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The effects of dual coding theory on memory retention

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The effects of dual coding theory on memory retention

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Content Running head: THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY
Copyright 2023 Shabnam Khorsand

The Effect of Dual Coding Theory on Memory Retention

by

Shabnam Khorsand

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC DORNSIFE COLLEGE OF LETTERS, ARTS AND SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF SCIENCE
(APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS)

August 2023

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures ……………………………………..………………………………..………..iii

Abstract ......…………………………………………………………………………………...iv

Chapter 1: Introduction ………………..………………………………………………………1

Chapter 2: Methods ..…………………………………………………………………………. 5
Participants …...………………………………………………………………. 5
Setting...……………………………………………...………………………... 5
Materials ………………………………...……………………………………. 6
Response Measurement ……………………………………………………......7
Dependent Variable …………………………………………………………... 7
Data Collection ……………………………………………………………….. 7
Experimental Design………………………………………………………...... 8
Social Validity ………………………………………………………………... 8
Procedures ……………………………………………………………...…….. 8
Initial Intake …………………………………………………………...……... 8
Baseline ………………………………………………………………...…….. 9
Study Phase ……………………………………………………………...….. 10
Retention Tests …………………………………………………………….... 11
Social Validity Measure ……………………………………………………...12

Chapter 3: Results …………………………………………………………………………….13
Interobserver Agreement ……………………………………………………..15
Social Validity ………………………………………………………………. 16

Chapter 4: Discussion ……………………………………………………………………….. 17

Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………………… 20

Appendices ………………………………………………………………………………...…21
Appendix A: Single Modality Flashcard ……………………………………. 21
Appendix B: Dual Modality Flashcard …………………………………….....22
Appendix C: Short Answer Retention Test …………………………………..23
Appendix D: Behavioral Term Difficulty …………………………………... 25
Appendix E: Analytical Rubric ………………………………………………26
Appendix F: Social Validity Questionnaire ………………………………….27
Appendix G: Demographic Questionnaire …………………………………...27

Figures ………………………………………………………………………………………..30

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Percent Accuracy for Participant 1…………………………………………….……. 30

Figure 2: Response Latency for Participant 1…………………………………………………. 31

Figure 3: Duration for Participant 1…………………………………………………………… 32

Figure 4: Percent Accuracy for Participant 2…………………………………………….……. 33

Figure 5: Response Latency for Participant 2…………………………………………………. 34

Figure 6: Duration for Participant 2…………………………………………………………… 35

Figure 7: Percent Accuracy for Participant 3…………………………………………….……. 35

Figure 8: Response Latency for Participant 3…………………………………………………. 36

Figure 9: Duration for Participant 3…………………………………………………………… 37

Figure 10: Social Validity Questionnaire Results……………………………………………... 37

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Abstract

This study investigates the effectiveness of Dual Coding Theory (DCT) on memory recall within
the context of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). Utilizing an alternating treatment design, we
tested the memory recall of three ABA professionals regarding fifty behavioral vocabulary
terms. Twenty-five terms were presented in a single modality (verbal only), and the remaining
twenty-five in a dual modality (verbal coupled with a visual prompt). Each participant underwent
an initial baseline test and weekly retention tests over the course of five weeks. Due to the
COVID-19 pandemic, all participant interactions were conducted via HIPAA compliant video
conferencing. Our findings highlight a substantial impact of DCT on response latency and
duration. Interestingly, participants 1 and 2 retained more terms in the single condition, while
participant 3 exhibited superior retention in the dual modality and overall. These results
underscore the potential variability in learning styles among individuals and the need for further
exploration.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY
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Chapter One: Introduction

Dual Coding Theory (DCT) is defined as the hypothesis that human memory employs
two coding systems; one based on visual imagery and the other on verbal encoding
(Chandler&Munday, 2011). In short, DCT is about the nature of symbolic systems (Paivio,
1990). In Paivio’s 1990 book, Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach, the author
explains cognition in the brain is served by two modality-specific symbolic systems that are
experientially derived and specialized for representing and processing information concerning
non-verbal objects, events, and language. Specific input may activate complex representational
structures from which information can be retrieved. More to the point, verbal instructions
delivered along with images maximizes the probability that non-verbal representations will be
activated by subsequent verbal cues. When incoming information is encoded with both verbal
stimuli and imagery the traces are linked so that during retrieval activation levels are pooled and
enhances the accessibility of information (Lwin et.al., 2010). These modalities are capable of
functioning independently but can also be linked together. At the most basic level DCT is
divided into verbal and non-verbal symbolic subsystems which then expand to sensorimotor
subsystems (Paivio, 1990). Paivio divides the sensorimotor system into various subsystems:
visual system, including visual words and objects; auditory system, including auditory words and
environmental sounds; haptic system, including writing patterns and the feel of objects; taste
system, including taste memories; and smell system, including olfactory memories (1990). DCT
states that any given word can evoke any number of images and in turn, a picture of an object
can evoke different descriptions. Different sensory modalities should have additive effects on
recall if they are functionally independent from the symbolic (verbal) modality (Paivio, 2007).
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Pictures enhance memory for verbal (written) information because humans process written
information and pictures via two independent cognitive subsystems: verbal information and
imagery-based information (Lwin et.al., 2010). The verbal system stores linguistic information in
sequential units called logogens and the visual system stores them in units called imagens
(Kanellopoulou et.al., 2019). Often times when we learn too much information our brains go into
‘cognitive overload’ as described by Cuevas and Dawson (2017). When we go into cognitive
overload it causes our brains to purge information we do not access often to free space in our
working memory. When information is paired with visual stimuli it is stored separately and does
not cause cognitive overload, which in turn leads to greater retention. The increase in retention is
due to the brain storing two representations of the cognitive stimuli in long term memory. DCT
splits information into two parts of the brain no longer causing cognitive overload and in turn,
leads to longer memory retention. DCT explains that most learners should benefit if visual
information is layered over linguistic information as the information is stored in two separate
areas of the brain.
In the 2017 study, experimenters tested DCT against learning styles in determining the
effectiveness on recall. Researchers read aloud 20 statements to the participants, participants
were asked to rate the statements while listening to them and were given 1 of 2 sets of
instructions: to form a vivid mental picture or image (visual) or to rate how easily they could
pronounce each statement (auditory/linguistic). After the 20 statements were read the
participants were asked to answer 20 questions on the other side of their paper that related to the
statements. Results of the study indicated that there was no significant effect of learning style,
but there was a significant effect for DCT. Participants who were presented with a visual cue
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performed 50% better than participants who only received auditory cues (Cuevas & Dawson).
This study provides evidence that supports Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory.
Lwin et. al. (2010) aimed to increase the effectiveness of DCT on recall by adding a third
stimuli (olfactory) in their 2010 study. Researchers gave participants an advertisement mailer,
with four different conditions: scented vs. unscented and image vs. no image. Participants were
instructed to look through the mailer and once done, were given filler tasks for 5 minutes. After
the 5 minutes elapsed researchers asked specific questions about the advertisement they viewed
and asked the participants to write down anything they could recall from the advertisement. After
they wrote things down participants who received scented paper were represented with the same
smell and asked to record anything else they could recall. Participants were asked to return 2
weeks later to complete the same recall parts of the survey as before. Results from the study
indicated that scent does enhance memory for verbal information, olfactory stimuli is more
effective than visual stimuli for retaining information long term rather than short term, and that
scent increases the memory enhancing effect of pictures when sensory cues are reintroduced
after a time delay. This study once again provides evidence for DCT, but also demonstrates
evidence for olfactory stimuli as an effective agent to increase memory recall.
In a meta-analysis of DCT and bi-lingual language acquisition Kanellopoulou et.al.
(2019) reviewed several studies testing the efficacy of DCT on retaining vocabulary for
participants attempting to learn a new language. Overall, research showed that when subtitles are
used in conjunction with video rather than just watching a video language acquisition was
higher. In one study that was reviewed, researchers found that the control group, who watched
videos without any subtitles, outperformed the group who had subtilties in short term memory
retention, but DCT was found to be effective in long term memory retention.
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Currently, there is minimal research on DCT and the research that does exist is very
specific to certain modalities and situations, as illustrated in the research mentioned above. The
present study aims to evaluate the efficacy of DCT on memory recall. The study utilizes and
examines the effect of multiple modalities described by Paivio (1990) in the sensorimotor
subsystems. It is anticipated that when participants utilize DCT to recall information they will
yield more accurate results than when they do not utilize DCT and rely only on a verbal stimulus.
It is also hypothesized that when verbal information is paired with a visual stimulus the
participant will yield more accurate results than when paired with any other modality (auditory
or haptic). Although the information presented above is derived from the area of cognitive
psychology, it does give rise to experimental questions that can be examined within the behavior
analytic framework. The purpose of this study is to analyze the effect that DCT would have on
memory retention of behavioral terms utilized in the field of ABA.

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Chapter Two: Methods
Participants
Three individuals who work in the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA) participated
in this study. Participant 1 is a 23-year-old male who became a registered behavior technician
(RBT) less than 6 months ago, participant 2 is a 22-year-old female who is working towards
becoming an RBT, and participant 3 is a 22-year-old male who has been an RBT for 2 years.
None of these participants have been enrolled in ABA coursework prior to or during the duration
of the study. The participants were chosen for this study because they all expressed interest in
furthering their knowledge of ABA terminology. All participants gave consent to participate in
this study and agreed to dedicate the required time weekly to participate. As an additional
portion of the consent, all participants were informed that by participating in this study there will
be no impact on their employment status, future staff evaluations, or wages.
Setting
Participants 1 and 3 were recruited from two different ABA agencies located in California and
Massachusetts. Participant 2 is a psychology student at the University of Southern California
(USC) who wants to apply to the ABA master’s program in the near future. Throughout the
duration of this study participants met individually with the primary investigator remotely via
Zoom. Participants interacted with the researcher and were prompted with instructions via Zoom
during the initial intake, during the baseline retention test, and while taking the five weekly
retention tests. While participants took their baseline retention test and weekly retention tests the
primary researcher’s camera was off and microphone was muted to minimize observer reactivity.
All zoom meetings with participants were recorded.
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Materials
At the beginning of the study participants were asked to take a demographic
questionnaire, via Google forms, that provided researchers with participants’ age, background
information, knowledge of ABA, and preferred contact method (Appendix G). All of the
participants were presented with study materials during the five-week study period and were
required to engage with the materials for no more than 30 minutes per week, as stated initially in
the participant consent. All study materials were presented using an online flashcard website,
www.quizlet.com, with each participant receiving access to a private link with their flashcard set
weekly. Study information, access to study sets, and tests were uploaded into a HIPAA
compliant Google drive folder that each participant had access to. Each participant was required
to study 10 flashcards per week, 5 presented with a single modality and 5 presented with a dual
modality; totaling 50 flashcards at the end of the 5-week study phase. The 25 terms presented
with a single modality were presented with the term on one side of the flashcard and the
definition on the other side of the flashcard (Appendix A). The 25 terms presented using a dual
modality were presented with the term on one side of the flashcard and the definition and a
visual that illustrates and explains the term on the other side (Appendix B). Additionally, each
illustration included a within stimulus prompt. At the end of each week each participant was
given a short answer retention test (Appendix C). A total of 5 different tests were used
throughout the study: baseline (50 questions retention test), week 1 (10 question retention test),
week 2 (20 question retention test), week 3 (30 question retention test), week 4 (40 question
retention test), and for week 5 the baseline test was re-presented to participants. Two flashcard
sets for each set of 10 weekly flashcards were utilized throughout this study in order to counter-
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balance the terms. At the end of the study participants were asked to take a four-item social
validity questionnaire, via Google forms, assessing the extent to which they were satisfied with
the treatment outcome, procedures, and the likelihood in which participants would utilize dual
coding theory in other aspects of their life outside of the experiment (Appendix F). Lastly, an
iPhone timer was used to record response latency and duration per question.
Response Measurement
Dependent variable. This study measured three dependent variables: the accuracy of
each behavioral term recalled on the retention test, the average latency response from each
participant per term, and the average duration of time spent defining each term presented on the
retention test. Accuracy was used to determine how many vocabulary terms participants were
able to recall in a single and dual condition. Response latency was measured to see how quickly
participants could begin to recall the information presented to them. Lastly, duration data was
recorded as a proxy for fluency of information. This measurement was used to measure how well
participants retained information and their confidence in recalling the terms.
Data Collection. Data was recorded on percent accuracy, duration spent on each
question, and latency response of the terms recalled in each modality presented (single vs. dual).
An analytical rubric (Appendix E) was utilized to determine a correct or incorrect response on
the participants’ retention test. The tests were graded using a Likert-type scale (1-4), with 1:no
answer written at all, 2: the question was answered, but was incorrect, 3: the response was given
partial credit; (i.e., part of the definition was left out, the example was not written, and/ or not all
measurement systems were listed), and 4: full credit was given. Response latency was recorded
from the moment the cursor appears next to the question to the time the first letter of the answer
was typed. Duration data was taken from the moment the participant’s cursor appears next to the
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question to when the participant finished writing their answer, including all spelling corrections
and if the participant went back at a later time to add to their answer. Response latency and
duration data were rounded to the nearest tenth millisecond. If a participant copied and pasted an
answer to another question the response latency and duration data initially taken for that question
was used for that question where the answer was copied and pasted. Both, response latency and
duration data, were averaged only across the questions with full and partial credit per condition.
Experimental Design
The current study has two conditions: dual coding and the control (single condition)
conditions. An alternating treatments design was used to implement the comparison between the
two different conditions. This design was chosen in order to accurately see the effect of dual
coding theory and analyze the efficacy of the theory.
Social Validity
At the end of the study participants were asked to take a social validity questionnaire
assessing the extent to which they were satisfied with the treatment outcome and procedures. The
questionnaire also assessed the likelihood in which participants would utilize dual coding theory
in other aspects of their life outside of the experiment. The questionnaire consisted of four items
and utilized a five-point Likert-type scale (Appendix F).
Procedures
Initial Intake. Once participants expressed interest in participating in the study they were
asked to fill out a brief demographic questionnaire to ensure participants met the requirements to
participate in the study (I.e., access to reliable internet, access to Zoom, access to Quizlet, and
access to a reliable microphone and webcam) and to retrieve demographic information about the
participant. Once researchers determined the participant was fit for the study a meeting was
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scheduled via Zoom where the researcher detailed the extent and requirements of the study. The
participant was then sent an informed consent form and if they agreed to participate were
enrolled in the study. Once enrolled, they were given access to an individual, HIPAA compliant,
Google drive folder where they would access their retention tests, the link and password for the
Quizlet sets, and an outline of study requirements. Participants were assigned a flashcard set (set
1 or set 2) randomly by researchers. Researchers utilized surveys in order to determine equality
of term comprehension difficulty between the two sets of flashcards. A survey was taken by 19
students and 2 faculty members of the Masters of Science in Applied Behavior Analysis program
at the University of Southern California (USC), ranking the difficulty of various behavior
analysis terms on a 3-point Likert- type scale; 1: easy, 2: medium, and 3: hard (Appendix D).
These terms were then divided between the two sets of flashcards; with set 1 including 3 hard
terms, 7 medium terms, and 15 easy terms presented in the dual coding condition. Set 2 consisted
of 2 hard terms, 7 medium terms, 13 easy terms, and 3 terms that were equally rated as easy and
medium in the survey results presented in the dual coding condition. Additionally, each set has
an equal number of thematically clustered terms. Each set was then divided into 5 groups of 10
so that the participants only have access to 10 flashcards each week. Participant 1 received set 2,
participant 2 received set 1, and the final participant received set 2.
Baseline. During the baseline phase, participants were asked to show their test taking
space to the researcher using their computer webcam to ensure no materials were present, share
their computer desktop via Zoom, and were instructed to begin the test (50 question short
answer). During the test taking time, researchers turned off their cameras and muted themselves
in order to limit reactivity from participants. The purpose of this phase was to record a baseline
measurement of how many behavioral terms the participant already retains in each condition.
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After participants finished taking their test the researcher shared their screen with the participant
via Zoom and modeled how to navigate through Quizlet and the study terms. The researcher also
explained and pointed out the various within-stimulus prompts in the illustrations presented in
the DCT condition vocabulary terms to each participant. During this time, the participants had
the ability to ask any questions about navigating through the terms, within-stimulus prompts, and
any questions relating to their participation in the study.
Study Phase. During this phase researchers provided participants with the private link
for the term set week (10 flashcards) that they are assigned via their Google drive folder. Of the
10 terms presented each week, 5 terms were presented in a single modality (e.g., verbal only) and
5 terms were presented in a dual modality (verbal plus a visual prompt). The participants were
expected to study the terms, utilizing the stimuli provided, for no more than 30 minutes per week
by themselves. They also had the option of meeting mastery criteria, utilizing the ‘write’ function
on Quizlet and answering with the definition; participants had to score 9/10 terms correct across
3 consecutive trials to meet the mastery criteria. Participants only had access to each flashcard
set for the time they were studying their terms and lost access to view the study set right before
they began taking their test for the week. Once participants reported to the researcher that they
met mastery criterion or met the 30-minute study cap they would be able to schedule a date and
time to take the retention test. All participants in this study met the 30-minute study cap each
week before scheduling their tests. The participants were able to divide their 30 minutes however
they saw fit throughout the 7-day period. Participants studied half of the terms assigned to them
each week in the control condition using one sensory modality (verbal only) and the other half of
the terms using a dual modality (verbal plus visual) in the dual coding condition. During this
time the investigator was not present, and all studying was completed during the participants’
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own time. When studying the terms via Quizlet participants were required to study the terms
utilizing the basic flashcard system where they flip through each card and read through the term
and definition. If participants chose to test if they met mastery criteria (independently and
accurately identifying the definition for 9/10 flashcards across 3 consecutive trials) they were
required to use the ‘write’ function where they had to type the definition of the term they are
presented with. This phase lasted approximately five weeks in duration. This phase sometimes
lasted longer as some participants went on vacation or had to attend to school assignments
outside of study participation.
Retention Tests. At the end of each week participants were given a short answer
retention test. Totaling six tests throughout this study; once, to obtain baseline information, and
weekly for five consecutive weeks for the duration of the study. After the baseline retention test
(50 terms), participants were given a short answer retention test on the 10 flashcards they studied
that week. For the 2
nd
retention test participants were given a retention test on the 10 flashcards
they studied that week in addition to the previous flashcards from the previous week, totaling 20
terms. This pattern followed until the 5
th
week when participants were tested on all 50 flashcards.
The retention tests were given in order to determine how many behavioral terms, and which
behavioral terms, participants were able to recall, the latency of response time for each term, the
duration of time taken to define each term, and if the dual modality versus single modality
condition had a significant effect. All of the retention tests utilized in the study consisted of the
same content but varied in the order of the questions presented on each test varying by week.
Researchers randomized the question order by utilizing the randomize function in Excel. The
tests were distributed across participants consistently with the correlating week for the duration
of the study. Prior to taking the retention tests, participants were asked to show their test taking
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space to the researchers using their computer webcam to ensure no study materials were present.
Additionally, participants were asked to share their desktop via Zoom to control for participants
looking at notes/flashcards on their screen and limit the ability for participants to access
unauthorized supporting information during retention tests. During the test taking time,
researchers turned off their cameras and muted themselves in order to limit reactivity from
participants. After the completion of each retention test researchers uploaded their graded test
with feedback recorded into their Google drive folder. The graded test was made available to
participants for a total of 48 hours. Participants were notified, via preferred contact method,
when their test was uploaded as well as the date and time they would lose access to the
document. The time spent reviewing their graded test was not included in their 30-minute study
cap. After this phase in the study participants completed their participation. Researchers
contacted participants after analyzing all data and shared the results of the study with them.
Social Validity Measure. After the results of the study were shared with participants they were
asked to complete a short social validity questionnaire (Appendix F). The questionnaire asked
participants to rate various questions on a Likert-type scale of 1 to 5, 1 being very dissatisfied/
very unlikely and 5 being very satisfied/ very likely.

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Chapter Three: Results
During the baseline phase, participant 1 was able to accurately define more terms
provided in the single condition than the dual condition. He received full credit for the same
amount of terms in each condition during week 1, recalled more terms in the single condition in
week 2, recalled more terms in the dual condition in week 3, recalled the same amount of terms
in each condition in week 4, and finally, recalled more terms in the single condition in the final
week. These results can be seen in Figure 1. Overall, he was able to increase his recall of the
terms presented in the single condition by 20% and recall of the terms presented in the dual
condition by 12%. However, the results indicate high variability, no clear trend, and a low level
of retention of terms overall. Thus, researchers are unable to say whether one condition had a
significant effect over the other in regard to the ability to recall the various terms in a dual versus
single condition. The participant’s response latency, shown in Figure 2, was recorded to be lower
during weeks 1 and 4 and higher during baseline, weeks 2, 3, and 5. From baseline to week 5
response latency was decreased by an average of 95 milliseconds in the single condition and an
average of 1.18 seconds in the dual condition. Once again, results indicate high variability and no
clear trend in data, meaning no significant effect in response latency can be made. Duration data
(Figure 3) indicates that the dual condition was lower during all weeks except for baseline and
week 3, where the single condition was lower. From baseline to week 5 duration was decreased
by an average of 4.98 seconds in the single condition and 12.18 seconds in the dual condition.
The data indicates that in the dual condition the participant spent less time recalling/answering
the definition. A clear trend was identified, and results indicated duration per question is
significantly lower in the dual condition rather than the single condition.
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During the baseline phase, participant 2 was able to accurately define more terms
provided in the single condition than the dual condition. She received full credit for more terms
in the single condition during weeks 1, 2, 4, and 5. During week 3 she was able to recall the same
amount of terms in each condition, as seen in Figure 4. Overall, she was able to increase her
recall of the terms presented in the single condition by 12% and recall of the terms presented in
the dual condition by 8%. The results indicate that she was able to recall more terms presented to
her in the single condition than the dual condition. However, overall retention of terms was
extremely low. The participant’s response latency, shown in Figure 5, was recorded to be lower
during baseline, weeks 1, 3, 4, and 5 and higher during week 2 in the dual condition. From
baseline to week 5 response latency was decreased by an average of 4.22 seconds in the single
condition and an average of 99 milliseconds in the dual condition. These results indicate lower
response latency in the dual condition and a clear trend in data indicating that response latency
was significantly lower in the dual condition. Duration data (Figure 6) indicates that the dual
condition was lower during all weeks except for week 2, where the single condition was lower.
From baseline to week 5 duration was decreased by an average of 23.05 seconds in the single
condition and 33.12 seconds in the dual condition. The data indicates that in the dual condition
the participant spent less time recalling/answering the definition and a clear trend was identified.
Therefore, duration per question is significantly lower in the dual condition rather than the single
condition.
The results of participant 3 showed more terms were recalled accurately in the dual
condition during weeks 2, 3, 4, and 5 (Figure 7). The participant recalled the same amount of
terms accurately in both conditions in the initial baseline phase of the study. Overall, he was able
to increase his recall of the terms presented in the single condition by 44% and recall of the terms
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presented in the dual condition by 68%. These results identified a clear trend and a significant
effect of DCT in accuracy. Additionally, participant 3 was able to retain significant recall of the
terms presented to him. The participant’s response latency, shown in Figure 8, was recorded to
be lower in the dual condition throughout all weeks of the study except for week 1. From
baseline to week 5 response latency was decreased by 33 milliseconds in the single condition. In
the dual condition, from baseline to week 5 response latency increased by 66 milliseconds.
These results indicate lower response latency in the dual condition and a clear trend in data
indicating that response latency was significantly lower in the dual condition. Duration data
(Figure 9) indicates that the dual condition was lower during weeks 1, 2, and 4 and higher during
baseline and weeks 3 and 5. From baseline to week 5, duration increased by 29.33 seconds in
the single condition and decreased by 3 seconds in the dual condition. The data indicates that in
the dual condition the participant spent less time recalling/answering the definition and a clear
trend was identified. Therefore, duration per question is significantly lower in the dual condition
rather than the single condition.
Overall, participants 1 and 2 were able to recall more terms with 100% accuracy in the
single condition than the dual condition. However, both participants did not retain enough terms
overall to indicate a significant effect regarding accuracy of terms retained. Participant 3 was
able to retain more terms with 100% accuracy in the dual condition and retained a high level of
terms throughout the duration of this study. His results indicate a strong effect of DCT on the
accuracy of retaining terms. All participants’ results showed a strong effect of DCT on duration
and participants 2 and 3 indicated a strong effect of DCT on response latency.
Interobserver Agreement. Before beginning implementation of the study all participants gave
informed consent to be video recorded when taking the retention tests. Interobserver agreement
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(IOA) was calculated by dividing the number of test questions scored with agreement by the total
number of test questions scored with agreements and disagreements and multiplying by 100%.
For response latency and durational data an agreement is considered to be within 1-3 seconds of
time. The accuracy of terms and the response latency and duration were recorded by two separate
observers. The IOA data for accuracy met the following agreement in each phase of the study:
Baseline: 84%, Week 1: 80%, Week 2: 85%, Week 3: 90%, Week 4: 87.5%, and Week 5: 86%.
The IOA data for response latency met the following agreement in each phase of the study:
Baseline: 100%, Week 1: 100%, Week 2: 100%, Week 3: 100%, Week 4: 100%, and Week 5:
100%. The IOA data for duration met the following agreement in each phase of the study:
Baseline: 88%, Week 1: 100%, Week 2: 92%, Week 3: 100%, Week 4: 100%, and Week 5:
100%.
Social Validity.
Results of the social validity questionnaire can be seen in Figure 10. Participants indicated a ‘2’
‘3’ and ‘4’ in regard to satisfaction with increasing memory retention, 67% reported a ‘5’ and
33% reported a ‘4’ in regard to satisfaction with procedures, 67% reported a ‘4’ and 33%
reported a ‘5’ in regard to outcomes of the study, and 67% reported a ‘3’ and 33% reported a
‘4’ in regard to the likelihood of utilizing this intervention outside of this study.

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Chapter Four: Discussion

The results of this study showed that with the introduction of an additional modality
participants were able to recall information more quickly and demonstrate more fluency and
accuracy within their answers. Results for the recall of terms were variable and a clear effect
could not be determined in either condition. Participants 1 and 2 demonstrated more accuracy of
recall of terms presented in the single condition, but scores were variable throughout the study
and had a low retention of terms overall. Participant 3 displayed a high retention of terms and
indicated a steady and significant effect on accuracy of terms recalled in the dual condition.
This study did exhibit some limitations. One limitation of this study is the population of
participants. This study had a very small sample size and all participants were around the same
age. The results of this study may have been different with a higher variability in regard to
participants’ age.
Another large limitation in this study is related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to health
and safety concerns researchers were not able to have any in person contact with any of the
participants. As a result of this all contact was remote and conducted over Zoom. The setting of
this experiment allowed for less control and monitoring over participants to ensure fidelity
during the retention tests. Although many precautions were taken to limit participants’ ability to
cheat on the retention tests researchers are not able to confidently ensure that there was no
cheating from participants. In this setting, participants could have easily written out definitions
on a piece of paper and left it next to them while taking the retention tests after the four-week
study phase. Another result of the lack of contact was that researchers were unable to enforce or
ensure that all participants met the required study time. Researchers were also unable to ensure
the level of response effort put forth by participants during the study phase.
THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

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Additionally, participants were only allotted 30 minutes per week to study the 10 terms
provided to them. A parametric adjustment is needed in order to determine if a differential effect
of DCT would be demonstrated if participants were given more time to study the terms per week.
The study time allotted is a very short duration of time and only some participants may have
been able to retain information within this time frame.
Lastly, and possibly the largest limitation, is participants’ motivation to increase retention
of terms. Motivation is a large extraneous variable that cannot be controlled by researchers,
especially with no extrinsic motivation present (i.e., money and tangible rewards). As mentioned
above, researchers could not monitor and ensure their studying was efficient and accurately
conducted. Participant 1 and 2 spent significantly less time taking their retention tests than
participant 3 did. This indicates that participant 3 put forth more effort and care into completing
the tests and showed motivation to do well. Researchers can infer that participant 3 also put forth
more effort into studying the terms over the duration of this study. Participant 1 spent a total of 1
hour 7 minutes and 41 seconds on all of his retention tests, participant 2 spent 1 hour 24 minutes
and 25 seconds on all of her tests, and participant 3 spent a total of 3 hours 52 minutes and 25
seconds on all of his retention tests.
In the future, this study should be run with a larger group of participants with a varying
range in participant demographics, and when able to have contact in person. It would also be
interesting to see this study ran as a longitudinal study in order to determine if dual coding theory
would have an effect on the long-term retention of the information presented.
This study is important as it demonstrates the efficacy of DCT and offers a more efficient
and accurate training protocol for behavior technicians in the field of ABA. It is extremely
important for behavior technicians to learn, understand, and recall basic behavioral principles,
THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

19
terms, and theories in order to succeed in their careers as well as make a significant impact in the
lives of the clients, families, and population they work with on a daily basis. ABA is an
important form of therapy for individuals with developmental and mental disorders. Behavior
technicians directly work with their clients to teach foundational skills, appropriate social
behaviors, and to decrease maladaptive behaviors. Due to the level of impact technicians have on
the clients and families they work with it is important that they have effective and thorough
training to ensure they are able to make a positive and evidence-based impact.
Future research into Dual Coding Theory should focus on implementing DCT into the
programs and teaching strategies behavior technicians directly use with the clients they work
with. It would be interesting to see the impact DCT could have on individuals with learning
disabilities in their progress towards verbal, motor, and social behaviors. It would also be
interesting to utilize DCT with individuals who have neurodegenerative diseases such as,
Alzheimer’s Disease, Dementia, and Parkinson’s Disease. The implications that this research
could have on both of the populations mentioned above could be extremely beneficial. If Dual
Coding Theory could help a mother with Alzheimer’s Disease recognize her son based on the
feeling of his beard, or a help a man with Dementia recall his address more accurately, or a child
with Autism more accurately and efficiently advance their verbal skills there would be an
increase of overall happiness and a decrease in stress in not only their lives, but the lives of their
family members and loved ones.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

20
Bibliography
Chandler, D., & Munday, R. (2011). A dictionary of media and communication (pp.315). OUP
Oxford.
Cuevas, J., & Dawson, B. L. (2018). A test of two alternative cognitive processing models:
Learning styles and dual coding. Theory and Research in Education, 16(1), 40-64.
Kanellopoulou, C., Kermanidis, K. L., & Giannakoulopoulos, A. (2019). The dual-coding and
multimedia learning theories: Film subtitles as a vocabulary teaching tool. Education
Sciences, 9, 1-13. Retrieved from
http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/dual-
coding-multimedia-learning-theories-film/docview/2461122367/se-2
Lwin, M. O., Morrin, M., & Krishna, A. (2010). Exploring the superadditive effects of scent and
pictures on verbal recall: An extension of dual coding theory. Journal of Consumer
Psychology, 20(3), 317-326.
Paivio, A. (1990). Dual Coding Theory. Mental representations: A dual coding approach
(pp.53-82). Oxford University Press.
Paivio, A. (2007). Mind and its evolution: A dual coding theoretical approach. Psychology
Press.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

21
Appendices

Appendix A. The image above represents a flashcard presented in the single modality.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

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Appendix B. The image above represents a flashcard presented in the dual modality.
THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

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THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

24
THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

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Appendix C. The image above represents the short answer retention test.

Appendix D. The image above illustrates the sorting of behavioral terms by difficulty.
THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

26

Appendix E. Above, is the analytical rubric utilized within this study.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

27

Appendix F. Above, is the social validity questionnaire presented to participants.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

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THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

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THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

30

Appendix G. This displays the demographic questionnaire presented to participants.

Figure 1. The image above shows the results of percent accuracy for participant 1.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

31

Figure 2. The image above shows the results of response latency for participant 1.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

32

Figure 3. The image above shows the results of duration for participant 1.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

33

Figure 4. The image above shows the results of percent accuracy for participant 2.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

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Figure 5. The image above shows the results of response latency for participant 1.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

35

Figure 6. The image above shows the results of duration for participant 2.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

36
Figure 7. The image above shows the results of percent accuracy for participant 3.

Figure 8. The image above shows the results of response latency for participant 3.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

37

Figure 9. The image above shows the results of duration for participant 3.

THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

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THE EFFECT OF DUAL CODING THEORY

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Figure 10. The images above represent a summary of results of the social validity
questionnaire.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study investigates the effectiveness of Dual Coding Theory (DCT) on memory recall within the context of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). Utilizing an alternating treatment design, we tested the memory recall of three ABA professionals regarding fifty behavioral vocabulary terms. Twenty-five terms were presented in a single modality (verbal only), and the remaining twenty-five in a dual modality (verbal coupled with a visual prompt). Each participant underwent an initial baseline test and weekly retention tests over the course of five weeks. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all participant interactions were conducted via HIPAA compliant video conferencing. Our findings highlight a substantial impact of DCT on response latency and duration. Interestingly, participants 1 and 2 retained more terms in the single condition, while participant 3 exhibited superior retention in the dual modality and overall. These results underscore the potential variability in learning styles among individuals and the need for further exploration.

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Creator Khorsand, Shabnam (author)

Core Title The effects of dual coding theory on memory retention

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Applied Behavior Analysis

Degree Conferral Date 2023-08

Publication Date 07/10/2023

Defense Date 06/27/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Aba,Applied Behavior Analysis,DCT,dual coding theory,memory,memory retention,OAI-PMH Harvest

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Advisor Cameron , Michael (committee chair), Lavond , Dave (committee member), Tarbox, Jonathan (committee member)

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