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First-generation professionals: career transition and success

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First-generation professionals: career transition and success

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Content First-Generation Professionals: Career Transition and Success
José Guadalupe Rivas
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A Dissertation submitted to the faculty
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2023

© Copyright 2023 José Guadalupe Rivas
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for José Guadalupe Rivas certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Adrian Huerta
Esther Kim, Chair
Nicole Maccalla

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv

Abstract
This study utilized Ecological Systems and Self-Efficacy theories to explore the lived
career experiences and identify influences that may impact the career decision-making of early-
career first-generation professionals. This qualitative study examined the career transition and
success of early-career first-generation professionals working in public service. The research
questions sought to answer what college experiences influenced their career paths, what
professional experiences influenced their career advancement, and what organizational resources
they found helpful in their careers. Sixteen early-career first-generation professionals
participated in a two-part semi-structured interview. The first part used a semi-structured
interview, and the second part used a photo-elicitation method with a semi-structured interview.
The researcher utilized thematic analysis to code the interview data. The data findings centered
around four main themes: 1) the complex and intersectional nature of an individual's first-
generation identity, 2) the importance of a FG's external support networks, 3) the challenges of
their external networks, and 4) what helped a FG professional's career transition and success.
This study added to the limited career-related research on first-generation professionals. The
study presented how a FG college student's and early-career professional's career success may be
positively or negatively influenced by their networks and support systems. The study also gave
practical recommendations that practitioners could implement to support a first-generation
individual's career success.

v

Dedication
This study is dedicated to the UC Berkeley DCAC College Advisor fellows and alums
whom I have the privilege of working with and whose experiences led to the purpose of this
dissertation.

vi

Acknowledgment
First, I would like to acknowledge and thank the 16 first-generation professionals who
volunteered to be part of this research. Your honest and candid responses to the interview
questions, the pictures you shared, and your experiences made this research possible. Your
perspectives will add to the much needed research on first-generation professionals.
To my dissertation committee, thank you for your feedback. Your recommendations
helped me develop and write this dissertation and encouraged me to continue researching. Dr.
Esther Kim, thank you for stepping in as chair and for your guidance and support in completing
this project. Your perspectives, suggestions, and support were extremely helpful. Dr. Adrian
Huerta, thank you for your insight and recommendations for my research. Your experience with
similar populations and research background was invaluable. Dr. Nicole Maccalla, thank you for
stepping in and being willing to serve on my committee. I appreciated your perspective on
research and methodology.
To my “Battle Buddies,” thank you for all those Saturday conversations, late-night texts,
and opportunities to vent. All of the Zoom sessions, emails, and texts were incredibly helpful in
providing insights and motivation in this doctoral journey and submission of this dissertation.
Thank you to my friends, family, and colleagues for your support and encouraging words.
And finally, to my wife, Irene, thank you for your support, encouragement, and patience through
this process. Thank you willingness to listen as I talked about my research and my classes and
for engaging in conversation. Those conversations on our neighborhood walks provided the
reflection and learning I needed to complete my doctorate and dissertation. Gracias.
Follow up on this dissertation should be directed to Jose Rivas at jgrivas82@usc.edu or
rivasworksllc@gmail.com.

vii

Table of Contents
Abstract ……………………………...………………………………...…………………… iv
Dedication ………………………...……………………………………...…………….…... v
Acknowledgment …………………………………………………………...……..…….…. vi
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………….…………. x
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………...………………. xi
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study …………………………………...………….….… 1
Context and Background of the Problem ………………………….…………..…… 2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .………...…………………….…… 4
Importance of the Study …………………………………………….……………… 4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology ……...……………….…… 6
Definitions ……………………………………………………………………….…. 8
Organization of the Dissertation …………………………….…………...………… 8
Chapter Two: Literature Review …………………………………………………………… 10
Defining First-Generation …………………………….……………………………. 10
First-Generation Outcomes and Background Information ……………….………… 15
First-Generation Career Influence Factors …………………….………….…..……. 22
FG Graduation, Career Transition, and
Career Advancement Strategies and Practices ……………………………………...

34
Conceptual Framework …………………………………….………………………. 39
Summary ……….……….…………………………………….……………………. 44
Chapter Three: Methodology ………………………………………………………………. 45
Research Questions ……….………………………………..………………………. 45

viii

Design Overview ………………………………….…………….…………………. 45
Research Setting ……………..…………………….…………………………….… 47
Data Sources ……………………………………….………………………………. 48
Participants ………………..……………………….………………………………. 48
Methods ……………………………………………..………..……………………. 49
Instrumentation .……………….……………………………………………………. 51
Data Collection Procedures ……………………...…….…………………………… 52
Data Analysis …………………………………………………….…...……………. 55
The Researcher …………………………….………………………………….……. 57
Credibility and Trustworthiness …………………………..……………….…….…. 58
Ethics …………………….…………………………………………………….…… 58
Chapter Four: Findings ………………………………………………………...…………... 60
Research Questions …..……………………………………………….……………. 60
Research Participants ………………………………….……………………...……. 61
Theme 1: More than a First-Generation Identity …………………….….…………. 63
Theme 2: The Importance of External Support to Internal Motivation ………....…. 67
Theme 3: The Challenges of External Support Systems ………………..….………. 80
Theme 4: What Worked with Their Career Preparation, Transition, and Success .... 86
Summary …………………….………………..……………………………………. 92
Chapter Five: Recommendations …………………………….…………………………….. 95
Discussion of Findings ………………………………………………..……………. 95
Recommendations for Practice ……………………………………………………... 102

ix

Limitations and Delimitations ………..…………………………………………….. 111
Recommendations for Future Research .………………………………………...…. 112
Conclusion ………………………………….………………………………………. 113
References …………………….……………………………………………………………. 116
Appendix A: Semi-Structured Interview Questions ……….…………………………….…. 136
Appendix B: Photo Elicitation Semi-Structured Interview Protocol ………………………. 137
Appendix C: Email Template ……………………….…….……………………………..…. 138
Appendix D: Information Sheet ……………………….….………………..………………. 140
Appendix E: Participant Shared Images for Photo Elicitation Interview ……………...…… 142

x

List of Tables
Table 1 – Data Sources ………………………………………………………………………... 47
Table 2 – Thematic Analysis Code Categories ………………………………………………... 56
Table 3 – Participant Background Summary ………………………………………………….. 62
Table 4 – Participant Shared Images Summary ……………………………………………….. 63
Table 5 – FG Professional Networks and Ecological System Level Location ………………... 95

xi

List of Figures
Figure 1 – First-Generation Career Development Conceptual Framework …………………… 43
Figure 2 – Network Influence on FG College and Career Decisions and Self-Efficacy ……… 104
Figure 3 – Recommendations for Implementation in the First-Generation Professional
Ecological System …………………………………………………………...…..… 108

1

HAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Research shows that there are a significant number of first-generation (FG) college
students in the United States. First-generation college students are those whose parents do not
have a bachelor's degree (Helmbrectht & Ayars, 2021; Olson, 2014). Nationally, 56% of the
2015-16 college undergraduates were FG (RTI International, 2019). Additionally, a report from
the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) found that 38.4% of the 5,013
graduating senior respondents self-identified as first-generation college and made up a
significant portion of new graduates who intend to enter the workforce (Eismann, 2016).
Although a college degree provides upward mobility for individuals to reach the
American middle class (Ford, 2018), first-generation professionals (FGP) face challenges after
college. Terry and Fobia (2019) found that first-generation professionals dealt with a lack of
resources more often than non-first-generation professionals. Research also found that not having
social support may negatively impact a recent college graduate's transition from college to their
new career (Murphy et al., 2010). Evidence suggests that this lack of access to resources and
support may lead to FG graduates facing challenges as they transition into their new professional
careers (Hirudayaraj & McLean, 2018). Although some research examines FG students’
transition out of college (Overton-Healy, 2010), there is room for additional research that looks
at the experiences of first-generation college students and professionals as they transition into
their new career environment.
Despite the prolific research on the social and academic experiences of first-generation
college students, research on their career development in college is limited (Tate et al., 2015).
Similarly, literature on what happens after graduation (Ford, 2018; Olson, 2014) and their
experiences as new employees is also scarce (Polach, 2004). This study looks to address these
2

gaps in the literature by examining the career preparation and transition experiences of early-
career FG professionals. In examining the FG career transition experiences, this study will
identify factors influencing their career decision-making as college students and early-career
professionals. Further, the study will also pinpoint potential practices that may support FGPs'
success in their new professional work environment.
Context and Background of the Problem
First-generation college students need to overcome unique challenges when earning their
degrees. Engle and Tinto (2008) stated that low-income, first-generation (LIFG) college students
faced more barriers to college success than their non-FG counterparts. The researchers found that
LIFG students often began college with less academic preparation than non-FG students,
received less parental financial support, had multiple obligations outside of class, and had a more
limited college participatory experience. Research has demonstrated that career-focused
workshops have helped to increase college students' career awareness, preparation for graduate
school, and self-efficacy (Means et al., 2016). First-generation career research should also
consider FG college students’ access to network resources.
Bourdieu (2002) presented social capital as the people and networks connected to an
individual, including the college student’s parents and families. FG individuals may receive
support and encouragement from their families. However, families may be unable to provide
career information or knowledge once they graduate (Tate et al., 2015). Terry and Fobia (2019)
stated that many first-generation professionals did not discuss networking with their families and
did not actively network in either college or career. Similarly, Gonzalez (2020) found that FG
students had less access to social capital, and they believed they had less accumulated social
capital than non-FG students. However, the researcher also found that despite the differences in
3

their initial social capital, once in college, FG and non-FG accumulated social capital from their
college experiences in a very similar fashion. This suggests that supporting FG students’ campus
activities may help increase their social capital accumulation, which can support their college
academics and career transition. Therefore, research needs to consider the FG students’ access to
networks and individuals who can support their college-to-career transition before graduation.
For many undergraduates, their senior year of college marks the transition from being
college students to new professionals. Overton-Healy (2010) examined the senior year of first-
generation college students and noted that for some research participants, events such as college
graduation notices triggered their awareness and concern for meeting their transition and post-
college needs. For FG seniors, preparation for the transition from college to career often meant
moving away from their college networks and focusing more on life activities after college
(Overton-Healy, 2010). The change of focus during the FG’s senior year provides an opportune
time for students to prepare for their new expected professional career.
Like with their experiences in college, first-generation professionals learn to implement
new practices that they may not be comfortable with but need to utilize to adjust to and advance
in their careers (Olson, 2016). Understanding job expectations may help new FG professionals
transition to their first professional careers (Murphy et al., 2010). Some of the first-generation
graduates in Hirudayaraj and McCleans’s (2018) research were unaware of the career preparation
needed to obtain their first job and had expected that their new college degree was all they
required to find a job. Murphy et al. (2010) recommend that organizations establish social
networks and training programs to support their recent college graduates' successful transition to
their new jobs. Gonzalez (2020) suggested training FG college students to better understand
social capital to support their academic and career pursuits.
4

Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this phenomenological qualitative study is to explore and understand the
career transition of early-career first-generation professionals in the United States. This study
generally defines career transition as the period when an individual transitions from being a
college student to a career professional. The following three research questions guide the study:
1. What experiences in college influence a FG student’s career path?
2. What experiences in the workplace influence a FG professional’s career
advancement?
3. What organizational resources have FG professionals found helpful in supporting
their career decisions and objectives?
Importance of the Study
Given the limited career-related research on first-generation professionals, exploring the
challenges they face is imperative to better support them in their careers. Evidence suggests that
some first-generation professionals may have experienced difficulty in adjusting to their new
work environment because they did not have professional mentoring experiences to help with the
transition (Terry & Fobia, 2019). Additionally, Eismann (2016) found that first-generation and
non-first-generation survey respondents utilized their campuses' career services at about the same
rate but that FG students accessed online services more often than non-FG students. However,
the researcher noted that in-person services were rated higher and stated that the higher use of
online services among FG students might negatively impact them. These challenges demonstrate
the need for further research to understand why they are happening and what practitioners can do
about them.
5

First-generation graduates have different career experiences than their non-first-
generation counterparts. Eismann (2016) found that while both first-generation and non-first-
generation students expected similar starting salaries following their graduation, the starting
salary offers for first-generation graduates were $5,925 lower than those of non-first-generation
graduates. Additionally, Hirudayaraj and McLean (2018) found that first-generation college
graduates often entered jobs at levels that did not require a college degree, needed to wait and
take additional measures to reach graduate-level positions, and faced potential unintentional
discrimination. These findings point to FG professionals' negative career impacts and illustrate
the need to identify strategies and practices to mitigate disparate outcomes.
Research has also found that social networks can provide new professionals valuable
career information and knowledge (Lin, 2005). FG professionals' access to social support and
career knowledge may also impact their transition and success in their professional careers.
Murphy et al. (2010) found that for some college graduates, not having social support negatively
impacted their transition from college to their new careers. There needs to be further study on
how and what type of networks influence FG individuals and how FG college students and
professionals interact with networks in their environment. This study will explore how social and
professional networks may impact a FG individual’s career and how their networks influence
their career decision-making.
This study will add much-needed literature to the career-related research of first-
generation professionals. In addition, the research will help better understand the factors that
influence the careers of FG individuals while they are still in college and after they enter their
professional careers. This study's findings will also identify potential strategies and practices to
support first-generation college students and professionals.
6

Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The study's conceptual framework utilizes two theoretical frameworks that collectively
allow a deep examination of the first-generation career-related topic. The theoretical frameworks
include ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) and self-efficacy theory (Bandura,
1977). Bronfenbrenner's (1977) ecological systems theory provides a theoretical framework to
examine an individual in their ecological environment. The model consists of various nested
systems that influence the individual at the model's center. Two systems, the microsystem and
the exosystem, contain networks that either interact directly (microsystem) or have limited to no
interaction (exosystem) with the individual but still influence them. Both networks interact with
each other in the mesosystem that exists between the two. The most outer macro system contains
environmental factors that influence the entire ecological system. Bronfenbrenner (1986) also
included a chronosystem that added a time factor to the model that allows researchers to consider
changes that take place in the system.
The ecological systems theory provides a theoretical framework to examine the FG
individual’s college and career experiences. The FG individual is at the center of the model with
their family, college, and work networks in the microsystem and exosystem. The macrosystem
will examine the organizational culture and structure that permeates and influences the FG
college, family, and work environment. Finally, the chronosystem allows the study to look at the
changes in the system as the FG individual goes through college, graduates, and enters a
professional career.
Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1977) is the study’s second theory. Bandura’s self-
efficacy concept refers to an individual’s belief that if they could accomplish a given task, it
would motivate them to take action to achieve that task. He proposed that the two most
7

influential factors to a person’s self-efficacy were having positive personal experiences and
seeing others accomplish a task. Bandura’s concept provides a theoretical framework to examine
the career decision-making of first-generation college students and professionals. For example,
when a FG college student completes a college internship or a new FG professional gets a
promotion in their job, the experience would increase their self-efficacy. Additionally, seeing
other FG professionals overcome a work challenge would, according to Bandura’s self-efficacy
concept, also increase the FG individual’s self-efficacy. These scenarios would positively
influence the FG’s self-efficacy, motivating them to make career decisions to achieve a career
goal.
Each of the two theories provides a different framework for studying FG populations.
However, utilizing an ecological systems theory and self-efficacy offers a more comprehensive
framework for career-related research on early-career FG professionals. Brofenbrenner’s (1977)
ecological systems model (EST) allows for an examination of the various networks that interact
with the FG individual, who is at the center of the model. Self-efficacy also considers the
individual’s networks, but the model takes a more internal examination of the individual and
how those external networks impact the individual’s self-efficacy, which may then influence
their decisions, behaviors, and goals.
The study used a phenomenological approach to conduct qualitative research and
employed a two-part interview to conduct exploratory research on the topic. The first part of the
research method was a semi-structured interview with 16 first-generation early-career
professionals via Zoom sessions. The second part of the semi-structured interview utilized photo-
elicitation centered around participant-shared photographs.
8

Definitions
The study will utilize several definitions and citations to provide context. These include:
First-Generation
⦁ First-generation refers to an individual who is either a first-generation college student or
a first-generation professional.
First-Generation College Student
⦁ A first-generation college student is one whose parents did not receive a bachelor's
degree (Helmbrectht & Ayars, 2021; Olson, 2014).
First-Generation Professional
⦁ A first-generation professional (FGP) is an individual in a professional career whose
parents did not receive a bachelor's degree (Hirudayaraj & McLean, 2018) and who has a
blue-collar family background (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2021)
Mentoring
⦁ Mentoring is a relationship between an individual (mentor) who supports the
development and customizes the relationship to meet the needs of another individual
(mentee) through sharing of experiences, knowledge, and resources (Shah, 2017).
Network
• A network is a collective of people, institutions, or organizations with a relationship
centered around a common identity, background, need, or other shared purposes.
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter One presents a general, high-level overview of the problem that the study will
address. Chapter Two provides the Literature Review that begins with how researchers have
defined first-generation status and its connection to other identities. The literature review will
9

also present research findings on the factors that influence first-generation careers and discuss
strategies and efforts to support first-generation individuals' career decision-making, preparation,
and career development. The chapter will also present the conceptual framework guiding the
study. Chapter Three will propose the study’s methodology, the two-part qualitative research
method, and the three research questions. Chapter Four will present the interview and photo
elicitation findings that address the three research questions. The chapter will also provide the
recruitment outcomes and the final accounting of the participant and demographic totals. Chapter
Five will discuss the findings, the researcher's recommendations for practice, the study's
limitations and delimitations, and recommendations for future research. Finally, Chapter Five
will close the chapter and the study with concluding remarks about the research conducted.

10

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This study will explore the experiences and identify factors that may influence first-
generation (FG) individuals' transition from college into their new professional careers and
career advancement. This literature review will present research, available data, and theories that
examine the factors, networks, and experiences that have influenced the career-related decision-
making of first-generation individuals before and after graduation. The chapter will begin by
exploring the definition of first-generation and discuss career-related research addressing race
and how first-generation individuals define themselves. The chapter will also briefly discuss the
intersectionality of the first-generation identity with race, ethnicity, gender, and social class as
relevant research examining the first-generation experience.
Subsequently, the literature review will present the theoretical perspectives on the career
decision processes in general and discuss the application to first-generation individuals. The
chapter will review the factors that current literature suggests impact first-generation individuals'
college transition, integration, graduation, and eventual career transition and success. Further, the
literature review will examine the association between social class and first-generation status and
discuss strategies, efforts, and practical applications shown to influence first-generation college
students' and professionals' careers positively. This chapter will close by presenting the
Conceptual Framework this study will utilize to examine the career-related issues and
experiences of first-generation professionals.
Defining First-Generation
Although research on first-generation individuals often uses their parent's college
education background to define FG status, research has not established a widely-accepted or
standard definition of first-generation (Tate et al., 2015). While some research has defined a FG
11

individual as being the first in their family to go to college (Harlow & Bowman, 2016), they do
not indicate the type of degree attained or college attended. In addition, the term family does not
specify which family members the definition refers to and remains vague. For example, although
Ahmed et al. (2021) stated that less than one-third of their study participants had older siblings
with college degrees, the researchers did not include the sibling's educational attainment in
defining the FG term. Other researchers defined FG individuals as those whose parents did not
graduate from college (Helmbrecht & Ayars, 2021; Raque-Bogdan & Lucas, 2016; Spiegler and
Bednarak, 2013) but did not specify the type of college or degree pursued. Other researchers
have stated that the determining factor in establishing first-generation status is if the parents have
received a bachelor's degree (Hirudayaraj & McLean, 2018, Olson, 2014). However, defining
first-generation professional (FGP) status has taken a slightly different approach.
In the case of FGP, researchers did not often define the term professional or what a
professional career means. Gorman (2015) broached the topic and stated that there was a
difference between a professional job and an administrative or managerial job. The First-
Generation Professional's Initiative out of the U. S. Office of Civil Rights has been one of few to
provide a definition. The initiative identified a FGP as an individual whose family has a blue-
collar work background (U. S. Department of Commerce, 2021), with blue-collar workers
defined as those whose jobs require them to work with their hands and requires physical skills
and learn their manual and physical labor work on the job or through apprenticeships (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2020). Another study used a similar approach and defined FGP as an
individual who was the first in their family to enter a white-collar job (Terry & Fobia, 2019),
where a white-collar job serves an executive, administrative, or another professional role
12

(Federal Register, 2019). In addition to not having a standard first-generation or first-generation
professional definition, research often included other identities when studying FG populations.
There is ample research that addresses the diverse identities of FG populations. RTI
International (2021) found that FG college graduates came from diverse ethnic backgrounds that
included Hispanic (60%), African American (59%), Native (54%), Asian American (39%), and
White (36%) populations. The same researchers also reported that 57% of the FG graduates were
24 years or older when they graduated. Another study found that among 22 to 29-year-old adults,
those who had at least one parent with a bachelor's degree were more likely to earn a bachelor's
degree (70%) than those where neither parent had a bachelor's degree (26%) (Fry, 2021). As a
whole, FG individuals are a diverse population.
An Issue of Diversity and Intersectionality
First-generation individuals have diverse simultaneous identities that include race,
gender, and class dimensions. Jack (2014) stated that diversity is layered and nuanced, where all
experiences are not the same. Crenshaw (1989) discussed intersectionality as a multidimensional
nature of an individual's identity that systems needed to view collectively, not singularly. For
example, the whole identity of a LatinX male from a working-class family who will be the first
college graduate in his family is the intersection of all four identities, not just one. The literature
also pushed for further career-related research to examine first-generation status, class, and
ethnicity collectively rather than as a single dimension of the individuals' identities (Raque-
Bogdan & Lucas, 2016). An individual's identity has many parts, and first-generation status is
one of them. Like their other identities, an individual's FG identity must be factored into career-
related research to better understand the population.
13

Although research at times made first-generation status its primary focus, it often
combined FG status with other identities. Various bodies of literature often presented FG
research with other identities, including race, ethnicity, and social class (McCoy & Winkle-
Wagner, 2015). Research examining college undergraduates often included both the racial
identities and the first-generation status of the students in the study (Eagan et al., 2014; Parks-
Yancy, 2012), demonstrating the use of intersectionality in FG studies. Other researchers
included race as well as socioeconomic and first-generation status in their research (Jack, 2014;
2015; Tinto, 2012; Wilcox et al., 2021). Holly and Gardner (2012) and Ahmed et al. (2021)
included both gender and race in their research on first-generation college students, while Levine
and Aley (2021) focused on gender and FG status. However, much of the research looked at the
various diversity dimensions separately within the study, demonstrating that career-related
studies just on FG status are scarce.
Other literature used social class and socioeconomic status interchangeably (Garriott,
2020) or presented them in combination with first-generation status. For example, Engle and
Tinto (2008) combined first-generation status and socioeconomic status in their study of college
student success, while Stephens et al. (2012) used first-generation status as an outcome of a
working-class background. Other research looked at the statuses separately. Harlow and
Bowman (2016) looked at college students' income and educational backgrounds separately in
their study of career decision self-efficacy. These varied approaches point to an individual's
identity as complex and multidimensional. Although researchers presented various taxonomies to
define the first-generation identity, first-generation individuals also voiced their perceptions.
Self-Identification
First-generation populations have given researchers their views on what being FG means
14

to them and their identities as first-generation individuals. Their perspectives presented both the
benefits and the challenges of being first-generation. In a study of African American first-
generation college students, the participants indicated that being first-generation was a positive
factor in their identity in that it spurred their persistence and motivation to succeed (Tate et al.,
2015). However, first-generation individuals also saw their identities stemming from two
seemingly contradicting perspectives. While study participants in Hirudayaraj's and McLean's
(2018) research viewed their first-generation background as a source of motivation that pushed
them to try harder and find resources to help them succeed, they also disclosed that their first-
generation backgrounds placed barriers on them when searching for employment after college.
Another study found a similar perspective from Hispanic first-generation students who discussed
the pressure they faced of being first-generation college but that it motivated them to get their
degrees (Martinez, 2018). Some researchers included the FG perspective, showing the
complicated nature of the first-generation identity and experience.
Deficit Framework
Several bodies of research on FG students and professionals presented their work in a
deficit-based approach focusing on what an individual is lacking, which some may see as
problematic (Dinishak, 2016) and added to the complexity of the FG identity. Other researchers
pointed out that FG research often used a deficit framework (Garriott, 2020; Jack, 2014; Lee et
al., 2021) and a deficit language when portraying FG students as not fitting into their campus'
culture (Spiegler and Bednarak, 2013). Kezar et al. (2020) argued that a deficit research
approach portrays first-generation students as lacking the necessary capital to succeed in college
and sets the responsibility on the student for their own college success. Other research also
argued that college systems need to take more accountability to support their marginalized
15

student populations, such as Black males' engagement in the campus culture and socialization
activities, rather than leave the responsibility solely on the students' shoulders (Harper, 2012).
Despite the deficit-heavy perspective often seen in research, there was evidence that some
researchers have attempted to provide a less deficit-based approach and language.
Some research discussed what a first-generation identity could provide an individual. For
example, Holly and Gardner (2012) discussed that their participants' intersectionality and the
influence of their identities on their experiences could be both a disadvantage and a source of
pride and persistence. The researchers discussed the topic of being "first" (p. 116) and that what
it meant to the participants was an integral part of their identities. Figueroa and Rodriguez (2015)
also pointed to life experiences and family backgrounds as sources and reminders of strength and
perseverance. Research's use of asset and deficit-based approaches and the apparent duality in
the first-generation identity became essential when examining first-generation individuals'
demographics and college and career outcomes. The following section will explore the research
background and outcome findings of first-generation individuals and other identities that
researchers often explore when studying first-generation issues.
First-Generation Outcomes and Background Information
First-generation individuals come from diverse communities whose demographic
backgrounds add to the group's complexity. Research found that FG students tend to be from
marginalized racial and socioeconomic backgrounds (Ward et al., 2012). A Pell Institute report
stated that Black and Hispanic students were over-represented in the first-generation college
student population (Council for Opportunity in Education, 2020). The report indicated that Black
students were 13% of the undergraduates and 18% of the FG population, while Hispanic students
were 20% of the overall total and 25% of the FG students. FG students are an integral
16

demographic in many of California's colleges and universities.
College can mark a critical point in the journey of first-generation professionals, and FG
college students are an integral part of higher education systems in the United States. California's
public college system enrolls a significant number of first-generation college students. The
University of California's enrollment information stated that 41% of its graduates were first-
generation college. Of these, 60% were from low-income backgrounds, and 49% were African
American, LatinX, or Native students (The Regents of the University of California, 2022). While
the CSU system, which awarded almost half of all bachelor's degrees in California, FG
undergraduates made up nearly one-third of the enrolled students (California State University
Office of the Chancellor, n.d.).
Additionally, the Pell Institute used the U. S. Department of Education data to determine
the percentage of college students who were FG college and found that 56% of students' parents
did not have a college degree (Council for Opportunity in Education. 2020). Researchers often
use the background information to examine first-generation populations' college and career-
related outcomes. The background information on FG individuals provides a framework to
explore the college and career outcomes of the population.
College Outcomes
College outcomes differ by first-generation status. Although some researchers found no
differences in the first-year academic or persistence outcomes between first-generation and non-
first-generation students (Wright et al., 2013), Cataldi et al. (2018) found that a higher
percentage (33%) of FG students than non-FG students (14%) left college without a degree three
years after enrolling. The researchers also found that non-FG students graduated at over twice
the rate of FG students. The Council for Opportunity in Education (2020) found that non-FG
17

first-year students had a higher six-year graduation rate (66%) than first-generation students
(34%) and those who were both first-generation and low-income (21%). Colleges began using a
six-year graduation rate to report cohort graduation rates when Congress established the
reporting metric (U. S. Congress, 1990). Regardless, undergraduates must eventually decide to
enter the workforce or pursue graduate school after graduation.
The literature demonstrated that some FG individuals decided to pursue graduate
education after their undergraduate degree. Parks-Yancy's (2012) study of African American FG
students found that two-thirds of the participants planned on working after graduation, and only
14% planned to attend graduate school after graduation. Research also found that graduate
school attainment is lower for first-generation adults (35%) than it is for non-first-generation
adults (43%) (Fry, 2021). However, contrary to other research, Harper and Williams (2014)
found that approximately three-fourths of the African American and Latino male students in their
study, predominantly from low-income households, had goals of pursuing a graduate degree.
With or without a graduate degree, first-generation college graduates enter the workforce, where
they experience various career and economic outcomes.
Career and Economic Outcomes
Research demonstrated that FG graduates experienced a variety of career and economic
outcomes in the workforce and provided a mixed perspective on the career outcomes of first-
generation college graduates. For example, in a report for the U. S. Department of Education,
Cataldi et al. (2018) indicated that the full-time employment rate was similar for first-generation
(57%) and non-first-generation graduates (59%) four years after their college completion.
However, a different study found that although 80% of both 2015-2016 first-generation and non-
first-generation college graduates found a job within one year of graduation, a lower rate of FG
18

graduates (44%) than non-FG graduates (52%) were employed in jobs that required a college
degree (RTI International, 2019). Beyond the mixed picture of employment outcomes between
FG and non-FG college graduates, research also demonstrated a disparity in salaries contributing
to lower economic outcomes for FG graduates (Ford, 2018).
There is a disparity in salary outcomes between FG and non-FG graduates. A report by
Cataldi et al. (2018) compared the average annual salary of first-generation and non-first-
generation college graduates. The researchers found that for 2007-2008 college graduates, the
average annual salary after four years of graduating was $4,500 less for first-generation
graduates than non-first-generation graduates. Fry (2021), in a report from the Pew Research
Center, also found that first-generation college graduates' financial outcomes trail behind non-
first-generation graduates. The report found that the 2019 median FG annual household income
was $36,2000 lower than that of non-FG households. The same research stated that among 22 to
29-year-olds, FG adults had lower annual income rates than non-FG. Researchers have utilized
various theories that may help provide insight into the experiences of first-generation
professionals.
Theories and Concepts Utilized in Career-Related Research
Career-related research has a long history that has evolved with different concepts,
theories, tools, and terms built on existing research. The research discussed in this literature
review addressed the study of the career decision-making process in general and of FG college
students and professionals. For example, Garriott (2020) argued that Bourdieu's (1986) capital
theory applies to FG populations, and researchers utilized it in their work. Career-related
concepts such as career adaptability, defined by Savickas (1997) as an individual's ability to do
their work despite experiencing unexpected changes, have been used to address career-related
19

challenges faced by individuals. Additionally, a tool presented in the literature is the Career
Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale which measures an individual's belief that they can
accomplish the needed actions to make career decisions (Betz & Lutz, 1996). In addition to these
concepts, studies have built much research on Albert Bandura's self-efficacy theory.
Self-Efficacy and Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy
Researchers used Bandura's (1977) self-efficacy concept to examine career decision-
making. Bandura (1977) proposed that individuals would be motivated to complete a task if they
believed they could. Researchers also applied self-efficacy to first-generation college students
and their college education pursuits. Wright et al. (2013) stated that self-efficacy helps predict
academic success and persistence among college students across first-generation status, gender,
and ethnicity. The same research found that study participants with higher self-efficacy showed a
greater persistence into the second year of college than students with lower self-efficacy across
gender, ethnicity, and first-generation status. Prior studies also utilized self-efficacy beyond the
individual's time in college.
Research applied self-efficacy to study individuals once they have graduated from
college and begun their professional life. Hackett and Lent (1992) stated that self-efficacy
applied to career behaviors and is predictive of perceived career possibilities and career
indecision. Lent and Brown (2013) presented their career management model to address
individuals' behaviors in their career decision-making process and career transitions, defined as
"adaptive career behaviors" (p. 559). The researchers described adaptive career behaviors as the
actions individuals take when developing their careers during both turmoil and normal times.
Lent and Brown (2013) proposed that during normal times these behaviors were in a growth or
developmental mode to advance the individual's career. During the more turbulent times, the
20

behaviors took on a survival mode to cope with the challenges and stress from career and life
events such as losing a job or school-to-work transitions. The researchers also stated that an
individual's job search behavior could occur when they were in a learning phase and looking for
their first job or in the case of a sudden and more disruptive phase, such as when the individual
lost their job. Additionally, Brown and Lent (2016) determined that prior experiences influenced
an individual's career self-efficacy, which bidirectionally impacted expectations and career goals.
While self-efficacy can influence an individual's career motivation and behaviors, examining
how time influences self-efficacy and decision-making is important.
Significant research on career decision-making and its connection to a time perspective
exists. Career decision-making research that included a perspective of the future looked at an
individual's perception of and the importance they placed on the future (Walker & Tracy, 2012).
Taber (2013) studied how past, present, and future time perspectives affected college students'
career decision-making. The researchers found that individuals who perceived past experiences
negatively were more focused on the present and more indecisive with decision-making about
their future. The Taber (2013) study also found that those who were more decisive were more
future-oriented and felt they had more control of their future. Researchers found that a positive
view of time and a positive career decision-making self-efficacy were related, while a negative
view of time and a negative career decision-making self-efficacy were related (Kvaskova &
Almenara, 2021). Individuals who connected their future goals with their present actions showed
more confidence in their career decision-making, leading to lower anxiety and being unprepared
about their career choices (Walker & Tracey, 2012). Self-efficacy's application to career
decision-making is established in research, as is another of Bandura's theories.
Social Cognitive Theory and Careers
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Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory provides another theoretical framework to
examine the career paths of first-generation professionals. Social cognitive theory identified the
individual, others who act in the individual's best interest, and social groups connected to the
individual as three different types of agency (Bandura, 2001). Bandura described agency as
acting deliberately and related to future objectives where the potential success of meeting these
future objectives influences the motivation and behaviors in the present. Bandura also proposed
that agency involves planning and controlling one's decisions and actions. However, Bandura
(2000) also stated that people do not always have control over systems or institutions whose
actions may affect the individual. Lent et al. (1994) proposed a career application to social
cognitive theory and stated that individuals make career choices that align with their interests,
self-efficacy, and expected outcomes. The authors also noted that experiences that stem from an
individual's racial and gender identity in society could influence their career development.
However, experiences that work to increase their self-efficacy may mitigate a potential negative
impact (Lent et al.,1994). Bandura (1991) stated that an individual's perception of what they
could do and what their actions brought drove their behavior to set goals and make decisions to
achieve them. These theories, concepts, and ideas collectively provided a framework to look at
the career decision-making process of individuals, including those from a first-generation
background.
The Career Decision-Making Process
The career decision-making process begins before an individual becomes a working
professional, and research addressed how an individual's college experiences can impact the
process (Kezar, 2020). The decision-making process research also applied to first-generation
individuals as college students and as adults. Lent et al. (1994) stated that career interests, self-
22

efficacy, and career outcomes that individuals expect to achieve are connected. The researchers
proposed that an individual's career choices can change depending on their performance
outcomes, such as changes to students' career choices due to poor academic performance. They
also stated that the same could happen in adults after a significant career experience.
Additionally, Xu and Tracey (2015) suggested that individuals showed higher self-
efficacy in their career decision-making motivation when they were able to adjust to ambiguity.
Research also stated that a key concept to consider in the decision-making process is an
individual's career maturity, which referred to being able, ready, and having the career
information to make career decisions (Crites & Savickas, 1996). The researchers cited the Career
Maturity Index, formerly the Vocational Development Inventory, as an essential tool revised in
1995 to include college students and working adults. A study looked at the role that time
perspective plays in career decision-making and career maturity among college students and
found that their behavior was dictated by how they saw the future (Savickas et al., 1984).
Although the career decision-making process is important to understand, it is also critical to
identify the factors that can influence first-generation individuals' motivation and behaviors.
First-Generation Career Influence Factors
FG professionals make decisions as college students that can impact their eventual
careers. Therefore, in addition to studying FGP once they are in their career, research also needs
to include the factors and experiences while they are still in college to better understand and
identify factors that influence FG careers. Additionally, research on other populations facing
similar challenges, experiences, and outcomes can support the limited research on FG
professionals. The literature review will next explore the FG population's career influence factors
23

before and after graduation, the influence of FG's networks, and the intersectionality of race,
ethnicity, gender, and social status and its influence on FG professionals' career decision-making.
Influence Factors Before Graduation
Some factors have the potential to influence a first-generation student's college education.
Studies found that some factors positively influence students' college persistence (Acevedo-Gil
& Madrigal-Garcia, 2018; Wright et al., 2013) and career preparation (Fouad et al., 2016; Means
et al., 2016). Research found that first-generation college students' parents can provide emotional
support that may positively impact FG students' motivation (Gibbons et al., 2019). Other
researchers also found that older siblings who had gone to college provided college information
support to the younger student (Ahmed et al., 2021). Harper's (2012) study of high-achieving
African American males also found that college campus engagement often provided a positive
influence. The study participants stated that their high levels of engagement in college activities
led to internships and job opportunities. Fouad et al. (2016) found that taking a college career
planning course had a statistically significant positive effect on participants' career engagement,
exploration, and career decision-making. However, some efforts do not positively influence the
FG college student college experience or career preparation.
Research indicated that some practices, programs, and factors had varied results. For
example, Mendez and Bauman's (2018) College Assistance Migrant Program (CAMP) study had
mixed outcomes. The researchers found that CAMP did not raise the academic self-efficacy of
its participants. However, they found that program participation significantly predicted the
development of students' connection to college and their sense of belonging on campus.
Additionally, Gibbons et al. (2019) identified issues that influenced first-generation students to
reconsider college continuation. The researchers proposed that these issues acted as barriers to
24

the student's education and included their families not wanting the student to go away for
college, financial burdens from the cost of college, and not enough knowledge about the college
processes. Research has also found that work obligations, family responsibilities, and student
debt could negatively impact the persistence of first-generation college students from migrant
worker backgrounds (Mendez & Bauman, 2018). Additionally, Toyokawa and DeWald's (2020)
found that first-generation students perceived more barriers with social support, time, and
financial resources to access career-related training than non-first-generation students. These
factors also had a potential emotional impact.
Stress can affect first-generation college students. Schriver and Teske's (2020) research,
where 61.3% of the participants were first-generation college students, examined the stress levels
and areas of concern among graduating seniors. The study found that participants dealt with a
significant amount of stress around their transition from college, where most of the concerns
dealt with career-related issues. Additionally, the researchers found that first-generation seniors
reported higher levels of career concerns than non-first-generation seniors. Another study found
that college students perceived barriers that likely impacted their career confidence (Levine &
Aley, 2021). First-generation students' stress may also come from unexpected sources.
Although some studies saw family as a factor for positive influence, they also considered
family a potential source of stress for the FG college student (Gibbons et al., 2019; Holly, 2012;
Olson, 2016). In a study by Gibbons et al. (2019), first-generation college student participants
were conflicted about their needs and pressure to stay connected with their families, challenging
their need to address and meet their academic responsibilities. Parks-Yancy (2012) presented a
similar finding with African American first-generation college students' parents and families.
The study participants' families did not understand the nuances of a college experience and could
25

not provide the information or advice the college students needed. The participants' family
circumstances and backgrounds in these studies added to their challenges as college students.
A FG student's family background provides capital that can influence their college goals
and career preparation. Research stated that first-generation college students' parents, since they
did attend college, did not have the college experience to help their students navigate their
transition to college, which was a potential source of stress for the student (Gibbons et al., 2019).
Further, Wilcox et al. (2021) found that often first-generation doctoral students faced increased
financial stress related to their graduate education. This financial stress pressured them to
possibly delay life and career goals such as buying a home or staying in a job because of the
need for a paycheck. Research stated that perceived barriers to their career goals due to
insufficient access to financial and network resources were another possible source of stress for
first-generation students (Levin & Aley, 2021). Additionally, research found that the perception
of inadequate career knowledge often led to lower career decidedness among FG college
students (Toyokawa and DeWald, 2020). However, literature also found that external factors
influenced first-generation college and careers.
Research findings pointed to college factors that sometimes negatively influenced FG
students. Stephens et al. (2012) proposed that a "cultural mismatch" (p. 1390) occurred when
first-generation students attended college campuses that catered to a more middle-class and non-
first-generation student body and that the mismatch added to the difficulties first-generation
students faced on their campuses. The researchers introduced campus social and community
norms to FG and non-FG students in their study. The researchers then studied the participants'
physical and physiological reactions. They found that first-generation students experienced a
higher physical response, less positive emotions, and more negative emotions than the non-first-
26

generation participants (Stephens et al., 2012). In addition to the social and cultural differences
first-generation college students faced, system factors added to the challenges and barriers.
Toutkoushian et al. (2018) stated that students in their study whose parents did not have a
bachelor's degree were also at a systemic disadvantage compared to students whose parents had
received a college degree. The differences between first-generation and non-first-generation
populations point to a hidden curriculum that FG students may not be aware of in their college
education.
Soft Skills and Hidden Curriculum
Research discussed a hidden curriculum that some student populations might not be
aware of as undergraduate students. Aslubai (2015) stated that hidden curriculum stems from
beliefs and assumptions not overtly communicated in the learning experience. Orón Sempler and
Blasco (2018) indicated that faculty and their institutions expect college students to learn the
necessary skills to prepare for their careers and social networks. Hora et al. (2018) proposed that
institutions saw soft skills as something simple to learn and that most faculty did not include
them in their courses since they assumed that students would somehow internalize them as a part
of the educational journey. However, these skills may be important to future employers.
Research has shown that soft skills are in demand in the marketplace due to the
importance of understanding human interactions in the organization's success (Deming, 2017).
Hora and Lee (2021) stated that soft skills include communication, teamwork, problem-solving,
and learning management. However, colleges and universities may already have career support
networks that students can access to support their career development.
College Career Centers
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Tomlinson and Homes (2016) stated that colleges and universities face pressure to deliver
graduate outcomes, including preparing their students to enter the professional work
environment. Although Binder et al. (2016) did not discount the influence of students' economic
class background, the researchers stated that colleges could influence their students' career paths.
The researchers found that one of the factors that enabled elite colleges to funnel students' career
interests was the students' lack of career awareness. They stated that at elite colleges, campuses
could shape their students' career interests through campus clubs, career advising, and employer
recruitment (Binder et al., 2016). One would expect college campuses to have career centers
where students can get support for their careers.
A college campus career center is one of the student support offices that can provide the
services that impact a student's career. Tomlinson and Holmes (2016) proposed that college
campus career services have added a focus on student employability and increased student
employment outcomes to the centers' efforts. Schaub (2012) stated that college career centers
now offer a wider variety of career support services, including mentoring, interview preparation,
and assessment. Schaub (2012) proposed that career-related services have become increasingly
important on college campuses as students look to their career centers for help in career
guidance, job searches, developing interviewing skills, and resume preparation. College career
centers may already be able to support students' career preparation by providing them access to
internships.
Internships
College internships may provide undergraduates with an opportunity to learn about
different career fields. A study examining college-to-career transition noted that internships
prepared students for a career after college by exposing them to a work environment while still in
28

college (Murphy et al., 2010). However, a study by Hora et al. (2022) found that while 29% of
their non-first-generation respondents took part in internships, only 16.6% of their first-
generation respondents did. The students in the study often provided multiple obstacles to taking
part in internships. The most common response was that 46% indicated that they had to work and
also had a heavy course load. Some research also presented the downsides of unpaid internships.
Hope and Figiel (2015) indicated that although some research may portray internships as an
activity that can significantly impact student career outcomes, internships can also further
marginalize and exploit some groups. However, college graduates must deal with life after
college despite the challenges.
For many graduates, this meant securing a job after college. Since 60% of college
graduates expected to work after college (Eismann, 2016), most job applicants must go through
their future employers' interview and hiring processes. This meant that potential employers
evaluated FG graduates applying and interviewing for jobs.
Employability
An employer must see a job applicant as employable during the hiring process. Benbow
and Hora (2018) found that in their hiring, employers saw an applicant's organizational fit with
the company as important when evaluating skills. The researchers also found that employers held
work ethic, technical skills, and problem-solving skills as essential. Jackson (2016) stated that
employability for college graduates goes beyond considering only job-related skills. The
researchers proposed that employability involves multiple aspects, including what the student
knows, their skills, and their personal attributes. Benbow and Hora (2018) stated that skills come
from individuals' social and cultural environments, including their families and community
members. These skills are then established internally through their education. Despite all these
29

factors that can affect FG college students in their career entry, there are factors they may face
once they enter their new professional work environment.
Influence Factors After Graduation
Various factors can impact FG individuals after college. New college graduates,
regardless of their social class, race, ethnicity, gender, or first-generation status, must be content
with the economic environment at the time of their graduation as they transition to a professional
career. Davis et al. (2015) found that recent college graduates tended to be the most directly
impacted when the economy was not doing well. The researchers stated that recent graduates
were often the first employers laid off since they had less seniority or were less likely to be hired
due to inexperience. A study showed that an organization's training and orientation efforts also
impacted how well recent graduates transitioned into their new careers (Murphy et al., 2010).
Amis et al. (2020) stated that hiring and promotion practices institutionalized inequity and built
on each other to control social mobility within the organization. The researchers argued that the
organization as a meritocracy was a myth and that despite the claims of merit in hiring,
promotion, and rewards, these practices were often not based on merit. Similar to the FG college
experience, the new FG professional may face experiences that can impact their career success
once employed.
Many career factors first-generation professionals face may create barriers that the
professional must overcome. Some research pointed to these barriers at the start of the FG
professional's career. For example, a study found that a common challenge faced by FG
participants was that they did not have anyone to help them choose a career path or prepare for
graduate school (Ahmed et al., 2021). Murphy et al. (2010) stated that their study participants
whose company did not offer sufficient training and orientation experienced difficulty adjusting
30

to the new job. They felt it was up to them to succeed in their transition. In Olson's (2016) study,
some first-generation professionals reported not receiving coworker support during their
transition to their new position. Research also pointed to limited access to professional networks
and their social capital as another possible barrier first-generation college graduates face in
transitioning to a professional career (Hirudayaraj & McLean, 2018). However, not all research
findings proposed factors negatively influencing first-generation professionals' careers.
There were positive factors that could impact a FG professional's career. For example, a
new professional's manager or supervisor could play a significant role in the FGP transition to
their new position by providing information about the job and feedback on their performance
(Polach, 2004). The study stated that job information and feedback could help new employees
better understand their job responsibilities and performance goals. Other organizational efforts to
influence the FG professionals' success positively included the federal FG Professional Initiative,
which aimed to raise awareness of FG issues and provide FG professionals with career resources
(U. S. Department of Commerce, 2021), and organizational affinity support groups to build FG
communities within the organization (Latham & Watkins, 2022). First-generation professionals'
access to resources to support their transition again pointed to the factor of capital and its
influence on FG career success.
Like the college environment, the professional environment for first-generation
professionals brought cultural and social differences between the FG individual and their
organization. Research stated that individuals in organizations may have added stress or
perceived threats from interactions with people they recognized as having different backgrounds
and experiences and from different class statuses (Gray & Kish-Gephart, 2013). Polach (2004)
discussed that new professionals faced challenges such as not having enough knowledge about
31

their new careers or unrealistic expectations of their first jobs. The researcher presented these
challenges as a "potential mismatch" (p. 8) that impacted the new professional's ability to
socialize in their new work environment. Research again showed that FG individuals might deal
with stress as professionals in and outside their new work environment.
Family stress for FG professionals did not always stop once they graduated. In Olson's
(2016) study, participants struggled with the perception of work in their new environment and
their family's notion of work as physical labor and harder than what happens in a professional
environment. The study found that first-generation professionals' work environments often
differed from what their parents experienced, which left participants unable to speak to their
families about their work challenges and unprepared for the social and political expectations and
experiences they encountered in their careers (Olson, 2016). Family in the first-generation's
environment constituted just one of the various networks that can influence the FG's career.
Influence Factors – Networks
Some research discussed the influence of networks on first-generation careers (Martinez,
2018; Williams et al., 2018) and professionals (Olson, 2014). In addition, the literature often
presents other people's influence through mentoring during college and in the workplace.
However, Figueroa and Rodriguez (2015) stated that despite the mentoring relationship
depending on the mentee and the mentor, the relationship was expected to be led by the mentor.
The researchers also noted that mentoring was a development relationship that involved more
than advising to help students navigate school. However, mentoring with peers frequently came
up in the literature.
Peer networks often allowed students to form a community of peers that supported their
transition to college (Tinto, 1997). Ahmed et al. (2021) found that peer and faculty mentoring
32

helped increase many FG individuals' self-confidence and sense of belonging. Literature on
Latina/o persistence in doctoral programs also found that a peer network often formed a familial
bond around a shared interest and commitment to Latina/o communities (Acevedo-Gil &
Madrigal-Garcia, 2018). The same study found that these peer bonds fostered a mentoring
component that could provide academic validation and support their persistence, mitigating the
adverse effects faced in their programs. Another study found that peer networks with similar
goals and backgrounds provided many first-generation students with a community they could
connect with for academic purposes (Martinez, 2018). In addition, a study of Latina college
faculty found that female faculty of color peer networks supported each other with advancement
and tenure processes in higher education (Núñez et al., 2015). Gibbons et al. (2019) also found
that in addition to scholarship and parental emotional support, peer and professor mentors often
helped first-generation students overcome barriers. However, Tinto (1997) stated that the
classroom may be the only place where some students interact with faculty. The limited contact
with professors added to the challenges first-generation college students face.
Research showed that relationships with professors are critical. Many high-achieving,
African American and Latino, low-income students established relationships with their
professors through student and social campus activities (Harper, 2012). The Hispanic FG study
participants in Martinez's (2018) research stated that their prior professors made a strong
impression on them and often introduced them to the idea of graduate school. As previously
mentioned, career-related research on first-generation populations is limited. However, research
considering identities beyond race can also support research efforts examining FG issues.
First-Generation and Social Class
33

Research showed that social class and first-generation status have a close relationship.
Researchers cited resource and network access issues in their studies of marginalized
communities (Gray, 2018). Bourdieu's (2002) capital theory provided a theoretical framework
that addressed resources and networks and stated that individuals could expand their social and
cultural capital. For example, interactions with others can grow an individual's social capital.
Likewise, experiences such as earning a college education can increase their cultural capital.
Research applied Bourdieu's concepts to the study of diverse populations.
Capital theory was evident in the research examining individuals from first-generation
and lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Benediktsson (2012) stated that students from low-
income backgrounds often lack the economic and cultural capital needed to support their
integration and adjustment to their college environment. Terry and Fobia (2019) also cited a
possible challenge for professionals that stemmed from insufficient access to financial resources
to participate fully in social activities at their places of employment. Johnson et al. (2011)
indicated that students from low socioeconomic backgrounds were aware and wary of the social
class differences between themselves and students from higher financial backgrounds. The
researchers found that students in their study who were from low socioeconomic backgrounds
often questioned their academic fit at their colleges. The influence of an individual's social class
did not stop with their college graduation.
Socioeconomic backgrounds also played a role in getting a job. Rivera and Tilcsik (2016)
stated that an applicant's social class appears to influence hiring. The researchers found that
employers favored higher-income class applicants over those from lower-income classes, even
with equivalent previous experiences, academic outcomes, and achievements. Although not all
34

FG individuals were from low-income backgrounds, FG research showed similar findings
between the two population groups.
First-generation researchers often identified a cultural and social class mismatch in their
studies. Gray and Kish-Gepart (2013) stated that class differences were potential sources of
discomfort due to issues of privilege that may arise during interactions between different classes
within the organization. The researchers also noted that the discomfort often led to organizational
responses that avoided these interactions, which became part of the organizational culture.
Existing research pointed to a clash of social classes when individuals from different classes
interact in the workplace with those from the working class feeling that they may not fit within
the organizational culture and that they may not have the skills necessary to advance in the
organization (Belmi & Laurin, 2016). Companies reinforce class inequities that further
marginalize individuals from different classes during hiring and promotions when managers
make decisions influenced by class similarities (Amis et al., 2020). These college and career
findings provide insight into the experiences of individuals from marginalized communities and
help to justify why existing studies often include race, gender, and especially social class when
researching the career experiences and outcomes of first-generation populations.
FG Graduation, Career Transition, and Career Advancement Strategies and Practices
Employment data and research provided the impact a college degree can have on
individuals' career and economic outcomes. For example, data from the U. S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics (2021) showed that the 2020 annual income of those with a doctorate or professional
degree was $110,160, $78,020 for a bachelor's degree, and dropped to $39,070 for those with
only a high school education. Additionally, the same data set showed that 2020 unemployment
rates vary according to the level of education attained. For someone with only a high school
35

diploma, the 2020 unemployment rate was 9.0% but dropped to 5.5% for those with a bachelor's
degree and 2.5% for those with a doctorate. Despite these financial outcomes influenced by an
individual's educational attainment, as presented earlier, FG professionals may still face various
barriers and factors that may negatively impact their economic outcomes. However, research also
suggests factors in the form of support strategies and practical applications that can positively
influence the FG professionals' carer transition and success.
Some of the strategies identified in the literature also applied to first-generation college
students and first-generation professionals. Olson (2014) pointed out that first-generation
individuals came from diverse backgrounds, including different social classes, and career
counselors needed to be aware of these differences. In addition, Taber (2013) recommended that
career counseling include interventions to address future time perspectives when individuals are
experiencing motivation challenges with their decision-making abilities. Although these
strategies could apply to college and professional environments, some were more applicable
while the individual was still in college.
College graduation marks the turning point where first-generation college students
become college graduates and begin their transition to FG professionals. The literature review
will explore the strategies, practices, and programs implemented at the college and career levels.
Although strategies and practices at the career level are limited, research identified some
examples that have supported FG professionals that the study will present. However, more
literature and practices addressed FG college students before they graduated. The literature
review will explore those strategies and discuss college programs that supported FG career
development and decision-making.
36

Strategies and Practices Before Graduation
Research identified strategies such as orientation and information on the campus's
support services that positively influenced first-generation students' college success (Engle &
Tinto, 2008). For example, Toyokawa and DeWald (2020) suggested that career counselors
working with first-generation college students must be more aware that perceived barriers can
negatively impact their students' self-efficacy and implement appropriate interventions to address
them. Research also showed that undergraduates setting goals could positively influence their
career decision-making self-efficacy (Walker & Tracey, 2012). Additionally, as discussed
earlier, graduate degrees were related to income and employment outcomes, and Martinez (2018)
identified strategies to support first-generation Hispanic students' pursuit of an advanced degree.
The strategies included providing students with early graduate school information, role models,
peer networks with other first-generation students, and family support to help them better
understand the academic world. Martinez proposed that interactions with others were a strategy
that could positively impact FG student outcomes.
Researchers also found that involving others and establishing networks can impact a first-
generation student's college success (Tinto, 2012). Benediktsson (2019) stated that social capital
from networks provided students with the potential resources to form social networks among
different racial and ethnic groups that may allow for more communication between groups.
Researchers also recommended that colleges and universities incorporate first-generation
students' families to help the student adjust to college (Gibbons et al., 2019). Research found that
networks connected to the FG student can provide motivational support and address strategies to
increase college and career knowledge and awareness.
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Research showed that colleges and organizations could provide resources to FG students
to positively influence knowledge and awareness. Núñez et al. (2015) recommended giving
resources to mentoring programs in educational settings to help build academic communities that
allow mentors and mentees to learn from each other. Tinto's (1997) study of college learning
support programs showed that academic support programs also helped bridge students' social
aspects of college. Fouad et al. (2016) recommended career planning courses for college students
due to their positive impact on their career decision-making. While research can identify and
recommend strategies and practices to support first-generation careers, colleges and employers
need to implement them.
Researchers identified and assessed various college-based programs to support first-
generation college students' college success and career preparation (Chaney, 2010; Menez &
Bowman, 2018; U. S. Department of Education, 2009). Existing research showed that programs
that support college students can work. There were different types of programs funded to help
first-generation college students. For example, the U.S. Department of Education Trio funded
programs like the Student Support Services to increase the retention and graduation rates of
disabled, low-income, and first-generation college students. (U.S. Department of Education,
2009). Chaney's (2010) report on the Department of Education's Student Support Services
program indicated that the college program's services supported students' success. The study
found a correlation between students who received supplemental services and improved
academic outcomes and that services after the first year of college showed a stronger correlation
to students' long-term outcomes. The College Assistance Migrant Program (CAMP) is a
federally-funded program that provides counseling, tutoring, and financial resources to college
students from migrant college and seasonal worker families to complete their first year of college
38

(U. S. Department of Education, 2020). CAMP is an example of a program designed to support
the academic success of first-generation college students and the subject of a study by Mendez
and Bauman (2018). The researchers found that although program participation was not a
predictor of college GPA, the program was significant in the students' college success by helping
them to overcome personal and academic barriers. Another study looked at a collaborative effort
between two college campus units designed to support the career preparation of underrepresented
college students and found that students' career knowledge, awareness, and preparation improved
after participating in the program (Means et al., 2016). Although researchers have shown these
programs to be effective in their work with college students, college graduates may face career-
related factors that can negatively influence their careers as first-generation professionals.
Strategies and Practices After Graduation
First-generation college graduates become first-generation professionals once they begin
working in an organization. However, Gray and Kish-Gephart (2013) proposed that research
should look beyond existing class differences and consider how individual and group interactions
within an organization create class structures. Belmi and Lurin (2016) pointed out a potential
solution to the cultural class issues by creating an organizational culture that is more inclusive of
working-class employees. Although the researchers' strategies addressed class status, there were
also efforts to support first-generation employees.
Some industry-specific and organizational efforts supported first-generation
professionals' career development and transition into a professional work environment. For
example, Latham and Watkins LLC, a law firm that has consistently been one of the largest and
highest-ranked firms in the world (Nadimpalli, 2017), established a support group for its first-
generation attorneys as one of its eight affinity groups within the firm (Latham & Watkins,
39

2022). Unfortunately, there was limited information on industry-wide or sector-wide efforts to
meet first-generation professionals' career needs. However, industries have developed measures
to help this segment of the population. For example, the U. S. Department of Commerce (2021)
launched an effort to build a program to support first-generation professionals who work in the
federal government by partnering with other federal agencies and first-generation college student
programs in colleges and universities. Finally, the University of California also included first-
generation professional development in its system-wide effort to support its alumni (The Regents
of the University of California, 2020).
Although the career-related research on first-generation college students and
professionals was limited, supplemented with related research from other groups provided a
comprehensive study of the FG population. The literature review presented prior research
examining the first-generation experience during college and their career. The following
conceptual framework utilized existing research to guide original career-related research on first-
generation professionals of the proposed study.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework will utilize two theoretical frameworks to examine first-
generation professional college and career experiences and the factors and networks influencing
their career choices. First, Bronfenbrenner's (1977) ecological systems theory will focus on the
FG individual's environmental systems, while Bandura's (1977) self-efficacy theory will address
factors that affect the decision-making of FG individuals.
Ecological Systems Theory
First-generation research points to the networks and interactions in the FG individual's
environment and their influence on the FG's career. Urie Brofenbrenner's (1977) ecological
40

model can provide a model to study this topic. Bronfenbrenner established his "ecology of
human development" (p. 14) theory on an individual who is still developing within their
immediate environment and larger social systems where the individual is situated. He described
this ecological systems model as an environmental structure of embedded systems with the
individual at its center. The microsystem in this nested structure contains networks with direct
contact with the individual and includes people and groups such as the individual's family,
teachers, and employers. Bronfenbrenner posited the mesosytem next and described it as the
level where interactions occur between the various groups and networks in the individual's life.
Immediately after the mesosytem, the exosystem holds the larger societal groups that do not
include the individual but still influence the individual's life and interact with microsystem
networks in the mesosystem. Unlike the prior levels, the macrosystem is more of an inherent and
informal aspect that represents the system's culture and permeates throughout the environment,
affecting all networks and groups. Bronfenbrenner also discussed transitions that happen in real
life and that these changes impact the system and all parties within the system. Bronfenbrenner
(1986) stated that the chronoystem addressed the life changes and that its basic form looks at the
"normative" (p. 174) life transitions that occur when an individual enters a new school or enters a
new job. The time and network aspects lend themselves to the topic of first-generation
individuals and their career paths.
Bronfenbrenner presents a theoretical model to examine the various networks, groups,
and individuals in a first-generation individual's environment and who influence their career-
making decisions and career paths. The individual's family, friends, college, and job networks,
who interact directly with the individual, make up the microsystem. At the same time, the larger
networks that do not interact with the individual are in the exosystem and would include people
41

like the CEO of the first-generation professional's company or the top leadership of their college.
Interactions between the networks occur in the mesosystem that may consist of professional
conferences, social outings, board meetings, or other activities that the first-generation individual
is either not invited to or does not attend.
Additionally, family and friends' networks in the microsystem may have limited or no
interactions with networks from the exosystem. The macrosystem symbolizes the culture of the
various organizations and systems in the first-generation environment. The chronosystem
provides an extremely useful tool that allows an examination of the changes that happen over
time with the individual and the networks. For example, the first-generation career networks may
get established while the individual is still in college or may not occur until they enter their
career. These career networks may eventually become more influential and pervasive as the
individual progresses in their career, while their college networks may diminish. The changes in
the FG networks will then impact the first-generation individual.
Self-Efficacy
This study's conceptual framework will also utilize Bandura's (1977) self-efficacy theory
to examine the FG individuals' self-efficacy and its influence on their career decisions and
behaviors. Bandura stated that his concept of self-efficacy was an individual's belief that they
could accomplish a given task and that this belief influenced their motivation to complete it. He
proposed that self-efficacy comes from "performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences,
verbal persuasion, and physiological states" (p. 191). He stated that the most influential of the
factors was successful performances. In other words, an individual's prior accomplishment in a
task had the most significant influence on their self-efficacy. He also argued that other people
could help increase an individual's self-efficacy when they see the other person successfully
42

navigate a difficult situation. Although not as effective as direct, prior successful experiences,
Bandura argued that verbal feedback and encouragement from others could also help encourage
individuals and influence their self-efficacy. Bandura also stated that stress and pressure from
difficult situations could motivate people to take action, suggesting that an individual's emotions
could also increase self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy provides a theoretical lens to examine first-generation college students' and
professionals' career decision-making processes. Bandura (1977) stated that early success in a
task would positively impact the individual's self-efficacy, influencing their motivation to make
career-related decisions that they feel will help them reach their career goals. Therefore, if a
college student secures a work-study job and does well, it will motivate their decision to plan for
and take action toward their career pursuit. However, the opposite may occur if they cannot
secure a student job or do not do well in their job. Additionally, first-generation individuals may
increase their self-efficacy when they see other first-generation individuals overcome a challenge
or get positive feedback from a supervisor or professor. Finally, as discussed in the literature
review, stress afflicts first-generation individuals in college and their careers, which may also
motivate the individual to take action. Collectively, the four factors described will influence the
FG's self-efficacy. Figure 1 shows how self-efficacy affects the decision-making process, where
factors impact a first-generation's self-efficacy, influencing their actions and decisions. These
decisions then produce outcomes that, along with stress and influences from other people, will
positively or negatively affect their self-efficacy.

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Figure 1
First-Generation Career Development Conceptual Framework

Conceptual Model
Figure 1 depicts how the two combined theories apply to a first-generation's career with
the FG individual at the center of the ecological environment and their networks in the different
systems. The networks in the microsystem and exosystem interactions occur in the mesosystem
without the FG individual. However, given the education and career background of the FG
44

individual's family and peer networks, these networks may have limited or no interactions with
the exosystem networks. These networks and their influence change as the individual progresses
from a college student to a career professional. These experiences, successes, and interactions
with these networks, in turn, impact first-generation individuals' career self-efficacy, influencing
their career decision-making.
Summary
Chapter 2 began with how research has defined first-generation status and presented
background and outcome findings on the population. Researchers noted that career-related
research on first-generation groups is limited (Ford, 2018; Polach, 2004), and there is no
standard or consistent definition of first-generation (Tate et al., 2015). Research findings have
also pointed out the many factors that can negatively influence the career decision-making self-
efficacy of first-generation individuals (Kezar et al., 2020; Taber, 2013). Much of the research
focused on the barriers and challenges that arise from the differences between the social, cultural,
and economic capital that FG college students and professionals bring and what their colleges
and employers expect and are structured to work with (Stephens et al., 2012). However, research
also identified factors that had positive career and college-related influences (Fouad et al., 2016;
Kezar et al., 2019). The role of other people in the FG's environment and their effect on the FG
college student and professionals were consistently found in the literature, especially the
influence of professors on FG college students and the role of peers for both students and
professionals (Martinez, 2018; Tinto, 1997). The chapter ended with the Conceptual Framework
that this study will utilize. The framework combines two theoretical models, Ecological Systems
Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) and Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1977), to study first-
generation professionals' career transition, advancement factors, and decision-making.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This study explored early-career first-generation professionals' experiences and identified
factors influencing their career decision-making processes in transitioning to their new
professional careers and ongoing career advancement. This study also sought to add to the
limited research on FGP and potentially identify practices and strategies that could support the
targeted population's career success. This chapter presents the three research questions and
methodology design that guided the study. In addition to a detailed description of the two
research methods utilized for the study, the chapter also provides the research setting of the study
and how the study addressed validity and reliability. The chapter concludes with a discussion of
my positionality as the researcher and the ethics I adhered to throughout the study.
Research Questions
1. What experiences in college influence a FG student's career path?
2. What experiences in the workplace influence a FG professional's career advancement?
3. What organizational resources have FG professionals found helpful in supporting their
career decisions and objectives?
Design Overview
This study applied a phenomenological research design (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018)
study with a qualitative research approach that employed semi-structured interviews (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016) and a photo-elicitation (Glaw et al., 2017) method to answer the study's research
questions. I obtained participant approval to record the interview session using Zoom and
recorded all but one of the sessions. Unfortunately, a technical issue with the first interview
prevented its recording. Cresswell and Cresswell (2018) stated that a phenomenological research
inquiry describes a phenomenon through individuals' lived experiences. This study aimed to use
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early-career FG individuals' college and career lived experiences through their first-generation
perspectives to explore and better understand their career decision-making processes and the
factors that affect their career decisions. Therefore, a qualitative design approach was appropriate
for this study.
The justification for a qualitative study included more than the phenomenological
approach. Cresswell and Cresswell (2018) presented the characteristics of qualitative research.
The study applied the following: the researcher as a critical instrument, an understanding of the
participant's meaning to the issue, reflexivity on the researcher's influence on the study, and a
holistic account. Additionally, according to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the semi-structured
format allows the researcher to adjust during the interview to better capture the participants'
perspectives. The flexible semi-structured format with preset questions served as question guides
for the interview and not as rigid, structured questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Although
researchers do not use photographs to study society and history as they did in the 1960s,
technology in today's global world makes pictures accessible to use in today's research (Perrera,
2019). Plunket et al. (2013) proposed that the photovoice method can document individuals'
lived experiences as phenomenological data, while Glaw et al. (2017) suggested that a photo-
elicitation method allows for pictures to deepen the emotional aspects in an interview to gather
deeper meanings while allowing for member checking that increases the study's trustworthiness.
The study used photo-elicitation in the second part of the interview, with participants sharing
images they selected. The images aimed to trigger memories from participants’ lived college and
career experiences influenced by their first-generation perspective. Table 1 provides an overview
of the data collection methods and their alignment with the research questions.

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Table 1
Data Sources
Research Questions
Semi-Structured
Interviews
Photo-Elicitation
RQ1: What experiences in college influence a FG
student's career path?
X X
RQ2: What experiences in the workplace
influence a FG professional's career
advancement?
X X
RQ3: What organizational resources have FG
professionals found helpful in supporting
their career decisions and objectives?
X X

Research Setting
All research projects using interviews must consider the settings where the discussions
will occur, including the expected costs and the feasibility of executing the interviews. I sought
to recruit 15-18 participants from all regions in California and expected that there would be a
significant geographic distance to some of the participants. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) cited that
a strength of online interviews is their accommodation for large geographic distances.
Additionally, Covid-19 restrictions and precautions were unknown when the interviews were to
take place; thus, online interviews made the study's most practical and effective setting for the
semi-structured interview and photo-elicitation methods. Therefore, the study used Zoom to
conduct all interviews to accommodate the geographic distance and research costs.
I sought to interview 15 -18 early-career first-generation professionals from diverse
racial/ethnic and gender backgrounds. I recruited participants from all over California, but
outreach efforts primarily reached the SF Bay Area and Southern California. The core criteria for
participant selection was that they were to be early-career first-generation professionals, given
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the study's FG career-related purpose and research questions. The study did not focus on any
specific gender or race/ethnicity demographic; therefore, the study attempted to recruit from a
diverse pool of applicants.
Data Sources
The study used semi-structured interviews and a photo-elicitation as the data source.
Participants shared pictures they selected in the second part of the interview. I expected each
participant to participate in both parts of the interview, so I used one recruitment plan with a
single selection process.
The emailed instructions provided participants with the image selection guidelines and
access to an online calendaring application where they could select an interview date that worked
best for them. All interviews occurred online via Zoom. The first part was a semi-structured
interview that produced data that addressed all three research questions. The second part was a
photo-elicitation discussion centered around participant-selected images to address research
questions examining the factors influencing the FG decision-making process.
Participants
The study aimed to conduct career-related research on the early-career first-generation
professional population. Therefore, the study utilized a purposeful sampling approach and
participant sampling criteria to secure 15 to 18 study participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) who
were first-generation professionals with bachelor's degrees and no more than seven years of
professional experience. Additionally, to have a more similar sample, I recruited participants
who had graduated with a bachelor's degree from either a California State University or a
University of California campus and who currently worked in public service through a nonprofit,
government, or higher education organization.
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Additionally, participants had to be from first-generation college backgrounds whose
parent(s) did not work in a professional career in order to establish the participants' first-
generation professional status. The researcher tried to select participants from different
ethnicities and genders to secure a diverse participant pool. All participants needed reliable
internet access since all interviews would take place using a Zoom platform.
Participant recruitment also took place online. I primarily used online social media
platforms that included Linked In, Instagram, Slack, and Facebook to recruit potential
participants. I reached out to personal and professional contacts via email to recruit them as study
participants and help disseminate the study and recruitment information to their networks. The
recruitment process also utilized snowball sampling, asking interviewees for potential
participants they knew would qualify and being open to the study's interview and photo-
elicitation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The recruitment phase took place over four months,
starting in November 2022.
Methods
The study collected data using a two-part interview method, with the same participants in
both parts of the interview. The first and primary part was a semi-structured interview, followed
by a photo-elicitation activity in the second part of the interview. The photo-elicitation session
centered around participant-chosen photographs using semi-structured interviews to guide the
discussions.
Part 1: Semi-Structured Interviews
Semi-structured interviews served as the primary data collection method for the study.
Semi-structured interviews allowed the researcher to adapt information that may have arisen
during the interview by adding or editing questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Kallio et al.
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(2016) reasoned that the flexibility of the semi-structured interview made it a popular method in
qualitative research. The researchers also presented a framework for the semi-structured
interview guide that consisted of the following:
(1) identifying the prerequisites for using semi-structured interviews; (2) retrieving and
using previous knowledge; (3) formulating the preliminary semi-structured interview
guide; (4) pilot testing the interview guide; and (5) presenting the complete semi-
structured interview guide. (p. 2954)
The researcher followed the framework presented above, and the preliminary interview
guide is in Appendix A. As stated earlier, a semi-structured interview method was appropriate
given that the study's qualitative research approach sought to explore the career-related
perspectives and experiences of early-career FG professionals that a semi-structured interview
could deliver. The literature review informed the interview guide, and the study's conceptual
framework framed the questions that sought to answer the study's research questions.
Part 2: Photo-elicitation
The second part of the interview added depth to the data collected from the initial part of
the interview. The study used a photo-elicitation method to collect additional data. Participants
chose two images and shared them in the second part of the interview to garner deeper emotional
memories and responses connected to their first-generation identity. Harper (2002) proposed that
the basic premise of photo-elicitation is that inserting a picture into an interview will evoke a
more profound and emotional response than a conversation alone. Harper stated that the
researcher could elicit the photograph's connection to an individual's emotions through the
interview. Thus, the participant's response gives the researcher more and different data than
relying on interview data alone.
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The data collected from the photo-elicitation added depth that aligned with the study's
qualitative research approach. Additionally, having the participants select and share their
photographs ensured that their perspectives were part of the data collection process and aligned
with the study's phenomenological aspect. As with the first part of the method, the photo
discussion aimed to touch on all three research questions. The use of photographs also supported
the exploratory purpose of the interviews. In order to maintain participant privacy and
anonymity, the study did not include copies of the images. However, Appendix E contains a
descriptive list of the participants' shared images.
Instrumentation
The study aimed to explore the lived career-related experiences of early-career first-
generation professionals to identify and study the factors that influenced their career decision-
making, career transition, and career development. The study's conceptual framework guided the
interview questions that addressed the research questions. The questions identified factors and
people who influenced their career decisions in college and after entering their professional
careers. The people identified formed the networks in the participants' microsystem, and the
chronosystem examined how their networks changed as they progressed from college to their
current careers (Bronfenbrenner, 1977).
The primary data collection and photo-elicitation interview protocol utilized a semi-
structured interview format. A semi-structured interview used preset questions that served as a
flexible guide rather than a fixed set of questions with an interview format that allowed the
interviewer to adjust, add, or omit questions during the interview. The flexible structure enabled
me to explore unexpected topics or themes that, while still related to the research topic and
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purpose, may have been missed in the literature review or required additional follow-up
questions to provide deeper discussion (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The interview protocols had an adequate number of questions and topics to secure a deep
data set from the conversations. The primary semi-structured interview protocol utilized 10
open-ended questions (shown in Appendix A). Since the primary interview method started the
discussion between the interviewee and the researcher, the 10 questions provided adequate
research-related questions and topics before the interview. I added additional related and follow-
up questions during the interview. The photo-elicitation portion used six open-ended questions to
guide the photo discussion (shown in Appendix B). Unlike the initial primary interview, the
photo-elicitation method used the participants' shared images to spur the researcher-guided
discussion. The six preset questions in the photo-elicitation interview protocol provided the
necessary number of questions for the conversation. I added follow-up or clarifying questions as
needed during the interview. The format also supported the qualitative and phenomenological
aspects of the study.
Data Collection Procedures
This study collected deep and rich data on early-career FG professionals' past experiences
and factors that influenced their career motivation and career-related decisions. It also
documented the experiences from the participant's perspective. Using interviews in a qualitative
study allows the researcher to control the questions and collect historical data directly from the
individual who experienced it (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018). I also intended to collect data
connecting the participants' career-related decisions with their experiences, feelings, and identity
as first-generation college students and professionals. Using photographs as a research method
can evoke an emotional response and connection to a given topic that the researcher can
53

document (Harper, 2002). Using a photograph selected by the participant also allows the
participant to share their perspective (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018).
I collected study data from a two-part interview that began with a semi-structured
interview followed by a photo-elicitation session. Sixteen professionals participated in the study,
and the interviews took place over four months, beginning in November 2022. The combined
time for both parts was under 90 minutes for each participant, with the first part of the interview
taking roughly 60 minutes and the second photo discussion no more than 30 minutes. I scheduled
all the participants for a 90-minute session, and all took part in both parts of the interview. All
communication was via email, and all but one of the interviews were recorded on the Zoom
platform to secure the transcripts for each session with the participant's permission. I also took
separate researcher notes for each interview as a backup for the recorded transcript and to
capture my observations during the interviews.
The recruitment efforts presented earlier introduced the study to potential participants. I
emailed each potential participant to provide further study information, the participant eligibility
criteria, and schedule the interviews. The participants also received the study details, their rights
as study participants, an interview and image consent request, the researcher's positionality
statement, the interview process, and the guidelines for the photo selection. The study emails
followed the template included in Appendix C. I also shared the same information before starting
the interview. The information sheet (Appendix D) contains the study's purpose; includes the
researcher's name and contact information; shares that the process is confidential, voluntary, and
anonymous; indicates the IRB approval number; and provides the study's faculty advisor's
information. All sessions utilized Zoom, and the researcher asked each participant for consent to
record the session to capture the session transcripts.
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The participants accessed my online calendar to schedule an interview date and time that
worked with their schedules. The introductory email included the photograph requirements and
guidelines and asked them to have the pictures ready to share in the Zoom session or send them
electronically to me before the session. I did not include any images in the study to maintain
participants' anonymity and confidentiality. However, Appendix E provides a descriptive listing
of the images. I asked participants to choose two images to share in the second part of the
interview, one picture from their time in college and a second more recent picture. The image
guidelines asked the participants to choose pictures they felt connected to their first-generation
professional identity.
I recorded the Zoom session for participants who consented to the recording to collect
session transcripts from the Zoom platform. Although all participants consented, I did not record
one of the interviews due to technical issues. In addition, research recommended taking field
notes during interview sessions (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018; Plunket et al., 2013). Therefore, I
took notes for all sessions. The researcher notes for recorded sessions focused on the researcher's
reflexive thoughts, observations, notable participant quotations, and other high-level notes to
capture emotions and items that the transcript would not be able to capture (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). When recording the session was not possible, the researcher notes recorded exact
participant statements in addition to the researcher's thoughts. I stored all study notes and
photographs in an online password-protected Dropbox file, which only I had access to the files. I
removed any name or other participant-identifying information from all materials. The
transcripts provided detailed notes of the sessions.
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Data Analysis
The purpose of data analysis in qualitative research is to make sense of the information
the researcher collects (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study
collected data from Zoom interviews and photo-elicitation discussions with the 16 first-
generation professionals. Each recorded session had a detailed transcript of the interview and
field notes, which generated a significant amount of text that was analyzed.
Cresswell and Cresswell (2018) suggested reviewing the data and creating categories to
code the data. Bennett et al. (2019) stated that Thematic Analysis (TA) is a good option for new
researchers because of its clear and straightforward process of coding qualitative data. The
researchers noted that data analysis needs to capture data that falls into predetermined themes
and data that does not fit the encoded framework. Therefore, I utilized a TA method to complete
the data analysis.
I used Thematic Analysis to code the data collected from the interview and photo-
elicitation sessions. I developed the initial coding themes to align with the study's conceptual
frame and with the findings from the literature review. A priori codes included factors that
influenced the FGP career decision-making process, a time code to indicate if it pertained to the
college or career period, and a code for data related to the participants' self-efficacy. Table 2
shows the finalized parent and child codes. I utilized open coding during the interview sessions
to add to the a priori codes. After the sessions, I reviewed the transcripts and field notes to
capture themes and update the research code book. Lastly, I analyzed the data using the finalized
categories and codes.

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Table 2
Thematic Analysis Code Categories
Parent Code Child Code Child Code Child Code Child Code Child Code
Challenges Connecting
with others
/ Lack of
community
Family:
obligations /
conversations /
relationships
Lack of
guidance
and support
Money

Experiences Career Orientation and
Training
Student Job /
Volunteer /
Internship

Intersectionality FG College
vs FG
Professional
Immigrant
Undocumented
Low-Income Multiple
identities
Race /
Ethnicity
Knowledge /
Awareness
Gain
General
Awareness
Google /
Internet
Individual
Self Needs
Job
knowledge

Motivation "Village" /
Support
Programs
Family / Parents Peers Self-
motivation

Networks Family –
Parents /
Siblings
Mentors Peers and
Colleagues
Professors /
Supervisors
Support
programs /
Student
organizations
/ Career
center
Self-Efficacy Emotional Performance Verbal
feedback
Vicarious
experience

Transition /
Career
Success
Open to new
Experiences
/ Comfort
zone
Organizational
structure,
practices,
orientation,
and training
Similar
identities
Supervisors

Internal
Emotions
Grateful /
Blessed /
Happy
Stress / Pressure
/ Sadness
Comfortability
/ Trust
Regret /
Hidden
curriculum

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The Researcher
As the sole researcher of the study, I need to address my positionality concerning the
topic and participants. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) discussed the researcher's positionality and
the related issues between the researcher and the research participants, including the researcher's
insider or outsider status, questions of power, and the need for reflexivity. Saunders et al. (2019)
stated that axiology deals with the values and ethics of the researcher and that each researcher
must choose how and to what extent their values and those of the individuals will influence the
study. Therefore, the chapter will discuss values and ethics after presenting my positionality.
I am the first in his family to graduate from college and am a first-generation
professional. I have also experienced many of the FG challenges detailed in the literature review,
including experiences of lack of capital due to my family's low-income and migrant farmworker
background, my racial and ethnic identity, and my first-generation status. My family and
personal experiences led me to a professional career in higher education and nonprofits, helping
low-income and first-generation students to become college graduates and enter professional
careers. However, in my work to support FG graduates, I found little to no support for first-
generation professionals and little research on the topic. This experience led to the purpose of
this study.
The study aimed to add to the FGP research since there has not been much research on
the topic (Olson, 2016). However, I also recognize that my positionality and possible existing
relationships with the interview subjects have the potential to influence the study. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) stated that a researcher cannot eliminate bias but should be aware of and look for
it. Therefore, I needed to monitor and be mindful of my biases and assumptions throughout the
58

entire research process and attempt to understand the perspectives of the FGP participants in the
study.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Unlike quantitative studies, qualitative studies address validity after the research process
has begun (Maxwell, 2013). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) provided strategies to address the
credibility and trustworthiness of a research study, and I included those that this study utilized
(audit trail; rich, thick descriptions; and a clearly stated researcher positionality). I established an
audit trail by taking notes at all interviews and using the Zoom platform's transcript function for
detailed interview notes. The study used rich, thick descriptions of the interview findings and
included direct participant quotes. This study also compared the data collected with relevant
research findings from the literature review. Finally, the study addressed my positionality and
ethical expectations in the participant recruitment and interview protocols.
Ethics
Ethics are a part of all aspects of the study design, not just the methods (Maxwell, 2013).
Therefore, the study processes' ethics and the study participants' protection must be addressed
before beginning the study, once the study has started, and when collecting, analyzing, and
reporting the study data (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018). In addition, research studies need to be
reviewed by their campus' Institutional Review Board (IRB) to ensure the study participants will
be protected (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018). The University of Southern California's Office for
the Protection of Research Subjects (OPRS) conducted the IRB review and approval of this
study's research plans (University of Southern California, 2021). Additionally, both data
collection methods occur on a Zoom platform, bringing up additional online ethical
considerations concerning confidentiality and data security (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
59

The study addressed all of these ethical considerations. As the sole researcher, I informed
each participant of the research process, their part in the study, and their rights as research
participants. I provided the information via the study's information sheet, in an email before the
interviews, and again on Zoom before the interview started. I informed each participant that the
interview was voluntary and that they could choose to end it at any point they wished. I also
asked each participant for permission to record the sessions and told them we could stop the
recording at any time. I have kept all participant and interview data strictly confidential. I have
used pseudonyms for every participant and have eliminated all identifiable data from the
interview transcripts. I have created a participant identity code key and stored the document in
my USC password-protected Google folder, where only I can access the file. I collected only
participant demographic (gender and race/ethnicity), career (position level and career field), and
college education data.
Additionally, I have scrubbed any identifiable participant data such as name, company, or
college attended. I have utilized a password-protected online Dropbox and USC Google Drive to
store all interview and discussion notes, transcripts, and materials. I have also used USC's
password-protected Zoom account to record and store interview recordings. Once the study has
concluded, the researcher will shred all hard copies and store all online interview notes,
recordings, and participant code keys in a password-protected Google drive which only the
researcher will have access.

60

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
In this phenomenological qualitative study, I examined the college and career experiences
that influenced early-career first-generation professionals and what organizational resources
they found supported their college-to-career transition and success. I utilized Bronfenbrenner’s
(1986) Ecological Systems and Bandura’s (1977) Self-Efficacy theories for the study’s
conceptual framework to address the three research questions that guided this study. Four
themes emerged through a thematic analysis of the interview data, which I organized around the
following four themes: 1) first-generation identity influence on FG individuals' career decisions,
2) the importance of external support, 3) the challenges of external support systems, and 4) what
worked with career preparation, transition, and success. These four themes will answer the
study’s three research questions.
Research Questions
The study’s first research question asked what college experiences influenced the
participants’ career paths as first-generation college students. The question intended to identify
factors that may have influenced the participants’ career-decision making and career goals as
first-generation college students. The second question examined what professional workplace
experiences influenced the participants' career advancement. The question focused on the
participants’ experience after graduating from college and as they transitioned into their new
professional careers. The intent was to identify factors that influenced their career success as
early-career, first-generation professionals. The final research question examined what
organizational resources the participants found helpful in supporting their career decisions and
objectives once they were in their careers. The questions examined the resources and systems
participants perceived as helping them transition into the workplace.
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Research Participants
I interviewed 16 early-career professionals working in a public service field within a
nonprofit, higher education, or government agency or organization. Table 3 provides each
participant’s career, demographic, and educational background information. Table 3 also
includes the summary totals of the participants’ backgrounds. The largest ethnic group consisted
of Hispanic participants, with 12 of the 16 participants identifying themselves as Mexican,
Hispanic, Latina, Salvadorean, or Chicana. Almost two-thirds of the Hispanic participants
identified as Mexican. Thirteen of the 16 participants also identified as female. Participants had
to have earned a bachelor's degree to meet the eligibility criteria. However, four of the
participants had also earned a master’s degree. Additionally, the participants’ years of experience
were balanced between one to seven years and had a mean of 3.5 years of professional
experience. Additionally, more than half worked at a higher education institution with a student
service program or department.

62

Table 3
Participant Demographic, Degree, and Career Detail and Summary
Participant Gender Ethnicity
a
Degree
Completed
Employment
Type
Career
Years
Catalina Female Mexican/Chicana BA, BS Higher Ed 6
David Male Black, Haitian BA Nonprofit 3
Dolores Female Mexican BA, MS PPS Government 5
Gloria Female Hispanic BA Higher Ed 1
Grace Female Mexican/Salvadorian BA, MA Higher Ed 3
Guadalupe Female Latina BA Higher Ed 2
Hazel Female Hispanic BA Higher Ed 5
Juanita Female Hispanic BA, MSW Government 7
Julia Female Hispanic/Latina BA Higher Ed 4
Laura Female Latina/Mexican BA Higher Ed 2
Melanie Female Bi-racial (Hispanic) BA Government 6
Patrick Male Black BA Nonprofit 4
Sara Female Mexican BA Nonprofit 3
Selena Female Asian, Mien BA Higher Ed 1
Victoria Female Hispanic/Latino BA, MEd Higher Ed 4
Zachary Male Filipino BA Nonprofit 2
Gender Total
Female 13
Male 3
Ethnicity
a
Total
Black/African American 2
Hispanic
b
12
Asian American 2
Degree Completion Total
BA/BS 16
MA/MS 4
Employer Type Total
Government Employer 3
Higher Education Employer 9
Nonprofit Employer 4
Career Years Total
1-2 years 5
3-4 years 7
5-7 years 5
Note. Data is based on participants' responses;
a
Ethnic types consolidated into categories listed;
b
One participant identified herself as Hispanic/Bi-Racial
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All 16 of the participants completed both parts of the semi-structured interview and
shared images for the photo elicitation part of the interview. Prior to the interview, I instructed
all participants to secure two pictures that they would share in the second part of the interview.
Although all participants shared images during the interview, some participants either shared one
or shared more than two images. Appendix E provides a summary of the images that the
participants shared in the interview. Table 4 lists and describes the images participants shared in
their interviews. The table also includes which participant shared the given image.
Table 4
Participant Shared Images Summary
Image Description Participants
Organization Event celebratory and fundraising
events held by the
participants' employers or
student organizations
5 participants: “David,” “Gloria,”
“Selena,” “Grace,” “Laura”
Graduation pictures were taken at or
celebrating participants’
college graduation
4 participants: “Zackary,”
“Guadalupe,” “Catalina,”
“Hazel”
Headshot professional headshots 4 participants: “Sara,” “Grace,”
“Julia,” “Hazel”
Coworkers pictures that include coworkers
at work projects
4 participants: “Zachary,”
“Gloria,” “Melanie,” “Laura”
Exam Outcome Certificate and exam outcomes
for certifications and courses
passed
2 participants: “Dolores,”
“Melanie”
Images Shared Participant shared 1 image 2 participants: “Dolores,” “Sara”
Participant shared more than 2
images
4 participants: “Guadalupe,”
“Melanie,” “Victoria,” “Julia”

Theme 1: More Than a First-Generation Identity
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As expected, the study participants’ identities were complicated and included more than
their first-generation identity. Thirteen of the participants discussed at least one other prominent
identity in addition to being first-generation. Ten of those referenced race, ethnicity, or culture.
These intersectional and complex identities influenced their college and career decisions, the
people they connected with, the organizations they joined, and how they viewed their identity as
first-generation professionals. A factor that influenced the participants' experiences was the
intersectional aspect of their first-generation identity in college and as professionals after college.
It addressed the career-decision making influences that all three research questions examined.
The data revealed a sub-theme: how their intersectionality influenced their decisions and
connections with various networks in their microsystems. Another subtheme was the influence
that their identity as first-generation college students had on their identity as early-career first-
generation professionals.
FG College Student, FG Professional
Fourteen participants discussed different aspects of their first-generation identity as
professionals, including a sense of pride, a new financial ability, and a feeling of completing a
goal from having a professional career. For example, in her first year as a professional working
in higher education, Gloria shared a picture of standing in front of a podium as a guest speaker
for an event held by an organization that supported her in high school. She stated that it was an
accomplishment to no longer be seen as a student but as a professional by the organization and
the audience. However, there were doubts about her professional identity for Grace, a Latina
with three years of professional experience. She mentioned worrying about how others saw her
because she was young. She was concerned about her work wardrobe and wondered, “does
anybody else think I’m [a] professional?” Grace’s question served two points: first, whether or
65

not she was able to correctly wear “professional” clothes that were appropriate, and second, do
the clothes make her fit in. For these participants, ensuring they appear professional could serve
as a sign that they fit in because that is not how they often feel inside. These experiences
influenced seemingly simple, everyday career decisions, such as what to wear to work, or more
significant decisions, such as speaking at career events. However, these types of experiences may
have a more profound emotional influence on how FG individuals see themselves and their self-
efficacy.
Another participant, Julia, a Latina working in higher education but with four years of
professional experience, reflected on the various intercultural and communication skills she had
developed from her experiences. She stated, “I had to really embody what it means to carry
multiple identities in different spaces. And so, as a first-generation professional, now, I think that
this is something that's very necessary.” Many participants continued to tie their first-generation
and ethnic identities together as they moved through college and into their professional careers.
Race, Ethnicity, and Culture
Although this study focused on the participants’ first-generation identity, ten participants
included race, ethnicity, or culture throughout their interviews when discussing their lived
experiences that influenced their career decision-making, an area that all three research questions
addressed. As college students, race and ethnicity played a role when forming their campus
networks. For some participants, their ethnic identity influenced who and what groups they
established their peer networks with or where they chose to live as college undergraduates.
For Zachary, who is Filipino, moving into a minoritized student co-op to live with
students of color helped him connect with other students. For participants such as Dolores, a
Latina with five years of professional experience, ethnicity played a role in her decision as to
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which student organizations she joined. She recalled that she joined a RAZA student group, a
student-run program to support Latinx student retention (Raices, n.d.), and found a cultural
connection to the campus, which helped with the issues she was dealing with as a college student
of color. Similarly, Selena, in the first year of her professional career, connected with other
Southeast Asian students as an undergraduate and restarted an ethnic club to help their small peer
group get more support. Selena stated that she “didn't meet any Mien students at all in her first
two years of college.” This prompted her to restart a student club so that her small peer group
could connect and support each other.
Participants’ ethnic identities also emerged when discussing their connections to their
professors. For example, Victoria, a Latina with four years of professional experience, shared her
reaction when seeing professors who shared her ethnic identity.
I saw a Mexican American woman with a Ph.D. It had never crossed my mind that I
could pursue a Ph.D. until I saw someone who looked like me actively doing it and then
teaching me the content and telling me about their research. I think I was really
interested, especially with those who have shared identities with me.
Victoria, an outreach specialist at a four-year university, earned a master’s degree and was still
open to attaining a doctorate. However, connections between their identities as first-generation
college students and ethnicity continued into their professional careers for some participants.
Ten of the 16 participants discussed race and ethnicity in their undergraduate experience.
The 10 participants were ethnically diverse and included individuals from Latina, Asian, and
African American backgrounds. However, five also discussed ethnicity and its influence on their
professional careers. Guadalupe, a Latina, reflected on her group picture with the students she
worked with in front of a mural at her work site. She stated that the image brought her a sense of
67

not being "ashamed" of her identity as a Latina and someone who is also undocumented.
Zachary’s importance of ethnic identity continued into his professional career and reflected in
which picture he chose to share. He decided to share a group picture of him and his coworkers.
I wanted a group photo of the [ABC] program. As you can see, a lot of us are BIPOC
professionals, and I think being in a space where there is a lot of representation for not
only just our race or ethnicity but also our first-gen or low-income backgrounds.
Patrick, an African American male, worked with a much more diverse staff in his first
professional job compared to his experiences in college. He stated, "The most interesting part for
me was to transition of working with people who don't look like me," but the experience "taught
me how to check my biases."
As first-generation students and professionals, participants often shared about race and
ethnicity, but some also discussed other identities. Three participants discussed their parents'
undocumented status influencing their college and career. It was clear that for some participants,
their intersectional identities influenced their motivation to make some of their career decisions.
One participant, for example, stated that she did not join her college’s alumni associations
because those who did “are White or not first-generation.” This participant made a professional
choice not to connect with an organization because of her identity. Her identity as a person of
color and a first-generation college student overrode her identity as an alumnus of her institution.
The intersectional identity of this study’s participants influenced their career-making decisions
and the selection of support systems they connected with as college students and as
professionals, an area that all three research questions sought to examine.
Theme 2: The Importance of External Support to Internal Motivation
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The second theme addresses all three research questions by examining the external
support systems that positively influence first-generation individuals’ success in college and their
professional careers. Participants relied on the support they received from their external networks
located primarily in their microsystems. However, their internal support and motivation also
influenced their college and career decision-making in addition to their goals. For some
participants, it was not solely about overcoming challenges or their resiliency; some also
expressed confidence in their abilities to succeed at a given task. The participants’ internal
motivation influenced their drive to overcome challenges as professionals and college students,
how they chose to achieve their college and career goals, and the resources they accessed as
professionals.
The following section begins by examining the individual at the center of their ecological
system and follows with findings that identify the individuals' external support networks. The
study and literature align in findings of self-reliance among first-generation individuals. This
trait was a factor that influenced first-generation individuals’ self-efficacy and their college and
career decision-making.
Internal Motivation - Beyond Resilience
Participants were motivated by both internal and external factors when making career-
related decisions as undergraduates and early-career professionals. However, three-fourths
described an internal drive to do what they needed to achieve their goals, even though they felt
they did not have the external support they needed. This internal drive was evident in several
participants' experiences as undergraduate students as they figured out their majors and advanced
through college. Juanita, Latina, and Melanie, biracial Hispanic and White, for example, felt they
were on their own to figure out and deal with school issues and processes. Specifically, Juanita
69

ended up creating her own major. Dolores similarly put together a major of her own after
struggling to decide on a major. Participants shared similar experiences of having to craft their
own pathways as they moved from an academic focus to one of needing to find a career after
graduation.
Lent and Brown (2013) proposed that the college-to-career transition is a challenging and
stressful period that moves individuals to behave in a survival mode. Schriver and Teske (2020)
stated that FG college seniors showed higher levels of concern about their careers than non-FG
seniors. However, Catalina faced the additional pressure of feeling that she had to do it alone. As
an undergraduate, Catalina took it upon herself to get the information she needed about career
fields and job opportunities. She relied on the internet to get career and job information.
Victoria also spoke about the pressure of finding a job but expressed confidence in her
ability to secure a job. She stated,
Even though I felt a lot of pressure, I knew, okay, I just have to put in the work to get that
interview, and once I get the interview, I’m confident I'll be able to make the job happen
from there.
The impression that Catalina and Victoria were on their own and had to reach into their resources
did not end with their college graduation.
Participants continued to express feelings of having to do things on their own once they
were in their professional careers. Six participants discussed a similar pattern of feeling that they
had to rely on themselves once they began working professionally and had to transition and
succeed in their jobs. Sara felt that she needed to push herself to succeed and get the information
she needed to get through the challenges she faced in her job. She stated:
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The manager was always constantly busy, and I'm not the type of person to sit and wait to
get support. I'm the type of person that it's like, okay, well, if you're not helping, I'm
gonna find someone else that will. So, because there wasn't any one-on-one meetings
with the manager, I reached out to other staff from other programs.
As Sara mentioned above, she felt that she needed to take action on her own to get the help she
needed. Another example, Hazel, when asked about where she turned to for work advice, said
that she felt like she “was the one breaking the glass ceiling, doing a lot of it on my own because
I really didn't have anyone who I could ask more detailed questions or more questions about
certain processes or certain procedures.” Guadalupe, who had two years of professional
experience, stated, “I didn't really have anybody to really help me and guide me with this whole
transition” when discussing her entry into her first professional job right after college. All of
these participants felt that they had to craft their own way to get what they needed, mostly a
practice they learned and carried over from college.
The first two research questions ask about the influence factors that may impact a first-
generation professional’s career before and after college. The third question asks about the
resources they choose to utilize as professionals. The study found that for 12 of the participants,
their belief that they needed to rely on themselves influenced their decisions. This finding is also
present when considering the factors that may have influenced their self-efficacy.
Self-Efficacy
Many participants described an internal push that drove them to set goals, make
decisions, and take action to achieve their goals. Although none of the participants used the
words “self-efficacy” (Bandura, 1977, p. 191), 14 participants shared experiences that may have
affected their self-efficacy. Twelve of the 16 participants discussed performance outcomes that
71

may have influenced their college and career decision-making, seven described vicarious
observation experiences, and seven discussed emotional situations as students or professionals.
Performance Outcomes
Participants discussed how their academic performance outcomes influenced their career
decision-making as professionals and undergraduates. Unsuccessful performances as college
students can negatively influence individuals' goals and affect the choices they make. For
example, Gloria described how a poor performance in a class impacted her.
It just turned my whole world upside down. I stepped into my first math lecture at
college, and I came out of that lecture not understanding a single word that the
professor had said. It's kinda like from that very moment I knew that I was gonna hate
it, and I was gonna have the worst summer of my life.
Another participant, who was part of a Mariachi band that played traditional Mexican music
since high school, intended to major in music. However, she failed her audition in college and
subsequently decided not to pursue the major, despite her prior experience as a musician. For
Selena, success in her internship influenced her decision to choose a major for which she was
"passionate." These participants' college experiences influenced their choices in their college
journeys. The study found similar experiences once participants began their careers.
Catalina, one of the participants with more professional experience, recalled that
successful experiences in her first job right after college prompted her to seek out more
challenging projects from her employer. However, her organization could not provide the level
of challenge she sought, so she decided to find a job that could. Sara, who had three years of
professional experience, shared a job accomplishment.
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Recently I started to challenge myself in doing more public speaking, so I applied for a
conference in Boston with a couple of coworkers, and we were able to get our proposal
approved. So next year, we will be presenting in Boston.
Sara then contacted her leadership about participating in another conference presentation at
Harvard. For Julia, her success in her first job influenced her behavior in her next job. She shared
that after she transitioned from her first job, she felt confident that she would be successful in her
new job even though her new employer did not have the structure in place for her to perform her
job successfully. She felt that the skills and experience she had gained enabled her to step in and
set up the structure she needed. The research participants interacted with their networks as
college students and as professionals and were able to see the success of their peers, colleagues,
professors, and supervisors.
Vicarious Experiences, Emotions, and Feedback
In some cases, participants had vicarious experiences as college students. These
experiences positively impacted their self-efficacy, which influenced their college choices.
Catalina described a college visit as a high school student with an alumna from her high school.
Catalina stated, “she went to my same high school, and she was just sharing her tips. I couldn't
tell you what exactly she shared, but I just remember during the car ride, holy crap, like, this can
be me. I can also do this.” Melanie shared a similar experience in her first professional job. She
met her coworkers, who were similar to her, and saw they were successful. It made her believe
that she could also do the work. Although these were not formal mentorship relationships,
knowing that others who looked like them successfully went through the process was
encouraging. In addition to witnessing others they identified as succeeding, participants also
shared the various emotions they experienced.
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All participants discussed times when they felt pressure, stress, or sadness as they moved
from college to their careers. Beyond the academic pressures one would expect most college
students to experience, the study participants also dealt with stress and pressures from their first-
generation experience. Guadalupe, a Latina participant, recalled a conversation with her
grandfather nine days before he passed away. She was feeling the stress and pressure of being on
academic probation when her grandfather told her,
I'm very proud of you. Your first year you going to college, you're making an impact, for
us and our family, and I just want you to realize that you're doing this for yourself. Don't
do it for nobody. Do it for yourself, because I want you to, when you graduate, you're
not going to depend on anybody anymore.
After his passing, her guilt for potentially not graduating after all her family’s hardships pushed
her to continue in college to get her college degree. Ironically, while her grandfather’s statement
was a reminder that college is for herself and nobody else, the very sentiment of his sharing
made her want to complete college for him. College would help her personally and
professionally, but that very aspect of getting a college degree was doing it for her family.
Leaving college did not stop the emotional pressures and experiences. Patrick's stress of
being rejected from jobs and looking at the possibility of not finding a job after graduating
pushed him to find a job. He shared that “I was stressed out. Okay, I know I need a job because
I'm no longer at school, so financial aid is no longer a thing, and I need a full-time job.” The
financial stress pushed him to be more proactive in his job search, and he was able to find a job
after college. Stress and pressure for some participants were not the only parts that may have
positively influenced their self-efficacy.
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Verbal feedback also impacted two of the participants’ college and career decisions.
Melanie described an interaction with one of her professors that led to her volunteering for a
conference.
She actually pulled me aside and was like, you're really good at public speaking. I'd like
you to volunteer for this women's conference as a facilitator. That was the first activity I
think I did, and it was because she let me know it was going on and recommended me, and
it gave me a confidence boost to do it.
Catalina shared that her supervisor would give her positive feedback and encouragement, but she
would also give her other responsibilities. Catalina stated that this feedback helped her to grow
professionally. The feedback and other self-efficacy influences that first-generation professionals
experience are part of the factors that make up the individual’s internal system. However,
Bronfenbrenner (1986) also discussed networks outside the individual that are still part of the
individual’s ecological system. These networks can potentially form an individual’s village that
supports their college and career success.
External Support – Family and Village
Thirteen of the 16 participants indicated that their families supported and motivated them
in their college and career goals. However, other networks also played a role. Groups such as
peers, coworkers, supervisors, and professors were networks in their microsystem who
collectively formed a village or system to support the first-generation professional. However,
during college, participants more frequently cited their family networks.
Family Network
The families of the first-generation professionals in this study often played a positive role
in the participants’ college and career paths, despite the parents not having direct experience in
75

college or a professional career. Five participants cited their parents’ sacrifices and expectations
for their children to get an education as a motivating factor. Four of these participants were
Latinas, and the fifth was an African American male. Hazel, a Latina working in higher
education with five years of professional experience, shared that her parents sacrificed so that
she and her siblings could attend school. She said she spoke with her family about her
experiences during college and when she started working. While 12 participants indicated that
their parents were positive factors in supporting their college and career pursuits, five identified
their mothers as a source of support. Juanita, Zachary, and Grace said their mothers were
supportive and encouraged them to get college degrees. Zachary, a Filipino male, said of his
mom, “She's incredibly supportive. When I tell her things about my career, or when I tell her
things about the work that I do, she's just really happy.” Gloria had a very close relationship with
her parents and spent a lot of time with her family. She shared that her parents were exposed to
other higher-income parents and saw that those people promoted college with their children. This
led her parents to promote college to their children and set up college-going expectations. As a
result, her parents established "unspoken expectations" that their kids would enter a professional
career. In some cases, the participants also had older siblings in their families who served as
supportive influences and provided college and career guidance to the younger sibling in the
study.
Four participants spoke about the college and career encouragement and support they
received from their older siblings. Laura, a Latina, spoke with her sister to get her perspective on
her first job offer. Although Selena, an Asian female, would tell her parents what they wanted to
hear, she had a different relationship with her siblings, particularly with her older sister, who was
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eight years older and in a leadership role at the organization where she works. She shared the
following about her siblings:
My sister is supportive so telling her, like, where my head’s at was easy to do, and also
telling my brother. I'm very close to my siblings, so telling them what I'm thinking about,
what I want to do, that's always easiest. They didn't try to lecture me.
The participant’s family networks often positively influenced the first-generation professionals’
career success, as did other networks in their external environment.
“Village” Network
All participants shared about their interactions with other networks in their microsystems.
These networks included classmates and professors who supported them when they were still in
college. When the participants began working professionally, their networks expanded to include
their full-time colleagues, coworkers, and supervisors. Their peer networks were present during
college and as they moved into their professional careers. Some participants referred to these
networks as their “village.” However, part of being on their own meant that they reached into
these useful personally-developed resources such as their trusted peers and colleagues.
Peers and Colleagues. One of the consistent networks in many participants' ecological
systems was their peers. Participants shared about their peers’ and colleagues' positive influence
and impact during college and as professionals on their college and career success. Laura stated
that her friends “were there to support me” when she was confused about her major. One of her
friends told her about the Social Welfare major, which sounded like a “really cool major,” so she
declared Social Welfare as her major.
In some cases, participants and their peer networks from high school were still active and
would look to this network for support. They would also support each other when both were in
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professional careers. Julia discussed how she and her peers supported each other as
professionals.
My friends are my greatest supporters, in full transparency, in situations when either of us
were looking for jobs, or applying for jobs, or needing a little bit of guidance and support,
and just genuine feedback on a lot of things. We have always just made time to see each
other and to help each other. We've read each other's resumes. We've helped each other
with editing cover letters, with doing mock interviews and having those uncomfortable
conversations of things that we can all improve on.
As all of these participants have mentioned, peers and colleagues often served as positive
influences on these first-generation individuals. As aforementioned, from the organizational
perspective, they felt that they were “on their own.” In addition to their peers and colleagues,
seven participants also discussed having at least one professor whom they connected with as
undergraduates.
Professors. As college students, participants had professors who were potential networks
in their microsystems. Seven participants shared that they had established a positive connection
with at least one helpful professor who supported them in their college goals. However, college
and connecting with professors was a new experience for most. Selena said that initially, she did
not connect well with her professors, but that connecting with professors was easier once she got
into her major and was more comfortable in her smaller department, where she took multiple
classes from the same professor. She shared,
Having the opportunity to build our relationship is very, it makes me feel good, because
I'm like, oh, wow! They remember me, and they actually want to develop a relationship
with me like no professor has ever wanted to do that to me before.
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For Laura, connecting with a professor provided her with valuable career advice. Her professor
“suggested to me that I should work at a school because it would help me see different
professions. And she said that that might give me a better understanding of what I might be
interested in.” Other participants, like Patrick, also received career guidance from their
professors. Additionally, three-fourths of the participants discussed their involvement with
campus support programs, student groups, and grant-funded organizations that provided
academic, motivational, and in some cases, career awareness guidance and information.
Support Programs. These support programs were primarily in college, but for four
participants, those programs began in high school and maintained their connection to that
program through college. For example, Julia was part of a Trio program that provided her
college preparation support as a high school student. She connected with her adviser, who
offered her career awareness and guidance. She described how that network influenced her in
college. She stated, “Throughout that time I remember being in college, and already kind of
thinking about what career path I wanted to go into, and so I always kept in contact with my
former Trio mentors.”
Six participants also mentioned being part of college student support programs and
organizations that positively influenced their college and career goals. Grace, a Latina, took part
in her college’s Summer Bridge Program, which allowed her to develop a "living, learning
community" that provided support and people to connect with after the program's conclusion.
David, an African American male, was part of a student support organization that helped him
graduate from college. He then started working for the organization while still in college and
secured a job from the same organization after he graduated.
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Although none of the participants discussed support programs in their professional
careers, three of the participants’ employers offered their new advising staff a comprehensive
training and support program that provided guidance and staff to help them transition into their
new professional jobs. The three organizations had similarities in their operations. All three
organizations hired recent college graduates who were primarily first-generation professionals to
provide college access preparation to low-income and first-generation high school students.
Supervisors. Supervisors also influenced many of the participants’ careers. Half of the
participants shared that they had supportive supervisors either in their student jobs or at some
point in their professional careers. Given that the participants’ parents had a blue-collar
background, supervisors in a professional setting were a new experience; their parents could not
provide technical guidance in dealing with issues that may arise for the participants. For some,
their first supervisors positively impacted their transition and success in their new careers. For
example, Melanie had an "amazing" relationship with a supportive supervisor who provided her
with job and career advice. Hazel, who had five years of experience, recalled her first
supervisor’s encouragement:
My supervisor was very supportive with me. She encouraged me to continue. She
encouraged me to talk to our CEO to see if they could sponsor a master's degree because
there was a need for nutrition education, especially in that clinic where I was working.
In the third year of his professional career, David felt he connected well with his supervisor, who
was “pretty cool” and helpful. David also mentioned another manager in his organization who
focused on staff professional development and planned on connecting with her to discuss his
next steps.
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Not all participants’ external networks positively influenced their careers. Many
participants also discussed how influences from the same networks made their college and career
success more difficult. In these situations, external support systems either did not support
participants or added barriers to their career success.
Theme 3: The Challenges of External Support Systems
The third theme examines potential negative factors that affect first-generation college
students and early-career professionals. The theme provides answers to the study’s first and
second research questions. Every participant indicated that they had someone or some group in
their network that had a positive, supportive influence in their college and careers. However, all
of them also indicated that they faced challenges with some of their external support systems that
negatively influenced their college and career success. In some cases, there was a challenge with
establishing a solid connection with a particular network. In other cases, there were negative
experiences attempting to connect with networks. For a few, peer networks were the issue; in
others, it was their professors, supervisors, or family networks.
Family Obligations, Conversations, and Relationships
Thirteen participants indicated that their families were a part of their support system.
However, 10 participants also shared that their family networks could not always support their
college and career pursuits and goals. As first-generation professionals, their parents’ blue-collar
backgrounds posed a guidance and communication challenge involving career and college
support.
Some participants spoke about the challenge of speaking with their parents or getting
advice on work or college-related issues. Julia, a Latina, stated that her parents wanted to support
her. She appreciated her parents’ emotional support, but they did not have the "knowledge" to
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help her with college or her career. Grace’s parents were undocumented and had jobs without
benefits, so she could not discuss those work topics with them. For these participants, there was a
solid connection with their family networks, despite not having the benefit of practical career or
college advice.
On the other hand, Melanie’s family network was not supportive of her educational goals.
She said of her family, “My family wasn't really part of my network because they initially
weren't supportive with me going. I wouldn't talk to them about my college at all.” Several
participants spoke about communication issues with their family networks; however, some
participants also had family obligations that could pose a challenge their career goals.
Family obligations for some of the first-generation professionals in this study came from
the struggles and sacrifices their parents endured. Guadalupe, a Latina, felt an obligation to
support her parents by not adding additional stress to her family. She shared, “I can't really tell
my parents I was struggling because, or my siblings, because I had this picture of, I'm the first
daughter. I don't ask for help. If anything, y'all ask me for help.” Catalina had to move in with
relatives when she was young when her parents moved to Mexico due to immigration issues. She
took on additional responsibilities with her siblings because of her family network’s situation.
When it came time for college, her family pressured her to attend a college close to home. She
ultimately gave in and attended a University of California campus close to her family. She said
the following about that experience:
I didn't want to be close because I was carrying a lot of responsibility, a lot of burden, a
lot of things that I shouldn't have carried at such a young age. So, I knew that I wanted to
go somewhere and not be in [home city] and not be so close, but there was a lot of need
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for me to be close by, and I gave into family pressure, and ultimately decided to go to
[UC].
Catalina’s family obligations did not end once she went to college. She shared that she had taken
on a parental role by getting guardianship over her younger sister. This had added a lot of stress
and pressure to her life beyond those of her workplace. She said that it was difficult to balance
everything. In these cases, the participants’ obligations were part of the relationship with their
family networks.
For three of the Latina participants, the connections with their family networks were
weak and did not offer the positive influence of a strong family support network. Dolores stated
that she does not feel a strong connection to her immediate family since she did not receive
motivation or support for her college or career objectives. Laura had a different situation but a
similar weak connection to her family network. Her mother passed away when she was young,
and her father decided to move to Mexico. Her father sent her and her siblings to live at different
relatives' houses. Although she was able to maintain a close connection to her sister, Laura said
that of her family network, “we don’t really have a good connection.” She felt that she did not
have a strong family support network. Family networks began before the participants went to
college and continued through their time there. Once in college, participants entered a new
period in their lives and encountered different networks. Professor networks replaced the teacher
networks that participants were familiar with in high school. Unfortunately, some participants’
experiences with their professor networks did not provide the needed support for their college
and career goals.
Professors
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Professor networks can play an important role for college students. They not only assign
grades in their students’ courses, but professors can also be potential links to other networks,
career information, or job opportunities. However, several participants expressed a challenge in
establishing connections with their professors. Julia stated that she did not connect with her
professors despite hearing from her high school Trio advisers that she should talk to them. Some
participants said they did not know what to discuss with a professor. Laura recalled that she had
a professor “that I really wanted to develop a relationship with, but I just didn't know what to talk
about.” Hazel was not comfortable speaking with her professors, but she approached one of her
professors, who she felt would help her. Hazel described an experience where she attempted to
get a recommendation letter but was unsuccessful.
I actually also had a professor who I had asked to write a letter of recommendation for
me. I can't remember if it was for a scholarship. I think it was for a scholarship. I thought
he would say yes because I had been going to office hours. and he actually declined.
He told her he was offended because she added that she could find another professor if he could
not write the letter. She had wanted to respect his time because she had been worried that he was
too busy to write a letter for her. These experiences highlight some participants' experiences with
college networks that had the potential to support their college and career goals but instead
proved to potentially negatively impact their careers. College career centers also offered another
potential support system for participants as college students.
Career Center
The study also examined the participants’ connection to their campus career centers.
Only one of the participants, a Latina, felt that they made full use of the center, ten indicated that
they had no to minimal connection to the career center system, and three connected only in their
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senior year of college. Grace said, “I think I only went once, and I did not find it helpful, so I just
did not go back.” Selena was not comfortable meeting with or reaching out to career center staff.
She felt they would be biased against her due to her low-income background. Victoria only used
the career center right before she graduated and felt that it was not accessible since it was off
campus. She said of the career center on her campus:
It's not on the central part of campus, so I think even just like geographically it feels more
inaccessible, especially for students. When you're living on campus you are in this
bubble. All of your needs are met in this really small bubble where your food is. You
sleep there. Your classes are there. They're all in the one space. So, I remember when I
lived on campus like leaving that bubble felt like a really major movement.
Many of the external support systems in the participants' lives were ineffective in supporting
them in their college and career efforts. Some participants’ peer and colleague networks also had
a limited connection with participants, which influenced the first-generation individuals’
decision-making.
Peers and Colleagues
Although three-fourths of the participants noted a positive, supportive connection with
their peer and college networks that positively influenced their college or career experiences,
almost one-third also indicated that their connection to their peers or colleagues was limited or
nonexistent. Dolores stated, "I don't know these people. I didn't relate to them, and I think a lot of
it, unfortunately, was not relating to them. Culturally, I didn't feel that they were actually out
there to help me genuinely." Although Guadalupe connected with one prior coworker in her
organization, she did not connect with her other colleagues because she felt they had their own
lives and priorities. She felt that “they have their own little groups already going on, and I don't
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really like to, I feel when it comes to professional stuff. I just leave it as work as work.” Peer and
work colleague networks were potential career support systems. However, for participants like
Dolores and Guadalupe, peers and colleagues proved to be a missed opportunity because of the
poor connection to those networks. However, work networks also included supervisors and
managers.
Supervisors
Participants also shared about their supervisors in their work networks. As early-career
professionals, supervisors have an almost immediate impact on the new professional’s career
success. However, not all participants had positive experiences with their supervisor networks.
Two participants shared that they had a very limited connection with their supervisors, and three
participants who reported to different supervisors indicated that they had experienced positive
and negative situations with supervisors. Patrick, an African American male, found his first
supervisor helpful but also shared that his supervisor was replaced by one whom he did not find
helpful. He said, "my supervisor was brand new. She didn't know a lot. So it's kind of like
watching her go through the growing pains of being in management, but still needed to support
me." Gloria felt that her supervisors and managers were busy, and she was not comfortable
speaking with them. Gloria stated, “I get intimidated by not just my direct supervisor, but higher
ups, or people who have a higher role than me, and so sometimes it's difficult for me to
communicate everything. And that stops me from reaching out.” Guadalupe felt that she did not
get the support she needed from her supervisor because the supervisor was not regularly at her
site and did not have regular communication with her. This made her transition into her new job
difficult.
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However, some participants did attempt to get support from their supervisors. Sara, who
started a contract position after college that did not include benefits, recounted that she and one
of her coworkers disagreed on how to best complete their work. She approached her supervisors
for support to help her resolve the situation. Instead, she heard, "you guys are adults and
professionals, and you guys need to figure this situation out,” and "nothing in life comes easy."
The lack of support that Sara received added to her existing health and job concerns which
pushed her to leave the position and move back home. For some of the advisers, their supervisor
networks did not positively influence their career success. However, participants also shared
what worked for them and what resources they accessed to help them transition and succeed in
their careers.
Theme 4: What Worked with Their Career Preparation, Transition, and Success
The fourth theme addresses the third research question by highlighting the resources and
career networks that were helpful in their careers. Participants discussed factors that impacted
their career transition and success in their jobs and shared what worked to help them graduate
from college. They discussed how their support networks helped them transition to a professional
work environment. They also spoke about the resources and networks they utilized to support
success in their professional careers. Their employer provided them with the system and
structure that held the networks they regularly interacted with as early-career, first-generation
professionals.
Supportive and Organized Structure
In this study, the organization’s structure and culture are in the macro system. Eleven
participants discussed how their employers’ organizational structure and culture supported their
job transition and career success. Zachary, a Filipino male with two years of professional
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experience, discussed how his employer established their organizational culture with their
managers. He said his organization “was actually backing that up with the culture that they
developed with their managers. I felt very comfortable talking to my managers about things, or
just getting additional or requesting additional training.” Laura, a Latina in the second year of her
professional career, shared about her employer, “I really enjoyed my first year. What I really
appreciated about [organization], as a program, they're very supportive of who you are.” Many of
the participants also identified their organization’s training programs as resources they found
supportive in their careers.
Half of the participants cited their work network’s training structure as a helpful resource
for succeeding in their jobs. Patrick, an African American male with four years of professional
experience whose current employer brings on a large cohort of recent college graduates to serve
as advisers, stated that his organization’s training and support programs supported and helped
him develop and add to the skills he gained as a student worker. David’s employer also
employed a cohort of recent graduates and provided a summer training program and support
before his site placement in the fall. He felt that pre-service training helped with his transition as
a professional staff. Their employers’ training and orientation programs proved to be a key
practice in helping participants to transition into their new jobs and as early-career, first-
generation professionals.
Participants’ employers utilized different strategies and practices. When reflecting on the
image she shared, Juanita, in her seventh year of her professional career, felt that the training
environment represented by the picture made her feel confident and not as overwhelmed as in
her prior job. She said she could better process the job information with the new training
structure. Julia, a Latina with 4 years of professional experience, found the structure she needed
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in one of her employers that helped her transition into her new job. She stated that at first, she
“still didn’t quite understand what that fully encompassed until I jumped into the fellowship and
then receiving the training, the guidance, the support, and everything that ABC essentially
offered. Early-career, first-generation professionals enter new jobs with new experiences,
expectations, and relationships. Additionally, as new FG professionals, the participants in this
study established new networks with their colleagues and peers that had the potential to support
their job transition and career success.
Shared Experiences with Colleagues and Peer Networks
Once the participants were in their jobs and met new colleagues, their similar
backgrounds and experiences helped establish a connection with their new potential support
network. Eleven participants shared that commonalities helped establish a relationship with their
coworkers. Hazel, a Latina, stated that she “gravitated” toward people who were “BIPOC and
female.” In some cases, they felt that they had moved from having a colleague network to a peer
network. Sara shared her experience as a college student and her connection to a peer group that
shared similar identities.
It was just very comforting for me to know that there were other folks in similar
situations as me, such as with my status, being first-generation, and learning how to
navigate different spaces in an institution as well as how to apply for a job.
Selena and Julia expressed a similar sentiment. They found that having colleagues who were also
first-generation professionals was helpful and made them more comfortable in their jobs. They
felt that they could connect with them because of their similar backgrounds. Melanie, a biracial
Latina and White female with six years of professional experience, stated that “it was extremely
helpful to be around people who had the same mindset and people who I felt really supported,
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my by being around like-minded people who also wanted the same things that I wanted at that
time. Participants also stated that having a similar work experience with their work network was
helpful in their jobs.
Two participants also stated that having colleagues who either held the same job or had
similar work experience benefited their career transition. Guadalupe, a Latina in her second year
of professional work, shared the benefit of having a colleague who previously held the same
position and at the same placement site. She stated,
The counselor that I'm with right now was the past [organization] adviser, and I feel like
with him, I gained a really strong connection of how to build myself professionally and
also as a person itself. So now that I have him here, I would enjoy more with what I'm
doing because I don't feel so stressed as I felt my first year here.
Many participants found that having a network with colleagues and peers with similar
backgrounds was helpful. Having colleagues with similar backgrounds and experiences made
them more comfortable to connect with and get support. Participants also found that similarities
with their supervisor networks helped their career transition.
Supervisors
Some participants' experiences with supervisors were not helpful in their career transition
or success. However, for other participants, supervisors played a significant role in helping them
in their career journey. For eleven of the participants, their connections with supervisors started
when they were college students. These participants either volunteered or had student jobs or
internships as undergraduate students. For three participants, their student job gave them a
glimpse into a potential professional career. Juanita got hands-on experience in case management
through her student job working in foster care. Laura explored several student opportunities and
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commented, “I would say that it all those experiences helped you determine, I do not want to just
sit in an office. Ideally, I would want to do direct service.” At the time of her interview, Juanita
worked as a county agency's social worker. The participants’ student job supervisor network had
an additional benefit for some participants.
Three participants secured a professional position after college with the same
organization they worked for as students. In these cases, their student job supervisors helped
connect them with the right network in the organization or offered them a position. For
Guadalupe, her network connection began as a high school student. Her mentor from her high
school program connected her with a student service department at her college. She met with a
staff person who offered her a student job and would later become her supervisor after college.
Guadalupe shared, “I feel like I transitioned pretty well, since I already knew the people or the
type of work that we were gonna be doing as professionals.” Guadalupe continued working with
those who supported and encouraged her as a student worker.
The supervisor network provided the encouragement and support that many participants
found effective. Juanita stated that her current supervisors are encouraging and have made her
feel comfortable. Likewise, Melanie said of her supervisor, “my [organization] director really
made sure that we felt supported and had the tools to actually succeed in the schools, and if we
ever had a question, he was always readily available to provide some feedback and some
support.” Selena shared about her supervisors and managers. She shared that:
A lot of them are super helpful there. I don't feel intimidated by any of them. I know that,
you know, they introduce themselves, and they talk to us, and they welcome us with open
arms, and it doesn't feel like anything too horrible like you would at a normal job, like
you're so scared of the boss.
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Many participants saw support from their supervisor networks expressed by how well or how
often they communicated.
Several participants shared that regular communication with their supervisor networks was
helpful in their transitioning into their jobs and being able to do their jobs well. In her first job,
Dolores connected well with her department’s supervisors. She felt comfortable speaking with
and asking questions directly to them. Julia's supervisor was a former adviser in the same
organization and would check in with her regularly. Julia found this supportive. The support and
communication helped her grow professionally and succeed in her job. Another factor that some
participants spoke about was a willingness to get out of their comfort zone.
Open to New Experiences
Seven participants spoke about how going outside their comfort zone and being open to
new projects or connecting with new networks helped them grow professionally. This
willingness to explore new things helped them succeed in their careers. Melanie remarked, “I
feel like whenever an email came out about we have special projects and need volunteers, I was
always like, I'm gonna jump on this.” Julia summed up her approach to new experiences.
I think any opportunity that I have to really step out of my comfort zone and try
something different, be in different spaces, learn about different cultures learn about
different opportunities. and understanding that there's so much more than what I thought
there was.
The participants were willing to try new things that put them out of their comfort zone. This
same attitude played a role in other participants’ job decisions.
At times, even in the early part of their careers, participants had to decide about changing
employers. Despite feeling scared about pursuing a new opportunity, Sara left the comfort of her
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job and took the opportunity. Victoria had a difficult decision to make. She had to decide
between taking a higher-paying or lower-paying position that she felt would get her out of her
comfort zone. She chose the lower-paying public service job and said it was because "I just felt
like I really wanted to pursue that community aspect, open myself up to a new network and new
experiences." After living in California all her life, Grace decided to move to the east coast for
graduate school. She said leaving her comfort zone enabled her to explore different fields and
now consider doctoral programs nationwide. By being open to new experiences, these
participants were able to establish or strengthen their connections to various support systems and
networks in their ecological system.
Summary
Participants shared their experiences as early-career first-generation professionals. The
findings included experiences that influenced them as undergraduates, which impacted their
career goals, professional experiences, and resources and strategies they have used that have
helped their career development and growth. Several factors involved external networks that
influenced the participants’ career choices and self-efficacy. In some cases, those external
networks served as positive support networks that helped further their college and career goals.
However, at times the same external systems and networks did not have a positive influence,
such as when a participant had a negative experience with their professor that made here doubt
her abilities or when a supervisor did not communicate regularly or was not around to support
the participant.
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What experiences in college influence a FG student’s career path?
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2. What experiences in the workplace influence a FG professional’s career
advancement?
3. What organizational resources have FG professionals found helpful in supporting
their career decisions and objectives?
The first research question examined the time when the participants were undergraduate
students. The research found that factors such as the ethnic and cultural identity of networks, the
connection with their family and peer networks, participation in student jobs and internships, and
their connection to campus networks influenced their college completion en route to their
professional career. Positive experiences with their peers and families provided the participants
with motivational support to complete their degrees, while their job and internship experiences
helped them to explore different career fields. However, there was a common theme with their
connections with their campus’s career centers and their professor networks, where most
students did not have a strong connection or regular interaction with those networks.
The second research question focused on the influences once they entered the work
environment as early-career first-generation professionals. Many participants cited their
experiences with their supervisor networks as impactful to their career success. Those with
supportive supervisors whom they could communicate with regularly positively influenced the
participants’ career advancement. Participants also discussed that having coworkers with similar
first-generation backgrounds and work experience helped them establish and develop
connections. For some, their colleague network evolved into a peer network. In addition to their
microsystem peer and job networks, the organizational structure and culture where the
participants worked were also factors supporting their job growth.
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Finally, the third research question examined what organizational resources early-career
first-generation professionals found helpful in their careers. Many of the participants discussed
how having access to and connecting with supervisors who were not only supportive but also
available to talk regularly was helpful in their job. Many participants also found that access to
other first-generation professionals, either coworkers or supervisors, made their work
environment comfortable and their work decisions and projects easier. Several participants also
cited their organizations’ established and comprehensive training programs that provided them
with the tools and skills to do their jobs and grow professionally.

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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
This study addressed how the experiences of early-career first-generation professionals
influenced their careers. In this chapter, I will compare some of this study's findings with the
existing career-related literature on first-generation individuals, as discussed in Chapter 2. Next,
I will present four recommendations that align with the study's conceptual model. Two provide
college-level implementation, and two career-level. In the final section, I propose that
organizations use the Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, and Reinforcement (ADKAR)
change model to support the recommendations' implementation (Galli, 2018).
Discussion of Findings
Some of this study's findings and prior research from others aligned well. However, the
study also had findings that differed from the literature or that previous research did not often
include. Both existing research and the study examined networks located primarily in the
participants' microsystems. In this section, I will present the study's findings that address the
participants' family, work, and career center networks and how they compare to pre-existing
literature. I will also discuss the individual as a first-generation professional and how the
literature and the study participants express self-reliance and self-motivation. Table 5 lists the
various networks and their location in the first-generation professional's ecological system.
Table 5
FG Professional Networks and Ecological System Level Locations
Network Location
FG Individual Center of model
Family Microsystem
Peer / Colleagues Microsystem
Professor / Supervisor Microsystem
Organization Leadership Exosystem
Organizational Structure and Culture Macrosystem
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Family Networks
The study and existing literature generally aligned with findings dealing with family
networks. Prior research on first-generation individuals focused on the parents or the non-
specific family term, which may include siblings or extended relatives (Eismann, 2016; Holly &
Gardner, 2012; Raque-Bogdan & Lucas, 2016). The literature's reference to parents may be due
to how first-generation is often defined by the parents' educational and work backgrounds
(Helmbrecht & Ayars, 2021; Olson, 2014; Spiegler and Bednarak, 2013). In this study,
participants discussed their parents and immediate siblings when referring to their family
network.
The study and prior research aligned well with the findings that family networks often
served as a support system for first-generation individuals. Jack's (2014) research showed that
parents and family provided motivational and emotional support to first-generation individuals.
In this study, almost two-thirds of the research participants discussed how their parents set
education and career expectations and provided them with motivational support that helped push
them to achieve their goals. Ahmed et al. (2021) also found that older siblings with college
experience supported their younger siblings. Four participants in this study also spoke about their
siblings' support. Selena discussed how an older sister who worked in the same organization
supported her career entry and transition into her first professional job. The support from the
family networks was evident in both the literature and this study.
Existing literature and this study also found some agreement in that family networks
could be a source of stress for some participants. Gibbons et al. (2019) discussed the stress and
challenges of first-generation college students that stem from their families. Half of the
participants in this study indicated that it was a challenge to communicate or get guidance from
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their families about work or college-related issues. Olson (2016) and Hirudayaraj and McLean
(2018) discussed similar challenges in their research. Specifically, Olson (2016) found that
parents' blue-collar backgrounds and experiences differed from their child’s professional work
environments, which caused differences in perceptions of what work means and made
conversations challenging. Hiriudayaraj and McClean (2018) found that their participants faced
challenges in speaking about their college and work issues because their parents did not have
college degrees and had different work backgrounds. Communication challenges were not the
only issues presented in the literature and discussed by this study's participants. For example,
Juanita, Laura, and Guadalupe mentioned that they also struggled and worried about their
family’s financial struggle.
The literature provided limited discussions of a first-generation individual's family
network that did not support their college or career efforts. Holly and Gardner (2012) stated that
some female participants faced pushback from male relatives in pursuing graduate education.
However, this study's findings differed from the literature. Three participants shared situations
where their family networks offered minimal or no motivational support for their college and
career objectives. In one case, a participant indicated that her parents and siblings did not provide
any college or career support and that she did not connect well with her family. The situation was
different for the two other participants, but it still resulted in having minimal support from their
parents. These two participants shared that their parents had moved out of the country because of
immigration issues, and they had to live with extended relatives. Not having their parents in the
same household left them without a family network. In addition to their family networks, the
first-generation participants in this study also discussed their interactions with their new
employer networks after graduating college.
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Employer Networks
Both literature and findings from this study determined that supervisor and manager
networks could play an influential role for first-generation professionals. Polach (2004) found
that managers and supervisors can play a critical role in helping to transition new employees into
their jobs. They can do this by providing job information and performance feedback to help them
better understand their position and performance requirements. Eleven participants shared
experiences of receiving support from their supervisor networks, and nine shared how
communication with their supervisors and managers helped them in their transition and job
success. However, getting support from their organization, supervisors, and managers did not
always happen. For example, Grace’s first supervisor was not around to answer questions, and
then had to work with different supervisors, which made her experience inconsistent.
The literature and this study found that first-generation professionals do not always get
the support or training to help them transition into their new job and to do well. The research
found that those who did not receive any or limited initial training or orientation had a more
difficult time adjusting to their first job (Murphy et al., 2010). Research also stated that training
and counseling could help first-generation staff with transition challenges (Terry & Fobia, 2019).
Some of the participants confirmed the literature's findings. In one situation, a participant was
hired right out of college, but the position had no training, support, or structure. The participant
had to develop the structure and strategies to do her job. However, some organizations did well
in training and supporting their new staff's career transition.
This study aligns with the literature on how training and orientation can support early-
career first-generation professionals transitioning to their new jobs. An interesting finding in this
study was with three organizations that employed interview participants. Several participants
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worked in one of these organizations that provided comprehensive training and orientation
programs. These organizations hired a large cohort of 30 to 50 recent college graduates who
were also first-generation professionals. Several of these participants commented on the positive
influence that their employers' structured training programs had on their transition to their new
professional careers. One can assume that the need for effective and successful employees
pushed organizations to develop and implement an effective training and supervision structure.
However, the organizations still needed to ensure its first-generation employees could connect
and interact with their colleagues to support their success and establish strong social networks.
Literature also supports the idea that social networks can provide a support network for
new first-generation professionals that can provide career information and knowledge (Lin,
2005). Hirudayaraj and McLean (2018) found that some first-generation professionals may
realize the importance of developing social networks to support their career success. Despite
being uncomfortable with networking, they still attempted it to establish themselves in their
careers. Eight study participants found that establishing a network with their colleagues helped
their career transition and success. However, this study also found that participants often needed
to feel comfortable with and trust the individuals in their new networks to establish a strong
connection. One-quarter of the study participants associated comfort and trust with colleagues
who were also first-generation professionals. In future studies, the concept of trust for first-
generation individuals would be helpful. Their employer networks were critical once a first-
generation individual entered the workforce. However, the participants also discussed their
college's career centers and their use as undergraduates.

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Career Center Networks
There was some alignment between the existing research and this study when examining
the use of their college campus career centers by first-generation college students. Eismann
(2016) found that first-generation students used their campus' online services more often than
non-first-generation students. However, the researcher also stated that FG and non-FG students
utilize the career center at about the same rate. This study suggests that there may also be a
difference in the extent that first-generation and non-first-generation students use the career
center services. Thirteen of the participants indicated they utilized the career center very
limitedly. This study explored why there may be a difference in career center usage by first-
generation students. One participant, Selena, shared that she was uncomfortable going to the
career center because she felt they would be biased against her because of her low-income
background. Binder et al. (2016) found that colleges greatly influenced students' career goals and
interests. The researchers also found that the institutions emphasized higher-paying career fields
at elite colleges. The focus on certain types of positions may account for Selena's impression of
her campus's career center and why she resisted reaching out to the career center for support. The
limited use of the career centers by 13 of the 16 study participants also points to their feeling of
needing to be self-reliant in getting the information and resources they felt they needed.
Self-Support and Self-Reliance
A common finding was that many first-generation individuals expressed a sense of
having to do things themselves. Olson (2016) found that some FG professionals had to rely on
themselves because their coworkers did not help them in their job transition. In this study, 12 of
the 16 participants expressed the same need for self-reliance to accomplish tasks and achieve
their school and career goals. As one participant put it, "I was just gonna do everything by
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myself." Prior research and this study found potential influences that may have pushed first-
generation individuals toward self-support and self-motivation. Whether or not participants’
perception that they did not have support from their colleagues and supervisors was true, it is
important to consider what feeling supported might look like for FG professionals. For one, they
may be unaccustomed to asking for help, a practice carried over from their college experiences.
Additionally, the lack of mentorship for newly hired employees is a problem that is not unique to
FG professionals.
The study's conceptual model helped further examine FG individuals' self-reliance
findings. Bronfenbrenner's (1986) ecological systems model puts the individual at the center of
the model, and a layer of systems that contain various networks surrounds the individual. The
individuals in this study and the literature focused on their identity as first-generation college
graduates and professionals. Both the literature and this study defined the individual's first-
generation status as coming from a household where their parents did not have a college degree
or a professional career background. This sets in context the research by Hirudayaraj and
McLean (2016) that indicated that some first-generation individuals did not have access to
professional networks, which limited their access to social capital. Gonzales (2020) also found
that first-generation students have less access to capital than non-first-generation students.
Likewise, half of the participants in this study stated they could not go to their parents and other
family members for guidance and information about their college and career. First-generation
individuals may have decided to continue independently if these networks could not provide the
needed information or resources.
Four of the participants in this study expressed a desire to do more than just overcome
obstacles alone or rely on their efforts to get things done. They expressed success, growth, and
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achievement goals beyond resiliency to survive. Hazel, for example, stated that she "was the one
breaking the glass ceiling." Gloria believed that once she got an interview, she was "confident”
she could “make the job happen." The study's findings lead to the following four
recommendations.
Recommendations for Practice
The following recommendations intend to support the college-to-career transition and
career success of early-career first-generation professionals. The recommendations focus on the
connections between the FG individual and the networks in their microsystem. Two
recommendations are for implementation with college networks before first-generation
individuals enter their professional careers, and the other two are for implementation in the
workspace once the individual moves into their career.
The recommendations need to align with Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) practices
and strategies that organizations utilize and exist in many career sections. Although the four
recommendations focus on first-generation professionals, organizations can apply them to other
groups. However, the limited research and support systems for FG professionals point to a need
to address and support the first-generation population. This study strongly recommends that
organizations include FG individuals in their DEI efforts.
The ADKAR model provides a change theory that organizations can utilize to implement
all the recommendations (Galli, 2018). The model's five steps include the following: awareness,
desire, knowledge, ability, and reinforcement. The model's simple process and focus on people
rather than large systems may be easier to implement since it involves a change in people rather
than the entire system itself. Supervisors and leaders from various types and sizes or
organizations can apply the ADKAR change model to implement the recommendations. The
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recommendations address actions and changes with individuals who are part of the
microsystem's networks in the first-generation individual's ecological system.
The recommendations focus on the networks with which the study participants interacted
as college students and professional staff. The study findings showed where targeted actions
could be implemented with those networks to potentially increase the positive influence on FG
college students and professionals' college career decisions, actions, and goals. Figure 2
illustrates where an individual's networks can influence their self-efficacy, which may influence
their career decision-making.
Figure 2
Network Influence on FG College and Career Decisions and Self-Efficacy

The process is a continuous loop where an FGP's interactions and experiences with a
given network may positively or negatively influence their self-efficacy. According to Bandura
(1986), this effect may impact their decisions or actions. Those actions and decisions will then
have an outcome that may affect their interactions and connections to their networks. The
process then repeats with the network influencing the first-generation individual.
Recommendation 1: Strengthen Networks with Professors
Prior research indicated that professors were a potential resource who could also provide
career awareness and career network connections for college students. The literature found that
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professors have the potential to serve as a support network for undergraduate students who can
help them in college before they enter their careers (Gibbons, 2019; Parks-Yancy, 2012).
However, seven of the participants in this study stated that they had few interactions with their
professors, and three indicated that they were intimidated or did not know how to communicate
with them. Two participants also shared that, in hindsight, they wished they had connected more
with their professors.
The first recommendation addresses this connection gap between professors and first-
generation college students. There should be more concerted efforts by college campus
departments and student support organizations to strengthen the connection between FG students
and professor networks, especially because interacting with professors, in a way, is a great
practice for dealing with people of authority. By cultivating relationships between professors and
FG students, the FG student would be better prepared to comfortably interact with future
colleagues. The responsibility of creating a space where FG students can interact with professors
and other college administrators should fall on the university. Staff from student support
programs who already work with first-generation student populations and staff from campus
departments who provide new student courses need to connect and interact in the mesosystem to
develop and discuss how to improve the connections between FG students and the college's
professor networks. Kezar et al. (2020) study found that the transition program staff played a role
in helping students to connect with other campus resources and networks and make sense of their
college and career experiences that influenced their career-making decisions. The campus
departments leading these efforts should also include staff from grant-funded programs and
student organizations that support first-generation students. Once established, these network
connections can develop and implement outreach and service strategies to reach more FG
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students about connecting with their professors and building their networks. Half of the interview
participants recognized the value and benefit of connecting to their professors. This supports the
assumption that college students should be open to information about connecting with
professors, particularly from organizations they are already connected with and receiving support
services.
College staff from the various programs and departments can deliver the services via
informational workshops and collateral that teach college students how to speak with and
connect with professors beyond asking questions regarding their course material. The workshop
objectives should be to teach undergraduate networking strategies they can apply to strengthen
their connection to professors, build their skills and confidence in communicating with their
professors, and provide techniques that the FG student can use.
Similar skills-building workshops that raise awareness for first-generation students can
also be delivered when the student is still in high school. Advisors from college support
programs targeting first-generation students can incorporate these sessions into their service
plans. In this way, students can receive information and guidance from adults they trust before
they enter college. College staff who work with incoming students and provide orientation
support can also include the same workshops and informational materials in their existing
practices. However, this recommendation will need the buy-in and involvement of individual
professors.
Identifying first-generation student allies that include professors and college staff will be
important. College campus leaders must either create or work with existing professor networks
that have already shown a commitment to supporting first-generation students. Individually,
professors can reach out to their academic networks to help raise awareness of first-generation
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student needs. Outreach to professors from other professors will help create further buy-in. The
increased buy-in will expand the professorial support network, which can then encourage more
and deeper connections with individual FG students, which will help to develop the connection
between professors and individual FG students and to create further buy-in from professors who
can reach out to and better support their 'students' efforts. In some cases, professors may help
first-generation students to connect with their campus's career centers.
Recommendation 2: Strengthen Career Center Networks
The second recommendation is to strengthen the connection between career center staff
and first-generation students. The intended outcome is for career center staff to better connect
with first-generation students so that the student becomes more comfortable with the center and
more open to visiting the career center. Fourteen of this study's participants had some connection
to the career centers and were aware of their college's career centers. However, only one stated
that they use the center's services regularly. Ten did not frequent the career centers on their
campus, and three participants did not feel that their career centers would be helpful or valuable.
Given the potential benefit of career centers, this is a missed opportunity.
The literature pointed to the potential support that a college's career center can provide to
a college student's preparation and awareness for entry into their career fields. Schaub (2010)
college career center offers a variety of services to students that include: career advising, career-
themed workshops, job and internship assistance, as well as connection to alums and career
professionals. The researcher also stated that the career centers had established connections with
other campus services. The existing relationship between the career centers and other campus
units presents a potential link for college staff to reach out to students.
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At the heart of this recommendation is a marketing strategy that college staff can
implement using a similar approach presented in the first recommendation. Career center staff
must connect with staff from the various student support offices, student organizations, and
grant-funded programs serving first-generation students. Career center staff should also contact
academic department staff about in-class announcements and student housing networks such as
ethnic fraternities and sororities, student housing co-ops, and themed dormitories. At a minimum,
career center staff should distribute service and marketing collateral but ideally establish a
connection with the student support group networks and their staff.
For this outreach to be effective, career center staff should have access to or develop
marketing and informational materials geared toward first-generation students. College staff
should begin their outreach to first-time students during their orientation period. Career center
staff should implement more extensive outreach efforts to reach first-generation transfer students
since they enter the four-year campuses as upper-division students. Career center staff should
also increase their outreach to junior and senior students in concert with outreach to transfer
students. College staff can use various methods to connect with the students who have begun to
plan and think about their lives after college.
Career center staff can utilize existing on-campus tabling events, online outreach efforts,
student body events, and college staff meetings. The strategy is for the career center staff to
reach out to and link with networks that first-generation students already have a strong
connection with and are already comfortable using. Strengthening these connections may help
students to more fully utilize the services offered by the college career networks before they
graduate and enter their first professional job. Figure 3 shows the implementation of the
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proposed career-level recommendations. Figure 3 also identifies specific network connections
and interactions that need strengthening or creating.
Figure 3
Recommendations for Implementation in the First-Generation Professional Ecological System

The following two recommendations are for implementation with the first-generation
professionals' work organization. The individual's ecological system changes begin with the
different mesosystem interactions between the microsystem and exosystem (Bronfenbrenner,
1986). The supervisor network is vital in the mesosystem interactions with other microsystems
and exosystem networks.
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Recommendation 3: Strengthen Supervisor and Manager Networks
The third recommendation is that employers establish practices that strengthen the
connections between supervisor and manager networks and the early-career FG professional.
Since new first-generation professionals will be new to working full-time in a professional
environment, securing support from their supervisors as they transition into their new job will be
important. Literature showed that workplace networks could serve as support networks, but FG
professionals do not always receive support (Olson, 2016).
Thirteen of the study's participants had at least one supportive supervisor who helped them
adjust to their new job. However, almost one-third also experienced poor supervisors making
their job more difficult. Developing strong, supportive relationships between supervisor
networks and early-career first-generation professionals will require employers to assess how
well this occurs in their organization and either maintain them when those connections are
effective or add practices and policies to improve them.
Regular communication between the supervisor and the first-generation professional is
one strategy that can help develop the connection between them. Nine participants indicated they
needed regular communication to help them transition into their new position and with their
performance. Supervisors and managers should also receive training to support the
implementation of the recommendation. Organizational leadership should also assess the
effectiveness of the check-in meetings. Leadership should step in if the meetings are not taking
place as scheduled and provide the supervisor additional training and consulting if they are not
effective. Finally, supervisors and organizational leaders need to discuss the recommendations’
implementation and progress in their mesosystem interactions. A strong connection with the
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supervisor network can support the first-generation individual. However, other carer networks
are also possible.
Recommendation 4: Create FG Professional Networks
Thirteen participants discussed various identities that were part of their college and
professional lived experiences as first-generation individuals. Race and ethnicity came up for
almost two-thirds of the participants. This intersectionality informs the final recommendation.
Employers should seek to establish professional networks centered around their first-generation
staff's shared identities. Murphy et al. (2010) recommend that organizations develop social
networks to support their recent college graduate hires' successful transition to their new job.
Supervisors and organizational leaders should promote, encourage, and support their FG staff to
connect those communities and networks. The professional networks can center around their
organization's industry.
Four participants stated that having a shared FG identity and similar work experiences
helped them connect with their colleagues and provided comfort and communication systems to
share career experiences and opportunities. For larger organizations, having a support network
that is sponsored by and within the organization can allow their early-career and first-generation
staff to connect with their coworkers. For example, Latham and Watkins (2022) LLC established
an affinity group to support their FG attorney. In addition, the U. S. Department of Commerce
(2021) launched the First-Generation Professional Initiative to support FG federal workers.
Establishing professional networks supporting first-generation professionals is also possible
outside the organization. Supervisors and leadership may need to identify networks if they are
unaware of professional social networks that can serve as additional support systems for their
first-generation staff. For example, in the college access and support field, the federally funded
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Trio programs in the western United States have WESTOP, a professional organization for Trio
and education professionals with a mission helping to develop their members (WESTOP, 2023).
WESTOP provides conferences that bring their members together where they share best
practices, attend workshops, and network with other professionals who do similar work. There
are also online networks that can serve a similar function.
Supervisors, organizational leaders, and staff can access online social networks with
platforms such as Linked In. The First-Gen Professional Network (FirstGen Professionals, n.d.)
is an online professional network that provides space for first-generation professionals to share
experiences, workshops, and job opportunities with other first-generation professionals. These
four recommendations can collectively help strengthen or even create new connections with
different networks in the first-generation professional's microsystem.
Limitations and Delimitations
There were both limitations and delimitations in the study. The delimitations were due to
how I chose to design the study, while the limitations came from items that I could not control
(Kornuta & Germaine, 2019). First, I expected to collect deep, rich data for the study from a
small number of participants. Given the small sample size, the findings were not generalizable to
the general population. Second, I decided to hold all interviews online using the Zoom platform,
limiting the extent of physical observations. Third, the participant eligibility criteria limited data
collection to early-career professionals who graduated from a four-year California public
university and worked in a public service career. This excluded perspectives from early-career
professionals who may have graduated from private universities or worked in other fields. I also
chose the theoretical and conceptual bounds of the study.
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The two theoretical frameworks that formed the study's conceptual framework provided a
comprehensive framework for career-related research on the first-generation population.
However, I acknowledge that the FGP population is much more complex than what the scope of
the two combined theories and conceptual framework were able to cover. Additionally, the
study's three research questions guided the data collection, which may have impacted the range
of collected data and brought up topics beyond the study's scope. There were also limitations I
could not control that need to be acknowledged.
There were three limitations in the study. Since participant recruitment utilized my
professional contacts and social media, there was the potential that I may have had or current
connection to some participants. This may have influenced what information the participant
shared or how candid they were in the interview. Additionally, the study relied on what and to
what extent each participant remembered experiences that may have occurred a decade earlier.
The supplemental photo-elicitation method also added limitations since the participant chose the
images to share in the interview. I provided each participant with the photo guidelines; however,
since the participants were not researchers, they did not all strictly adhere to the guidelines.
Therefore, there was no way of anticipating the images the participant shared in the photo-
elicitation discussion.
Recommendations for Future Research
Given the research scarcity of first-generation professionals, there is much need for future
research. This study found several topics outside this research project's scope. However, there are
two research areas that this study recommends. The first topic concerns first-generation regrets
and their connection to the hidden curriculum. The second topic to further explore is the role that
trust and comfort plays with mid-career and late-career first-generation professionals and how
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they establish, develop, and maintain their network connections after they have established
themselves professionally.
Research should explore the concept of a hidden curriculum in the professional work
environment and first-generation professionals. Eleven participants in this study discussed their
regrets and what they would do differently as college students and professionals. Over a third of
the participants expressed a desire for better connection and interaction with their professors and
career centers. This connects to the concept of a hidden curriculum that some student populations
do not see but could help their college and career experiences that Koutsouris et al. (2021)
discuss. This curriculum contains the unquestioned values and expectations of the institution that
are part of the institutional culture and becomes established to the point where it becomes unseen
but still accepted. However, the curriculum remains invisible to groups, such as first-generation
college students with no history or experience with college.
The second recommendation for future research is to examine issues of trust and comfort
among mid and late career first-generation-professionals. At times, participants were not
comfortable approaching their professors or establishing a connection with coworkers. Future
research can examine how trust and comfort influence experienced FG professionals'
connections with their networks. Unfortunately, this research topic was out of the study’s scope.
Conclusion
Given the limited research on the topic, there is a need for further research examining the
career experiences of first-generation professionals. This study adds to that body of literature
focusing on early-career first-generation professionals. This qualitative study interviewed 16
early-career professionals in a two-part semi-structured interview. The second part of the
interview utilized a photo elicitation method that included images shared by the study's
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participants to triangulate data from the first part of the interview and gather additional data. The
study's conceptual model utilized Bronfenbrenner's (1986) Ecological Systems model and
Bandura's (1977) Self-Efficacy Theory to address the study's three research questions.
The study findings presented influence factors that could impact an early-career first-
general professional's career transition and success in their new jobs and organizational resources
that FG professionals utilized and found beneficial. The literature review presented prior
research on first-generation individuals and first-generation undergraduate and career-related
research. The literature and the study point to the need and urgency of first-generation
professionals before they start their careers and transition from college students to career
professionals.
There is a significant number of first-generation college students who will graduate from
college and enter the workforce (Eismann, 2016) as first-generation professionals. New FG
professionals will enter an employment environment where FG professionals’ average lower
salaries than non-FG professionals (Ford, 2018), and more FG professionals enter jobs that do
not require a degree than non-FG graduates (RTI International, 2019). Participants in this study
shared how support networks provided a positive influence that helped their career transitions
and success.
Finally, another intent of the study was to identify influences that impact first-generation
individuals as undergraduates and professionals that the study could use to recommend practical
applications and strategies to support the FG professionals' careers. I provided practical, hands-
on recommendations that staff in college departments, student organizations, and employers can
implement to support their FG staff and students quickly. Organizations should implement the
recommendations at an individual staffing level rather than a systemic approach. This
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implementation approach makes the recommendations more practical and adaptable to fit a
variety of organizations and systems.
The goal of supporting early-career first-generation professionals formed this study's
initial and primary intent. As a practitioner supporting first-generation individuals and working
in higher education systems and nonprofit organizations, it has been a challenge getting research-
based information, resources, and practices that provide practical applications to implement in
practice. This study aims to provide it.

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136

Appendix A: Semi-Structured Interview Questions

Topics Question(s)
RQ
1
RQ
2
RQ
3
1. Opening What do you do? What are your responsibilities?
2. Decision-
making, actions,
and outcomes
What does your career path look like?
● How did you get to where you are now?
X X
3. Influence factors
(college)
What motivated you to go to college?
● To graduate?
● Why did you choose your major/degree?
X
4. Influence factors
(career
awareness)
How did you go about getting professional
development and finding out about careers when
you were in college?
X X
5. Influence factors
(college
networks)
Whom did you interact with the most in college?
● Students, professors, supervisors, support
programs?
● How did those relationships influence your
career decisions?
X X
6. Career transition
& influence
factors
What was your first professional job experience
like?
● What helped you to adjust to your new job?
● What were the challenges?
X X
7. Influence factors
(career networks)
Who did you connect with most in your first job
after college?
● How did those relationships influence your
career decisions?
● What about in your current position?
X X
8. Influence factors
(career)
What do you think has made the biggest difference
in your career?
X X
9. Career
milestones and
"flex points"
What were the major flex points in your career?
● Why did you make /those decisions?
X X
10. Closing
What do you wish you had known in college OUT
OF COLLEGE?
● When you first started your career
X X X

137

Appendix B: Photo Elicitation Semi-Structured Interview Protocol

Topics Question(s)
RQ
1
RQ
2
RQ
3
1. Opening Tell me about the first picture. X X X
2. Networks
What is going on in the pictures?
● Why did you select this image?
X X X
3. Career
transition
& influence
factors
What were you thinking/feeling when you took that
picture?
X X X
4. Career
transition &
influence
factors
What does the picture make you think/feel right
now?
X X X
5. Influence
factors (FGP
status)
How do the pictures connect with your FGP status?
● How has that influenced how you make
decisions?
X X X
6. Influence
factors (college
and professional
networks)
What do the pictures remind you of when you look
at it?
● Any connection to your time when your first
started working?
● In college, before college?
X X X

138

Appendix C: Email Template

RE: Introduction Template

Hello XXX,

Thank you again for your interest in my study! I apologize for the LONG email, so please let me
know if you have any questions or need further information.

I am pursuing an EdD from USC in Organizational Change and Leadership program. My
dissertation research will look at the career decision-making process of first-generation
individuals as college students and professionals. Your feedback, perspectives, and insights as a
first-generation college graduate and first-generation professional will be extremely valuable in
the research study. In addition, it will add to the much-needed research on First Generation
Professionals.

The interview and your comments will be kept confidential. I am hoping to record our sessions
to be able to print a written transcript. Only I will have access to the recording stored in my
password-protected USC Zoom account. All interview transcripts and notes will be stored in my
access-restricted USC Google Drive. All video and audio recordings will be deleted once the
study has been completed, and all personal identifiable information will be scrubbed. Your
participation is voluntary, and we can stop the recording or the interview any time you wish. The
total time for the interview will be 90 minutes and have two parts.

Participant Eligibility:
• First-Generation Professional: parent(s) do not have a BA/BS and worked(s) in a blue-
collar job prior to participant’s college completion
• Bachelor’s degree from either a California State University or University of CA campus
• Current public service professional
• Less than 7 years of professional experience

Interview Part 1:
● The interview will be scheduled in Zoom; you will need access to a computer/laptop with
a camera and internet access.
● The first part will take approximately 60 minutes, and I will have a set of questions to
help guide our conversation.

Interview Part 2:
● The second part will be a little different. It will be a 30-minute conversation using
pictures you choose to guide the discussion. It is your choice what pictures you choose
using the guidelines below.
o Please be ready to share your screen with the pictures prior to the session.
▪ I will not be collecting the pictures, and the recording will be deleted at the conclusion of
the study.
139

o Picture Guidelines/Instructions:
▪ Choose a picture of when you were an undergraduate student in college
that reminds you of your first-generation professional status.
▪ Choose a second picture once you entered your professional career that
reminds you of your first-generation professional status.

Please let me know if you might be interested in volunteering to take part in my study. I will
follow up with scheduling information.

Thank you again!

José Rivas

RE: Screening and Scheduling Email

Hello XXX,

Thank you for your interest in my study! I am looking to interview early-career, first-generation
professionals working in public service who have a BA/BS from either UC or CSU.

I hope we can schedule the 90-minute interview within the next week or two. The interview can
be scheduled at your convenience and can be either during the regular Monday to Friday work
time, evenings, or weekends. I will work around your schedule.

Please either schedule the interview directly on my Calendly (Link) OR email me a couple of
dates/times that will work with your schedule.

I will follow up separately with further details about the study and Zoom login information.

Also, please reply to this email with the following background information:
ALL information will be kept strictly confidential.
• Does either parent have a BA/BS?
• Parent(s) job/career background? “Blue collar”/”White collar”
• Gender:
• Race/Ethnicity:
• Degree Info (degree type, institution)
• Number of years of professional career experience:

Thank you!

José Rivas
USC Doctoral Candidate
Jrivas82@usc.edu
Schedule meeting time: https://calendly.com/joserivas_usc/research-interview
140

Appendix D: Information Sheet

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall, 3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH

STUDY TITLE: First-Generation Professionals: Career Transition and Success

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Jose Rivas

FACULTY ADVISOR: Dr. Esther Kim, PhD

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE
The purpose of the study is to explore the experiences and identify the factors that influence a
FGP's transition from college into their new professional career. Identifying the FPG experiences
and factors in their transition will help to further the limited research on the FGP experience and
potentially identify practices that will support FGPs' success in their new work environment.
You are invited as a possible participant because you are a first-generation professional, working
in a public service career, graduated from either a CSU or UC, and have between one and five
years of professional experience.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
You will be asked to take part in a semi-structured interviews and asked about your experiences
as an undergraduate student and as a career professional. The interview will take place on Zoom
and recorded with your consent. The interview will take approximately 90 minutes and involve
two parts. The first part will take approximately 60 minutes and the researcher will ask a series
of questions. The second part will take approximately 30 minutes and utilize two pictures that
you will share on Zoom. You will need to select two pictures (one as undergraduate and a second
more current picture) that you feel is connected/represents your first-generation professional
identity. The interview and/or recording can be stopped at any time.

If you decide to take part, you will be asked to log into the Zoom platform using the meeting
login provided to you by the researcher and share the pictures discussed above.

Version Date: December 1, 2022
USC IRB Information Sheet Template Version Date: 07/27/2019
141

CONFIDENTIALITY
The Principal Investigator, faculty advisor, and the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

All interview data will be coded. Each participant will be assigned a participant code. The
interviews will be conducted on Zoom and recorded with participant permission. Zoom
transcripts will be scrubbed to remove identifiable information and replaced with a participant
code. For interviews that are not recorded, the PI will take researcher notes and scrub the notes to
remove identifiable information. The PI will create a Participant Code Key with participant
information and assigned code. All documents, notes, and transcriptions will be stored in the PI’s
USC Google Drive in a folder with access restricted to the PI.

Recorded interviews will be stored in the PI’s password-protected Zoom account and only the PI
will have access to the recordings. Transcripts will be uploaded to a PI user-restricted USC
Google Drive folder. Interview findings and results will be documented in the PI’s doctoral
dissertation. The dissertation will be made available to all interview participants after the
researcher’s final dissertation defense and submission to USC.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Jose Rivas, Principal Investigator
(jrivas82@usc.edu) or Faculty Advisor, Dr. Esther Kim (kim959@usc.edu).

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

Version Date: December 1, 2022
USC IRB Information Sheet Template Version Date: 07/27/20
142

Appendix E: Participant Shared Images for Photo Elicitation Interviewed

Participant Photo 1 Photo 2
“Juanita” description not available training materials: picture of orientation
nametag and training binder
“Dolores” Undergraduate picture not shared exam outcome: social media picture of
her county exam results, with a teary
happy face emoji
“David” Organization event: “David” with his
fellow mock trial team at a
competition
Organization event: “David” and two of
his coworkers at their organization’s
fundraising event; “David wearing a
coat and tie
“Sara” undergraduate picture not shared headshot: first professional headshot;
taken by employer
“Zachary” college graduation: “Zachary” with
mother at college graduation;
“Zachary” wearing graduation
regalia, lei, and he and his mother
holding his diploma
Coworkers: organization’s group picture
with advisers and some
organizational leadership
“Gloria” Coworkers: “Gloria” at her student
job filming an interview with a
college student
organization event: “Gloria” at a
podium speaking at an event for an
organization that she was part of as a
high school student and is still
connected to as a professional
“Guadalupe” college graduation: “Guadalupe” and
her siblings at her college
graduation; her siblings are
holding her up while she is
wearing her graduation regalia
work group picture: “Guadalupe” and
her students at a college event she
held at her school site
“Selena” Organization event: “Selena”
standing in front Neon words
“pride and purpose; ” taken at a
student job event
work location: “Selena” posing in front
of her organization’s logo holding a
balloon “A”; taken at her
organization’s office where she
worked in a temporary position prior
to starting her current, full-time job
“Grace” organization event: “Grace” standing
in front of large stage , in
professional wardrobe, taken at an
awards ceremony for one of her
undergraduate student support
organizations
headshot: “Grace” her in a borrowed
business coat standing in front of
trees and fence; she took the picture
by herself with equipment borrowed
from a friend
143

“Melanie” coworkers: “Melanie” and coworker
a tabling event
certificate: picture of a training
completion certificate
“Victoria” artwork: “Victoria” (sideprofile) in
front of a mural (indigenous woman
and her students from her job, with
pair of high-fiving hands she
created as an undergraduate student
participant picture: “Victoria” wearing a
t-shirt from the first-gen organization
where she interned at as graduate
student
“Patrick” various personal pictures: 7 pictures
with different people who have
supported “Patrick” (his “village”);
taken at taken at different points of
“Patrick’s” his life
various work pictures: album: 7 pictures
with “Patrick” and students he has
worked with and mentored
throughout his career; 6 pictures
taken at students’ graduation event
“Catalina” college visit: “’Catalina” posing at a
photo staging location while at a
college visit as a high school
senior; the photo staging includes a
painted graduate with graduation
regalia with a Mexican serape sash
and has a cut-out for the visitor’s
face
college graduation: “Catalina” with her
siblings at her college campus; she is
sitting on a campus fence that has the
campus name it; her 3 siblings posing
behind the fence standing next to
“Catalina”
chins, she’s wearing a grad
sash, and adorned mortar on her lap

“Julia” participant posing: “Julia” posing in
front of city name structure; taken
during her study abroad travel
first professional headshot taken by
organization; her picture was for
social media post
“Laura” organization event: “Laura” posing
with two club members at her
induction
Coworkers: “Laura” and her fellow
advising in her region posing for a
group photo
“Hazel” college graduation: “Hazel” posing
for a graduation photo wearing a
graduation sash
headshop: photo taken at a recent first-
generation networking event
Notes:
Images not included in order to maintain participant confidentiality
Image descriptions not included in table
1“Guadalupe” Picture 3 - college graduation
2“Melanie"Picture 3 - work memento
3“Victoria” Picture 3 – t-shirt artwork
4”Julia” Picture 3 – work group picture; Picture 4 – graduation pose w/ sash; Picture 5 –
graduation of students she works with; Picture 6 –headshot: most recent professional
head; Picture 7 – work group picture:
“Hazel” images shared but not recorded

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Asset Metadata

Creator Rivas, José Guadalupe (author)

Core Title First-generation professionals: career transition and success

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-08

Publication Date 07/10/2023

Defense Date 05/04/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag career networks,career success,career transition,early-career,first-generation,first-generation college,first-generation professional,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kim, Esther (committee chair), Huerta, Adrian (committee member), Maccalla, Nicole (committee member)

Creator Email jrivas82@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113262997

Unique identifier UC113262997

Identifier etd-RivasJoseG-12047.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-RivasJoseG-12047.pdf

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Rivas, Jose Guadalupe

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230710-usctheses-batch-1064 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu