columbine, the deadliest school shooting to
date, media and public perception reinforced the “No Tolerance” discipline (Mallett, 2015), and
school districts were willing to fund school resource officers.
Between 1999 and 2012, data show that schools across the nation have escalated their use
of security measures by showing greater force in controlling school grounds, stricter dress codes,
and use of identification badges (Mowen & Brent, 2016). Schools also adopted more criminal
facility-type measures by installing metal detectors, using drug-sniffing dogs, and conducting
random locker searches (Mowen & Brent, 2016). According to Mowen and Brent (2016),
students of color have been especially enmeshed in the “criminalization of school discipline.”
School resource officers arrest students as young as six by criminalizing adolescent behavior
(Blitzman, 2021). By promoting school resource officers and criminalizing adolescent behavior,
schools are using legal systems to keep students out of school while their cases are pending
(Blitzman, 2021). Schools need to rethink their exclusionary practices as data show that they
35

have not been successful in making schools safer, and students of color are disproportionately
hurt through the practices.
Conceptual Framework
This is an action research evaluative study using Clark and Estes’ (2008) evaluative
model. The model helps to investigate the organizational goals and practices at MKAW school.
The gap analysis evaluative framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) was utilized to identify the
primary PBIS practices and to evaluate their effectiveness at MKAW High School.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Adaption of the Gap Analysis Framework as a Promising Practice
This promising practice study is adapted from the original gap analysis framework of
Clark and Estes (2008) as influenced by Rueda (2011). The study focuses on knowledge,
motivation, organizational culture, procedures, efficacy, attributes, and meta-cognition to find
measurable evidence to create goals that will contribute to high achievement when change
occurs. Analysis of the data can aid like organizations in promising practices.
Knowledge and Skills
Using Krathwohl’s (2002) taxonomy, the assumed influences are categorized for PBIS
coaches and team members by knowledge types: procedural and metacognition. The taxonomy
implies that knowledge influences the PBIS teacher committee members. These types of
knowledge are necessary for learning.
Procedural Knowledge Influences. Procedural knowledge involves understanding how
to do something previously learned about a topic. It is the knowledge used to solve problems
within an organization (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). PBIS committee teachers
must understand how to implement PBIS strategies within their classroom to ensure success.
36

Schools that can demonstrate PBIS success through data have attributed much of their success to
a sound universal system of support (Barrett et all., 2008).
Metacognitive Knowledge Influences. Metacognitive knowledge is awareness of one’s
cognitive processes (Clark & Estes, 2008); in other words, what individuals understand about
themselves and what is necessary for them to operate. PBIS committee teachers must reflect on
their role in the different ways they implement PBIS in the classroom and how they evaluate
whether their strategies are effective. The program’s success is contingent upon the fidelity with
which PBIS committee teachers understand their role in the PBIS program. Anderson and
Krathwohl (2001) recommended using inquiry methods that require participants to demonstrate
depth of knowledge for implementing PBIS strategies and their cognitive awareness of
evaluating them. To become more metacognitively aware, participants need to become more
aware of their beliefs, their PBIS implementation strategies, and how effective they are in their
classrooms. This kind of metacognitive awareness will require individual and collective teacher
reflection. Table 1 shows the stakeholder’s influences and the related literature.

37

Table 1
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholders’ Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal

Knowledge Assumed knowledge
influences
Literature

Stakeholder knowledge

Procedural The PBIS committee teachers
need to know how to identify
appropriate PBIS strategies to
implement for identified
students.
Anderson & Krathwohl,
2002;
Barrett & Lewis-Bradshaw,
2008;
Rueda, 2011;
Krathwohl, 2002
Procedural The PBIS committee teachers
need to know the established
protocols for referring
students.
Clark & Estes, 2008;
Krathwohl, 2002

Stakeholder reflections

Metacognitive The PBIS committee teachers
need to know how to reflect
on the different strategies that
they implement in the
classroom and reflect on
whether they are successful.
Anderson & Krathwohl,
2002;
Clark & Estes, 2008

Motivation
38

According to Clark and Estes (2008), there is a connection between knowledge and
motivation: “knowledge” is knowing what to do and motivation is the choice to start doing what
needs to be done. A person must intrinsically decide to start working on a task and work toward
a goal, whether the goal was created by that person or another. For the PBIS program to be
successful, PBIS committee teachers must be motivated to work toward the LCAP goals. They
must practice and sustain the behaviors that will promote the success of the program.
Value
Clark and Estes (2008) have discussed the influence of value on motivation. If a learner is
intrinsically motivated, that is, if the learner believes that there is value in the task and that there
is value in completing the task, the learner has the motivation to complete the goal. Goals are
attainable when they are clear, challenging, and viable. PBIS committee teachers must
understand the value of the PBIS system and the desired outcomes, so they can ensure that they
practice with fidelity and ensure an equitable outcome for the most vulnerable students (Horner
& Macaya, 2018; Scott, 2003).
Self-Efficacy
Pajares (2006) defined self-efficacy as an individual’s perception of their ability to
complete a task. If a learner is confident in their ability to complete a task, they will be able to
complete it; however, if they doubt their ability to complete their task successfully, they will not
be able to do what is required (Pajares, 2006). Bandura’s (1971) social cognitive theory posits
that if teachers operate with bias, they may lower their expectations for students—especially
students of color—which, in turn, affects teachers’ self-efficacy. Teachers must be confident in
their ability to use appropriate PBIS strategies effectively to benefit their students (Reinke et al.,
2013; Weist et al., 2018). Similarly, collective efficacy, which refers to a group’s confidence in
39

their ability to accomplish a task (Bandura, 1971), can significantly impact student achievement
(Hattie, 2015).

Table 2 shows the stakeholder’s influences and the related literature.
Table 2
Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholders’ Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Motivation Assumed motivation
influences
Literature

Stakeholder values
Value PBIS committee teachers
need to value the process of
PBIS and the process of
identifying students for PBIS
interventions.
Clark & Estes, 2008
Value The PBIS committee teachers
need to value the PBIS
protocols for Tier II and Tier
III to ensure equitable
discipline practices for all
students.
Horner, 2018;
Scott, 2003
Stakeholder confidence
Self-Efficacy PBIS committee teachers
need to have confidence in
using Positive Behavioral
Intervention and Support
Reinke & Stormont, 2013;
Scott, 2010;
Weist et al., 2018.

40

(PBIS) strategies to help
students in their classes.
Self-Efficacy PBIS committee teachers
need to have confidence that
they all can stay focused on
the common agenda.
Bandura, 1971;
Hattie, 2015

Organization
According to Clark and Estes (2008), the resources required to meet any performance
goal are time, money, and people. If ignored, the organization part of Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis may prevent achievement of the performance goals. Change can hugely benefit students
when teachers collaborate and have collective efficacy in the vision (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
C., 2001). Organizational gaps can occur due to ill-used resources, ineffective materials, and
overworked teachers. Not only do the materials affect the organization, but also the culture can
affect the organization’s performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). The culture reflects what is valued
in the organization (Gallimore, & Goldenberg, 2001).
Resources
According to Baker (2016), providing quality education to our students demands the
resources for training. PBIS committee teachers need resources for training in PBIS strategies,
such as Tier I and Tier II interventions. Resources must be allocated to train the entire staff to
use PBIS strategies in the classroom and around the school. Research indicates that PBIS
implemented with fidelity ensures success. Based on research, providing teachers with a PBIS
41

coach with the training to assist the teachers has proven to be successful in schools (Hershfeldt et
al., 2012).
Cultural Setting
Cultural setting refers to people coming together to accomplish a common task
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2010). The cultural setting offers insight into why things are the way
they are (Bolman & Deal, 2017). The cultural setting can take place in a classroom with students
collaborating on a common goal or in a schoolwide setting, with teachers’ meetings in
professional learning communities or faculty meetings to collaborate on something they all
value. PBIS committee teachers need to feel empowered to identify the needed specific training
to successfully implement PBIS strategies within their classrooms (Herschfeldt et al., 2012).
Teachers spend the majority of their time in classrooms, away from other professionals but need
time to collaborate and grow in their craft with one another (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2010).
Stakeholder/Topic-Specific Factors
Table 3 shows the stakeholder’s influences and the related literature.
Table 3
Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholders’ Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Organization Assumed organization
influences
Literature

Stakeholders need time,
finances, and people

Resources The PBIS committee teachers
need professional
development time for
training.
Baker, 2016;
Hershfeldt et al., 2012
42

Resources The PBIS committee teachers
need money allocated for
PBIS training so the entire
staff can be trained.
Hershfeldt et al., 2012

The school has…

Cultural Settings systems in place to motivate
teachers to identify what
additional support they need
to implement PBIS strategies
in their classroom
successfully.
Bolman & Deal, 2017;
Hershfeldt, 2012; Gallimore
& Goldenberg, 2010

This chapter reviewed the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences realized
in the literature. Chapter 3 describes the methodology for the study and explains the process for
collecting and vetting data on the assumed influences. Data collected for these influences will
determine specific areas of need for PBIS committee teachers as they assist in building a positive
school climate and culture (Clark & Estes, 2008).

43

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with MKAW Unified School District’s
ability to provide interventions to students that assist in their academic, behavior, and emotional
growth (LCAP, 2021) and reduce the suspension rates of Black and Brown students. While a
comprehensive study would have focused on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the
stakeholders of focus for this study were the teachers that served on the PBIS committee. The
purpose of this study was to evaluate the implementation of PBIS at MKAW school; however,
the study became more about what interventions are used at MKAW. Due to circumstances
beyond my control, I was only able to interview six teachers instead of the desired eight because
one teacher fell ill and the other teacher, as a single mom working three jobs, felt too
overwhelmed to participate in the study. I also did not have access to documents due to the
program being discontinued when a new principal was hired.
The questions that guided this study are as follows:
1. What knowledge, skills, and motivation have hindered MKAW’s successful
implementation of interventions to reduce suspensions and expulsions of Black and
Latino students?
2. What organizational factors have hindered the successful implementation of
interventions to reduce suspensions and expulsions of Black and Latino students?
3. What are the recommendations to successfully implement interventions to reduce
suspensions and expulsions of Black and Latino students?

44

Table 4
Enrollment at MKAW, Disaggregated by Student Race
Most
recent
year:
2022
% of
population
Second
most recent
year: 2019
% of
population
Third
most
recent
year: 2018
% of
population
All students 2,178 2,305 2,385
African
American
124 5.7 165 7.6 193 8.8
American
Indian
9 .4 10 .5 14 .6
Asian 54 2.5 58 2.7 57 2.6
Filipino 8 .4 9 .4 11 .5
Hispanic 1,083 49.7 990 45.7 951 43.6
Two or more
races
44 2 16 .7 11 .5
Pacific
Islander
10 .5% 13 .6% 14 .6%
White 846 38.8% 905 41.7% 3 .1%

45

Table 5
School at MKAW, Disaggregated by Race
% of population
suspended: 2022
% of population
suspended: 2019
% of population
suspended: 2018
All students 6.3 5.9 6.8
African American 11.3 7.2 12.9
American Indian n/a n/a n/a
Asian 0 4.9 1.7
Filipino n/a n/a n/a
Hispanic 6.8 6.5 6.8
Two or More Races n/a n/a n/a
Pacific Islander n/a n/a n/a
White 5.1 3.8 5.7

The project used Clark and Estes’s (2008) systematic and analytical performance method
to clarify organizational goals and identify current and preferred performance within an
organization. Figure 1shows the gap analysis framework as an evaluation model.

Figure 1
Gap Analysis Process
46

Table 6
Interview Participants

Participant Transcript
number
School
role
Gender Years of
experience
Ms. Abbott 1 SPED teacher F 11–20
Ms. Bagman 2 CTE teacher F 11–20
Ms. Creevy 3 CTE teacher F 1–10
Ms. Draco 4 General Ed
teacher
F 11–20
Mr. Edgecombe 5 General Ed
teacher
M 1–10
Ms. Filch 6 SPED teacher F 11–20

47

Adaptation of the Gap Analysis Framework as an Evaluative Study
The focus of Clark and Estes’ gap analysis conceptual framework is the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors that help evaluate an organization’s supposed goal
achievement. Evaluating the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors enables the
researcher to pinpoint the greatest assets and needs within the organization. Once the needs and
assets are discovered, recommendations can be made.
This study used an adaption of the gap analysis by focusing on only one stakeholder
group. This improvement model helped to evaluate performance gaps within the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors. The first step was to identify the gap within the
organization compared to its current goal. Next, the gap evaluated when the KMO factors were
analyzed to determine the root causes of the gap (Clark & Estes, 2008). Following these
procedures, after identifying the root causes of the gap, solutions to the KMO causes were
recommended, leading to implementation and evaluation of the recommended solutions (Clark &
Estes, 2008). It was not the purpose of this study to implement or evaluate the recommended
solutions, however.
As this study aimed to provide an evaluation of the MKAW’s success in the PBIS
intervention implementation model, this gap analysis model provided valuable insight in
determining the KMO root causes. The MKAW’s committee teachers’ knowledge was examined
to determine their depth of knowledge about PBIS strategies and implementation of the
strategies. PBIS committee teachers were also asked about their motivation to ensure the success
of the PBIS program and whether they understood the urgency that the program to succeed.
48

Finally, the PBIS committee teachers were asked about the organization's objectives around
PBIS and how they think those goals would best be achieved.
Assessment of Performance Influences
The study’s Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis process began by identifying the root
causes of the organization’s performance gaps. The method served analysis of the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors affecting the performance gaps. It was essential to
examine the MKAW’s PBIS teacher committee members to determine whether they have the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational support to accomplish the LCAP goals. The data
collected through this study were used to determine the performance gaps and develop an
evaluation plan with recommendations and solutions to decrease the performance gaps.
Knowledge Assessment
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis process included an examination of the
knowledge and skills of the people who work for the organization and their desired common
goal. Krathwohl (2002) identified four different types of knowledge: factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive. The study analyzed two of those types of knowledge: procedural
and metacognitive. Both types of knowledge were used to determine the specific influences on
the MKAW committee members’ understanding of the PBIS program—or, more specifically, the
strategies.
Procedural Knowledge
The application of knowledge is referred to as procedural knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002).
To effectively assess this type of knowledge, data were gathered through interviews with the
PBIS committee teachers and any PBIS training materials that were used to teach PBIS student
expectations.
49

Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognition is being aware of how one learns and whether one is learning (Krathwohl,
2002). Therefore, to assess this type of knowledge, the necessary data were interview questions
and agenda data collection. Data collection requires analysis of whether teachers engaged in
conversations that were data-driven and how they interpreted the data they collected—such as
whether the data were relevant.
Table 7
Summary of Knowledge Influence and Method of Assessment
Assumed needs Interview item
Knowledge
Procedural The PBIS committee teachers
need to know how to identify
appropriate PBIS Tier II
strategies to implement for
identified students.

The PBIS committee teachers
need to know how to teach PBIS
expectations to students.

The PBIS committee teachers
need to know how to collect
data to use to guide their goals.
What are appropriate PBIS
strategies to implement for
targeted students?

How do you teach PBIS
expectations to students?

How do you collect data for
PBIS and how is it used?
Metacognitive The PBIS teacher committee
needs to know how to reflect on
Interview

50

how they identify students for
PBIS intervention.

PBIS committee teachers and
counselors need to know how to
reflect on the effectiveness of
the information presented to
students.

How do you know if the
interventions are working?

Motivation Assessment
After identifying the knowledge gaps, the next step was to assess and identify the
motivation gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge and motivation are related. Knowledge
requires an understanding of what and how to accomplish a goal, while motivation requires an
individual to start and accomplish a goal—whether there are barriers to persist or not (Rueda,
2011). Value and self-efficacy contribute to a person’s willingness to begin and persist through a
goal, which is their motivation (Rueda, 2011). This section introduces the motivational
influences that were assessed.
Value
Clark and Estes (2008) ascertained three types of value: interest, skill, and utility. If a
learner is intrinsically motivated—that is, if the learner believes there is value in the task and
value in completing the task, the learner has the motivation to complete the goal. Goals are
attainable when they are clear, challenging, and viable. To evaluate intrinsic value, the PBIS
committee teacher members were asked whether they see value in the work required by the PBIS
program.
Self-Efficacy
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A person’s belief in their own capabilities is the definition of self-efficacy (Bandura,
1997). There is also collective efficacy, which is a group’s belief in its ability to accomplish a
given task (Bandura, 1997). To assess the self-efficacy of the PBIS committee teachers, members
were asked to share how confident they feel about implementing PBIS strategies in their
classrooms.

Table 8
Summary of Motivation Influences and Methods of Assessment

Assumed needs Interview item
Motivation
Value PBIS committee teachers
need to value the process of
PBIS and the process of
identifying students for PBIS
interventions.
Tell me how valuable you
believe PBIS is for
identifying students who need
intervention.
Self-efficacy The PBIS committee teachers
need to have confidence in
implementing established
PBIS strategies within their
daily instruction to improve
How do you feel about your
ability to successfully
implement PBIS strategies in
your classroom?

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social and academic outcomes
for identified students.

The PBIS committee teachers
need to have confidence that,
collectively, the group will be
able to accomplish the stated
LCAP goals.

On a scale of 1 to 5, with 1
being no confidence at all,
and 5 being the highest
confidence, how confident are
you that this group can stay
focused on the common
agenda?

Organization Assessment
An organization can also have root issues related to the structural organization itself, such
as inefficient resources, a weak cultural model, and an unsupportive cultural setting (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Therefore, the last component of the comprehensive gap analysis requires
assessment of the organizational factors that contribute to the organizational problem. Certain
strategies can be used when the organizational issue prove to be inadequate resources; however,
issues with cultural settings tend to translate into systemic issues that require a more profound,
dedicated approach to influencing and changing the culture (Bolman & Deal, 2022). This section
introduces the required data to evaluate the organizational influences of the resources, the
cultural settings, and the cultural models discussed in chapter 2.
Resources
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Resources tend to get wasted in the educational world because not enough thought is
given about their use nor is data consulted when deciding on resource implementation (Baker,
2016). This is not to say that resources cannot have an impact. Properly allocated resources can
have a major impact on student outcomes, and if teachers are expected to utilize PBIS strategies
in their classroom, they should use resources to train teachers on these skills. Also, if PBIS
committee teachers are expected to use data to guide their decision-making, they should be
knowledgeable in using data-driving practices, which means they need training. Teachers were
asked whether they have the proper materials to successfully implement PBIS. Data analysis
would have come in the form of training materials given to teachers as well as any agendas that
include SELPA minutes; however, because there has not been any PBIS meetings since before
the beginning of the pandemic, there was not any data analysis.

Cultural Settings
Cultural setting refers to the place within an organization in which the cultural model
develops (Rueda, 2011). Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) asserted that the school setting can
hinder any progress towards the school culture model, and in order to be successful, the settings
must be identified. The PBIS teacher committee members were asked whether the school, as a
whole, supports the implementation of PBIS and how the administration and counselors have
supported the teachers during the implementation of PBIS. They were asked how administration
and counselors can best support them going forward.
Table 9
Summary of Organization Influences and Methods of Assessment
Assumed Needs Interview Item
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Organizational
Resources The PBIS teacher committee
needs resources to
successfully implement PBIS.
What resources do you feel
you need/or have received to
successfully implement
PBIS?
Cultural Settings

The school has systems in
place
to support PBIS committee
teachers to implement PBIS.
Do you feel the school
supports PBIS
implementation? In what
ways?

How can the administration
and counselors support you or
have supported you in the
past?

What additional support do
you need from the
administration and
counselors?

Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection
The stakeholder group of focus for this paper consisted of the former teachers on the
PBIS committee. In the past, the committee has had representation from special education, the
math department, the counseling department, one dean, and one assistant principal, among other
teachers. In the past, parents and students have not had the opportunity to join, so all
stakeholders have not been represented.
Sampling
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The sampling strategy for this study was purposeful and nonrandom to maximize
examination of the stakeholder knowledge and motivation as well as the organizational culture
and group dynamics (Patton, 2015). The teachers on the PBIS committee were specifically
chosen because of their leadership role in the implementation of PBIS.
For the purpose of this study, the sampling strategy sought out teacher members who
served on the PBIS committee from 2019 to 2021. Six teachers were interviewed for this study. I
was unable to evaluate any documents, such as agenda, because PBIS was suspended when new
leadership arrived. The recruitment process included an individual email from the investigator to
explain the purpose of the study. In the email, I explicitly solicited each member’s participation
in the study. Each participant was offered a list of dates and times from which they were
encouraged to select to be interviewed. As the investigator was a member of the PBIS
committee, and served as the chairperson in previous years, the investigator and the participants
had a peer relationship.

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Instrumentation
The instrumentation used for this study was interviews.
Interview Protocol Design
The interview design for this study provided information from interviews with each of
the PBIS teacher committee members. As this is a qualitative case study, interviews were
selected to conduct in-depth analysis of PBIS teacher committee members’ knowledge,
motivation, and the organizational factors that influenced their individual and collective
performance in the classroom (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Data Collection
Following University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB)
approval, participants were solicited by a group email advising of the data collected at the PBIS
committee meetings. Future participants were solicited via direct and individual email
communication from the investigator inviting them to participate in the study. Once consent was
given, the interview was scheduled.
Interviews
The interview protocol was designed for the purpose of measuring the knowledge,
motivational, and organizational factors of members of the PBIS teacher committee. Previous
and current PBIS teacher committee members were invited to participate in the interview. Six
teachers were interviewed for this study. The interviews were conducted through an online
meeting platform or in-person and recorded, depending on where the interviewee felt most
comfortable as COVID-19 continued to be a public health risk. The principal investigator
conducted the interviews and obtained consent to record each interview prior to the start of the
interview. The interviewer also took notes while interviewing.
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Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis is an evolving process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this
qualitative evaluation gap analysis study, data analysis occurred using data gathered from
individual interviews, as described in the data collection section of this chapter.
For interviews, recordings and transcripts were evaluated to identify patterns related to
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The interviews and data were classified
and coded by organizational categories for each influence and by subtopics (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Trustworthiness of Data
To maintain the credibility and trustworthiness of this study, the investigation was
conducted with rigor and sincerity (Tillman, 2002). The procedures were followed faithfully and
without harming the participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interviewees told their stories,
and the interviewer made sure to consider their positionality (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Tillman,
2002).
Role of the Investigator
The investigator in this study is a former member of the PBIS committee at MKAW.
When a new administrator started at MKAW, close to the end of the pandemic, the new
administrator indicated that PBIS would not be the most pressing issue at the school. Thus, the
program was dismantled. The original intention of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of
the PBIS program at MKAW High School; however, since the program was not being
implemented, the focus turned to creating an intervention plan that the school could implement
in order to reduce suspensions and expulsions. The investigator does not, nor has she ever,
supervised any of the study participants. The investigator selected the samples for the study,
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gathered the documents, collected informed consent forms, and conducted the interviews. The
investigator was the main point of contact for the study.
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitations of this study were sample size, instrumentations, and the investigator’s
biases. Six members were interviewed, and small sample size can impact the reliability of the
results. Not all shareholders are represented in this committee either, which is another limitation.
Parents, students, administrators, and counselors would have made for a more comprehensive
study to gain more insight into the implementation of PBIS; however, time and accessibility
made this unfeasible. Another limitation is that the findings come from only one school and are
just the teacher committee members. The investigator is aware of the biases because of her prior
position on the PBIS committee as chairperson. The investigator felt passionately about the
study; thus, she had to ensure that the interviewees were not coerced into any answers. The
investigator had to remove the biases; however, participants’ responses during the interview
could have been influenced by the investigator’s previous role. The investigator understood the
LCAP goals and systemic issues that continue to hinder the school’s performance. For instance,
according to California Dashboard, in 2022, MKAW was in the red and considered very high for
the suspension rates for Black students, whereas in 2019, which was the last year for data prior to
COVID-19, the suspension rate was in the yellow.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
This research aimed to evaluate the degree to which MKAW High School meets its racial
equity goal in school discipline. The analysis of collected data focuses on knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving the organizational goals. PBIS
committee members are the focused stakeholders. The questions that guided the evaluation study
of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences for teachers were:
1. What knowledge, skills, and motivations do PBIS members at MKAW traditional high
school perceive to have hindered and/or supported the successful implementation of
interventions to reduce suspensions and expulsions of Black and Latino students?
2. What organizational factors do PBIS members at MKAW traditional high school
perceive have hindered and/or supported the successful implementation of interventions to
reduce suspensions and expulsions of Black and Latino students?
3. What are MKAW traditional high school PBIS members’ recommendations to
successfully implement interventions that reduce suspensions and expulsions of Black and
Latino students?
Based on the analysis, chapter 5 will provide recommendations for organizational
practices in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources and solutions. Data
collection comprised interviews with six staff members and a review of MKAW’s discipline data
from the 3 previously available years.
Participating Stakeholders
The focused stakeholder group for this study was teachers at MKAW High School. At the
time of the study, the population of MKAW High School consisted of 95 full-time teachers.
Grades 9–12, CTE, AVID, general education, AP, SPED, and electives represent the teachers on
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campus. This study sought to develop a sample of staff representing the entire school population
and serving on the PBIS committee. It also sought to explore the research questions with the
chosen staff members in a qualitative manner. The following section reviews the staff
participants in the interviews.
Interview Participants
The researcher invited the PBIS committee teachers to participate through one original
email and several reminder emails. The researcher invited all staff to participate through an
original interview introduction email as well as via email reminders. Table 7 shows the
breakdown of participants by school, gender, and role within the school. All six participants were
teachers on the PBIS committee. All participants were White, so race was not an identifying
factor. Five of the participating PBIS committee member teacher interviewees identified as
female. One participant identified as male. This disparity reflected the gender balance of the
PBIS committee. Two teachers were special education teachers, two were career and technical
education teachers, and two were general education teachers. All participants have been given
pseudonyms, and identifying information, such as their exact role at the high school, has been
generalized to avoid any identification.
Determination of Assets and Needs
The sources of data were primary sources because the teachers who were interviewed
were part of the PBIS committee during 2019–2021. The data collection came from the
California Dashboard, which has been updated for the first time since 2019 due to the pandemic.
The data are not triangulated because of time constraints and the availability of data needed. The
California Dashboard was used to demonstrate data from the previous 3 years. The new
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administration should consider reinstating PBIS or another evidence-based evidence to reduce
suspensions and expulsions.
Results and findings will be listed under the headings knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors, with themes organized in each. The research questions will be answered
throughout the section and synthesized once all findings have been presented. Each of the studies
of the influence in this chapter had gaps that were either considered an asset or a need. An
influence was considered an asset when 90%–100% of the teachers concurred because the
sample size was so small. Because of the limited number of participants, saturation was reached
quickly. Only eight teachers originally agreed to interview, as most had left or accepted
promotions within the district.
An influence was considered a need when a significant gap existed. An influence was
considered a need when responses concurred 0%–89% of the time or participants did not discuss
the influence. Because the theme of racial school climate is woven throughout this chapter, Table
8 displays the disaggregated data of students’ enrollment, for reference purposes. As the theme
of racial school climate is woven throughout this chapter, Table 9 displays the breakdown of
student suspension by race, for reference purposes.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
Knowledge was measured through several interview questions, and the interview answers
were coded for themes. Procedural knowledge was measured through a question about
appropriate strategies that could be implemented, questions about how to teach expectations, and
how to collect and use data for PBIS. The metacognitive knowledge was measured through a
question about how well the interventions worked. Clark and Estes (2008) explained that
knowledge is measured to determine whether people can reach their performance goals. This
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section discusses the performance goals that are impacted by the knowledge of the PBIS
committee teachers when reducing racial disparities in school discipline.
Procedural Knowledge
Influence 1
The PBIS committee teachers need to know how to identify appropriate PBIS strategies
to implement for identified students.
Interview findings. Teachers have only partial knowledge of appropriate PBIS
strategies they can implement in the classroom.
While a few teachers had a general awareness of appropriate strategies to use within the
classroom, 100% of the teachers at MKAW did not have a deep knowledge of PBIS strategies to
implement in the classroom. While two of the six teachers discussed incorporating different
PBIS methods to meet the needs of their students, all of the teachers lacked more than four
different PBIS strategies. When asked about strategies used in the classroom, most teachers
mentioned the students’ well-being and the importance of implementing strategies. Still, most of
the teachers were unable to mention more than one solid strategy. As the number of students
suspended, especially Black students, climbed since the pandemic, having the knowledge to
implement the strategies is essential to the students' success. For example, Mrs. Abbott explained
PBIS strategies in the following way:
The first tier would be the bottom tier which would be most of the students, and putting
whatever interventions in place, like what is it? I can't remember . . . obviously the top
tier of the kids who need the most interventions, but really any strategy, and I look at it a
lot like an IEP, like any strategy or intervention for kids who were doing, you know,
whatever the acronym is for.
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Mrs. Abbott was unable to articulate the specific strategies that can be used in the classroom,
which, without PBIS strategies, can lead to disciplinary action that impacts a student’s life.
Teachers are aware of the impact that PBIS can and has had on the school culture;
however, they cannot articulate the strategies they use in the classroom to ensure the success of
PBIS and their students. Ms. Bagman reported that the school “created some buy-in with the
teachers, and so we talked to the teachers and got a consensus on top behavioral issues that we
were having as a school site, and we decided to target those behaviors.” This teacher’s
perception is that, once again, PBIS is impactful; however, she requires more knowledge in order
to articulate the strategies successfully used in the classroom. They all understand and believe in
the efficacy of the strategies that PBIS offers.
Summary. While teachers view PBIS as essential and believe in its mission of PBIS,
there is a pervading theme throughout all the interviews: the school used to believe and
implement PBIS with fidelity, but COVID-19 and a change in leadership at the same time led to
an absence of focus on PBIS. Lack of knowledge regarding PBIS strategies is the norm in the
discipline process; four out of six teachers saw the current practices as ineffective, yet they could
not articulate any other strategies regarding consequences. Thirty-three percent of the teachers
could not identify appropriate Tier II strategies, revealing a “need,” as it falls below the requisite
threshold.
Influence 2
The PBIS committee teachers need to know how to teach PBIS expectations to students.
Interview Findings. Findings from the collected data indicate that teachers lack the
knowledge of appropriate strategies to implement within the classroom.
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According to interview responses, teachers appeared to have knowledge of how to teach
PBIS strategies in the classroom. Every teacher mentioned that the expectation should be
modeled, and every teacher mentioned the PBIS strategy of creating lesson plans at the
beginning of the year and after breaks to remind and teach students what the expected behavior is
in school. All teachers also mentioned reminding students of these expectations when needed.
Half the six teachers mentioned using the matrix to remind students of the expectations. That the
teachers felt knowledgeable enough to teach the expectations will help with their motivation to
teach PBIS. Increasing teacher knowledge and competency in handling behavior issues can help
to dissuade them from using forms of discipline that hurt students, such as exclusionary
practices. As Ms. Filch indicated, “[We] have to teach classroom expectations, rules, procedures,
whatever you want to call them, just constantly, we teach what is expected.” She clearly
understood the importance of consistently reinforcing expectations.
Interview participants seemed to have a common language when describing the matrix,
frontloading expectations, and teaching expectations consistently. For example, Mr. Edgecombe
was able to succinctly describe how the school offered lesson plans at the beginning of the year:
We have a schoolwide expectation procedure that we repeat every single year for the first
month of school, so everything that we have that is an expectation is broken down into 5-
minute chunks at the beginning of classes. . . . We go over just basic things about what it
looks like to be an engaged student or a proud member of our school family.
All of the teachers shared that, since the pandemic and the arrival of the new administration, the
school had not offered these lesson plans. Some matrices they consistently relied on to teach
PBIS expectations had been taken down. While evidence proved that the teachers have the
knowledge to teach the expectations, they did not understand the actual teaching strategies.
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Responses indicated that teachers needed additional training on specific intervention PBIS
strategies. For instance, Ms. Filch explained:
I wish that maybe there were more training available for our school site and for all
teachers because there are a lot of new teachers, and even if you're not new, veteran
teachers probably are like, oh yeah, let's that. I remind myself of some interventions I can
do.
Her ability to metacognitively reflect on her need for training may motivate her to research some
PBIS strategies that are helpful classroom interventions. One of the most critical aspects of PBIS
is the ability to develop relationships and deepen those connections. Not one teacher mentioned
this as an essential intervention they used with their students. Students will be more engaged in
the classroom and will attempt to follow the classroom expectations when they develop a
relationship with their teachers. Individuals who are able to self-reflect and self-assess can
increase their knowledge, which may, in turn, lead to the implementation of more PBIS
strategies, and potentially lead to fewer exclusionary practices.
Summary. While the PBIS committee teachers seem knowledgeable about implementing
PBIS strategies, as a whole, we wondered what strategies are being implemented, since “half the
staff are new” (Mrs. Creevy). Since PBIS had not been not reinstated, training was not available
to new teachers. Two out of six teachers did not have the knowledge to teach PBIS expectations
to students. Thirty-three percent of the PBIS committee teachers needed more knowledge about
teaching PBIS expectations to students, so this is a need because it is below the 90% threshold.
Influence 3
The PBIS committee must know how to collect data to guide its goals.
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Interview Findings. The findings from the collected data found that teachers only
partially understand how to collect data and how they use the data to guide PBIS’s goals.
According to interview data, teachers are unaware of how or what data are collected.
They are also unaware of how the data are utilized to guide the goals of PBIS. Ms. Creevy’s
response was stunted, and she said that she “wasn’t a part of the data collection team,” so she
was unsure how data were collected or used. This response is problematic because teachers
should be using evidence to guide their instruction, and only three of the six teachers identified
the systems used to collect the data. The importance of using knowledge of PBIS strategies on
collecting data cannot be understated. Again, only half of the teachers did not know the systems,
and only one teacher mentioned the specific data used, such as referrals and check-in and check-
out data. Absentee data and grades were not mentioned at all.
Not only did teachers not understand what data were being collected, but only one
teacher was able to verbalize how data were being used. For example, Ms. Draco mentioned that
the “suspension rate was quite high, and so we used that data to try to see where our problems
were and see if we could fix that.”
Summary. Data provide educators an objective way to assess how well they improve
school systems. Data assist with identifying the systems that are working and those that are not.
For all students to achieve social and academic success, PBIS teachers must create equitable
systems; without the knowledge of how to gather data, teachers cannot offer equitable
interventions. Data are also essential in evaluating the targeted student’s behavior. Data can be
used to gauge whether positive interventions are actually working with individual students.
Three out of six teachers, or 50% of the teachers, need knowledge of how to collect data;
therefore, it is a need.
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Metacognitive Knowledge
Influence 1
The PBIS committee needs to know how to reflect on the different ways in which they
identify students for PBIS intervention.
Interview Findings. Findings from the collected data found that teachers only partially
understood how to reflect on the ways in which students are recommended for intervention.
According to the data, most of the teachers proved more reactionary than proactive. The
teachers all mentioned that fewer referrals given to students was an indication of success.
Teachers mentioned seeing fewer behavior issues (the cause), thus, having to give fewer referrals
for behavior (the effect). As Ms. Draco mentioned, she saw “fewer behavior problems in (her)
class, and the suspension numbers decreased.” The interventions that teachers implement should
not be an afterthought; interventions should be embedded within the classroom—a procedure
that would have lowered the racial disparities evident in the MKAW High School.
Summary. Positive behavior intervention and support can assist teachers in preventing,
reducing, and replacing problematic classroom behaviors to ensure that students are not excluded
from the classroom through suspensions and expulsions. Teachers need to provide students with
a clear set of behavioral expectations and goals, so that teachers can measure their classroom
data and help eliminate exclusionary practices. There needs to be a collective effort, so teachers
must be aware of the strategies and how to measure their efficacy. Four out of six teachers, or
67%, need the knowledge of how to reflect on the strategies used to refer students to
intervention; therefore, it is a need.

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Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
Motivation barriers were measured through carefully constructed interview questions.
The answers were coded for themes. Value was measured through an interview question about
how valuable PBIS committee teachers believe PBIS to be. Self-efficacy was measured through
two interview questions: how the PBIS committee teachers felt about their ability to implement
PBIS strategies, and how confident PBIS committee teachers felt about the committee’s ability to
focus on the common agenda. Clark and Estes (2008) stated that measuring motivation is vital to
determining whether a collective group of people choose to work toward a common goal,
whether they will persist until it is achieved, and whether the group is willing to invest in the
effort required to ensure the task is completed. This section will discuss how teacher motivation
impacts the LCAP goal of reducing racial disparities in school discipline.
Value
Influence 1
PBIS committee teachers need to value the process of PBIS and the process of identifying
students for PBIS interventions.
Interview Findings. The findings from the collected data show that teachers find value
in PBIS in helping identify students who need intervention.
PBIS committee members at MKAW High School generally valued the PBIS program
and the procedures it provided. Many of the teachers felt that, because of the three-tiered system,
many students who would have otherwise fallen through the cracks did not because of successful
interventions. Teachers described how the school previously instituted a mentoring program, a
CICO (check-in and check-out) system, and an intervention class. None of the interventions that
had been implemented at the school had been used since the COVID-19 pandemic and since the
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PBIS program ended. When the PBIS program ended, many teachers felt frustrated. Ms.
Bagman’s frustration was evident when she noted: “We have had a changeover in the
administration, and the administration doesn’t believe in PBIS and has completely undone
everything we put into place.”
Mr. Edgecombe commented that “when implemented correctly and with fidelity to the
actual program and strategies, PBIS can be very valuable.” The value of PBIS can be very
effective, as proven by the data on the California Dashboard. According to Ms. Edgecombe,
suspensions were down, expulsions were trending downward, and students who were receiving
Tier 2 PBIS interventions were earning better grades.
Summary. When using traditional discipline, teachers try to correct misbehaviors
through punishment. A school that uses PBIS will view misbehaviors as a chance to correct a
mistake. If a student’s behavior persists, the PBIS team will meet to discuss evidence-based
strategies to meet the student’s needs best. When using PBIS, schools utilize appropriate
consequences that are effective in changing a behavior both in the present and the future.
Teachers felt motivated to implement the PBIS structure. One hundred percent of the teachers
believed that the PBIS framework is beneficial for identifying students who may need extra
support; therefore, it is an asset.
Self-Efficacy
Influence 1
PBIS committee teachers need to have confidence in implementing established PBIS
strategies within their daily instruction to improve social and academic outcomes for identified
students.
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Interview Findings. The findings from the collected data indicate that teachers are
confident in their ability to implement PBIS strategies within their classrooms.
According to the interview responses, 100% of the respondents felt confident in their
ability to implement PBIS practices. This outcome contradicts their knowledge of PBIS
strategies because teachers need to know appropriate PBIS strategies. Only one teacher indicated
that she would like more training, stating:
I would love more training. I'm always open to that. I feel like I am following those
things that have been given to me, the things that we have in our school site right now,
and then I kind of have my own things that I follow.
A lack of knowledge of PBIS strategies can lead to low student engagement, which can generate
discipline problems. Teachers must evaluate their own pedagogical practices and the culture they
create when examining disciplinary methods and the impact that those practices have on student
behavior. While the teachers were able to describe a couple of strategies they utilize within their
classrooms, none of them seemed to have a deep understanding of what strategies they can use.
This dearth of knowledge could reflect both the lack of practice since before the pandemic and
the administration change.
Summary. While all teachers interviewed indicated feeling motivated to implement
PBIS strategies in their classrooms, PBIS is generally practiced in isolation at MKAW High
School. As Ms. Bagman shared, “Administration has decided not to do PBIS, so currently,
there’s chaos and no PBIS.” One hundred percent of the teachers felt motivated to implement
PBIS in their own classrooms, but cast doubt on the success of a collective effort. Because 100%
of teachers surveyed felt confident, this is an asset.

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Influence 2
The PBIS committee teachers need to have confidence that, collectively, the group can
accomplish the previously stated LCAP goals.
Interview Findings
Findings from the collected data indicate that teachers are not confident in the PBIS
committee’s ability to focus on a common agenda.
Interviewees indicate that, prior to COVID-19, there was collective buy-in for all
shareholders to implement PBIS in their classrooms as well as in other school settings. This
behavior had, unfortunately, not been the case since COVID-19—and since the program was
suspended. On the surface, the committee existed, but seemingly only on paper. Ms. Abbott
commented: “Currently, there's no PBIS team at the school. I believe if there's still a team,
they're definitely not meeting. The change in administration has decided to do away with PBIS.”
Many of the teacher interviewees reported the administration’s claims that PBIS was still being
implemented within the school; but according to the same teachers, actions prove otherwise. Ms.
Bagman stated, “I am not certain of (PBIS) meeting times. I’ve not heard that they are meeting at
all. I believe is it one person in the administration that decides what the PBIS team [air quotes]
are going to implement.”
MKAW used to have a PBIS school interventionist position which, according to some of
the teachers interviewed, was serving students with persistent issues and helping the suspension
rate to decline; however, that position had since been eliminated. The administration had also not
offered any training to the new teachers; and, according to all of the teachers interviewed, more
than half of the teachers were new to the staff. The PBIS committee did not meet. According to
Ms. Filch, “Currently, there’s no PBIS team at the school. I believe if there’s still a team, they’re
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definitely not meeting because the change in administration has decided to do away with PBIS.
Currently, there’s chaos, and no PBIS.” Four out of the six teachers who were interviewed stated
that, at the beginning of the PBIS implementation, they would have scored a five regarding the
committee’s collaboration efforts, but now they would rate it a one. One teacher rated it a three
for the same reason. Because of the motivation to implement PBIS at MKAW High School, the
school seemed to have been thrown into “chaos,” as stated by Ms. Bagman.
Summary. When a school collectively commits to implementing a PBIS program, it is
more likely to be successful. Staff will collectively have the knowledge and motivation to
implement the different interventions when addressing student behavior instead of reverting to
their own methods of discipline, which have proven to be exclusionary, especially to Black
students. While teachers understand the value and have self-efficacy—which means they believe
that they individually can accomplish the goal, they do not seem to have collective efficacy,
which means the teachers, as a whole, can work together to better effect student achievement in a
positive manner. Students will understand expectations, which benefits students over the long
term. Indeed, 80% of the teachers did not have confidence that the PBIS committee could stay
focused on the common agenda; therefore, their motivation is a need.
Results and Findings for Organization Cause
Organizational barriers were measured through constructed interview questions. The
answers were coded for themes. Available resources were measured through a question about
resources that the PBIS committee teachers feel that they need or have received. The cultural
settings were measured through questions about how the school supports PBIS implementation,
how the administration has supported PBIS committee teachers, and what additional support is
needed from administrators and counselors. Clark and Estes (2008) explained the importance of
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examining organizational factors to determine whether barriers exist that prevent an organization
from achieving its goal. This section discusses how the organizational findings impact the
stakeholder performance of reducing racial disparities in school discipline.
Resources
Influence 1
The PBIS teacher committee needs resources to implement PBIS successfully.
Interview Findings. They need resources such as training, matrices, a behavior
interventionist, and staff buy-in to reestablish the PBIS program.
MKAW High School PBIS committee teachers are generally lacking the most important
resource: buy-in from the administration. For example, Ms. Bagman stated:
Admin doesn’t believe in it (PBIS), and the teachers aren’t implementing it because they
don’t even know what it is, so I would say that what I would need is to have an admin
that believes in the PBIS model.
For PBIS implementation to be effective, all stakeholders must believe in the program. The
entire school plays a vital collective role; and involvement from all stakeholders, starting with
the administration, is essential to its success. Six out of the six PBIS committee teachers
interviewed reflected on what the school had prior to both the pandemic and the change in
administration. Teachers mentioned that there had been buy-in, and teachers all taught the
expectations at the beginning of the year for 5 minutes a year. All teachers used to be given
lesson plans to teach the expectations, but there had not even been a discussion regarding
expectations as a school since before the pandemic. One teacher commented that the only
schoolwide focus is on tardies, and the way that students are punished has a negative impact on
teacher-student relationships. Ms. Draco indicated that, because of the new staff and the lack of
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PBIS implementation since the beginning of the pandemic, “new training is necessary to
understand what PBIS is, understand the different tiers within PBIS, and then, how to report and
look at the data.” Another teacher, Ms. Creevy, explained that new teachers must “feel alone
with problem behaviors” because there is no guidance regarding student behaviors and
expectations. Ms. Abbott mentioned noticing that the matrices outside and inside the
administration building had been disappearing. The matrix is their PBIS acronym, which
articulates expectations for the students. Mr. Edgecombe mentioned that “a new behavior
interventionist needs to be hired.” He indicated that the previous behavior interventionist had
implemented a mentoring program, intervention class, and small groups, and ensured that the
committee met, at least once, if not twice a month and that email was regularly used to
communicate. Because the interventionist was also the PBIS chairperson, he felt that would be a
viable way to implement PBIS schoolwide again. Of course, none of these needed resources will
come to fruition without administration buy-in.
Summary. Based on the findings, the teachers would like to have PBIS reinstated. PBIS
cannot be implemented without school leadership supporting the program and providing the
necessary resources for effective implementation. Five out of six teachers, or 83%, need
resources to successfully implement PBIS in the school; therefore, this is a great need. One
hundred percent of the teachers mentioned that for a collective effort requires that the school has
certain resources, starting with leadership buy-in and training.
Cultural Settings
Influence 1
The school has systems in place to support PBIS committee teachers in implementing
PBIS.
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Interview Findings. They need leadership buy-in to reestablish the PBIS program.
MKAW High School committee teachers overwhelmingly recognized that in order to
successfully resume implementation of PBIS in the school, they needed buy-in from their
administrator. The teachers’ frustration with the lack of support was evident in their responses to
whether the school supports the implementation of PBIS and in what ways. All six of the
teachers indicated that the time in which PBIS was being implemented showed a pattern of fewer
disciplinary referrals. Ms. Abbott stated that “they [administrators] don't even care about it.”
Likewise, Ms. Bagman stated that “They don't talk about it (PBIS) with the teachers. We've had
a high turnover rate, so I would say at least half the people on campus don't even know what
PBIS is.” Ms. Bagman also offered:
I don't feel any support from the counselors or the admin in PBIS. I don't know if it's the
culture of the times that we're in, but definitely, no one is talking about PBIS
implementation. The only thing that school targets right now is tardies, but they're not
doing it the PBIS way if you want my opinion.
This response demonstrates the teacher's knowledge of PBIS and how little the administration
supported the systems that the school had previously chosen to implement.
While the PBIS committee had not held meaningful meetings since before the pandemic,
three out of the six teachers mentioned that they would no longer be willing to be a committee
member, should the committee ever convene again. While all six teachers mentioned that they
implemented PBIS strategies in their classrooms, three were no longer willing to be a part of the
committee. Based on the teacher interviews, teachers felt that discipline problems had increased
because of the lack of leadership support for PBIS. There also seemed to be a lack of knowledge
about how to respond to the administration regarding PBIS implementation.
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Summary. Lack of support from the administration compounded the school’s inability to
secure the knowledge, motivation, and resources to implement PBIS properly. It had become a
singular effort instead of a collective effort, which resulted in a higher rate of suspension as well
as an increase in the racial disparity of Black students being excluded. One hundred percent of
the teachers stated they could not collaborate because there was no committee on which to do so.
This is a need.
Summary of Validated Influences
Knowledge
Table 10
Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Needs of Successful [Stakeholders] Interview Item Asset or Need
Knowledge
Procedural* The PBIS committee
teachers need to
know how to
identify appropriate
PBIS strategies to
implement for
identified students.
The PBIS committee
teachers need to
know how to teach
PBIS expectations
to students.
The PBIS committee
teachers need to
know how to collect
What are appropriate
PBIS strategies to
implement for
targeted students?
How do you teach
PBIS expectations
to students?
How do you collect
data for PBIS, and
how is it used?
Need

Asset

Need
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data to use to guide
their goals.
Metacognitive The PBIS teacher
committee needs to
know how to reflect on
how they identify
students for PBIS
intervention.

How do you know if
the interventions are
working?

Need

Motivation
Table 11
Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Needs of Successful
[Stakeholders]
Interview Item Asset or Need
Motivation
Value PBIS committee
teachers need to
value the process
of PBIS and the
process of
identifying
students for PBIS
interventions.
Tell me how valuable
you believe PBIS
is for identifying
students who need
intervention.
Asset
Self-Efficacy The PBIS committee
teachers need to
How do you feel about
your ability to
Asset
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have confidence
in implementing
established PBIS
strategies within
their daily
instruction to
improve social
and academic
outcomes for
identified
students.
The PBIS committee
teachers need to
have confidence
that, collectively,
the group will be
able to accomplish
the stated LCAP
goals.

implement PBIS
strategies in your
classroom
successfully?
On a scale of 1 to 5, 1
being no
confidence at all
and 5 being the
highest confidence,
how confident are
you that this group
can stay focused on
the common
agenda?
Organization
Table 12
Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
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Assumed Needs of Successful [Stakeholders] Interview Item Asset or Need
Organizational
Resources The PBIS teacher
committee needs
resources to
implement PBIS
successfully.
What resources do
you feel you
need/or have
received to
implement PBIS
successfully?
Need
Cultural Settings

The school has
systems in place
to support PBIS
committee
teachers in
implementing
PBIS.
Do you feel the
school supports
PBIS
implementation?
In what ways?
How can the
administration
and counselors
support you or
have supported
you in the past?
What additional
support do you
need from the
Need
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administration
and counselors?

It is important to summarize these influences in order to design effective solutions so that
systemic systems that continue to plague our Black students can be interrogated and interrupted.
Based on the data analysis, chapter 5 will provide recommendations for knowledge and
organizational resources and solutions.

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CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION
Purpose of the Project and Questions
This study evaluated the KMO influences impacting implementing and utilizing PBIS
strategies at MKAW. Applying the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008), this
qualitative study yielded results that validated knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences on the problem of practice. This chapter’s results and findings guide the evidence-
based solutions and recommendations. The New World Kirkpatrick Model was utilized to create
an implementation and evaluation plan for recommended solutions (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). To begin, the chapter revisits the organizational context and mission, organizational goal,
stakeholders, purpose of the project, and the research questions.
Organizational Context and Mission
MKAW High School is a public school with over two thousand students. It is located in
Southern California. The high school provides many different programs for its students, such as
Advanced Placement courses, different career and technology education programs, articulated
college courses, fine arts courses, and general education. The demographics of the students are
diverse, as 8.5% report their race as Black, 50.7% report Hispanic, and 35.6% report their race as
White (California School Dashboard, 2022), which leaves 2.2% reporting two or more races,
1.8% reporting Asian, and the rest reporting other racial/ethnic groups. The Board of Trustees
contains five members: four males and one female. The female is the only African American on
the Board. She is also the only member on the Board who has ever served in a classroom. The
high school employs six administrators, eight counselors, and 93 teachers. However, as the
teacher shortage continues, teachers also leave their positions in the middle of the year, so the
number of teachers continues to fluctuate.
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Organizational Performance Status
MKAW High School continues to struggle with discipline problems, whose improvement
was a specific Local Control and Accountability Plan (LCAP) goal within the district. The
district’s Goal 3 states that teachers must provide multi-tiered systems of support, such as
offering interventions to support students’ overall academic and emotional success. The district
committed to reducing the suspensions and expulsions for all demographics of students to 3% or
lower by 2024. The following subgroup percentages are as follows: 11.1% of the African
American students were suspended, while only 4% of White students were suspended. The
suspension rate for Latinx students was 4.3%. The data are referenced from the California
Dashboard.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Teachers, counselors, and administrators all participate on the PBIS committee, which
sought to support the district’s goal of reducing expulsion and suspensions. At the time of this
study, there were nine teachers on the committee: three special education teachers, three math
teachers, one Spanish teacher, one graphics teacher, and one behavior interventionist teacher;
although, during the 2022–2023 school year, the administration decided to phase out that
position. Two school counselors and two instructional coaches are part of the committee. Last,
three administrators are supposed to serve on the committee.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
The PBIS committee teachers at MKAW High School were the focus stakeholders of this
study because the study evaluated whether teachers have the tools to improve the schoolwide
behavior management system. Because turnover was and continues to be an issue at the high
school, present and past members were the target of the study.
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Purpose of the Project and Questions
This project aimed to evaluate the degree to which MKAW High School met the district’s
stated LCAP goals regarding reducing exclusionary practices. Analysis focused on KMO
elements related to achieving this organizational goal. Questions that guided this study were as
follows:
1. What knowledge, skills, and motivation have hindered and supported MKAW’s
successful implementation of interventions to reduce suspensions and expulsions of
Black and Latino students?
2. What organizational factors have hindered and supported the successful
implementation of interventions to reduce suspensions and expulsions of Black and
Latino students?
3. What are the recommendations to successfully implement interventions to reduce
suspensions and expulsions of Black and Latino students?
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
The recommendations are presented and organized by knowledge- and organizationally
validated influences determined as needs/gaps through analysis of qualitative data. As outlined in
chapter 4, the study’s data indicated no needs/gaps with motivational influences.
To achieve the organizational goal of reducing exclusionary practices at MKAW High
School, the school must address how best to implement PBIS. MKAW High School teachers will
need the training to understand the procedural and metacognitive knowledge gaps in addition to
the other recommendations outlined in this chapter. Training is crucial, as there are new teachers,
and PBIS has yet to be utilized since the pandemic. Thus, instruction will improve and provide
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more opportunities for positive interactions with students instead of resorting to referrals, which
lead to exclusionary practices.
The significant finding at the organizational level is that, for PBIS to be successful, the
administration must support its implementation. Without leadership supporting the PBIS effort,
there can be no training for teachers, no accountability, and no collaboration with the committee.
This gap has led to teachers individually utilizing the PBIS program. Without fidelity to the
program, it can and has failed at MKAW High School. Without positive interventions such as
PBIS, the increase of suspensions experienced by Black students will continue to increase at
three times the rate for that of White students.
Knowledge Recommendations
The data from this study validated four knowledge influences as needs regarding the
problem of practice: three factual and one metacognitive. Influences were validated as needs
through interviews. Table 13 indicates a priority level for each validated influence to achieve the
organization’s goal and offers research-based principles that support this recommendation.
Following the table, a discussion is provided for each influence, the associated principle, and the
specific recommendations based on supporting literature.

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Table 13
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
knowledge
influence
Asset or
Need
Priority

Principle and
citation
Context-specific
recommendation
Procedural
PBIS committee
teachers need to
know how to
identify
appropriate
PBIS strategies
to implement for
identified
students.

Need Yes The way people
organize their
knowledge
influences how
they learn and
apply what they
know (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
PBIS committee
teachers need to
be trained and
be able to apply
their research-
based PBIS
strategies.
Teachers could
target a specific
strategy, utilize
it, and provide
feedback.

The PBIS
committee
teachers need
to know how to
teach PBIS
expectations to
students.
Need Yes The way people
organize their
knowledge
influences how
they learn and
apply what they
know (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
PBIS committee
teachers need to
receive targeted
training that
requires teachers
to design a
systemic system
for all teachers l
to learn how to
teach PBIS
expectations.

The PBIS
committee
must know
how to collect
data to guide
its goals.
Need Yes The way people
organize their
knowledge
influences how
they learn and
apply what they
know (Schraw
& McCrudden,
2006).
PBIS committee
teachers will be
provided with
targeted learning
opportunities to
know how and
which data to
use to guide
instruction.
Teachers will
create agendas
based on the
data gathered
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and the goals
created.

Metacognitive
The PBIS
committee needs
to know how to
reflect on the
different ways in
which they
identify students
for PBIS
intervention.
Need Yes The use of
metacognitive
strategies
bolsters learning
(Baker, 2006).
PBIS committee
teachers will be
provided with
opportunities to
engage in self-
assessment of
their PBIS
practices.

Procedural Knowledge Solutions
Increasing Teachers’ Knowledge of PBIS Strategies. PBIS committee teachers need to
know the different research-based PBIS strategies to support students, especially students of
color. This influence was identified as a high priority because such foundational knowledge must
be utilized to best meet the needs of students, especially Black students. Schraw and McCrudden
(2006) found that how individuals organize their knowledge influences how they learn and apply
what they know. This finding suggests that providing PBIS committee teachers with targeted
training and practice allows teachers to build their knowledge and skills, which support their
learning. Asking teachers to target specific strategies, providing time to practice and implement
the specific strategy, and reflecting on the practice allows the PBIS committee teacher to begin
having difficult discussions that can assist in changing systemic practices that contribute to
systemic issues.
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PBIS committee teachers require specific knowledge and training to implement PBIS
strategies successfully. Systemic practices can become innate to a school's culture, making it
difficult to change the school culture. When teachers understand that schools have the collective
ability to change suspension rates, they are more likely to implement practices that support that
change. Teachers who have knowledge of the damage caused by suspensions as well as the
knowledge that they can prevent exclusionary behavior will be more apt to gain that knowledge
willfully. While progress may seem slow at times, teachers need the knowledge that shifting
racial and cultural factors to benefit students may take 3 to 5 years (Anfara et al., 2013). This
knowledge may help teachers continue to reinforce the practices.

Increasing Teachers' Knowledge of the Steps Needed to Implement PBIS Strategies
within the Classroom. The results and findings of this study indicate that 33% of the PBIS
committee teachers need more knowledge to successfully implement PBIS strategies in the
classroom. This influence was identified as a high priority because the effects of negative
classroom management discipline continue to hurt students. Schraw and McCrudden (2006)
suggested that schema play an important role when gaining new knowledge. Prior experiences
can affect the way people approach new ideas (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Negative
classroom behavior management strategies are ineffective and result in negative consequences
for our students, especially Black and Latino students (Reinke et al., 2013). This finding suggests
that providing PBIS committee teachers with targeted training and practice allows teachers to
build their knowledge and skill, which support their learning. Asking teachers to design a system
for all teachers to learn how to teach PBIS expectations builds the collective efficacy of teachers
(Hattie, 2015). Collective teacher efficacy can have a significant impact on academic
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achievement for students. Developing collective teacher efficacy also commits teachers to the
fidelity of the program, as teachers realize that success is not autonomous but requires
interdependence.
A study conducted by Griner and Stewart (2012) found that a tool could be used to assist
teachers implement different strategies in their classrooms. The teachers, administration, and
community shareholders could use a checklist of effective practices. The checklist assisted
teachers in building relationships with students, involving parents, and changing the classroom
environment to build a better classroom culture (Griner & Stewart, 2012). Providing teachers
with a resource that was easy to implement and the knowledge of how to implement it may
contribute to a reduced number of suspensions and expulsions.
Increasing Teachers’ Knowledge of Using Data to Guide Instruction. The results and
findings of this study indicated that 50% of the PBIS committee teachers need more knowledge
of how and which data to use to guide instruction. This influence was identified as a high priority
because the school climate can only change effectively if data are used to guide the
implementation. James et al. (2018) indicated that assessing the school climate for weaknesses
and strengths is pivotal as doing so yields an understanding of the culture of the school. PBIS
committee teachers must be able to collect data from different sources, such as educators,
students, and shareholders. PBIS committee teachers should also receive training during PBIS
committee meetings to continue to use different data sources, such as disaggregated data,
attendance records, referrals, teachers writing referrals, number of suspensions and expulsions,
and reasons for the suspensions and expulsions. This training may guide teachers to conduct
discussions about systemic issues within the school, such as suspending and expelling students
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for “disruptive behavior.” For example, a conversation could determine what disruptive behavior
is and how subjective the term, in fact, is.
For PBIS to help change a school's culture, PBIS committee member teachers need
knowledge of how and what data to use. PBIS is effective when teachers use the data to address
perceived obstacles within their classrooms and engage in collaborative discussion using
disaggregated behavior data (Payno-Simmons, 2021). PBIS data talks should be expanded to
discuss racial disproportionality, equity, and racial bias (Payno-Simmons, 2021). The PBIS
committee teachers need to know how to navigate those discussions using data as a tool to guide
their journey. Teachers need the knowledge to use data for the implementation of PBIS. Using
data could lead to conversations that capture teachers’ different approaches when using
classroom management strategies, which could create a positive school climate for all.
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions
Increasing Teachers’ Knowledge of How to Reflect on Ways in Which Students Are
Identified for Intervention. PBIS committee teachers need to self-reflect on the effectiveness of
their knowledge in identifying students that may need PBIS interventions. Baker (2006) found
that metacognitive strategies facilitate learning. This finding suggests that providing
opportunities for PBIS committee teachers to engage in self-monitoring and self-assessment of
classroom management practices that help identify students in need of intervention would allow
them to be more cognizant of their teaching practices and to understand better why they do what
they do (Krathwohl, 2002).
Student engagement and classroom culture improve when teachers self-reflect on their
teaching practices (Honigsfeld & Dove, 2010). They need time to learn and grow from their
reflections (Turkan & Buzick, 2014). Indeed, teachers need an environment in which to develop
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their metacognition skills and to elucidate how metacognition influences their classroom
management strategies, or more specifically, how they recommend students for PBIS
intervention. This reflection should be implemented during PBIS committee meetings. A PLC-
type environment in which teachers build upon their metacognitive abilities could be nurtured,
and the PBIS administrators’ own reflections could benefit the implementation of PBIS as a
school (Prytula, 2012). Metacognition is a vital component of the collaboration model
(Honigsfeld & Dove, 2018) and allows teachers to evaluate their own knowledge of their
practices with colleagues. The PBIS committee can develop a plan to adjust its practices to best
meet all students’ needs.

Motivation Recommendations
The data from this study, as outlined and highlighted in chapter 4, identify one
motivational influence as a need in the problem of practice. Interviews indicate that PBIS
committee teachers strongly value the importance of PBIS and feel motivated to implement the
program within their classrooms. However, interviews also reveal that PBIS committee teachers
feel strongly that the committee needs to focus more on a common agenda. Assets must be
maintained and needs need to be addressed.
Table 14 identifies the motivation causes, priority, principle, and recommendations.
Following the table is a detailed discussion for each high priority cause and recommendation and
the literature supporting the recommendation.

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Table 14
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed motivation
influence
Priority
High
Low
Principle
and citation
Context-specific
recommendation
Value
PBIS committee teachers
need to value the process
of PBIS.
Low When teachers commit to
teaching PBIS and
understand the value,
behaviors, and structures
change (Cressey).
PBIS committee teachers will
understand how training can
be useful through open
discussion of systemic
practices.
Self-Efficacy
The PBIS committee
teachers need to have
confidence in
implementing established
PBIS strategies within
their daily instruction.
Low High self-efficacy can
positively influence
motivation (Pajares, 2006).
PBIS committee teachers will
be provided with training to
support their
implementation, and they
will be provided with
opportunities to practice.
The PBIS committee
teachers need to have
confidence that,
collectively, the group
will be able to
accomplish the
previously stated LCAP
goals.
High If teachers can collectively
reach their goals, their
motivation and value
increase (Ross et al., 2012).
PBIS committee teachers need
the training to implement
PBIS in the school.

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Value Solutions
Increasing Teachers’ Motivation to Value PBIS . Teachers reported high confidence in
the value of the PBIS system. Indeed, 100% of the teachers found value in PBIS. Cressey found
that systems change when teachers are motivated and recognize the value of the change, which
means that PBIS committee teachers must continue building on their knowledge and learning
about PBIS and how to build its structure into the school culture. Training methods must include
strategies that the PBIS committee teachers can use to train the administration and the rest of the
school so they can begin to build collective teacher efficacy.
The findings of this study indicate that the value is an asset as PBIS committee teachers
were able to identify why PBIS is essential in a school. This motivation must be maintained and
supported, and training must provide what teachers need to successfully reintroduce PBIS into
the school while sustaining their motivation. Training should focus not on individual teacher
support but on changing the school culture (Ross et al., 2012). If teachers do not see the value in
PBIS, they are less likely to contribute to the schoolwide initiative, and PBIS requires teacher
fidelity; otherwise, the school culture will not change (Ross et al., 2012). Teachers who are more
self-motivated and confident in their abilities are likelier to engage in tasks and achieve their
goals (Bandura, 2001).
Self-Efficacy Solutions
Increasing Teachers’ Motivation in Implementing Established PBIS Strategies
Within Their Daily Instruction. Teachers reported high confidence in their ability to
implement PBIS strategies in their daily instruction. All of the teachers reflected high self-
efficacy in implementation strategies. Pajares (2006) found that high efficacy can positively
influence motivation, which suggests that in order to perpetuate high self-efficacy in the
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teachers’ abilities to influence change, they must continue to learn and change. Training should
include opportunities for the teachers to practice and self-reflect on their ability to implement
these new opportunities. Teachers were able to recognize the value of the PBIS program,
resulting in high self-efficacy in the program’s integration into the classroom.
Self-efficacy in the classroom is the extent to which a teacher believes they can influence
student experiences and academic learning (Guskey & Passaro, 1994). Positive school climates
have been shown to support teachers’ emotional well-being (Ross et al., 2012). If self-efficacy is
high, teachers are more likely to break down the traditional modes of power structures within the
classroom. They will use their effort to forge lasting relationships with their students, which may
lead to fewer discipline issues in the classroom (Ross et al., 2012), and in turn fewer expulsions
and suspensions. Teachers who reflect on difficult situations that may arise in the classroom are
more likely to seek advice, which signifies a desire for mastery and decrease teacher exhaustion.
Potentially, as the teacher seeks help in classroom management practices, the use of exclusionary
practices will decrease. Teachers need to continue learning new strategies to implement in the
classroom, changing their approaches to accommodate how the world and students have
changed.
Increasing Teachers’ Motivation to Have Confidence in the PBIS Committee.
Teachers reported low confidence that the PBIS committee can collectively reach their goals, as
was stated in the LCAP. Eighty percent of the teachers felt pessimistic about the committee’s
ability to stay focused on the common agenda. Negative feelings can reduce an individual’s
value for the goals (Clark et al., 2006), stymying the collective effort. This research suggests that
the committee needs training on implementing PBIS in the school once more. Training methods
must include a committee that believes in the efficacy of PBIS. All shareholders must be
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represented and receive training from an outside source, such as SELPA. SELPA provides PBIS
training to communities in the high desert with an expert to assist in implementing the program.
The PBIS committee must learn how to foster collective efficacy for the program and use
evidence to guide its reintroduction of PBIS. Goal setting can enhance learning and performance
(Dembo & Eaton, 2000).
Teachers who are confident and self-motivated are more likely to engage in tasks and
achieve goals (Bandura, 2001). Teachers with the knowledge and support of their committee
were more likely to have students who achieved more, while those who lacked confidence were
likelier to have students who achieved less success (Bandura, 2001). Positive teacher efficacy
may lead to emotional contagion that positively affects a student’s learning experience, an
indication that teachers need training on becoming a cohesive committee with aligned goals.
While teacher self-efficacy in their committee builds, so does teacher self-efficacy, which can
lead to fewer exclusionary practices as less conflict will occur in the classroom (Immordino-
Yang et al., 2016).
Organization Recommendations
This study’s data validated two organizational influences on the problem of practice:
resources and cultural setting. The influences were validated through interviews. Table 15
indicates a priority level for each validated influence in achieving the organization’s goals and
the research-based principles that support this recommendation. Following the table, a discussion
elucidates the associated principle and the specific recommendations for each priority influence
based on the supporting literature.

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Table 15
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
organization
influence
Priority

Principle and citation Context-specific
recommendation
Cultural Settings
The school needs to
have systems in
place to support
PBIS committee
teachers to
implement PBIS.
High Individual roles and expectations
that are aligned with the
organization’s goals and
mission increase accountability
(Elmore, 2002).
Design systems that
clearly support and
implement the PBIS
program for all
stakeholders.

Resources
The PBIS teacher
committee needs
the resources to
implement PBIS
successfully.
High Effective change requires that
everyone has the resources to
do their job, and if there are
shortages, then resources that
align with the organization’s
mission and goals need to be
provided (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Establish PBIS as a
priority at the school
and provide training
for all staff.

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Cultural Settings Solutions
Increasing the Organization’s Commitment to Implementing PBIS. The data
identified one gap in the assumed organizational influence of cultural settings, showing that the
school needs leadership support to successfully implement PBIS. When analyzing a possible gap
in an organization’s ability to reach its goal, the cultural setting must be understood and more
visible to all shareholders (Rueda, 2001). When the organization considers its goals, values, and
beliefs, cultural settings must align with the cultural setting (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Accountability is increased when individual roles and expectations are aligned with
organizational goals and mission (Elmore, 2002) suggesting that, for PBIS to be successfully
implemented, the administration must fully support the program and its committee members.
Research supports that fewer referrals are written when a school has a positive cultural
setting, which leads to fewer exclusionary practices. When a school has a positive culture, which
includes a supportive staff and administration, exclusionary practices are less likely to occur
(Bruhn et al., 2022). PBIS’s mission is to prevent and correct behaviors, while promoting a
positive school climate for all students (Bruhn et al., 2022). PBIS implements evidence-based
practices that can support the organization’s stated LCAP goals. If the administration does not
support PBIS, implementation will not succeed. The success of PBIS relies on the support of
administrators and educators (Tyre & Feuerborn, 2021). Resistance from staff can include many
different perspectives. Some staff may view PBIS as unnecessary, or staff may not understand
the systemic issues caused by exclusionary practices (Tyre & Feuerborn, 2021). Staff cannot
forge ahead with implementation without the full support of the administration (Tyre &
Feuerborn, 2021). Misalignment of philosophy requires an approach that welcomes open
discussion about PBIS and its approach and data demonstrating that the school uses exclusionary
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practices to discipline its students. An open discussion and training are required to help
leadership understand the importance of the program.
Resources Solutions
Increasing the Organization’s Commitment to Implementing PBIS. The data
validated one gap in the assumed organizational influence of resources, demonstrating that the
school needs resources to successfully implement PBIS, which should start with training.
Training must be ongoing, focusing first on the committee and then the whole staff. PBIS
committee teachers need time to successfully implement the strategies into their practice, but
they need leadership to support this endeavor. According to Clark and Estes (2008), effective
change requires that everyone has the tools to do their job. Shortages of resources mean that
leadership must commits to supplying those resources. The organization’s recommendations are
to prioritize PBIS at the school and to provide training on an ongoing basis. Committee members
need time to practice, and leadership needs time to reacquaint itself with the benefits of PBIS.
Research indicates that, to implement PBIS successfully, all shareholders need time for
training and time to collaborate. Schools must work together to create a schoolwide program
(Bradshaw et al., 2015). With the support of the administration or follow-up training, newly
acquired skills are similar to transfer and persist (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Leadership
must also be willing to attend the training to implement the schoolwide program successfully.
Funding must be made available and accounted for each year. Building on the self-efficacy of the
current PBIS committee members, a refresher course reminds teachers what change they and the
program are capable of making (Bandura, 1997). All PBIS committee members, and later all
staff, will reflect and provide feedback on their own classroom implementation and for the
program itself.
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Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Recommendations
The recommendations for each of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
framework are evidence-based and essential to the success of PBIS implementation at the school.
PBIS committee teachers need to gain some knowledge before they can successfully implement
PBIS in the school. For the PBIS committee teachers to know and implement PBIS strategies in
their classrooms, they need the training and time to practice those strategies in their classrooms.
In turn, the PBIS committee teachers must know how to teach PBIS expectations to students, so
the PBIS committee teachers should receive targeted training that requires teachers to design a
system to teach PBIS expectations. The PBIS committee teachers also need to know how to
collect data and which data should be collected; therefore, PBIS committee teachers need to be
provided targeted learning opportunities to know how and which data to use to guide their
program. Teachers need knowledge of how to build agendas with the goals created. The PBIS
committee also needs to know how to reflect on the ways that students are identified for
interventions, so teachers should be provided with opportunities to engage in guided self-
assessment of their PBIS strategies.
PBIS committee teachers need the motivation to continue to use PBIS. PBIS committee
teachers must value the process of PBIS, so they will understand how training can be useful
through discussion of systemic practices. PBIS committee teachers also need to gain confidence
in their individualized strategies to implement PBIS in their classrooms, so PBIS committee
teachers will be provided with training to support their implementation and opportunity to
practice. Moreover, the PBIS committee teachers need collective efficacy so that their group will
be able to accomplish the previously stated LCAP goals. While PBIS committee teachers will be
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trained to implement PBIS in the school, knowledge and motivation can only be sorted after
addressing organizational practices.
PBIS committee teachers need the organization—namely, the administrators—to support
the PBIS endeavor because the program fosters a cultural shift in the school. The organization
must demonstrate support for PBIS by having all shareholders design systems for the school. The
PBIS committee teachers need the resources to implement PBIS successfully, so the
administration must establish PBIS as a priority and provide training for the PBIS committee
teachers while gradually planning for all-school implementation and training.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
The mission of MKAW is to ensure that the unique needs of our students, including
academic, social, and behavioral needs, are being met so that they may be college and career
ready. The previously stated LCAP goal are that teachers must provide multi-tiered systems of
support: interventions to support positive student growth and development academically,
behaviorally, and emotionally, and to maintain a positive school climate with parents and staff
collaborating to better all children in the community. The problem is that, at MKAW, Black
students face a much higher suspension and expulsion rate, as reported by California Dashboard.
Black students are suspended at three times the rate of their White peers.
The stakeholders evaluated PBIS committee teachers. While some administrators and
counselors serve on the committee, teachers utilize PBIS strategies more often than other
stakeholders. The teachers are expected to implement the program, and administrators and
counselors would not serve the purpose of the study as the number of referrals typically come
from teachers. Evaluating the effectiveness of the program required teachers to be identified as
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the shareholders. The following implementation and evaluation plan will ensure that teachers are
trained in PBIS pedagogy and will practice and implement PBIS strategies in their classrooms
and school.
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) is based on the
original Kirkpatrick four-level model of evaluation of training programs (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2006), and guided this implementation plan. The New World Model recommends
following the plan in reserves, beginning with the end in mind. Level 4 produces results; Level 3
evaluates the behavior; Level 2 is the learning; Level 1 is the reaction. This backward design
model forces more accountability and allows the organization to plan for intended outcomes. In
the following sections, Level 4 results are outlined. Results are determined after considering the
mission and goals. Level 3 is next and defines the critical behaviors stakeholders must perform to
impact the intended results. Level 2 follows and defines the learning goals; finally, Level 1
measures stakeholders’ satisfaction with the training. Implementing the New World Kirkpatrick
Model will allow value and knowledge from the stakeholders, while the model fosters and guides
the organization to achieve the expected outcomes.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 16 shows the Level 4 leading indicators for the external and internal outcomes and
the metrics and methods to be used to measure them. Overall, Level 4 results from the degree to
which MKAW targeted outcomes occur as a result of the training plan.

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Table 16
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increased student satisfaction
with school climate.
The number of students who indicate
satisfied or highly satisfied on the
yearly school climate survey.
Generate feedback through the
Youth Truth Survey.

Increased parent satisfaction
with school climate.
The number of parents who indicate
satisfied or highly satisfied on the
yearly school climate survey.
Generate feedback through the
Youth Truth Survey.

Recognition from educational
circles for providing
inclusive, equitable
education.
Recognition from regional and state
PBIS leaders and other related
organizations. Present at
conferences and workshops.
Track annual rankings,
recognitions, and results data.

Reduced chronic
absenteeism.
Percentage of students who are
chronically absent and excessively
tardy.
Track attendance rates through
school performance report data.
Weekly and monthly meetings
to discuss interventions.

Reduced number of
suspensions and
expulsions.
The percentage of students who are
suspended and/or expelled is
reduced.
Track suspension and expulsion
rates through report data.
Weekly and monthly meetings
to discuss interventions.

Internal Outcomes
Reduction in overall racial
disparity in school
discipline.
Disaggregated data show a
reduction in Black students in
comparison to White students
with suspensions and expulsions.
Track discipline data monthly to
evaluate warning indicators that
require prompt intervention.

Reduction in racial disparities
in school discipline,
disaggregated by the
offense.
Disaggregated data show a
reduction in Black students in
comparison to white students in
relation to disruptive referrals.
Track referral data monthly to
evaluate warning indicators that
require prompt intervention.

Reduction in discipline
incidents.
The number of overall discipline
incidents.
Track discipline data monthly to
evaluate warning indicators that
require prompt intervention.

Published changes to revised
discipline and attendance
policies.
Monthly committee meetings
with progress benchmarks.
Record of meeting agendas,
meeting minutes, calendars, and
policy drafts.

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Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors
The stakeholders of focus are PBIS committee teachers at MKAW High School. The first
critical behavior is that the PBIS committee will receive training in PBIS and begin to build the
Tier 1 system. Second, PBIS committee teachers will implement PBIS strategies in their
classrooms. Third, PBIS committee teachers should model and assist their colleagues in
implementing PBIS in their classrooms. Finally, the PBIS committee will meet regularly to
measure goals and results and publish outcomes. Specific metrics, methods, and timing for each
of these outcome behaviors appear in Table 17.

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Table 17
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
The PBIS committee
will receive training
in PBIS and begin to
build the Tier 1
system.
The frequency of
teachers’ opportunities
to participate in
training and
collaborative
activities.

Administrators will create a
comprehensive
implementation plan for
training for PBIS Tier 1.
The PBIS
committee
will meet
twice a
month.
PBIS committee
teachers will
implement PBIS
strategies in their
classrooms.
The frequency of
teachers’ opportunities
to participate in
reflection activities.
Administrators will create a
comprehensive plan for
reflection activities.
The PBIS
committee
will meet
twice a
month.

PBIS committee should
model and assist their
colleagues in
implementing PBIS
in their classrooms.
The number of teachers
who benefit from
coaching to support
their own goals.
Teachers will work in PLCs,
and administrators will
support teachers in
observing each other and
engaging in reflective
conversation.

Monthly review
of the log of
coaching
activities.
The PBIS committee
will meet regularly to
measure goals and
results and publish
outcomes.
The number of goals
attained and the
frequency of
communication of
outcomes.
Teachers, with
administrative support,
will continually and
frequently monitor and
evaluate progress toward
goals.
Monthly
evaluation of
data and
goals.

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Required Drivers
To successfully implement the recommendations, MKAW High School teachers will
need the support of their administration team to reinforce the importance of implementing the
program with fidelity. They will also need support from other staff in the high school to build
their self-efficacy and confidence in their committee’s ability to implement successful change.
Rewards should be provided based on the needs of the individual stakeholders as goals are
achieved. Table 18 shows the recommended drivers for supporting the teachers’ critical
behaviors.

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Table 18
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3, etc.
Reinforcing
Training on the negative
consequences of
exclusionary practices.
Provide monthly staff
training on the
consequences of
exclusionary practices.

1
Training on the PBIS model. The teachers will receive
training monthly at staff
meetings until PBIS is fully
implemented at MKAW.

1, 4
Committee meetings to
discuss goals and progress
toward the goals
The PBIS committee will
week bi-weekly.

1
Encouraging
Coaching school staff on
strategies to defuse and de-
escalate conflicts with
students.
Monthly staff meetings with
the PBIS chairperson or
individual coaching for
teachers from the PBIS
chairperson.

2
Administrators encourage
teachers during meetings,
training, and classroom
observations.
Frequent meetings, training,
and observations.
3
Rewarding
PBIS rewards (for adults) for
engaging and reflecting on
PBIS strategies.
Monthly staff meetings. 3, 4
Recognition of school staff
that demonstrate success in
building relationships with
students.
Monthly staff meetings and
weekly “Drops in the
Bucket.”
3
Monitoring
Administrators and the PBIS
chairperson ask teachers to
self-reflect and report their
self-confidence and self-
efficacy in implementing
PBIS strategies.
Monthly staff meetings and
during post-observation
conferences.
2, 3
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Teachers share success
stories.
Weekly “Drops in the
Bucket” or at department
meetings.

4
Teachers complete self-
monitoring checklists.
One to two weeks after
training at staff meetings.
4
Organizational Support
The critical behaviors and required drivers are premised upon the implementation of
recommendations at the organizational level. Reaching its goal requires the organization to
reallocate resources to reflect a commitment to PBIS. Administrators have to examine current
resources allocated to school discipline practices, reallocate those resources to the PBIS program,
and review the budget on a quarterly basis. The PBIS committee will have to rebuild, plan, make
decisions based on data, and evaluate progress. MKAW’s administrators also need to revise and
implement a new discipline policy that supports the mission of the school and PBIS. To recreate
the discipline policy, the administration should survey all shareholders and write the discipline
policy with the PBIS committee. Students, staff, and parents should be solicited for feedback.
Finally, the PBIS committee will need to build a systemic practice that maintains accountability.
Level 2: Learning
Level 2 learning is the degree to which the teachers will actually meet the intended
knowledge, skills, and attitudes based on their participation in the learning (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Confidence and attitude are also important measures, as self-efficacy will
assist in closing the gap (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Self-efficacious teacher s are more
likely to be committed, which is another measure of learning.
Learning Goals
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The following learning goals were developed based on the validated needs from chapter 4.
Upon completion of the recommended solutions, MKAW PBIS committee teachers will be able
to:
1. Explain the research-based PBIS strategies that support students;
2. Analyze school discipline data to understand the purpose and need for PBIS;
3. Recognize the negative effects of exclusionary practices;
4. Reflect on personal biases, stereotypes, issues of power, and privilege at the school;
5. Collaborate with colleagues and administrators to successfully implement PBIS strategies
in the school; and
6. Recognize the need for students to remain in the classroom as often as possible.
Program
The training program responds to the stakeholder’s previously stated goal that teachers
must provide multi-tiered systems of support: interventions to support positive student growth
and development academically, behaviorally, and emotionally, and to maintain a positive school
climate with parents and staff working together to better all children in the community. The
previously listed learning goals will be achieved through committed reform in a span of 3 years.
Training will be a multi-pronged approach, as some will be outsourced and some training will
occur in-house as led by the PBIS chairperson and committee.
This evaluation and implementation plan will focus on necessary training for the PBIS
committee as well as the staff at MKAW High School. The training will be outsourced to the
initial training for implementing PBIS with the PBIS committee. Then, the PBIS committee will
become the source of support and training for the rest of the staff at MKAW through staff
meeting training and coaching. Administrators will also attend all training.
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Evaluation of the Components of Learning
Evaluating PBIS committee teachers learning is imperative for procedural and declarative
knowledge, as knowledge is the foundation for the expected application. It is also important to
assess teachers’ attitudes, confidence, and commitment to ensure that motivation is not detracting
from learning. It is critical to continue to assess this important influence with the entire group of
stakeholders. Table 19 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these components of learning.

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Table 19
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative knowledge: “I know it.”

Explaining key components of research-based
strategies that support PBIS classroom strategies.
During and after training
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair,
think, share,” and other individual/group
activities.
During training, PLCs, and department meetings
Procedural Skills: “I can do it right now.”

Individual application of the skills with
authentic classroom applications.
At the end of each training
A survey asking participants about their level of
proficiency before and after the training.
At the end of each training.

Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”

Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
items.
Before and after training.
Discussions of the value of what they are being
asked to do on the job.
During training.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”

Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
items.
Before and after training.

Discussions following practice and feedback. During the training.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”

Create individual goals. Discuss goals with PLCs after training, PBIS
chairperson, and administrator
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
items.
Before and after training.

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Level 1: Reaction
An effective implementation plan must measure how participants react to the learning
program. Level 1 is defined as the degree to which participants from the training program are
useful, engaging, and relevant (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 20 lists the components
that can measure reactions from participants in the following order: engagement, relevance, and
customer satisfaction. Methods of evaluation are formative and take place during the training
course.
Table 20
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Discussions and exit tickets to reflect on the
value of the PBIS training and the value of
the PBIS strategies themselves.
During and after training and staff meetings
Relevance
Training evaluation 2 weeks after introducing strategies at
training
Customer Satisfaction
Training evaluation After each training

Evaluation Tools
Immediately Following Program Implementation
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Applying the blended evaluation methodology (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016),
valuable data about the training’s effectiveness are collected. To assess Level 1 (engagement,
relevance, and customer satisfaction) and Level 2 (declarative knowledge, procedural skills,
attitude, confidence, and commitment) and to measure outcomes, an evaluation tool (Appendix
E) can be used immediately following the program training. Additionally, the PBIS chairperson
and PBIS committee will conduct guided discussions to gather feedback, address lingering
concerns or questions, and ask teachers if the learning was relevant to their daily work. The PBIS
chairperson and administrators will facilitate discussions with teachers during the training to
determine engagement and immediately after the meeting to learn about the teachers’ thoughts
on relevancy.
Delayed for a Period after the Program Implementation
Appendix F outlines potential survey items regarding Levels 1, 2, 3, and 4 that should be
utilized approximately 6 weeks after the training. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
recommended evaluating the impact of the training program after a fair amount of time has
passed to allow participants to reflect on the impact and allow time for drivers and critical
behaviors to take effect. The participants are asked to provide feedback using the evaluation tool
on Levels 1, 2, 3, and 4. Open-ended questions allow participants to be more individualized in
their responses and participants and instructors to identify any implementation barriers.
Instructors can offer more training or feedback to participants who may require additional
assistance.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal for teachers is measured by surveys and tracking absenteeism and
suspensions to determine whether the school is making progress on reducing racial disparities in
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discipline. This can be found in Appendix G. Each month, the administration will track the
number of referrals processed and review a report detailing suspension and disaggregated by
race. A visual representation will be created, maintained, and shared with the leadership team.
Similar dashboards will be created for other measures at Levels 4, 3, 2, and 1.
Summary of the Implementation and Evaluation
The New World Kirkpatrick Model was the framework used for the integrated
implementation and evaluation plan to address recommended solutions to the validated gaps
identified through the data analysis in chapter 4 (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This model
consists of three issues to consider when deciding whether to evaluate a training program: to
improve the program, to maximize the trainers of learning, and to demonstrate the value of
training to the organization. Gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizations must be identified
if a measurable difference is to be made in the organization’s goals and results.
While adhering to the recommended backward design model, leading indicators were
identified for Level 4. Critical behaviors and the required drivers to achieve the goals were
outlined in Level 3, and the crucial details regarding organizational support and alignment of
goals were identified. Learning goals and evaluation of the program were identified in Level 2,
and an outline plan was written to measure reactions to the training program for Level 1.
Data should be collected, analyzed, and shared during the training and implementation
process (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The data collection tools in Appendices F and G
provide immediate feedback after the training and 6 weeks post-training. As the data are
collected and analyzed, stakeholders will decide what other data collection is needed in order to
improve school discipline.

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Limitations
There are limitations to this study. MKAW High School was the only school sampled,
and the stakeholder sample was small. The data were not triangulated. The validity of the
findings might be reduced due to these factors. The researcher chose to interview teachers from
only one school who had implemented PIBS and only teachers who served on the PBIS
committee were interviewed. While the targeted number of participants was eight, only six
participants were interviewed. Another limitation that this study’s author was a PBIS chairperson
at the school, which could result in a biased interpretation of the data.
Recommendations for Future Research
As discipline outcomes continue to hurt students of color, the more important
understanding the racial disparities in discipline becomes. The first recommendation for future
research is to conduct further research and examine all intersectional groups of students. As
Black students were the only examined group in this study, English Learners, Latino students,
homeless youth, and special education students should all be examined in depth. Students’ voices
also need to be heard. They need to be able to share their personal stories. Adults who have been
negatively affected by exclusionary practices should also be considered as well.
A second recommendation is to research the effects of implementation and the
transformation of the school throughout the 3-year implementation period to understand the
effects of PBIS on the school and whether the program was implemented with fidelity.
Conclusion
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The LCAP goal is that teachers provide multi-tiered systems of support: interventions to
support positive student growth and development academically, behaviorally, and emotionally,
and to maintain a positive school climate with parents and staff working together to better all
children in the community. But these aims will not be met if high rates of suspensions and
expulsions persist, especially for Black students. While all stakeholders contribute to achieving
the goal, the stakeholder of focus here was PBIS committee teachers because they have the
ability to effect change throughout the school with the support of the administration.
The recommendations of this study are two-fold. This evaluation study was an important
step in informing stakeholders of the knowledge, motivation, and organization gaps at MKAW
High School. Again, the asset should be noted that teachers are motivated to learn and implement
PBIS strategies. The organization made a commitment to reduce all suspension and expulsion
rates to equal standing by 2024. They will not meet that goal, and Black students are being
affected. Racial disparities will continue unless the administration makes a commitment to
implementing a program that will help end exclusionary practices. The teachers are burnt out,
especially after the pandemic, and feel as if they have no support to ensure positive outcomes for
the students. Systemic change that challenges deeply rooted beliefs is difficult to achieve.
MKAW High School needs to make equity in education a focus. The conclusion of this study
provides a clear framework for addressing the identified gaps and assisting the school with a
clear pathway to implementing PBIS. At this time, MKAW High School clearly has no systemic
program in place to reduce exclusionary practices. Black students are suffering the most as a
result. Administration must take note of the racial discrepancies mounting in the school. Clearly,
PBIS must be implemented, if possible, at MKAW, and taught with fidelity. Administration must
115

assist teachers in attempting to meet the previously stated LCAP goal. There is always room for
improvement, but one must be willing to start somewhere.
Since this study was implemented, I have taken on a new leadership role in another
district. My positionality requires that I evaluate my own experiences and perspectives before
stepping into this leadership role. I understand how important valuing the community and culture
of the school is before implementing change. Doing so requires understanding the culture and
traditions to create an inclusive and supportive environment. The school is implementing PBIS
this year, and the leadership team is excited about the recommendations that I bring to
successfully implement it. I will prioritize equity in PBIS implementation by addressing the
systemic barriers and disparities that appear in the school’s data. I understand, through this study,
how important leadership support is, and I will help implement PBIS at the new school. By
incorporating PBIS, the school will be more equitable. Students and staff will feel efficacious
and valued, which will lead to the collective ability needed to boost academic achievement.

116

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126

APPENDIX A
Interview Protocol
Dear ________,
Thank you for taking the time to talk with me today. As you know, I am a doctoral student with
the Rossier School of Education, and I am conducting an evaluation study of the implementation
of the Positive Behavior Intervention and Support System and its effect on discipline at MKAW.
I am hoping to develop a deeper understanding of how this PBIS committee works together to
lead such an important initiative. Today, I am not in the position of the former chairperson of
PBIS but as a researcher. I appreciate your open, honest view in this interview.
I also want to remind you of the research protocols that I will use to ensure
confidentiality. I will be recording today’s interview if there are no objections, and as we discuss
the questions, I will avoid using your real name. Throughout the analysis and use of the
interview data, I will use a pseudonym in place of your real name so as to avoid any information
being linked directly to you. The purpose of the recording is to ensure that I relay your
information as correctly as possible. All transcripts and recorded data will be kept in password-
protected files on my computer.
Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. Because this is voluntary, please
feel free to skip any questions today or even withdraw from the interview at any time. Do you
have any questions about any of the information I just relayed or the procedures that I will be
using during or after the interview?
As we begin, I would like to find out some information about your role at the
organization and on the committee.
Interview Questions:
127

1. How long have you worked at this organization?
2. What is your job title?
3. What are your job responsibilities?
Transition: Thank you. Now can you…
4. Please tell me about your position in PBIS.
5. How did you come to be involved in this position?
Transition: Thank you. Now I will ask you some questions specific to PBIS.
6. What is the mission of PBIS?
Probe: Is this mission still relevant today?
7. What are appropriate PBIS strategies to implement within the classroom?
8. How do you teach PBIS expectations to students?
9. How do you collect data for students?
a. Probe: How is it used?
10. How do you know if the interventions are working?
Transition: I’m now going to switch to questions that are more specific to the motivation of
implementing and using PBIS in the school.
11. Tell me how valuable you believe PBIS to be for identifying students who need
intervention.
a. Tell me how valuable you believe your PBIS system is for identifying students who
need intervention.
12. How do you feel about your ability to successfully implement PBIS strategies into your
classroom?
13. On a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being no confidence at all, and 5 being the highest
128

confidence, how confident are you that this group can stay focused on the common
agenda?
Transition: Now I’m going to ask you some questions about the resources you have and need to
successfully implement PBIS.
14. What resources do you feel you need/or have received to implement PBIS?
15. Do you feel the school supports PBIS implementation? In what ways?
16. What supports have helped you in implementing PBIS?
a. Who provided these?
17. From your perspective, what additional supports are needed for teachers to implement
PBIS?
a. Who should provide these?
18. Describe how the PBIS committee collaborates.

129

APPENDIX B
Document Analysis
Artifact/Document Influence/Assessed
(K-M-O)
Data Analyzed

130

APPENDIX C
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles CA, 90089

An evaluation of the effectiveness of Positive Behavior Intervention System at the high school
level
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that interfere with MKAW Unified School District's ability to
provide interventions to students that assist in their academic, behavior, and emotional growth
(LCAP, 2021).
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in an individual interview.
You will be asked to consent to possible follow-up questions after the interview concludes.
The interview should last about one hour and will be recorded with your consent. The recording
will be used by the researcher for the sole purpose of ensuring that all information is captured
correctly. If you prefer not to have your interview recorded, you may decline recording prior or
during the interview. Your participation will not be affected.

CONFIDENTIALITY
131

There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address or other identifiable information will not be collected.
The members of the research team, the funding agency, and the University of Southern California’s
Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used. Throughout the interview, your real name will not be used. Throughout
the analysis of the interview data a pseudonym will be used in place of your real name. The
interview recording will only be listened to by the principal investigator and will not be linked
with your name. The purpose of the recording is to ensure that the information has been captured
accurately. All recorded data and the transcriptions of this interview will be kept in password-
protected files on the principal investigator’s computer. All data will be destroyed upon the
completion of this study
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact the following individuals:
The Principal Investigator is Josephine Wade, wadejose@usc.edu
The Faculty Advisor is Dr. Darline Robles, dprobles@rossier.usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions regarding your right as a research participant, please contact the
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

132

APPENDIX D
Recruitment Email
Dear Participant,
My name is Josephine Wade, and I am a third-year doctoral student at the University of Southern
California. I am studying Educational Leadership with a focus on equity. I am currently engaged
in doctoral research, which is evaluating the current impact of the PBIS program implemented at
MKAW school.
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the PBIS teacher’s committee members’ progress toward
the stated LCAP goals of integrating interventions that help to support students’ physical, social,
and emotional well-being.
As you are a PBIS teacher committee member, you could provide valuable insight into the work
of the PBIS team, and the progress made to date. You could also speak on any obstacles that
have hindered progress. I am reaching out to you to see if you would be willing to participate in
an interview, virtual or in-person, that would last approximately 45-60 minutes in length and be a
part of this research study. All interviews, whether on Zoom or in-person, will be recorded;
however, you can request that the interview not be recorded before or even during the interview.
I greatly appreciate your consideration of my request to participate. Please feel free to reply to
this email with your response to this invitation.

Thank you for your consideration,
Josephine Wade

133

Appendix E
Evaluation Instrument: Levels 1 & 2

Training Date: Training Topic:

Thank you for attending today’s PBIS training. We appreciate your feedback so
that we can evaluate the quality of instruction and engagement and continue to
improve for future sessions.
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
L1:
Reaction
I was satisfied with the pacing and
timing of today’s workshop.
____1 ____2 ____3 ____4
L1:
Reaction
The content presented was valuable
and relevant to my position.
____1 ____2 ____3 ____4
L1: Reaction
How could this training be improved?

L2:
Learning
I am more confident in
implementing PBIS strategies in my
classroom.
____1 ____2 ____3 ____4
L2:
Learning
The information that was shared
helped me to understand PBIS’
mission and strategies.
____1 ____2 ____3 ____4
L2: Learning
What is the first strategy you plan to implement in your classroom?

134

Appendix F
Delayed Evaluation Tools
Level 1, 2, 3, and 4 Delayed for a period after the PBIS program implementation
Survey six weeks after the PD

Evaluation Item Likert Scale
1: Strongly
Disagree
5: Strongly Agree
L1:
Reaction
What I learned in training has been very valuable when I
practice the approaches in my classroom.
1 2 3 4 5
L1:
Reaction
I learned the process of analyzing data and creating
action plans.
1 2 3 4 5
L2:
Learning
I was able to create action plans using data more fully
after the training than before the training.
1 2 3 4 5
L3:
Behavior
The PBIS committee used handouts effectively to coach
teachers.
1 2 3 4 5
L4: Results I am able to analyze data effectively. 1 2 3 4 5
L4: Results I am able to create action plans effectively. 1 2 3 4 5

135

Appendix G
Data Analysis Chart

Equity Data
School: Month: Year:
Percent of
Population
Number of
OSS
Percent of
OSS
Number of
ISS
Percent of
ISS
white boys
white girls
Black boys
Black girls
Latino boys
Latino girls
Homeless
youth

IEP boys
IEP girls
EL boys
EL girls

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to evaluate racial disparities in school discipline in one high school. Interview participants included PBIS committee teachers. The knowledge and motivation of teachers as well as organizational factors that contribute to exclusionary practices were examined. Results include the needs and assets for teachers to successfully implement PBIS at MKAW High School. Results include an apparent lack of knowledge of PBIS strategies, how to use data successfully, being supplied the necessary resources, and administration buy-in. Recommendations include a framework to develop PBIS at MKAW High School in 3 years. Continuous drivers include self-reflection, evaluation, and monitoring.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Wade, Josephine (author)

Core Title An evaluation of the effectiveness of positive behavior intervention system at the high school level

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-08

Publication Date 07/19/2023

Defense Date 04/14/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag exclusionary practices,expulsion,expulsions,OAI-PMH Harvest,PBIS,suspension,suspensions

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Robles, Darline (committee chair), Ermeling, Bradley (committee member), Ott, Maria (committee member)

Creator Email ajosephinel@hotmail.com,wadejose@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113282066

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Legacy Identifier etd-WadeJoseph-12116

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Wade, Josephine

Internet Media Type application/pdf

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Source 20230721-usctheses-batch-1071 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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