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An examination of the underrepresentation of Asian Americans in California's public high school curriculums

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An examination of the underrepresentation of Asian Americans in California's public high school curriculums

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Content An Examination of the Underrepresentation of Asian Americans in California’s Public
High School Curriculums
by
Rene Perez
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2023

© Copyright by Rene Perez, 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Rene Perez certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi
Dr. Atheneus Ocampo
Dr. Esther Kim, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv

Abstract
This study aimed to examine the underrepresentation of Asian Americans in California’s public
high school curriculums. Despite being the fastest-growing racial minority in the United States,
along with its history, legacy, and contributions extending back to the mid-1800s, Asian
Americans are often given minimal or no coverage in our public high school history and social
sciences curriculums. No one reason can be attributed to this problem as it is complex. This
qualitative study examined this phenomenon through the lens of history and social science
teachers who provided valuable insight into the current status of Asian American representation,
their challenges to create a more inclusive and equitable curriculum, and possible solutions to
eradicate the issue. The study utilized a conceptual framework based on a condensed version of
the transformative learning theory model by Mezirow (1978). This model was instrumental in
systematically approaching the problem by examining possible root causes, performing a critical
analysis, and engaging in a reflective discourse to determine viable change interventions. In
addition to semi-structured interviews, the use of document analysis to gather and verify data
was critical. The data analysis findings produced six overarching themes that were unexpected
and logical. However, the six themes proved essential to generating the five recommendations
aligned with the conceptual framework and may be feasible and achievable. Identifying the
limitations and delimitations of this study is crucial to future research as this problem warrants
further investigation to ensure that Asian Americans receive an equitable representation in the
public high school curriculums.

v

Dedication
To my parents, Alfredo and Lourdes Perez, who had the courage to immigrate to the United
States from the Philippines so that their children would have a better opportunity to succeed and
have a brighter future.

vi

Acknowledgements
To my dissertation chair, Dr. Esther Kim, thank you for your encouragement and
guidance throughout the rigorous process of completing my research. Your time and mentorship
were invaluable for me to become a better researcher and writer.
To my dissertation committee, Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi and Dr. Atheneus Ocampo,
thank you for your feedback and insightful comments, which helped broaden my perspective on
my research topic.
To all my coursework professors and Cohort 18 peers, thank you for making my doctoral
journey memorable and enjoyable.
To Colonel D. Chinn, USA, Retired, thank you for your support during my graduate
studies journey as I transitioned from the Army to the civilian world and into my new career.
Finally, thank you to the 10 high school teachers for your courage to participate in this
research and for providing valuable insight into the California public high school educational
system.

vii

Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Context and Background of the Problem ............................................................................ 4
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions .................................................................... 6
Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 8
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology ..................................................... 9
Definitions ......................................................................................................................... 11
Organization of the Study .................................................................................................. 13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ......................................................................................... 14
Asian Americans and Pedagogy in the United States ....................................................... 14
Racialization of Asian Americans ..................................................................................... 23
Transforming an Educational Curriculum ......................................................................... 29
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 35
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 38
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 39
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 39
Overview of Design ........................................................................................................... 39
Research Setting ................................................................................................................ 41

viii

The Researcher .................................................................................................................. 42
Data Sources ...................................................................................................................... 44
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 52
Ethics ................................................................................................................................. 54
Chapter Four: Findings .................................................................................................................. 56
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 58
Overarching Themes ......................................................................................................... 63
Summary of Findings ...................................................................................................... 107
Chapter Five: Recommendations ................................................................................................ 109
Discussion of Findings .................................................................................................... 109
Recommendations for Practice to Address Transformative Learning ............................. 115
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 125
Recommendation for Future Research ............................................................................ 127
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 129
References ................................................................................................................................... 131
Appendix A: Major Federal Educational Legislations and Areas of Priorities ........................... 149
Appendix B: Interview Protocol .................................................................................................. 151
Appendix C: Interview Invitation ................................................................................................ 163
Appendix D: Informed Consent for Research ............................................................................. 164
Appendix E: Participants’ School Student Body Profile ............................................................. 170

ix

List of Tables
Table 1: Asian/Asian American Content Included in California High Schools 3
Table 2: The Ten Phases of Transformative Learning Theory 36

Table 3: Data Sources 41

Table 4: Interview Participant Criteria 46

Table 5: Participants Demographic Information 59
Table 6: Findings 65
Table 7: Recommendations Summary 116

x

List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory 37

1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
The history of Asians arriving in the Americas began in the 1500s when Chinese,
Filipino, Japanese, and South Asians serving as ship crew members accompanied the Spanish
galleons to New Spain or Central America and parts of the future Southwestern United States,
including California (Lee, 2015). The proceeding centuries witnessed the growth of the Asian
diaspora in the Americas, with a significant influx specifically to the United States during the
mid-1800s to work as laborers (Lee, 2015). The historical legacy of these early Asian
immigrants, their experiences, and contributions, though, are largely unknown because recording
them was deemed unimportant (Suh et al., 2015). There were some exceptions, including a few
Asian American communities or families that passed historical narratives to subsequent
generations to ensure that the legacy and cultural knowledge of their ethnic heritage were not lost
(Song & Gutierrez, 2015). Additionally, the little information we do have sheds light on some of
the challenges that the first Asian settlers encountered due to discrimination beginning in the
mid-1800s with California’s Foreign Miners’ Tax targeting Chinese workers and subsequent
legislation imposed by the federal government, and violence targeting Asian immigrants
(Kurashige, 2016). Although our current understanding (both good and bad) of the first Asian
settlers in the United States is scant, what we do know is that Asians continued to arrive in the
United States in spite of laws and regulations prohibiting their entrance, or at the very least,
making it difficult to become a part of the American society. Needless to say, Asians in the
United States are Americans and have made great contributions.
The focus of this dissertation stems from the objective to ensure that the contributions
that Asians have made to the United States are no longer left out of American history. In other
words, to mark that “Asian American history is American history” (Kwoh, 2022, as cited in
2

Anderson, 2022) and the story of Asian Americans must be told. American education, which has
been designed from a Eurocentric perspective with a focus on Western values and ideals (Darder,
2012), must be more intentional to include Asian Americans in its curriculum. Countless
historians in recent decades have uncovered narratives of Asian Americans in the United States,
yet much of it continues to be siloed specifically in the social science classes, such as United
States history, human geography, and social studies. The framework results in a historical
knowledge gap of people of color, especially with regard to Asian Americans and their minimal
inclusion in the K-12 educational system.
At its core, the K-12 educational system provides upcoming generations of people with
the basic skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic to prepare them for their future. Just as
important, the K-12 educational system is the ideal forum to help students learn and understand
the society and people they coexist with through exposure to different cultures, races, and
ethnicities. With regards to the Asian American historical legacy, the K-12 educational system,
more specifically high schools, can do better to alleviate this issue. High school history
textbooks, for example, contain minimum content on Asian American history, which does not
provide an accurate narrative (Takeda, 2018).
A recent study of all 50 states’ curriculum standards indicated that 32 states included
varying degrees of Asian American history content while 18 states contained none (An, 2022).
Even in a progressive state such as California, which has the largest Asian American population
in the United States, the content is limited to seven subjects, as summarized in Table 1 (An,
2022; California Department of Education [CA DOE], 2016; United States Census Bureau
[Census Bureau], 2022b). The slight anomaly is seven states, including New York and Hawaii,
that have more Asian American content in their history curriculum (An, 2022).
3

Table 1
Common Asian/Asian American Content Included in California High Schools
Asian/Asian American Specific Content
1. Japanese Incarceration during World War 2 (includes Korematsu v. United States)
2. Building the Transcontinental Railroad (includes Chinese labor)
3. Asian Immigrant Contribution (includes United States Army’s 442
nd
Infantry Regiment)
4. United States & Japan in World War 2 (Pearl Harbor attack and the dropping of the
atomic bombs on Japan)
5. Chinese/Asian Immigration (Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and Immigration Acts of
1924 & 1965)
6. Asian American Civil Rights Movement (as part of the larger civil rights movement by
African Americans)
7. United States Involvement in the Korean and Vietnam Wars

Educational restructuring is complex, and establishing standardized curriculums for all
public high schools is challenging with competing educational priorities, student body
populations, state and federal-level legislation, and funding. Fortunately, the movement to enact
change gained momentum in recent years to address the lack of Asian American (and other
people of color) inclusivity in the public high school curriculums with the 2015 legislative
proposal to the California State Legislature (Cal. Legis. Assemb., 2016). As an academic field
within social science, ethnic studies is ideal for increasing Asian American awareness as it
encompasses the historical legacies and humanistic aspects of a group of people that are often
cast under a shadow.
Ethnic studies can create greater awareness for marginalized racial and ethnic groups
through lessons that cover various disciplines of which history is a key component. Most
importantly, it is a significant step towards acknowledging the racial diversity in California. In
six decades since the 1970s, California’s population witnessed a significant change as former
4

racial or ethnic minorities collectively surpassed Whites as the majority (Census Bureau, 2020,
as cited in Public Policy Institute of California, 2022). As a result of the significant racial and
ethnic demographic change, an educational system compels that curriculums must be inclusive
and equitable towards people of color. This includes all racial and ethnic groups who can benefit
from creating an ethnic studies program. However, for this study, the focus is on Asian
Americans and their representation in the creation of equitable ethnic studies in California’s
public high schools. This dissertation focuses on public high schools as it is funded by the
government; however, as will be discussed in the final chapter, ensuring that Asian American
history is included in the United States curriculum should be the aim for private education as
well. Fortunately, the State of California has not yet implemented an approved statewide
curriculum, and its public high schools are not expected to include an ethnic studies curriculum
until Fall 2025 (Pupil Instruction, 2021).
Context and Background of the Problem
The premise of an ethnic studies curriculum is to educate students through a
transformative, revolutionary pedagogy that centers on the experiences and identities of
marginalized racial groups (Utt, 2018). This is challenging as California’s student body comes
from diverse racial groups (e.g., American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Black, Native
Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and White) as defined by the Office of Management and
Budget (OMB) (1997). California’s student body also includes two ethnicities officially
recognized by OMB, Hispanic or Latino and Not Hispanic or Latino (Revisions to the Standards
for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity, 1997). Each school district faces the
task of creating an ethnic studies curriculum based on the demographics of its student population
while being inclusive of others (CA DOE, 2021). While the creation of an educational
5

curriculum is challenging, the task encompassing an ethnic studies program in California is
exacerbated by the fact that each racial group is dispersed throughout the State and not
concentrated in only a few areas. Asian Americans too, live in all parts of California and equal
representation must be given to the group regardless of its population size in a particular school
district. Just how much inclusivity Asian Americans are afforded when a final ethnic studies
history curriculum is made is still to be determined. The hope is that the progressivist nature of
California can set the standards for other states that are contemplating the need for ethnic studies
to be included in their public high school curriculum.
Collectively, as a single race, Asians are the fastest-growing population in the United
States with currently over 20 million residents or 6.3% of the population of the United States
(Census Bureau, 2022b; Vespa et al., 2020). Moreover, the Asian population is estimated to
double or grow by 101% by 2060 (Vespa et al., 2020). California alone has over 6.3 million
residents, or 16.3% of the total state population, that identifies as Asians or of partial Asian
ancestry (Census Bureau, 2022b). In California, the San Francisco Bay Area and Greater Los
Angeles contain the two largest Asian American populations (Census Bureau, 2022b). The San
Francisco Bay Area with its nine counties boasts over 2.2 million, and the Greater Los Angeles
with its five counties, has over 2.7 million (Census Bureau, 2022b).
Despite the sizable Asian American population in California, collectively the racial group
continues to be ignored whether it is in education, in social discourse when issues of racial
injustices arise, or during social crises. For example, in early 2020, when the COVID-19 virus
spread globally, cases in the United States also began to rise rapidly. People of color were
identified as disproportionately vulnerable to the virus and data for Asian Americans, in general,
were not included in the media reports (Young & Cho, 2021). More alarming was the association
6

of Asian Americans with COVID-19 spreading across the globe because of the initial reports in
the media that the virus originated in China. This led to an increased number of anti-Asian hate
crimes. The pandemic exacerbated and fueled anti-Asian racism and xenophobia, according to
the Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism (2021), with attacks against Asians in the United
States rising 145% since early March 2020. Now more than ever is an opportune time to raise
awareness in the United States, even amongst the Asian American communities of their own
marginalization as racialized ethnic minorities and negotiate through the societal-level narratives
and constraints (Mistry & Kiyama, 2021).
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to examine the scope of the present and future content of
how Asian Americans are portrayed in the history and social science curriculums in California
public high schools, as well as to find possible solutions to creating an ethnic studies program
that is inclusive and equitable. Rather than simply stating that each racial group will receive an
equal amount of time and resources to cover their history and legacy, a more transformative
change must occur. Since covering all races, ethnicities, and sub-groups would be impossible,
instead, an educational process that engages students with an approach that is formal and
informal built on the authentic experiences of individual perspectives and community
experiences must be explored (de los Ríos et al., 2015).
In other words, the transformation of an ethnic studies curriculum can focus on a
culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) that is meaningful to all students, especially Asian
Americans (Dee & Penner, 2017). The change is necessary because an examination of the
epistemologies and pedagogies that are prevalent in the United States educational standards
unjustly favor Western or Eurocentric perspectives (Lindsay, 2020). California, with its diverse
7

multi-ethnic population, dedicates only 21.3% of its educational content to non-White/Western
culture and identity (Utt, 2018). The San Francisco Bay Area, much like Greater Los Angeles,
boasts a diverse racial and ethnic makeup within its cities, towns, and suburbs that is
representative of the state. So, while a need exists to incorporate an ethnic studies curriculum
that is inclusive of all racial and ethnic backgrounds, Asian Americans must also not be
marginalized in the effort to create such a program.
When research began for this study, it was discovered over 200 public high schools (not
including charter and continuing education schools) existed in the nine counties of the San
Francisco Bay Area (CA DOE, n.d.-a). The number of public high schools is significant and
offers a sizable pool of potential candidates who can be interviewed for this study. Participants
from these public high schools are an excellent source for data regarding California’s high school
inclusivity of Asian American content in their curriculum, creating a program that is equitable,
and assessing the composition and the degree of Asian American curriculum development. The
following research questions guided this study:
1. How are Asian Americans represented in the educational curriculum in public high
schools in the San Francisco Bay Area?
2. What are the challenges that school districts must overcome to ensure that Asian
American history and legacy are included in an ethnic studies curriculum while not
marginalizing any other racial groups?
3. How can a school district ensure an ethnic studies curriculum promotes
transformative learning to increase awareness of Asian Americans?
8

Significance of the Study
This study is important because it seeks to ensure that Asian Americans are adequately
represented in the ethnic studies curriculum that was created by California’s school districts and
taught in high schools. Asian American inclusion is emphasized for two reasons. The first is that
the Asian American story will help demystify the misunderstanding and inaccurate perceptions
from society. This includes breaking away from the social constructs attributed to Asian
Americans, which represents a formidable challenge as stereotypes and misconceptions are
accepted realities in American society. Societal attitudes continue to persist, reinforced by
stereotypes, such as the model minority myth that Asian Americans are more likely to achieve
economic success than other racialized groups (Shih et al., 2019). Furthermore, the significant
differences in culture, linguistics, and physical features appear very exotic or strange, labeling an
entire racial group forever or perpetual foreigners (Li & Nicolson, 2021). Second, ethnic studies
are a powerful tool for students to critically examine the issues and causes that plague
marginalized racial groups and develop the self-efficacy to deal with the realities of
discrimination and racism in society.
Quantitative evidence from two leading California universities indicates that ethnic
studies, when designed with the appropriate content and administered with culturally relevant
pedagogical methods of teaching, is extraordinarily effective (Dee & Penner, 2017). When
created with the appropriate content, ethnic studies could provide Asian Americans the voice and
recognition that it has long sought and needed to help gradually change societal attitudes and
perceptions. Non-Asian Americans can also benefit from gaining knowledge and perhaps
develop more understanding and empathy towards the racial group and thereby helping to
change societal attitudes and perspectives.
9

Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
This research will utilize transformative learning theory (TLT) by American sociologist
John D. Mezirow (1978) who conceptualized that we develop frameworks of how we view
ourselves, relationships, and the environment through perspective transformation by learning and
developing cultural and psychological assumptions. Mezirow (1978) stated that simply learning
about new knowledge or learning how to cope with them is not an effective means to face
challenges throughout our adult development. He continued that individuals must question
familiar assumptions through reassessment and challenge the validity of prior paradigms that we
hold by performing critical analysis and reflections of beliefs to gain a new understanding for
transformation to occur within ourselves (Mezirow, 1978).
Lifelong learners gather knowledge through observations, socializing, or experiences
gained at work or school. The K-12 institutions represent the formal portion of learning and
dominate early development years. Select individuals may continue beyond compulsory
education and seek higher education to gain further knowledge and understanding of their
environment and society. However, many do not complete additional studies that would provide
an opportunity to acquire new knowledge about other racial groups as afforded in the higher
education institutions such as the California State University system, which requires ethnic
studies as a graduation requirement (California State University, 2020). High school is an
opportune period that can fulfill this gap. Subsequently, Mezirow’s TLT can serve as the
foundation for initiating change in our formal education system to assist in educating individuals
on historical narratives that are inaccurate and inadequate that do not account for the
contributions of marginalized groups such as Asian Americans.
10

While TLT was developed to apply to adult learners and does not include young or
adolescent learners (Kitchenham, 2008; Mezirow, 1978), its basic principles can serve as a
foundation for changing attitudes and perspectives early during the critical stages of learning
development. Transformative learning theory has evolved through the decades since its inception
in 1978 and should not be limited to only adult learners when adolescents and teachers can
benefit from its framework. It must be applied “to the full life course, including childhood,
youth, adulthood, and mature adulthood” (Illeris, 2017, p. 179). For example, a study at Weber
State University and the University of Utah showed that when placed in an environment where
students can engage in the process, adolescents are capable of undergoing Mezirow’s
transformative learning (Meerts-Brandsma & Sibthorp, 2021). Since the responsibility to educate
young learners are with adults who ideally are supposed to teach with unbiased and factual
content that includes perspectives from all stakeholders, educators and institutions alike can
apply TLT to initiate the transformative process. This includes employing perspective
transformation by citing significant events that forced our nation to change (Mezirow, 1978).
Events such as the Asian American Movement of the 1960s (and later in the 1970s) which
occurred concurrently with the civil rights movement raised awareness of the injustices
experienced by people of color in the United States and helped craft new perspectives and
attitudes (Ishizuka, 2018; Mezirow, 1978). Further details of the TLT will be discussed in
Chapter 2.
Methodology
This research study utilized a qualitative approach to gather data and research the
problem of practice. Participants were high school teachers drawn from one or more of the nine
counties in the San Francisco Bay Area. Professional educators, with their knowledge and
11

expertise, are central to the development of ethnic studies curricula as they are directly
responsible for teaching and evaluating an educational curriculum for its effectiveness. Data
were collected utilizing a structured and semistructured format with a standardized set of
questions that gathered key information from personal and professional narratives with open-
ended questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The methodology aligns with the theoretical
framework to support the creation of an ethnic studies curriculum that is representative of Asian
Americans and the need for a transformative change in the pedagogical method. The
methodology will be discussed in more detail in chapter three.
Definitions
The following definitions are included to help contextualize the research study.
Asian
The official definition as defined by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
standards on race and ethnicity, states an Asian is a person having origins in any of the original
peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent, including Cambodia, China,
India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam
(Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity, 1997).
Asian American
Asian Americans are persons who reside in the United States whose ancestry stems from
Asia, specifically from the Far East including Northeast Asia and East Asia, Southeast Asia, and
South Asia (e.g., Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand,
Vietnam) (Census Bureau, 2022a). The term Asian American is a pan-ethnic term coined by
activists Emma Gee and Yuji Ichioka in 1968 when they co-founded the Asian American
12

Political Alliance at the University of California, Berkeley (Rodriguez, 2018). Often, Asian
Americans are grouped with Pacific Islanders (AAPI) when discussed in literature by
researchers, academics, journalists, etc. However, “Asian American” refers only to people from
Asia as designated by the OMB’s standards of race and ethnicity and the United States Census
Bureau (Census Bureau, 2022a; Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data
on Race and Ethnicity, 1997). Pacific Islanders from Oceania, people from the Middle East,
Central Asia, and the regions of Central Russia and the Russian Far East are also not included.
Ethnic Studies
Ethnic studies is an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary field of study that focuses on
the history, literature, economics, social, cultural, political, and experience of historically
neglected racial and ethnic groups (CA DOE, 2016; Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2015). Ethnic
studies aim to challenge the historically inaccurate portrayals and perspectives of these
marginalized groups by reconstructing narratives and highlighting the contributions people of
color have made in shaping the United States ((Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2015).
Eurocentric
Characterized by studying history, culture, and people through a European or “White”
lens, excluding the experiences of other races, and not interconnecting different perspectives to
form a more truly inclusive global representation (Shin, 2021).
Office of Management and Budget
Serves the President of the United States in meeting policy, budget, management, and
regulatory objectives and to fulfill the agency’s statutory responsibilities (Office of Management
and Budget [OMB], n.d.). Established standards on race, ethnicity, and racial categories. On
January 27, 2023, OMB established a working group to solicit comments and recommendations
13

on revising OMB’s 1997 Statistical Policy Directive No. 15: Standards for Maintaining,
Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity to ensure that they are keeping
pace with changes in the population (OMB, 2023).
Pedagogy
Is the science of teaching. For this study, applying the terminology is expanded to
encompass ethnic studies. For this reason, the definition is broadened to include the philosophy
of education taken from the perspectives of both teacher and student or specifically the content
of what is being taught, the purpose, and the identity of a student, the teacher, and their
relationship to each other and to structure and power (Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2014).
Organization of the Study
The five sections of this research study address the problem of the lack of Asian
American representation in current public high school curriculums. The hope is that the
forthcoming ethnic studies curriculum in California will equitably include Asian Americans and
their experiences. Chapter one focuses on the contextual background of the problem. Chapter
two is a review of the literature that explores the representation of Asian Americans in history
and social science courses and pedagogy, its impact on creating awareness and critical thinking
on issues of discrimination and racism towards Asian Americans, and challenges that must be
addressed, which could hinder the implementation of an effective history and social science
program. Chapter 3 describes the qualitative research methodology by utilizing one-on-one
interviews and document analysis to collect data. Chapter four analyzes the data collected to
determine if the findings answer the study's research questions. Finally, Chapter Five provides
recommended interventions to improve and sustain a change in restructuring the current social
science educational curriculum taught in California’s public high schools.
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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review examines the issues surrounding the inadequate representation of
Asian Americans in the United States public high school history and social science curriculums.
Included is an examination of the United States history pedagogy and how it contributes to
societal values and beliefs. The current disposition of Asian Americans as represented in the
current history and social science curriculum in California are also explored as factors that lend
to misunderstanding and inaccurate portrayals. Racialized identities, more specifically, as it
relates to how Asian Americans are created and reinforced through the indoctrination of lessons
that are acquired while studying in an educational institution. The review then shifts to
examining the major obstacles and barriers to creating an equitable ethnic studies program to
provide an understanding of the difficulty and challenges of crafting a solution to a very complex
and divisive issue.
A review of the relationship between the federal and state governments is explored to
provide a brief history and contextual background of the complexity of the relationship between
both authorities and how each impacts educational policies and development. The bureaucracy to
create a new or transform an educational system is very complex, extending beyond the state to
local governments. Finally, the literature review will examine the conceptual framework with
Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory to investigate areas of concern to challenge the
current education curriculums that do not reflect the current racial and ethnic dynamics of
California’s demographics.
Asian Americans and Pedagogy in the United States
Education is perhaps the best tool to fight against the misunderstanding and ignorance of
the disposition of Asian Americans in the United States. Presenting factual and accurate
15

knowledge, developing cognitive skills, and acquiring intellectual virtue is essential to
challenging historical evidence presented in classrooms for its accuracy and completeness (Peels
& Pritchard, 2020). These traits become even more relevant if students are expected to question
the veracity of the evidence presented in high school history and social science curriculums in
regard to Asian Americans and how this group is portrayed in the historical narratives. This
cannot be ignored especially in California where a significant Asian American population along
with its wide array of racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds are represented. Four out of the
nine counties in the San Francisco Bay Area, for example, contain a significant Asian student
body in public schools (K-12). Asian American students are the majority in San Francisco
County and are the second largest racial or ethnic group in Alameda, San Mateo, and Santa Clara
Counties, second only to Hispanic or Latinos (CA DOE, 2022c). With such representation, the
history and social science curriculums taught in high schools need to change to accommodate the
racial and ethnic diversity that exists.
Changing the pedagogy though, requires a change in how Asian Americans are perceived
in society. Despite being heterogenous, Asian Americans are seen as monolithic and even
distinguishing one group from another is difficult for many non-Asians. Filipinos often get
mistaken for being Chinese or Chinese for Japanese. Society often conflates Asian Americans
with East Asians (e.g., Chinese, Japanese, Koreans) while ignoring Southeast and South Asian
Americans, and their unique histories and experiences (Rodriguez, 2020). Grouping people
together is perhaps convenient, especially for institutions, to cognitively manage or contextualize
the enormous differences in cultural, linguistic, physical, and social practices that exist amongst
the different races and ethnicities (Machery & Faucher, 2017). However, grouping people does
mask the differences amongst the ethnicities, how they are perceived, and societal expectations.
16

Educational institutions continue this practice with regard to Asian Americans (as well as other
racial groups) and results in misrepresentation, marginalization, or connection to oppressive
circumstances such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, erasing the contributions, activism, and
current experiences (Hsieh & Kim, 2020). In schools, this manifests in the curriculums in the
history and social science courses and textbooks.
In education, curriculums are the heart of learning because they represent the standards
established at the state and local levels, the program of study, the methods of instruction, and the
content taught to students. Curriculum matters because the manner in which Asian Americans
(and other racial groups) are depicted in schools, impacts the attitudes and behavior of society
(An, 2022). Lessons learned in the classroom reinforce current perspectives or do nothing to
dispel myths. They can manifest into extreme examples from simple microaggressions, such as
an offhand comment about Asians to the increased anti-Asian hate crimes that rose significantly
since 2020 due to the association with the COVID virus. Unfortunately, this reality will not cease
as long as society continues to create frameworks to characterize or socially construct ideas of
people that will become accepted as normal (Milner, 2017).
Social constructs can and often times vary from one society or context to the next, but are
enduring (Milner, 2017). Educational institutions, as a change principal, can help fight how
Asian Americans are perceived in society. Changing attitudes and perceptions through shaping
educational policies to impact curriculum and pedagogy development that represent Asian
Americans in a positive manner is needed (Bell, 2021; Milner, 2017). Curriculums can focus on
deconstructing multiple false beliefs and stereotypes attributed to Asian Americans such as the
model minority myth with meaningful discourse (Tawa, 2020). California’s Department of
Education and local school districts have acknowledged that a change is needed with the passing
17

of recent legislation and drafting of strategic plans to transform education that will represent
marginalized racial groups more accurately and comprehensively in high school history and
social science courses (CA DOE, 2021; San Francisco Unified School District [SFUSD], 2013;
SFUSD, 2014). However, the transformation is in its early stage and has yet to be implemented
state-wide with actionable curriculums that will initiate lasting change.
Curriculums are often created assuming teachers have the resources (i.e., training,
textbooks, funding, etc.) to teach effectively to ensure students can learn and acquire knowledge
that will improve their future prospects. In theory, educational policymakers (e.g., school
administrators, a school board, and teachers) are equipped with the knowledge and understanding
to create curriculums and encourage a pedagogy requiring that marginalized racial groups’
histories be included and represented appropriately in social science courses. However, a
knowledge gap between Asian Americans and the linkage to American history may be the culprit
among people responsible for creating and administering curriculums (Milner, 2017). Other
times marginalized racial groups such as Asian Americans, who are viewed as homogenous, are
deliberately grouped when selecting topics of discussion. Whether out of convenience or
intentionally to create a proposed narrative, curriculum development requires deliberative
knowledge selection grounded in the dominant group’s perceptions of how Asian Americans
should be portrayed (An, 2020). Consequently, teachers may not have the necessary resources
and are compelled to perform their own research to create curriculums that attempt to shed
factual and accurate knowledge of Asian Americans. Yet research has uncovered that when
teachers create their own curriculums, constructing Asian American narrative will result in a
confrontation with the dominant narrative that is often connected with discrimination and racism,
rather than issues that have been overcome and resolved (Rodriguez, 2019).
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The United States History Curriculum
Schools in the United States place a special emphasis on Western civilization and its
contribution to the struggles that shaped the United States into the economic and political force
that continues to exist in the present. Historical narratives allow students to understand
themselves and their presence through a mutual understanding of the past (Pérez-Manjarrez,
2019). In other words, school history lessons are carefully crafted with the purpose of creating a
national identity. It is the creation of a strong national identity that is pivotal for the fortunes of a
country, creates legitimacy of the institutions and systems, and extends to the realm of culture
and values for a nation (Fukuyama, 2018). The existing educational framework of the United
States’ perspective of world history is deeply rooted in European civilization and its history, with
many textbooks emphasizing European themes and chronological timelines (Shin, 2021). As
White Americans are the racial and ethnic majority that traditionally occupied all critical and
significant leadership positions that created our institutions, their experiences and those of their
ancestors who settled in the Americas from Europe pass on the legacy through the United States
historical narrative. With the genealogical and cultural connections to the various Nations in
Europe, the United States is just an extension of the social construction of White superiority and
colonial imperialism that fueled the desire to spread their influence (Blaisdell, 2016; Chang,
2017; Tawa, 2020).
As the counterpart of Eurocentrism, American exceptionalism aligned itself with the
European belief of superior history and cultural ideals, engaging in the push for human progress
and democracy while marginalizing and minimizing others as inferior, ignorant, and irrelevant
(Conrad, 2019). The United States educational institutions have undoubtedly embraced a
Eurocentric lens that teaches all children, regardless of race or cultural background, that anything
19

other than a White narrative is not worth learning. An examination of the epistemologies and
pedagogies that are prevalent in the United States unjustly favor Western methods as superior,
whether in education, technology, or politics, reinforcing the dominance exercised by White
people (Lindsay, 2020). In exercising the power dynamics between Whites and non-Whites, a
narrative that has historically neglected knowledge of other people helps shape a distorted reality
filled with inaccuracies and is highly challenging to overcome. The current historical educational
curriculums will continue through a Eurocentric/American exceptionalism lens in the United
States educational system. Still, a gradual deconstruction is required to remove the layers that
hide the legacies of Asian Americans before any meaningful change can occur to influence the
perspectives in our society.
Current Asian American Representation in United States Schools
The portrayal of Asian Americans in United States society is often relegated to singular,
historical traumatic events, or as mere tokens of a larger episode of American history (Table 1).
Furthermore, the representation of the group in education is often covered under the umbrella
term “Asian American” and oversimplifies the diverse experiences of the Asian diaspora in the
United States (Chang, 2017; Hsieh & Kim, 2020). The pan-ethnic label of “Asian American” is
an institutionalized term that has become the norm, categorically lumping all Asians (permanent
and non-permanent residents; full or partial Asian descent; recently arrived immigrants, etc.)
living in the United States, regardless of ethnicity or culture to become mistakenly perceived as
indistinguishable from one another. This is crucial considering the literature gap in high school
history and social science pedagogy that largely omits or marginalizes Asian American
experiences in history textbooks (An, 2016). Research has indicated, California’s social science
standards, zero Asian Americans were among the 96 historical figures selected in the State’s
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United States history curriculum (An, 2022). Therefore, examining the gap in the minimal or
lack of inclusion in history curriculums must be accomplished to gain a better understanding of
how to effectively deconstruct the pedagogy on Asian American education.
As a multicultural nation that touts itself as a melting pot of different cultures and
ethnicities, it is logical to assume an education curriculum would include all minority groups.
However, contemporary lessons provided in public high schools do not adequately provide
positive exposure to minority groups, especially with Asian Americans, most notably in the
history and social science curriculums (Rodriguez, 2018). Racial biases against Asian American
can begin early in childhood through the educational system, which significantly influences how
people perceive each other through the lessons and depictions provided in history curriculums,
whether positive or negative. As the fastest-growing single racial group in the United States, the
Census Bureau predicts the Asian American population to grow by 101% by 2060 (Vespa et al.,
2020). Still, their representation in the educational system is often minimal, focusing on adverse
events while ignoring the contributions of Asian Americans in the social, political, and economic
movements to create equality for the group. The general narratives taught in the history
curriculums must include a genuine effort to uncover the inaccuracies and produce a fair
representation of other people of color in the history books, correcting false narratives and
becoming more inclusive (An, 2016; Rodriguez, 2019).
Unfortunately, Asian Americans generally remain invisible in United States history
books and education curricula, contributing to the lack of awareness and knowledge about the
Asian American experience. In examining 28 United States textbooks published between 1998
and 2012, Asian Americans were, on average, depicted in only 1.16 pages, omitting relevant
information that would provide a more accurate depiction (Takeda, 2018). As previously
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indicated, only 32 states include some form of Asian American history in their curriculum with
New York State covering 14 subjects, the most of any state (An, 2022). California includes only
seven subjects related to Asian American history. Some states only cover one subject such as
Asians in Hawaii (An, 2022). Only three states included the subject of Asian immigrant
contribution, and two states included the subject of the Asian American civil rights movement
(An, 2022). The content of the subjects may vary according to each state and school district as a
national educational standard does not exist (United States Department of Education [U.S.
DOE], 2021).
While the lack of Asian American historical inclusion is problematic, the issue is further
compounded by the lack of Asian American educators qualified to teach an Asian American
education curriculum that can convey authenticity to relevant subjects that provide awareness
and understanding. In a nation with a projected increase in the Asian American population, the
recruitment and retention of teacher demographics with a racial and cultural background that is
similar are essential to improving the education experience for both Asian American, non-Asian
American, and educators alike to engage in a more culturally sensitive approach to creating and
teaching (Kim & Cooc, 2020). The deconstruction process of creating an Asian American
education history curriculum is two-fold: the textbooks and lessons taught must be more
inclusive, and the educators who are responsible for developing and leading the curriculum must
become more diverse. While removing the predominately White-inspired education curriculums
will not completely erase decades of systematic racism and structural inequities (Kim & Cooc,
2020) from United States schools, it is, at best, a start to change the paradigm that would
challenge the current educational system by examining prejudices that exist. In doing so, it may
help with shedding the negative depictions of Asian Americans and allow society to re-evaluate
22

its perspectives and break down false assumptions. However, the challenge of doing so is not as
simple as changing high school history curriculums and societal attitudes and perceptions must
also be addressed.
Adding to the issue of Asian American representation in United States history curricula is
the phenomenon that narratives are approached with a Black-White binary paradigm. This
paradigm posits that race issues focus solely on Black and White racial identities and experiences
(Gonzalez-Sobrino & Goss 2019). Because mainstream racial discourses are grounded in this
framework, Asian Americans are often marginalized as a significant and relevant group
(Chutuape, 2016). For example, non-Black racial groups, specifically Asians, are often compared
with Blacks as success stories with stereotypes such as the model minority myth to deflect from
structural and systematic racism and are capable of overcoming the insurmountable barriers
(Cheah, 2021). It is not the intent of this study to marginalize the history and struggles of Black
Americans or any other racial groups. But it must be duly noted that the Black-White binary
relegates other racial minorities to the Black or White experiences and does not account for the
distinct experiences of Asian Americans or other racial minorities (Cheah, 2021). In other words,
the framework ignores the multicultural representation of other racial minorities and exposes the
“divide and conquer” trap by pitting one minoritized group against another (Cheah, 2021).
The precedence of creating a ranking simplifies the social standings of racial minority
groups in a hierarchy with Asian Americans being ‘honorary whites’ which effectively dismisses
the historical legacies and assumes they are not afflicted with racism and discrimination (Shiao,
2017). While this premise is without merit, it does indicate that Asian Americans are being
ignored and marginalized. This could be attributed to just plain ignorance or perhaps more likely
that being uninformed about Asian Americans, who they are and what they represent, is the
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culprit that allows this to manifest and inability to create empathy. Additionally, it is this
perception that continues to render Asian Americans invisible and overlooked in the national
dialogue in areas such as health or the COVID pandemic (Yip et al., 2021). Ironically, it is this
circumstance that creates the characterization of Asian Americans with false or inaccurate
identities that become accepted norms in society.
Racialization of Asian Americans
The methods and content used by the educational system to teach students about United
States history aid in reinforcing stereotypes and negative perceptions that impact the full social
acceptance of Asian Americans. Students already receive plenty of negative exposure of Asian
Americans in the media that are very demeaning, and schools contribute by not providing more
accurate historical content with positive portrayals and narratives in its curriculum and history
textbooks. Exposure to an educational curriculum that denies or obscures the historical legacy of
Asian Americans affects persons from the community and society itself because over time the
stereotypes and perceptions become solidified. A recent study indicated that racial essentialism
or the tendency to group people into distinct racial categories and use these categories to infer
attributes about people increases over time when not challenged or erased (Tawa, 2020). The
immediate consequence of this phenomenon is very profound as perceptions become harder to
erase. It impacts the interaction between Asian Americans with other racial or ethnic groups,
there is less willingness to relate to other groups, and more significantly, it can be used by a
dominant group of people in power to justify exclusion and rationalize racial disparities (Tawa,
2020). Therefore, the inclusion of Asian American history and legacy in the classroom is
essential whether there is a significant Asian American population, such as in the San Francisco
Bay Area or not. The perceptions of Asian American by non-Asians will continue and tensions
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between Asian American and non-Asians in the form of inappropriate behavior or
microaggression towards the group (Sue et al., 2021). Whether negative perceptions result from
inaccurate information or some semblance of truth, the repercussions will continue to manifest in
the internalized racial oppression against Asian Americans and the attitudes of non-Asians
towards Asian Americans.
Stereotyping Asian Americans
Growing up in a racially diverse place like California did not equate to racial equality. In
retrospect, stereotypes of Asian Americans were normal in all forms, from unflattering portrayals
of Asian Americans in the media to displays of microaggression behavior by non-Asians to overt
displays of racism such as using racial slurs. Racial stereotyping began as early as elementary
school when it always appeared that all heroes and people who achieved significant
accomplishments were White. The few times Asians were mentioned, depictions were often
negative events such as being sly or deceiving in movies, gangsters, as adversaries in the United
States wars, or clownish characters. However, whether positive or negative, racial stereotypes
oversimplify groups and continue to persist, causing lifelong damage because it lies at the core of
any form of discrimination as witnessed throughout the 1800s and 1900s, and well into the 21st
Century.
Stereotypes can significantly influence the identity of entire communities, families, and
individuals' perceptions of themselves and their self-esteem (Cheng et al., 2020; Shih et al.,
2019). Stereotyping can induce internalization and create poor psychological well-being amongst
Asian American to make good or bad life choices (Shen, 2015). Just as concerning is that
stereotyping becomes so ingrained that erasing the perceptions of Asian Americans becomes
almost impossible to eradicate. This is a significant hurdle, especially when continuous
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reinforcement is witnessed through the media with biased news reports, advertisements, and
entertainment, that presents the accepted societal narrative of Asian American. As a dominant
form of receiving knowledge and information, Asian Americans must be aware of the
stereotypes and understand them and use any available platforms to correct false narratives that
profoundly affect and persuade societal attitudes to shift in a negative or positive direction away
from deep-rooted stereotypes (Scharrer & Ramasubramanian, 2015).
The “Model” Minority
Asian Americans are cast with many different stereotypes (both positive and negative),
such as hard-working, highly educated, and high achieving. Even though the racial group is not
homogeneous, these labels universally apply to all Asian Americans. Of all the stereotypes,
perhaps the most pervasive in and out of the educational setting is the model minority myth.
Asian Americans are depicted as having achieved socioeconomic success, privilege, and
economic stability equal to the dominant race, living problem-free in the United States (Shih et
al., 2017). This myth is often used to demonstrate that other minority racial groups can achieve
the American Dream (Lee, 2015). It incorrectly assumes Asian Americans, who are perceived as
achieving a higher level of success than other racial minority groups, of having elevated their
social status in society (Lee, 2015). In contrast, other racial groups have been unlucky in
achieving the American dream and Asian Americans are seen by society as an example to be
emulated. In essence, a racial wedge is created between Asian Americans and other racial
minority groups because it positions them as the good minority group (Hsieh & Kim, 2020).
Some Asian Americans may even embrace the discourse to rationalize their position in the racial
hierarchy in response to racism and how the dominant society views them (Lee et al., 2017). In
truth, the model minority myth masks the persistent inequalities and fragility of Asian Americans
26

(Lee, 2015). It suggests that since Asian Americans are not victims of American racism, there is
no need to pay attention to them (Lee, 2015).
Asian Americans do face discrimination and racism, and the problem of the model
minority myth extends beyond the quintessential stereotype of Asian Americans as being
successful in everyday life. By lumping every Asian American into this stereotype, it ignores the
major differences between the more than 30 ethnic subgroups from various Asian countries,
individuals, families, and communities (Shih et al., 2019). It reinforces the notion that as a
meritocracy, anyone or any group, given the opportunity and conditions to succeed can do so
regardless of their background, and Asian Americans are proof that this is possible (Shih et al.,
2019). However, social stressors, expectations, and discrimination when factored into the
experiences each individual or group faces, may be similar but not necessarily the same and can
produce different outcomes. For Asian American students, internalization of the model minority
myth can even manifest at school where members of this racial group are assumed to be high
academic achievers (Atkins et al., 2018). This is troublesome as the failure to meet the
expectation of the myth may cause distress and negatively impact a student’s psychological state
(Atkins et al., 2018). Therefore, diversity in the levels of success (or failures) amongst Asian
Americans can be demonstrated by witnessing the various socio-economic status of each group
and individual, representing different levels of income, occupation, education, ability, and
residence.
Research indicates that Asian Americans continue to experience discrimination in
different areas such as housing, employment, health, and education that do not receive
nationwide recognition. According to evidence from a study of 319 Asian American adults, 27%
expressed they were victims of housing discrimination while 14% experienced health care
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discrimination (McMurtry et al., 2019). Additionally, in a recent quantitative study of official
government employment statistics from January to August 2020, Asian Americans experienced a
significant if not equal level of labor market disadvantage than any other racial minorities, with
the less-educated most impacted regardless of gender (Kim et al., 2021). These statistics are
ignored because Asian Americans are primarily seen through the lens of the model minority
stereotype by non-Asians who routinely praise the accomplishments of Asian American in
business, entertainment, politics, schools, sports, among others. whenever an Asian American is
involved attributing their success to traditional Asian “values” of hard work, honor, respect for
parents, reverence for learning, strong community, and all other over the top descriptions (Lee,
2015).
Forever (Perpetual) Foreigner
On the opposite end of the racial stereotype spectrum is the forever foreigner label that
depicts a member or group from a racial minority as outsider and can never become part of
United States society. The label evokes xenophobia and anti-immigration policies that target
people who are not the same. While the forever foreigner label can apply to anyone or any group
of people in any area around the world, in the United States, Asian Americans have been largely
associated with this designation. This is despite that Asian Americans have permanently lived or
have resided for generations in the United States, and regardless of whether they are a citizen,
either through birthright or naturalization (Li & Nicholson, 2021). Asian Americans, their
linguistics and physical features are perceived to be dramatically different from other racial
groups in the United States (Li & Nicholson, 2021), branding an entire race with the label
of forever foreigners.
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The phenomenon of labeling Asian Americans as forever foreigners is not recent and can
be traced back to the early Chinese immigration in the mid-1800s (Trieu & Lee, 2018). There are
many recorded events of attacks against Asian immigrants and numerous laws passed by the
United States Congress that served as a foundation for this label. Numerous anti-Asian
immigration laws beginning with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 were passed to curb
immigration from China. Other laws such as the Immigration Act of 1924, limited the number of
immigrants through a national origins quota and excluded from entry any alien who by virtue of
race or nationality was ineligible for citizenship (United States Department of State [DOS], n.d.,
2021). The effects of these events and discriminatory policies continue to reverberate to the
present day with anti-Asian attacks and subtle microaggressions. Inquiries of “where are you
from” or verbal attacks such as “go back to where you came from” are forms of racial
microaggression often perpetuated subconsciously that manifest from the idea that Asian
Americans do not belong in the United States (Trieu & Lee, 2018; Yeo et al., 2019). In an
attempt to raise awareness of Asian Americans, the current and former presidential
administrations have passed executive orders and legislation to acknowledge Asian Americans,
their contributions, and raise greater awareness (The White House, 2023). But the label continues
to persist even when Asian Americans have made huge strides in all aspects of society, have
achieved prominence, and made significant contributions in different professions and industries
that benefit all people in the United States.
Erasing the label of forever foreigner will take more than just passing new legislation to
raise awareness of Asian Americans and change societal perceptions. Despite the recent efforts
by both federal and state governments to highlight the issues that face Asian Americans, more
must be done that will challenge current narratives and portrayals of Asian Americans. Even
29

though schools such as in California do cover a limited number of subjects of Asian Americans,
the content are often scripted as victims of nativist racism (An, 2016). In other words, events
such as the Chinese Exclusion Act are taught from a perspective that focuses on Asian
Americans as oppressed victims. Events such as this receive approximately 53% more coverage
in schools than events that portray Asian Americans positively such as civil rights activism at 3%
(An, 2016). Instead, a counternarrative of the way Asian Americans are portrayed in schools
beginning with multiple perspectives from different racial groups will offer a better chance of
reversing the forever foreigner perception (Takaki, 2008). This will provide an alternate lens of
analysis and interpretation, challenge the dominant representations, and an opportunity to create
new identities (Endo, 2016).
Transforming an Educational Curriculum
When examining and proposing changes in the United States educational system and
implementing new initiatives, such as creating an ethnic studies program, an understanding of
the role of the federal and state governments is critical to demonstrate the complexities of the
educational system. While there are some flexibilities on creating an educational program, the
process is still a top-down design that is filled with plenty of bureaucratic steps and policies that
must be followed. Often, non-government related organizations or communities such as the
College Board or parents may be influential in providing input that will steer an educational
curriculum that is deemed acceptable to the needs of the students or community. But, largely, it
is the government that decides the content of a curriculum.
If the role of the federal government is to advance racial equity by creating policies and
strategies aimed at closing achievement gaps (Exec. Order No. 13985, 2021), then it is the role of
each state to work with local governments to develop plans to break-down the institutional
30

barriers within their own communities. This includes achieving racial equity in K-12 schools
with educational reforms that promote a better understanding of people of color and
deconstructing stereotypes. While the division of authority and responsibility appears clearly
delineated, the reality is that the separation of powers is convoluted and confusing. Under a
federalist system of government, each state is responsible for creating policies and standards
unique to its population size, diversity, demographics, and needs. States are granted the power to
create laws and to govern themselves as codified in the 10th Amendment of the Constitution,
where “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to
the States are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people” (U.S. Const. Amend. X).
While not explicitly stated, creating and administering educational policies and programs are a
state (and local governments) function. This was the norm until 1867 when the United States
Department of Education was created with the original mandate to collect information regarding
schools and teaching to help establish an effective education system (U.S. DOE, 2021). The
United States Department of Education’s role would eventually evolve as the nation continued to
grow. The states’ role as the primary education policymakers began to merge with the federal
government as the United States DOE became more education focused. The role of the United
States Department of Education became more significant as events in the latter half of the 20th
Century such as the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s unfolded, putting into motion the need
for a discourse to reform education and provide equal opportunity for equitable education for
every student (Young, 2018). Activists and scholars also challenged the causes of educational
inequality with a focus on transforming school environments and operations with a more
culturally diverse education (Nieto, 2017). As a result of the cry for education reforms, the
federal government’s role in education increased during subsequent presidential administrations
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by the passing of a series of significant legislation aimed at educational reforms at the K-12
level.
Educational Reforms Through Legislation
Educational reforms came through the enactment of federal legislation to address the
quality of education and increase the educational opportunities for students disadvantaged due to
race, social status, physical abilities, etc. (a comprehensive list of each significant legislation’s
provisions is included in Appendix A). Legislation such as the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA), signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, attempted to
“strengthen and improve educational quality and educational opportunities in the Nation’s
elementary and secondary schools” (Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 1965). While
ESEA was a significant commitment by the federal government, the statute's scope was limited,
and a more comprehensive educational reform was needed. Thirty-six years after ESEA was
enacted, President George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 (No
Child Left Behind [NCLB], 2002). This new education legislation was “to close the achievement
gap with accountability, flexibility, and choice so that no child is left behind” (NCLB, 2002).
The NCLB Act included additional provisions such as recruiting high-quality teachers,
promoting informed parental choice, flexibility and accountability for content standards, and the
education needs of indigenous people (NCLB, 2002). However, the NCLB was controversial due
to requirements such as states having to meet a series of outcome-based student-achievement
benchmarks, notably through annual student testing, to receive federal financial support (Heise,
2017). Additionally, the NCLB Act further expanded and restructured the federal government’s
role in K-12 education (Heise, 2017).
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The controversy over the NCLB Act subsequently led to its replacement by the
reauthorization of the ESEA, renaming it the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) of 2015
(Harris et al., 2016). The new law, signed by President Barack H. Obama, continued to promote
equitable opportunities for K-12 students to have access to high-quality education (Every Student
Succeeds Act [ESSA], 2015). However, a major change in ESSA gave states the flexibility to
establish academic and accountability standards while curtailing the federal government’s role in
creating educational policies (Heise, 2016; Saultz et al., 2017). In other words, ESSA gave states
(and local school districts) back the autonomy and authority to create educational policies and
standards as they see fit. The ESSA also allowed each state to secure increased federal funding to
create substantial educational policy changes per each state’s needs and to define teacher
effectiveness and develop plans for improving the equitable distribution for effective teachers
(Saultz et al., 2017).
Educational Reforms Back to the States
The significance of reducing the federal government’s reach in shaping K-12 education
reinforces the basic principle of separation of power between the federal and state governments.
States once again can exercise greater authority to establish their standards to create, test, and
measure academic effectiveness and achievement (Heise, 2016). The autonomy and flexibility of
states to establish their curriculums with minimal federal government intervention also allow the
focus on improving the educational environment for all students. While an area of focus for
ESSA is creating equitable access to education, removing barriers that prevent marginalized or
disadvantaged students from obtaining high-quality education is only one dimension of creating
equity. Strategies for improving cultural inclusiveness and aligning educators’ cultural
33

responsiveness to ensure the needs of historically and traditionally marginalized students are a
must for achieving an equitable education (Chu, 2019).
Educational curriculums that align with state goals that address the needs of its student
demographic are better suited for states and local school districts to determine. State and local
school districts understand their students’ educational needs better than the federal government
and can create culturally relevant curriculums that have the potential to generate positive results
and facilitate meaningful experiences for students that lead to higher engagement and academic
achievement (Amthor & Roxas, 2016). Currently, all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and
Puerto Rico have taken advantage of this renewed power to create educational reform policies
that were reviewed by the United States Department of Education and approved by the Secretary
of Education (Chu, 2019).
Educational Rights
Every student, regardless of their status deserves an education that can lead to a
promising future and success. Though not a constitutionally protected right as ruled by the
Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) (San Antonio Independent School District v.
Rodriguez, 1973), education is an essential building block of any society that aims to move
forward to enhancing the lives of its people and in creating a better nation. However, the 14th
Amendment of the Constitution affirms, “nor shall any state...deny to any person within its
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws” (U.S. Const. amend. XIV). Under this clause and
several case laws based on decisions by the SCOTUS regarding education, equal protection for
an opportunity to receive free public education extends to every student regardless of their racial,
ethnic, physical, and residency status. At the state-level, the right to public education is
recognized by all 50 states and is explicitly stated either in state constitutions or judicially
34

acknowledged as a fundamental right (Imoukhuede, 2019). The State of California also
recognizes education as a fundamental right codified in the State Constitution as, “the
Legislature shall encourage by all suitable means the promotion of intellectual, scientific, moral,
and agricultural improvement” (Cal. Const. art. IX, § 1).
The importance of states acknowledging education as a fundamental right not only
guarantees all students have the right to attend public schools, but some states such as California
extend that right to an equitable education. California’s Department of Education for example,
states, “Ensuring equity in education is a necessary component in narrowing the achievement
gap” (CA DOE, n.d.-b). In addition to addressing possible barriers to education such as the
quality of instruction, curriculum, and teachers, equitable education includes creating a culturally
relevant pedagogy (CRP) such as ethnic studies (Dee & Penner, 2017). An increase of research
literature focused on CRP, suggests that curricula that align with the distinctive cultural diversity
of individuals is more effective for student engagement and achievement when awareness of
cultural-related knowledge is included and identity is affirmed (Dee & Penner, 2017). This is
crucial for a state such as California where the racial transformation or demographics,
enlightenment through social consciousness, and challenges to the political establishment in the
proceeding decades, since the first major federal legislation was signed in 1965, witnessed
societal needs and demands gradually evolve (Harris et al., 2016). Not only must education be
accessible to all students, but no longer should education focus on uniting a nation of immigrants
with a single narrative of history, common values, language, and ideals (Harris et al., 2016).
Historically marginalized groups of people demand equal representation in the classrooms,
challenging the dominant culture who exercised power in creating educational policies and
35

directing the narratives of people of color and their communities (Tintiangco-Cubales et al.,
2014; Vossoughi et al., 2016).
Conceptual Framework
This research study aims to gather data to determine the effects of the under-
representation of Asian American historical legacy in the United States educational system,
specifically in California’s public high schools. Several topics of interest were explored in this
literature review that aided in the contextualization of the extent of Asian American historical
inclusion in the current United States public educational curriculums. They were (a) American
history and pedagogy, (b) Asian American representation, (c) racialization, and (d) challenges to
creating change. The topics examined are complex but are intertwined with one another and the
literature indicates that to offer a solution to change, the intricacy of each topic is addressed.
Therefore, in advancing the research study, each topic can be applied through the lens of the
theoretical framework selected.
The theoretical framework for this study is the transformative learning theory (TLT) by
Mezirow (1978). It serves as the basis of understanding the challenges of creating a new
paradigm in the social sciences educational system that currently exist in public high schools.
Mezirow’s TLT states that personal transformation undergoes ten phases. The ten phases are
indicated in Table 2 (Kitchenham, 2008; Mezirow, 1978).
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Table 2
The Ten Phases of Transformative Learning Theory
Phases
1. A disorienting dilemma.
2. A self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame.
3. A critical assessment of epistemic, sociocultural, or psychic assumptions.
4. Recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared and that
others have negotiated a similar change.
5. Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions.
6. Planning of a course of action.
7. Acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans.
8. Provisional trying of new roles.
9. Building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships.
10. A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s perspective.

For this research study, Mezirow’s ten phases are summarized into five critical phases
(CP) which capture the essence for the application of transformation to occur. They are: (a)
experiences, (b) critical reflection, (c) reflective discourse, (d) learning, and (e) transformation.
Critical phase #1 (CP1) begins with identifying experiences from events or a disorienting
dilemma that initiates a need or question for change (TLT Phase 1). This is followed by CP2
with a critical reflection on past experiences and an assessment of past assumptions (TLT Phases
2 and 3) (Kitchenham, 2008). Critical phase #3 (CP3) begins when a reflective discourse occurs
with recognition, exploration, and planning (TLT Phases 4-6) to initiate change. Critical phase
#4 (CP4) is learning and the acquisition of new knowledge and reassessment of new roles (TLT
Phase 7 and 8) (Kitchenham, 2008). Transformation finally enters into CP5 where the
development of competence and self-confidence allows change to occur with the reintegration of
37

the newly acquired perspective into one’s life based on the new conditions that influence one’s
perspective (phases 9-10) (Kitchenham, 2008). This condensed framework of the TLT aids in
answering the three research questions of how Asian Americans are currently represented and
the challenges of initiating a paradigm change in the social science education curriculum by
creating a program that is authentic and helps raise awareness. However, this study will only
explore CP #1-3 as they encompass the discourse and planning of the transformation. The fourth
and fifth periods represent the practical application and transformation change. Figure 1
illustrates this framework and the three CPs, experience, critical reflection, and reflective
discourse, are highlighted in red.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework of Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory

Note. Conceptual framework adapted from “Transformative Training: How to Foster Learning
for Service and Support Teams,” by Fancy Mills, 2019 interpretation of Mezirow’s
Transformative Learning Theory.
38

Summary
This literature review provided information to gain a better understanding of the current
status of Asian American representation in high school history or social science curriculums, the
effects of marginalization, and the obstacles that pose challenges to effect change. A critical
component to initiating a new history or social science curriculum is dismantling a current
system to create a pedagogy that is not only inclusive but impactful towards encouraging
students of all backgrounds to learn and understand Asian Americans from a holistic perspective.
Further examination of the research study will utilize TLT to aid in understanding the issue and
gain new perspectives of learning that are much needed to create awareness of Asian Americans
in public high schools. Conducting this study will aid in determining the path forward in creating
future strategies to change attitudes and perceptions beginning with the education of adolescents
who represent the future of change in the United States.

39

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to highlight the need to design a curriculum in California’s
public high school education system that will provide an accurate narrative of Asian American
contributions to United States history, leading to increased awareness and empathy toward the
Asian American community and inclusion from society. This chapter discusses the methodology
for this research study. Qualitative research method design was utilized with in-person
interviews and document analysis to gather data to understand the context of the issue and
provide the foundations for a viable solution to design a new curriculum. The study also
discusses the researcher’s positionality, collection method, data analysis method, etc. Three
research questions helped guide the study for clarity and focus on the purpose of the research.
Research Questions
1. How are Asian Americans represented in the educational curriculum in public high
schools in the San Francisco Bay Area?
2. What are the challenges that school districts must overcome to ensure that Asian
American history and legacy are included in an ethnic studies curriculum while not
marginalizing any other racial groups?
3. How can a school district ensure an ethnic studies curriculum promotes
transformative learning to increase awareness of Asian Americans?
Overview of Design
The research utilized qualitative methodology, specifically gathering data using
interviews and document/artifact analysis. According to Creswell (2020), this method is ideal for
exploring and understanding the meaning of social justice issues. The qualitative research
method also lends itself to subjects when not much has been written about the intended
40

population to be studied and affords the researcher, through interaction, to actively listen to
participants, observe verbal and non-verbal cues, and build an understanding of what is heard
(Creswell & Creswell, 2020). The interview questions elicited and encouraged participants
through additional probing questions to elaborate on their responses, providing clarity. This was
crucial because the literature review uncovered an analysis of the current disposition of the Asian
American legacy as taught in public high schools, the impact on the racialization of Asian
Americans, and the challenges that must be addressed to initiate a transformative change.
Individual interviews also provided a more meaningful insight where participants expressed
themselves and provided personal perspectives to enrich the study.
Interviews are invaluable but obtaining a more holistic account (Creswell & Creswell,
2020) on the issue of redesigning an Asian American history education curriculum, requires the
institution responsible for creating the program to be explored. Document analysis is an
appropriate method to accomplish this task by investigating the contents of accessible
organizational documents from several school districts to provide evidence to support the
findings and allow for a more honest interpretation of the data gathered (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Even if they are ongoing, documents serve as written evidence (Creswell & Creswell,
2020) that provide meaningful insight into the perspectives and plans of public officials and
organizations on ethnic studies, more specifically, the importance or lack thereof of Asian
American inclusivity in designing a United States history curriculum. Document analysis also
serves as a data triangulation method to ensure internal validity by comparing and cross-
checking data using two collection methods to confirm emerging findings (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The participants' various demographics and life experiences may present a threat to
internal validity through the emergence of different themes. Triangulation using different data
41

sources aids in identifying common themes to build upon a coherent and accurate conclusion
(Creswell & Creswell, 2020).
Table 3
Data Sources
Research questions Interview Document Analysis
RQ1: How are Asian Americans represented in the
educational curriculum in public high schools
in the San Francisco Bay Area?
X X
RQ2: What are the challenges that school districts
must overcome to ensure that Asian American
history and legacy are included in an ethnic
studies curriculum while not marginalizing
any other racial groups?
X X
RQ3: How can a school district ensure an ethnic
studies curriculum promotes transformative
learning to increase awareness of Asian
Americans?
X X

Research Setting
The research setting for this study was the public high schools (excluding charter and
continuing education high schools) from the nine counties of the San Francisco Bay Area,
California: Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara,
Solano, and Sonoma Counties. Collectively, these nine counties contain over 2.2 million people
of Asian or partial Asian descent, second only to Greater Los Angeles with its five counties of
over 2.7 million (Census Bureau, 2022b). Therefore, the San Francisco Bay Area is an ideal
location to acquire data samples that can represent the diversity of the Asian American
population in the state. The significance of selecting the San Francisco Bay Area is also critical
because, in 2021, California became the first state to pass a law requiring public high schools to
42

include an ethnic studies course in the curriculum to reflect the diverse population effective at
the start of the high school year in 2025 or Fall 2025 (Pupil Instruction, 2021). However, the
California Board of Education determined that creating an ethnic studies curriculum is at the
discretion of the individual school districts (California Department of Education, 2021; Pupil
Instruction, 2021). Due to California's racial and ethnic diverse population, the curriculum
developers will determine the content they deem appropriate for their school district, which can
vary widely from one another. Depending on the school district, the amount of Asian American
history inclusion is questionable and may not represent Asian Americans.
Despite the content differences that school districts will have for their high school ethnic
studies, the San Francisco Bay Area still represents the ideal region to gather data that can
represent the Asian American community. The ethnic diversity of Asian Americans in this
geographical region in California can still reveal valuable information to showcase the need to
include Asian American history in the high school social science curriculums and the subjects to
include when developing an inclusive curriculum. Many Asian Americans in the San Francisco
Bay Area also have deep historical roots with a large pool of potential participants that will offer
a deeper understanding of the plight of Asian Americans through personal perspectives.
The Researcher
In conducting this research study, I must first acknowledge that my race and life
experiences shaped my attitudes and perceptions of the treatment of Asian Americans. I am
Filipino American and immigrated to the United States as a toddler during the end of the
American Civil Rights Movement and grew up in San Francisco, California. Despite the racial
diversity in the San Francisco Bay Area and California in general, it is from personal experiences
of receiving my K-12 education and growing up in different neighborhoods in San Francisco and
43

Daly City (also known as Little Manila) that were predominately Asian, that my perceptions and
attitudes about racism and discrimination formed from an insider’s perspective. My perspectives
solidified even further during three decades of military service and as a private military
contractor in which I lived and worked in many states in the United States.
I also spent over 10 years living and working in Northeast and Southeast Asia. While
serving in Asia, most non-Asian Americans that I worked with had very condescending attitudes
towards the local people. This is crucial to my research study as my opinions and perspectives
about racism and discrimination are attributed to these experiences and are very strong. As a
researcher, this can be problematic as my subjectivity, interaction with participants, and data
collection design may influence the behavior and responses of myself and the people I interview
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, it is essential that I exercise empathetic neutrality or
consciously strive to avoid systematic bias and be objective with the collection, interpretation,
and presentation of my research (Gary & Holmes, 2020).
The importance of my neutrality gains more significance during my research as the
interview participants will not necessarily have the same experiences as me. I must assume that
each participant's experience varies in different degrees as each person's life events, age, and
intersectionality will not be the same. The Asian ethnicity of each person will delineate the
personal experiences even more, which will add a richer and fuller understanding of a narrative.
Some participants may be immigrants like myself and lived almost all or part of their lives in the
United States. Others may have been born in the United States. It is also crucial to understand
that a racially diverse area such as San Francisco will have different dynamics that contribute to
experiences than a rural area where the Asian population is very minimal. Reflexivity requires
that I am sensitive to the variances that make up the participants' characters and life experiences
44

(Gary & Holmes, 2020). It is challenging not to allow my preconceptions to influence my
research but acknowledging the uniqueness of my positionality and my role as a doctoral student
researcher will aid in recognizing the implications that will trigger my biases and allow me to
engage in a more open dialogue with the participants and produce a more accurate interpretation
of the data I collect.
Data Sources
Data sources for the research study consisted of interviews and document analysis of
accessible public documents from select California school districts. These two data collection
methods provided personal and public perspectives to create a holistic picture of the research
study. Both methods were advantageous for uncovering data that aligns with the research
questions. The data collected from both methods were also used for triangulation to corroborate
or challenge themes that emerged during the research process.
Interviews
The interviews were designed with a mixture of a highly structured and semistructured
protocol conducted either in-person or through an online platform such as Zoom (Appendix B).
The highly structured portion of the interview offers a systematic approach utilizing
predetermined questions to gather common data such as how long a person has been teaching,
educational background, history or social science subjects taught, high school location, teacher
demographics, etc. (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The questions are objective and do not require
participants' perspectives and thoughts on the research topic. Demographic data provides a
contextual background of the participant’s experiences and the environment in which narrated
events occurred. Demographical data using a structured format will also allow the researcher to
45

explore statistical differences that may affect the final conclusion, such as differing experiences
between ethnicities or gender (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
While highly structured interviews are valuable in establishing the participant's
background, the requirement to gain a more profound, in-depth understanding of the research
study compels a semistructured format to gather additional information. A semi-structured
interview uses standardized questions for all participants while allowing each individual to
elaborate on their responses through my probing (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Open-ended
questions clarify ambiguous points or themes during the interview since participants will freely
share different ideas and perspectives without the constraints of a predetermined scale or
instrument (Creswell & Creswell, 2020). The semi-structured approach also aids the researcher
to guide the interview and explore issues that align with the research questions (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
Participants
Participants were selected using purposeful, nonrandom, small sampling to allow
discovery and in-depth understanding from a group to provide meaningful insights and align
with the study's purpose (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The pool of participants decided most
appropriate by the researcher for the study were high school social science teachers who teach or
have recently taught at public high schools from one of the nine San Francisco Bay Area
counties. Teachers from non-traditional public high schools such as adult continuing education
or charter schools are not included in the participant pool due to the varied curriculums each of
these schools offer. Teachers can share a powerful narrative from their educational background
and experiences of teaching in the leading role they play in shaping and preparing students to
become productive members of society (Gialamas & Pelonis, 2017). More importantly, teachers
46

provide valuable input to school districts in creating new curriculums to craft strategies that will
transform education and serve as a catalyst to change societal perspectives of Asian Americans
(Musarat et al., 2017). The criteria chosen for this research study are summarized in Table 4.
Table 4
Interview Participant Criteria
Criteria Number of
Participants
1. Must be a teacher who currently teaches or recently taught a social science
subject (United States history, world history, ethnic studies, or social studies
course) in a California public high school (charter and continuing education
high schools are excluded). Age, race, ethnicity, and gender are not factors.
10
2. Must be a teacher who currently teaches or recently taught in a school
district from one of the nine counties in the San Francisco Bay Area.

3. Must have at least one year of teaching a social science course in a
California public high school.

4. Must be employed or have performed as a full-time history or social
science teacher (substitute or part-time teachers are excluded).

Over 300 teachers representing public high schools from the nine San Francisco Bay
Area counties were sent email invitations to participate (Appendix C). Fourteen high school
teachers agreed to be interviewed. Each digitally signed the required informed consent form
informing them of the purpose of the research study and method to protect their personal
identifiable information. Interview dates, times, location, and method were agreed upon, and
verified by both the researcher and each teacher through a formal invitation sent via email. Three
participants did not show up as agreed upon and one participant reversed his decision to
participate. Ultimately, 10 high school teachers were interviewed. The sample population
47

interviewed came from five of the nine counties. The interviews were conducted during a two-
month period and lasted between 45-90 minutes.
Instrumentation
The primary instrumentation to collect data for the research study was the interview
protocol (Appendix B). The interview protocol served as a guide for the researcher to ensure
consistency in collecting data (Burkholder et al., 2020). It consisted of four essential components
such as basic information or logistical details (e.g., date, location, start and end times), an
introduction that explains the purpose, informed consent and process, the interview questions,
and a closing statement (Burkholder et al., 2020; Creswell & Creswell, 2020). The interview
protocol began with Section I, which disclosed information to the participant to make an
informed decision to participate and terminate the interview at any time voluntarily. Section II to
IV of the interview protocol is the most critical component and contains the interview questions
that align with the research questions (RQ). The first seven interview questions represent the
structured interview portion to gather data of the teacher, their experience, educational
background, grade level taught, subjects taught, ethnicity, teacher and student demographics, and
courses with Asian American content that are taught at their school. The interview transitions to
the semistructured part with the questions that support each research question. The next nine
questions are aligned with RQ1 and elicit responses about the representation of Asian Americans
in the history curriculums in public high schools from the San Francisco Bay Area. The next
section contained 11 interview questions which align with RQ2 to gather the perspectives of the
participants on creating an inclusive and equitable ethnic studies program that is representative
of Asian Americans while not alienating the narratives of other racial groups. Collectively, the
interview questions gathered data the researcher drew conclusions about the status of Asian
48

American representation from the social science curriculums taught at the high schools.
Additional probing questions are included with each primary interview question to encourage the
participant to elaborate on their initial reactions or if themes emerge that need clarification.
Section IV contains four interview questions that align with RQ3 to gather insights on
approaches to initiate transformative ways to educate students through the input of teachers
about Asian Americans and create awareness and empathy. The last section of the interview
protocol is the closing comments to thank the participants and encourage them to provide
additional information or potential referrals for future interviews.
Data Collection Procedures
The interview protocol was the primary tool to collect data for the research study. This
document served as a standardized checklist for all participants (Appendix B). Eight interviews
were conducted via Zoom video conferencing due to travel distance and individual COVID
safety concerns, and only two interviews were done in person. Data was captured using a voice
recorder for in-person interviews or video captured on Zoom. All voice and video interviews
were translated into text and reviewed for accuracy and content clarity.
The interview protocol began with contacting potential participants via email to
determine an interview date and provide a timely response. The email included a voluntary
disclosure statement, confidentiality agreement, the researcher’s position, and general details on
the purpose of the study, procedures, and questions. When a participant agreed to participate in
the interview, an email was sent the day prior to remind the time, date, and location or medium.
On the day of the interview, the interview protocol was read verbatim in detail, of the same
content as the email to ensure the participant understands the expectations and conditions and
can choose to withdraw and terminate the interview at any time. The recording started
49

immediately once the interview protocol was initiated and served as an implicit agreement to
begin or terminate the interview. Each question was read verbatim, and the participants were
given ample time to provide their responses. The conversation remained focused and not hastily
conducted to ensure the interview dialogue was captured accurately. Probing questions were also
asked during the interview to allow the interviewee to expand upon their responses. Unscripted
probing questions were asked if new themes emerged that were not anticipated. The interviews
lasted between 45-60 minutes. Personally identifiable information such as name and ethnicity
were collected during the interview. However, as per the Informed Consent for Research
protocol (Appendix D), names remain confidential, but race or ethnicity was included to
demonstrate the commonality or differences in opinions and perspectives amongst the different
groups of participants. School names and locations were deleted from the interview protocol as
they were already determined prior to the start of an interview and kept confidential to protect
the anonymity of each participant. All participants were assigned a pseudonym to protect their
identity. All data recorded electronically were safeguarded and placed in an external hard drive.
All notes are scheduled to be destroyed after one year of the research study unless the data is
required if this research study expands further in the future.
Data Analysis
The research study consists of a significant amount of data collected through interviews.
Managing data was done utilizing a data analysis model prescribed by Creswell and Creswell
(2020). It is crucial to systematically process the data to understand and accurately interpret the
data before developing a conclusion. The data from ten sets of interview notes and transcripts
may vary considerably or be similar. However, they must be organized and classified to allow
the researcher to process and access the data efficiently. Notes and transcripts must be reviewed
50

for accuracy, and ambiguous data must be first clarified before proceeding further. Once the data
is organized, possible themes that arise from the responses must be identified. Themes may be
stand-alone or be common amongst the participants. This can be accomplished using open
coding utilizing the software application ATLAS.ti, by annotating similarities with comments
from the transcripts or observations that will aid in labeling or categorizing themes (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Coding using ATLAS.ti or similar software is efficient and systematically
organizes data to identify patterns and themes that support the conceptual framework and answer
the research questions. A crucial step when coding was to segment the transcript into categories
and label those categories with a term based on the actual language of the participant (Creswell
& Creswell, 2020).
Document/Artifact Analysis
As the second method to collect data, document analysis provided a holistic interpretation
and robust narrative to enhance the research study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Official
documents from the California State Board of Education were reviewed. This included the
history-social science framework guidance from the State and the newly proposed guidance for
the high school ethnic studies requirements for graduation (CA DOE, 2016; Pupil Instruction,
2021). Select school districts that outline an ethnic studies curriculum or strategic plans were
also analyzed. For example, strategic plans from the San Francisco Unified School District and
Oakland Unified School District were reviewed to determine the long-range plan for developing
an ethnic studies curriculum that satisfies the new ethnic studies requirements in California’s
public high schools. The document analysis included verifying student demographic data
collected during the interviews utilizing the California Department of Education School
Dashboard. Finally, data was also collected from the College Board which contains
51

recommended topics of discussion for advanced placement history and social science subjects to
prepare high school students for college-level studies. The contents from the document analysis
were invaluable and provided critical insight into the perspectives of officials who are
responsible for creating the ethnic studies content for California’s high schools. Curriculum
developers and administration officials have acknowledged that Asian American history must be
included in a social science curriculum. However, prioritizing Asian Americans along with other
racial groups is a challenge that must still be addressed.
Data Collection Procedures
Acquiring documents for the research study began with an internet search of official
schools, school districts, and the California Department of Education websites. Documents such
as the San Francisco and Oakland Unified School Districts’ strategic plans are readily accessible,
as is the California State Board of Education’s guidance to school districts on developing an
ethnic studies curriculum. Requests for select documents that were not available on open source
were made to the appropriate school district for access. Other documents, such as an ethnic
studies proposal by a nonprofit organization that collaborated with one high school in San
Francisco was reviewed as it provided some insights into the ethnic studies curriculum
development. This document was ultimately not used in this research but provided an insight on
what an Asian American history curriculum could include.
Data Analysis
Documents from the California State Board of Education and school districts were
collected through open sources or provided when requested. Each document was examined for
any themes that align or support any themes that emerge during the interviews. Cross-checking
52

data from the document analysis with the interviews with the participants also aided in
triangulation.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Credibility and trustworthiness are critical components of qualitative research to establish
the quality of the research study and accuracy from the position of the researcher, the participant,
and the readers (Creswell & Creswell, 2020). Credibility refers to whether the data collected are
believable or plausible. Trustworthiness refers to the role of the researcher and how the final
narrative is constructed to tell the story of the participants and the findings honestly and as
accurately as possible (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Prior to employing different strategies to
check the credibility and trustworthiness of the study, threats to validity must be addressed to
identify the researcher's ability to be ethical throughout the process. First and foremost, the
researcher's ability to formulate correct inferences from the data relies on acknowledging their
positionality and remaining objective when analyzing data collected during interviews (Creswell
& Creswell, 2020). Second, threats from incorrect inferences such as over-generalizing the data
from participants who offer different narratives even though they belong to the same racial group
or misinterpretation of the documents analyzed (Creswell & Creswell, 2020). For this research,
triangulation, member checks, and audit trails were used to check the credibility and
trustworthiness of the research study.
Triangulation
Triangulation was accomplished by comparing and cross-checking the data collected
from interviews and document analysis to determine if common themes and perspectives arise
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Participants, their education, background, school locations, and the
faculty and student demographics at their school and county varied. Each person’s different
53

teaching experiences were invaluable, but the information still needed to be verified.
Triangulation of the data using the transcripts and document analysis aided in determining if
there are any anomalies with the responses. There could be a valid reason for any deviations.
However, they must be noted and explained. Additionally, this procedure highlighted any
discrepancies that surfaced due to the differences in opinions and official policies within a school
district that may not always coalesce and run contrary to the data collected (Creswell &
Creswell, 2020). In contrast, crossing-checking interview data with documents from the school
districts helped determine if there were common themes between personal experiences and
official documentation from government sources.
Member Checks
Member checks are an ideal method to validate notes after an interview by seeking
feedback from a participant to ensure that the researcher's findings are accurate and not
misinterpretation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Note-taking is challenging, and sometimes, not all
words are transcribed accurately. Even with the aid of a recording device, the interpretation of a
statement may differ from the participant's intent. Researcher bias may also influence the
interpretation. Other times, what may appear as an obvious interpretation of a statement by the
researcher, may be different from the participant's perspective. It is also plausible that the
participant may have misunderstood an interview question. Reaching out to a participant during
and after each interview aided in clarifying and reviewing findings to ensure accurate
interpretation.
Audit Trail
An audit trail is the third method to check for credibility and trustworthiness by providing
readers with the researcher's pathway on how the research was conducted and the process that
54

led to the study's conclusion (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Audit trails allowed the researcher to
track progress in a systematic approach that is organized and methodical. This was accomplished
through journal notes and memos that recorded the process the researcher took during each stage
as the study unfolded. Audit trails also aid readers of the study to follow the research process and
determine if all research activities were conducted and accomplished. The methodology section
provided a general description of the audit trail, but utilizing this method will require a more
detailed account of the researcher's activities, including the process of finding and recruiting
participants, deciding whom to interview, requesting documents, etc.
Ethics
The principles which guide the research study were applied to the researcher’s conduct
and the treatment of the participants to ensure that knowledge and findings are presented free
from bias and truthfully to avoid any misrepresentation or false conclusions, whether intentional
or not. Performing an ethical study began with the researcher acknowledging their positionality
and being reflexive to understand their influences in the research process (Gary & Holmes,
2020). When creating the research study proposal, guidelines provided by Creswell and Creswell
(2020) to aid in anticipating ethical issues during the process were integrated into the research
process to protect the participants, develop trust, and promote integrity (Creswell & Creswell,
2020). Additional guidelines on ethical research by Hicks (n.d.) in the Collaborative Institutional
Training Initiative on Informed Consent by the University of Southern California were also
included. This includes consent documentation as a crucial component where participants
voluntarily agree to be interviewed, recorded with their signature, or electronically captured on
audio or video (Hicks, n.d.).
55

The interview protocol introduction highlights the requirement of informed consent for
each participant before proceeding with the interview questions with the necessary information
to ensure they understand the research, their role, and their rights to not provide any answers or
terminate the interview if they feel uncomfortable. Each participant will also be asked for
permission by the researcher to record the interview electronically. The essential elements such
as the research purpose, risks, benefits, no-penalty clause for not participating, etc., and other
applicable elements as appropriate such as special circumstances that may result in early
termination of the interview or if an unexpected significant finding is uncovered relating to the
subject, were provided as per Federal Regulations 45 CFR 46 as described by Hicks (n.d.).
Parental permission was not required as all participants met the age criteria of 21 years or older
to participate. An appropriate location was selected as per the suggestion of the researcher or
participant to ensure they were in a comfortable environment and ready to participate in the
interview. Finally, the researcher requested IRB approval before proceeding with the interviews.
Protection of personally identifiable information (PII) that is applicable to the research is
critical to the ethical integrity of the research. Only relevant PII, such as names, ethnicity, etc.,
were collected. However, all participants were informed that their names or PII were
safeguarded. Pseudonyms were assigned to each person, and any PII revealed during the
interview was redacted to ensure anonymity. All data was protected by first ensuring they are all
converted electronically and then transferred to an external hard drive which is more secure than
a cloud storage provider due to its vulnerability to hackers.

56

Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to examine the scope of the present and future content of
how Asian Americans are portrayed in the history and social science curriculums in California’s
public high schools, as well as the creation of an ethnic studies program that is inclusive and
equitable. The transformative learning theory (TLT) by Mezirow (1978) was used as the
foundation for the conceptual framework to study how an educational curriculum may pursue a
change that would identify mitigating factors that contribute to issues of Asian American
inclusivity in the social science curriculums, more specifically United States history and ethnic
studies, and determine possible solutions to address the issues. Additionally, the TLT framework
served as the basis for the research questions created for this study to determine themes related to
(a) American history pedagogy, (b) Asian American representation, and (c) challenges to
creating change. The following research questions addressed for this study are:
1. How are Asian Americans represented in the educational curriculum in public high
schools in the San Francisco Bay Area?
2. What are the challenges that school districts must overcome to ensure that Asian
American history and legacy are included in an ethnic studies curriculum while not
marginalizing any other racial groups?
3. How can a school district ensure an ethnic studies curriculum promotes
transformative learning to increase awareness of Asian Americans?
The three research questions aided in crafting the interview questions that aligned with
each that proved insightful during the interviews, which allowed the participants to share their
perspectives on the issues with Asian American representation and difficulties in initiating
change. While the findings for this research study represent only a small sample from a major
57

metropolitan area in the State of California, it nonetheless indicated that the problem exists and
needs to be addressed.
Changing California’s public high school social science curriculums is complicated, as
described in the literature review. It became even more apparent during the interviews with the
10 participants who expressed challenges when teaching a curriculum that attempts to be as
inclusive as possible. Evidence from interview questions supported the findings for each research
question to better understand the complicated workings of the educational system in California’s
public high schools. In addition, document analysis was conducted to supplement the findings
that emerged from the participant’s responses. Documents from school districts, the California
Board of Education, and other governing bodies that codify curriculum standards for higher
education were especially invaluable. The information from the documents also aided in
assisting with the triangulation of the interview findings to provide a better understanding of the
participant’s responses and provide corroboration. Finally, the California Department of
Education Dashboard was used to verify student demographic data.
In examining the findings of this research study, this chapter begins with a profile
description of each participant. While the initial goal was to solicit responses from teachers of
Asian American descent, only two participants who fit into that racial category agreed to
participate. However, this does not diminish the importance of the evidence provided by non-
Asian American participants as they also provide insightful perspectives from an alternate racial
or ethnic group to compare responses. The responses from each participant are examined in
detail which support the overarching themes that emerged from the literature review and align
with the conceptual framework of creating a transformative change.

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Participants
Well known for its racial, ethnic, and cultural diversity, the San Francisco Bay Area was
an ideal location to recruit and interview participants about their teaching profession and lived
experiences. The region has the second largest Asian American population in the United States
after the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area. Over 2.2 million Asian Americans live throughout the
nine San Francisco Bay Area counties. The participants interviewed came from five out of nine
counties: Alameda, Marin, San Francisco, Santa Clara, and Sonoma. Of these five counties, three
(Alameda, San Francisco, and Santa Clara Counties) have a significant Asian American
population as well as a student body. Asian Americans represent 33.8% of the total population in
Alameda County, 37.2% in San Francisco County, and 40.6% in Santa Clara County (Census
Bureau, 2022b). Asian Americans represent the second largest student body in Alameda and
Santa Clara Counties at 30.2% and 33.9%, respectively, after Hispanics/Latinos (CA DOE,
2022a). In San Francisco County, Asian Americans are the student body majority at 35% (CA
DOE, 2022a).
For this study, ten teachers from different schools in five out of nine counties in the San
Francisco Bay Area agreed to be interviewed. Of the ten participants interviewed for this study,
nine currently teach at a public high school. Eight of the nine teachers have taught at one or more
high schools. The tenth participant recently taught at two public high schools and currently
works in administration. All participants interviewed currently teach or have taught one or more
social science subjects (e.g., economics, ethnic studies, geography, human geography, social
studies, United States history, and world history). Each provided their unique perspectives on the
importance of creating greater awareness for Asian Americans and offered proposals for creating
a paradigm change in the social science curriculum pedagogy during the two-part interview
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consisting of a semi-structured series of questions. The ten participants come from a diverse
range of educational backgrounds: social sciences, public health, public policy, and tech.
Approximately 70% possess a graduate degree. The participants' teaching experiences range
from one year to 27 years with an average of 8.9 years of teaching. The teaching staff
demographic data of each school was provided by the teachers during the interviews. Additional
data on each school’s student demographics were sourced and verified from the California
Department of Education Dashboard (CA DOE, 2022a). Table 5 provides a brief demographic
description for each of the interview participants. Each participant was assigned a pseudonym to
protect their personal identifiable information. The participants’ school student body profile is
located in Appendix E.
Table 5
Participants Demographic Information
Participant
Race/
Ethnicity
Approximate
Years
Teaching
Subjects
Currently Teaches or Has
Taught Ethnic Studies
Sarah* Asian 3 H, S, SS Yes
Nolan Asian/White 11 E, GO No
Diana* Latina 5 H, APH Yes
Bruce* White 7 E, GO, APH No
Elijah* White 11 E, ES, GO, APH, WH Yes
Faith White 1 WH No
Harrison* White 5 E, APG, H No
Tiana White 12 H, WH Yes
Victor* White 7 APH, GE, SS No
William* White 27 H, SS, WH No

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Notes. * = Possesses a master’s degree, APG = Advance Placement (AP) Government, APH =
AP United States History, E = Economics, ES = Ethnic Studies, GE = Geography, GO =
Government, H = United States History, S = Sociology, SS = Social Studies, WH = World
History
Sarah
Sarah previously taught at a small public high school before moving to higher
administration. The high school teaching staff consists of a mix of Asian (34.6%), White
(30.7%), Black (27%), and Hispanic/Latino (7.7%). Sarah’s teaching experience includes having
created and taught ethnic studies. As a person that identifies first with her national origin and
second as Asian, her experiences growing up in the San Francisco Bay Area adds to the
authenticity to the content of the ethnic studies curriculum she helped create in both high schools
where she previously taught.
Nolan
Nolan is a teacher at a public high school where the majority of the teaching staff are
predominantly White (70%) with the remaining 30 percent a mix of teachers from other racial
groups. Nolan is unique amongst the interview participants because he is biracial. As an insider
from two racial groups (Asian and White), his perspectives of the underrepresentation of Asian
Americans in California’s public high schools offers a small glimpse of the struggles to ensure
that both races have fair representation in the social science curriculums.
Diana
Diana is a teacher at a public high school whose teaching and staff are predominately
White and there are few teachers of color. The school has attempted to hire more teachers from
other racial groups, but currently, only 10% are teachers of color. Diana is highly passionate
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about creating awareness for marginalized racial or ethnic groups as evidenced by being
instrumental in creating and teaching ethnic studies at her school. Her dedication to the teaching
profession was evident from witnessing the interaction with her students before, during, and after
the interview process.
Bruce
Bruce is a teacher at a public high school with a teaching staff that is predominately
White. The school employs Asian American, Black, and Latino teachers but the current numbers
are not reflective of the student body. Bruce intended to enter a career as an education
policymaker but discovered that he loved teaching more than policy creation during an
internship. This led him to acquire his teaching credential and return to graduate school to pursue
a master’s degree in social studies.
Elijah
Elijah is a teacher at a public high school with a teaching staff composed mostly of
Hispanics/Latinos and Asians with few Black and White teachers. Elijah is unique from the other
participants in regard to education because he was the only one who has taught classes in higher
education. In addition to the multitude of social science subjects Elijah has taught or currently
teaches, he also provides nonacademic support classes for students who have difficulties in
learning. Elijah was the most open and gregarious participant as he freely provided descriptive
narratives of his personal history of struggle as an economically disadvantaged youth. However,
his determination and tenacity to succeed and attend higher education were successful coupled
with the support of his maternal grandmother who raised him. The interview with Elijah was also
the most detailed, comprehensive, and longest, providing many insights from his years of
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teaching and contributing back to his community by teaching in a high school with many socio-
economic disadvantaged students.
Faith
Faith is a teacher at a public high school where the majority of teachers are White.
Between 25% – 40% are Hispanics/Latinos. The high school only has one Asian American
teacher. Faith is fairly new to education having originally come from the public health
profession. After graduating from college, Faith began as an assistant in the special education
department of a high school. After one year, she was inspired to become a teacher and received
her teaching credential to pursue a career in education.
Harrison
Harrison is a teacher at a public high school where the majority of the high school
teaching staff are White (60%) with a mix of Asians and teachers from other racial groups, 30%
and 10%, respectively. Harrison comes with a background in data/research analysis having
worked for tech and consulting companies. After college, he began to work for a major social
media company in workflow management. However, Harrison decided to pursue a graduate
degree in education and subsequently changed his career path and became a teacher. His passion
for his new profession and making a positive impact on his community was evident during the
interview.
Tiana
Tiana teaches at a public high school where the teaching staff is predominately White,
but teachers of color are also represented at the school. Tiana is the fourth teacher that has a
background in teaching ethnic studies. Tiana teaches multiple courses in addition to history. She
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co-teaches an ethnic studies course and works with students who are developing their proficiency
in English. Tiana is currently applying to return to graduate school.
Victor
Victor teaches at a public high school where the teaching staff is predominately White
(85%), with Asian, Black, and Hispanic/Latino teachers comprising the remaining numbers
collectively at 15%. Victor is avid about encouraging and recruiting more underrepresented
minority students to enroll in advanced placement courses to boost their chances of college
success. He also serves as a head coach of one of the successful athletics teams at his school.
William
William teaches at a public high school where the teaching staff is overwhelmingly
White, with very few teachers of color and no Asian Americans. As the most senior teacher
interviewed, William provided a wealth of knowledge from almost three decades of teaching at
the high school level. Originally intending to pursue a career aligned with international
organizations that help solve complex issues afflicting the global stage, William instead opted to
focus his career on education. He received his teaching credentials and returned to graduate
school to pursue a master’s degree. During his tenure as a teacher, William created a unique
course that explores the relationship between economics and social systems in society,
expanding the knowledge base of high school students beyond the traditional or core subjects.
Overarching Themes
The findings of this study revealed major themes that emerged to answer the research
questions. The themes represent a small sample from one region in California, but the
commonality in the data suggests that other counties and school districts within the San
Francisco Bay Area, and other regions in the State may experience similar issues in their social
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science curriculums. Despite the size of the sample, the themes are supported by the data and
indicate a recurring pattern in the state of Asian American representation in the social science
curriculums and elements that contribute to the issue (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Just as critical,
are the themes that capture an important story that leads to uncovering possible root causes
versus analyzing the issue on the surface level. Additionally, focusing on the emergent themes
aided in performing an in-depth analysis which proved crucial when providing recommendations
for future curriculum changes. Table 6 summarizes six themes and their alignment with the three
Critical Phase (CP) #1-3 from the condensed transformative learning theory (TLT) conceptual
framework used for this study, experiences, critical reflection, and reflective discourse.
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Table 6
Findings
Overarching Theme Findings Research Question
Cultural mismatch (CP1) Teaching staff is mostly not
representative of the Asian American
student body.

Few Asian American social science
teachers.
1
Lack of ethnic representation
(CP1)
Limited coverage of Asian Americans.

Asian American topics focus primarily
on a select few Asian groups.

Asian American history focuses
primarily on historical trauma.

Minimal Content on Asian American
Achievements.
1
Reactive interest impact
(CP2)
A top-down design impact on
curriculum creation.

Current political climate influences
curriculum creation.
2
Challenge of equitable
representation (CP2)
Equitable representation of all races and
ethnicities is challenging.

Combining Asian American
experiences.
2
Building connections (CP3)

Building cultural knowledge and
understanding for teachers.

Building stakeholder relationships.
3
Creating self-awareness (CP3) Creating a brave space.

Incorporating experiential learning.
3

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Cultural Mismatch (CP1)
In a state as racially and ethnically diverse as California, creating a truly inclusive social
science curriculum is challenging. Choosing appropriate and relevant topics for a history or
ethnic studies course becomes even more complex when two cultures conflict with one another.
The cultural mismatch between high school teachers and students can lead to the
underrepresentation of Asian Americans in social science curriculums (Nguyen et al., 2018). For
this study, the cultural mismatch is between Asian American students and teachers from a school
that is not from the same racial or ethnic group. Research indicates that a wider gap in the racial
or ethnic differences between students and teachers has implications for equitable student access
to learning opportunities (Willis, 2023). Equitable not only means access to resources to aid
students in learning but also access to a rich and comprehensive history and social science
curriculum that is inclusive and allows students to learn, understand, and value other
communities, people, and cultures within the society (CA DOE, 2016). A lack of proper
understanding of other racial minority students, more specifically Asian Americans, can lead
teachers to choose topics that may not be relevant or meaningful.
Evidence from qualitative studies suggests that cultural mismatch can result in schools
and curriculums frequently misaligned with the cultural priorities and out-of-school experiences
of minority students (Dee & Penner, 2017). For this study, evidence from nine of the high
schools, as provided by each participant, represented varying degrees of cultural mismatch
between teachers and Asian American students regardless of the composition of each group. The
impact of a cultural mismatch was evident with the Asian American subjects selected for
inclusion in the social science curriculum of each participant’s school. Additionally, each of the
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teachers interviewed struggled to create a curriculum that would be more inclusive and
representative of Asian Americans specifically.
Teaching Staff is Mostly Not Representative of the Asian American Student Body
The cultural mismatch between the teaching staff and the social science department of
nine schools stands in contrast to the number of Asian American students. In eight of the high
schools, the teaching staff is predominately White, while the student body makeup was of a
minority racial group. The ninth high school’s teaching staff and student body comprised the
same ethnic group (i.e., Hispanic/Latino). In two of the eight high schools, Asian Americans
comprised the majority of the student body. In the last or 10th high school, Asian Americans
comprised the majority of the teaching staff. Sarah, the only interview participant of full Asian
descent, had taught at this school, and stated that unlike the first school she taught at that was
predominately White, this school was “predominantly people of color.” This last school is
unique because, unlike the other nine schools, it is very small and does not have a large student
body or teaching staff. While the 10th school is a public high school, and not a charter or
continuing education, it is atypical because the school was intentionally designed to accept only
a limited number of students from marginalized racial groups who reside in the low-income
districts of San Francisco. The other nine schools provide a more consistent pattern of cultural
mismatch.
In the nine other high schools, the number of Asian American teachers varies. However,
a cultural mismatch is expected due to the racial demographics of the San Francisco Bay Area. In
the five counties where the interview participants are from, Whites comprise 64% of the
population, while Asians comprise 24.7% (Census Bureau, 2022b). A significant Hispanic/
Latino population also resides in the five counties at 21.6% (Census Bureau, 2022b). It is
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predictable that many schools will have a prominent presence of White teachers, with the
exception of one of the schools aforementioned, whose majority of teachers are Hispanic/Latino.
An example of the cultural mismatch is evident in the county where Bruce and Diana
teach. Bruce, who teaches economics, government, and history at a school in this county with a
White majority population stated, “The teachers at the school that I work at are predominantly
White. There is a good percentage of Asian American teachers, but not reflective of the student
population.” Similarly, Diana stated:
We have quite a lot of White teachers, an overrepresentation of White teachers compared
to the students’ demographics. Having said that, there are quite a few teachers of color
that we've been making more of an effort to hire, especially into the social studies
department, but it's been a trajectory. The year that I started here, there were two people
of color in the history department and the rest were White men. And then, that's now
changed. So, now in social studies, I can't, I don't have specific numbers off the top of my
head for the whole school, but in the social studies department, it's now more like, 10%
are people of color, which is a big improvement.
A third high school in the same county where Bruce and Diana teach also has a
predominately White teaching staff. Tiana, who teaches at this high school stated:
Although we skew predominantly White, it is probably the most diverse site I've ever
worked for. So, we have a principal who's Puerto Rican. We have an assistant principal
who's African American, or counselors, we have a counselor who is Vietnamese. We
have a counselor who is from American Samoa. We have a school psychologist who's
Japanese. So, I would say, teachers, probably maybe 20 to 30%, people of color.

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While Asian Americans comprise the second largest racial group in the county where Bruce and
Tiana teach at (Census Bureau, 2022b), an increase in the number of teachers that would be
reflective of the Asian American student body continues to remain small and future increases
remain questionable.
In an adjacent county where Bruce, Diana, and Tiana teach, Elijah’s high school racial
demographics are the most unique of the ten schools. Elijah’s school’s composition is
predominantly Hispanic/Latino for both teachers and the student body. Elijah stated, “The
teaching population, I would say, is relatively diverse. The smallest population, I would probably
say, is African American teachers. And then the highest population would probably be Latino,
and then next would be Asian American and then White.” The county itself is predominately
White, accounting for 50.5%, followed by Asians at 40.6%. Hispanics/Latinos account for only
25% of the population. The majority Hispanic/Latino school population is best explained by the
geographical location of the county. The county is unique because it encompasses many of the
billion-dollar tech companies and an even larger rural agriculture area stretching beyond the
immediate Bay Area itself. As Elijah further indicated:
The biggest thing that makes our teachers stand out is, we have more teachers that are
alumni from that school that came back to teach than any other school in the district. So, I
think we have 14 or 15 people that are former students from the high school that came
back, and most of those teachers are teachers of color.
Despite the school’s strong ethnic diversity among the teaching staff, a cultural mismatch does
exist because the number of Asian American teachers that are represented in the school is low.
In the same county where Elijah teaches, Harrison teaches at the second school with a
majority Asian American student body. This school is similar to the first high school with an
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Asian American student body majority but has a predominately White teaching staff. Harrison
stated that the teachers at his school are, “60% White, 30% Asian, and 10% all other races.”
While there appears to be a greater representation of Asian American teachers at this high
school, the number remains small when considering that 2,261 (from Appendix E) of the
students are of Asian American descent.
At the third high school in the same county where Elijah and Harrison teach, the teaching
staff is predominately White. Nolan is the second teacher interviewed of Asian descent. He
teaches history, government, and economics at the school, and estimates that “70% of the
teachers are White.” The number is still very low when considering that 401 of the student-body
are Asian Americans, the second largest number of students in the high school.
The last three high schools represented in this study are located in two counties that are
designated urban-rural due to major cities in the region as well as large areas of open country.
These two counties are overwhelmingly White at a combined average of 85.4%. As a result, the
teaching staff from these three schools are predominantly White. According to Faith, who
teaches in the northernmost county of the San Francisco Bay Area, “There are probably more
White teachers, but we do have, I’d say like 25 to 40% of our teachers are Hispanic.” In regard to
the number of Asian American teachers, Faith further stated, “I know one teacher who is Asian. I
think that's our ethnic background.” A similar description was given by William, who teaches in
the same county. He stated:
We are overwhelmingly White, far whiter than our student body. And in terms of
teachers of color, it's actually gotten less diverse. I can't even fathom it, but we have, I
think we have only one black faculty member. We used to have three or four Asian
American teachers. Now I think that's zero.
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While the number of Asian American teachers in this county is dismal, it is also a fact that the
Asian American population in this county is one of the lowest in the San Francisco Bay Area at
4.8% (Census Bureau, 2022b). A similar description of the adjacent county is offered by Victor
where Asian Americans only comprise 6.9% of the total population (Census Bureau, 2022b). He
stated:
It's primarily a Caucasian teaching staff again. I don't have that data in front of me. I
would say it's probably 85% Caucasian teaching staff, and then maybe 15%, including
African American teachers, Hispanic teachers and Asian teachers.
Victor believes that there are “maybe 15%” minority teachers. Teachers are aware that the
number of teachers of color are low, but likely have not deeply considered the missing
population nor what it means for students of color whom they instruct.
While it was predictable that Asian American teachers would be a minority in nine out of
the ten schools in this study, the discovery of the limited number of Asian American teachers
explains to some degree why social science curriculums are designed with the same recurring
themes (Table 1) with few variances that explore other topics regarding Asian American history
and legacy.
Cultural mismatch limits a teacher’s ability to identify with and create curriculums with
students’ out-of-school cultural and social practices away from the school environment (Ramsay-
Jordan, 2020). Whether a social science teaching staff is predominately White, Hispanic/Latino,
or even Asian, being fully aware of students who are unlike themselves and choosing topics that
will represent Asian Americans as a racial group or even the different ethnicities equally is not
an easy task to accomplish. This was clearly evident during the interviews when each teacher
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was asked about the content offered in their school’s United States history, world history, and
ethnic studies curriculums.
Lack of Ethnic Representation (CP1)
Asian Americans have a long and rich history in the Americas long before the founding
of the United States and continues to the present. Choosing what to present to students is not
always easy to determine as the history and legacy of Asian Americans are extremely diverse
and too immense to cover during a typical four-month high school semester. Within the Asian
racial category, 21 different major groups exist with hundreds more sub-groups along with
unique languages and cultures (Monte & Shin, 2022). In other words, Asian Americans, while
classified into one racial group, are not monolithic, and a topic that may showcase the
experiences of a specific group, such as Chinese, may not be relevant to Filipinos or Indians.
Choosing topics that help increase awareness and create empathy towards every group in the
Asian racial category is not feasible. Therefore, selecting topics that provide an overarching
umbrella to narrate the experiences of Asian Americans is common and convenient for
curriculum developers and educators, even if it means that only a select few are represented.
Limited Coverage of Asian Americans
Ideally, a national education curriculum that provides a complete history lesson about
Asian Americans would exist. However, this would require a new amendment to the United
States Constitution because it is the responsibility of each state to establish and create its own
educational policies. California’s Department of Education can only recommend topics of Asian
American history, and it is up to each school district to decide the general curriculum content for
their social science courses (CA DOE, 2016). Often, teachers with guidance from the school
district will choose topics they deem relevant to teach in the social science classes. All the
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teachers interviewed were genuine in their efforts to create more awareness of Asian Americans.
But the interviews revealed that selecting topics was still problematic, ranging from no inclusion
to limited content of Asian Americans with the often-familiar subjects as listed in Table 1.
The limited representation of Asian Americans in social science can be attributed to
several reasons. Every school has a different racial composition and would need to include the
history of other races to be inclusive. The sheer number of Asian American groups would require
much time and resources to cover and is not feasible. Teachers also follow guidelines, such as
those required for AP courses, that were created to prepare students for higher education.
Teachers may also have limited knowledge of certain Asian American groups that would
preclude the inclusion of other Asian groups. Tiana, for example, stated, “The individual teacher
decision-making varies in terms of how often and how positive Asian stories are centered.” In
other words, teachers have some latitude to decide what subjects to cover in their history class
that they felt is relevant to the lesson goals. In some instances, some teachers overextend
themselves by including the content of many other groups in a curriculum. William, who teaches
United States and world history, is such an example. During the interview, William revealed that
he includes other people from the Asian continent who are not officially part of the federal
definition of Asian or Asian American. To ensure anonymity, the name of the group of people is
not included. Willian stated:
As an editorial decision, I've decided to include....history, ....-American history as part of
Asian American history. I know that's atypical, but it's you know, it's the problem with
the Asian American as a whole. The reasons may vary but it is virtually impossible to
cover all Asian groups while including history lessons of others in a limited time period.
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William acknowledged the challenges of including all Asian groups to be inclusive. But, by the
strict definition of what an Asian and Asian American is, the inclusion of....people in the
discussion of the representation of Asian Americans should not be included. By including other
groups in the Asian American history curriculum, William is in a way not seeing the value or
importance of Asian American history.
In many cases, Asian American representation is sometimes non-existent. From the
literature review and interviews, it was revealed Asian American history was not included in
some schools’ history courses. Sarah, for example, stated, “When I first taught U.S. history, I
was under the tutelage of a U.S. history teacher who had been teaching a really long time, and he
did not have any representation of Asian Americans.” Sarah’s tenure as a teacher was not a
decade or two ago but was recent, within the past seven years. As such, the problem of poor
Asian American representation has been ongoing. Faith, who teaches world history, when asked
about Asian American content in her curriculum, stated:
As of what we've talked about now, there isn't anything specifically. Most of our studies
have focused on Western Europe and Canada, the United States and Mexico. We're just
now getting into talking about different Asian countries and their role in World War I.
It is remarkable that Asians or Asian Americans would be left out of a world history class
because global events encompass more than just a few nations. The history of many nations are
intricately woven with each other and cannot be ignored.
There appears to be a change in the trend, though, to include more Asian or Asian
American history. According to Tiana, who also teaches world history, when asked about the
content of her class, she responded, “Yes, the years in which I have taught world [history] have
included more Asian stories than the years I have taught U.S. history. However, the
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representation there is still limited.” While the inclusion of Asians or Asian Americans in world
history classes appears to gain momentum, moving away from a predominately Western-centric
perspective will take time to come to full fruition, especially if including Asian American history
is not intentional.
The limited representation of Asian Americans was also revealed by some teachers who
had participated in creating content for an ethnic studies course. Sarah, who is of full Asian
descent, helped create an ethnic studies course in the second high school she taught. But her
focus was primarily on one ethnicity within the Asian race. To ensure anonymity, Sarah’s
ethnicity will not be disclosed. Furthermore, the Asian-American ethnicity Sarah refers to will
not be disclosed. Sarah stated, “We had a lot of freedom to develop our own curriculum. And so,
I integrated ethnic studies basically into everything I did and everything I taught. So yes, there
was representation of Asian American communities specifically…. -American history.”
Furthermore, Sarah stated, “I think, because me as a....-American and a member of the Asian
American Pacific Islander community, it is more effective because I am teaching about
essentially, like, my own history.” While the history of.....-Americans is undoubtedly important,
especially since the school district where the school is located has a sizable population of this
group and student body, limiting the content to only one group is not representative of Asian
Americans as a whole.
Diana is another teacher who created content for an ethnic studies course. The ethnic
studies course she created included Asian American topics. But she struggled with prioritizing
different racial groups. Diana stated, “I was the only person of color on the ethnic studies team
for the first two years that I worked here, which, I think, also influenced the way that the
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curriculum was created that has evolved.” Diana further explained the justification behind the
decisions made:
I would say focused a lot more on Latino and Black experiences and the ethnic studies
curriculum in the first few years. Particularly because here in the Bay Area, the ethnic
studies movement was very much brought about by the Black Panthers. So, a lot of the,
like, existing pamphlets curriculum that had been created were out of a Black
community.
When Diana and her team created the ethnic studies curriculum, there was no codified guidance
template that she and the other members of her team could follow. Diana said they were, “kind
of like making it up as we went.” In the absence of formal guidance, Diana, though, was
cognizant that Asian Americans needed representation and is to be commended for being
inclusive despite Asian Americans comprising only 13.6% of her school’s student body.
Of the ten teachers interviewed, eight indicated that their school had an ethnic studies
course. The ethnic studies course were all electives, and two were just implemented in 2022.
Four teachers stated their ethnic studies course includes Asian American content to varying
degrees but were not the primary focus. Two teachers indicated that their ethnic studies courses
were focused on other racial groups. Diana stated that similar to the history course she teaches,
Asian American content is included but the focus was on Blacks and Hispanics/Latinos.
Additionally, Faith stated, “As far as I know, there isn't more emphasis on it. If anything, the
focus is more on Hispanic and Latino, and Latina heritage.” Hispanics/Latinos comprised the
majority of the student body in both schools. One school has an ethnic studies program, but it is
focused solely on African American history and culture. Interestingly, Asian Americans are the
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student body majority at this particular school. Four of the ten teachers did not know the content
of their school’s ethnic studies program.
Regardless if it was a history or ethnic studies course, the inclusion of Asian Americans
varies greatly. There are too many different groups of Asian Americans and even more sub-
groups or ethnicities that may or may not have the same experiences. Covering all would be
nearly impossible. Additionally, when Asian Americans were included in these courses, the
focus would be limited to a few groups. The predominant Asian American groups are associated
with historical events as listed in Table 1 and are often covered in many schools. In many
instances, more than one major Asian American group would have been intricately part of the
historical event but are not discussed in length or omitted.
Asian American Topics Focuses Primarily on a Select Few
Often when topics of Asian Americans are discussed in social science courses, it is
usually focused on one or two major Asian American groups. The major Asian American group
that often gets the most coverage is the Chinese. This is not unreasonable since United States
history has many examples that curriculum developers and teachers can use. Additionally, the
memory of historical events regarding Chinese people has long been memorialized in the media,
from books to movies to television. Six out of the 10 teachers interviewed, for example, teach
content that includes subjects such as Chinese Immigration and the various immigration laws
that were enacted, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. The curriculum content of the
anti-Asian immigration laws focused primarily on Chinese immigrants and not the experiences
of other Asian groups. None of the six teachers stated they included content that discussed the
experiences of Filipinos or South Asian immigrants, or the contribution of these early
immigrants to historical events such as the building of the Transcontinental Railroad or the
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California Gold Rush. The Chinese were not the only Asians who contributed to building the
Nation as historically recorded evidence that other groups also participated.
Asian American historical content was not solely focused on Chinese people as a few
other groups were mentioned as part of the history curriculums of these schools. Most often, the
Japanese were the second group to be prominently mentioned in history classes. The most
common depictions were from World War 2. Five teachers explicitly stated they included
Japan’s involvement in World War 2, the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, and the Japanese American internment. A sixth teacher, Elijah, did not mention he had
content on World War 2, but he teaches AP history, and per the requirements of the College
Board (2020), this subject is tested, and it can be assumed he includes this subject in his class.
The other two Asian American groups that were often included in the history class content were
Koreans and Vietnamese. Four teachers included content about Vietnam and one about Korea.
Interestingly, the historical events associated with all these groups have a common theme that
contributes to the inaccurate perceptions of Asian Americans.
Asian American History Focuses Primarily on Historical Trauma
When examining the limited Asian American content in history or ethnic studies courses,
the subjects discussed were often related to historical trauma that is enduring. While these events
are very defining in United States history, the topics selected in history classes depict Asian
Americans as either victims of oppression or villains, and in some cases, both.
Whether it is a discussion of the Japanese attack on the United States or the Japanese
American internment in World War 2, the stories are continually retold omitting the
contributions of Asian Americans during this tumultuous period of world history. Other
examples of Asian American content revolve around immigration and the treatment of the early
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immigrants to the United States. The six teachers interviewed who included the history of
Chinese immigration in the mid-1880s, often highlighted the discrimination and injustices
suffered. Bruce, who teaches AP history stated:
So far this semester, we've had conversations around Chinese immigration in the 1800s,
and Chinese immigrants’ contribution to the construction of the Transcontinental
Railroad, and also the labor exploitation that occurred in the formation of Chinatown and
San Francisco.
Elijah added more graphic details to his AP history course content by stating, “It might be about
the experiences of different groups of immigrants and those interactions, and how, unfortunately,
those interactions were super one-sided, and it led to lawlessness and abuse, and brutal murder of
many people.” Victor, who also teaches AP history, acknowledged this phenomenon when he
stated:
So, there's some representation [of Asian Americans], but it's limited to those things, and
it often seems to me that it focuses more on abuses that these minority communities
suffered. But I wish it focused a little bit more on contributions other than the stereotype
of all they contributed to the railroad building.
These teachers are following guidelines from the College Board (2020) to ensure that students
enrolled in AP classes are prepared to take the college exam and pursue college-level studies.
Sometimes the issue goes beyond the classroom and is at the educational policy level which
dictates the content of a history course.
In regard to Korean and Vietnamese Americans, the content focused on the Korean and
Vietnam Wars. As with lessons of World War 2, these two wars cannot be discussed in earnest
without raising the issue of aggression within the respective countries as well as how the United
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States fought these wars to save Asian people from communism and oppression. The discussion
of these conflicts also extended beyond the wars themselves to the refugee crisis from the
aftermath of both these events. Nolan, who teaches economics and government, stated that the
topic of “refugees from Cambodia and Vietnam are the big marks in history class.” Harrison
includes in his history class, the “impact of the Vietnam War on immigration in California.” In
both examples, stories of despair and tragedy mark these events, and positive outcomes, if any,
are rarely mentioned.
The continual focus on historical trauma does little to contribute to a balanced
perspective of Asian Americans. It is conflicting and presents both an advantage and a
disadvantage. It is disheartening that Asian Americans are portrayed as both aggressors and
sufferers. However, acknowledging the historical impact associated with these events will ensure
that society is aware and perhaps become more empathetic to Asian Americans and their
experiences of discrimination and abuse. Asian Americans, though, should not be defined by
these events but instead, be acknowledged as integral members of society by also examining
their achievements which only some teachers acknowledge and include in their curriculums.
Minimal Content on Asian American Achievements
In contrast to the focus on historical trauma that are regular subject discussed in history
classes, the inclusion of stories that portray Asian Americans in a positive light is rarely offered.
During the interviews, only two teachers included content that was just as important as
accomplishments and contributions made by other racial groups in the United States. These
events are especially noteworthy because the outcomes benefited all people in the United States
and not just Asian Americans. It would be challenging to find someone who is aware of Asian
American achievements. Diana, for example, is one such teacher who provides a more positive
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portrayal of Asian Americans. In her history class, she included a very important case that
reached the United States Supreme Court that challenged the discriminatory practices of
immigration and citizenship in the late 1800s. Diana stated, “I do my best to include multiple
perspectives throughout the entire course, but we do a very specific project on the Won Kim Ark
case, challenging birthright citizenship in the 14th Amendment.” This landmark case is perhaps
the most important for Asian Americans because the Supreme Court ruled that all citizens born
in the United States or naturalized are unquestionably American citizens.
Another example that highlights Asian American achievements was from Bruce. In
contrast to Bruce’s history class content, in his government class, he includes Asian Americans
and their role in politics and lawmaking. He stated, “We watched a documentary about Patsy
Mink and her pioneering role as the first Asian American woman in Congress and her role in
crafting Title IX.” Title IX is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on sex in
education programs and activities that receive federal funding (Education Amendments Act of
1972). This is significant because of the awareness created for all students that an Asian
American authored and sponsored legislation to protect all people, not just a select few (United
States Courts, n.d.). Bruce further indicated that he plans to include more similar content in his
history class during the school year, “We'll have other examples and features throughout the
semester and throughout the year on Asian Americans in U.S. history.” Nolan echoed these
sentiments as he would like to incorporate more “Asian American perspectives and the voices of
Asians to bring change.” It is commendable for these teachers to devote the time to conduct their
own research to enrich their curriculum. However, this was not the norm, and most curriculums
stayed within the boundaries of subjects covered.

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Reactive Interest Impact (CP2)
Being proactive is a much-desired behavior to ensure that organizations can create the
conditions of their environment or situation. Whether it is to implement an innovation or allow
for flexibility to counter external factors or build a roadmap for future success, being proactive
enables a higher probability of success than failure. During the interviews, it was discovered that
creating an educational curriculum that is representative of Asian Americans appeared more
reactive. As Diana described it, “Developing a curriculum is probably the most politically
fraught process that exists, and yet we pay very little attention to it.” In other words, all the
teachers interviewed are constrained by the policies of the school districts. The school districts
are constrained by the California Department of Education who is responsible at a higher level to
provide guidance and oversee all aspects of education from funding to testing to resourcing in
the United States. This is crucial to understanding the background of curriculum development as
teachers, while they do have some flexibility in deciding what subjects to teach, are limited due
to the top-down design of creating educational curriculums.
A Top-Down Design Impact on Curriculum Creation
Curriculums are influenced by the broader policy contexts in which they are located with
the very strong implication that policy matters (Hardy & Woodcock, 2015). As an institution that
relies on guidance from its respective local education agency or school districts, the top-down
design of curriculum creation can hamper schools from creating history or ethnic studies courses
that are truly inclusive of Asian American history. The guidance from the California Department
of Education’s History-Social Science Framework (2016) recommends a wide range of topics for
world history but is limited in the recommended subjects on Asian Americans for United States
history classes. Most of the recommended subjects for a United States history course are the
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same as in Table 1. The tasks of teachers become even more constrained with the resources
available to them. For example, history textbooks provided to students contain minimal inclusion
of Asian Americans. Teachers may resort to creating their own individual curriculum due to their
limited resources and spend extra time doing their own research which is time-consuming. Tiana,
who teaches United States history, stated:
I think the stories that have been told are very limited both geographically and just kind
of what narratives are being said, or what narratives are being shared so, geographically a
lot of, if you look at our current history textbook it, the percentage of time spent on Asian
stories is small, and even within China or Japan, and that's not everybody.
The recommended topics for world history classes are broader but are not focused specifically on
Asian Americans but on current and historical international relations and diplomacy with Asian
countries. While these world history topics are very interesting and educational, they do little to
address the issues of Asian American discrimination and invisibility in the United States, and
their legacy. Additionally, guidance from the California Department of Education calls for the
inclusion of other racial groups that have just as much relevance and importance when studying
United States history (CA DOE, 2016). California’s Department of Education Ethnic Studies
Model Curriculum (2021) reiterates this by recommending the histories, cultures, struggles, and
contributions to American society include Asians, Blacks, Hispanics/Latinos, Native American,
and Pacific Islanders (CA DOE, 2021). To note, what is not clearly stated is how much of each
content is required in the curriculum.
With the additional requirement by the California Department of Education to be
inclusive of all racial groups, the task to create an equitable curriculum becomes more
challenging. This is because the student body racial makeup for each county is not the same.
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Even if a county has a majority from a single racial group, the dispersion of students may differ
in each county and even each school district which, in the San Francisco Bay Area, are vast in
numbers. Four of the five counties that the interview participants are from have a large number
of school districts that are responsible for creating their high school curriculums, Alameda (18),
Marin (17), Santa Clara (12), and Sonoma (3) (Alameda County Office of Education, n.d.; Marin
County Office of Education, n.d.; Santa Clara County Office of Education, n.d.; Sonoma County
Office of Education, n.d.). Each school district creates its own curriculum and may also be
responsible for creating curriculums for elementary and middle schools. Only San Francisco has
one school district (SFUSD, n.d.). Therefore, curriculums can vary amongst each school district
with many considerations.
While attempting to create an appropriate curriculum that is equitable, teachers and
curriculum developers often find themselves asking a host of questions to determine what
content to include and exclude. Teachers such as Sarah, for example, stated:
I think what's really challenging about creating a canon of ethnic studies [or history]
curriculum is that do we focus on particular groups of people? Who are those people that
makeup Asian Americans in the United States right now? Do we reference Pacific
Islanders or is that a totally different group? Are we teaching API (Asia Pacific Islander)
history?
The conundrum faced by Sarah is not unique as the challenge lies in finding a balance to ensure
that they not only meet the guidance given to them but also meet the needs of their students. In
some cases, the focus is not on a specific racial group as the guidance from school districts is to
address root causes. As Diana stated, “Curriculum is focused on systems of oppression, forms of
naming self-identity. Students do a lot of work around belonging and infrastructure that either
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creates or eliminates opportunities for some people over others.” This is an important topic of
discussion in a history or ethnic studies course. But the experiences of oppression from each
racial group are not necessarily the same but could be similar. If the focus of oppression is on a
racial group other than Asian Americans, then a curriculum perhaps may not be inclusive at all.
For some courses, teachers are even more constrained to creating an inclusive curriculum
because of added requirements. Teachers who teach AP courses do not have much latitude to
create their own curriculum aside from what is dictated to them such as in an AP history which is
established by the College Board. Five of the interview participants teach an AP course. Four
teach AP history and one AP government. All stated that the “curriculum is not chosen by them.”
Furthermore, “the textbooks are chosen by the College Board.” This is problematic in itself
because the inclusion of Asian Americans in regular United States history textbooks is also
limited. This sentiment was echoed by all of the interview participants. William, who teaches a
standard-level United States history class indicated:
Aside from the occasional, oh, look what we did in World War II. Nothing about Korean
history, nothing about Vietnamese American history, little to nothing about Filipino
history, even less of a an understanding and a discussion of what Asian American even
means.
Even for AP history textbooks, this is an issue that prevails in an advanced-level course. Bruce,
who teaches AP history, stated, “From my school history books, definitely. If I look at the U.S.
history book, that's right here on the table next to me. It's pretty pitiful in its inclusivity.” To help
mitigate this problem, a few of the teachers indicated that in addition to teaching the core content
they will add content to enrich the curriculum that is not included in the textbooks. Elijah, for
example, stated:
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What I do is, I get through a lot of the core by having one day where its direct instruction
lecture that's guided by their reading. And then I’ll go off on little sub-pieces of history.
But instead of the focus being on the Gold Rush in California and how profitable it might
be, it might be about the experiences of different groups of immigrants and those
interactions.
Despite the additions some teachers put into their AP history course, the bottom line is that they
rarely deviate from the approved curriculum. Advanced placement history courses are meant to
prepare students to take the AP exams, enter college, and as Victor stated, “If students pass the
AP test, they can get some college credit.” In any case, the constraints by the College Board are
the standards even if the topics are not more diverse.
Current Political Climate Influences Curriculum Creation

The effort to be more diverse in creating curriculums that include more Asian American
topics is by no means just influenced by higher administration or external organizations, such as
the College Board. The current social environment is a huge factor that influences what is
included in a curriculum. While the focus of this study is not on the current events affecting
Asian Americans and society’s perceptions of them, it would be neglectful to not mention them
as an influencing factor. Unfortunately, the majority of so-called newsworthy events are mostly
negative portrayals of Asian Americans as victims. These events brought Asian Americans to the
forefront in the media more than ever before and the rise of anti-Asian hate could not be ignored.
As Diana stated:
A lot of my students were keenly aware even in January [2020] of the rise in anti-Asian
hate and the ways in which the president at the time was fomenting this sort of cultural
backlash against a particular group of people with obviously no reason whatsoever.
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Diana’s plan to expand her curriculum content did not include this topic. But many of her Asian
American students identified with the backlash against Asian Americans, so Diana decided to
include it in her curriculum and discuss the issue with her class. Elijah echoed these sentiments
and stated, “With the rise of Asian hate crimes, a lot more students that are Asian American have
been more vocal about their experience and more open.” Therefore, Elijah was compelled to
create a space for his students to discuss this issue as this was an important topic to address not
only for Asian Americans but for other students who may have been affected by the recent
events.
While a course curriculum content can be influenced by current events, it does not lessen
the significance of what it offers to learning. In the context of social science, current events
cannot be ignored and their inclusion into a curriculum will provide students awareness of their
occurrence. Teachers who deliberately decide to include external events and address them in
class are not only creating awareness but also educating students about the continued
discrimination against Asian Americans, albeit using negative news to discuss the issues. The
same thought process, though, can be used by teachers and even school districts by refocusing on
current events that highlight achievements or contributions that Asian Americans are currently
performing, whether it is in business, politics, or social justice, instead of just reacting to what is
reported in the news. Addressing current events and their impact is not without additional
challenges. Other racial groups also experience similar events which highlight issues of their
communities. Events stemming from issues faced by multiple racial groups can ultimately
convolute the process of deciding which stories are included or omitted from a curriculum
because each is just as relevant as the other.

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The Challenge of Equitable Representation (CP2)
Creating a curriculum that is inclusive of Asian Americans that would be responsive to
the characteristics, needs, and interests of the student body is difficult because of the myriad of
races and ethnicities that are present in any school (Artiles & Kozleski, 2016). Curriculums are
more than simply text on a page, but are multidimensional, value-laden, deeply contextually
embedded, and dynamic (Hardy & Woodcock, 2015). Equitable representation in United States
history or other social science courses is not easily defined as fairness is debatable. If the Asian
American student body constitutes only a small percentage of a school, is it fair to devote an
equal amount of the curriculum to them? Conversely, if Asian Americans are the student body
majority and other racial groups are the minority at a school, how much should a curriculum be
devoted to each racial group? Do school districts create a curriculum unique to each school’s
population and allow the teachers to fill in the gaps? There are too many variables that can be
barriers to creating an equitable curriculum. The ten interview participants indicated that there
were no definitive answers on the representation of Asian Americans as their opinions differed.
All ten agreed that other racial and ethnic groups need to be represented fairly without excluding
any one group in particular.
Fair Representation for all Races and Ethnicities is Challenging

School districts and teachers have a huge challenge and responsibility to ensure that all
students are provided with an engaging and relevant history-social science education that will
shape how they participate in the world as per the guidance from the State (CA DOE, 2016). The
diverse history of California and how it relates to the national narrative is complex due to the
myriad of races and ethnicities that exist in the State (CA DOE, 2016). The 88 languages other
than English and a multitude of cultures representing students in California makes this task
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nearly impossible while attempting to be equitable (CA DOE, 2022b). All 10 interview
participants differed in their opinion of the percentages of how much Asian Americans should be
represented but all agreed that it was a difficult dilemma that cannot easily be solved.
From someone with almost three decades of teaching, William, indicated, “I would
suggest that the percentage should be to the extent that any one racial group is looked at. Asian
Americans should be looked at in an equal percentage.” However, William added, “But, I want
to be careful of looking at it so essentially, because by that same standard, we would promulgate
White studies.” In other words, dividing a curriculum equally amongst all the racial groups is not
necessarily effective and may detract from the purpose of studying about Asian Americans or
other marginalized racial or ethnic groups of people. Harrison offered an opposite response, “It
shouldn't be proportionate to the Asian American student body. It's a tough question.” Harrison’s
response is fair given that the proportionality amongst all the schools, even if they are in the
same district, varies. The challenge is even more complicated as several teachers indicated that
their Asian American students included Cambodians, Chinese, Filipinos, Hmong, Indian,
Korean, Taiwanese, and Vietnamese.
Other teachers were not sure and could not give a percentage breakdown. Victor, for
example, stated, “I’m not prepared to say it should be 20% of the curriculums or 50% of the
curriculums. But just in terms of its importance, I would say [Asian American history] it's of the
utmost importance.” The majority of responses were similar to Victor’s response. It is
understandable as placing a percentage on the importance of Asian Americans would require the
same to be done to other groups. Diana provided a similar response:
When I started teaching, I had this philosophy that what you teach should reflect the
makeup of your classroom and that you should be teaching culturally responsibly to the
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students that you have in class. And therefore, my logic was that the representation of
your curriculum should match the group of people in your classroom. But as I kept
teaching history, I don't think that actually works.
Diana’s response is understandable because if a class consists of a majority from a racial group, a
curriculum that matched the classroom population would not be equitable and representative of
other racial groups. Diana’s response also raises another question. What if the racial makeup of
the classroom changes each year? Teachers would have to redo their entire curriculum to match
the group. Faith responded similarly, “I don't think the student body has anything to do with how
much or how little. I know it definitely can help relate content when students have more of a
personal connection with the curriculum.” Perhaps the amount of content may not be so critical
as the content subject itself and how students relate it to their own experiences. Since many
racial groups have similar struggles with discrimination and marginalization in their history,
demonstrating a commonality may help alleviate some of the pressures of having to prioritize
one over the other.
Combining Asian American Experiences
As a marginalized racial group, Asian Americans have endured struggles and
discrimination as any other race. Whether a person was born in the United States or emigrated
from another country, everyone probably has a story of unjust or prejudicial treatment that are
similar. The stories could be from interactions from all racial groups and not just the dominant
group or experiences with the institutions that create the rule of law, operate government
bureaucracies, and educate children and adults. The experiences amongst each marginalized
racial group and outcome though, will vary as well as the impact on future generations.
Unfortunately, these differences in the experiences can induce competitive victimhood, where
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people think that their group has suffered more than any of the other outsider groups, which can
lead to widening the gap in awareness and understanding (Nair & Vollhardt, 2020). Instead, an
alternative option to raising the awareness of Asian Americans does not become a competition
amongst all the races to outdo each other.
Reducing competition and alleviating the issue of deciding which racial group should be
prioritized over another is creating a curriculum that demonstrates a commonality among the
different groups. All 10 of the interview participants indicated that this may be an option as
perceptions of similar experiences of discrimination may increase positivity among racially
marginalized groups (Burson & Godfrey, 2019). In other words, creating a curriculum that
combines similar experiences of Asian Americans with other racial groups may demonstrate
shared struggles and values. One interview participant....shared that in her ethnic studies course:
When we get to talking about Malcolm X, we talk about Yuri Kochiyama too, and their
friendship and the collective solidarity that happens there. So, yeah, I think that collective
solidarity has been a very important theme in what I do, and I've seen a lot of benefits of
students seeing the interconnectedness of the people around them.
This appears to be an ideal option and even logical. But, combining different racial groups’
experiences into one topic is not as simple as writing it into a curriculum without ensuring that
specific areas of focus are equally addressed. William for example, agreed that there is value in
combining the struggles of racial groups together to demonstrate a commonality. However, he
clarified that:
If you're going to have an intersectional approach, then you also have to focus on
solidarity. And so, I really want to use the example of the farm workers movement as
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being much more about power. I'd like to focus on that more than say, you know these
groups both suffered exclusion.
William’s example was an important event in California’s history as both Asian Americans and
Hispanic/Latino farm workers banded together to form the United Farm Workers to fight for
equality during the 1960s. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. even praised the organization, “Our
separate struggles are really one – a struggle for freedom, for dignity, and for humanity” (King,
1966, as cited by the United Farm Workers, n.d.). However, the role of Asian Americans in this
organization is largely forgotten or ignored, as credit has been largely bestowed on one group.
Recognition for dual or even multiple groups for historical events is not always achieved
as combining the struggles of racial groups can become conflated. Even when two or more Asian
American groups come together, one can easily overshadow the others, especially if they are the
majority. When this occurs, the issue of fairness of representation is once again brought to the
surface. This issue was raised by Sarah:
And there's just this really interesting political dynamic of who has the most power and
voice, for example, with voting. In San Francisco, the Chinese community and Chinese
American community have a lot of power. There's a really small black community,
there's a really small Pacific Islander community. I think how minority groups are
politically mobilized really makes a difference in how much power they have within the
system. While I think that with some topics like solidarity is really important and
working across groups is really important, I do think that some minority groups get
overlooked because, because they're small in number.
Unfortunately, this occurs more often when different racial groups are mentioned in historical
events as well as come together to show solidarity. It is perhaps more convenient to focus on one
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group and lump all groups together rather than individually recognize all that have participated.
While combining the struggles of marginalized racial groups, sometimes, as with Asian
Americans, their story can be overshadowed by a more prominent one as in the case of the farm
labor movement of the 1960s. In this instance, perhaps merging events together is not the ideal
answer to creating an inclusive and equitable curriculum. Harrison stated that while combining
stories of struggle and discrimination is desirable to demonstrate commonality, he acknowledged
the limitations and offered the following:
I think that it's helpful to teach separately and then to create patterns of similarities,
which, is what we want to teach as history teachers to teach students how to analyze
history to see similar patterns in the way it is that people are similar, the way that history
can be similar.
Showing similarities can definitely be advantageous as it can raise the interest and relevancy of
content to all students regardless of the racial make-up of a class. However, creating a shared
identity of marginalization between Asian Americans and other racial groups, and even within
the same race is challenging. A curriculum that focuses on creating a unified framework that
encourages reflection about the structural and historical forces driving the inequalities rather than
focusing on one specific group or groups is perhaps a better strategy (Burson & Godfrey, 2019).
Teachers and curriculum developers that are cognizant of this can ensure that no one particular
group is ignored and that the content of a history or ethnic studies course is relevant and relatable
to the student body population. It is therefore important that different perspectives are put before
the school district to ensure that input from all groups are considered.

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Building Connections (CP3)
Professional development is vital to ensuring educators stay up to date with current
educational trends and can perform their job much more effectively. As with other core subjects,
social science courses strongly emphasize teachers’ content knowledge acquired from facts
presented in textbooks, experiences, and skills for student learning (Covey Minor et al., 2016).
However, research suggests that teacher professional development focusing solely on content
knowledge tended to have less effect on student learning (Kennedy, 2016). Teachers are more
effective if their professional development includes methods to increase student thinking and
continued focus on content knowledge (Kennedy, 2016). It is beneficial to students when
teaching methods are incorporated to encourage critical thinking and engagement while
providing new knowledge.
The ten interview participants agreed that the teachers could benefit from additional
training beyond their college education and teaching credentials. However, professional
development training ought to include more than learning new teaching methods. Training that
includes a focus on building cultural competence will help build credibility and a strong rapport
with students’ perceived caring and trustworthiness of a teacher (Pishghadam et al., 2018). This
is especially crucial when leading social science and teaching Asian American history and
culture.
Building Cultural Knowledge and Understanding
Professional development for social science teachers takes on greater significance
because building cultural knowledge and understanding of Asian Americans is vital to building
the teacher-student relationship and how students will be receptive to new knowledge. Research
indicates that teachers perceived as credible by students are likely to earn trust and be seen as
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competent (Pishghadam et al., 2018). This trait becomes crucial when discussing controversial
issues such as race and stereotypes, to deconstruct misconceptions and false narratives about
Asian Americans (Pishghadam et al., 2018). In other words, enhancing teacher credibility is
crucial even if an educator possesses the prerequisite teaching credentials and has many years of
teaching experience because they may not have the Asian American lived experiences. For some
students, the lived experience is very important to relate to their teachers as Sarah stated, “I think
it's important for, in terms of like pedagogy for ethnic studies, that the person who teaches it
needs to have lived experiences as a historically marginalized person.” This point was reiterated
by Diana who stated,
It's really hard to sit there and talk about being empathetic and the experience of
marginalized people if you have not had that experience. Positionality matters. Even if
the students are not able to identify, this feels weird because you're a....person teaching
me, they know it somewhere and they may not be able to voice it that way, but they're
aware that there's something weird and this feels wrong.
Neither race nor ethnicity is a prerequisite to teaching history, ethnic studies, or a social science
course. Harrison stated, “I think finding folks who are willing to teach and want to teach and are
excited to teach it, and I think that probably is less about race.” Still, it is undoubtedly beneficial
if a teacher possesses characteristics of understanding and empathy towards the group they teach.
In other words, it is no fault of a teacher who may not have the lived experience of an Asian
American, but an understanding of Asian Americans will enhance a teacher’s credibility. As
Bruce stated:
I think that the first priority is having people who really deeply understand the history
and culture of Asian American communities in the United States. But if it's just teachers
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who only have the content knowledge and who don't know the history and the culture that
they're planning to teach then that's a recipe for disaster.
Elijah suggests, “You have the ethnic studies ethos or the identity of someone who thinks
people’s identity matter.” Teachers that exercise accurate cultural knowledge and awareness are
more likely to build relationships with their students because they are perceived as caring more
about them and not just infusing Asian American history into the curriculum. Elijah clarifies
further:
I think you have to be open about your own identity and your own journey. I've seen
White teachers who profess a lot of social justice talking points. But when it comes down
to building relationships with young people, and going beyond the traditional teacher,
they're afraid to do it, or they don't care, or they don't value it. Well, if an Asian
American student looks at you and sees you as a teacher who doesn't care about them. It
doesn't matter your background because they think you don't care about them.
Demonstrating empathy towards students is only one benefit that results from gaining cultural
knowledge and understanding. Breaking the cultural barriers and building cultural bridges is
necessary for improving the teacher-student relationship. It is not enough to simply acquire
knowledge from textbooks or sit in a professional development class. Teachers such as Victor
encourage others to make the effort to seek out the experiences. As Victor stated:
I wrestle with that all the time, because I’m a White middle-class guy who teaches heavy
stuff that I have no real experience with other than in an academic sense. I don't have the
lived experiences of anything that I've taught. Something that the National Park Service
does right here with Golden Gate National Recreation area is they actually do programs
called dissonant voices, which are basically workshops for teachers to attend. I attended
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one called Beyond Chinatown, where we were taken down a lot of back alleys, into some
of these buildings where some of these benevolent societies were created. That definitely
has impacted my teaching in a positive way. I have sought that out. It's not like my school
force me to go on those professional developments or anything, and it has made me a
better teacher getting the inputs of non-White teachers.
Other teachers such as William emphasized that:
I want somebody who's bought into the idea and the concept, and who's going to learn
and grow, learn from their students, learn from the community, regardless of the person's
race or gender or orientation, that they express a humility and a willingness to learn and
grow from the community and the students.
William takes the step of acquiring cultural knowledge and understanding further by suggesting
that teachers create a sustainable practice and continue to cultivate their perspective and continue
learning. In other words, teachers who appreciate and learn how to harness the cultural
backgrounds of their students as an asset and use it to guide them stand a better chance of
academic success (Martell & Stevens, 2019). The goal is to create a sustainable cultural
pedagogy that helps students maintain their cultural integrity and gain a deeper understanding
and appreciation for their culture and others (Martell & Stevens, 2019). This, of course, takes
time and opportunity for future training in preparation for teaching a social science class more
effectively may be required. In some ways, engaging with individuals and groups from outside
the education field will enhance their experiences.
Building Stakeholder Relationships
An organization with inclusivity as one of its goals ensures all relevant stakeholders are
included in designing a social science curriculum to ensure no one is unintentionally excluded.
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Stakeholder engagement in California’s public high schools is even more significant because of
the myriad of different races, ethnicities, and cultures. As Victor puts it, “Educators live in a little
bubble, and they sometimes miss really important stuff.” Therefore, fostering positive
relationships with stakeholders is key to creating strategies for school districts and teachers to
better understand the diverse beliefs and needs of students and their families (Miller et al., 2022).
While the unique perspectives and insights from different stakeholders are valuable, they may
also conflict and not be aligned with the goals of the school district and school. Curriculum
developers, therefore, will weigh the advantages and disadvantages when soliciting input from
stakeholders are relevant and provide value.
Achieving stakeholder diversity and integrating input from all participants is extremely
challenging. The bureaucracy of the State’s effort in creating and implementing general policies
and standards for school districts is compounded by individual schools' requirements to create a
program that meets the unique needs of their students. All 10 interview participants
acknowledged that different stakeholders, other than just curriculum developers at the school
districts and teachers, are essential to successfully creating an equitable curriculum. Each
participant offered their perspectives on incorporating multiple stakeholders into aiding in
designing a curriculum. One interview participant, Victor, stated:
I think all of that feedback should be solicited. Districts oftentimes take feedback and
don't always listen to it, but the more transparent they are when they are designing a
curriculum at least for accountability later on down the road.
For some, including external stakeholders was a challenge, while for others, it was getting the
right person to participate in the curriculum development. In either case, careful selection of
stakeholders will ensure that the process of creating a social science curriculum is not impeded.
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Stakeholders in the educational system can vary, but all play a crucial role in ensuring
that gaps when creating curriculums are addressed and resolved. School administrators,
curriculum developers, and teachers are the key stakeholders because of their direct involvement
in creating and implementing curriculums. Students are just as crucial because they are
ultimately the receivers of education and are largely influenced by what is learned. Parents and
community organizations are also just as critical as they offer perspectives for teachers and
schools to understand family diversities, community resources, and student experiences in and
out of school, which will aid in student learning and success (Epstein, 2018). Faith reiterated this
by stating, “I think honestly.....it [stakeholder input] would need to come from community
members. However, the task of including stakeholders is not so easy.” Active participation by all
stakeholders is critical but not always achievable. Victor indicated that in creating his social
studies curriculum, there is minimal stakeholder input. He stated:
The way that our district approves core courses, doesn't involve very many stakeholders.
I could design a course totally on my own without any feedback from anybody, and I
know that I could get it approved without consulting community stakeholders or anything
like that.
This scenario is not ideal, as creating a truly inclusive and equitable social science course relies
on input from one or a few stakeholders. Stakeholders such as Victor, who acknowledged, “I
don’t have the lived experiences of anything that I’ve taught,” rely on his academic knowledge
and teaching experiences to formulate a curriculum, while commendable, is missing other
perspectives.
In some cases, not all of the relevant stakeholders are available to provide input. Diana
explained, “One of the problems that I identified is that we did not have any Asian teachers
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designing the ethnic studies curriculum. Of course, we're going to have holes in that regard,
right?” This statement made by Diana is crucial because it is crucial to include input from an
insider’s perspective. Tiana reiterated the importance of identifying relevant stakeholders by
stating, “I think that non-Asian educators are part of the conversation, but they cannot be the
only part of the conversation.” Social science curriculum should be authentic and have input
from stakeholders who have personal history or knowledge from living and experiencing the life
of an Asian American. California’s Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum (2021) reinforces this in its
guidance to school districts by emphasizing the need for community partnership and
accountability are central to its core.
Getting external stakeholders to participate in curriculum development is challenging, but
deciding whose input will be included can lead to recommendation overload. A school district
with many different racial and ethnic groups should include representation from all. But too
many recommendations from all stakeholders can become burdensome. While input from all
stakeholders is meaningful, deciding what is relevant and can add the most value to creating a
social science course that is manageable, actionable, and can be accomplished within each school
semester is important to consider.
Stakeholder input can become even more complicated when there are competing
stakeholders with different interests, priorities, and motivations can stall the development
process and lead to wasted time (Felcmanová, 2017). Stakeholders who are able to articulate
their idea much better than others increase their chances of getting their suggestions included in a
curriculum. Similarly, stakeholders with considerable influence may use their position to
influence the outcome. Regardless of the circumstances, this scenario can unexpectedly occur in
any school district. School districts that have a majority racial group with considerable influence
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and power are more likely to get their input prioritized over another. School districts whose
student body racial demographics are not distributed evenly amongst its schools may face
resistance from one group over the inclusion of another. As Harrison states, “I think it might be
very difficult for school districts if each school district has to make its own separate individual
curriculum, where community members are giving feedback on every instance.” Harrison’s
comment raises the question of how much is too much input. Too much input from all
stakeholders can become unmanageable and lead to even more problems. In another example,
stakeholder input may not be representative of the community as a single or a few individual
voices become dominant. Harrison, again, expressed his concern about too many stakeholders
stating:
What can be hard is making sure that the community members that are sharing are
representative of the communities too. What community members aren't coming out and
sharing what they want to be in the ethnic studies curriculum? You might be missing out
on some really important views. So, I always like to think about who's not the one
contributing to these conversations. Maybe it's the students. Maybe it's one racial group
that does not feel welcome in that community.
A community that does not involve all its members does not embrace the diversity of its group.
Underrepresented racial groups from a stakeholder community result in a more inclusive
discourse and the exchange of ideas will contribute to a more realistic portrayal of a community
instead of acquiring select perspectives.
Creating Self-Awareness (CP3)
Cultural competence requires self-awareness and a reflection on one’s own cultural position,
awareness of others’ positions, and the ability to interact genuinely and respectfully with people
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of different races and cultures (Bezard & Shaw, 2017; Carrizales, 2019). Individuals who possess
a high level of self-awareness acquire a greater understanding and appreciation of who they are
and the presence of cultural influences in their lives and of others (Lu & Wan, 2018). Although
many people believe they are self-aware, research suggests that only 10%-15% possess self-
awareness (Eurich, 2017; Eurich, 2018, as cited in London et al., 2023). Evidence from data
collected during the interviews suggests high school students, too, are not fully self-aware. All
ten teachers attributed a need for a pedagogical change to enhance student self-awareness to
build their cultural competence.
Students with limited awareness and understanding of Asian Americans can benefit from
exploring cultural narratives and experiences that would help expand their critical thinking skills
to understand their biases and deconstruct racial stereotypes. Elijah, who previously taught ethnic
studies, attributed a lack of awareness from his students, stating, "Kids don't realize their
perceptions and behaviors are because of societal expectations. And through self-awareness, they
can, maybe understand this other person's struggles, why they're acting in a certain way." Self-
awareness is essential to becoming culturally competent as understanding one's position may
lead to understanding another person’s point of view (Desai et al., 2020). Developing self-
awareness is challenging because of the inherent biases individuals have that manifest from their
own culture and external influences such as friends and media portrayals.
Breaking biases though, is achievable through creating a pedagogy that encourages
change. William, for example, suggested, "Activities that help create a sense of empathy are key
because once you create a sense of empathy, you can move forward, and [students] can make
comparisons to their own lives." Activities that increase empathy become more impactful when
students are encouraged to take a critical analytical approach to explore the history and legacy of
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Asian Americans to deepen their understanding of others (Desai et al., 2020). As further
explained by Diana:
A lot of it is building awareness of others and empathy. So, the curriculum is quite
focused on the multiple different parts of building empathy. And that's sort of like the
north star of the curriculum is that students ideally walk out of that classroom being more
open and empathetic to experiences that are not their own, whether it be through meeting
a person or reading about different people than themselves or what have you.
Developing greater empathy and respect will help promote more meaningful interactions.
However, achieving the goal will first require a learning environment that provides the
conditions for students to engage in discourse about race, power, and other forms of
discrimination.
Creating a Brave Space

Discussing sensitive topics such as race and discrimination may be uncomfortable for
many. However, an environment where students can feel comfortable engaging others without
being attacked for their opinions and perspectives of Asian Americans is vital to a successful
ethnic studies course. Focusing on one or two racial groups or combining people into groups that
pit each other as oppressors and victims is not productive and may lead to hostilities. Creating
brave spaces and applying principles of transformative learning is crucial for an environment that
focuses on the students and allows for meaningful engagement and conversations (Brazill &
Ruff, 2022). It is the responsibility of the teacher to create an inclusive environment where every
student can speak out and share their experiences and feelings. Harrison stated, “Any topics that
are controversial, you have to set those community guidelines and standards for students in the
first place, to understand that opinions can be expressed freely.” This means creating a brave
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space where students and teachers can honor and respect each other’s opinions and perspectives
while listening and engaging in constructive dialogue even if someone or an entire group does
not agree or feels uncomfortable with the topic. Racism, exploitation, and oppression are difficult
to talk about but to understand the experiences of Asian Americans and deconstruct the
stereotypes and myths that surround the group that continue to be pervasive in society.
Discourse may also include examining dominant narratives, such as the model minority
myth or forever foreigner labels that are easy to attack for their inaccurate portrayals of Asian
Americans. However, complex and controversial dialogue requires leadership to detect possible
confrontations and guide students in meaningful debate or discussion (Brazill & Ruff, 2022).
Diana expressed the difficulties of creating a brave space and leading her class in discussing
controversial subjects. Diana stated:
We talked a lot about dominant narratives, stereotypes, how they affect us as individuals,
as a community, how they become internalized and replicated, how we can sometimes
turn our anger onto people who are different from us in order to feel safer. You’re not just
there to deliver a curriculum. I think that by taking stands and opinions, but also being
honest that it doesn't have to be their [students] opinion that I'm demonstrating not only
what it's like to have an opinion and to defend it, but also that I can hear other people's
opinions who are different from me.
Despite her challenges, Diana understands her success lies in establishing the foundations for
building a supportive classroom environment to encourage students to move out of their comfort
zone and engage others in the class. Bruce expressed similar thoughts:
It's about creating an environment that allows students to feel comfortable, to explore,
because I think the interest is already there. I think it's just about removing the barriers.
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The self-consciousness, the peer pressure, the I don't know if I feel safe talking about this
with somebody else.
Whichever approach is taken to create a brave space for students to share diverse perspectives, as
suggested by Brazill and Ruff (2022), discussing controversial issues that spark dialogue is
essential for meaningful discourse. Tiana, who also teaches an ethnic studies course, suggests, “I
think open and honest dialogue is the first step. And changing people's mind is giving them
information, giving them the opportunity to process through that information modeling kind of
what that looks like.” While open and honest dialogue may be a step in the right direction,
students need to also engage in practical, hands-on learning to complement what is discussed and
learned in the classroom environment.
Incorporating Experiential Learning
When students learn about cultures other than their own, reading textbooks and doing
mandatory assignments is not enough. A hands-on approach is ideal for students to engage in
various activities that will improve their cognitive understanding of another race or ethnic group
by applying their knowledge in a live setting that cannot be duplicated in a classroom. Combined
with a traditional curriculum of acquiring knowledge from textbooks, activities such as
encouraging independent research, service learning (working with communities), and internship
with a community organization are a few examples that would benefit student learning (Coker &
Porter, 2017). Students will gain a better understanding of the textbook material while gaining
insights and appreciation for Asian American experiences. It will help bridge the knowledge gap
between the classroom environment and the real world students will face when they leave high
school. Sarah, who had created and taught ethnic studies, stated:
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I'm really big in general on experiential learning. So, what I used to do as a teacher was
front-load all of the information and all of the frameworks on systems of oppression. But
it was only until recently that I actually flipped that paradigm and I put experiential
learning first and then we debriefed that and then connected it to the content knowledge
around systems of oppression.
In other words, Sarah helped bridge the gap between facts on Asian American experiences and
its link to the institutions that created policies and a system that discriminated against this group
and others. Sarah further stated, “Experiential learning, whether it is a field trip or an internship,
allows students to contextualize the problem.” Students learn to frame a problem to examine
historical events and experiences faced by Asian Americans with other racial groups and see a
broader picture unfold.
With guidance from a teacher, students can share their experiences also and engage in
discourse and learn from each other. Student discourse becomes more compelling because the
emotions expressed from the speaker when discussing highly sensitive topics will evoke a
positive or negative response from the listener and even become reflective (Hufnagel & Kelly,
2018). Victor, who teaches AP history, supports student discourse as an effective learning
method that needs to be incorporated into social science curriculums.
I do believe that the more students can listen to their classmates share about trauma and
triumphs, the more receptive they are to it. It doesn't just come from an authority figure
like me expressing, oh, look at this messed up.....that happened 120 years ago. It makes
other students of all races more empathetic, more able to think critically about a situation.
And so, so yeah, I definitely believe the more student voices involved, specifically in
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history classes. I’m even saying it out loud right now makes me wish I wish I did more of
it in my class.
Students need to be heard and encouraging them to speak out will allow experiences to be
normalized. As Nolan puts it, “Students need to understand what it’s like to be marginalized.” It
is convenient to categorize the experiences of Asian Americans into one category. In reality, the
heterogeneous nature of Asian Americans (or any racial group) indicates each person or group
has their own unique experiences and perspective and what is exchanged in the classroom offers
only a small glimpse into their world.
Summary of Findings
The findings began with an introduction of 10 social science teachers whose range of
experience, educational background, and teaching location demonstrated the diversity amongst
them to get a wider array of input and perspectives. Each participant provided meaningful input
that exposed their passion for teaching and advocated for a change in the pedagogy to increase
awareness of Asian Americans. Their input led to important insights to the research questions
(RQ) and potential recommendations to solve the problem. The data resulted in the emergence of
six overarching themes that supported each RQ and aligned with the critical phases (CP) #1-3 of
the condensed TLT conceptual framework. Critical phases #1-3 serve as the heart of
transformative learning as they represent the planning phases of the TLT, which are (a)
identifying the disorienting dilemma or experiences, (b) conducting a critical assessment of the
problem, and (c) engaging in reflective discourse to develop a plan to fix the problem.
Undertaking this process is crucial because they are key to the implementation of a
change plan that will determine if a transformative learning change is effective. The evidence
which supported two themes for RQ1 not only identified a key issue of how Asian Americans are
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represented but a crucial factor emerged that point to two root issues to be resolved for
transformation to occur. Evidence that supports RQ2 identifies the barriers or challenges that can
ensure an inclusive and equitable ethnic studies curriculum is created. Finally, evidence from
recommendations from the participants to change the social science pedagogy can ensure that
both teachers and students engage in a positive learning environment that encourages discourse
from both and can transpire beyond the classroom.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
This chapter discusses the recommendations, limitations and delimitations,
recommendations for future research, and conclusion. This research employed a qualitative
methodology to gather data utilizing semi-structured interviews of public high school teachers
and document analysis from the State of California and official school websites. Chapters one
and two provided a background of the problem of practice, and Chapter three, the methodology.
Chapter four presented the overarching themes and addressed research questions (RQ) 1-3.
Research question one uncovered the Asian American representation in public high school
history and social science curricula and the possible root causes for their underrepresentation.
Research question two determined the challenges schools and school districts face when creating
a social science course to include ethnic studies. Research question three gathered suggestions
from the interview participants on creating an ethnic studies curriculum that promotes
transformative learning to increase awareness of Asian Americans. This chapter will discuss the
data findings related to the literature review and conceptual framework based on a condensed
transformative learning theory (TLT) by Mezirow (1978). Recommendations will address the
issues raised by RQ1 and RQ2. Recommendations for RQ3 derive from the interview
participants' suggestions to promote transformative learning. Each recommendation was
applicable to one or more RQs.
Discussion of Findings
The findings for this study aligned with the literature review and conceptual framework
that helped guide this study. The condensed TLT applied to this research encompasses the first
three critical phases (CP), as shown in Figure 1, which denote: (a) experience, (b) critical
reflection, and (c) reflective discourse. These three CPs encompass the planning stages of
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transformative learning. They help identify the problem of practice grounded from experiences
acquired from high school history and social science courses teachers, examine the issues and
barriers of the problem of practice, and engage in discourse to determine possible solutions that
will lead to transformation. Critical phases 4 and 5 are not included in this study because they
encompass the execution of a change or transformation intervention, implementation,
integration, and assessment. Research questions 1-3 align with the three CPs; RQ1 aligns with
CP1. A discussion of the relevancy of the focus areas is summarized first to contextualize the
applicability and appropriateness of the recommendations.
Asian Americans and Pedagogy in the United States
This research's first area of focus began with examining the portrayal of Asian Americans
in California’s public high school history and social science courses. This included the
representation of Asian Americans in ethnic studies courses offered in eight of the ten schools.
The findings from the interviews and document analysis uncovered two root causes. First, a
cultural mismatch existed in nine of the 10 schools. The interviews and conducting an
examination of the ratio between the teaching staff, more specifically, the number of social
science teachers and the student body determined that a gap existed. This is crucial because
differences between a student’s home culture and the school will impact the design of a
curriculum from the choice of topics to teaching methodology (Dee & Penner, 2017).
Second, the portrayal of Asian Americans and the methodology to teach Asian American
history was inadequate. The methods of instruction and content for teaching history or social
science courses to students are not conducive to addressing the needs of the students or providing
culturally relevant content that factually portrays Asian Americans positively. The interview
findings revealed the primary focus was from a Eurocentric perspective, with minimal content
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dedicated to Asian Americans as indicated by the Asian American subjects referenced by each
teacher and compared with Table 1. These topics often included Chinese immigration, the
building of the transcontinental railroad, the Japanese internment during World War 2, and the
Korean and Vietnam Wars and their aftermath. The problem of practice was also evident from
the limited representation in United States history textbooks that were backed by statements from
the interview participants. Additionally, Asian American content often covered events that
depicted historical trauma with few, if any, achievements and contributions.
The representation of Asian Americans from select historical events in United States
history conveniently groups all ethnicities from the racial group and fails to distinguish one
group from another. This was evident from the interview participants, who indicated they taught
some subjects as listed in Table 1 with minor variances. The tenth interview participant focused
primarily on one Asian American ethnic group, which does not represent the entire racial group.
While it may be simpler and more efficient to group all Asian Americans, it does mask the
differences and experiences of each ethnicity within the racial group. The interview participants
acknowledged this fact, and some tried to diversify their curriculum content even when the
classes had a small number of students from an Asian American minority population such as
Hmong or Laotian. However, the remaining nine interview participants indicated that the
subjects they taught were primarily focused on historical events surrounding two to three Asian
American groups.
Racialization of Asian Americans
This research's second area of focus was to examine the perceptions of Asian Americans
in United States society. Evidence from the literature review (see Chapter 2) and interviews
indicated that Asian Americans are rarely portrayed positively in society. Examining the
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racialization of Asian Americans revealed two crucial factors to understanding and formulating a
possible solution to address the issue. First, the interview participants acknowledged that the
racialization of Asian Americans resulted from the discrimination against foreigners dating back
to 1850 when California imposed the foreign miners' tax targeting the Chinese (Kurashige,
2016). The discrimination continued throughout the Nation's growth and to the present day with
subtle micro-aggressions to overt racism manifested in verbal assaults and physical attacks.
Second, the interview participants indicated that schools, as perhaps the most influential
institutions that impact student lives outside their families because of the knowledge, behavior,
and skills acquired, can be instrumental in changing societal attitudes and perceptions of Asian
Americans. Providing factual and relevant content and restructuring their teaching methods will
aid to accomplish this task. On the opposite spectrum, schools can reinforce negative perceptions
of Asian American by ignoring to take measures in the classroom that will counter the negative
portrayals that could reduce or even eliminate stereotypes.
Asian American stereotypes are not new and are products of the fear of job competition
from the 1800s and the perceived extreme differences in physical appearance, language, and
culture. However, as unjust stereotypes are, they continue to exist to explain the disposition of
Asian Americans conveniently. The creation of immigration policies beginning with the Chinese
Exclusion Act of 1882, which restricted or prohibited the immigration of people from China (and
later other parts of Asia), added fuel to the stereotype creation. It continues with the animosity
displayed through the association from some segments of society with the most recent Asian
American association with the COVID-19 pandemic.
The two most enduring and prominent stereotypes depict Asian Americans as the model
minority or forever foreigners. The model minority stereotype, while appearing to serve as a
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compliment to Asian Americans, is harmful because it aims to silence Asian Americans
regarding social issues they may have. This inaccuracy downplays the unique experiences of the
different ethnicities within the Asian racial category. It implies that Asian Americans have
achieved the American dream and do not experience any racism. More alarming is the stereotype
pits racial groups against each other by making unfair comparisons that may or may not be
similar.
The second prominent stereotype is the forever foreigner label. Regardless if an Asian
American is a citizen, legal resident, or has lived in the United States for many years, this label
asserts that Asians can never be truly American. The absurdity of this label denotes the many
accomplishments and contributions that Asian Americans have achieved for the betterment of all
people in the United States. Asian Americans are no different from any racial group regarding
their cultures, languages, or physical appearances. Differences in each race and ethnicity exist,
and no particular group can be compared justly as being more extreme than the other.
Creating an Educational Curriculum
The third area of focus for this research was to examine the challenges that schools and
school districts face when creating or changing a curriculum. Asian American representation in
the history and social science courses often resulted from educational policies as much from
societal perceptions. Educational policies that affect the content of a curriculum are dictated from
the federal level to the state and finally to the school districts. Often, school districts attempt to
produce a curriculum policy by providing the general requirements in a history or social science
course. It is very challenging to create an inclusive and equitable curriculum while meeting the
needs of a multi-racial and cultural student body coupled with the time constraints of a nine-
month school year. The teachers expressed in the interviews that they too often struggled with
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balancing the needs of their students, who comprised different racial groups, with the
requirements of the school districts.
Five participants indicated varying degrees of including additional Asian American
content in their curriculum after following the guidance of their school districts. Each school
district creates its own program of studies, often resulting in non-standard curriculums unique to
a particular school with subjects that may or may not be relevant to representing Asian
Americans in a history or social science course. In the case of A.P. courses, teachers must follow
the standards of the College Board. However, three participants who teach an A.P. history
course, expanded their curriculum to broaden the lesson coverage of Asian Americans.
Additionally, many curriculums rely on traditional learning methods from lectures and
textbooks. The interview participants expressed that they incorporated or wanted to include
activities to allow students to explore interesting topics and share their experiences with their
class to contribute to a more meaningful discourse. Subjects such as exploration of life in San
Francisco’s Chinatown or immigration experiences at Angel Island, sometimes referred to as the
Ellis Island of the West, in the San Francisco Bay during the early 20th Century can be very
impactful and help contextualize the experiences of the early Asian immigrants.
As the principal curriculum developers, school districts have some flexibility on the
content. However, some limitations hinder a truly inclusive and equitable curriculum. History
and other social science courses such as human geography, social studies, and ethnic studies
prove to be even more challenging, including content that reflects the diversity in the student
body's racial composition. Legislations are in place at both the federal and state levels that
guarantee the right of all students to receive the same education, which includes access to
resources. Resources for physical settings, such as functional schools, textbooks, and funding for
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school activities, are guaranteed. Students are guaranteed to receive access to the same level of
education, in some cases, at the advanced level. Students also receive core courses such as
English, math, and science and have the right to study history and different cultures, not just on a
single narrative of how the United States was created and grew.
Recommendations for Practice to Address Transformative Learning
This section discusses recommendations that address research questions 1-3. There are
five recommendations that align with one or more research questions. The recommendations
were evaluated utilizing the research framework of triangulation from the interviews and
document analysis. Each recommendation includes a justification supported by the literature
review and evidence from Chapter 4 findings. The practicality and sustainability of each
recommendation is contingent on the commitment of the schools and school districts, and
available educational funds by the State of California. A summary of the recommendations are
presented in Table 7, and their alignment with the research questions.
Table 7
Recommendations Summary
Recommendation Aligns with RQs
1. Close the Cultural Mismatch Gap 1, 3
2. Expand Coverage of Asian Americans and Its Different
Ethnicities

1, 2
3. Engage Multiple Stakeholders to Gather Input in
Designing an Inclusive and Equitable Curriculum

2, 3
4. Incorporate Accomplishments and Contributions with
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

1, 3
5. Incorporate Experiential Learning With Traditional
Methods of Teaching

2, 3

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Recommendation 1: Close the Cultural Mismatch Gap
Recommendation 1 stems from the discovery that a cultural mismatch between schools
and students contributed to the underrepresentation of Asian Americans during the interviews
and aligns with RQ1 and RQ3. The racial composition of the San Francisco Bay Area,
specifically the five counties where the interview participants are from, dictated the racial or
ethnic majority of the teaching staff. A disproportionate ratio between the number of Asian
American teachers and students exists in nine of the 10 schools, even when Asian Americans
comprised the majority of the student body in three schools. Asian American teachers were also
the minority in nine of the 10 schools.. Closing the gap is crucial because the cultural mismatch
poses a major barrier to creating a relevant curriculum that represents Asian Americans
accurately and positively.
The discovery of a cultural mismatch is significant because a gap in the cultural
knowledge and understanding of Asian Americans will exist regardless of the teachers’ racial
background, their knowledge, dedication, and concern to raise awareness unless they are insiders
from a particular racial or ethnic group. Creating curriculums that meet the needs of Asian
American students will be left to the discretion of the teacher and school district because of the
ability to identify with the culture and experiences that are unique to Asian Americans (Dee &
Penner, 2017; Ramsay-Jordan, 2020; Wright et al., 2017). This was evident during the interviews
as all 10 teachers stated their concerns when selecting topics to cover in their history and social
science classes. The four teachers who taught or had taught ethnic studies also expressed concern
as they were compelled to create their own curriculums with minimal guidance from the school
district and based on their experiences, their personal cultural knowledge, and what they deemed
appropriate.
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Closing the gap or creating a cultural bridge between teachers and students is achievable
by creating a mutual understanding of each other’s positionality. This can be accomplished
regardless of the teacher-student racial makeup and school composition. The intervention method
can vary from teachers receiving professional development training to become more culturally
competent and responsive to their students to actively seeking experiences that enhance their
cultural knowledge and understanding of different Asian American ethnicities. Teachers can
engage in a more culturally relevant pedagogy with instructional practices that align with the
distinctive cultural traits that students experience outside of the school environment and affirm
both cultural identity and critical social engagement (Dee & Penner, 2017). More importantly,
understanding the environment, which includes oneself as the teacher, the students, and the
subject to be taught, is crucial to ensuring that personal biases and assumptions about other
cultures are acknowledged.
Acknowledgment of the students’ culture, racial, and class differences displays a sincere
willingness to learn about different aspects that are important to the students (Tanase, 2021). It
displays respect for the students and their culture. Credibility increases as students’ perceptions
of their teachers become more positive, leading to a more effective learning environment
(Pishghadam et al., 2018). Students also benefit from teachers who seek to improve their
awareness to build a cultural bridge. Culturally competent teachers help students build and
maintain their cultural integrity gaining a deeper understanding and appreciation for their history
and culture and those of other racial groups (Martell & Stevens, 2019). This is especially
important for Asian Americans (or other racial groups) who were raised in the United States and
know little of their culture or historical legacy.

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Recommendation 2: Expand Coverage of Asian Americans and Its Different Ethnicities
Recommendation 2 is to expand the representation of Asian Americans by carefully
selecting and adding more culturally relevant content to the history or social science courses.
Recommendation 2 aligns with RQ1 and RQ2. The literature review and findings concluded that
the limited Asian American content focused primarily on a select few, historical trauma, and
minimal to zero accomplishment. This is problematic because Asian Americans comprise 21
different major groups and many more sub-groups that have their own language and culture
(Monte & Shin, 2022). As with any racial group, Asian Americans are not monolithic, and each
major group has its own experiences and historical legacy that are unique.
The lack of ethnic representation is common through curriculums that cover primarily the
experiences of the Chinese, as indicated by the findings. While their history and legacy in the
United States are important to cover, it is not representative of other Asian American ethnicities.
As with all racial groups, the different Asian American ethnicities also deserve equal
representation. Many of the interview participants described the content of their United States or
world history course covering topics of one to three ethnicities within the Asian American group.
The findings revealed that some interview participants even attested that their curriculums did
not include Asian Americans. Others indicated that there are varying degrees of Asian American
content but that they were not the primary focus of their course. In some ethnic studies courses,
the focus was either on one Asian American ethnicity or one racial group. The findings
determined that the participants acknowledge that more needs to be done to raise Asian
American awareness through more inclusion in their courses. Accomplishing the task is hindered
by the need to prioritize one racial or ethnic group over another to maximize their efforts to
provide as comprehensive coverage as possible with the time constraints.
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Recommendation 3: Engage Multiple Stakeholders to Gather Input in Designing an
Inclusive and Equitable Curriculum
Recommendation 3 is to be more proactive in creating an inclusive and equitable
curriculum by engaging multiple stakeholders from within and outside the educational
community. Recommendation 3 aligns with RQ2 and RQ3. The inclusion of the many diverse
racial and ethnic groups poses a unique challenge to creating a history or social science course
that core subjects may not need to consider. This is because there are too many to accommodate
in the limited time during the school year. The problem is so complex that all 10 interview
participants acknowledge that it is difficult to solve. The current political and social climate's
impact on recent racial issues exacerbates the problem of creating a curriculum for history, social
science courses, and even ethnic studies. Consequently, schools and school districts become, as
one interview participant indicated, “reactive” in response to societal concerns and media
coverage of violent incidents, which can result in prioritizing one racial group over another.
Prioritizing which racial or ethnic group will be included in a curriculum is a huge task
that cannot be resolved without input from key stakeholders. Even if a school or school district
has well-meaning intentions prioritizing one racial group over another is not being inclusive.
Additionally, during the document analysis and interviews, some interview participants
expressed that schools with a racial or ethnic majority may meet resistance from the community.
Questions may arise from a community of the purpose and relevance of dedicating significant
representation to a racial group that comprises only a small percentage of the student body.
Regardless of the student body makeup, all racial and ethnic groups deserve equal representation
in social science, and soliciting input from multiple stakeholders is beneficial to gather different
perspectives.
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School districts and school administrators are the principal curriculum developers while
others such as students, parents, and their communities are often not afforded the opportunity to
provide input. One participant stated that curriculum developers often work in a silo and are
removed from their students’ communities. Parents and community leaders and organizations
should be included as they have a significant stake in their children’s education. Additionally,
teachers and students, being the facilitators and receivers of knowledge, should also be a priority.
Schools will benefit from the knowledge and unique awareness that only communities can
provide. Communities will gain a better understanding of the issues faced by schools and school
districts instead of just being focused on a single solution that represents the make-up of their
students or community. Furthermore, multiple stakeholder input in designing social science
curriculums can aid in deconstructing controversial issues such as racism and encourage open
discourse that would create a curriculum that addresses social awareness and changes societal
perspectives (Miller et al., 2022).
As crucial in selecting stakeholders from in and outside of the educational community,
Asian American stakeholders are even more important to include for gathering input. The
interviews revealed that in some cases, only non-Asian Americans participated in the curriculum
creation. History and social science curriculums need to be authentic and from people who have
intimate knowledge about their culture and legacy. The new ethnic studies curriculum guidance
from California also states that partnering with relevant community stakeholders is
recommended (California Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum, 2021).

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Recommendation 4: Incorporate Accomplishments and Contributions with Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy
Recommendation 4 is to incorporate the accomplishments and contributions of Asian
Americans in the history and social science course to represent the group positively and
encompasses a culturally relevant pedagogy. This includes integrating a similar model into an
ethnic studies course. Recommendation 4 aligns with RQ1 and RQ3. The recommendation
addresses the underrepresentation of Asian Americans (RQ1) and the creation of a pedagogy that
encourages transformative learning (RQ3). Restructuring traditional social science classes such
as history, social studies, and human geography to provide a more holistic depiction of Asian
Americans can provide greater exposure and knowledge of history and culture. Current history
subjects that focus on events such as World War 2, and the United States' involvement in the
Korean and Vietnam Wars often portray Asians as aggressors. Subjects that cover the legacy of
Asian immigration and discrimination, the incarceration of Japanese Americans, or even the
Vietnamese refugee crisis in the 1970s portray Asian Americans as victims. When the topic of
racial injustice is discussed, it is often from the perspective of how Asian Americans are
discriminated against as opposed to what actions were taken to address the racism. This issue
was revealed during the interview when some teachers indicated they wish they could refocus
their curriculums from the typical events as listed in Table 1 to more positive stories.
Changing the content of a history or social science course requires more than providing
examples of Asian American achievements and contributions. Curriculums that are culturally
relevant are meaningful in two ways. First, culturally relevant material helps students accept
affirmation of their cultural identity while developing a critical perspective of the inequalities
that are perpetuated in society (Dee & Penner, 2017). Second, students can gain the critical
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thinking skills to challenge the cultural hegemony of the dominant group or culture that exerts
influence and control of society's narratives. This is significant because the power exerted is
embedded in the social, economic, and political systems from which policies, institutional
practices, and cultural representations are created to reinforce ways to perpetuate the inequity of
historically marginalized groups of people (Starr, 2018). Additionally, it allows students to
engage in constructive dialogue with different perspectives to challenge teachers and subjects
taught in the classrooms. In other words, cultural hegemony with regard to education must be
countered to encourage personal cultural context and differences in the classrooms which
facilitates cross-cultural dialogue (Zaidi et al., 2016).
An even more progressive transformation intervention to raise Asian American
awareness is through the integration of a culturally relevant pedagogy in ethnic studies. The
interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach to learning history, literature, economics, and a
host of other relevant subjects is more conducive to engaging students and developing multiple
perspectives of others (Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2014). Curriculums in ethnic studies recover
and reconstruct the counternarratives, perspectives, and epistemologies, and cultures of
marginalized racial groups such as Asian Americans (Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2014). The four
interview participants that currently teach or have taught ethnic studies attest to the effectiveness
of engaging students with this approach to become more self-aware of themselves and their
historical legacy. This is important because the self-awareness gained will lead to a greater sense
of self-empowerment and the likelihood to engage in some form of social advocacy (Kolluri &
Edwards, 2023).

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Recommendation 5: Incorporate Experiential Learning With Traditional Methods of
Teaching
Recommendation 5 is to incorporate non-traditional teaching methods where educators
and students can engage in meaningful discourse together and focused reflection to increase
knowledge, develop critical-thinking skills, and clarify values without fear of reprisals. This
recommendation aligns with RQ2 and RQ3. The recommendation addresses issues raised in RQ2
on barriers that must be overcome to create a learning environment that increases the
representation of Asian Americans while not marginalizing other racial groups. It also considers
suggestions from the interview participants’ methods of improving the learning outcomes of
students through engaging in activities that are more stimulating than just receiving knowledge
from textbooks and lectures. As the frontline influencers, teachers are the most critical link
between school districts and students. The teachers’ contribution to aligning their content with
the needs of their students is a crucial element in ensuring learning transformation occurs. All 10
interview participants agreed that changing the pedagogy is the key to creating transformative
learning. Conventional teaching methods that have long been used in schools need to change for
this to occur. Teachers must not just teach but also mentor and guide students to become more
accepting and understanding of people from other races and even their own racial group and
experiential learning can help accomplish this task.
New learning methods that encourage and challenge students to seek out-of-class
experiences to acquire knowledge outside the classroom and broaden students’ exposure such as
working with an Asian American community organization or visiting historical landmarks is
exciting. This is at the core of experiential learning or interactive learning, where students
engage in activities to acquire experiences of other peoples’ cultures and learn to appreciate their
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differences (McCarthy, 2016). Experiential learning is essential to the transformation process of
gaining knowledge through experiences and reflection (Kolb, 1984, as cited by McCarthy, 2016).
A few interview participants attested they infuse their curriculums with some form of
experiential learning. Experiential learning though, is not just about going to physical spaces or
locations. It also included students engaging one another to discuss sensitive topics of race issues
in a brave space. With the guidance of the teacher as a moderator, students can engage in
meaningful discourse with each other and learn different perspectives. Many of the interview
participants experimented with different methods to encourage this activity and all agreed that
experiential learning is desirable and beneficial to their students and themselves.
The benefits of a non-traditional method of learning that includes experiential learning
have been proven to be effective at higher educational institutions. Research by Brigham Young
University, and Case Western Reserve University, to name a few, have indicated that educators
have used experiential learning which gave students a richer, more meaningful understanding of
course concepts and how they relate to the environment that surrounds them (Kolb & Kolb,
2017). The interview participants who have included this method in their curriculums discovered
that they too became more aware of their knowledge of Asian Americans by undertaking
experiences that enhanced their cultural competence. One interview participant, for example,
stated he likes to immerse himself by taking trips to historical locations in the San Francisco Bay
Area to learn more about the Asian American experience away from the history textbooks. The
interview participants who engaged in these types of extracurricular activities discovered that
their level of empathy for their students increased and reflected on the choices of how to add
additional discussion topics to their curriculum. This is significant because a method that
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incorporates an engaging pedagogy also promotes achievement, equity, and social justice (Gross
& Rutland, 2017).
Limitations and Delimitations
The research study was as thorough as possible, given the constraints and practicality of
the subject explored. These constraints included items beyond the researcher's control and
considerations taken by the researcher to include or exclude items that would support the
problem of the study. However, the researcher attempted to identify and acquire the resources
required to accomplish the tasks to provide the readers a general overview of Asian Americans in
regard to public high school history or social science curriculums and provide a conclusion of the
findings and case for changing the paradigm as it currently exists to improve the attitudes and
perceptions in United States society about Asian Americans.
Limitations
There are several limitations to the data collection methods for the research study. The
first is regarding the interview. Accessibility to all California public high school history or social
science teachers is not practical and feasible. Participants from a small sample from the nine
counties of the San Francisco Bay Area were chosen for the study due to the location’s
significant Asian American population and, more importantly, the makeup of the student body.
However, a small, nonrandom, purposeful sample still allowed the researcher to develop a
conclusion that supports the purpose of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Related limitations
are the responses and perspectives of the interview participants. While the participants are
assumed to be genuine and honest, their responses may not accurately represent their school
district’s educational policies on history, social science, and ethnic studies. Therefore, the
researcher employed methods to check the credibility and trustworthiness of the information
provided by the participants. The interview process also posed limitations due to eight
126

participants’ election to be interviewed on Zoom due to travel distance or COVID safety
concerns. Just as with phone interviews, however, online interviews, while still feasible, pose
limitations when attempting to observe body language and expressions that are easily observable
during an in-person meeting.
In performing document analysis, the limitations to the accuracy and completeness of the
documents must also be noted. A limitation with document analysis is the accuracy of the
content due to the dates when posted or if changes are made to the school district’s strategic
education plan. The requirement to implement an ethnic studies program in California school
districts also does not become mandatory until the school year 2025. Therefore, school districts
have time to continue creating their plans. School districts may also choose to alter them during
the next two years, which could affect the outcome of the research study’s conclusion.
Additionally, since each school district is responsible for creating its own curriculum to address
the needs of its student-body makeup and communities, the curriculums may differ widely from
one another because of the large number of school districts in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Delimitations
In designing the research study, conditions were imposed by the researcher to narrow the
focus on a specific problem that plagues the California educational system and must be put
forward to create societal awareness of the Asian American story. Since California was the first
state to approve an ethnic studies requirement to graduate high school and has the highest
population of Asian Americans, the focus of the research is appropriate. Requirements included
or excluded participants based on their experiences as a high school history teacher or a related
discipline within the social sciences. Choosing only participants who teach a social science
discipline in a public high school in California lends to the authenticity of the narratives and
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perspectives offered during the interviews. Selecting only teachers with the education and
experience of teaching a social science discipline offered insights into the current conditions
facing the underrepresentation of Asian Americans. Selecting these teachers also sheds a more
robust perspective on how best to implement a change in paradigm that is not only inclusive but
allows meaningful engagement between teachers and their students. The criteria for choosing
interview participants ensured that the responses that each of them provided adequate data to
support the research questions. The delimitation for being selective in focusing on choosing to
review accessible documents from the California Department of Education, selected school
districts, and the College Board was also crucial for the study.
Recommendation for Future Research
This study has greater potential for future research as the problem of practice is not
limited to the San Francisco Bay Area and California. The five recommendations from the
analysis of the findings and application of the conceptual framework suggest that additional
research to assess their effectiveness is required. The recommendations for additional research
are listed in this section.
The first recommendation for future research on closing the cultural gap is to determine
the best practices for achieving this goal. The findings indicated that the cultural gap would
continue to exist because there are not enough Asian American teachers that can be hired to fill
the role of an educator, especially in the social science departments. However, this is not a hurdle
that cannot be overcome. The racial background of a teacher should never be a factor in teaching
a social science or any course. What is more important is ensuring the educator has the
appropriate professional training or development which allows them to be culturally competent
and empathetic to the cultural differences of their students.
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The second recommendation for future research is to determine the best course of action
to change the content of Asian Americans in history or social science courses. The literature
review and findings determined that the limited number of topics on Asian American history and
legacy covered were insufficient. The coverage of the different ethnicities within the racial group
is even smaller. The limited topics often discussed are not representative of the Asian American
group. They also do not represent the different ethnicities within the Asian American racial
group. The experiences and history of Asian Americans may be similar but are not necessarily
viewed in the same manner as each other. Discretion to decide on modifications to the content
should be explored as some schools will have varying amounts of different Asian American
ethnicities.
The third recommendation for research is to work with internal and external stakeholders
to determine the most practical makeup of a group that would be most beneficial to contributing
to creating a curriculum that is agreeable to all and fulfills the needs of the students. Too many
stakeholders or not having relevant persons participate is just as ineffective as not having
stakeholders from different segments of the community and educational institutions participate.
Stakeholders from different cultural backgrounds are just as valuable for their cultural expertise
as educators of their professional backgrounds to gather input to create an inclusive and equitable
curriculum.
The fourth recommendation for future research is to determine the best course of action
to change the focus and pedagogy of Asian American representation in social science. Covering
primarily historical traumas and limiting topics that showcase Asian American achievements and
contributions does little to change the perceptions of the group in society. Subjects which
highlight Asian American accomplishments are more uplifting and will portray Asian Americans
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as contributors to the United States as opposed to being perceived as not American or free from
discriminatory and racial biases. Furthermore, meaningful discourse should be included which
moves away from retelling a story to addressing issues of racism and discrimination with
narratives of how they were dealt with.
Finally, the fifth recommendation for future research is to integrate different activities of
experiential learning into a curriculum. A standardized methodology should be considered to
ensure that educators are not just randomly selecting activities that do not necessarily fulfill the
needs of the students or curriculum goals. Additionally, standardization will help allocate
funding more efficiently rather than just spending funds on activities that are questionable to
producing a positive learning outcome.
Conclusion
This study focused on examining the Asian American underrepresentation in public high
school history and social science curriculums in California and creating a transformation to raise
awareness. The findings help answer the research questions and determine that the problem of
practice can be addressed with intentional intervention. The barriers to changing the educational
system to provide Asian Americans more representation in the curriculum are not
insurmountable, as per the recommendations in this chapter. Educational institutions perform an
important function by defining the policies and mechanisms for which knowledge is conveyed to
students, reinforcing or promoting existing societal norms and attitudes. Educators teach students
and impart knowledge that will help students learn and become better citizens in society. The
effort for change entered a significant milestone, and the realization that ethnic studies has
become a priority in educating students came in October 2021, when California Governor Gavin
Newsom approved Assembly Bill (AB) 101. The new legislation mandated that public high
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schools in California include ethnic studies as a graduation requirement (Pupil Instruction, 2021).
This requirement has the potential to advance the effort to educate all students on the issues
surrounding Asian Americans and other marginalized racial groups. This opportunity to examine
the stories and experiences of people of color has been long overdue and, once implemented, will
positively impact the younger generation.
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149

Appendix A: Major Federal Educational Legislations and Areas of Priorities
Major Federal Educational Legislations and Areas of Priorities
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
Title I
Financial Assistance to Local Educational Agencies for the Education of
Children of Low-Income Families
Title II School Library Resources, Textbooks, And Other Instructional Materials
Title III Supplementary Educational Centers and Services
Title IV Educational Research And Training
Title V Grants To Strengthen State Departments Of Education
Title VI General Provisions
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
Title I Improving The Academic Achievement Of The Disadvantage
Title II Preparing, Training, And Recruiting High Quality Teachers, Principals
Title III
Language Instruction For Limited English Proficient And Immigrant
Students
Title IV 21st Century Schools
Title V Promoting Informed Parental Choice And Innovative Programs
Title VI Flexibility And Accountability
Title VII Indian, Native Hawaiian, And Alaska Native Education
Title VIII Impact Aid
Title IX General Provisions
Title X Repeals, Redesignations, And Amendments To Other Statutes
Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015
Title I Improving The Academic Achievement Of The Disadvantage
Title II
Preparing, Training, And Recruiting High-Quality Teachers, Principals,
And Other School Leaders
Title III Language Instruction For English Learners And Immigrant Students
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Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015
Title IV 21st Century Schools
Title V Flexibility And Accountability
Title VI Indian, Native Hawaiian, And Alaska Native Education
Title VII Impact Aid
Title VIII General Provisions
Title IX Education For The Homeless And Other Laws

151

Appendix B: Interview Protocol

Date: ___ - ___ - ___
Start time: ______ End time: ______
Location: ___________
ID (pseudonym) of interviewee: ______________
Recording device: __ Voice Recorder __ Zoom
I. Introduction:
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. My name is Rene Perez and I’m a
doctoral candidate at the University of Southern California. I appreciate the time that you have
set aside to answer my questions. As I previously mentioned, the interview should take about an
hour, but you can stop at any time if you do not want to continue. We can also go over one hour
if you have more to contribute.
Before we get started, let me review the purpose of my study. I’m conducting a study on
the perceptions of Asian American and developing an Asian American education curriculum in
high schools in California. I’m interested in understanding how you perceive Asian Americans
are represented in current history, social science, or ethnic studies curriculums in public high
schools. I’m also interested in how a curriculum can be created and taught that would be
inclusive and representative of Asian Americans equitably.
I want to assure you that this is strictly voluntary. As a researcher, this means that the
nature of my questions are not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments on your
responses, but to understand your perspective. This interview is confidential. This means your
name and other personally identifiable information will not be shared with anyone. The data for
this study will be used for my dissertation and while I do plan on using some of what you say as
152

direct quotes, none of this data will be directly attributed to you. I will use a pseudonym to
protect your confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify any of the data I gather from you.
I’m happy to provide you with a copy of my final paper if you are interested. I’ll keep the data in
a password protected external hard drive and all data will be destroyed after 1 year of my data
collection.
I would like your permission to record our conversation today for the sole purpose to
accurately capture your perspectives and to reference when compiling my data. May I have your
permission to record our conversation? Attached is an Informed Consent Form that I request you
read and sign before we begin. Do you have any questions before we start?
II. Research Question 1: How are Asian Americans represented in the educational curriculum
in public high schools in the San Francisco Bay Area?
Interview Questions
Notes
1. How long have you been a teacher?
Follow-up: How long have you been teaching high
school?

2. What is your educational background?

Follow-up: What was your major in college? Do you
have any other college degrees?

3. What grade(s) level do you teach?
153

Interview Questions
Notes
4. What subject(s) do you teach?
Follow-up: Any other subjects you’ve taught in the
past?

5. What is your racial/ethnic background?
6. What is the approximate teacher demographics of
your high school (race, ethnicity, gender, etc.)?

7. What is the approximate student demographics of
your high school (race, ethnicity, gender, economic)?

8. Does the course you teach include any Asian
American representation?
Follow-up:
a. If yes, please describe the content.
b. If not, why do you think it does not?

154

Interview Questions
Notes
9. Does your high school have an ethnic studies
curriculum?
Follow-Up:
a. If yes, is it a separate class or combined with a
history and/or social science class. Who teaches
it? (Continue to Q10)
b. If not, why do you think your school does not
include ethnic studies. (Skip Q10-Q14 and go
to Q15)

10. What is the Asian and Asian American
representation in terms of content of the ethnic studies
curriculum?
Follow-up:
a. Does your ethnic studies curriculum cover all
racial groups?
b. To what degree, if any, are Asian American
representation included in the curriculum?

11. Do you know how the ethnic studies curriculum is
taught to students at your school?
Follow-up: Please explain the methodology.

155

Interview Questions
Notes
12. Do you believe your school’s ethnic studies
curriculum can be improved with regards to increasing
or decreasing Asian American representation?
a. If yes, please explain why.
b. If not, please explain why.

13. How effective is the ethnic studies curriculum in
your high school in creating awareness towards Asian
Americans on a scale of 1 to 5, 1 being low and 5
being high?
Follow-Up: Please explain your rating.

14. Do you think that the current ethnic studies
curriculum in your high school should be restructured
(i.e., the way it is taught and the content)?
Follow-up:
a. If yes, please explain how it should be
restructured.
b. If no, please explain why not.

156

Interview Questions
Notes
15. Do you think high schools should include an
ethnic studies curriculum?
Follow-up:
a. If yes, please explain why and if it should be a
separate class or combined with history or
social science classes.
b. If not, please explain why not.

16. What impact do you think an ethnic studies
curriculum currently has on societal attitudes towards
Asian Americans?
Follow-up: Please explain your response regardless
whether you agreed or not with Q15.

III. Research Question 2: What are the challenges that school districts must overcome to
ensure that Asian American history and legacy are included in an ethnic studies curriculum while
not marginalizing any other racial groups?
Interview Questions Notes
1. How important do you think Asian American
representation needs to be included in an ethnic
studies curriculum on a scale of 1 - 5, 1 being low and
5 being high?
Follow-up: Please explain your rating.

157

Interview Questions Notes
2. Do you think Asian Americans have been largely
missing from high school history textbooks?
Follow-up:
a. If yes, please explain to what extent Asian
Americans have been marginalized and
provide examples.
b. If not, please explain and provide examples
that Asian Americans have not been
marginalized in high school texts.

3. What percentage of a curriculum should Asian
Americans be included in a history or ethnic studies
curriculum?
Follow-up: Should it be proportionate to the number
of Asian American student body?

4. How much representation should other racial
groups be given in a history or ethnic studies
curriculum in comparison with Asian Americans
especially if one or more are the majority?
Follow-up: Please elaborate.

5. What Asian American subjects should be included
in a history or ethnic studies curriculum?

158

Interview Questions Notes
Follow-up: Why do you believe the topic(s) you chose
would be more impactful in creating awareness?
6. What percentage of a history or ethnic studies
course should be devoted to each specific ethnicity
within the Asian race?
Follow-up: What impact do you think that devoting a
majority of an Asian ethnic studies curriculum
towards a specific group would have towards other
Asians (for example, focusing primarily on Chinese)?

7. Do you think Asian American representation
should be combined with other racial groups that have
similar experiences or who have worked together in
the past (civil rights movement, the farm labor
movement, countering media stereotypes, etc.) to
show a common struggle?
Follow-up:
a. If yes, why and provide some historical
examples?
b. If no, why not?

159

Interview Questions Notes
8. Who do you think should have input in assisting a
school district in designing an Asian ethnic studies
course (students, parents, teachers, community
organizations, etc.)?
Follow-up: Would a non-Asian person with
professional background or education be as impactful
by providing input?

9. Who do you think should teach an Asian ethnic
studies course (person of color vs. nonperson of
color)?
Follow-up:
a. Would a non-Asian person with a professional
background or education be as impactful?
b. Please state the advantages or disadvantages
when selecting who teaches an ethnic studies
course?

10. Do you think teachers should receive special
training regardless if they are Asian American or
not?
Follow-up: What training do you think is required
(Asian American history, culture sensitivity,
different methods of teaching)?

160

Interview Questions Notes
11. What challenges do you think you will
encounter from implementing an Asian ethnic
studies curriculum, if any?
Follow-up: Do you think it will be received well
by a community or by any other racial groups that
may not agree?

IV. Research Question 3: How can a school district ensure an ethnic studies curriculum
promotes transformative learning to increase awareness of Asian Americans?

Interview Questions Notes
1. How can ethnic studies regarding Asian
Americans be taught which builds relationships
between teachers and students that fosters a
learning environment to encourage different
perspectives and opinions without fear of
reprisal?
Follow-up: Please explain how you would
accomplish this task.

2. How can ethnic studies regarding Asian
Americans be taught where students develop

161

Interview Questions Notes
critical thinking skills to learn and understand
new knowledge to challenge their own
assumptions?
Follow-up: Would scenario-based learning
contribute to this?
3. What are some ideas to enhance cultural
experiences for students (visiting an Asian
American cultural center or neighborhood center
and interacting with other people than themselves
to be productive)?

4. How would you encourage students to
move out of their comfort zone and increase
their limited knowledge about Asian
Americans so that they can engage in building
self-awareness and learn to accept others?

V. Closing Comments:

Thank you so much for sharing your thoughts with me today. I really appreciate your time and
willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is insightful and very helpful for my
study. If I have follow-up questions, can I contact you by email? If there are any websites or
documents that you feel comfortable sharing, please email them to me? Also, if it is okay, if
162

there are others who you think would be interested in participating in my research, please let
them know and forward their contact information to me. Again, thank you for participating in my
study.

163

Appendix C: Interview Invitation
Dear _____,
My name is Rene Perez, and I am a doctoral researcher in the Doctor of Education program at
the University of Southern California (USC). The USC Institutional Review Board recently
approved my application to conduct interviews with high school history and social science
teachers as part of my doctoral research study to examine the underrepresentation of Asian
Americans in California public high school curriculums.
The interview takes approximately 60 minutes. I will ask questions to capture thoughts and
perspectives. Responses to the questions will be kept confidential. Each interview will be
assigned a number code to help ensure that personally identifiable information (names, schools,
location, etc.) are not revealed during the analysis and write-up of findings. Participation is
voluntary; the participant may end the interview at any time or choose not to answer any
questions.
There is no compensation for participating in this study. However, participation will be
valuable to my research, and the findings could lead to a greater public understanding of Asian
Americans.
I am in San Francisco and available in person or on Zoom at your convenience. If you
have any questions, please do not hesitate to ask.
Thank you.

Rene Perez
rdperez@usc.edu
164

Appendix D: Informed Consent for Research
Study Title: An Examination of the Under Representation of Asian Americans in California
Public High School History Curriculums
Principal Investigator: Rene Perez
Department: University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education, Organizational
Change and Leadership
24-Hour Telephone Number: (...) ...-....
Introduction
I invite you to take part in a research study. Please take as much time as you need to read
the consent form. You may want to discuss it with your family, friends, or colleagues. If you find
any of the languages difficult to understand, please ask questions. If you decide to participate,
you will be asked to sign this form. A copy of the signed form will be provided to you for your
records.
Key Information
The following is a short summary of this study to help you decide whether you should
participate. More detailed information is listed later in this form.
1. Being in this research study is voluntary.
2. You are being asked to participate in this study because you are a principal source that
can accurately describe how Asian Americans are represented in California's public high
school curriculums and provide recommendations for creating an effective ethnic studies
program. This study aims to gather data to formulate evidence-based recommendations
for creating an ethnic studies curriculum that represents Asian Americans equitably. Your
165

participation in this study will last approximately one hour. Procedures will include an
explanation of the interview process, the interview questions, and concluding comments.
3. There are risks to participating in this study. The most common risks are minimal. The
"Risk and Discomfort" section will provide more detail on the information about the risks
of this study.
4. There are no direct benefits to you from taking part in this study. However, your
participation in this study may help us learn ways to create a transformative learning
environment that will aid in creating more awareness and understanding of Asian
Americans.
5. Your participation in this research is voluntary, and you will not be subject to any
coercion or manipulation to participate.
Detailed Information
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to explore the current representation of Asian Americans in
California’s public high school history curriculums. We hope to learn what is currently offered
and determine future strategies for creating an ethnic studies curriculum for California's public
high schools so that Asian Americans are represented equitably. You are invited as a possible
participant because you are a public high school teacher and can provide an accurate description
of the research problem of practice. About 10 participants will take part in the study. This
research is not funded by any school or organization.
Procedures
By voluntarily agreeing to participate in this research, the following will happen as per the
interview protocol:
166

● At your convenience, a date, time, and location will be coordinated and agreed upon
before the interview. A Zoom meeting is acceptable if desired and if it is the most
practical method to conduct an interview. Before the activity starts, a reminder email will
be sent one day before the interview.
● You will be informed of the method of recording the interview to ensure the accuracy of
the interaction.
● The interview will begin with an introduction of the research, notice of confidentiality,
and the option to continue or discontinue the interview process.
● The interviewer will ask a series of questions to gather data beginning with the
background of yourself, the history class you teach, and the demographics of your high
school. The second set of questions will be about the history curriculum at your school
and your perspectives on ethnic studies. The third set of questions will be about your
perspectives on creating a transformative learning environment.
● After the interview, the interviewer will ask for additional comments and possible
referrals of teachers who may wish to participate.
Risks and Discomforts
Possible risks and discomforts you could experience during this study include:
● Surveys/Questionnaires/Interviews: Some of the questions may make you feel uneasy or
embarrassed. You can choose to skip or stop answering any questions you don’t want to.
Breach of Confidentiality: There is a small risk that people who are not connected with this study
will learn your identity or your personal information. You will be assigned a code to prevent any
personally identifiable information from being linked to you. All data gathered will be securely
167

stored in a password protected external storage and be destroyed after the research has been
completed.
Unforeseen Risks: There may be other risks that are not known at this time.
Benefits
There are no direct benefits to you from taking part in this study. However, your participation in
this study may help us learn ways to create a transformative learning environment which will aid
in creating more awareness of Asian Americans.
Privacy/Confidentiality
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. Efforts will be
made to limit the use and disclosure of your personal information, including research study and
medical records, to people who are required to review this information. We may publish only the
data from this study in journals or present it at meetings. If we do, we will not use your name or
any personal identifiable information.
The University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Human Subject’s
Protections Program (HSPP) may review your records.
Your responses, which are also called “data” will be collected as part of this research and will be
used or distributed for future research studies without your additional informed consent. Any
information that identifies you (such as your name) will be removed from the data before being
shared with others or used in future research studies.
Alternatives
An alternative would be to not participate in this study.

168

Payment/Compensation
You will not be compensated for your participation in this research.
Cost
There are no costs associated with participation in this research.
Voluntary Participation
It is your choice whether to participate. If you choose to participate, you may change your mind
and leave the study at any time. If you decide not to participate, or choose to end your
participation in this study, you will not be penalized or lose any benefits that you are otherwise
entitled to.
If you stop being in the research, already collected data may not be removed from the study
database. You will be asked whether the investigator can continue to collect data from your
records. If you agree, this data will be handled the same as the research data. No new information
or samples will be collected about you or from you by the study team without your permission.
Withdrawal from Study
Participation from this research is voluntary. You may withdraw at any time or stop the interview
process if:
● You feel uncomfortable with the questions.
● You do not feel you can contribute meaningful data.
● You have an unforeseen circumstance that prevents you from continuing.
Participant Termination
You may be removed from this study without your consent for any of the following reasons: you
do not follow the principal investigator’s instructions, at the discretion of the principal
169

investigator, your condition gets worse, or the sponsor closes the study. If this happens, the
principal investigator will discuss other options with you.
Contact Information
If you have questions, concerns, complaints, or think the research has hurt you, talk to the
principal investigator, Rene Perez, at rdperez@usc.edu.
This research has been reviewed by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB is a
research review board that reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and
welfare of research participants. Contact the IRB if you have questions about your rights as a
research participant or you have complaints about the research. You may contact the IRB at
(323) 442-0114 or by email at irb@usc.edu.

170

Appendix E: Participants’ School Student Body Profile

Participants’ School Student Body Profile

Participant Total Student
Population
Student Body Racial Profile (%) Socioeconomically
Disadvantaged (%)
Asian American
Indian/
Alaska Native
Black Native
Hawaiian/
Pacific Islander
White Latino/
Hispanic

Sarah 208 6.7 0.5 14.4 1.9 2.4 70.7 70.7
Nolan 1,624 24.7 0.3 4.1 0.7 6.2 60.2 52.0
Diana 1,568 13.6 0.5 25.7 1.7 12.2 36.7 70.5
Bruce 1,939 49.8 0.4 3.7 0.7 16.6 23.8 29.0
Elijah 1,418 12.5 0.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 82.6 77.0
Faith 1,088 5.0 0.9 0.6 0.6 7.0 83.8 54.0
Harrison 2,896 78.1 0.0 0.8 0.4 4.0 14.1 17.9
Tiana 1,314 39.9 0.5 3.7 0.8 15.6 35.2 39.7
Victor 1,448 6.2 1.1 2.9 0.3 39.5 44.1 38.7
William 1,725 5.2 0.3 1.4 0.3 44.7 43.4 45.3

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Asset Metadata

Creator Perez, Rene Dacio (author)

Core Title An examination of the underrepresentation of Asian Americans in California's public high school curriculums

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-08

Publication Date 07/10/2023

Defense Date 06/06/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Asian Americans,awareness,curriculum,ethnic studies,History,OAI-PMH Harvest,pedagogy,Race,social sciences,transformative learning

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kim, Esther (committee chair), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee member), Ocampo, Atheneus (committee member)

Creator Email rdperez@usc.edu,rperez1005@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113263163

Unique identifier UC113263163

Identifier etd-PerezReneD-12055.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-PerezReneD-12055

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Perez, Rene Dacio

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230710-usctheses-batch-1065 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu