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Broken promises: gaining an understanding of policy-practice and means-ends decoupling within diversity and inclusion

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Broken promises: gaining an understanding of policy-practice and means-ends decoupling within diversity and inclusion

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Content Copyright 2023 Leslie P. Schnyder

BROKEN PROMISES: GAINING AN UNDERSTANDING OF POLICY-PRACTICE AND
MEANS-ENDS DECOUPLING WITHIN DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION

by

Leslie P. Schnyder

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(SOCIAL WORK)

August 2023

ii
Dedication

To Mom and Dad, I love you to the moon and back.

To Damien, Shana, Naima, and Nesanet, the universe is not big enough to hold all my gratitude
for you.

In memory of my ancestors who have been the stars in the night lighting my path.

iii
Acknowledgements
“Beloved community is formed not by the eradication of difference but by its affirmation,
by each of us claiming the identities and cultural legacies that shape who we are and how we live
in the world.” – bell hooks.
I am wholeheartedly grateful for the beloved community of support that has nurtured me
throughout my doctoral studies. I would like to acknowledge and thank all the members of my
dissertation committee. During my doctoral studies, I have been fortunate to work with Dr.
Michálle Mor Barak as my faculty advisor and dissertation chair. My heartfelt appreciation goes
to you for your exceptional guidance, insightful feedback, relentless commitment, and genuine
support of my success as a researcher. It has been one of life’s greatest blessings to be your
mentee, and have the opportunity to learn from you, an innovative researcher and teacher who
has led the advancement of inclusion knowledge in historical and necessary ways. To Dr.
Lawrence Palinkas, thank you for all your support, training, and guidance. Your mentorship
around qualitative methods has been pivotal to my growth as a researcher. Dr. Erin Frey, I am so
appreciative of the creative thinking you employed to help enhance the precision and
comprehensiveness of this dissertation project.
Thank you to the PhD Program at the University of Southern California (USC) Suzanne
Dworak-Peck School of Social Work. To Dr. Michael Hurlburt, your steady encouragement,
creative teaching approaches, and inclusive advisement were critical to my success as a PhD
student. To Malinda Sampson, thank you for your tremendous effort to ensure all the layers of
support were in place for me in this journey.
I am appreciative of all the research team members that I have collaborated with during
my doctoral journey. To the Zumberge team, you have provided such as wonderful example of

iv
an inclusive research team. Dr. Shinyi Wu, I have appreciated learning from your wisdom as a
student in your course, as well as a research collaborator. Dr. Gil Luria, being able to work with
you on multiple research teams has expanded my skills as an organizational researcher. Dr.
Charles Kaplan, I am grateful to have benefitted from your vast research wisdom. To Dr.
Ruotong (Mona) Liu, it has been a joy to get to work with you closely and receive your
mentorship around the doctoral journey. Dr. Anthony Nguyen, I appreciate your collaboration
and spirited leadership. Dr. Ali Abbas, I am thankful to have learned from your expertise as a
researcher.
To the Army Research Institute Team, your collaboration broadened my horizons about
research in meaningful ways. To Dr. Carl Castro, I am thankful for your advisement, guidance,
and leadership on effective approaches to military research. To Dr. Sara Kintzle, I am grateful
for your support in sharpening my research skills. Dr. Michele Calton, your leadership and
mentorship expanded my understanding of how to engage in research within the military. Eva
Alday, I am grateful to have been able to work alongside you, and your diligence was pivotal to
me hitting important milestones. Gisele Corletto, thank you for bringing creativity and positive
energy to our research collaboration.
To the Cornell University ILR School MERGe Lab team, thank you for providing a
wonderful example of research partnership grounded in social justice and innovation. To Dr.
Courtney McCluney, your mentorship helped me to gain confidence in my ideas and feel valued
for my perspectives. Thank you for being a model to me of taking necessary steps in the PhD
journey to not only focus on carrying out professional goals effectively, but also to prioritize
personal wellness. To Xiaofei Xie, Dr. Lauren Rukasuwan, Rosalie Luo, working with you all
has brought me so much contentment and helpful knowledge along my PhD journey. In addition,

v
thank you to the MBIE Meta-Analysis Team, as your remarkable partnership has been
instrumental to my professional growth. Dr. Kim Brimhall and Dr. Lei Duan your proficiency as
researchers has provided me professional inspiration.
I am grateful to the faculty within USC who have been instrumental in my cultivating
important knowledge and skills during my doctoral studies. Thank you to Dr. Renée Smith-
Maddox for your tremendous mentorship. Your advice and wisdom have been so meaningful to
my development as a teacher, researcher, and human being. I admire your innovative leadership
in and dedication to advancing diversity, equity, inclusion, and justice at USC. Thank you to Dr.
Mónica Pérez Jolles for the significant role you played in my early research training. Dr.
Suzanne Wenzel and Dr. Janet Schneiderman, I appreciate your mentorship in my initial research
roles. Dr. Jordan Davis, Dr. Daniel Hackman, Dr. Lori Yue, Dr. Patricia Riley, Dr. Jungeun
Olivia Lee, Dr. Concepcion Barrio, and Dr. Leigh Tost, I am grateful that I was able to learn
from your vast expertise during my doctoral journey.
I appreciate the partnership and resourceful effort of the members and staff of the Dean’s
Committee for Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion through the USC Dworak-Peck School of Social
Work. Dr. Renée Smith-Maddox, Dr. Annalisa Enrile, Dr. Bo-Kyung Elizabeth Kim, Dr. Melissa
Singh, Dr. Onaje Muid, Omar Pryce, Megan Castillo, Daisy Ventura, Dr. Tracie Kirkland, Dr.
Shanea Thomas, Aubrianne Cho, Etienne Lawson, and Xuan Nguyen your helpful collaboration
help me to put my research into practice.
To all of my USC Social Work PhD colleagues, your companionship during my doctoral
studies have been incredibly impactful. Adriane Clomax, thank you for your support and
partnership on different research teams, for your leadership amongst PhD students, and for the
laughter and many adventures along the way. Erika Salinas, your humor, encouragement, and

vi
solidarity have helped me to re-energize throughout this journey. Jessenia De Leon, thank you
for being a calm, fun, and supportive presence as we navigated doctoral life together. Dr.
Jiaming Ling, I cannot share enough thanks for all that you did to assist me with navigating
coursework and the dissertation project, your consultative guidance and incredible wit have
provided pivotal support during this journey. Dr. Graham DiGuiseppi, I appreciate your
wonderful advice, leadership, and encouragement. Ronna Bañada, you have been such a critical
piece to my success during this PhD journey, and I am thankful to have spent countless
collaborative work hours together. Your calmness, attentiveness, dedication, and encouragement
have grounded me in the final phase of the journey. Dr. Beatrice Martinez, I am grateful to have
been able to work alongside you and learn from your ingenuity and leadership as a researcher.
Thank you to Dr. Jessica Dodge, your creative thinking around research provides such helpful
energy during this process. Dr. Sara Semborski, I appreciate your advice as a teaching assistant
and all of the levity you brought to the challenges of this journey. Dr. Joshua Rusow and Dr.
Daniel Green, thank you for your mentorship around statistical skills.
I appreciate the Scripps College Equity and Justice Leadership team for your outstanding
mentorship and collaboration during my fellowship. Dr. Denise Nelson Nash, you are a true
embodiment of inclusive leadership, and I am thankful I was able to spend my final year in the
PhD program learning from your tremendous wisdom. Thank you to Dr. Marissiko Wheaton-
Greer for your advice, comradery, and encouragement while at USC and at Scripps. Dr. Mary
Hatcher-Skeers, I am so grateful to have been able to witness your advocacy and leadership up
close, which has influenced my professional growth in meaningful ways. You have been a steady
source of encouragement and support before and during this PhD journey. Thank you also to Dr.
Carl Thum, Danielle Brown, Vice President Charlotte Johnson, as well as Dr. Mary Hatcher-

vii
Skeers for believing in me earlier on in this journey and providing recommendations for
admission into the PhD program. Dr. Carl Thum and Lisa Thum, I am thankful for your
consistent affirmation, care, advice, and friendship.
I appreciate the Mother Organization and Student Initiated Program Alumni Association
planning group at UCLA for your constant reminder of the bigger purpose of my work, and for
grounding me in the importance of community. Thank you to Mandla Kayise for your pivotal
role in helping me to develop learning and facilitation skills grounded in self-awareness and
advocacy. I am appreciative of my journey with the UCLA Academic Supports Program and
UCLA Afrikan Student Union, which laid the foundation of my research goals. Diana Ngo-
Vuong Tran, I am grateful for your friendship, upliftment, and collaboration. I appreciate the
assistance of Corey Matthews and Clayton Puckett in helping me to connect with community
resources for my research. Thank you also to Sociologist for Women in Society writing group
colleagues. Dr. Jasmine Hill, Dr. Alissa Cooperman, Dr. Catherine Berheide, and Dr. Kim
Truong-Vu working alongside you has been a great privilege. I am also deeply appreciative of
the numerous hours of work and writing support from the Write About Now writing group
members.
I am filled with gratitude for the immense amount of care provided from my community
of friends. To my Dartmouth family, Dr. Arlene Vélez, Dr. Sarah Chung, Edward Kim, Michelle
Hector, Dr. Larissa Hopkins, Atty. Jennifer McGrew, and Dr. Alysson Satterlund, I am so
thankful for your consistent connection and support. I appreciate the Black Caucus employee
resource group at Dartmouth College for being an early inspiration for my research endeavors.
Thank you to Daniela Canas Baena for being a listening ear, a great source of
encouragement, and providing hope during challenging times. To Jen Shipley, I am appreciative

viii
of your comradery in this journey. Dr. Erica Little, your friendship, care, and steady support have
been so meaningful. Lauren Bartlett, I am thankful for our collaborative work and laughter
together that supported me in this path. Karlos Santos-Coy, I am grateful for your energizing
affirmation during the journey. Thank you to Christopher Dennis for being an attentive listener
during the early planning for the PhD. Your comradery and friendship have been so impactful.
Dr. Julie Loppacher, I am grateful for your invigorating nurturance and comic relief in this path
to the doctorate. To Dr. Brittany Beasley, your friendship has been such as wonderful gift during
this journey. To my dear friend and roommate, Yuka Ogino, thank you for all that you have done
to support me with the dissertation and personally, as well as for your companionship during
tough times. I also greatly appreciate you introducing my me to my cat niece Harlo, who has
been a source of learning, connection, and joy for me while completing my dissertation. Thank
you also to my cherished friend circle from Long Beach Poly, Rachel Rhee, Alison Arevalo,
Christina Kimmerling, Georgia Taylor, Dr. Nicole Salg O’Connor, and Dr. Jehan Budak.
Thank you to Dr. Reiko Boyd and Dr. Diane Terry, two dynamic social work researchers,
for your encouragement and advice prior to and during my doctoral studies. Thank you to Dr.
Brittaney Dennis for your support and inspiration. To my USC Social Work Sisters, I am so
thankful for your ongoing friendship. Kate Payne, thank you for your affirmation and witty
encouragement. Miata Holmes, connecting with you has brought delight on this journey. Dr.
Chevon Stewart, our bond and comradery as dear friends has been a grounding energy during my
doctoral studies.
Dr. Victoria Kifle, our friendship and laughter filled adventures have brought happiness
throughout this time. Kenyatta McLean, I am thankful for our bond and your modeling of
creative and purpose-filled approaches to carrying out work. Jamila Webb, you were an

ix
energizing presence in my life during this journey and I am deeply grateful for relationship.
Temeca Green and Lucila Acevedo, I am grateful for your friendship and encouragement. To
Vincent Mack, I am deeply grateful for your hopeful energy and caring spirt, and your belief in
me fortified my path to the PhD. Dr. Jenn Wells, our bond is one of the joys of my life, and I am
so appreciative of your consistent encouragement that I value my authentic talents. Felicia
Khong, I appreciate your support and care during this journey. Atty. Michael Vallan, I am
immensely appreciative for your companionship and support during this journey, especially as I
navigated unique health challenges. You have been a source of inspiration and admiration for
how to maintain steady discipline and engage in meaningful self-advocacy to responsibly
accomplish personal and professional goals. To Mia Watson, thank you for your deep sisterhood
during this voyage through life and my doctoral studies, you have been a wise and cheerful
presence. Dr. Jasmine Hill, you have been such a force of strength and empowerment for me
during this journey. I am so appreciative for all that you have done to be a bright source of
wisdom, friendship, and grounded collaboration during this time.
To Leslie Poston, you have quite literally been in the trenches with me during this
doctoral journey, and your steady collaboration and companionship have brought great peace to
me as I accomplished my PhD goals. I am grateful for the diligent and thorough editing support
you have provided for this dissertation project. Dr. Juli Grigsby, your bold energy and loving
compassion have been an inspiration to me during this journey, and your friendship has been a
tremendous blessing to my life. To Melissa Clinton, I am profoundly grateful for our best friend
bond, you have consistently provided a space for reinvigoration, jubilance, and emotional
security. I am grateful for you and Ryan Clinton providing a haven during a rigorous time of my
doctoral studies. I am endlessly appreciative for my sister and best friend Dr. Joy Hannibal, who

x
has been a cheerleader, space for emotional authenticity, loyal teammate, and persistent source of
love and laughter during the peaks and pits of life, as well as the doctoral journey. I am
appreciative for all the care and support from you and Dr. Terry Flennaugh.
To my family, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation for your deep love and
care. Thank you to Dr. Ronnie K. Jones, Dr. Laura Prakash-Kester, Vick Prakash, Elias Prakash,
Olani Prakash, Alicia Kester, Atty. Rashida Jones-Butler, Rob Butler, Noelle Butler, Laila
Butler, Atty. Ron G. Jones, Atty. Bethany Jones, Ron L. Jones, Bailey Jones, Richard McLeod,
Jodia McLeod, Kelsey Mcleod, Callee Brown, Calvin Schnyder, Shirley Schnyder, Krystal
Schnyder Parker, Lorie Schnyder, Michelle Schnyder, Imani Williams, Jamila Williams-Duckett,
Kamilah Williams-Webb, Mattie Courtney, Ernie Courtney, Jessie Williams, Andreas Beasley,
Whitneigh Braxton, Taran Braxton, Jo-Carolyn Dent Clark, Jacqui Dent Ivey, Tina Dent,
Darrizett Moore, Jimmy Moore, DeQuina Moore, Jimmy Eron Moore, Brenda Davis, Dr. Curtis
McIntyre, Diana McIntyre, Carter McIntyre, Christian McIntyre, Carolyn Lawrence, Austen
Lawrence, Sheldon Lawrence, Tanisha Eanes, Tracey Prince, Ron Prince, Allison McLemore,
Jackie McLemore, Nicole Ellis, Richard Morris, Janie Morris, Madison Morris, Lolita Johnson,
Asia Johnson, Jasmine Hardy, Ann Livingston, Tony Livingston, Tanner Livingston, Phyllis
McIntyre, Lynn Morris, Wayne Martin, Wanda Martin, Terry Martin, Wayne Martin Jr., Clayton
Schnyder, Rose Schnyder, Michael Johnson, Shelia Crawford, Wilson Crawford, Nikia
Crawford, and Wilson Crawford Jr..
To Esther Bohannon, Earle Bohannon, Lela Bohannon, and Cheryl Bohannon, thank you
for your continuous affirmation and encouragement through this journey. Herbertean Morris,
Keith Morris, Keiana Morris Braxton, and Rodney Braxton, I appreciate your steady love and
upliftment. To Denise McLeod, David McLeod, and Hope McLeod, I am endlessly grateful for

xi
your support throughout my life milestones, and for being source of inspiration and solace during
some of the harder times of this journey.
Naima Sojoyner and Nesanet Sojoyner, I am deeply grateful for all the joy you have
brought me as I worked toward my doctoral goals. Your youthful spirit, creativity, and love were
motivating to me on this path. To my sister-in-law, Shana Sojoyner, I am incredibly grateful for
our bond. Your unwavering support and invaluable insights have brought needed clarity in this
path. Dr. Damien Sojoyner, this journey would not have been possible with your mentorship and
belief in me. Witnessing and learning from your strength, dedication, creativity, and steadiness
as a professor and brother have been a grounding force in my life and throughout my doctoral
studies.
To my parents, Elaine Schnyder and Godfrey Schnyder, words cannot express how
grateful I am for your unconditional love and everlasting dedication to my personal and
professional development throughout my life. The values that you have instilled in me early on
regarding the importance of community building and inclusion have shepherded me through my
research goals. Your modeling of self-determination and responsibility provided the framework
for my doctoral success.
I extend my heartfelt gratitude to any colleagues, friends, or family, I may have
inadvertently missed in these acknowledgments. Your contributions have been integral to this
dissertation's completion. Data collection from this dissertation was supported by the U.S. Army
Research Institute, the Zumberge Grant Program at the University of Southern California, and
the School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell University.

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Table of Contents
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………...ii
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………....iii
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………....xiv
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………....xv
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………….xvi
Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………………………………………...1
Overview of Dissertation………………………………………………………………… 1
Literature Review and Theoretical Frameworks……………………………………….... 3
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………… 10
References………………………………………………………………………………. 11
Chapter Two: Study One- Working Under Mega-Threat: Linkages Between Inclusion Policy-
Practice Decoupling, Perceptions of Inclusion, and Adverse Employee Outcomes …………....19
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………. 19
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………... 20
Theoretical Background and Hypotheses………………………………………. 22
Methods…………………………………………………………………………………. 26
Procedures………………………………………………………………………. 26
Measures………………………………………………………………………... 27
Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………… 29
Results…………………………………………………………………………………... 31
Descriptive Statistics……………………………………………………………. 31
Direct Effects…………………………………………………………………… 32
Indirect Effects…………………………………………………………………. 32
Discussion………………………………………………………………………………. 33
Implications……………………………………………………………………... 35
Limitations……………………………………………………………………… 36
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………… 37
References………………………………………………………………………………. 38
Chapter Three: Study Two- Understanding Pandemic Health Safety Policy-Practice Decoupling
within Organizations: Perspectives from Diverse Racial and Ethnic Geographic
Communities................................................................................................................................. 49
Abstract............................................................................................................................. 49
Introduction....................................................................................................................... 50
Theoretical Background and Literature Review....................................................51
Methods ............................................................................................................................54
Research Approach and Participants.................................................................... 54
Procedures............................................................................................................. 55
Data Analysis........................................................................................................ 55
Results............................................................................................................................... 57
Descriptive Statistics………………………………………………..…………... 57
Themes.................................................................................................................. 57
Discussion......................................................................................................................... 70
Implications........................................................................................................... 74
Limitations............................................................................................................ 75
Conclusion........................................................................................................................ 76

xiii
References......................................................................................................................... 77
Chapter Four: Study Three-Checking The Block: Understanding Inclusion Means-End
Decoupling Within the United States Military............................................................................. 84
Abstract............................................................................................................................. 84
Introduction....................................................................................................................... 85
Theoretical Background and Literature Review................................................... 86
Methods ............................................................................................................................92
Research Approach and Participants.....................................................................92
Procedures.............................................................................................................93
Data Analysis.................................................................................... ...................93
Results...............................................................................................................................94
Descriptive Statistics.............................................................................................94
Themes..................................................................................................................95
Discussion....................................................................................................................... 117
Implications......................................................................................................... 123
Limitations.......................................................................................................... 124
Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 125
References.......................................................................................................................126
Chapter Five: Discussion........................................................................................................... 136
Major Findings............................................................................................................... 136
Implications.................................................................................................................... 139
Future Research.............................................................................................................. 141
Conclusion......................................................................................................................142
References.......................................................................................................................143

xiv
List of Tables
Table 2.1. Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables and Participant Characteristics………….. 45
Table 2.2. Bivariate Associations Across Inclusion Policy-Practice Decoupling………………46
Table 2.3. Results of Correlation Analysis of Continuous Variables…………………………. 47
Table 2.4. Direct Effects………………………………………………………………………. 47
Table 2.5. Indirect Effects……………………………………………………………………... 48
Table 3.1. Results from Thematic Analysis…………………………………………………… 83
Table 4.1. Results from Thematic Analysis- Expressions…………………………………….. 133
Table 4.2. Results from Thematic Analysis- Antecedents…………………………………….. 134

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List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Dissertation Conceptual Model……………………………………………………18
Figure 2.1. Conceptual Model…………………………………………………………………44
Figure 2.2. Direct and Indirect Effects……………………………………………………….. 48
Figure 4.1. Conceptual Model of Results from Thematic Analysis…………………………. 135
Figure 5.1 Dissertation Conceptual Model……………………………………………………144

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Abstract
Diversity within organizations and communities is increasing and dynamically evolving.
Despite progress, individuals from diverse and marginalized identity groups continue to
experience challenging employment and health outcomes. As a response to these realities,
policies are espoused, and practices are often implemented by organizations that impact diversity
and inclusion experiences of employees and community members. Little is known about the true
implementation of policy and the definitive outcomes of organizational efforts surrounding
diversity and inclusion. Through the lens of institutional theory, this three-paper mixed-method
dissertation project explored the factors surrounding policy-practice and means-ends decoupling
within diversity and inclusion dynamics. Study One utilized survey data to investigate inclusion
policy-practice decoupling and adverse employee outcomes within the context of mega-threat
experiences, thought of as large-scale negative identity-based societal events, of employees
within diverse organizational contexts. Study Two utilized focus group feedback to explore the
presence of organizational health-safety policy-practice decoupling from the perspective of
diverse racial and ethnic geographic communities. Study Three examined the presence of
inclusion means-ends decoupling within a military context utilizing interview and focus group
data from service members. Findings from Study One highlight the influence of perceptions of
inclusion policy-practice decoupling on perceptions of inclusion and burnout of workers within
the context of organizational responses to mega-threats. Results from Study Two generated four
organizational thematic areas—stores and services, social institutions, governmental agencies,
and employment settings—where health-safety policy- practice decoupling and/or congruence
was present for diverse racial and ethnic geographic community members. Discoveries from
Study Three indicate five areas where inclusion means-ends decoupling and/or congruence

xvii
existed within the military context: social events, recognition and reprimand processes, voice
mechanisms, interpersonal interactions, as well as Equal Opportunity and Sexual
Harassment/Assault Response and Prevention training. Additionally, findings from Study Three
highlight antecedents of inclusion means-ends decoupling and congruence within the military
setting. Together, these findings help clarify the true nature of how diversity and inclusion
operate within organizations through presenting results related to policy-practice and means-ends
decoupling within diversity and inclusion for the first time in an integrated project. Insights
shared from this dissertation project can be used to inform future research in diversity and
inclusion, as well as organizational approaches to diversity and inclusion initiatives.

1
Chapter One
Introduction
Overview of the Dissertation
This dissertation explores dynamics related to how organizations generate effective or
insufficient results within the context of diversity and inclusion dynamics. The primary focus of
the dissertation centers on analysis of organizational policy-practice and means-ends decoupling
related to diversity and inclusion within varied environments. The first chapter provides an
overview of the theoretical underpinnings of policy-practice and means-ends decoupling,
considered gaps between policy and practice and practice and outcomes, respectively (Bromley
and Powell, 2012), as well as a review of literature on diversity and inclusion. Lastly, Chapter
One provides a brief introduction to the contexts studied throughout the dissertation.
The second chapter, “Working Under Mega-Threat: Linkages Between Inclusion Policy-
Practice Decoupling, Perceptions of Inclusion, and Adverse Employee Outcomes”, details a
quantitative study exploring the influence of inclusion policy-practice decoupling on challenging
employee outcomes via perceptions of inclusion from employees. The paper explores these
relationships through analyzing employees' perceptions of change related to their company’s
messaging of inclusion policies following the death of George Floyd in 2020. The paper
examines how inclusion policy-practice decoupling can influence worker outcomes within the
context of negative large-scale identity-based events that receive vast media coverage, labeled
mega-threats. This paper is one of the first empirical studies that seeks to understand the
relationship between inclusion policy-practice gaps, perceptions of inclusion, and employee
experiences.

2
Chapter Three, “Understanding Organizational Pandemic Health Safety Policy-Practice
Decoupling: Perspectives From Diverse Racial and Ethnic Geographic Communities”, describes
a qualitative study of organizational actions related to health-safety, specifically exploring
congruence and gaps between pandemic health-safety policy and practice. The paper deepens
understanding of organizations as an important factor in shaping how pandemic-related policies
are implemented. Study Two contributes to knowledge regarding diverse racial and ethnic
geographic community experiences within pandemic health-safety, including how community
members engage with organizational health-safety policy-practice decoupling and/or congruence
during a global health crisis.
The fourth chapter, “Checking the Block: Understanding Inclusion Means-End
Decoupling Within the United States Military”, provides insights from an exploratory study of
inclusion means-ends decoupling. This qualitative study aims to provide more understanding
around inclusion practice and intended outcomes within organizations, and provides in-depth
knowledge related to the merger of the means-ends decoupling theoretical construct and
organizational inclusion. Finally, Study Three also establishes new research on antecedents
related to inclusion means-ends decoupling and congruence, potentially assisting in future
inclusion means-ends decoupling research and inclusion practices within organizations.
Chapter Five outlines a conclusion of the three studies, as well as future directions for
policy-practice and means-ends decoupling research within the domain of diversity and
inclusion. This chapter synthesizes the main findings of the dissertation studies, discusses
implications, and shares suggestions for subsequent research.

3
Literature Review and Theoretical Frameworks
Diversity in Organizational and Community Settings
Diversity is conceptualized as differences amongst individuals related to social and
cultural identity within a set context (Cox Jr., 2001). Social identity theory suggests that
individuals desire to belong to groups with distinguishable categorizations, and the meaning that
is attached to this group identification influences how individuals may act within or outside the
group (Tajfel and Turner, 1986). Individuals with a similar group identification can develop
consensus about how the group membership is defined (Tajfel and Turner, 1986). The studies
conducted in this dissertation explore the experiences of diverse demographic groups across
workers and community members within the United States. From 2020-2060, the U.S. is
projected to experience an increase in general population and intensive changes in racial
diversity, such as the White, non-Hispanic population decreasing from 199 million to 170
million (Vespa et al., 2020). In contrast, there will be an increase in Black, Latinx, Asian, Native
Hawaiian and Pacific Islander, American Indian, and Multiracial populations, with percent
increases ranging from 19.73% to 99.35% (Vespa et al., 2020). Women comprise 50.5% of the
United States population (United States Census Bureau, 2023), and since 1948, there has been a
25.3% increase in women’s participation in the labor force (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2023). Within the U.S., it is estimated that 4.4% of adults identify as bisexual, 3.3% of adults
identify as gay or lesbian, and 4% of adults identify as something other than heterosexual
(Anderson et al., 2021).
Workforce diversity is identified as the separation of employees in distinct categories,
wherein they may have commonalities within a set context, and within which they may also
experience specific positive and negative outcomes related to career opportunities and workplace

4
treatment unrelated to their skills and abilities as workers (Mor Barak, 2022). Employees from
underrepresented and marginalized identity groups can face challenging experiences in the
workplace, such as discrimination, exclusion, and various inequities due to historical barriers.
(Roberts et al., 2019; Dobbin and Kalev, 2022; Mor Barak, 2022). Workers from marginalized
backgrounds may also experience burnout, reduced job satisfaction, higher intention to leave
their jobs, and reduced authenticity due to different workplace dynamics (Jun and Wu, 2021;
Hewlin et al., 2016.; Feng and Savani, 2020; Sabharwal et al., 2019). Despite these challenges,
employees from marginalized identity groups may thrive at work when provided supportive
mechanisms and resources within the work environment (Mor Barak et al., 2016).
Diversity within the community context can be conceptualized as a contained geographic
area where a group of people with distinct commonalities related to facets of identity or interests
interact (McKenzie et al., 2011). Historically underrepresented and marginalized communities
have faced considerable challenges related to health and social outcomes (MacDorman et al.,
2021; Shiels et al., 2021; Lewsey et al., 2021; Bhutta et al. 2020). Nevertheless, communities can
also serve as protective spaces enabling positive outcomes for their members (Miao et al., 2021).
Organizational Inclusion
For diverse workers, inclusion is shaped by their sense of feeling valued for their
uniqueness, experiences of belonging within an organization, involvement in decision making,
participation in various organizational activities, and engagement with organizational
information networks (Shore et al., 2011; Mor Barak, 2022). Grounded in perspectives of
optimal distinctiveness theory (Brewer, 1991), Shore et al. (2011) conceptualizes inclusion as the
dynamic balancing of an employees’ drive for belonging and simultaneous desires for unique
identity expression. Inclusion perceptions may be nuanced for employees who navigate

5
intersectional identities at the margins, as engagement with different levels of belongingness and
uniqueness may promote specific conditions of employee visibility due to power dynamics
surrounding race and gender that can impact employment outcomes (McCluney and Rabelo,
2019). These features of inclusion can occur at a wide range of organizational levels, such as
within a workgroup, in relationships with supervisors, through engagement with higher
management, via involvement with informal social experiences, and through general
participation in the organization (Mor Barak, 2022). Inclusion within organizational contexts is
important for enhancing organizational commitment (Brimhall, 2019), job satisfaction (Brimhall
and Mor Barak, 2018), job performance (Ohunakin et al, 2019), organizational citizenship
behavior (Wen et al, 2020), as well as reducing workers’ efforts to leave (Brimhall et al., 2014)
and limiting their experiences with occupational stress (Mor Barak et al., 2001). Mor Barak
(2022) shares in her inclusive workplace model that along with an emphasis at the micro level
within an organization, inclusion involves effective engagement with the community in a way
that centers the needs of marginalized identity groups at the mezzo level. Organizations
understanding the impact of their behaviors on diverse communities is critical to actualizing a
fully inclusive organization (Mor Barak, 2022).
Institutional Theory
Institutional theory posits that contemporary organizations mature in considerably
institutionalized contexts, signifying that alignment with dominant ideas of what rational
organizational work entails drives formalization of organizational policies and practices (Meyer
and Rowan, 1977). As such, norms, rules, and values of the institutional environments in which
organizations exist dictate how organizational structures are formulated (Garrow and Hasenfield,
2009). This adherence to institutional rules and norms is carried out by organizations to promote

6
their survival and legitimacy (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Within an understanding of
organizational dynamics, institutional theory brought forth a new conceptualization of
organizations as systems impacted by their environment, and these systems—when in parallel
environments—tend to take on similar characteristics (Boxenbaum and Jonsson, 2017; Bromley
and Powell, 2012).
Policy-Practice Decoupling. Policy-practice decoupling is a phenomenon based in
institutional theory that involves organizations separating their formal or promoted structures
from their actual internal working practices (Meyer and Rowan, 1977; Boxenbaum and Jonsson,
2017). These formal structures are described as the blueprint for activities within organizations,
including the policies that link these activities (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Pressures that result
from isomorphism, noted as occurring when organizations mimic what is thought of as an
effective organization based on social myths, promote the emergence of decoupling (Bromley
and Powell, 2012; Boxenbaum and Jonsson, 2017; Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Organizations may
often feel disempowered when navigating social myths due to the forceful nature in which such
narratives are built via complex institutionalization dynamics (Meyer and Rowan, 1977).
Organizations often feel pushed to adopt certain social myths to mitigate any perceptions of
illegitimacy from their larger environment, hoping to maintain social credibility (Meyer and
Rowan, 1977; Scott, 2013). Accordingly, organizations are then distinguished as demonstrations
of rationalized myths that pervade society (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). DiMaggio and Powell
(1983) share that isomorphic pressures can emerge from coercive, mimetic, and normative
pressures, which respectively include cultural expectations such as demands of the state, drives
to imitate legitimate organizations in how they manage uncertainty, and alignment with
professionalization norms. Notably, isomorphism, in the original conceptualization, was thought

7
to advance the long-term survival of organizations (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). This pressure
from the environment and for survival may thrust organizations into espousing numerous
policies that are at times even contradictory or in competition (Bromley and Powell, 2012).
When organizations decide to decouple, they may be aiming to protect the entity’s inner
workings from appraisals from the outer environment (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Decoupling
can thus emerge when there are distinct benefits to espousing a policy, amid challenges with
implementing a policy (Scott, 2013).
Policy-practice decoupling has been studied in multiple contexts (MacLean et al., 2015;
MacLean and Behnam, 2010; Rasche and Gilbert, 2015).), and most recently has been explored
conceptually in the realm of inclusion (Mor Barak et al., 2021; Mor Barak, 2022). The presence
of inclusion policy-practice decoupling is thought to impact climates of inclusion levels and
strength within organizations (Mor Barak et al., 2021). Diversity within an organization can play
a pivotal role in moderating the relationship between inclusion policy-practice decoupling and
climate of inclusion (Mor Barak et al., 2021). Though overall organizational perceptions of gaps
between inclusion policy and practice may exist, identity-based experiences can cause the
relationship between inclusion policy-practice decoupling and climate of inclusion to strengthen
in a particular direction (Mor Barak et al., 2021).
Means-Ends Decoupling. Means-ends decoupling is a concept within institutional
theory, which aims to expand theoretical understandings of decoupling past gaps between policy
and practice to a natural extension of exploring the presence of gaps between organizational
practices and intended outcomes (Bromley and Powell, 2012). Initiatives set forth by an
organization may be distally linked to meaningful outcomes (Bromley and Powell, 2012).
Bromley and Powell (2012) suggest that means-ends decoupling emerges more as a prominent

8
form of decoupling when organizations modernize and emphasize standardization and best
practices, which may elicit different research directions. Means-end decoupling suggests that
work activities are conducted and possibly even evaluated in relation to a policy, but not linked
to organizational effectiveness (Bromley and Powell, 2012). Means-ends decoupling thus
involves myths of causality emerging from the larger institutional environment, which
organizations adopt to achieve goals that emerge from said environment (Bromley and Powell,
2012). Although not yet studied in the context of inclusion, means-ends decoupling has been
studied in diverse topical areas (Jabbouri et al. 2022).
Contexts for Dissertation Studies
This dissertation explores facets of policy-practice and means-ends decoupling in three
settings that were dynamically involved with diversity and inclusion in organizations and
communities.
Mega-Threats
Challenging, large-scale, societal events related to aspects of social identity that receive
extensive media coverage are characterized as mega-threats (Leigh and Melwani, 2022).
Historical examples of mega-threats include the death of Trayvon Martin, the Harvey Weinstein
sexual assault allegations and conviction, the Pulse nightclub shootings, and the shooting of
several Asian employees in an Atlanta-based spa (Leigh and Melwani, 2022; Leigh and
Melwani, 2019). Mega-threats are conceptualized as leading to affective and cognitive outcomes
for employees, such as challenging emotions and rumination (Leigh and Melwani, 2019).
Experiences of mega-threat are also considered a lead into group level practices, such as
collective emotional sharing and sensemaking (Leigh and Melwani, 2019). The relationship
between the presence of a mega-threat for workers and individual and group outcomes is

9
influenced by a worker’s identification with the identity group(s) at the center of the mega-threat
dynamic (Leigh and Melwani, 2019). Within the circumstances of a mega-threat, inclusion is
considered an influence on the relationship between how a worker may fuse their identity with
certain groups within an organization and employee outcomes, such as use of voice and
relational bridging (Leigh and Melwani, 2019).
Organizational Pandemic Health-Safety
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused significant health concerns for various
communities, especially its links to high levels of mortality (World Health Organization, 2023).
Racial and ethnic disparities were very present within pandemic conditions (Louis-Jean et al.,
2020). In navigating the challenges of COVID-19, various organizational contexts—such as
government entities, churches, schools, workplaces, and private businesses—have played
significant roles in how health safety is carried out in diverse communities during the pandemic
(Hale et al, 2020; Büyükşahin, 2023; Shamim et al., 2021; Kenji Taylor et al., 2023;
Harrichandra et al. 2020; Williams et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2023; Pixley et al, 2022; Cheng et
al., 2020; Ilonka Roels et al., 2022; Kniffin et al., 2020).
United States Military
Despite an exclusionary past, the United States military has grown in diversity (Gamble,
2020; Rohall et al., 2017; Atuel et al., 2018). Although progress has been forged, challenges still
exist toward creating an inclusive environment for military personnel (Green et al., 2022; Kintzle
et al., 2023). The U.S. Military has declared that an emphasis on diversity and inclusion is
pivotal to becoming a leader in managing diverse workforces (Esper, 2020), and some branches
have made strategic efforts to implement inclusion (Army Equity and Inclusion Agency, 2023).
The military is a context in which efforts to include soldiers from diverse backgrounds may

10
appear at times to conflict with mission readiness priorities (Brown et al., 2020). Despite these
challenges, inclusion within the military has been shown to predict beneficial outcomes (Merlini
et al., 2019). Brown et al. (2020) has conceptualized inclusion dimensions within the military to
involve solider experiences with “fair treatment,” “openness to differences,” “integration into the
unit,” and “leveraging unique perspectives and expertise” (p.318).
Conclusion
Grounded in institutional, social identity, and optimal distinctiveness theories, this
dissertation project explored policy-practice and means-ends decoupling through the lens of
diversity and inclusion as it relates to organizations and communities. Figure 1.1. highlights a
conceptual model utilized to guide the dissertation project, which was amended from Bromley
and Powell (2012)’s conceptualization of decoupling and clarifies points of focus for each
dissertation study related to diversity, inclusion, and decoupling. This model demonstrates how
congruence and decoupling can potentially function within organizational policies, practices, and
outcomes. Previous research in the separated realms of decoupling, diversity, and inclusion has
prompted the exploration of organizational experiences related to the first-time integration of
these concepts through this dissertation project. Practical necessity for the betterment of
employment and community experiences of diverse identity groups is a primary aim that guided
the studies presented.

11
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18
Figures
Figure 1.1. Dissertation Project Conceptual Model

*Note: Amended from Bromley and Powell (2012)’s conceptualization of policy-practice and means-ends
decoupling.

19
Chapter Two
Study One-Working Under Mega-Threat: Linkages Between Inclusion Policy-Practice
Decoupling, Perceptions of Inclusion, and Adverse Employee Outcomes
Abstract
With the continuous presence of negative, large-scale, identity-based events permeating
media coverage, known as mega-threats, researchers have noted the potential occurrence of
challenging outcomes for employees and organizations. Experiences of inclusion within
organizations are postulated as having a positive influence on workers when navigating mega-
threats. Using path analysis, this study tested a theory-supported conceptual model, aiming to
better understand the influence of inclusion policy-practice decoupling (gaps between inclusion
policy messaging and inclusion practice), perceptions of inclusion, and burnout on work
withdrawal within the context of employees who are navigating mega-threats. Data was collected
from a U.S.-based national sample of diverse employees (n=249). Findings revealed that
perception of gaps between inclusion policy and practice in the backdrop of organizational
response to mega-threat significantly predicts decreased perceptions of inclusion. Inclusion
policy-practice decoupling within organizational messaging and practice around mega-threats is
also associated with employee burnout through its influence on employees’ perceptions of
inclusion. Collectively, the findings promote research on mega-threats, inclusion policy-practice
decoupling, and adverse employee outcomes. The results are instructive to organizational leaders
as they develop inclusion policies to support employees enduring mega-threat dynamics.

20
Introduction
On May 25th, 2020, George Floyd, a 46-year-old Black man was killed by a White
Minneapolis police officer, Dereck Chauvin, while handcuffed in police custody (The New York
Times, 2022). His death and the actions of the police officers involved sparked national and
international protests and uprisings focused on racial justice (Bryson Taylor, 2021). In response
to these calls for racial justice, numerous companies released statements pledging billions of
dollars to reduce racial inequality within their organizations and in their larger community (Jan et
al., 2021). Various organizations also shared public messages emphasizing a priority on creating
inclusive work environments (Roberson, 2020).
Leigh and Melwani (2022) indicate that events, such as the murder of George Floyd and
aftermath, are mega-threats, defined as identity-based large-scale societal events that are
negative in nature and receive considerable media coverage. These types of events have taken
place over the course of recent history; such mega-threat examples include the mass shooting at
the LGBTQIA-serving Pulse nightclub in Orlando, the immigration ban of Muslims in the
United States, and separation of families at the United States and Mexico border for (Leigh &
Melwani, 2019). Most recently, other mega-threats have occurred within the United States
context, such as passage of bills that ban gender-affirming care for transgender individuals
(Trotta, 2023), the limitation of constitutional rights to abortion by the United States Supreme
Court (The New York Times, 2022), and the elimination of race-based affirmative action at
universities (Lopez, 2023).
McCluney et al. (2017), in their study of large-scale race-based events, postulate that
employees will experience a threat to their social identity at work. A study conducted by Leigh
and Melwani (2022) supports this proposition, finding that Asian-identified workers experienced

21
high levels of embodied threat, threat suppression at work, and work withdrawal following the
mega-threat killing of eight people, including six Asian women at an Atlanta-based spa. In
addition, they studied experiences of Black employees following several mega-threats involving
the killing of Black people, such as the Dallas-based trial of the police officer who killed Botham
Jean, the killing of Atatiana Jefferson by a police officer in Texas, as well as the police killing of
George Floyd (Leigh and Melwani, 2022). The authors found that, following such mega-threats,
Black employees experienced heightened work withdrawal through first experiencing embodied
threat and threat suppression (Leigh and Melwani, 2022). Leigh and Melwani (2019) also
postulate that after experiences with mega-threats occur, the extent to which employees perceive
inclusion to present within an organization can positively influence the enactment of positive
behaviors by workers. Within the context of organizational responses to mega-threats, it then
becomes important for organizations to practice the intended actions they have stated to support
employee experiences in managing unjust societal events (Ruggs and Avery, 2020), as
marginalized workers can be sensitive to the extent that organizational leaders walk their talk
(Simons et al., 2007). Organizational messaging around inclusion does not always translate to
organizational action that supports inclusion, and any existing or perceived gaps can potentially
communicate to employees that the organization’s commitments in supporting diverse
employees are futile (Mor Barak, 2022).
This study sought to explore the impact of inclusion policy-practice decoupling, signified
as any gaps between messaging related to inclusion policy and inclusion practices (Mor Barak et
al., 2021) on employee outcomes, through its influence on employee perceptions of inclusion
within the context of mega-threat experiences. The research aimed to expand on the limited
research of mega-threats (Leigh & Melwani, 2019, Leigh and Melwani, 2022; McCluney et al.

22
2017) by further understanding how organizational implementation of inclusion policy messages
in the wake of mega-threat experience may connect to employee outcomes. In addition, this fills
some empirical gaps related to the role of inclusion policy-practice decoupling in shaping worker
perceptions of inclusion, as posited by Mor Barak et al. (2021).
Theoretical Background and Literature Review
Employee Inclusion
Optimal distinctiveness theory supports conceptualization of the function of employee
inclusion within organizations, which suggests that human beings naturally desire assimilation
and belonging within a social group, and aim to maintain a distinct identity in their engagement
within social groups (Leonardelli et al., 2010). As Brewer (1991) notes, inclusion in a social
group is then grounded in an ideal balance between recognizing distinction from others and
feelings of connection with others. An employee’s experience of inclusion within an
organization is shaped by perceptions about whether an organization values diverse employees’
sense of uniqueness, encourages worker engagement in communication and decision making, as
well promotes belongingness amongst diverse organizational members within their policies and
practices (Mor Barak, 2022; Shore et al., 2011).
Previous research has noted that employee inclusion can positively impact organizational
commitment (Brimhall 2019a), job performance (Ohunakin et al., 2019), job satisfaction
(Ohunakin et al., 2019; Brimhall, 2019), and employee well-being (Mor Barak et al., 2003). It
has also been shown to reduce stress (Mor Barak et al., 2001), burnout (Merlini et al., 2019), and
intention to leave (Brimhall et al., 2014; Merlini et al., 2019). Findings from previous research
suggest support for the following hypothesis:

23
Hypothesis 1. Increased perceptions of inclusion will be associated with decreased
burnout.
Inclusion Policy-Practice Decoupling
Decoupling is commonly viewed as a gap between policy and practice (Bromley and
Powell, 2012). In this type of decoupling, rules are violated or lack implementation (Bromley
and Powell, 2012). Policies are then implemented as “window dressing”, monitored
ineffectively, and become an infrequent a predictor of daily internal organizational activities.
(Bromley and Powell, 2012, p. 489). Grounded in an institutional theory, decoupling thus
emerges as a result of the isomorphic pressures organizations face in aligning with common
standards of organizational social processes (Bromley and Powell, 2012). Institutional
isomorphism is described as organizations imitating their concept of a proper organization that is
founded in social myths (Boxenbaum and Jonsson, 2017; Meyer and Rowan, 1977). These social
myths, built through a dynamic institutionalization process, are presumed to exist beyond the
control of an organization or individual (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Adopting these myths is
stems from an organization seeking to buffer itself against possible illegitimacy (Meyer and
Rowan, 1977).
DiMaggio and Powell (1983) shared that isomorphic pressures can emerge from
coercive, mimetic, and normative pressures, which include cultural expectations in various
forms, including demands of the state, drives to imitate legitimate organizations to manage
uncertainty, and alignment with professionalization norms, respectively. Bromley and Powell
(2012) note that these pressures push organizations to espouse multiple potentially contradictory
policies without somehow affecting work activities. This decoupling process protects the

24
technical inner workings of the organization from assessment originating from the external field
(Meyer and Rowan, 1977).
A paucity of research has been conducted on inclusion policy-practice decoupling,
although researchers have noted the presence of organizations’ internal issues with
greenwashing, which involves communications from an organization that promote a higher level
of engagement around sustainability practices than they practice or enforce in reality (Torelli et
al., 2020). In addition, some research has been conducted on specific experiences within
LGBTQIA+ initiatives labeled rainbow washing, which occurs when organizations aim to
message support for LGBTQIA+ communities with or through limited actual action (Johns et al.,
2022).
Mor Barak et al. (2021) conceptualize that policy-practice decoupling in the context of
inclusion is expressed in four facets: (1) “positive congruence”, indicated by high-inclusion
policy combined with high levels of inclusion practice, (2) “negative congruence”, defined as
low-inclusion policy and low levels of inclusion practice, (3) “positive decoupling”, described as
low-inclusion policy and high levels of inclusion practice, and (4) “negative decoupling”, noted
as high-inclusion policy and low levels of inclusion practice (p.6). Mor Barak et al. (2021) also
suggest that how inclusion policies are practiced can provide evidence of the extent to which
inclusion efforts are prioritized within an organization. Employees' perception of the realities of
what is practiced related to inclusion policy can prompt how climates for inclusion emerge
within organizations (Mor Barak et al., 2021). They then posit that the presence of inclusion
policy-practice decoupling is associated with decreased inclusive climate levels within an
organization (Mor Barak et al., 2021). Considering the conceptualization of inclusion policy-

25
practice decoupling and inclusion put forth by Mor Barak et al. (2021) and the previously
mentioned research on inclusion outcomes, the following hypotheses are suggested:
Hypothesis 2. Increased perceptions of inclusion policy-practice negative decoupling will
be associated with decreased perceptions of inclusion.
Hypothesis 3. Increased perceptions of inclusion policy-practice negative decoupling will
be indirectly associated with increased burnout through decreased perceptions of
inclusion.
Inclusion Policy-Practice Decoupling and Employee Outcomes
Although the study of decoupling has not been expansive within inclusion, organizations
can experience challenging outcomes related to decisions to decouple policy and practice in
general, including lowered perceptions of legitimacy by internal organizational members
(MacLean et al., 2015; MacLean and Behnam, 2010; Rasche and Gilbert, 2015), enhanced
organizational cynicism (MacLean et al., 2015; Rasche and Gilbert, 2015; Hamza & Ahmed,
2016) and perceived organizational breaches of psychological contracts by workers (MacLean et
al., 2015; Hamza & Ahmed, 2016). There is some research regarding the relationship between
the policy-practice decoupling within higher education, with noted findings that decoupling
relates to increased employee burnout (Hamza & Ahmed, 2016). Burnout has been shown to
influence other employee outcomes, such as increased intention to leave, decreased task
performance, increased employee silence (Shaukat and Khurshid, 2022), as well as increased
work withdrawal (Travis et al., 2016; Nauman et al., 2020). Considering previous research on
decoupling and employee outcomes, such as burnout, and findings around the influence of
burnout on other worker outcomes, the following hypotheses were also proposed:
Hypothesis 4. Increased burnout will be associated with decreased work withdrawal.

26
Hypothesis 5. Increased perceptions of inclusion will be indirectly associated with
decreased work withdrawal through decreased burnout.
Hypothesis 6. Increased perceptions of inclusion policy-practice negative decoupling will
be indirectly associated with increased work withdrawal through decreased perceptions of
inclusion and increased burnout.
Figure 2.1. presents a conceptual model undergirding the study hypotheses. As mega-
threats have been shown to impact employees' engagement with their organization (Leigh and
Melwani, 2022), research on employee outcomes related to inclusion policy messaging and
practice following mega-threats has the potential to support organizations in more effective
worker engagement. In addition, findings from this study related to the relationship between
inclusion policy-practice decoupling, inclusion, and employee outcomes can broadly advance the
sustainment of inclusion within workplace settings and deepen conceptual and theoretical
understandings of decoupling in the context of inclusion. Relatedly, this study has the following
specific aims:
(a) Examine the relationship between inclusion policy-practice negative decoupling and
perceptions of inclusion within the context of organizational responses to mega-threats.
(b) Assess the influence of inclusion policy-practice negative decoupling on adverse
employee outcomes, such as burnout and work withdrawal, through its impact on
perceptions of inclusion.
Methods
Procedures
A diverse sample of employees was recruited via Qualtrics panel (n=390) using
purposive and quota sampling. Qualtrics targeted recruitment for 130 Black participants, 130

27
Non-Black People of Color participants, and 130 White participants. Qualtrics provides online
samples to researchers via a pre-recruited research panel (Qualtrics, 2022). Participants agree to
engage in research and respond to relevant surveys if they meet a study’s eligibility criteria
(Qualtrics, 2022). The use of online convenience sampling via platforms like Mechanical Turk,
Qualtrics, and Facebook has become increasingly common in social science research (Boas et al.,
2020). Participants recruited included employees in a variety of for-profit and nonprofit settings
within the United States. To be eligible for the study, participants had to be employed at
organizations that released statements with various commitments in response to the death of
George Floyd, and they had to work for their organization for at least one year. Of the 390
recruited participants, 249 participants were eligible for inclusion in the study due to their
substantive response to the survey question that was coded to establish the independent variable
of inclusion policy-practice decoupling. Participants were provided a research study introduction,
informed consent, and survey questions. The survey was administered to participants via
Qualtrics. Study protocols were approved by the Institutional Review Boards at Cornell
University. Numerous measures were used to capture study variables. Data was collected for the
study between October 27, 2021 and November 14, 2021, approximately 1.5 years following the
death of George Floyd.
Measures
Inclusion Policy Practice Decoupling
Participants were asked an open-ended question about whether they witnessed any
changes in their organizations following the release of company statements in response to the
killing of George Floyd. Due to the eligibility criteria for the study, in which participants had to
work for organizations that released a statement, only two types of decoupling (positive

28
congruence and negative decoupling) were measured. Participant responses were coded and
categorized into a binary variable, which indicated if they witnessed positive change or no
positive change. Positive change was labeled as perceptions of inclusion policy-practice positive
congruence and no positive change was labeled as perceptions of inclusion policy-practice
negative decoupling. This measurement sought to capture the conceptualization of decoupling
through assessing whether the change-related aims an organization promoted matched its actual
behavior (Scott, 2013).
Inclusion
A 15-item scale for perceptions of inclusion (Mor Barak, 2022) was used to assess
participants’ perceptions of inclusion. Example items include, “I am often invited to voice my
opinion in meetings with management higher than my immediate supervisor” and “I am usually
invited to important meetings in my organization”. Items were scored on a seven-point Likert
scale. Higher scores indicate more inclusion. This scale has demonstrated a range of acceptable
to excellent internal consistency, exhibiting Cronbach's alpha scores between .66 -.91 in previous
studies (Mor Barak, 2022).
Work Withdrawal
A six-item scale for work withdrawal (Hanisch and Hulin, 1990) was used to assess
participants' withdrawal behaviors. Example items include, “neglected tasks that wouldn’t affect
my evaluation/pay raise” and “completed work assignments late”. The items were measured on a
four-point scale that surveyed how frequently they engaged in withdrawal behaviors. The scale
has demonstrated acceptable and good internal consistency, with a Cronbach's alpha score of .71
(Loi et al., 2015) and .897 (Elshaer et al., 2022) demonstrated in previous studies.

29
Burnout
Employee burnout was measured utilizing the emotional exhaustion subscale of the
Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (Maslach et al., 1986). The nine items were measured on a
four-point frequency Likert scale. Sample items include, “I felt used up at the end of the work
day” and “working with people all day was really a strain for me”. This scale has demonstrated
good internal consistency, with a Cronbach's alpha score of .84 in a previous study (Hamaideh,
2011).
Control Variables
All control variables were generated as binary variables. Race was measured with a
dichotomous variable: (1) Black & Multiracial-Black and (2) Non-Black, Non-Multiracial-Black.
Gender was measured with a binary variable of (1) Women and Non-Binary, and (2) Men. Job
position was measured with a binary variable: (1) supervisorial and (2) non-supervisorial.
Remote work status was measured dichotomously, with (1) working remotely and (2) not
working remotely. Participants were considered working remotely if they did so more than 50%
of the time. Organizational sector was measured as (1) private for profit or (2) public,
governmental.
Data Analysis
Prior to data analysis, data cleaning was conducted. Data was then analyzed using Stata
18 statistical software. Descriptive statistics were generated and reviewed to gain a broad
understanding of the data. Next, normality within the study variables was analyzed. The absolute
values for skew and kurtosis of study variables were below the values of 2 (skew) and 7
(kurtosis), respectively, demonstrating a reduction in potential problems with the normality of
variables (Curran et al., 1996). Missingness within the study variables was reviewed prior to

30
analysis. The variables studied demonstrated 5.62% missingness or lower. T-test and chi-squared
analysis was conducted to understand the difference of means between missing data and study
variables, yielding no significant results. To examine whether inclusion policy-practice
decoupling, perceptions of inclusion, burnout, or work withdrawal predicted missing data,
various logistic regression models were administered. Relationships between the control
variables and missing data were also analyzed. All analysis yielded null relationships between
missing variables and study variables, and indicated that data was missing at random, aligning
with Rubin’s (1976) characterization of missing at random.
Frequencies and percentages were produced for categorical variables of inclusion policy-
practice decoupling and control variables. Means and standard deviations were then generated
for the continuous variables, including climate of inclusion, burnout, and work withdrawal.
Cronbach’s alpha was calculated in Stata for each of the scales used for the mediator and
dependent variables. All the measures demonstrated good internal consistency via a Cronbach’s
alpha .88 or higher (Table 2.1.). Bivariate associations were generated through t-test analysis of
inclusion policy-practice decoupling and other variables. Correlations were generated with
continuous variables, including perceptions of inclusion, work withdrawal, and burnout. A
regression analysis was conducted of all variables to assess multicollinearity. Structural equation
modeling was used to conduct a path analysis at the individual level of inclusion policy-practice
decoupling, perceptions of inclusion, burnout, and work withdrawal. Race, gender, remote work,
job position, and organizational sector were controlled for in the path analysis. Model fit was not
assessed, as variables were all directly observed and not estimated (Sahoo, 2019).

31
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Table 2.1. provides descriptive statistics for the sample. Men comprised slightly more
than half of participants (53.01%) and women and non-binary participants constituted 46.99% of
the sample. Participants also represented the following diverse racial and ethnic identities:
32.13% White, non-Hispanic employees, 31.73% Black employees, including multiracial
employees identifying as having a Black racial identity, as well as 36.14% non-Black employees
of color and non-Black multiracial employees. Most participants, 57.83%, were employees of
private for-profit organizations, and 42.17% were employees in non-profit and
governmental/public organizations. Many participants, 57.83%, indicated that they worked
remotely at the time of the survey. Participants also held distinct positions within their
organizations with 54.84% holding non-supervisory roles, 29.84% holding supervisorial and
mid-level managerial positions, and 15.32% serving as senior leaders within their organizations.
The mean age of participants was 35.37. All sample means for total scores on perceptions of
inclusion, burnout, and withdrawal measures presented in Table 1. were divided by the number
of items used for each measure.
Bivariate Analysis
Given the study aims and conceptual model, employees who reported perceiving positive
congruence of inclusion policy and practice (positive change) were compared with employees
who perceived negative decoupling of inclusion policy and practice (no positive change) across
all variables. At the bivariate level (see Table 2.2.), a t-test analysis between negative decoupling
and continuous variables and a chi-squared analysis between negative decoupling and categorical
variables demonstrated one significant relationship between inclusion policy-practice

32
decoupling. Employees who reported seeing positive congruence of inclusion policy-practice via
assessment of positive change had higher perceptions of inclusion (M=5.02, SD=.11) than
employees who reported seeing negative decoupling of inclusion policy-practice via assessment
of no positive change (M=4.68, SD=.08), t (233) = -2.49, p = .0135. Every relationship at the
bivariate level between continuous variables were statistically significant as highlighted in Table
2.3. Increased perceptions of inclusion were associated with decreased burnout (r=-.25, p<.001)
and decreased work withdrawal amongst employees (r= -.13, p<.05). Increased experience of
burnout was associated with greater levels of work withdrawal (r= .60; p,.001).
Direct Effects
After accounting for individual race, gender, job position, remote work, and
organizational sector of employees, a significant negative direct effect between perceptions of
inclusion policy-practice negative decoupling and perceptions of inclusion was present (β = -
5.00, SE = 2.00, z = -2.50, p < .05, 95% CI = -8.93, -1.08; see Table 2.4 and Figure 2.2).
Perceptions of inclusion were negatively associated with burnout (β = -.12, SE = .04, z = -3.39, p
< .01, 95% CI = -.20, -.05). No statistically significant direct association between perceptions of
inclusion policy-practice negative decoupling and burnout was shown. In addition, perceptions
of inclusion were not have a significantly associated with work withdrawal. Lastly, burnout was
directly associated with work withdrawal (β = .34, SE = .03, z = 11.17, p < .001, 95% CI = .28,
.40).
Indirect Effects
Results indicate a significant positive indirect effect between perceptions of inclusion
policy-practice negative decoupling and burnout through perceptions of inclusion (β = .62, SE =
.31, z = 2.01, p < .05, 95% CI = .02, 1.23; see Table 2.5 and Figure 2.2). Perceptions of inclusion

33
were negatively associated with work withdrawal through burnout (β = -.04, SE = .01, z = -3.24,
p < .01, 95% CI = -.07, -.02). Lastly, the influence of perceptions of inclusion policy-practice
negative decoupling on work withdrawal through both perceptions of inclusion and burnout did
not yield statistically significant results.
Discussion
Mega-threats can have challenging impacts on employee outcomes (Leigh & Melwani,
2022). Following experiences with mega-threats, employee perceptions of organizational
inclusion may influence work outcomes (Leigh & Melwani, 2019). This study analyzed whether
negative decoupling of inclusion policy messaging and inclusion practice related to work
withdrawal through its influence on perceptions of inclusion and burnout within the context of
mega-threats. The study findings support most of the outlined hypotheses and the conceptual
model. Support was present for Hypothesis 1, indicating that higher perceptions of inclusion
amongst workers it relates to decreased feelings of burnout. This further affirms earlier literature
on inclusion, burnout, and other employee emotional health outcomes (Mor Barak et al., 2016;
Travis and Mor Barak, 2010; Merlini et al., 2019) in a new context concerning how workers
perceive organizational response surrounding mega-threats. Study findings highlight support for
Hypothesis 2, indicating that heightened perceptions of inclusion policy-practice decoupling
were associated with decreased perceptions of inclusion amongst workers. This finding is
aligned with the inclusion policy-practice conceptual model and propositions put forth by Mor
Barak et al. (2021) of inclusion policy-practice decoupling’s influence on inclusion for
workers. In support of Hypothesis 3, findings highlight that increased perceptions of inclusion
policy-practice negative decoupling relate to increased burnout experiences through the influence
of perceptions of inclusion. This expands on propositions outlined by Mor Barak et al. (2021)

34
through connecting the relationship of inclusion policy-practice decoupling and perceptions of
inclusion with previous inclusion research on employee wellness outcomes (Mor Barak et al.,
2016; Travis and Mor Barak, 2010). Study results also illustrate support for Hypothesis 4, as
enhanced burnout was found to influence increased feelings of work withdrawal, which is a
substantive addition to prior burnout research (Nauman et al., 2020; Travis et al., 2016) through
studying burnout in the context of mega-threat experiences by employees. Hypothesis 5 was also
supported through study findings demonstrating that heightened perceptions of inclusion from
employees relates to decreased work withdrawal through the influence of decreased burnout,
which expands prior research of potential predictor variables of withdrawal through burnout
(Travis et al. 2016). Hypothesis 6 was not supported within the study, and the null relationship of
perceptions of inclusion policy-practice negative decoupling and work withdrawal through the
influence of perceptions of inclusion and burnout was unexpected based on institutional theory,
the conceptual models, and previous research surrounding the previously mentioned variables
(Meyer and Rowan, 1977; Mor Barak et al., 2021. Nauman et al., 2020; Travis et al., 2016;
Travis & Mor Barak, 2010, MacLean et al., 2015; Rasche and Gilbert, 2015; Hamza & Ahmed,
2016). There could be other factors, such as COVID-19 that may contribute to decisions to
withdraw from work, which may have impacted findings for Hypothesis 6. It is possible that the
unique economic dynamics of COVID-19, including the elevated risk of job cuts (Blomqvist et
al, 2023) had more of a significant impact on reducing decisions of employees to withdraw from
work. Greater job insecurity related to COVID-19 has been shown to predict higher instance of
depression and more intensive financial concerns (Wilson et al., 2020).
Although previous research has addressed policy-practice decoupling, limited literature
exists on inclusion policy-practice decoupling (Mor Barak et al., 2021; Mor Barak, 2022). This

35
study puts forth novel findings which test propositions about the relationship between inclusion
policy-practice decoupling and inclusion suggested by Mor Barak et al. (2021). In addition, the
study expands literature on burnout and inclusion to include the influence of perceived gaps
between inclusion policy and practice on these variables. Ultimately, this study also
demonstrates—in the context of mega-threats—the relationship involving perceptions of gaps
between inclusion policy and practice, perceptions of inclusion, as well as workers' experience of
burnout are all important factors to consider for organizations. Congruences between inclusion
policy and practice could potentially yield decreased emotional exhaustion through enhanced
experiences of inclusion at work when managing mega-threat experiences. These findings
illustrate employee experiences conceptualized within institutional theory and optimal
distinctiveness theory, expanding knowledge regarding decoupling and inclusion within
organizations.
Implications
With the ongoing presence of mega-threats (Trotta, 2023; Lopez, 2023, The New York
Times, 2022), these study findings highlight the importance of organizational leaders following
through on inclusion policy messaging with continuous implementation of inclusion practices.
Organizational promises made in the context of a challenging identity-based societal incident
must be monitored and maintained to mitigate any potential negative impact on employee
experiences of inclusion and burnout. These experiences of burnout may ultimately connect to
work withdrawal for employees, as noted by the findings. Research has been completed on
predictors of burnout within workers (Suleiman-Martos et al., 2020; Van Bogaert et al., 2017),
and some of these emotionally exhaustive experiences have been magnified since COVID-19
(Cotel et al., 2021). This study highlights a new predicting facet of employee burnout, which can

36
be assessed by organizational leaders and potentially prevented through resource allocation and
efforts to insure congruence between inclusion policy and practice. Additionally, this study
further notes the importance of fostering climates of inclusion within organizations, and the
continued connection of inclusion’s influence on reducing challenging employee outcomes.
Limitations
These study findings should be reviewed within the context of limitations that exist with
the research approach. First, this study analyzed perceptions of employees within diverse
organizational settings and diverse locations throughout the United States. Although there are
strengths to the findings being generated from employees in diverse sectors, future research
should be conducted within a specific organizational context to extend the findings to
understandings around climate for inclusion. Representativeness of the study findings to the
overall U.S.-based employee population may be impacted due to the non-random convenience
sampling (Rubin and Babbie, 2017). Additionally, inclusion policy-practice decoupling was
measured through coding qualitative responses regarding employees’ perceptions of whether
their organization enacted positive change following their organization’s inclusion messaging in
response to the death of George Floyd. Future research should test and validate an inclusion
policy-practice decoupling measure that provides a comprehensive assessment of gaps between
inclusion policy and practice relevant to various organizational contexts. This study employed a
cross-sectional design, which affects understanding the long-term impact of inclusion policy-
practice decoupling on inclusion, and other employee outcomes. Future research should also
include analysis of the relationship between inclusion policy-practice decoupling and more
diverse employee outcomes, such as organizational commitment and job satisfaction. In addition,
it would be beneficial for future investigations to analyze the influence of inclusion policy-

37
practice decoupling on various group and organizational level outcomes via the climate of
inclusion. Ongoing research should be completed on the role of inclusive leadership and other
antecedents, as suggested by the conceptual model of Mor Barak et al. (2021). To reduce self-
report bias from participants (Donaldson and Grant-Vallone, 2002), new measures of employee
outcomes should be included in future studies to capture more objective assessments of
employee wellness and performance, such as organizational performance assessments and
sick/leave time.
Conclusion
This study contributes to scientific knowledge on inclusion through generating findings
regarding a new antecedent to perceptions of inclusion from the perspective of workers, which is
the extent to which they view the organization as practicing espoused inclusion policies. In
addition, this study also advances burnout literature through understanding the role of inclusion
policy-practice decoupling as a predictor of employee exhaustion through its influence on
perceptions of inclusion. Finally, this study also deepens the understanding of the potential
impact of organization actions following a mega-threat in a worker’s environment. Future studies
should generate and expand knowledge around predictors and outcomes of inclusion policy-
practice decoupling.

38
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Tables & Figures
Figure 2.1. Conceptual Model

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Table 2.1. Employee Characteristics for a study on inclusion policy-practice decoupling (n=249)
Characteristic Frequency/Mean %/SD α
Dependent Variables

Burnout 2.24 .87 .94
Work Withdrawal 1.83 .77 .88
Mediator Variable

Perceptions of Inclusion 4.81 1.00 .88
Independent Variable

Inclusion Policy-Practice Decoupling

Positive Change- Congruence 92 36.95%

No Positive Change- Decoupling 157 63.05%

Control Variables

Race

Black/Multiracial-Black 79 31.73%

Non-Black 170 68.27%

Gender

Women & Non-Binary 117 46.99%

Men 132 53.01%

Remote

Yes, Remote Work 144 57.83%

No, Remote Work 105 42.17%

Job Position

Non-Supervisorial 136 54.84%

Supervisorial 112 45.16%

Organizational Sector

Public/Gov/Non-Profit 105 42.17 %

Private, For-Profit 144 57.83%

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Table 2.2. Bivariate Associations Across Inclusion Policy-Practice Decoupling
Employees (N= 249)

Variables Positive Change No Positive
Change
p
Dependent Variables

Burnout 2.27 (.10) 2.22 (.07)

Work Withdrawal 1.83 (.09) 1.83 (.06)

Mediator Variable

Perceptions of Inclusion 5.02 (.11) 4.68 (.08) *
Control Variables

Race

Black/Multiracial-Black 32.61% 31.21%

Non-Black 67.39% 68.79%

Gender

Women & Non-Binary 45.65% 47.77%

Men 54.35% 52.23%

Remote

Yes, Remote Work 64.13% 54.14%

No, Remote Work 35.87% 45.86%

Job Position

Non-Supervisorial 53.85% 55.41%

Supervisorial 46.15% 44.59%

Organizational Sector

Public/Gov/Non-Profit 38.04% 44.59 %

Private, For-Profit 61.96% 55.41%

Note: Mean and standard deviation (in parenthesis) for continuous variables and proportion for
categorical variables.
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05.

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Table 2.3. Results of Correlation Analysis of Continuous Variables
Variable 1 2 3
1. Perceptions of Inclusion 1

2. Burnout -.25*** 1

3. Work Withdrawal -.13* .60*** 1

***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05.

Table 2.4. Direct Effects
Variable β

SE
Decoupling → Inclusion -5.00* 1.86
Decoupling → Burnout -1.01 1.04
Decoupling → Withdrawal .33 .49
Inclusion → Burnout -.12** .04
Inclusion → Withdrawal -.01 .02
Burnout→ Withdrawal .33*** .03

***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05.

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Table 2.5. Indirect Effects
Variable β

SE
Decoupling → Inclusion → Burnout .62* .31
Inclusion → Burnout→ Work Withdrawal -.04** .01
Decoupling → Inclusion → Burnout → Work Withdrawal -.09 .37

***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05.

Figure 2.2. Direct and Indirect Effects.

*Note: Only significant direct standardized effects shown.
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05.

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Chapter Three
Study Two-Understanding Organizational Pandemic Health Safety Policy-Practice
Decoupling: Perspectives from Diverse Racial and Ethnic Geographic Communities
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted health and mortality outcomes for diverse communities
worldwide in stark ways. With difficulties that have emerged related to COVID-19, containing
the virus’s spread has been a priority. This is even more crucial for racial and ethnic identity
groups within distinct geographic communities who have been more adversely impacted. Health-
safety policies and practices within organizational settings are critical tools for preserving the
health of diverse geographic communities. Using thematic analysis, this study explored the
health-safety policy-practice decoupling and congruence within organizations from the
perspective of diverse racial and ethnic geographic community members. Data was collected
from participants (n=39) located in the western region of the United States within four
geographic communities with a predominance of a distinct racial or ethnic identity group.
Findings revealed community members encountered four organizational thematic areas where
health-safety policies and practices were either decoupled and/or congruent: including, stores and
services, social institutions, governmental agencies, and employment settings. Results from this
study also highlight the prominence of decoupled or congruent health-safety experiences for
different racial and ethnic geographic communities within specific organizational areas.
Altogether, these findings promote research on pandemic health-safety, decoupling, and
diversity-related health experiences. Results of this study can prove supportive of policy and
organizational leaders as they design future interventions for pandemic health safety.

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Introduction
As of mid-2023, more than 6.9 million deaths related to COVID-19 have occurred
worldwide (World Health Organization, 2023). Mitigation and prevention of the pandemic
related to COVID-19 is a global priority (United Nationals-Habitat, 2020; Shi et al., 2022). The
outbreak of COVID-19 has presented distinct difficulties for public health (Fauci et al., 2020),
and the burden of the pandemic has been greater for historically marginalized racial and ethnic
communities that may be co-currently impacted by socioeconomic and racial inequalities (Louis-
Jean et al., 2020). The grave outcomes of this disease propelled governments to begin
implementing public health measures, such as social distancing and lockdowns (Brouard et al.
2020). Health-safety interventions at the community level became important while awaiting the
development of vaccines (Ebrahim et al., 2020), as management of community member
interpersonal contact is a key feature of effective COVID-19 infection control (Yardley et al.,
2020). Organizations have also played an important role in health-safety responses during the
pandemic (Teng-Calleja et al, 2020; Khanal et al. 2021; Schulz et al, 2023). This study aims to
understand the differences and similarities between diverse geographic communities regarding
how their members perceive and interact with organizations concerning health safety policies
and practices. A primary goal of this study is to understand the perceptions of gaps and
congruence within organizations related to pandemic health safety guidelines and
implementation, conceptualized as policy-practice decoupling within institutional theory
(Bromley and Powell, 2012; Meyer and Rowan, 1977). This exploratory study seeks to further
knowledge on how health-safety practices operate in organizations during pandemics from the
perspective of diverse racial and ethnic geographic community members.

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Theoretical Background
Policy-Practice Decoupling
Policy-practice decoupling is defined as the gaps between stated and enacted policies
(Bromley and Powell, 2012), wherein established rules are not upheld (Bromley and Powell,
2012). The actions taken are misaligned with policies, creating rifts between what the
organization indicates they are promoting and behaviors of their internal units (Scott, 2013). As a
result, rules are violated, and declared decisions are not put into practice (Meyer and Rowan,
1977). Vague connections may develop between what organizations say they intend to do and
what they actually execute (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). At times this policy-practice decoupling
can be a solution due to the benefits of symbolically taking on a policy due to the costs of
implementing such policy (Scott, 2013). This decoupling assists organizations in managing
conflicts of interest related to competing pressures from the institutional environment
(Boxenbaum and Jonsson, 2017). This also potentially allows for continued external legitimacy
(Scott, 2013). Decoupling can occur when it obliges the interest of dominant organizational
leaders and actors (Westphal and Zajac, 2001). Organizational actors may also view the
implementation of a policy as troublesome (Tilcsik, 2010), and may use decoupling as a strategy
for decision making when they have network ties to other organizations who are engaging in
decoupling tendencies (Westphal and Zajac, 2001).
Organizations and Pandemic Health Safety
Organizations of different types can have a meaningful impact on the health-safety of
clients, customers, and employees during a pandemic (Mendez-Brito et al., 2021). Governmental
agencies played a key role in the rollout of COVID-19 policies that often guided other
organizations and communities, as well as actions within the government (Hale et al, 2020).

52
Certain businesses, such as grocery stores, beauty services, and retail shops were spaces where
pandemic health-safety factors played out in real time during COVID-19 (Büyükşahin, 2023;
Shamim et al., 2021; Kenji Taylor et al., 2023; Harrichandra et al. 2020). In addition,
community-based and social organizations—such as religious groups, school, housing groups,
and social clubs—were also impacted by and impactful to dynamics related to pandemic health-
safety (Williams et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2023; Pixley et al, 2022; Cheng et al., 2020; Ilonka
Roels et al., 20222). Workplaces and employment settings within various types of organizations
developed policies and actions in response to COVID-19 dynamics that yielded considerations
for potentially positive and challenging outcomes in the realm of health-safety practices, as well
as other types of important outcomes (Kniffin et al., 2020).
Race & Ethnicity & Pandemic Health Safety
Communities of color continue to face comorbid health challenges that exacerbate
COVID-19 risk, such as diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and pulmonary disease
(Alecendor, 2020). Within the United States, Black-identified individuals endure higher
mortality experiences with COVID-19 compared to Whites (Golestaneh et al. 2020), and Latinx
communities carry an elevated risk contracting COVID-19 (Rodriguez-Diaz et al., 2020). Many
racial and ethnic differences connected to COVID-19 should be contextualized with disparities
related to race and socioeconomic related resource deprivation, chronic race-based stress related
to discrimination, as well as environmental inequities (Chowkwanyun and Reed, 2020; Louis-
Jean et al., 2020). Marginalized racial and ethnic communities have a distrust of medical
providers and healthcare systems due to experiences with systemic racism and racial bias
(Alcendor, 2020). For example, throughout past centuries of United States history, Black
individuals have been used in medical experiments where they did not receive the latest medical

53
treatments for the benefit of medical researchers’ professional aims (Louis-Jean et al., 2020).
Additionally, some groups may distrust COVID-19 contact tracing processes that are or
perceived as connected to policing or Immigration and Customs Enforcement (Lo and Sim,
2021). Racial and ethnic discrimination was also present in messaging from organizational
leaders related to COVID-19, as in the instances when the United States president, Donald
Trump referred to COVID-19 as the ‘Chinese virus’ early in the pandemic, which sparked anti-
Chinese racism (Gao & Liu, 2021). As a result, Chinese-identified individuals experienced
enhanced discrimination during the outbreak of COVID-19 (Haft and Zhou, 2021; Gao and Liu,
2021). Due to these challenges, it is imperative for organizations to utilize mitigation strategies
that are culturally aligned for different racial and ethnic communities (Akintobi et al. 2020), and
to understand how organizations are engaging with marginalized racial and ethnic communities
around health-safety.
To better understand how diverse geographic community members perceive
organizations as engaging in congruence or gaps related to pandemic health-safety policies and
practices, this study was guided by the following research questions:
RQ1. What are diverse community members’ perceptions of organizational congruence
between pandemic health-safety policies and practices?
RQ2. What are diverse community members’ perceptions of organizational gaps between
pandemic health-safety policies and practices?
RQ3. How are perceptions of congruence and gaps related to pandemic health-safety
policy and practice different or similar across racial and ethnic geographic
communities?

54
Methods
Research Approach and Participants
This study was exploratory in nature and utilized a qualitative approach with semi-
structured focus groups. Qualitative research can be helpful when aiming to understand elaborate
social mechanisms in contexts of reduced knowledge (Padgett, 2017). Data for this study was
derived from a larger study seeking to build a measure of community health-safety climate;
information was also collected from community members about their perceptions of COVID-19
health-safety related topics. Focus group data was collected between January and August 2021.
Participants included community members from four geographic communities within a distinct
county located in the Western region of the United States. For each geographic community,
participants were recruited from similar racial/ethnic groups (Asian-Chinese, Black, Latinx, and
White), which comprised a large percentage of the population in a specific geographic
community. Geographic community and community will be used interchangeably when
describing data analysis and results. Purposive and snowball sampling were used to recruit
participants into 10 focus groups (n=39). Research team members identified community
gatekeepers (residents and organizational leaders) for each community and worked with them to
recruit participants for the focus groups. In addition, posts with study information were made in
social media and messaging applications (e.g., Instagram, Facebook, NextDoor, and WhatsApp)
to recruit participants. Participants were also recruited through referrals from other participants.
The research team determined eight focus groups as a sample size target with at least two focus
groups per community and a total of 10 participants per community. Due to scheduling
constraints more focus groups were held, and the research team secured 39 of the 40-participant
sample size target. The study sample size was driven by the analytical goals of the larger study,

55
participant diversity aims, and pragmatic issues of time and resources during COVID-19
dynamics (Braun and Clark, 2021a).
Procedures
A research study introduction, informed consent, and demographic surveys were
administered to participants during 20-minute screening calls led by a research team member
prior to focus group participation. Participants were also screened to ensure they lived in a
geographic community included in the study, identified as having a racial/ethnic identity that was
the focus of a particular geographic community, and that they were familiar with utilizing Zoom.
For the focus groups that incorporated participants from the White-predominant geographic
community, one participant identified as Latinx. The research team deemed that due to the nature
of the study and focus on perceptions from community members in a particular geographic
location that the participant could be included. Focus groups were hosted on Zoom, and were
audio- and video-recorded with consent obtained from participants. Each focus group was
facilitated for 75 minutes. Sample questions include, “Do you know if there is a policy that
requires social distancing and wearing masks in your community/city/state?”, “How is the policy
enforced in your community?”, “Do people adhere to the policy?”, and “How consistent are the
policy enforcements?” Each focus group discussion was facilitated by two research team
members. Study protocols were approved by the Institutional Review Board at University of
Southern California.
Data Analysis
Zoom-generated transcripts were derived from the audio and video recordings. A
research team member then edited the transcripts for more accuracy with the video/audio
recording(s), and another team member conducted a second review to further ensure accuracy.

56
All identifying information was removed from the data, and then stored on a secure data-sharing
site. All transcripts were uploaded into NVivo, a qualitative data analysis software, for analysis.
Thematic analysis (Braun and Clark, 2006) was applied to gain an understanding of perceptions
of organizational healthy-safety policies and practices. Two coders analyzed the data through
carrying out thematic analysis processes, including familiarizing themselves with the data,
creating codes for the data, and identifying themes via consensus (Braun and Clark, 2006). The
coders took notes during the thematic analysis meetings to keep track of coding adjustments and
the theme creation process. One coder reviewed the themes against coded data (Braun and Clark,
2006; Braun and Clark, 2012). Following the review process one theme would be dropped, as
there was not sufficient participant dialogue concentrated to rise to the level of a theme. A
codebook thematic analysis process, which integrates elements from both coding reliability (neo
positivist approach) and reflexive thematic analysis (interpretive approach) was used throughout
analysis as the specific epistemological approach (Braun and Clark, 2018; Braun and Clark,
2021). The codebook process involved developing a coding framework to partially analyze data
in a more deductive fashion (Braun and Clark, 2021), with codes such as “health-safety policy-
practice congruence”, “health-safety policy-practice decoupling”, “organizational type”, and
“organizational importance”. Through this process, interrater reliability between coders was not
prioritized as an indicator of quality, as despite the initial generation of a deductive-oriented
coding framework, new codes and points of focus emerged at different points in time to also
incorporate an inductive approach that utilized the coders’ positionality and other theoretical
assumptions (Braun and Clark, 2021).

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Results
Descriptive Statistics
Study participants were from the following diverse age groups: 18-39 (43.59%), 40-59
(35.90%), and 60-79 (20.51%). In terms of gender and political identification 76.92 % of
participants were women, and 61.54% noted having a democratic political affiliation.
Participants also represented diverse racial/ethnic identities: 30.77% Latinx, 28.21% Asian-
Chinese/Taiwanese, 23.08% White, and 17.95% Black community members. In terms of
education, 53.85% of participants had children and 64.1% of participants held a bachelor's
degree or higher. Most participants, 58.97%, noted an income of $59,000 or less and 61.54% of
participants reported some type of religious affiliation (Christian, Catholic, Buddhist, and/or
Jewish).
Themes
Thematic analysis revealed four themes related to expressions of congruence and/or
decoupling within organizational health-safety policies and practices based on perceptions from
community members within distinct racial and ethnic geographic communities: (1) stores and
services, (2) social Institutions (3) government agencies, (4) employment Settings. Except for
social institutions, each of these themes (found in Table 3.1) were described by participants in
significant ways as having both congruence and decoupling present within health-safety policies
and practices. When discussing congruence related to all four themes, there was not a particular
racial-ethnic community that expressed more feedback than others. When discussing instances of
decoupling across the four theme areas, Latinx-predominant and Black-predominant
communities perceived gaps between health-safety policy and practice the most.

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Stores and Services
Participants described their engagement with grocery stores, warehouse stores, gyms,
restaurants, hair salons, and barbershops during the pandemic as spaces where health-safety
policies and practices were both congruent or decoupled.
Congruence-Stores and Services. Mask-wearing within stores and services was a
primary area of health-safety policy and practice described by participants as having congruence.
In addition, social distancing within stores and services was also a common area of congruence.
Other areas of health-safety policy-practice congruence that presented on a smaller scale for
participants within stores and services include sanitization and handwashing, vaccination,
capacity management, staying at home, testing and screening, outside services, contact tracing,
and plexi-glass separation. One Black-identified participant living within a Black-predominant
community highlighted findings related to congruence within stores and services and shared a
store’s efforts to encourage mask-wearing and sanitizing practices, when they commented:
I've come to rely on some businesses that I go to that regularly will check people at the
door without a mask, and that makes me trust that particular business more…And so I
have altered the places where I choose to spend my funds. At stores, where I see them
regularly spraying the handles to the carts, even though I carry my own. I will stop at
convenience stores that I have seen people say no we can't serve you because you're not
wearing a mask so um I think business owners and businesses carry a huge responsibility
and the expectations. (Participant G, Black-predominant community)
A Mexican-identified participant living in Latinx-predominant neighborhood noted health-safety
enforcement practice at a warehouse store nearby, in which mask-wearing was emphasized and
monitored:

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[Warehouse Name, Warehouse Name] was very strict on that. I remember [Warehouse
Name] because you have to show your…your membership ID and if you don't have a
mask on, they will not let you in at all yeah they were very strict on that just to keep
everybody safe yes. (Participant M, Latinx-predominant community)
Diversity and Congruence-Stores and Services. When participants from Black-
predominant and White-predominant communities expressed congruence related to health-safety
policy and practice, most of their experiences centered around engagement with stores and
services as compared to other organizational areas. Across all racial identity-based geographic
communities, participants from White-predominant communities spent more time discussing
health-safety policy-practice congruence within stores and services. One White-identified
participant living in a White-predominant community, shared their experience with utilizing
store pick-up service from a local grocery store, a practice that encouraged management of
customer capacity in the store and promoted social distancing. They stated:
I know, [I] went through the pandemic. Almost not going out, I mean. Maybe getting in
the car and driving to [Grocery Store Name], but what do you call it, you know pick up
that kind of thing, but I didn't go into a store till April this year. (Participant O, White-
predominant community)
Decoupling-Stores and Services. Amongst diverse participants, mask-wearing and
social distancing were the primary areas discussed related to health-safety policy-practice
decoupling within stores and services. Other health-safety areas mentioned where decoupling
existed within stores and services were testing and screening, encouragement to stay at home,
vaccination, sanitization and handwashing, capacity management, and receiving services outside.
A participant from the Asian-predominant community who identified as Chinese noted their

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experience with decoupling of health-safety policies and practices within stores and services.
The participant shared that although one health-safety practice was implemented around mask-
wearing within the store where they chose to shop, social distancing was lacking in enforcement,
which illustrated a common reflection of participants within stores and services related to
congruence and decoupling being simultaneously present in a specific store or service.
Participant A commented, “For example, when, let's say we go [to] the supermarket. Like [the]
Asian market… everybody's wearing masks but not everyone is like social distancing very well.”
A Black-identified participant who resided in a Black-predominant community shared
experiences with decoupling of health-safety practice within stores and services regarding stores
managing the quantity of people within their locations. They stated,
Then there's other stores that I won't visit because I see the people just go on in and out
they got the signage on the door, but everybody can go in and everybody can come out
there's no control of the numbers, I even heard one employee go ‘wait a minute’ and ask
the person at the door and I haven't been back to that store…he said ‘how many people
are in here I work here?, how many people are in here?’ and she go ‘oh I forgot’. Excuse
me, I turned my behind right around and got back in my car because I didn't need to take
that risk. (Participant F, Black-predominant community)
Diversity and Decoupling-Stores and Services. When participants from Black-, Asian-,
and, Latinx-predominant communities expressed decoupling related to health-safety policy and
practices, most experiences centered around engagement with stores and services as more so than
other organizational areas. Across all racial identity-based geographic communities, participants
from Black-predominant and Latinx-predominant communities spent more time discussing
health-safety policy-practice decoupling within stores and services. Participant L, who identified

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as Mexican and who lived in a Latinx-predominant community at the time of the study shared
their health-safety policy-practice decoupling experience within stores and services while
walking by a local fitness studio. They noted:
A lot of like Zumba studios are close to where I live, and like….and you're in a studio
where like people are sweating and breathing really hard and people have like masks
down, so I remember walking by just kind of thinking well like that's pretty that's a sight
to see like you know I think a lot of air being thrown around so. (Participant L, Latinx-
predominant community)
Social Institutions
Participants described their interaction with various social and community-based
organizations, including religious organizations, schools, housing organizations, and different
community-based advocacy or social clubs. This theme highlighted the only organizational area
where participants described experiences related to health-safety policy and practices as mostly
congruent.
Congruence-Social Institutions. Staying at home was the primary area of congruence
between health-safety policy and practice within participants' engagement with social
institutions. This included sharing experiences with online church services, virtual learning
through school, and Zoom meetings held by community organizations. Participants across
diverse geographic communities also noted mask-wearing and vaccination promotion and
enforcement as a more prevalent area of congruence related to health-safety policy and practices
within social institutions. The following areas of health-safety within social institutions were
expressed as facets of congruence between policy and practice on a smaller scale: sanitization
and handwashing, social distancing, capacity management, outside services, testing and

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screening, and contact tracing. One Chinese-identified participant who resided in an Asian-
predominant community shared experiences highlighting congruence within social institutions
related to health-safety policies and practices, indicating how their child’s school enforced its
students staying at home, which also encouraged the family to social distance from others in
general. They shared,
Yeah so um in [city name] my kids are in the high school and all the schools shut down,
so we are following all the school guidelines, even with having to you know stay away
from families that we usually spend time with because of what the school told us to do.
(Participant B, Asian-predominant community)
A previously mentioned participant who identified as having a Mexican racial/ethnic identity,
shared their perception about congruence between health-safety policy and practices through
discussing their church and that despite their institution’s lack of social distancing, the church
did require a use of a mask for attendees. Participant L shares, “Like the church would still have
services—like packed—but they would require the use of a mask so…” (Latinx-predominant
community).
Diversity and Congruence-Social Institutions. When participants from Asian-
predominant and Black-predominant communities expressed congruence related to health-safety
policy and practice, a significant number of experiences were focused on participation in social
institutions as compared to other organizational areas. Across all racial and ethnic identity-based
geographic communities, participants from Black-predominant communities spent more time
discussing health-safety policy-practice congruence within social institutions. Another
participant who identified as Black, shared experience within her church around congruence

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between health-safety policy and practice within several health-safety realms, such as mask-
wearing, capacity management, temperature screening, social distancing, and sanitization:
My bishop was very um was very wanted to follow the guidelines very closely and not be
putting his congregation at risk, so I mean we have mask at church, we have somebody at
the door, we have ushers at the door. Once it gets to a certain count you...they don't allow
you to come in. If you happen to present at the door without a mask, we have masks we
can give you. You are required…you put one on if you're coming into the service [and]
your temperature is taken. Again we…we have followed it to a T. The seats are
marked…six feet red dots are put everywhere and that's where you sit. So um and then
we have the cleaning, the sanitization going on, after each service um so…all the points
of the mandate, have been hit, and we continue to do that as we continue to stay open and
have services. (Participant H, Black-predominant community)
Government Agencies
Focus group participants indicated they experienced congruence and decoupling within
health-safety policy and practice in their realm of interactions with government. This included
local, state, national, and international governmental agencies. Local governmental organizations
included agencies of local elected leaders as well as emergency safety professions, such as police
departments. Participants also referenced public spaces, such as parks and lakes, as sources of
both congruence and decoupling within government agencies.
Congruence-Government Agencies. Study participants highlighted stay-at-home
interventions and vaccination support as predominant health-safety policy and practices that
demonstrated congruence within governmental agencies. Other areas of health-safety policy and
practice congruence were noted by participants in the realm of mask-wearing, sanitization and

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handwashing, capacity management, and testing and screening. Participant N, who identified as
Mexican and lived within a Latinx-predominant community, shared their experience with health-
safety policy and practice congruence as it related to governmental agencies; they noted local
governments closure of a park and capacity management:
My community park was closed, so it was closed for a good couple months before they
started slowly opening it back up though they had limited capacity and then it was you
can only walk around the park [for] certain activities, you can only do.” (Participant N,
Latinx-predominant community).
Participant Q, a White-identified participant and who lived in a predominantly White
community, also shared perceptions of congruence within government agencies, noting
international governments’ efforts to enforce vaccination through traveling: “A lot of countries
aren't letting people in that aren’t vaccinated, so I think that's getting some people over the
hurdle.”
Diversity and Congruence-Government Agencies. Government agencies did not rise as a
primary area compared to other organizational areas for any of the racial and ethnic-based
geographic communities for health-safety policy and practice congruence. Across all racial
identity-based geographic communities, participants from Latinx-predominant communities
spent more time discussing health-safety policy-practice congruence within government
agencies. One participant living in a predominantly Latinx community, who identified as
Mexican, shared their perceptions of how the state government enforced a stay-at-home order
and mask-wearing to encourage congruence between health-safety policy and practice:
So I don't think it was all that smooth at the beginning um but yeah I think you know, like
in [State Name], you know, we had [Governor Name] and I think they did at first, you

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know they did a good job at like locking the state down and just making sure, pressuring
us to stay home….I do think in [State Name], they did a good job at like actually trusting
the science and you know rushing to encourage us to stay home and to start wearing
masks and all of that. (Participant K, Latinx-predominant community)
Decoupling-Government Agencies. Participants described vaccination support as a
predominant area where decoupling was present between health-safety policy and practice within
government agencies. Participants also noted decoupling related to health-safety policy and
practice within government in the realms of testing and screening, stay-at-home enforcement,
mask-wearing, sanitization and handwashing, social distancing, and capacity management. A
participant, who identified as Black and living in a predominantly Black community, shared an
example of health-safety policy-practice decoupling within government agencies, indicating that
vaccine distribution was not effective due to community economic and employment dynamics:
Let's be real, a lot of us don't have transportation, a lot of people don't have jobs right
now to even take public transportation, so I would like to say if they want to help…bring
it [vaccines] to our communities. They're supposed to be bringing in the military out here
to help with the vaccine distribution, bring them [vaccines] into the communities, bring
them [vaccines] to local churches, bring them [vaccines] to local supermarkets, they have
blood drives at that [Grocery Store Name] all the time, every year for leukemia testing,
bring them. If people don't have money, how are they gonna get to these places.
(Participant E, Black-predominant community)
A White-identified community member living in a predominantly White area, shared an
additional perspective on health-safety policy-practice decoupling within governmental agencies,
noting the lack of enforcement of mask-wearing by the local law enforcement agency:

66
I believe in [County Name] masks are required indoors, but I think the Sheriff has come
out and say, he won’t enforce it, and I think that the county health department, so they
would enforce it, but I don't think that they can, or that they are. But I think there it's..it's
like I hate to make this analogy of it's like with children there's not a penalty if there's not
a consequence for your behavior then it's not enforceable so. (Participant Q, White-
predominant community)
Diversity and Decoupling-Government Agencies. When compared to other
organizational areas, no group of geographic community members expressed more decoupling
instances within government. As compared to other communities within the organizational area
of government, Latinx-predominant community members shared more perceptions regarding the
prevalence of health-safety policy-practice decoupling with governmental agencies. One
participant who was multi-racial, identifying as Japanese and Mexican, shared her experience as
someone living in a predominantly Latinx community around governmental agency health-safety
policy-practice decoupling. She shared her perception of minimal effort being brought forth from
government agencies to ensure effective vaccine distribution:
I just think there's a lack of effort...um in terms of the elected politicians- elected officials
- that represent our community. They should have been, they should have jumped up to
the forefront and said, you know what we need to take care of our constituents. I didn't
see that coming from City Hall, I didn't see it coming from [County Name]. I mean,
[Elected Official First and Last name]- what is it? - [Elected Official Last Name] here on
[Street Name] there were supposed to be 2000 vaccines available and only 100 were
available… (Participant I, Latinx-predominant community)

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Employment Settings
Participants shared experiences highlighting employment settings as an organizational
area where congruence and decoupling existed related to health-safety policy and practice. These
included discussion of work dynamics during the pandemic within organizations such as stores,
restaurants, health agencies, hair salons, factories, essential jobs, small businesses, and public
service settings. This is the one theme that was not comprised of a single organizational sector or
entity type per say, but rather a cross-sector organizational context. Participants noted both the
presence of congruence and decoupling as it related to health-safety policy and practice at work.
Congruence-Employment Settings. Stay-at-home approaches were noted as a primary
area of health-safety policy-practice congruence within employment settings, with many
participants noting the possibility of working from home. Participants also shared other health-
safety policy-practice congruence within employment settings, such as testing and screening,
quarantine practices, vaccination promotion and enforcement, mask-wearing, sanitization and
handwashing, and social distancing. One Chinese-identified participant living in a predominantly
Asian area, detailed their perspective about their workplace, demonstrating congruence between
health-safety policy-practice decoupling:
I feel like at my workplace…As healthcare agency, so we we tend to remind each other,
saying like okay, we need to make sure we wear the masks to hand hygiene and remind
our clients to do the same, because we want to make sure the whole facility is safe when
whenever they come in and all go out we do the screening we make sure that people use
hand sanitizers before entering or go out. (Participant D, Asian-predominant community)

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Another participant identified as having a White identity who lived in a predominantly White
community, shared their experiences with being able to work remotely and engage with stay-at-
home employment as a health-safety practice:
I have a job, but it's a job that permits me to work remotely and I have a nice house that
it's easy to stay, apart from other people, and so we are fortunate that you know it wasn't
burdensome for us in many ways. (Participant P, White-predominant community)
Diversity and Congruence-Employment Settings. When participants from Asian-
predominant communities expressed congruence related to health-safety policy and practice,
numerous experiences centered around participation in employment settings as compared to
other organizational areas. Across all racial and ethnic identity-based geographic communities,
participants from Asian-predominant communities spent more time discussing health-safety
policy-practice congruence within employment settings. A participant who self-identified as
Chinese, noted :
So in my community and my workplace, we do expect everyone, including myself, to
wear masks whenever we interact with people with patients or partners or coworkers, and
we do require to wash our hands frequently we do… are required to keep social distance
from other people. (Participant C, Asian-predominant community)
Decoupling-Employment Settings. Stay at home was also the predominant health-safety
practice brought forth by participants as it related to decoupling between policy and practice
within employment settings. Other health-safety practices mentioned by participants related to
employment-setting health-safety policy and practice decoupling were testing and screening,
quarantine, vaccination support, mask-wearing, and social distancing. One participant who lived

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in a predominantly Black geographic community and identified as Black shared their experiences
with a lack of health-safety policy implementation, and the impact on workers:
When it comes to [Grocery Store Name] that's an interesting one, because [Grocery Store
Name] had an outbreak at the beginning and also this past summer, where there was
employees... numerous ones [that] die[d]. [Grocery Store Name] is saying oh everything's
fine and I actually know a relative who quit her job because she has a lot of underlying
health problems and they told her either you have to come to work or we have to let you
go so she's one of the ones that currently is suing [Grocery Store Name]…[Grocery Store
Name] had over 50 of their employees dying and while making other people come to
work that has worked with these individuals who got caught sick from COVID so you're
enforcing policies but you're not even doing it in which our own staff. (Participant E,
Black-predominant community)
A Mexican-identified participant shared perceptions of decoupling around health-safety policy
and practice with an employment setting as they described their father’s experience with options
to stay at home from work when possibly sick with COVID-19:
My dad works in a factory and there were several coworkers who did get sick and
wouldn't call off or you know what you know because they had to work or they didn't
think the symptoms that they had were significant enough to call off, so they would go
into work. (Participant N, Latinx-predominant community)
Diversity and Decoupling-Employment Settings. When compared to other organizational
areas, no geographic community members expressed that employment settings were predominant
within decoupling experiences. As compared to other communities within the organizational area
of employment settings, Latinx-predominant community members shared more perceptions of

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health-safety policy-practice decoupling within employment settings. Participant J, a community
member from a majority Latinx area noted observations of police in their emergency safety work
roles, highlighting decoupling between health-safety policy and practice: “I heard from different
people here in the neighborhood that the cops weren't wearing masks. They never saw the
policeman with a mask on. That's the..you know setting examples.”
Additional Factor for Health-Safety Policy-Practice Decoupling-Health Care
Although it did not rise to the level of a theme, participants mentioned several examples
across diverse geographic communities regarding their engagement with different healthcare
resources, such as insurance companies, doctor’s offices, and health management organizations.
Participants spoke about their individual doctors promoting congruence of health-safety policy
and practices through mask-wearing and social distancing behaviors in doctors’ offices, as well
as stay-at-home practices for virtual appointments. In addition, some participants spoke about
decoupling in relation to insurance companies and health management organizations engaging in
vaccination as a health-safety practice.
Discussion
This study explored the presence of pandemic health-safety policy-practice decoupling
within organizations from the perspective of community members with similar racial-identities
living in the same geographic community. The study’s findings highlight four thematic areas that
suggest organizational contexts where both congruence and decoupling were present for
pandemic-related health-safety policy and practice. Researchers also identified differences
amongst racial- and ethnic-based geographic areas via participant reflections. Across all diverse
geographic communities, participants from Black-predominant and Latinx-predominant
communities brought up more experiences with decoupling compared to other groups.

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The first theme that emerged centered on community members' engagement with stores
and services around health-safety, where they noted stores and other businesses as places where
enforcement of health-safety policy was or was not present during the pandemic. This finding
speaks to the emerging research on stores and services and their role in pandemic health-safety
promotion (Shamim et al., 2021; Kenji Taylor et al., 2023; Harrichandra et al. 2020). Participants
shared that when congruence between health-safety policy and practice existed within stores and
services, it often centered on mask-wearing and social distancing policies. The additional
perception of congruence related to social distancing within stores amplifies prior research on
customer preferences to experience capacity management strategies and social distancing
measures to ensure safer shopping experiences (Rossetti et al., 2020). Participants who were
members of Black-predominant and White-predominant communities spent more time
discussing the significance of stores as a place for potential congruent practicing of health-safety
measures as compared to other thematic areas. Compared to other geographic communities,
White-predominant community members expressed the most reflections on congruence of
health-safety policy and practice within stores. Participants also noted experiences with
decoupling similar to that of congruence, in which mask-wearing and social distancing where
often areas where enforcement was not present, aligning with some prior research within store
settings (Floyd et al., 2022). When discussing decoupling, all of geographic communities
predominantly comprised of community members of color, including Black, Asian, and Latinx,
spent more time sharing instances of health-safety decoupling with stores than other thematic
areas. This awareness of health-safety decoupling within stores may impact geographic
communities of color differently, as highlighted by a study on different racial and ethnic groups’
engagement with food-based stores and services during COVID-19 and challenges with potential

72
food insecurity (Morales et al., 2020). In addition, when comparing geographic communities,
Black-predominant and Latinx-predominant communities articulated more reflections on
experiences of decoupling of health-safety policy and practices within stores and services.
The second theme that emerged from the study findings centered on social institutions,
and participants' engagement with health-safety policies and practices within the context of
religious, educational, housing, or community-based organizations. Participants across diverse
geographic communities spoke to social institutions as prime spaces of congruence between
health-safety policy and practice, which is distinct from other theme areas. Previous research has
noted how social institutions can be supportive within a pandemic health-safety context
(Williams et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2023; Pixley et al., 2022; Cheng et al., 2020; Ilonka Roels et
al., 20222). Health-safety policy-practice congruence within social institutions was most
prevalent around encouragement of stay-at-home practices towards organizational members.
This aligns with the realities of many social institutions deciding to convert to more virtual
engagement, such as schools with online learning (Anthony Jnr and Noel, 2021). Community
members from Asian-predominant and Black-predominant areas spoke to social institutions and
health-safety policy-practice congruence more than other thematic areas. In addition, compared
to racial and ethnic-based geographic communities, participants from Black-predominant areas
shared more instances of congruence within social institutions. This speaks to the historical
importance of Black churches in public health dynamics within Black communities (Brewer and
Williams, 2019) Black-identified participants noted experiences of stay-at-home health-safety
practice by the churches they attended and/or were members of in the form of virtual services or
church closure. For those churches that did close and exhibited congruence around health-safety
policy and practice, it may be important to consider the immediate and long-term impact of

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church closures for Black-predominant geographic communities due to the prevalent roles they
play in support to the community (DeSouza et al., 2021).
Government agencies emerged as a third theme from the study findings, where
participants noted experiences of congruence and decoupling related to health-safety policy-
practice. Participants shared interactions with local, state, national, and international
governmental agencies. Government emerging as a theme is not surprising due to the widespread
health-safety policy announcements that were performed by government entities at different
levels across the world (Hale et al, 2020; Cheng Barceló et al, 2020). Participants shared that
congruence between health-safety policy and practice within governmental agencies often
centered around the promotion of stay-at-home orders. Prior research has suggested that stay-at-
home orders were viewed as helpful by diverse groups of people when implemented by
government agencies, and this finding that congruence did exist when orders were announced
supports those findings (Czeiler et al., 2020). When decoupling was present related to health-
safety practice and policy within governmental agencies, participants from diverse geographic
communities expressed that it focused on vaccination support, enforcement, and promotion. This
finding highlights the realities of scheduling and accessibility difficulties that emerged in relation
to vaccination for COVID-19 (Zhang et al., 2022). Among different identity-based geographic
communities, Latinx-predominant community members discussed the most instances of
congruence and decoupling within health-safety policy-practice in government settings.
Employment settings was a fourth theme from the study’s findings, where participants
from diverse geographic communities shared experiences within workplaces related to
congruence and decoupling of pandemic health-safety practices. This finding aligns with the
realities of health-safety policy impact on workplaces during a pandemic, as well as the role of

74
different employment settings in upholding or diminishing health-safety during a pandemic
(Kniffin et al., 2020). When health-safety policy-practice congruence existed within employment
settings, participants predominantly discussed its presence in relation to stay-at-home
opportunities, where participants were able to work from home remotely, and mitigate
heightened health risks. Staying at home was also prominently described as an area of
decoupling by participants within employment settings who shared perceptions that individuals
within their community were essential workers or worked in jobs where they could not work
from home and were more at risk for COVID-19 exposure. The impact of health-safety risk on
essential workers has been noted in some research related to COVID-19 (Rogers et al., 2020).
Across all of the thematic areas, Asian-predominant community members expressed employment
settings as a more prominent area of congruence for them. This was also true when reviewing
participant comments across all geographic communities, which indicated that Asian-
predominant communities shared congruence examples within employment more than other
communities. Participants from Latinx-predominant communities shared the most experiences
regarding decoupling within employment-oriented health-safety policy and practice, as compared
to other communities. That Latinx-predominant geographic community members expressed more
experiences with decoupling furthers research noting the precarious nature of work during the
pandemic for some Latinx community members, especially when combined with intersectional
experiences related to citizenship status (Olayo-Méndez et al., 2021).
Implications
This study has several research and practical applications. This research project is one of
the first to explore policy-practice decoupling within the context of pandemic health-safety, this
includes generating new knowledge on types of policy-practice areas that are congruent or

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decoupled within different organizational contexts. This furthers exploratory research related to
Meyer and Rowan’s (1977) early theorizing of policy-practice decoupling, and also expands
some of the health-safety research around decoupling (Zohar et al., 2017) into the realm of
pandemic health-safety. Through generating information on perceptions from diverse
communities of decoupling and congruence around health-safety within different organizational
settings, this study also adds to the priority of studying pandemic-related experience of diverse
identity groups due to the racial and ethnic disparities that can be prevalent during a pandemic
(Webb Hooper, 2020). These findings also provide implications for policy and organizational
leaders to highlight areas of focus around policy development or guide organizational user-
research to better support customers, clients, or employees' engagement with the organizations.
As an example, if participants note issues in stores related to capacity management and social
distancing, policy and organizational leaders can utilize these findings to begin designing more
interventions that support public access to store resources in safe ways.
Limitations
There are limitations to consider in the research approach for this study. This study must
consider time concerns, as COVID-19 was very dynamic and changing at different points of
time. For example, community members may have different perceptions related to what types of
organizations were engaging in congruence or decoupling of health-safety policy-practice at
different points in time during the data collection period due to the dynamic nature of policy
shifts surrounding COVID-19, suggesting that a possible limitation may be related to history or
extraneous events (Rubin and Babbie, 2017). Although this study was also completed within
diverse racial and ethnic-based geographic communities located in the Western United States,
due to regional dynamics and differences of governmental health-safety guidelines are not

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intended to be generalizable to broader geographic communities. Additionally, this study
explored the expressions of organizational decoupling around health-safety from the perspective
of diverse community members and is limited in providing insights to precipitating and
consequential factors related to decoupling and congruence. Future research should explore
antecedents and outcomes of organizational health-safety policy-practice decoupling within the
context of high crisis health dynamics with consideration for differences and similarities across
diverse identity groups.
Conclusion
Findings from this study add to the scientific literature on policy-practice decoupling
through generating additional research regarding decoupling and congruence between health-
safety policy and practice within organizations during a pandemic. This study also cultivates
knowledge around the critical role organizations can play in risk-mitigation within a pandemic
experience. Results highlighted through this study can support policy and organizational leaders
in better serving clients, customers, and employees of diverse racial identities. Future research
should explore perceptions of decoupling within health-safety policy and practice in different
geographic contexts, and compare differences based on location and policy dynamics.

77
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Tables

Table 3.1. Results from Thematic Analysis

Organizational Health-Safety Policy-
Practice Thematic Findings
Congruence Decoupling
Stores and Services Mask Wearing*
Social Distancing*
Sanitization and Handwashing
Vaccination
Capacity Management
Staying at Home
Testing and Screening
Outside Services
Contact Tracing
Plexi-Glass Separation
Mask Wearing*
Social Distancing*
Testing and Screening
Staying at Home
Vaccination,
Sanitization and
Handwashing
Capacity Management
Outside Services

Social Institutions Stay at Home*
Mask Wearing*
Vaccination*
Sanitization and Handwashing
Social Distancing
Capacity Management
Outside Services
Testing and Screening
Contact Tracing

Government Agencies Stay at Home*
Mask Wearing
Sanitization and Handwashing,
Capacity Management
Testing and Screening.
Vaccination*
Testing and Screening
Stay at Home
Mask Wearing
Sanitization and
Handwashing
Social Distancing
Capacity
Management.
Employment Settings Stay at Home*
Testing and Screening
Quarantine
Vaccination
Mask Wearing
Sanitization and Hand-Washing
Social Distancing
Stay at Home*
Testing and Screening
Quarantine
Vaccination Support
Mask Wearing
Social Distancing

*Note: The most prominent health-safety policy-practice areas mentioned within the thematic finding.

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Chapter Four
Study Three-Checking The Block: Understanding Inclusion Means-Ends Decoupling
Within the United States Military
Abstract
Inclusion has been previously expressed as a priority within the United States Military.
Despite this prioritization, marginalized identity groups continue to face challenges as service
members and U.S. political leaders are wavering in support for inclusion initiatives. Some
research has shown that initiatives to manage diverse employees are not always effective.
Inclusion has been shown to predict beneficial outcomes for diverse employees and
organizations, and understanding the relationship between inclusion practices and intended
outcomes is essential to attain these employee and organizational benefits. Using thematic
analysis, this study explored inclusion means-ends decoupling (gaps between inclusion practices
and intended outcomes) within the military context, including expressions and antecedents of
decoupling and congruence. Data was collected from participants across several installations
within the United States. Findings revealed five thematic areas, including social events,
recognition and reprimand processes, voice mechanisms, interpersonal interactions, and EO and
SHARP training), where inclusion means and ends were expressed with congruence and/or
decoupling was expressed. Additionally, qualitative analysis revealed four antecedent themes
related to inclusion means-ends decoupling and congruence, including leader decision-making
and behavior, innovation orientation, problem-based motivation, and prioritization and
organization. Together, these results generate new knowledge related to inclusion decoupling
beyond policy and practice. These results may also assist military leaders, and leaders within

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other strict hierarchical settings in identifying important factors to ensure inclusion practice
effectiveness.
Introduction
Initially exclusionary in nature, the United States Military has grown in diversity,
enlisting an abundance of soldiers who hail from low-income backgrounds, have less educational
attainment, and/or underrepresented racial and gender identity groups (Gamble, 2020; Rohall et
al., 2017; Atuel et al., 2018). Despite this growth, inequities related to limited diversity within
leadership roles persist (Cooper, 2020). As an early adopter of diversity integration and
experiencing past difficulty with inclusion, the U.S. Armed Forces have been more prompted
than most organizations to understand that recruiting diversity is not enough, and that engaging
in strategies to support innovation and inclusion of soldiers within the military should be a
priority (Gamble, 2020; Brown et al. 2020). In 2020, then Secretary of Defense Mark T. Esper,
launched a renewed set of priorities around diversity and inclusion, with insistence that the U.S.
military become a global leader in managing diverse workforces (Esper, 2020; Department of
Defense, 2020). Different military branches have taken on efforts to prioritize inclusion as a
result, such as the United States Army, which has initiated goals around enhancing inclusion-
related training and mechanisms to better understand soldier experiences related to inclusion
(Army Equity and Inclusion Agency, 2023). Yet although inclusion efforts have progressed
within the military, soldiers from marginalized identity groups still struggle with experiencing
inclusion (Green et al., 2022; Kintzle et al., 2023). In addition, there have been recent efforts
from political leaders to limit diversity and inclusion initiatives in the U.S. Military (Carbonaro,
2023).

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Some research has highlighted that not all diversity initiatives achieve intended outcomes
(Dobbin and Kalev, 2016; Dobbin and Kalev, 2022). With the level of diversity within the
United States Military across various branches (Garamone, 2022), it is an ideal space to explore
the relationship between inclusion practices and outcomes. A paucity of existing literature
explores the presence of rifts between inclusion practices and intended outcomes, identified in
institutional theory as means-ends decoupling (Bromely and Powell, 2012; Jabbourri et al.,
2022). This is one of the first studies with a goal of exploring inclusion means-ends decoupling
within organizations, and specifically within a military context. This study theoretically and
practically assists in closing a knowledge gap related to decoupling and congruence of inclusion
initiatives and outcomes within diverse organizations. Findings from this study also advance
research on inclusion practice effectiveness within strict hierarchical settings.
Theoretical Background & Literature Review
Means-Ends Decoupling
Means-ends decoupling is a concept within institutional theory that explains
organizational tendencies to preserve gaps between practices and intended outcomes (Bromley
and Powell, 2012). As such, means-ends decoupling is indicative of the implementation of
policies via practices within organizations (means) with a distal relationship to pivotal outcomes
or goals (ends) (Bromley and Powell, 2012). Institutional theory posits that modern organizations
develop in environments that are pronouncedly institutionalized, and organizational structures
are dominated by rules, norms, and values of the institutional environment in which an
organization exists (Meyer and Rowan, 1977; Garrow and Hasenfield, 2009). This adherence to
institutional rules and norms is executed to promote organizational legitimacy and survival
(Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Broadly, decoupling is said to emerge as a result of the isomorphic

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pressures organizations face to align with dominant organizational practices within the external
environment (Bromley and Powell, 2012). Institutional isomorphism is described as
organizational habits of imitating what is conventionally considered a proper organization,
founded in social myths (Boxenbaum and Jonsson, 2017; Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Moreover,
buffering against possible external illegitimacy motivates organizations to adopt these myths
(Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Within means-ends decoupling, pressures from the environment
center on institutional ideals and social myths about what constituted legitimate ways to
accomplish organizational goals (Bromley and Powell, 2012). Bromley and Powell (2012)
espouse that internal organizational constituents can influence the emergence of this type of
decoupling due to their championing of external causes. Principally, means-ends decoupling
brings focus to challenges that delineate causal linkages between organizational implemented
practices and intended outcomes (Bromley and Powell, 2012). Lyon and Montgomery (2015)
shared that adverse outcomes may occur when organizations institute practices based on external
pressures. Bromley and Powell (2012) indicate numerous consequences of means-ends
decoupling, including enhanced internal organizational complexity, endemic reform, and
diversion of resources from core organizational outcomes. As such, means-ends decoupling
within organizational contexts can have a meaningful impact on organizational outcomes.
Some research has suggested a conceptual framing of antecedents to means-ends
decoupling (Wijen, 2014, Jabbourri, 2019). Wijen (2014) factors that may encourage congruence
of means and ends, such as establishing rules, creating incentives, disbursement of incentives,
widespread use of best practices, promoting systemic perspectives, promoting rigor and
internalization of practices, and developing niche and normative institutional principles and
practices. Compliance barriers are termed “causal complexity”, “practice multiplicity”, and

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“behavior invisibility (Wijen, 2014, pg. 306-307). Causal complexity refers to a difficulty in
predicting practice effectiveness outcomes due to the complex systems of actors within an
organizational environment (Wijen, 2014). Practice multiplicity is characterized by the challenge
of practice implementation due to the diversity of implementation styles carried out by
organizational actors (Wijen, 2014). In addition, behavior invisibility is defined as organizational
circumstances that make it difficult to effectively monitor and evaluate organizational actors’
behaviors related to meaningful implementation of practices (Wijen, 2014). Lastly, Park (2018)
found that consistency and competency can correlate with reduced means-ends decoupling
within organizations.
Organizational Inclusion
How diverse employees engage in organizational decision making, navigate
organizational communication processes, participate in informal social interactions, experience
being valued for their unique identity, and feel belongingness all shape inclusive climates within
organizations (Mor Barak, 2022; Mor Barak 2017). Inclusion can function in different facets of
an organization, such as decision making and general participation and involvement, as well as
within the organizational information networks (Mor Barak, 2022). In addition, inclusion can
take place at different levels of an organization, such as work group, supervisor engagement,
higher management, overall organization, and informal social processes (Mor Barak, 2022).
Diverse groups of employees can be considerably impacted by exclusionary work
activities (Mor Barak, 2017). Limited employment opportunities and job dissatisfaction (Mor
Barak, 2017), as well as intensified use of sick leave time (Berthelsen et al., 2011) and escalated
efforts to leave an organization (Lopez, Hodson, and Roscigno (2009), are all factors related to
exclusion of employees at work. Contrastingly, inclusion has been associated with employees’

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diminished intention to leave (Mor Barak et al., 2006), enriched job performance (Cho and Mor
Barak, 2008; Brimhall, 2019a), improved job satisfaction (Acquavita et al., 2009; Brimhall et al.,
2014; Brimhall et al., 2017; Mor Barak and Levin, 2002; Mor Barak et al., 2003; Brimhall, 2019;
Brimhall and Mor Barak, 2018; Ohunakin et al., 2019 ), enhanced well-being (Mor Barak and
Levin, 2002; Mor Barak et al., 2003), and greater organizational commitment (Cho and Mor
Barak, 2008; Brimhall et al., 2017; Mor Barak et al., 2001; Brimhall 2019a; Fairley, 2019; Byrd,
2011), as well as enhanced social support (Mor Barak et al., 2001), increased organizational
citizenship behavior (Cotrill et al., 2014), and diminished stress at work (Mor Barak et al., 2001).
Inclusive workplace approaches involve creating effective goals for the incorporation of diverse
employees in the workplace, as well as implementing appropriate diversity practices (Mor Barak,
2017). Considering the various favorable outcomes of climates of inclusion in the work
environment, it becomes important to understand what gaps may exist within inclusion practices
and intended outcomes in organizational environments.
Inclusion and Means-Ends Decoupling
Common diversity management strategies center on developing corporate diversity
councils, diversity training, mentoring, networking opportunities, supplier diversity, and cultural
awareness initiatives (Madera, 2013). Inclusion initiatives in organizations can be presented
and/or enacted in forms where management leaders launch needs assessments around diversity
and inclusion, training to build skills and awareness around working with diverse people, work-
life balance practices, and career development opportunities for marginalized identity groups
(Mor Barak, 2022). Initiatives for inclusion can also involve appointing role or committee
responsibilities to manage diversity and inclusion initiatives, networking and mentorship, and
assessing managers’ ability to prioritize action around diversity and inclusion (Mor Barak, 2022).

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Despite the dominance of these practices, Dobbin and Kalev (2016) indicated in a study of more
than 800 United States-based firms that diversity management strategies—such as mandatory
diversity training and grievance systems—often yield adverse outcomes. The institutionalization
and influential nature of certain practices within organizations cause members to automatically
deem these practices as effective (Dobbin and Kalev, 2017; Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Dobbin
and Kalev (2017) further suggest that organizations develop myths about causality, and that
diversity training reduces bias despite studies demonstrating poor outcomes. Lastly, the
emergence of means-ends decoupling within diversity initiatives is partially related to the
unintentional espousing of approaches that have not yet proven effective by organizational
diversity advocates (Dobbin and Kalev, 2017).
United States Military & Inclusion
The Department of Defense states that diversity is crucial to the “mission readiness and
accomplishment” (Department of Defense, 2012, pg. 3). Pulling from previous
conceptualizations of inclusion, the military suggests that inclusion within U.S. Armed Forces is:
A set of behaviors (culture) that encourages Service members and civilian employees to
feel valued for unique qualities and to experience a sense of belonging. Inclusive
diversity is the process of valuing and integrating each individual’s perspectives, ideas,
and contributions into the way an organization functions and makes decisions; enabling
diverse workforce members to contribute to their full potential in collaborative pursuit of
organizational objectives. (Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and
Readiness, 2020, p. 24)
Within the diversity and inclusion strategic plan, the Department of Defense outlines efforts to
retain diverse talent through promoting inclusive environments that contribute to enhancing

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employee performance (Department of Defense, 2012). This also includes integrating and
tracking principles and practices related to diversity and inclusion (Department of Defense,
2012). Brown et al. (2020) notes that the strict hierarchical nature and distinct norms within the
military provide a unique context that may, at times, advance mission accomplishment but
maintain a dissonance with promoting climates for inclusion. Nevertheless, the United States
military has a vision to “foster inclusive environments to leverage diversity” (Brown et al, 2020,
p. 315). Brown et al. (2020) shares the distinct dimensions that constitute inclusion in the
military context, including “fair treatment”, “openness to differences”, “integration into the
unit”, and “leveraging unique perspectives and expertise” (p. 318). Inclusion within the military
context predicted reduced intention to leave through its influence on decreasing burnout
perceptions (Merlini et al., 2019). Lim et al. (2013) share that implementing military-based
diversity and inclusion within an organization should involve compliance efforts, comprehensive
communication around diversity and inclusion topics, and systems for coordination.
Successful inclusion of diverse soldiers into the military is a key priority for military
leaders (Esper, 2020). Some diversity management strategies have demonstrated a loose
coupling between strategies and intended outcomes (Dobbin and Kalev, 2022). Research on
inclusion means-ends decoupling within the military context has the potential to support
understanding of how congruence and/or decoupling is expressed, and what factors may prompt
the presence of a gap or alignment to affect helpful soldier and organizational inclusion
outcomes. To better understand perceptions of inclusion means-ends decoupling within the
United States Military, this exploratory study seeks to provide insight to the following research
questions:

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RQ1. What are the relationship features between implemented inclusion practices and
intended outcomes in the U.S. Army?
RQ1a. What are perceptions of congruence between inclusion practices and
intended outcomes?
RQ1b. What are perceptions of gaps between inclusion practices and intended
outcomes?
RQ1c. What antecedents, if any, are perceived to contribute to the emergence of
congruence or gaps between inclusion practices and outcomes?
Methods
Research Approach and Participants
This study was exploratory in nature and utilized a qualitative approach with semi-
structured focus groups. Due to the lack of research around inclusion mean-ends decoupling,
qualitative methods are a useful approach (Padgett, 2017). Data for this study was pulled from a
larger study in the U.S. Army studying inclusion policy-practice decoupling, and information
was collected around soldier perceptions of inclusion. Participants included enlisted soldiers and
officers located at Army posts within various cities across the United States. A diverse sample of
soldiers (n=134) were recruited via purposive and convenience sampling into 19 focus groups
(n=120) and 14 interviews (n=14) at four different Army posts in the United States. The focus
groups were comprised of enlisted soldiers, including some groups specific to senior NCOs and
women-only groups. The interviews were conducted with leaders ranging from senior NCOs to
officers.

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Procedures
A research study introduction, informed consent, and demographic surveys were
administered to participants. Focus groups and interviews were audio recorded with consent
obtained from participants. Each focus group and interview lasted approximately sixty to
seventy-five minutes. Most questions were not directly linked to means-ends decoupling, but
through participants' responses to other questions, the participants shared perceptions of
inclusion means and ends. Sample questions that produced information regarding inclusion
means and ends included, “Did you ever complete a climate survey? Did you see changes after
that survey?” and “What is your understanding of the rules and regulations around inclusion in
the Army?” The focus group and interview discussions were facilitated by research team
members. Study protocols were approved by the Institutional Review Boards at both the Army
Research Institute and the University of Southern California.
Data Analysis
All audio recordings were transcribed. All identifying information was removed from the
data, and then stored on a password-protected laptop. Transcripts were uploaded into NVivo, a
qualitative data analysis software, for analysis. Thematic analysis (Braun and Clark, 2006) was
used to openly code the data during a first round of data analysis. Coders generated numerous
themes following the first round of thematic analysis. A second round of thematic analysis
(Braun and Clark, 2006) was conducted to answer the study research questions related to
perceptions of means-ends decoupling amongst soldiers. During this first analysis, coders noted
the presence of inclusion means-ends information. An initially more deductive approach was
taken for the second round of data analysis focused on means-ends decoupling. Overall, the
codebook thematic analysis approach was used as an epistemological grounding for the second

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round of thematic analysis, which merges features of neo positivist and interpretive approaches
of thematic analysis (Braun and Clark, 2018; Braun and Clark, 2021). An initial codebook was
generated based on the study’s research questions and literature related to means-ends
decoupling, and inclusion decoupling more broadly (Mor Barak et al., 2021). Some examples of
codes were inclusion practice-outcomes positive congruence (implementation of practice with
linkages to intended outcomes), inclusion practice-outcome negative congruence (no
implementation of practice with no connection to intended outcomes), inclusion practice-
outcomes positive decoupling (no implementation of practice with linkages to intended
outcomes), and inclusion policy-practice negative decoupling (implementation of practice with
no connection to intended outcomes). Two coders were independently analyzed independently
by two coders. The coders met frequently and discussed the coding process and changes to the
codebook. New parent and child nodes were developed as they emerged during data analysis,
and the coders met to generate and finalize themes via consensus. Rater reliability mechanisms
were not prioritized as a function of codebook thematic analysis, as integration of the initial more
deductive approach was joined with inductive new code development processes that considered
coder interpretations and knowledge (Braun and Clark, 2021). Notes were taken during coding
and theme generation meetings to keep track of the data analysis process. There was a final
review of all the themes against the coded data by one coder (Braun and Clark, 2012), which
resulted in dropping one theme related to Research Question 1c. (RQ1c.).
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Soldiers below the age of 25 comprised 61.19% of participants, and 26.12% of
participants identified as women. Junior enlisted soldiers (E1-E4) made up 73.13% of

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participants, and 71.64% of participants served less than four years in the Army. Participants also
represented diverse racial identities, including, 53.73% White, 24.63% Black, 5.97% Native
Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 2.24% Asian, 2.99%, Multiracial, .75%. Native American or
Alaskan Native, and .01% unknown racial identity enlisted soldiers. A total of 23.13% of all
participants identified as having Hispanic/Latino ethnicity.
Themes
Thematic analysis revealed five themes highlighted in Table 4.1. related to the
expressions of congruence and/or decoupling within inclusion practice and outcomes, and all the
dominant themes emerged as having positive congruence and/or negative decoupling, except
one. Four themes also indicated in Table 4.2. related to the antecedents of means-ends
decoupling and congruence were generated from participant qualitative feedback. Figure 4.1.
integrates both expression and antecedent findings. All participant comments are denoted below
with an FG for focus group participant and I for interview participant, and the number connected
to participant statements indicates distinctions between various groups and interviews.
Expressions of Inclusion Means-Ends Congruence and Decoupling
Social Events. Social events emerged as an inclusion means-ends expression that was a
feature of soldier and leader experience. Soldiers described different types of experiences with
social events at different levels of the organization, ranging from squad to battalion. Within
social events, soldiers expressed limited examples of negative decoupling related to inclusion
means and ends. This theme emerged as a unique inclusion practice, where soldiers
predominantly reported helpful outcomes, leading to positive congruence.
Positive Congruence-Social Events. Many participants described social events as a space
of positive congruence between means and ends. Soldiers experienced outcomes of increased

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belongingness, improved awareness, and enhanced satisfaction after engaging in various social
events. Soldiers shared various statements to describe the “ends” of social events as a “means” of
inclusion, including “it educates people” (I-9), “brings awareness” (I-9), “made me feel like, ‘oh
I’m being accepted into something’” (FG-17), “it's pretty great” (FG-4), and “it's always a good
time. So, it’s positive” (I-6) These social events may have been sponsored by their peers, planned
by their leaders, and/or informal in nature.
One enlisted soldier shared feelings of enhanced belongingness based on their experience
of being invited to participate in a social event of another platoon. Via their own inclusive
behavior of helping a colleague, an NCO encouraged the soldier to join in a social event. The
soldier also indicated a feeling of satisfaction when describing their experience at the event,
further highlighting positive congruence between inclusions means and end:
Yeah I would say, I mean the majority of NCOs that I’ve seen do behave in, I mean what
I would consider is, a very inclusive way. I mean I’ve been to more than my fair share of
platoon parties, like, “Hey platoon party at my house, like everybody come, bring food.”
Back when I was like a private, I was in headquarters for a long time, I got stuck assisting
the NCO in the Commo Cage, but one like Saturday night one of the guys in another
platoon in the company, was, he was super drunk and he was gonna go to a platoon party
and like drive himself and I stopped him, and I threw him in my car, and I took him there.
And I went to leave, cause it wasn’t my platoon, and the platoon sergeant was like, “Hey
where you going man? Come hang with us, you showed up, you brought him, you’re a
part of the crew, so come on.” And then I got to hang out and hang out with those guys
that I didn’t really know because I was stuck in headquarters, and I got to know them
better. So that was nice. (FG-13, Positive Congruence)

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Positive congruence between means and ends was highlighted by soldiers through events that
incorporated games, physical activity, and inclusion of the families. Participants described
programs like “Org Days” (FG-4) or “Marne Week” (I-6), during which they were able to spend
time with family and fun focused activities, and experience boosted morale, enhanced
satisfaction, and increased connection. One enlisted soldier shared an example:
We have like org days where we all get together as a unit and we do like sports and stuff
like that or they’ll have the grill and everything. And we’ll maybe do like a family run in
the morning, it’s, it’s pretty great. (FG-4, Positive Congruence)
Social events also involved utilizing culturally based means through the celebration of
different social identity groups. A leader described how these events honored different diversity
dynamics within the Army and also created outcomes related to education and awareness for
soldiers. The leader expressed a desire for the Army to increase implementation of more
celebratory social events:
I think they’re doing a good job right now, where they have each month they celebrate
like a different culture. You know, Black History Month, you got different things, every
month that’s celebrated. I forgot what’s going on this month’s, I think it’s LGBT month.
[researcher: yes it is.] So every month something is celebrated that brings awareness to a
particular group. And you know it educates people who really don’t know what it is
about, you know, I think that’s a good thing that should be sustained and should be built
on. (I-9, Positive Congruence)
Recognition or Reprimand Processes. Recognition and reprimand mechanisms within
the Army were highlighted by soldiers as an expression of inclusion means and ends.
Participants shared different instances in which peers or leaders would be rewarded for more

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inclusive behavior and/or reprimanded for lack of inclusive behavior. These practices would
yield various outcomes that benefitted feelings of inclusion. Recognition and reprimand
dynamics could show up in various forms, such as the formal evaluations of NCOs and Officers
or via leaders’ actions to reward or discipline soldiers. Participants indicated the presence of both
positive congruence and negative decoupling within reward and reprimand dynamics.
Positive Congruence-Recognition-Reprimand. This theme showed the presence of many
instances of positive congruence. Soldiers noted various positively congruent ends that resulted
from inclusion-related recognition, such as rewards and enhanced satisfaction. Soldiers also
noted negative ends of reprimand practices that were positively congruent, such as removal of a
soldier, demotion, decreased career opportunities, and disciplinary action. Participants described
removal from the unit as a successful outcome related to reprimand practices due to lack of
inclusive behavior, making comments like “he went to a different unit” (FG-16) and “he was
removed so the atmosphere went away” (I-ll). They also noted demotion or reduced career
opportunities as helpful responses when individual soldiers were not behaving in inclusive ways,
sharing statements such as “he got demoted two ranks” (I-2). One leader also noted that
disciplinary action can be used as a way to reduce potential for non-inclusive behaviors to be
practiced by leaders: “I’ve seen people violate EO policy. Yeah, peers. And you know they’re
handled and it’s not good when it happens, so they’re disciplined…I have seen people get
disciplined for EO, using racial slurs” (I-10, Positive Congruence).
Through assessment mechanisms, such as the non-commissioned officer evaluation
report (NCOER) and the officer evaluation report (OER), participants shared that there were
opportunities to reward inclusion practices or reprimand a lack of inclusion practice. The same

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leader who made the previous quote described rewards from the evaluations due to the role they
play in promotions:
...I guess in our NCOERs, right? One of the sections, achieves or whatever, they always
say, ‘oh so-and-so was for the SHARP programs,’ or ‘so-and-so held a firm EO
stance,’...so I guess you do get rewarded when you follow the policies. (I-10, Positive
Congruence)
Another service member spoke of a recognition practice that honored service members who were
practicing inclusion and the outcome of enhanced satisfaction:
...at my old unit, we used to do this thing, it was hero of the week, and we’d do one
every week, and it was based on the good that they did in the unit, as far as taking
someone under their wing or something like that, just helping people. So that was pretty,
pretty nice. (FG-4, Positive Congruence)
Negative Decoupling-Recognition-Reprimand. Expressions of negative decoupling
between means and ends within practices related to recognition of inclusion and/or reprimand of
lack of inclusion were also shared. Military personnel described different experiences with an
outcome of limited effectiveness, related to either a lack of disciplinary action or a perceived
lack of fairness in recognition and reprimand processes. One soldier shared a comment about
how the reprimand process went for another soldier, indicating, “just give him a slap on the
wrist” (FG-17) and “he went to a different unit and did the same thing” (FG-16). Another soldier
described a lack of effectiveness related to a lack of fairness in the reprimand process based on
the action taken related to lack of inclusion. They stated,
I’ve seen that too many times where a soldier did something and just gets a slap on the
wrist and other soldier does it and then they chapter him out…and the offense that the

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soldier did that got the slap on the wrist was as bad if not worse. (FG-16, Negative
Decoupling)
Another soldier highlighted the challenging outcome that soldiers mention related to SHARP
becoming a verb used to describe when service members are disciplined before an investigation
is complete, instead of an acronym for the program name. They note a perceived lack of
effectiveness related to lack of fairness:
And I’ve heard, you know, people that they got SHARP’d and it was a guilty until proven
innocent thing. Where the investigation immediately put them on disciplinary action even
though there was no, it wasn’t completed whether the person was guilty or not…(FG-8,
Negative Decoupling)
Voice Mechanisms. Voice mechanisms emerged as a theme for inclusion means and
ends within the military context. Service members discussed engaging with diverse voice
mechanisms, such as communication within the chain of command, reporting systems, command
climate surveys, sensing sessions, and open-door policies. According to participants, positive
congruence and negative decoupling existed prominently within how voice mechanisms
functioned in the organization as an inclusion approach.
Positive Congruence-Voice Mechanisms. When expressing thoughts related to positive
congruence of inclusion means and ends within different voice mechanisms, participants
described outcomes such as problem reduction, enhanced satisfaction, feeling heard, improved
awareness, helpful change, removal of soldiers, and enhanced support. Some participants noted
outcomes of reduced problems in the unit, articulating statements such as “it was dealt with, and
then I didn’t see it again after that” (F-19). They also described enhanced satisfaction as a result
of engaging in voice behaviors; one participant shared “They started not making us do the dirty

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jobs” (I-14). Another soldier expressed, “It felt like what we had to say was heard. It wasn’t just
tossed to the side, like it normally feels like” (FG-5), highlighting a positively congruent
outcome of feeling heard. One leader discussed outcomes of satisfaction and safety related to her
experience in engaging in sensing sessions to resolve gender equity issues:
In that unit. I liked it, but other females felt differently, you know, that they’re being
oppressed, or you know whatever. The infantry commanders at the time would hold
sensing sessions once a month with just females to resolve issues that we may have. It
was really good; I thought it was really good…I felt really good in that unit, safe,
everything… (I-10, Positive Congruence)
Some enlisted soldiers and leaders noted more intensive outcomes of demotion and removal of
peers or leaders that behaved in ways that misaligned with inclusion as a form of positive
congruence. This is exemplified by one soldier’s statement:
[Referring to filling out a command climate survey] Yes. There was this one platoon
sergeant that everybody was complaining about. He really, I don’t know what happened
to him, but all of the sudden he started being in moods, not being helpful, and bringing
the morale down and stuff, so everybody complained about him and they moved him. I
don’t know if he changed, but they moved him, he’s no longer in the company. (FG-14,
Positive Congruence)
Negative Decoupling-Voice Mechanisms. Negative decoupling was present within voice
as an inclusion means and ends dynamic. Enlisted soldiers and officers expressed outcomes
related to utilization of voice, such as lack of consistent change, reduced engagement,
perceptions of futility, experiences with retaliation, and perceived misuse of voice processes.
Soldiers persistently and most commonly shared “end” outcomes related to a lack of change or

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consistent change following engaging in voice processes. Servicemembers said statements like,
“they’ll try to fix it for a couple of weeks, and then we’re right back to where we were at “ (FG-
17), “We’ll tell them what’s going on and it’ll change for like a week, maybe a month at the
max, and then it’ll just go right back to where it was at” (FG-18), "we had our current
commander for six months now, and not a lot of changes" (I-13), “I’ve never seen a significant
change as a part of a survey” (I-2), and “things are cool for a week and then the next month
you’re just right back to, ‘man when do I PCS?’” (FG 19).
Servicemembers expressed feelings of futility after engaging in some voice mechanisms
as an inclusion “means”. They shared statements such as, “so what’s the point…so I’m a stick
out like a sore thumb” [in response to having to input race and gender on survey] (FG-12) and
“It’s no use really, like nothing changes. It's whatever” (FG-13). Soldiers also highlighted
outcomes of reduced engagement and expressed comments, such as “people don’t fill them out,
or they’re just like ‘yeah everything’s fine, and they are lying cause they don’t actually do it’”
(FG 17). One soldier highlighted “end” outcomes related to lack of consistent change, perception
of futility, reduced engagement after engaging in repeated voice-related inclusion “means” of
command climate surveys. They shared:
I took the command climate survey seriously and I answered them, trying to offer
opinions and solutions that I thought might help and then after the fifth or sixth or
seventh command climate survey I did where nothing changed, but they were almost
always promised to change; I gave up on them years ago. Like they don’t change
anything. (FG-13, Negative Decoupling)
Some soldiers also described experiences with perceived retaliation as an “end” outcome
related to engaging in inclusion-related voice processes through comments like, “we were like

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passive-aggressively reprimanded...within a week we have a really bad day at work” (FG-19)
and “they called all the E-5s and up, and just yelled at all of us for our, their, problems pretty
much” (I-10). Servicemembers also expressed perceived misuse of voice reporting mechanisms
as an “end” outcome, which some shared tainted the helpfulness of different reporting
mechanisms.
Even in basic training like the SHARP thing was the sort of, we heard stories of it being
abused… I had drill sergeants telling me about it like be careful…But I think it’s a good
program but it's just, there’s some kinks that need to be worked out of it. They need to be
aware of people that are abusing it and put things in place so that the people that abuse it
get the proper consequences for it. (FG-8, Negative Decoupling)
Interpersonal Interactions. Another theme related to how inclusion means-ends was
expressed both in positively congruent and negative decoupling forms addressed interpersonal
interactions. These interactions were both formal and informal in nature, and would take place
between peers as well as between leader and subordinate interactions. Soldiers expressed
engaging with their sponsor as an example of a more formal interaction related to inclusion
means and ends, and additionally discussed daily work interactions with their team as more
informal in nature. Although related, interpersonal interactions moved beyond voice-oriented
behavior focused on communicating needed improvements into the realm of any type of
interpersonal engagement and every day social actions within a unit.
Positive Congruence-Interpersonal Interactions. Interpersonal interactions were
identified as an inclusion means that yielded effective outcomes, such as reduced discrimination,
enhanced support, enhanced satisfaction, increased belongingness, and feeling valued for one’s
uniqueness. Reduced discrimination was described as a helpful end outcome of interpersonal

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interactions, with one soldier sharing “my platoon…like there’s no discrimination or hate that I
have seen” (FG-6). Feeling enhanced support was a noted outcome related to interpersonal
interactions with peers and leaders, with another soldier sharing, “They took care of me” (FG-14)
and one sharing “Like a soldier is not on his own…everybody is willing to help, have a helping
hand” (FG-11). Servicemembers also described enhanced satisfaction within their work
experience and their leader’s approach, sharing statements like “I had a pretty good experience”
(FG-5) and “as far as my leadership I’ve never been disappointed when it comes to anything that
I needed, they always took care of it” (FG-6). One leader confirmed this style of supportive
approach, when they shared “I point them in the right direction” (I-9) while discussing
interpersonal interactions with subordinates. Soldiers also described outcomes related to
heightened experiences of belongingness and being valued for their unique identity and
experiences, with one soldier describing an interaction with another service member, when they
stated:
He just took me under his wing for the most part, took me everywhere…he took me
places to where I could meet everybody that, like if I had a question, I would know where
to go kinda per say. And then of course he looked out for me family-wise, situations,
personal life, and stuff like that. (FG-2, Positive Congruence)
This soldier also highlighted an important outcome that some service members indicated around
gaining awareness of how to navigate resources more effectively as a result of interpersonal
interactions. A different participant highlighted an experience around enhanced belongingness,
connection, and support through describing how the Army was different than previous work
environments:

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...when I joined the Army I didn’t know about the battle buddy systems. And as I started
to get to know it when you analyze it you’re like, “Wow this is actually like really
psychologically powerful” if I compare that to the jobs I’ve had, my coworkers never
cared about me, my bosses, if my mental health was declining, I remember I had a boss
tell me, that my personal life was so bad that he was going to fire me because of my
personal life, it was, that wouldn’t happen in the Army…in the Army, I, even if I’m in a
bad mood, I’m gonna have at least three or four people ask me if I’m alright, “Hey man,
you alright?” and that’s something that I never experienced before joining the Army. (FG
9, Positive Congruence)
Negative Decoupling-Interpersonal Interactions. Formal and informal interpersonal
interactions were also identified as having negative decoupling between inclusion means and
ends. The main “end” outcomes mentioned as present with the negative decoupling were limited
effectiveness and lack of support. Soldiers shared comments like “the sponsor system is pretty
messed up” (FG-5) and “They only use sponsors that’re either PCSing or ETSing. They never
use anybody that’s like available” (FG-7). Many soldiers described end outcomes related to a
lack of support after engaging in an interpersonal interaction with another leader or soldier,
sharing comments, like “that’s kinda when I was really lost I didn’t know what was going on”
(FG-9) and “she didn’t have that mentorship” (FG-1). One soldier described an end outcome of
lack of support based on dissatisfaction with engaging interpersonally with another soldier that
had researched them on social media prior to meeting them:
Because coming in like the first day I got there, I had, I had a soldier, he called me by my
first name. And I’m like, ‘How’d you, how did you know my first name’ and he’s like,
‘Oh, [rank] did research on you,’ and he goes and pulls up my Facebook and I was like,

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there’s a lot wrong with that, because there’s no reason, this is my first day in the unit and
you can pull my Facebook, or…I really, I hate like, this is the one place I hate being here.
(FG-12, Negative Decoupling)
Other soldiers described an end outcome of limited effectiveness due to inconsistency with
interpersonal interactions related to inclusion demonstrating negative decoupling:
Participant 1: Yeah like barracks checks to make sure like soldier, on the weekend,
making sure the morale is still up, soldiers are still alive and everyone's--yeah they’ll do
that for a week and when that week is done.
Participant 2: Like nothing happened. (FG-5, Negative Decoupling)
SHARP and EO Education & Training. The sexual harassment/assault response and
prevention (SHARP) and equal opportunity (EO) trainings emerged as a thematic area for
expressions of inclusion means and ends within the Army context, with participants describing
the presence of both positive congruence on a smaller scale and negative decoupling on a larger
scale. Soldiers described their experiences with regular training that occurred with varying
frequency in the unit.
Positive Congruence-EO & SHARP Training. Although not as prominent as instances
of negative decoupling, soldiers expressed the presence of congruence between inclusion and
helpful outcomes related to engaging in EO and SHARP training, such as learning to value
different servicemembers’ unique identities and problem reduction. This included statements
similar to the following:
I mean I think at this point, once you get to your unit you’ve sat through maybe 30 hours
of EO and SHARP training, or something like that. So I don’t think that, that I’ve ever
had an issue with anything, I’ve never actually had an experience where somebody

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wasn’t respecting somebody’s nationality, or origin, or anything like that, religion. (FG 9,
Positive Congruence)
Another soldier shared their view of unit members valuing each soldier’s unique identity and
using voice behavior in the unit to disrupt behaviors that lacked inclusion as outcomes related to
EO and SHARP training. This soldier shared,
So they push it [referring to EO training] in the CAB, hard, very hard, so we try to
respect everything, you know, their space, their personality, their differences. So that's
one thing we do in the CAB, is we are hard on those areas; everyone is the same. And uh,
like she said, people do stuff jokingly, not intentionally, but I always say, ‘stop’, you
know, you never know how the person took that, it’s not like, you know, you get
comfortable with your coworkers, your fellow soldiers I’ll say. And I used to tell them,
because the unit before, I was in, it was type of a, I’ll say borderline hazing, bullying.
(FG-12, Positive Congruence)
Negative Decoupling-EO & SHARP Training. Soldiers expressed the presence of gaps
between inclusion means and ends in relation to EO and SHARP training, highlighting end
outcomes of limited effectiveness, reduced engagement, perception of futility, and decreased
awareness. When soldiers expressed end outcomes related to limited effectiveness, they shared
comments referring to continued problems, such as “It’s just like, ‘ope still gonna do it,’ and they
go through the class like, ‘ope, still gonna do it, so’ ” (FG-8) and “like we do SHARP training
over and over and over again, and Fort [name] like 500% higher than anybody else in SHARP
cases right now” (FG-16). Service members made statements referring to an end outcome of
reduced engagement when soldiers participate in EO and SHARP trainings. Examples of such
comments included, “but mandatory trainings tend to shut a lot of people’s like brains off” (FG-

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3), “death by PowerPoint” (FG-16), and “and they just sit there and don't really pay attention”
(FG-1). Similar to other means areas, soldiers expressed end outcomes related to perceptions of
futility, with statements such as, “So from my experience everything in this unit, everything is
check the block” (I-1) and “why am I sitting through another SHARP class, why am I sitting
through another EO class, why am I sitting through?”(I-2). Decreased awareness was also an end
outcome highlighted by engaging in EO and SHARP training as an inclusion practice, with
military personnel disclosing comments, such as “So you’re not learning anything new”(FG-8).
One soldier noted that two facilitators were sharing conflicting information related to the extent
certain terms were racially sensitive, and expressed, “they got into a little bit of a discrepancy”
(FG-9), highlighting reduced awareness amongst not only soldiers, but also facilitators of
training.
One soldier issued a lengthier comment discussing how EO and SHARP as an inclusion
practice has end outcomes related to lack of effectiveness and perception of futility, highlighting
a negative decoupling:
I mean I know the Army’s spending a bunch of money on um--I didn’t mean for that to
sound negative--but I know they spend a lot of time and effort teaching us with EO
classes, the SHARP…it’s a wonderful thing they’re doing…but yeah honestly I just, I
feel like whenever they go really far with it, it’s just it comes off as like ‘alright, we get
it, like calm down’...It doesn’t always seem genuine…I just really feel like it’s almost
like it’s a check the block thing. (FG-19, Negative Decoupling)
Another leader further noted negative decoupling within EO and SHARP training, and several
end outcomes of limited effectiveness, reduced engagement, perception of futility, and decreased
awareness in their comment:

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For nine months we do training for SHARP, EO, MRT, and just last month, after doing it
for nine months-EO for the ninth straight month-I said, ‘What are the two types of
reporting?’ and I asked a private of course, had no clue. It’s the thing you talk about
every freaking time we do the training…still couldn’t tell me, because it’s mandatory and
people are just sitting in there [EO training], because the Marshawn Lynch thing, ‘I’m
only here so I don’t get fined,’ as soon as it’s, I’m not trying to learn anything, I don’t
really care, and I am going to leave out of here uneducated….So the Army values
training over quality training. Pretty much everywhere I’ve been, just put a whole bunch
of stuff on the calendar and say, ‘Hey let’s get it done,’ and then feel accomplished when
we get it finish….they don’t walk away qualified or trained, my platoon does it all the
time. (I-4, Negative Decoupling)
Antecedents of Inclusion Means-Ends Congruence and Decoupling
Table 4.2. highlights leader decision making and behavior, innovation orientation,
problem-based motivation, and prioritization and organization as the four antecedent themes that
emerged following analysis of focus groups and interviews.
Leader Decision Making & Behavior. Soldiers noted the influence of leader decision
making and behavior as an antecedent to how the relationship between inclusion means and ends
may be formed into congruence or decoupling. Participants noted characteristics such as leaders’
awareness of inclusion regulation, skills with taking initiative to enforce inclusion practices,
balancing their own needs with soldier needs, level of engagement and openness with feedback
around new inclusion practices, as well as the complexity of chain of command multi-leader
decision making as antecedent factors related to means-ends decoupling and congruence. One
enlisted soldier noted the difference between leaders based on their ability to be open to feedback

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generated through soldiers’ use of command climate surveys as a voice mechanism, as well as
different approaches to soldier development:
So for me, for me working, like working in battalion, I’ve seen, I’m able to see how
leaders react to the command climate surveys. So something I noticed with our old
commander vs new commander, people voice that the fact that we were unable to go to
schools…now with our new commander reflecting on command climate surveys, he’s
actually pushing for ranger train up, cyber trainings, which is good for us…[researcher:
So why weren’t you able to go to those schools before?] I think out old commander, he’s
just super hooah…so like the things that soldiers want, he already had...he was more
focused on the mission and training and ranger. While our new commander is focused on
that, but he wants us to be as best of leaders as we can be. (FG-5, Leader Antecedent)
One leader described an antecedent to a positively congruent dynamic between means and ends
related to more senior leaders taking action of reprimanding a leader who was engaging in non-
inclusive behavior. Despite the leader being successful at mission-related tasks, his behaviors
were affecting soldier needs. Thus enforcement of inclusion practices to mitigate the impact of
non-inclusive leaders by a higher-ranking leader ultimately helped the leader who was engaging
in harmful behaviors, as well as the soldiers impacted. This quote highlights the intricacies of
leader’s influence on inclusion practices and outcomes:
There was an NCO who, professionally at work was awesome, he was smart, he was
tactically sound, he was great, had everything going for him. But his off duty conduct
with drinking, he would drink, he would start threatening Soldiers, harassing Soldiers, he
would start saying racial slurs, he would whatever. But then the next morning, he was
sharp as a tack, god to go at work, professionally awesome. But you know 1700 and 1800

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roll around, when we’d get off work, and he’d go back to drinking mentality, and go back
to just off duty conduct that was conduct unbecoming of an NCO. I mean he eventually
was caught and demoted and all that kind of stuff…I think he’s at a very good place right
now. Because somebody did say something, somebody did step in and while he did
UCMJ against him, it was something for his benefit. And he realizes that…he’s been a
hard worker ever since. (I-2, Leader Antecedent)
Soldiers noted the extent to which leaders cared about their career or inclusion, and soldiers often
indicated the presence of congruence or decoupling within inclusion practices and outcomes, as
demonstrated when one service member shared:
It depends on whether or not they care or not. If they care about their reputation or their
career, then yeah they’re going to make changes but if they’re just there to do their job
and get out then they’re not going to do anything. (FG-16, Leader Antecedent)
Some soldiers also noted that leaders would often utilize hierarchy and chain of command to
affect how soldiers experience congruence or decoupling between inclusion means and ends.
Leaders may use hierarchy to justify limiting their openness to achieving intended outcomes of
an inclusion practice. One enlisted service member indicated as much when they stated, “They
always like throwing that disrespect the NCO shit, all the time. Every single f***ing
time...[researcher: If you bring something up to them?] Anytime. I hate that” (FG-7, Leader
Antecedent). Leader openness, motivation, decision-making, willingness to enforce and act, and
engagement with the chain of command undergird facets of leader decision making and behavior
as an antecedent to the relationship between inclusion means and ends.
Innovation Orientation. Servicemembers shared numerous experiences related to the
extent in which innovation was valued, promoted, or supported as a factor in the decoupling or

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congruence of inclusion means and ends. Numerous service members discussed the extent of
content and format repetition for inclusion practices impacted the relationship between inclusion
means and ends. Soldiers noted that the frequency of inclusion practices, such as EO and
SHARP training also impacted outcomes related to engagement. Soldiers expressed interest in
more creative and relevant formats that promote learning versus just “checking the block”. The
extent to which inclusion practices were implemented with an orientation toward innovation
widened or closed the gap between inclusion and means. Two enlisted soldiers highlighted this
experience with repetition, sharing their dissatisfying experience with EO trainings as an
inclusion practice:
Participant 1: “It’s just a lot of repetitive stuff.”
Participant 2: “It’s just a lot of repetitive stuff. Because you can get out of an EO brief,
maybe three weeks down the line, ‘Alright we got another EO brief.’”
Participant 1: “And you hear the same stuff.”
Participant 2: “It talks about the same thing.” (FG-6, Innovation Orientation)
Soldiers expressed interest in engaging in more creative ways of learning about inclusion, such
as more storytelling or reducing the use of PowerPoint presentations. One service member
highlights this when they commented:
I think the PowerPoint is one of the things that kills it. It’s not very personal though.
There’s no stories about how the program helped someone and I mean it’s just ‘Here’s a
regulation, there’s a regulation, if you this… this is what’s gonna happen, alright there’s
the end of the hour.’ (FG-19, Innovation Orientation)

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Another soldier emphasized that how the Army helps soldiers engage with diversity promotes
disengagement from soldiers, highlighting that many soldiers anticipate and experience the
content as lacking innovation:
We can talk about how can the Army help diversity, but all it is, is just gonna be another
class, or another survey or another something that you have to do online to where no
one’s gonna care…even if the army tried to implement something or whatever I don’t
know at least to me it’s going to be like, oh here we go, another quarter class, I have to sit
here and listen to somebody talk or whatever the case might be. (FG-13, Innovation
Orientation)
Soldiers also mentioned that, when innovation is not in the picture, repetitive patterns of
reprimanding soldiers through moving them from unit to unit when they engage in non-inclusive
behavior can impact the relationship between inclusion means and ends. One soldier expressed a
sentiment that when soldiers are reprimanded, they may just go to another unit to engage in non-
inclusive behaviors. The servicemember shared:
In all reality, that to me, that is not enough of a punishment. You’re just gonna move a
soldier, move the NCO, okay? They’re just going to go to another unit and do the same
thing there…that same soldier I was talking about, uh the NCO, he went to a different
unit and did the same thing. (FG-16, Innovation Orientation)
One leader noted a time where creativity was infused in EO and SHARP training, which
enhanced engagement and helped create more congruence between inclusion means and ends:
Back to the classes, maybe spicing the classes up more. Just make them, make sure the
soldiers are engaged, engage the soldiers more, find different and more creative ways to
get the points across…I think it was one time in training, it was a sexual harassment and

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EO class, but it was just a very, very two-minute, short video about a stick figure, and he
was like talking throughout the class. And it was, it was funny, it wasn’t making light of
the situation, but it was just funny. But just like that, got the entire class more involved,
and they showed that first, and everybody’s participation was up. And I think that, as
simple as it is, I think the Army could do that and go a long way with that. (I-5,
Innovation Orientation)
Problem-Based-Motivation. Problem-based motivation was generated as an antecedent
theme based on soldiers’ experiences with inclusion means and ends. Soldiers shared that
congruence or decoupling between inclusion practices and outcomes was often based on the
magnitude of issues or problems within the unit or experienced by an individual soldier. Soldiers
described inclusive actions being taken with connections to outcomes when serious problems
emerged. One officer described how voice mechanisms as an inclusion practice had positive
congruence outcomes when there was urgency:
There was one comment that was racially derogatory toward African Americans, it said
‘I’m going to come in here or shoot up this and kill these people or kill this group of
people’ and you know obviously that’s something we had to take seriously…I’ve seen
investigations launched just from what people have said. (I-2, Problem-Based
Motivation)
One leader describe how soldiers would often perceive EO and SHARP training as mostly being
launched with a focus on outcomes when problems take place, rather than as a consistent practice
of inclusion when they stated:
EO. I forgot what the class is on domestic violence and stuff like that. They make sure
when something happens they cover their, their trail so that if something does happen it

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goes to the lowest possible denominator and it doesn’t go up. (I-1, Problem-Based
Motivation)
An enlisted soldier highlighted a similar sentiment:
I think they do that when they have like a lot of problems within the unit. Like when
people, when a lot of the soldiers think they can’t, they’re not comfortable going to their
first line or commanders for any like personal issues or like they wanted to report a
SHARP or like EO or something. (FG-18, Problem-Based Motivation)
Prioritization and Organization. Following analysis of soldier focus group and
interview data, prioritization and organization arose as an antecedent theme for means-ends
decoupling and congruence. Soldiers disclosed facets of organization, such as planning factors,
navigation of competing demands on time, pro-activity, and decisions from soldiers and leaders
about importance of an inclusion practice as critical to factors that may predict decoupling or
congruence between inclusion practices and outcomes. Soldiers shared that the importance of
time being allocated and prioritized toward inclusion practice as a factor in the connection of
inclusion means and ends. One service member indicated that having EO captured within a set
role helps place emphasis on how EO trainings and other job responsibilities are carried out:
I mean big army does its best to put out as much EO and SHARP…I think the Army does
a good job with it with all the pamphlets put out and having EO and SHARP in every
brigade…like my platoon sergeant, he’s been asked to be the EO and um I mean it’s a
stationary job, like that’s all they do, that one position. So I think that helps a lot, it
doesn’t allow for it to be pushed by the wayside or multitask, and if they forget about it; I
mean it’s their one job and so they can put 100% of the effort into it. (I-12, Prioritization
and Organization)

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Another soldier discussed prioritization as an antecedent through sharing that the repetitive
nature of EO within the Army, although sometimes challenging, suggested the topical content
was a high priority. They shared:
But I understand why they do it, they it to reiterate, to get into you, ‘Hey listen, this won’t
be tolerated, we tell y’all these things over and over again,’ so they get into your mind
like, ‘Hey in case you forget EO is a big thing,’ Army’s about EO, EO, EO. So the reason
why they do these briefs over and over is to get us to understand and kind get us into the
swing of, okay they drill it in your mind like, ‘Hey SHARP won’t be tolerated, EO will
not be tolerated…’ (FG-6, Prioritization and Organization)
Soldiers noted prioritization as a challenge to competing demands on their time, including a
focus on the mission or what individual soldiers may have perceived the military would be like.
One officer described soldier expectations of what may be the priority versus the realities of EO
trainings, which may impact engagement and motivation to participate:
And like Soldiers don’t understand, like if you have a [unit] that just signed up to shoot
people in the face and now he’s basically a mechanic working on an armored vehicle, like
they don’t understand that, they don’t understand why they’re doing that. And I guess the
perception with a lot of younger soldiers is, ‘Why am I sitting through another SHARP
class, why am I sitting through another EO class, why am I sitting through?’ (I-2,
Prioritization and Organization)
Soldiers often spoke about time pressures, such as having to make time when there is a limited
time, which can affect how service members engage with a practice. They also noted that
because of demands on time, the slow or non-existent pace at which change outcomes might
happen related to inclusion practices. One soldier highlighted this when they stated:

117
Next Friday will come and like barely anybody has done it because there’s 7000 other
things we got to do on a daily basis, so that’s when you’ll get the ‘go-home’ criteria. So,
‘Hey you don’t get to go home until you do my DEOCS Survey’. (I-4, Prioritization and
Organization)
Lastly, soldiers spoke to challenges with planning and organizing as factors related to the
connection of practice and intended outcomes. They revealed that lack of absence of not
effective planning and organizing may cause decoupling of means and end, or during the
presence of planning, congruence can result. One soldier noted this when he stated:
...I had a sponsor for one unit, and I was talking to her and getting to know that unit and
all. And then the day that I was in-processing with them, went to lunch and came back,
and then the NCOs in-processing me were like, ‘Oh you’re being sent to DVARTY,’ and
I did not know anybody over there. (FG-9, Prioritization and Organization)
Discussion
Guided by institutional theory, climate for inclusion research, and inclusion policy-
practice decoupling models, this study explored the presence of means-ends decoupling within
inclusion practice and outcomes in the Army, including expressions and antecedents of means-
ends decoupling and congruence. The findings highlight five thematic areas where both positive
congruence and/or negative decoupling between inclusion means and ends was expressed. Table
4.1 includes a mapping of the expression themes with various conceptual dimensions of
inclusion highlighted by Mor Barak (2022) and Brown et al. (2020) to support facets of inclusion
where means and ends expressions may show up in the organization.
The first theme that emerged within the study was social events, where service members
noted this inclusion practice as an area that was predominantly positively congruent between

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means and ends, suggesting that social engagements often achieved intended outcomes. This
finding reaffirms Mor Barak (2022)’s emphasis of participation in the social fabric of an
organization as a key dimension of how inclusion is measured. Soldiers shared experiences with
feeling increased belongingness, improved awareness, and enhanced satisfaction as a result of
participating in social events, suggesting the importance of promoting social programming
amongst service members.
Inclusion-related recognition or reprimand emerged as a second theme of means and ends
expression, with both positive congruence and negative decoupling being generated from data
analysis. A key feature of the how climate of inclusion is defined emphasizes employees’
perceptions about whether organizations engage in practices that “encourage and reward
acceptance of demographically diverse employees” (Mor Barak, 2022, p. 339). This theme
around inclusion means and ends also connects to Brown et al.’s (2020) findings on fairness as a
dimension of inclusion within military context, suggesting that one facet of the way soldiers
view inclusion concerns when everyone is encouraged to adhere to similar standards, and are
corrected and disciplined in consistent and fair ways. When congruence between recognition and
reprimand practices was present, soldiers expressed beneficial outcomes, such as removal or
demotion of a problematic soldier, enforcement of other necessary disciplinary actions,
decreased career opportunities, rewards, and enhanced satisfaction. Presence of negative
decoupling between recognition and reprimand processes yielded challenging outcomes of lack
of disciplinary action, limited effectiveness, and a perceived lack of fairness.
A third theme of inclusion means-end expressions that was expressed with both positive
congruence and negative decoupling focused on soldier’ engagement with voice mechanisms as
an inclusion practice. Use of voice mechanisms involves service members sharing ideas,

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concerns, and opinions related to work dynamics to a person who can respond and engage in a
substantive way to integrate possible change (Morisson, 2014). Understanding what gaps or
congruence are present related to use of voice mechanisms by soldiers and intended outcomes
becomes important as inclusion has been partially conceptualized as employee involvement in
communication systems within an organization (Mor Barak, 2022), as well as employee
perceptions that there is shared understanding in communication as it relates to open dialogue
and valuing unique perspectives when navigating disagreements (Brown et al., 2020). In
addition, effective participation in voice behavior has been shown to be positively associated
with workplace inclusion (Rubbab, 2020). Soldiers expressed outcomes highlighting positive
congruence after participating in voice mechanisms, such as problem reduction, feeling heard,
improved awareness, helpful change, removal of a soldier, and enhanced satisfaction with work
experiences. Service members also noted a variety of outcomes that highlighted the presence of
negative decoupling, such as lack of consistent change, reduced engagement, perceptions of
futility, retaliation experiences, and perceived misuse of voice mechanisms.
Interpersonal interactions were found to be a fourth theme related to inclusion means-
ends expressions, with both positive congruence and negative decoupling being present. Brown
et al. (2020) describes that within the military, a key dimension of inclusion is integration in the
unit, which includes positive interactions and connections with other soldiers. Kintzle, Schnyder
et al. (2023) also found that service members have positive work outcomes when engaging in
interpersonal interactions, such as engaging with sponsors, peers, and leaders, when interactions
are implemented effectively. This clarifies the importance of congruence of interpersonal
interactions and helpful outcomes, as soldiers noted positive outcomes such as reduced
discrimination, enhanced satisfaction, increased belongingness, feeling valued for uniqueness,

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and enhanced support when interpersonal interactions were successfully implemented.
Participants spoke about occurrences when interpersonal actions were not implemented as well
and negative decoupling was present, during which they experienced limited effectiveness and
lack of support.
Lastly, EO and SHARP training as an inclusion means-ends expression was the fifth
theme generated from analysis of service members’ experiences. Although negative decoupling
was more of a dominant means-ends relationship for this theme, positive congruence was also
present for soldiers. Diversity and inclusion training has a long history as a type of inclusion
intervention (Anand and Winters, 2008), and can be an expensive resource for many
organizations (Carter et al., 2020). Diversity and inclusion training have generated mixed
feedback, with some research highlighting that mandatory diversity trainings have limited
effectiveness (Dobbin and Kalev, 2016; Dobbin and Kalev, 2017; Dobbin and Kalev, 2018;
Dobbin and Kalev, 2022), and others indicating training can contribute to effective outcomes at
work (Bezrukova et al., 2016; Harrison-Bernard et al., 2020). Also, how training is implemented,
and the type of training facilitated may affect successful outcomes (Carter et al. 2020; Dobbin
and Kalev, 2022). Within the military a significant amount of training related to diversity and
inclusion is focused on anti-discrimination and anti-harassment, such as EO and SHARP (Office
of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness, 2020a). Dobbin and Kalev
(2022) found that although legal-oriented, anti-bias, and anti-harassment training do not typically
yield intended outcomes, managerial training focused on cultural inclusion and bystander
interventions has demonstrated more effectiveness. Brown et al. (2020), in their description of
inclusion indicators in the military, discussed the importance of servicemembers prioritizing
gaining knowledge about the diverse experiences of the people they work with to encourage

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openness to difference. When positive congruence was present between EO and SHARP training
and outcomes, participants described “ends”, such as learning to value different servicemembers
unique identities and reduction of problems. When negative decoupling was present between EO
and SHARP training and outcomes, servicemembers described outcomes such as limited
effectiveness, reduced engagement, perception of futility, and decreased awareness.
The results of this qualitative study yield four themes indicating antecedents of inclusion
means-ends decoupling or congruence in the military context noted in Table 4.2., including
leader decision making and behavior, innovation orientation, problem-based motivation, and
prioritization and organization. Leader decision making and behavior arose as an antecedent of
inclusion means-ends decoupling, with soldiers sharing that outcomes of inclusion practices were
dependent on a leader’s inclusion awareness levels, skills with enforcing regulation related to
inclusion, level of engagement with soldiers, and awareness of how to balance diverse needs of
soldiers and themselves. Leadership and inclusion is a well-researched topic with multiple
studies highlighting the important role different approaches to leadership can play in predicting
perceptions of inclusion (Brimhall et al. 2023; Brimhall et al., 2017; Brimhall, 2019a). This
finding highlights the role leadership can play in predicting outcomes that promote positive
congruence or negative decoupling of inclusion practices.
Innovation orientation was also generated as a second antecedent theme, which indicated
that a leader’s or organization's emphasis on innovation, especially related to inclusion, could
impact what outcomes are obtained from an inclusion practice. Soldiers described how the
amount of repetition of content and format of inclusion practices, as well as the influence of
creativity within inclusion practice implementation, may yield different outcomes. There is some
research on the relationship of inclusion as a predictor of innovation (Brimhall, 2019; Brimhall

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and Mor Barak, 2018; Brimhall, 2021), and these findings highlight a different role that
innovation may play in an inclusion practice yielding intended outcomes.
A third antecedent theme of problem-based motivation emerged as a precursor to the
outcomes of inclusion means, highlighting that the extent to which a problem was present that
was tied to certain outcome achievement may dictate how the implementation process performs.
It is understandable this theme might emerge through participant experiences, as organizations
may be encouraged to remedy circumstances around problems as some research identifies
challenging factors surrounding problem-oriented behavior, such as workplace bullying (Conway
et al. 2021), harassment (Henning et al., 2017; Daniel et al., 2019), and exclusion (Kintzle et al.,
2023).
A final antecedent of inclusion means-ends decoupling or congruence that materialized
from soldier feedback is prioritization and organization, indicating that the extent to which
successful implementation was correctly prioritized and organized could yield different
outcomes. Service members indicated that planning, processing of competing time demands, and
the extent to which inclusion practice was viewed as important could yield a positive congruence
or negative decoupling with intended outcomes. Mor Barak (2022) notes that leaders must
strategically link approaches to diversity management with employee and organizational
outcomes, as an inclusive workplace ensures that the management of diverse employees is
prioritized organization wide. These findings emphasize the continued importance of resources,
in the form of time and planning towards inclusion practices, in dictating congruence or
decoupling levels with intended outcomes.
Previous research has been conducted on means-ends decoupling in diverse contexts
(Jabbourri et al. 2022), and this exploratory study puts forth new findings around means-ends

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decoupling-related inclusion practices and means-ends decoupling in the military context. The
study expands literature beyond conceptualizations of inclusion policy-practice decoupling (Mor
Barak et al., 2021) to consider the relationship between intended outcomes once practices are
implemented. This study also brings forth the range of beneficial and challenging outcomes of
various inclusion practices in the military context, which highlight the presence of both
congruence and decoupling. In addition, this study expands on Wijen’s (2014) means-ends
decoupling antecedent conceptualization research. Wijen’s (2014) compliance factors may be
tools that can inform the antecedents in this study, an example being instituting rules that frame
leader decision making and behavior more closely or transferring best practices of EO and
SHARP training across units. This research advances the conceptualization of inclusion in
previous literature that has taken place (Mor Barak, 2022; Nishii, 2013; Shore et al. 2011,
Nguyen et al., 2023) by generating new findings regarding the relationship between inclusion
practice and outcomes.
Implications
On a theoretical and conceptual level, this study is one of the first in advancing
knowledge of how means-ends decoupling may function in the context of inclusion. This
research also initiates generation of new knowledge about antecedents that may moderate the
relationship between inclusion means and ends that dictate a positive congruence or negative
decoupling. This research deepens and expands on Bromley and Powell’s initial theorizing of
means-ends decoupling, as well as previous literature on compliance and antecedent factors
related to means and ends decoupling (Wijen, 2014; Park, 2018). On a practical note, this study’s
findings encourage organizational and military leaders to think about all dimensions and levels
of inclusion as outlined by previous research (Mor Barak, 2022; Brown et al., 2020) that may be

124
impacted by inclusion means-ends decoupling and congruence. Such consideration could have
meaningful consequences for how high levels of climate of inclusion are achieved within an
organization. In addition, these results present important implications of how organizations think
about resource allocation, such as time and money, and how to be more strategic with
implementation processes. This research may encourage organization leaders to better plan for,
assess, and implement inclusion practices, including engaging in continuous data collection
related to employee experiences of inclusion, as suggested by Mor Barak (2022), to encourage
better use of organizational resources in accomplishing organizational goals.
Limitations
Study findings must be understood in the backdrop of different limitations with the
research approach. This study utilized a purposive and convenience sampling process to select
military installations to recruit soldiers, and to recruit soldiers within each military installation.
Although it was a strength to ensure representation of diverse soldier experiences, further
investigation should consider options for sampling that may not involve leader referrals due to
the chain-of-command power dynamics, as this may reduce respondent bias (Padgett, 2017). Our
findings were generated from a sample based in the military context, which is limited in its
transferability past other strict hierarchical contexts. Padgett (2017) indicates that qualitative
studies must be conscious of transferability to other contexts and settings, rather than a focus on
generalizability to the larger population. Future research should expand studies to diverse
organizational contexts, including organization type and location. Subsequent studies should also
explore the individual employee role in moderating the relationship between inclusion means and
inclusion ends, as some participants highlighted examples of soldier behavior as influencing
outcomes. This study also relies only on soldier self-report as a data source, and future studies

125
may consider expanding data collection to include more objective data sources, such as archival
documents and observations to promote triangulation and reliability (Denzin, 1978; Padgett,
2017). Lastly, this study was conducted during the course of a mixed-method study of inclusion
policy-practice decoupling; follow-up inquiry should be designed with a sole focus on inclusion
means-ends decoupling exploration and measurement development to further deepen knowledge
around inclusion means-ends decoupling.
Conclusion
Discoveries from this study contribute to scientific literature on means-ends decoupling
through filling a current literature gap related to a specific focus on gaps and congruence
between inclusion practices and intended outcomes. This study also builds knowledge around
decoupling outside of policy-practice as it relates to inclusion, imploring researchers and
organizational leaders to more deeply consider the relationships of inclusion policy, practice, and
outcomes. Results derived from this study advance knowledge on inclusion in military contexts,
and other strict hierarchical settings. Subsequent investigations should explore inclusion means-
ends decoupling in different contexts and extend studies to include a more longitudinal focus.

126
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Tables

Table 4.1. Results from Thematic Analysis- Expressions

Means-Ends
Expression Themes
Congruence &
Decoupling
Ends Outcomes
Dimension of
Inclusion
(Mor Barak, 2022)
Level of Inclusion
(Mor Barak, 2022)
Brown et al. 2022
Social Events Positive Congruence
Improved Awareness
Enhanced Satisfaction
Increased Belongingness
Participation-
Involvement
Workgroup

Supervisor

Social/Informal
Integration into the Unit
Recognition or
Reprimand Processes
Positive Congruence

Rewards
Enhanced Satisfaction
Decreased Career
Opportunities
Removal of Soldier
Demotion of Soldier
Disciplinary Action

Negative Decoupling:

Limited Effectiveness
Lack of Disciplinary
Action
Perceived Lack of
Fairness

Participation-
Involvement

Information
Networks

Decision Making
Supervisor

Higher
Management
Fair Treatment
Voice Mechanisms Positive Congruence:

Problem Reduction
Enhanced Satisfaction
Feeling Heard
Improved Awareness
Helpful Change
Removal of Soldier

Negative Decoupling:

Lack of Consistent
Change
Reduced Engagement
Perceptions of Futility
Retaliation Experience
Perceived Misuse of
Voice Mechanisms

Information
Networks
Supervisor

Higher
Management

Organization

Shared Understanding of
Communication

Leveraging Unique
Perspectives and
Expertise

Interpersonal
Interactions
Positive Congruence:

Reduced Discrimination
Enhanced Satisfaction
Enhanced Support
Increased Belongingness
Valued for Uniqueness

Negative Decoupling:
Participation-
Involvement
Workgroup

Supervisor

Organization

Social/Informal
Integration into the Unit

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Limited Effectiveness
Lack of Support
EO and SHARP
Training
Positive Congruence:

Valuing for Uniqueness
Problem Reduction

Negative Decoupling:

Limited Effectiveness
Reduced Engagement
Perception of Futility
Decreased Awareness
Information
Networks
Supervisor

Higher
Management

Organization
Openness to Differences

Table 4.2. Results from Thematic Analysis- Antecedents

Means-Ends
Antecedent Themes
Sample Quotes
Leader Decision-
Making & Behavior
“You can get away with a lot more, but it’s still at the commander’s discretion. So its like, what I feel is
acceptable, and I come to work, and say you got a commander that just don’t like you, it’s not acceptable,
the commander just don’t like colored hair, it’s not acceptable. So it’s still at somebody else’s discretion.
Because you can come to work um for instances, a guy, an African American came to work with orange
hair, and the first thing somebody said was, ‘black people don’t got orange hair,’ and which is not true.
But it’s just all in the perception of, it’s still a perception of somebody else’s…its how somebody else
perceives it or views it.” (FG-12)

Innovation
Orientation
“But no I mean big army does its best to put out as much EO and SHARP, I mean we have to take that
class literally every six months or something like that, and it’s the same thing every time. I mean is it
necessary? Absolutely, but I mean it gets old its the same thing, and we get it kind of thing (I-12)

Problem-Based
Motivation
“I think they’re only serious about that type of stuff when it’s like a safety stand out…unless people are
actually really trying to kill themselves and hurt themselves, they’re not gonna enforce it. [Another
Participant: and then they’ll forget after a week]...yeah and it takes like, it’s not just like one person trying
to kill themselves. I remember in Korea it was at least five people tried killing themselves and then they
were like, ‘wow, there is something wrong,’ (FG-5)

Prioritization &
Organization
“Cause I’ve been EO and I’ve been SHARP. So at those levels of brigade and battalion, that's their main
focus, you know what I mean? But now, I’m at the company level, you only discuss it when something
happens, ‘lets take 45 minutes to talk about it,’ and it’s so quick, so fast, it’s like hit slides and you’re
making up stuff. You don’t put no time into the training; soldiers not getting anything, that’s just time for
them when they ain’t gotta be outside. They’re like, ‘okay’, and if it’s not that, your doing a Powerpoint
slide, get on the computer, go to OMS, and just click until you get in and you get a certificate…So like
nobody really takes it actually serious until something happens in their home, their formulation, in their
squad. That’s when it changes. And I just don’t think we actually teach it, preach it enough. I know when I
first came on the scene it’s like we were doing it every other week, you know what I mean and now it’s
dying down so it’s like, people are like, ‘hmm, it’s okay, we have other priorities, our priority is getting
these vehicles out,’ you know what I mean, that’s the priority.” (FG- 1)

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Figure 4.1. Conceptual Model of Results from Thematic Analysis

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Chapter Five

Discussion

Major Findings
This dissertation sought to advance research on two forms of decoupling, including
policy-practice and means-ends decoupling, as it relates diversity and inclusion (Figure 5.1.).
Composed as a three-paper mixed-method project, the dissertation aimed to explore gaps
between policy and practice within organizational responses to mega-threats and diverse
community health-safety contexts, as well as gaps between inclusion practice and outcomes
within the military context. Key findings from each study are below:
Study One
This study explored inclusion policy-practice decoupling in the context of mega-threats,
considered high-profile identity-based societal events that receive significant media attention
(Leigh & Melwani, 2022). The study analyzed the relationship of perceptions of inclusion
policy-practice decoupling and work withdrawal through their influence on perceptions of
inclusion and perceptions of burnout from the perspective of a diverse national sample of
employees. Results showed that perceptions of inclusions are negatively related to perceptions of
burnout. In addition, the presence of inclusion policy-practice decoupling indicated lower
perceptions of inclusion amongst employees within the context of organizational responses to
mega-threats. It was also found that inclusion policy-practice decoupling is related to increased
burnout for employees navigating organizational responses to mega-threats through its influence
on perceptions of inclusion. In the context of mega-threats, employees who had increased
perceptions of burnout also had more perceptions of work withdrawal. For employees,
perceptions of inclusion also predicted decreased work withdrawal through the experiences of

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decreased burnout. Although there were numerous findings that supported the study hypotheses,
the hypothesis that perceptions of inclusion policy-practice decoupling would influence
increased work withdrawal though its influence on perceptions of inclusion and work withdrawal
was not supported.
Study Two
Perceptions of pandemic health-safety policy-practice decoupling within organizations
from diverse racial and ethnic geographic communities was explored through this study, with an
aim of understanding community-based perspectives of organizational decoupling. Findings
revealed four thematic areas where organizational decoupling and/or congruence was present:
stores and services, social institutions, governmental agencies, and employment settings. All
organizational areas except social institutions were perceived by community members as having
both the presence of decoupling and congruence, with social institutions having a predominance
of feedback related to congruence. Participants noted the presence of health-safety congruence
within stores and services; White-predominant geographic community members mentioned
congruence more than members of other racial and ethnic geographic communities. Participants
also shared that decoupling between health-safety policies and practices was present within
stores and services, with Latinx-predominant community members mentioning decoupling
within stores and services more than members of other communities. Participants’ feedback
generated a second thematic area related to social institutions, such as church, schools, and
community organizations, where congruence within these realms was the prominent perception.
Black-predominant geographic community members expressed more feedback regarding the
presence of congruence within social institutions than other racial and ethnic-geographic
communities. A third thematic area arose from the analysis, which highlighted the presence of

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pandemic health-safety policy congruence and decoupling within the realms of government
agencies, at various levels of society. Latinx-predominant geographic communities expressed the
most feedback related to congruence and decoupling of pandemic health-safety policy and
practice within governmental agencies. The final thematic area that materialized from
community members’ perceptions of congruence and decoupling was within diverse employment
settings, with Asian-predominant geographic community members sharing more feedback
around congruence and Latinx-predominant geographic community members sharing more
comments regarding decoupling.
Study Three
Expressions and antecedents of inclusion means-ends decoupling was investigated
through the third study of this dissertation, shedding light on the relationship between inclusion
practices and outcomes in the military context. Analysis of participant data uncovered five
thematic areas for inclusion means-ends expressions, where positive congruence and/or negative
decoupling was present, including social events, recognition and reprimand processes, voice
mechanisms, interpersonal interactions, and EO and SHARP training. There were also four
thematic areas generated as antecedents of inclusion mean-ends decoupling and congruence:
leader decision-making and behavior, innovation orientation, problem-based motivation, as well
as prioritization and organization. For inclusion means-ends expressions, all thematic areas had
the presence of both negative decoupling and positive congruence, except social events.
Participants mostly described positive congruence in the realm of social events and effective
outcomes as an inclusion practice. Participants indicated a variety of “end” outcomes for each
thematic area that highlighted congruence or decoupling between inclusion practice and intended

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inclusion outcomes with examples such as enhanced support and increased belongingness for
congruence, as well as reduced engagement and decreased awareness for decoupling.
Implications
Taken comprehensively, several meaningful implications arise out of this dissertation
project related to policy-practice and means-ends decoupling within diversity and inclusion.
Firstly, these findings generate important knowledge regarding organizational responses to
mega-threats via word and action, and the impact on diverse groups of employees. This confirms
previous research within inclusion and adverse employee outcomes (Mor Barak et al., 2016;
Travis and Mor Barak, 2010; Merlini et al., 2019; Nauman et al., 2020; Travis et al., 2016)
within the context of organizational responses to mega-threats, such as the killing of George
Floyd. This also fills a gap in empirical research through applying the conceptual models put
forth by inclusion researchers related to mega-threats (Leigh and Melwani, 2019) and inclusion
policy-practice decoupling (Mor Barak et al., 2021). On a broader scale, it deepens theoretical
understandings of institutional theory through exploring the presence of isomorphic pressures
from the institutional environment (Meyer and Rowan 1977; Bromley and Powell, 2012) in the
form of large-scale negative identity-related events, and its relationship to the experience of
organizational members. Research on inclusion policy-practice decoupling within the mega-
threats, has implications for organization leaders as they consider employee support and
organizational outcomes.
Secondly, this dissertation provides broad context to the engagement of customers,
clients, employees, and community members with organizations around pandemic health-safety
policy and practice. This context is provided with consideration for the experience of diverse
racial and ethnic geographic communities, suggesting how perceptions of health-safety within

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organizations may vary across different identity groups. This study also yields information about
how organizations respond to global health crises as pressures from the institutional environment
(Meyer and Rowan, 1977; Bromley and Powell, 2012), and how those pressures may yield
congruence or decoupling within health-safety from the perception of diverse communities. This
dissertation project also generates information on a remarkably high-risk circumstance, such as a
pandemic, and how diverse community members experience health-safety in their environment
via effort or lack of effort from varied organizational settings. Findings from this project have
practical and research implications for how organizations can encourage or reduce racial
disparities related to health (Webb Hooper, 2020), through understanding the presence of
alignment or misalignment with pandemic health-safety policy and practice. Further, this
research has implications for how large-scale health-safety policy may be enforced to protect
diverse racial and ethnic geographic community members.
Thirdly, this dissertation is one of the first efforts to bring framing of means-ends
decoupling to the realm of inclusion, deepening understanding of the varied “end” outcomes that
may exist related to congruence and gaps between inclusion practice and intended outcomes. It
also brings knowledge to how social myths within the institutional environment regarding the
causal linkages (Bromley and Powell, 2012) between prominent inclusion practice and outcomes
can permeate decisions on which inclusion practices to implement within an organization.
Findings from this dissertation advance conceptual understandings of potential moderators
between inclusion means and inclusion ends within an organization. Practically, these findings
offer insight into organizational experiences of inclusion from military personnel and highlight
the necessity for military leaders to consider monitoring, assessment, or intervention based on
potential antecedents to means-end decoupling. These findings also extend to assisting leaders of

141
organizations with more strict hierarchy and/or standardized practices with points of evaluation
to consider for organizational inclusion initiatives. Overall, this can help leaders with better
promoting climates of inclusion within their organization through helpful actions and outcomes.
Future Research
There are several pathways for future research in the realm of policy-practice and means-
ends decoupling within diversity and inclusion. Firstly, it would be helpful for studies in the
future to be conducted on inclusion policy-practice decoupling and mega-threats within the same
organizational context to better analyze climate of inclusion perceptions across employees with
different levels of analysis at the individual, workgroup, and organizational level. Additional
research should also focus on developing and validating a measure for inclusion policy-practice
that can be used in diverse organizational settings to have a more comprehensive assessment of
inclusion policy-practice decoupling. Future research can expand to studying additional
employee outcomes and topical contexts related to inclusion policy-practice decoupling.
Secondly, as pandemic health-safety policies and practice within geographic communities
are vastly different across regions of the United States and globally, future research should
explore organizational health-safety policy and practice decoupling within other contexts to
understand nuances related to diverse community member experiences. Additional research
should be conducted on antecedents and consequences of pandemic health-safety policy-practice
decoupling and congruence to better inform policy leaders on how to mitigate the presence of
racial and ethnic disparities within communities.
Thirdly, a focus on exploration of means-ends decoupling within other diverse
organizational contexts, including developing and validating measures of inclusion means-ends
decoupling should be a focus point of future research. Additional investigations should examine

142
individual employee characteristics and the impact on inclusion means-ends decoupling to better
anticipate necessary diversity and inclusion approaches, especially as related to hiring and
promotion. Additionally, future research should consider bringing other sources of data, such as
archival documents and observation to deepen awareness of how inclusion means-ends
decoupling, and congruence may function in an organization. As these studies were all cross-
sectional in nature, it would be meaningful for subsequent studies to be conducted on a
longitudinal scale to better assess long term impacts of policy-practice and means-ends
decoupling as it related to diversity and inclusion within organizations.
Conclusion
Over the course of three studies, this dissertation reveals knowledge of how
organizational messaging, action, and outcomes are interconnected in the realms of diversity and
inclusion from the perspective of diverse employees and community members. This project
advances research within institutional theory and inclusion, as well as diverse organizational and
topical contexts. While research related to inclusion has been intensively explored for more than
twenty years (Mor Barak, 2022), this dissertation contributes to the immense and critical
scientific literature of inclusion researchers through deepening understandings of the true
effectiveness of inclusion approaches within organizations. Additionally, within the context of an
ever-diversifying society, this research can assist organizational leaders with being
informationally equipped to shape and structure inclusion approaches that yield perceptions from
diverse employees that organizations are spaces where diversity and inclusion promises are
unquestionably kept.

143
References
Bromley, P., & Powell, W. W. (2012). From smoke and mirrors to walking the talk: Decoupling
in the contemporary world. Academy of Management Annals, 6(1), 483-530.
https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520.2012.684462

Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and
ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340-363.
https://doi.org/10.1086/226550

Leigh, A., & Melwani, S. (2019). # BlackEmployeesMatter: Mega-threats, identity fusion, and
enacting positive deviance in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 44(3),
564-591. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2017.0127

Merlini, K. P., Bupp, C. P., Merlini, P. G., & Garza, M. M. (2019). Linking inclusion to intent to
leave through burnout in a military context. Military Psychology, 31(6), 490-498.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2019.1671078

Mor Barak, M. E., Lizano, E. L., Kim, A., Duan, L., Rhee, M. K., Hsiao, H. Y., & Brimhall, K.
C. (2016). The promise of diversity management for climate of inclusion: A state-of-the-
art review and meta-analysis. Human Service Organizations: Management, Leadership &
Governance, 40(4), 305-333. https://doi.org/10.1080/23303131.2016.1138915

Travis, D. J., Lizano, E. L., & Mor Barak, M. E. (2016). ‘I'm so stressed!’: A longitudinal model
of stress, burnout and engagement among social workers in child welfare settings. The
British Journal of Social Work, 46(4), 1076-1095. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bct205

Travis, D. J., & Mor Barak, M. E. (2010). Fight or flight? Factors influencing child welfare
workers' propensity to seek positive change or disengage from their jobs. Journal of
Social Service Research, 36(3), 188-205. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488371003697905

Mor Barak, M. E., Luria, G., & Brimhall, K. C. (2021). What leaders say versus what they do:
Inclusive leadership, policy-practice decoupling, and the anomaly of climate for
inclusion. Group & Organization Management, 0(0), 1-32.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01488371003697905

Nauman, S., Zheng, C., & Naseer, S. (2020). Job insecurity and work–family conflict: A
moderated mediation model of perceived organizational justice, emotional exhaustion
and work withdrawal. International Journal of Conflict Management, 31(5), 729-751.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCMA-09-2019-0159

Webb Hooper, M., Nápoles, A. M., & Pérez-Stable, E. J. (2020). COVID-19 and racial/ethnic
disparities. Jama, 323(24), 2466-2467. https://www.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.8598

144
Figures

Figure 5.1. Dissertation Project Conceptual Model

*Note: Amended from Bromley and Powell (2012)’s conceptualization of policy-practice and means-ends
decoupling.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Diversity within organizations and communities is increasing and dynamically evolving. Despite progress, individuals from diverse and marginalized identity groups continue to experience challenging employment and health outcomes. As a response to these realities, policies are espoused, and practices are often implemented by organizations that impact diversity and inclusion experiences of employees and community members. Little is known about the true implementation of policy and the definitive outcomes of organizational efforts surrounding diversity and inclusion. Through the lens of institutional theory, this three-paper mixed-method dissertation project explored the factors surrounding policy-practice and means-ends decoupling within diversity and inclusion dynamics. Study One utilized survey data to investigate inclusion policy-practice decoupling and adverse employee outcomes within the context of mega-threat experiences, thought of as large-scale negative identity-based societal events, of employees within diverse organizational contexts. Study Two utilized focus group feedback to explore the presence of organizational health-safety policy-practice decoupling from the perspective of diverse racial and ethnic geographic communities. Study Three examined the presence of inclusion means-ends decoupling within a military context utilizing interview and focus group data from service members. Findings from Study One highlight the influence of perceptions of inclusion policy-practice decoupling on perceptions of inclusion and burnout of workers within the context of organizational responses to mega-threats. Results from Study Two generated four organizational thematic areas—stores and services, social institutions, governmental agencies, and employment settings—where health-safety policy- practice decoupling and/or congruence was present for diverse racial and ethnic geographic community members. Discoveries from Study Three indicate five areas where inclusion means-ends decoupling and/or congruence existed within the military context: social events, recognition and reprimand processes, voice mechanisms, interpersonal interactions, as well as Equal Opportunity and Sexual Harassment/Assault Response and Prevention training. Additionally, findings from Study Three highlight antecedents of inclusion means-ends decoupling and congruence within the military setting. Together, these findings help clarify the true nature of how diversity and inclusion operate within organizations through presenting results related to policy-practice and means-ends decoupling within diversity and inclusion for the first time in an integrated project. Insights shared from this dissertation project can be used to inform future research in diversity and inclusion, as well as organizational approaches to diversity and inclusion initiatives.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Schnyder, Leslie P. (author)

Core Title Broken promises: gaining an understanding of policy-practice and means-ends decoupling within diversity and inclusion

School Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Social Work

Degree Conferral Date 2023-08

Publication Date 08/10/2023

Defense Date 07/27/2023

Publisher University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag diversity,inclusion,means-ends decoupling,OAI-PMH Harvest,policy-practice decoupling

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Mor Barak, Michàlle (committee chair), Frey, Erin (committee member), Palinkas, Lawrence (committee member)

Creator Email lpschnyder@gmail.com,schnyder@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113297981

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Legacy Identifier etd-SchnyderLe-12236

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Schnyder, Leslie P.

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