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College readiness and transitional experiences: the factors that contribute to first-generation Latino students’ persistence and retention to achieve higher education degrees

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College readiness and transitional experiences: the factors that contribute to first-generation Latino students’ persistence and retention to achieve higher education degrees

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College Readiness and Transitional Experiences: The Factors That Contribute to First-
Generation Latino Students’ Persistence and Retention to Achieve Higher Education
Degrees

Jacquelyn K. Trejo

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

August 2023

© Copyright by Jacquelyn K. Trejo 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Jacquelyn K. Trejo certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Tatiana Melguizo
Raquel Torres-Retana
Arely Acuña
Sheila Bañuelos, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv

Abstract
The phrase “college readiness” references many critical elements connected to postsecondary
degree attainment. This qualitative case study analyzed factors associated with persistence and
retention among first-generation Latino college students. Understanding the influences of this
phenomenon aids in addressing inequities and moving toward more equitable, inclusive, and
diversified resources, support, and intentional educational programming, particularly for
underserved and underrepresented minority groups. Attention to this next generation of rising
scholars provides an opportunity to hear students’ stories, challenges, thoughts, opinions,
motivators, and experiences. Their stand on college readiness echoes their academic journeys
and positionalities regarding what student success looks like in the 21st century. The study
examined first-generation Latino students who majored in business administration at a 4-year
public Hispanic-serving institution in Southern California. Drawing on Schlossberg’s transition
theory, the theoretical framework helped explain how the participants experienced their
education transitions, challenges, relationships, and self-motivators in pursuit of degree
attainment.
Keywords: college readiness, persistence, retention, first-generation, Latino, higher
education, Hispanic-serving institutions.

v

Dedication
To the Latino immigrant community who, in the face of adversity, continue surviving and
thriving for a better life, and for those who died and continue dying in the search for one. This
work and these words are to shed light on your stories.
To my husband, who like many immigrants, packed a couple of shirts, a hat, his vocation as an
adventurer, tips from his father, and a thousand memories. He packed his desire to stay, his
dream not achieved, said goodbye, and begged his God crucified for the protection of his own
and pierced through the border as he could. He continues to write his story. I admired your
strength and your resilience. Thank you for your love.
To my roots, my ancestors, my family, and my parents, you are the reason why I exist, the pillars
of my trajectory and support. To my brother Jose, thank you for being my guardian angel. Thank
you for being the first person who knew I would make it this far. Finally, to the little girl who
was once playing in her bedroom with her toys dreaming about the life she would have, hoping
and wishing to achieve all her life goals: you made it, girl, you got this!
Gracias Dios por darme esta vida, la fuerza y alas para volar.

vi

Acknowledgments
A transformational leader is an individual who leads with unwavering passion and a clear
sense of purpose. They possess the ability to see potential within you that you may not even
recognize in yourself. They believe wholeheartedly in your abilities and narrative, transforming
your weaknesses into remarkable strengths. They are the ones who proclaim, "You, too, can
achieve greatness." I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to all the leaders in my life
who took a leap of faith in me, exemplified transparency, and paved the path for me to forge my
own unique story. Their teachings, determination, and unwavering commitment have profoundly
influenced my aspirations and driven my visions forward. Those leaders for me were Dr. Arely
Acuña, Mrs. Pamela Adams, Mrs. Carmen Alagozian, Dr. Jeanne Almaraz, Dr. Sheila Bañuelos,
Dr. Allison Douglas-Chicoye, Dr. Rehana M. Hethumuni, Mrs. Lea Manske, Dr. Tatiana
Melguizo, Dr. Claudia Pinter-Lucke, Dr. Larisa Preiser-Houy, Dr. Erik Rolland, and Dr. Raquel
Torres-Retana.
Thank you for leading the way.

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Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................. 2
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 3
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................ 5
Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 7
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................. 9
Organization of the Study .................................................................................................. 11
Chapter Two: Literature Review ................................................................................................... 13
College Readiness: A Factor Affecting Latino Students to Achieve Higher Education
Degrees .............................................................................................................................. 14
Understanding the College Transition Process .................................................................. 20
Understanding the Factors That Contribute to Latino Students’ Persistence and
Retention ............................................................................................................................ 25
Cognitive Abilities and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Critical Components of .............. 35
College Readiness ............................................................................................................. 35
Supporting Latino Students in the 21st Century ................................................................ 42
Theoretical Framework: Schlossberg’s Transition Model ................................................ 47
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 51
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 53
Population and Sample ...................................................................................................... 53

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Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 58
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 61
Role of Researcher ............................................................................................................ 62
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 64
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 66
Chapter Four: Findings .................................................................................................................. 68
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 68
Student Participation Data: Schlossberg’s 4S Systems Model .......................................... 75
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 89
Chapter Five: Discussion ............................................................................................................... 92
Discussion: Experiences of the First-Generation Latino College Student ........................ 92
Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 99
Recommendations For Policy .......................................................................................... 100
Recommendations For Practice ....................................................................................... 101
Recommendations For Future Research .......................................................................... 103
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 104
Appendix A: Email Communication ........................................................................................... 121
Appendix B: Recruitment Flyer .................................................................................................. 123
Appendix C: Information Sheet ................................................................................................... 124
Appendix D: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 127
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 127
Opening Questions .......................................................................................................... 128
Exploration Questions ..................................................................................................... 128
Closing Questions ............................................................................................................ 130
Appendix E: Screening Questionnaire ........................................................................................ 131

ix

List of Tables
Table 1: Participants’ Self-Identified Class Level and Participation in a Pre-college Program
or Experience 69

x

List of Figures
Appendix B: Recruitment Flyer 123

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Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Considerable evidence exists regarding civil rights organizations and activist groups’
longstanding efforts to seek fair and equitable education in the United States (Colón-Muñiz &
Lavadenz, 2016). One of the most significant challenges the country has faced is improving
educational achievement gaps, resources, and opportunities for underrepresented communities of
color (Orfield & Frankenberg, 2014). For example, historical studies demonstrate the disparities,
racism, discrimination, and barriers Latinos face in education in the Southwest (Lozano, 2020).
According to Lozano (2020), Latino students make up the largest population in the south. The
21st century has seen a significant increase in these students’ enrollment, with more than 11
million attending America’s public schools (Obinna & Ohanian, 2020). The demographic shift is
attributed to immigrants from communities worldwide (Lozano, 2020). By 2050, it is projected
that Latinos will make up 30% of the country’s population (Flink, 2018).
According to the U.S. Department of Labor (Dubina, 2021), Hispanics or Latinos drive
labor force growth and account for 18% of the U.S. labor force. In addition, Hispanics or Latinos
are projected to account for 78% of networkers between 2020 and 2030 (Dubina, 2021). The
number of Latinos contributing to the country’s economy is rising substantially and steadily. The
U.S. Department of Labor also projected that by 2030, Latino workers would increase to 35.9
million (Dubina, 2021). These projections necessitate an examination of the factors that
contribute to the educational success, achievement, development, and college readiness of first-
generation Latino students, given their significant contributions and influence on the country’s
environmental sustainability, as well as its economic, social, and cultural advancement.
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Background of the Problem
I begin with an understanding that college readiness encompasses a wide range of critical
dimensions that keep students enrolled toward degree attainment. According to Patel (2016), the
U.S. educational system was not built for children from underserved and marginalized
communities and presents an illusion of social mobility in a society oppressed by racism,
disparities, and intersectional barriers. One can argue that educational systems were created to
benefit White individuals and principles (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2006). Historically, disparities
in college readiness between marginalized students and their White counterparts have been
derived from systemic challenges and inequitable opportunities in the United States (Patton,
2016). These inequities are both historical and current.
For example, the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education
(1954) was one of the cornerstones of the civil rights movement. The justices ruled unanimously
that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Despite this decision, prevailing
social issues stem from race and racism and account for disparities in learning opportunities
harming first-generation Latino students (Orfield & Frankenberg, 2014). Also known as double
segregation, Latino students’ lack of resources, support, and college readiness is much more
challenging to overcome, given that these systems were not built to support students from
marginalized communities (Orfield & Frankenberg, 2014).
Research has found that Latino students are the largest minoritized group of college
students, with a 16.5% share of all enrollment (Gonzalez & Morrison, 2016). The growing
population is positioned to influence, impact, and succeed in many corporate fields, industries,
and technological companies (Muñoz & Villanueva, 2019). Because of this, Latino students
pursue higher education to improve communities’ well-being and provide equitable
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opportunities, a growing workforce, social mobility, and individual success. Twenty-first-century
U.S. schools are diverse arenas, so educators must understand students’ cultures, backgrounds,
and unique capabilities in and outside the classroom (Reid & Moore, 2008). Latino students from
communities with an absence of pathways to higher education and academia tend to feel
alienated, especially those who are the first in their families to attend college and find it
challenging to relate their culture and values to inequitably founded pedagogical approaches
(Mireles-Rios & Garcia, 2019). This study’s focal point is the challenging factors Latino students
encounter as they move toward their education in terms of persistence and retention.
Statement of the Problem
College readiness refers to the preparedness of high school students to successfully
undertake and navigate the academic, social, and personal challenges they are likely to encounter
in college or other post-secondary education settings. It involves being equipped with strong
communication skills, self-motivation, time management, adaptability, and resilience to handle
the increased independence and demands of college life. Yavuz et al. (2019) cited that
approximately 40% of high school graduates are not prepared to meet the rigor of college
coursework and transitional expectations. The authors found limited career and college readiness
among low-income and underserved urban inner-city students (Yavuz et al., 2019). Studies note
that 80% of first-generation students across the United States want to earn a baccalaureate, and
institutions are seeing an increase in Latino students’ enrollment (Jenkins & Fink, 2016).
However, the national 6-year bachelor’s degree completion rate is only 14% (Jenkins & Fink,
2016). Despite the rise in college access, many Latino students at 4-year universities still
underperform, and only 6% are awarded degrees annually in the United States (Jenkins & Fink,
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2016). While studies show that 38 states implemented early college readiness assessments,
Latinos’ retention and persistence rates remain low (Almeida, 2016).
As one of the fastest-growing populations, Latino students experience discrimination and
stereotyping and face systemic challenges, making them feel they do not belong in higher
education (Jenkins & Fink, 2016). Many causal effects impact Latino students’ persistence and
retention. The cultural and economic disconnect between this group and the educational systems
designed to serve specific populations makes it challenging for them to succeed academically.
The current condition of most urban inner-city school students having limited access to the
capital for college readiness calls for improving access for first-generation Latino students to
meet academic and college goals (Yavuz et al., 2019). Students’ retention and persistence depend
on a commitment to college, academic goals, motivation, purpose, cultural influences, and
involvement in curricular and co-curricular learning. Educational systems must drive change,
strengthen, innovate, and extend additional mechanisms to support student success and equitable
mobility across all communities. A deep analysis of the issues and solutions for communities of
color is needed to shift oppression and prepare the next generation of leaders in the country and
world.
Higher education institutions must reassess and improve how they support and retain the
growing population of nontraditional and underrepresented students (Oseguera et al., 2009). The
literature recognizes the transitional process, the influence of cognitive abilities, and culturally
relevant pedagogy as critical elements in supporting the college-ready student. Moreover,
focusing on what it means to support Latino students in the 21st century exacerbates the
inequitable disconnects these students face. Examining these elements can further aid
educational researchers, academic leaders, and learning community advocates in developing and
5

implementing intentional, supported, equitable learning, transitional experiences, and college
readiness programming. Increasing equitable mobility requires central policymakers, lead
stakeholders, scholars, and administrative leaders to consider communities’ cultural identities,
approaches, and positionalities to disrupt inequitable alignments and systemic oppression.
Purpose of the Study
The study aimed to understand the factors contributing to first-generation Latino
students’ college experiences that may affect their persistence and retention. The purpose was to
hear students’ stories on their thoughts, opinions, interactions, and relationships regarding
college readiness and their educational journeys. This qualitative case study used interviews to
examine a group of first-generation Latino students attending a public 4-year Hispanic-serving
institution (HSI) where 50% of the student body identifies as Hispanic or Latino. The focus was
to examine elements that influence the participants’ college persistence and retention (Arbona &
Nora, 2007). Awareness of students’ educational experiences allows for uncovering inequitable
patterns and systemic challenges, continuously striking the achievement gaps affecting first-
generation Latino students, and can, in return, help educators better understand and support this
community.
According to Dee and Penner (2017), identifying these patterns can help change a
broader array of federal, state, and local policies that govern educational programs, resources,
accountability, and reforms regarding college readiness. Research states that students have
trouble engaging in college environments, and studies on this concept place a substantial focus
on the cultural component of students’ experiences (Luedke, 2019). Therefore, the following
research question guided this study: How do first-generation Latino students at an HSI perceive
6

the influence of college readiness and transitional experiences on their persistence and retention
in pursuing a higher education degree?
This qualitative study consisted of 10 semi-structured individual recorded interviews with
15 open-ended guided questions. Participant recruitment exclusively and purposefully focused
on individuals who self-identified as first-generation and Latino enrolled at a public 4-year HSI.
Participants were recruited based on completing the college of business administration’s
freshman experience course and invited to be part of the study through email. The course
introduces 1st-year students to university life and the development of skills needed to be
successful students and lifelong learners. Students learn to maximize personal and academic
performance, integrity, responsibility, and goal setting. In addition, students are exposed to
diverse pedagogical approaches and gain a broad understanding of the business field through
various academic, institutional, and industry resources. Capturing these students’ stories can lead
to findings that address the challenges and opportunities students face in higher education.
The in-depth interview questions focused on interactions, relationships, support,
planning, and knowledge related to college readiness, transition, and persistence. Recordings
were transcribed verbatim, analyzed for themes, coded for comparisons, and framed around
Schlossberg’s (1984) transition theory. The theory emphasizes transition as any event or non-
event that results in a changed environment, patterns, routines, relationships, or roles. In this
study, I learned about educational shifts, readiness, support, resources, and life pathways the
participants faced through their transitions into higher education. Patterns of transitions highlight
experiences, positionalities, and factors that may alter their willingness and resilience to adapt,
pursue, and thrive toward higher education.
7

According to Schlossberg (1981), “The transition process requires the simultaneous
analysis of individual characteristics and external occurrences. … As adults continuously
experience transitions, these transitions do not occur in any sequential order, nor does everyone
experience transitions in a like manner” (p. 3). The theoretical framework helps explain how the
students handled their education transition and pursuit of higher education. Schlossberg’s
transition theory describes three stages of transition: anticipated, unanticipated, and non-events.
Through the interviews, I identified and better understood the factors students faced in their
educational pathways. They provided insight into the possible challenges, issues, inequities, and
experience of persistence and retention.
Identifying comparison factors through these three stages guided the research to observe
similarities and differences among first-generation Latino students’ experiences with transition in
relation to degree attainment. Analyzing and examining these students’ experiences aids in
investigating students’ college readiness, coping perspectives, motivational factors, systemic
inequities, and guiding principles that lead to their success or failure. As such, findings can
further help drive intentional and transformational efforts toward the improvement and equitable
opportunities first-generation Latino students may need, especially with the increase of this
student population in the coming years.
Significance of the Study
The study is significant in increasing understanding of the different experiences first-
generation Latino students face through their academic paths and the socio-emotional and
structural barrier factors that contribute to higher education achievement gaps among this
community. The literature outlined in this report shows that Latino students are very much
present in the American educational system. However, they continue to face marginalized
8

experiences, inequities, isolation, discrimination, and stereotyping, decreasing their academic
adjustment (Nunez, 2009). According to Nunez (2009), students are more likely to encounter
overt and subtle forms of exclusion and struggle with a sense of belonging and resilience when
their educational experience lacks support, diversity, culturally relevant pedagogy, and
intentional support efforts. Latino students’ higher education pathways and experiences remain
underexamined (Irizarry, 2012). Most often, they complete college at lower rates than other
ethnic groups in the United States (Arbona & Nora, 2007). The underrepresentation of college
programs, resources, and preparation negatively influences their retention and persistence as they
navigate the college transition (Nunez, 2011).
Therefore, examining students’ experiences and bringing meaning to these students’
stories may provide insight to improve equitable educational experiences and outcomes and close
graduation equity gaps. According to the Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education
(2015), students persist when institutions support them, encourage their abilities, set performance
goals, address their challenges, present approachability, and are grounded in appropriate well-
defined standards (Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education, 2015). Because of this,
the study can further significantly support and increase social and cultural equitable mobility
among first-generation Latino students. The study’s research revealed emerging themes to better
understand the areas in which educational organizations might present inequitable shortfalls to
access and opportunity for college readiness.
Moreover, this study can help strengthen and inform college readiness programs,
interventions, resources, and support services, improving and advancing equitable education and
degree attainment among minoritized communities in the United States. The study additionally
augments the literature to lead to change through informed knowledge and intentional decisions.
9

Educational policymakers, leaders, advocates, and scholars must lead this change while
considering the community’s experiences, cultural identities, diversity, and values. The
inequitable alignments, systemic barriers, and oppression this community faces cannot continue
to be overlooked. This study will further help inform how to improve the services, support,
guidance, and resources impacting the college-ready student in 21st-century academia by
interrogating the systems that have gone on with the change. Lastly, I hope this study will
expand the literature, teachings, and learning impacting higher education degree attainment in
the United States among historically minoritized, marginalized, and underserved populations,
more so in HSIs. Developing and implementing equitable educational programming and
activities to improve student success regardless of race, identity, or selected major is an ethical
responsibility to facilitate all students’ leadership and academic development toward degree
attainment. This study focused on first-generation Latino students at an HSI with an enrollment
of 26,000 students, of whom 50% identify as of Hispanic or Latino origin. I look further into the
college of business administration, where the undergraduate enrollment total is 4,500. Of these
students, 60% are first-generation, 52% identify Hispanic or Latino, and 55% are categorized as
an underrepresented minority. Since these high percentages reflect Latino student growth, the
intended analysis can identify areas of change to educational higher education programming in
areas of assistance, useful tools, support, retention, and persistence.
Definition of Terms
This qualitative study aimed to provide a natural setting surrounding the intended
research phenomenon by providing a list of operational definitions used throughout the literature.
The terms take form in the concepts, processes, and approaches to understanding the influencing
issue.
10

Cognitive abilities: Refers to the linguistic and metalinguistic abilities; the working
memory of verbal and non-verbal components, skills, and functions that are needed in the
acquisition of knowledge (i.e., capacities, awareness, reasoning, adaptation, theory of mind,
monitoring, controlled processing, planning, abstract thinking; Dosi & Gavriilidou, 2020).
College readiness: A series of procedural components that include a student’s ability to
plan, adopt performance, gain skills, eligibility, and complete the necessary coursework for
college transition; a range of cognitive abilities, academic behaviors, knowledge, skills
examination, and curriculum students are exposed to (Baker et al., 2005; Tierney & Sablan,
2014).
College transition: A period of adjustment when students move from high school to
college (postsecondary education); a pathway in supporting students through academic
preparation, applying, enrolling, financing, and graduating from higher education institutions
illustrated through a student and academic affairs lens (Baber, 2018; Holcombe & Kezar, 2021).
Cultural capital: The values, beliefs, and behaviors learned, shared, and exhibited by
people; characteristics, assets, and resources that are neither fixed nor unchanging and
represented symbolically through language, identities, gender, sexuality, region, race, and
ethnicity (Yosso, 2005).
Culturally relevant pedagogy: An informed theoretical model that focuses on intentional
support, aspects, critical perspectives, and teachings upholding students’ cultural identities and
consciousness of their positionalities for academic advancement (Ladson-Billings, 2021).
Environmental capital: Refers to the community resources, networks, relationships, and
informed support literacy that enriches students’ educational environments and helps shape their
academic pathways (Colón-Muñiz & Lavadenz, 2016; Rivera et al., 2019).
11

First-generation college students: Undergraduate student(s) whose parent/parents did not
enroll/complete postsecondary education; or an individual categorized as the first in their family
to attend college (NASPA, 2022; NCES, 1998).
Latino: A term used to relate and refer to people of Latin American origin or descent in
the United States; a gender-neutral or nonbinary alternative to Latina/o, Latin@, Latinx, or Latin
American (Salinas, 2020).
Social capital: A term used in policy and academic discourse; refers to the networks and
relationships that link people to something that can improve well-being beyond the productive
capacity and skills of individuals; networks that provide instrumental and emotional support to
navigate through society’s institutions (Hellerstein & Neumark, 2020; Yosso, 2005).
Organization of the Study
Since its inception, formal education in the United States has marked social, cultural,
environmental, and racial superiority. One can argue that American education perpetuates the
continued demands of racist capitalism, hierarchical power, and White supremacy ideologies.
Institutional organizations, policymakers, administrative leaders, and governmental agencies
continue to blur the inequitable and intersectional barriers people of color face in the United
States. For centuries, the existence of a racialized global society has been ignored (Patel, 2016).
This research aimed to understand the experiences of first-generation Latino students and
develop practical, intentional, and meaningful methods to better support these learners. The
study consists of five chapters. In Chapter One, the problem of practice is introduced along with
the background, purpose, significance, and binding terms outlining the literature. In Chapter
Two, I present the literature surrounding this phenomenon of college readiness, transition,
cognitive abilities, culturally relevant pedagogy, and supporting Latino students in 21st-century
12

academia. I also introduce Schlossberg’s 4S system as this study’s theoretical framework. The
4S system recognizes four factors for coping with transition: situation, self, support(s), and
strategies (Schlossberg, 2011). The 4S system brings four sets of factors that determine the
different degrees to which a transition alters a person’s life. The study analyzed the participants’
college readiness and transitional factors in terms of their persistence and retention in higher
education.
Moreover, in Chapter Three, I describe the study’s methodology, including the sample
population, data collection, validity and reliability of the data, in-depth analysis to support the
reporting, my positionality as the researcher, and the anticipated limitations of the participants. In
Chapter Four, I will present the findings of the research question and discuss how it relates to the
illustrated literature. Finally, in Chapter Five, I will discuss the study’s findings, implications for
policy and practice, limitations, future research considerations, and an overall summary of the
study.

13

Chapter Two: Literature Review
This study sought to understand how first-generation Latino students experience college
readiness and transitional education journeys, which might impact their retention and persistence
in higher education. First, I rely on the literature on higher education campuses, programs,
resources, community outlets, and educational cognitive understandings to gain a broad insight
into my study. I narrowed my research to include studies examining or discussing the college
readiness climate among first-generation Latino students in the United States.
For this reason, I first recognize that the pursuit of education has long been an element in
advancing our communities’ social, economic, and environmental sustainability. Education is
highly diverse, with over 4,300 higher education institutions in the United States (Bess & Dee,
2007). Literature, teachings, and experiences reveal that education is the key to self-discovery; it
is the ability to link instruction to learning by developing cognitive skills, behaviors, and social
interaction for human development (Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education, 2015).
While the goals of postsecondary educational institutions include building knowledge,
connecting communities, and increasing social mobility, inequities, disparities, and oppressed
systems persist. These disparities have historically affected underserved, marginalized students,
making it challenging for many to achieve higher education success. For example, college
readiness currently affects Latino students’ higher education attainment.
The preparedness gaps between communities of high and low socioeconomic status have
been a central concern for many years. Understanding and improving equitable learning
opportunities should be at the forefront of student success, one of the most commonly talked-
about issues in U.S. education (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2006). The narrative offered in this
literature review intends to approach college readiness as a primary component of achieving
14

higher education success. It examines the factors affecting Latino students in the United States,
analyzes administrative leadership roles, and looks at students’ experiences, college transition,
cultural relevance, pedagogical practices, and the influence of cognitive abilities impacting
persistence and retention. Finally, I discuss my theoretical framework, Schlossberg’s transition
theory, which provides a 4S system model for analyzing human adaptation to transition.
College Readiness: A Factor Affecting Latino Students to Achieve Higher Education
Degrees
In this section, I discuss the literature’s various definitions surrounding college readiness,
its critical dimensions, and components of what it means to prepare the college-ready student. I
draw from research that intentionally looks at first-generation Latino students’ experiences,
degree attainment metrics, and the role of educational leaders in supporting college readiness to
achieve higher education success.
First, it is essential to understand what college readiness means and its connection to
student success. Examining and understanding postsecondary education readiness allows for
shifting practices, addressing disparities, improving opportunities, and shaping equitable learning
ecosystems for future intervention. According to Convertino and Graboski-Bauer (2018), college
readiness is about indulging in neoliberal ideologies, a matter of equity and social justice
principles that give precedence to social-economic mobility platforms. Baker et al. (2005)
defined college readiness as procedural components that include students’ ability to plan, adapt
performance, gain skills, eligibility, and complete the necessary coursework for college
transition. Other sources connect college readiness to grade point average performance, high
school co-curricular activities, exam placement, or the ability to meet specific state requirements
(Convertino & Graboski-Bauer, 2018). Tierney and Sablan (2014) identified college readiness as
15

a wide range of domains and contexts to which students are exposed (i.e., cognitive abilities,
academic behaviors, knowledge, skills examination, and curriculum). The diversity of definitions
creates challenges and difficulties for educational programming to operationalize students’
college-ready goals and outcomes.
College readiness can encompass a wide range of critical dimensions and components.
As many scholars noted, most formal definitions of college readiness identify and frame college
readiness as the various standardized practices, approaches, experiences, and skills needed for
postsecondary success. However, there is a shortfall in focus on students’ emotional and cultural
relevance as factors and social challenges that impact resilience and perseverance. Access to
resources, information literacy, community, and family engagement play an essential role in
navigating academic journeys. Who then plays a role in supporting college readiness?
Educational scholars have shifted academia throughout history by adapting informed
epistemological frames, methodologies, and pedagogical approaches (Kerr, 2001). Colleges and
universities in the United States fall under various jurisdictions, governments, and political,
public, and private entities in all 50 states (Bess & Dee, 2012). There are different governing
roles at colleges and universities, all distinguished by various academic research and
advancement of education. Achieving educational equity in practices, research, and policy
requires educational leaders and practitioners to support college-ready students in 21st-century
academia. What does this mean? Linking intentional pedagogical administrative and classroom
practices to student learning could make a lifelong transformational change to persistence and
retention. According to Garces (2014), postsecondary institutions today thrive in increasingly
multiracial and multiethnic environments. For example, multiracial and multiethnic
environments refer to students’ diversity on campuses in terms of ethnicity, gender, religious
16

affiliations, culture, lifestyle, age, ethnic origin, and social belonging. Because of this, awareness
of students’ diversity is instrumental in aligning equity and quality to educational opportunities.
In other words, although these conditions are instrumental, it is not a “one size fits all.” To
support students’ performance, it is crucial to recognize and consider their individual
positionality as a foundational framework that significantly influences their potential for success.
In 2016, the National Center for Education Statistics reported the overrepresentation of
White faculty at 4-year colleges and universities to be 78%, and the underrepresentation of
faculty among other groups, such as Black faculty (6%), Latino faculty (4%), and Native
Americans faculty as less than 1% (Liera, 2019). These statistical measurements show the
dominant racial culture shaping U.S. higher education, which can be viewed as the
institutionalization of routines, policies, procedures, and practices that benefit Whites, who are
the racial majority (Liera, 2019). Becoming a student-ready institution is equally critical to
achieving academic excellence and student success. Colleges and universities’ leadership values
and organizational culture serve students’ experiences, support, and responses to their academic
careers. The student-ready campus removes systemic barriers, promotes inclusive pedagogical
practices, and engages in community partnerships to disrupt traditional inequities moving toward
becoming an aspect of value culture that empowers people (Brown McNair et al., 2016).
Core components of college readiness are attributed to creating a sense of belonging,
culturally diverse arenas, inclusive environments, and safe spaces where students can feel and
perform to their highest capacities. Historically, Whiteness has been a dominant racial structure
in U.S. higher education institutions since its inception (Liera, 2019). Given the rising numbers
of racially minoritized students in U.S. colleges and universities, faculty must be equally
equipped and prepared to instruct diverse groups of students. Often, students may feel silenced,
17

unable to express themselves openly, unworthy, or present fear, given their abilities to connect
with faculty, educators or administrators who may have experiences, stories, culture, or
upbringing similar to theirs.
The literature notes that while education and learning may be assumed to go together, the
difference is that one is a journey of self-growth (learning). At the same time, the other requires
complicity to White ideals in the United States (education; Patel, 2016). The learning journey is
jeopardized by a society complicit with White standards, as students of color attend schools with
fewer resources, opportunities to complete advanced placement courses, and less access to
standardized testing tutoring (Patton, 2016). Most significantly, the educational system focuses
on what these students do not have rather than what they do have (Patton, 2016). Acknowledging
the disparity in resources and opportunities is essential. It is also imperative that educational
leaders change the conversation to value the social and cultural wealth these students bring to
higher education institutions (Sánchez-Connally, 2018). A student-ready institution genuinely
believes in students’ positionalities, culture, and abilities to succeed (Brown McNair et al.,
2016). Acknowledging this cultural wealth stimulates talents, creativity, and capacities that are
meaningful and demonstrable to the student experiences, support, and educational objectives
(Brown McNair et al., 2016).
For example, According to Bolman and Deal’s (2017) framing theory, structural framing
looks at the top-down frameworks through which higher education institutions operate but falls
short in more fluid and intentional approaches for equitable advancement, such as faculty hiring
(Bolman & Deal, 2017). Educators, scholars, administrative leaders, academic advisors,
presidents, faculty, and staff all play an essential role in advancing equitable education. Further,
structural framing allows practitioners to revise inequitable systemic barriers and social capital
18

constraints and question the systems of power that have gone unquestioned, disregard
discussions about changing processes and policies, or render structural alternatives.
Understanding the social and political environments of educational institutions’ everyday
operations is essential to intentionally approach change, build equity, and equip first-generation
Latino students with the tools and guidance to succeed in college.
As mentioned in Chapter One, Latino students are the largest minoritized student
population enrolled in college, with a 16.5% share of all enrollment (Gonzalez & Morrison,
2016). Four-year universities and community colleges across the United States are seeing an
increase in these students’ enrollment; however, institutions are seeing a decrease in retention
and graduation rates for these students (Flink, 2018). Additionally, research shows that first-
generation Latino students typically experience barriers in college, such as discrimination and
stereotypes, which may impact their retention and graduation rates (Flink, 2018). According to
Flink (2018), many first-generation students lack the social and academic capital to navigate
institutional environments and achieve higher education success and upward mobility. In 2014,
the U.S. Census reported that 15% of Latinos had completed a baccalaureate or higher degree,
initiating a response by the U.S. Department of Education acknowledging the implications and
need to prepare the college-ready student regardless of race, ethnicity, culture, disability, or
socioeconomic background (Convertino & Graboski-Bauer, 2018). Because the Latino
population is estimated to double by 2050 and make up 30% of the U.S. population (Flink,
2018), their college readiness deserves attention beyond a high school curriculum, diploma,
related postsecondary interventions, or systems that are commonly drawn to prepare the college-
ready student (Tierney & Sablan, 2014).
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Environmental factors automatically position Latino students at risk of low persistence
and retention (Arbona & Nora, 2007). Environmental factors external to ethnic minority
populations’ college experiences influence their decisions to remain in college. For example,
83% of women who reported taking care of their family were more likely to leave college, an
external factor affecting their retention and persistence (Arbona & Nora, 2007). Other factors
include low expectations from school personnel, unfavorable climate, and the lack of counseling
and advice to increase their knowledge to make informed decisions (Martinez et al., 2019).
According to Martinez et al. (2019), Latino students tend to be first-generation college students
who potentially lack financial guidance, face undocumented challenges, and lack access to
resources surrounding college preparatory experiences, thus contributing to low completion
rates. These students also rely heavily on school counseling and advising to guide their decisions.
Therefore, supporting the nontraditional and underserved Latino students beyond the curriculum
will be examined further in this review.
Students of color have reported that their experiences and relationships with school
educators, administrators, and staff are instrumental in allowing them to see college as an option,
creating aspirations and solidifying their goals, dreams, aspirations, and life passions (Martinez
et al., 2019). Because Latino students face cultural, linguistic, and socioeconomic challenges in
higher education (Flink, 2018), these elements must be examined when constructing intentional
pedagogy for successful and transformational pathways in preparing the college-ready student
(Tierney & Sablan, 2014). Research has shown that factors such as poverty, parental
involvement, cultural differences, lack of academic support, and limited English language skills
contribute to the barriers Latino students face. Student success is a collective effort to create
20

educational ecosystems of dynamic synergy through intentional, positive, and action-focused
support (Brown McNair et al., 2016).
Understanding the College Transition Process
The transition into higher education may appear overwhelming for many. For
underserved first-generation Latino students, it may seem a complicated process, as those from
inner-city communities encounter many challenges and intersectional barriers along their
academic journeys (Duncheon, 2018). This section will focus on understanding the college
transition process and its relationship to Latino students’ experiences. I discuss the college
transition process and the role of transitional programs, resources, and community outlets as
foundational structures to support Latinos’ transition into college.
Research has reported that 1st-year Latino students struggle to adjust to college
environments and coursework, feel overwhelmed, and are unprepared to meet faculty and
institutional expectations (Duncheon, 2018). Therefore, early connections to information and
literary resources introduce them to transitional programs, career pathways, and community
opportunities that amplify their ability to succeed. College-level preparation, while structurally
complex, is more than just evaluating students’ testing performance. According to Duncheon
(2018), drawing on cultural and social capital theories to students’ transitional experiences
creates intentional, unique, and equitable preparation. Building a sense of belonging also centers
students’ performance and supports and provides value to their identities. Cole et al. (2020)
noted that the higher education achievement gap remains a challenge, particularly for students
from historically marginalized backgrounds who identify as low-income and first-generation.
Therefore, it is essential to understand the college transition process and its relationship to the
experiences Latino students encounter as they navigate through higher education.
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Research has echoed the college transition to be comprehensive and integrated through
several pedagogical practices. To begin understanding the college transition, its definition must
be examined. According to Baber (2018), the college transition is the pathway to supporting
students through academic preparation, applying, enrolling, financing, and graduating from
higher education institutions. Holcombe and Kezar (2021) defined college transition as the
environment where intentional pedagogical practices and expertise are illustrated through a
student and academic affairs lens. Melguizo et al. (2021) asserted that college transition is
grounded in psychosocial development factors associated with academic, social, and cultural
affairs. Therefore, the college transition process is a valuable bridge to engage students in
postsecondary support and development. The process can be contextualized through various
perspectives and lenses that support the college-ready student. For example, college transition
programs are designed to help students through enrollment, access, and opportunities (Baber,
2018). These programs support students in acclimating to new environments, building a sense of
belonging, and providing initiative-taking advising support. In addition, they introduce students
to resources and services that can help them with tutoring, networking, building relationships,
financial aid, and peer support (Baber, 2018). These elements provide validation, a sense of
community, a willingness to participate, and an understanding of how higher education
contributes to their success.
According to Hallett et al. (2020), comprehensive college transition programs (CCTPs)
measure interpersonal validation and foster an environment of inclusion. This programming
creates a sense of belonging, builds community, and engages students in holistic advising efforts
through high-impact practices. The literature review will further discuss an analysis of holistic
advising and the components of high-impact practices. Research notes that transition programs
22

provide opportunities to enhance and enrich the student experience, particularly during their 1st
year when they may face transitional challenges and environmental displacements (Baber, 2018).
This displacement often occurs when individuals are exposed to sudden shifts, migration, or
impacts. Schlossberg’s transition theory, which is outlined later in this chapter, further explains
the displacement or transitional phases that alter students’ lives via anticipated or unarticulated
events. For students, transitioning from high school to college marks several important
milestones and exposure to new relationships, behaviors, and experiences. Therefore, intentional
intervention programs and mentoring can improve their persistence and retention (Treviño et al.,
2014). Transitional support programs include preparatory summer courses, tutoring services,
team-building exercises, and introductions to faculty members. (Treviño et al., 2014), Exposure
to these academic components helps to establish a clearer framework for faculty expectations,
the selection of majors, curricular paths, and potential areas of support, ultimately enhancing
students’ motivation.
In addition, transitional programs supplement the traditional academic advising
relationships between advisor and advisee. According to Melguizo et al. (2021), college
transition programs address first-time college students’ unique needs. For example, feeling a
sense of belonging in campus environments, self-efficacy, and mattering are contextualized
factors that help students thrive (Melguizo et al., 2021). Also, CCTPs proactively develop
student resources around financial assistance, mentorship, and social and cultural support while
promoting self-efficacy, self-purpose, and leadership (Kitchen et al., 2021). For example,
summer bridge programs provide intensive, holistic, and intentional support by introducing
students to college expectations before their first academic term (Gonzalez Quiroz & Garza,
2018). Summer bridge programs were initially created to support students from racial minority
23

communities to help prepare low-income and first-generation students who were deemed at risk
for the college experience (Cabrera et al., 2013). The programs typically offer in-depth
orientation to college life, resources, academic expectations, and institutional services.
Gonzalez Quiroz and Garza (2018) reported that summer bridge program participants
were more likely to persist to their 2nd year in college and demonstrated significantly higher
graduation rates. Bridging students with transitional programming is fundamental to shaping
their academic success. The college transition allows students to develop a sense of community,
skills, and abilities to navigate institutional environments. Research findings reveal that
educational development and lifelong learning occur when creativity, innovation, and diversity
are adapted. Because of this, underserved first-generation students of color need to adopt such
techniques as they are known to evolve such traits much later than their White counterparts.
Hallett et al. (2020) found that it is vital for college transition programming to create experiences
and drive student capacity through informed education inside and outside the classroom (Hallett
et al., 2020). For example, mentoring and guiding students with information literacy is also key
to persistence and retention. As there are many informational platforms to navigate higher
education, college transition programs can further aid students in becoming more resourceful,
confident, and open-minded to explore new areas through information-driven learning. Engaging
in robust and innovative practices increases students’ epistemological educational frames and
enhances their performance (Hallett et al., 2020).
Many colleges and universities developed college transition programs that provide
academic and social support to underrepresented students of color (Cabrera et al., 2013). With
over 4,300 higher education institutions in the United States, supporting student access,
development, transition, and success is vital (Bess & Dee, 2012). The attention and responsibility
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to develop comprehensive college transition processes benefit students’ psychosocial outcomes,
engagement, persistence, and retention. When students are connected to learning spaces, they
integrate academically and socially into their surrounding environments. For example, Melguizo
et al. (2021) noted that the literature highlights psychosocial outcomes, representing students’
motivation and abilities to thrive. The literature reveals that a sense of belonging, mattering, and
academic and social self-efficacy are success outcomes (Melguizo et al., 2021). These elements
are associated with building relationships, feeling included, valued, focused, and linked to
happiness, opportunities, and abilities to attain educational goals. Higher education institutions
work toward traditional measures of success, such as graduation rates, but fall short of assessing
the elements that support students’ path toward degree attainment. Because of this, it is equally
important to consider the environmental indicators of students’ success, such as psychosocial
development factors linked to persistence and achievement (Melguizo et al., 2021). These factors
include an association with mattering, a sense of belonging, community, and spaces where
students can transparently present their creativity, innovation, and unique abilities.
While college transition programs may be promising methods to foster and promote
student success, what does it mean for first-generation Latino students exploring and navigating
their way to higher education? Their experiences in college transition programming must be
considered. Embracing students’ strengths, experiences, and life challenges is needed to help
them move forward with high expectations, determination, and commitment to approach their
developing academic careers.
The rapid growth of Latino students in U.S. schools is accompanied by their unique
strengths, cultures, and needs. Intervention programs that provide this community with additional
support provide an opportunity to influence positive behaviors and encourage high school
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completion and continued higher education (Treviño et al., 2014). However, many programs that
support college readiness help students gain college access, but not many support the transition
process, which is a set foundation for persistence and retention.
Additionally, the role of educators in supporting postsecondary college transition among
Latino communities holds a significant position in their involvement, commitment, and influence
to persist. Treviño et al. (2014) examined educators’ roles and relationships among Latino
student college transition programs. The study highlights that mentoring relationships between
educators and students connect to student success. Culturally influenced educational practitioners
in learning spaces emotionally support students and serve as role models who create intentional
and informed pedagogical environments for student success. The findings identified that 75% of
students indicated that mentors’ guidance helped them develop confidence in their academic
abilities, and 83% said it helped them navigate their college transition (Treviño et al., 2014). The
results also indicated that Latino students might enter the university with little to no knowledge
of navigating institutional systems, meaning institutions must aim to build these students’
familiarity with campus staff, peers, mentors, and student support services. Intentionally
structuring college environments to aid and support students through mentorship and advisement
can improve all students’ college readiness and promote pathways to college completion.
Understanding the Factors That Contribute to Latino Students’ Persistence and Retention
This segment will focus on the social, cultural, and environmental factors that Latino
students look for as contributors to their academic success. In this section, I will discuss these
different areas as critical factors impacting students’ persistence and retention. I investigate the
history and review the ongoing narratives, inequities, and segregation Latino students face in the
26

United States. I also outline the absence of academic resources and support Latino students face
through systemic and intersectional barriers.
Since its inception, formal education in the United States has marked social, cultural, and
environmental superiority. American education still presents the demands of racist capitalism,
hierarchical superiority, and White supremacy ideologies. Institutional organizations,
policymakers, administrative leaders, and governmental agencies blur the inequitable and
intersectional barriers people of color face in the United States. For centuries, a racialized global
society has been ignored (Patel, 2016). Patel (2016) argued that the U.S. educational system,
while not built for children from marginalized communities, feeds Americans with an illusion of
social mobility in a society plagued by racism and oppression.
Educational environments and instructional learning are foundational elements for
understanding student experiences (Shelton, 2019). Awareness of students’ social, cultural, and
environmental capital is essential to improving learning communities. In 2013, the U.S. Census
Bureau reported that the Latino population exceeded 53 million (Matos, 2021). Despite this
growth, cultural, social, and environmental disparities continue for Latino students, and access to
undergraduate and advanced degrees remains low (Matos, 2021). The need to address inequitable
climates is pressing in postsecondary education and is necessary (Shelton, 2019). Educators must
rethink the student experience and connect cultural knowledge with academic knowledge
(Gonzalez & Morrison, 2016). Latino students bring a wealth of skills, creativity, and
multilingualism into educational environments (Gonzalez & Morrison, 2016). The increase in
diversity and globalization demands the redesign of educational frameworks to better prepare
college-ready students.
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Promoting a sense of belonging in educational ecosystems increases the wealth of
knowledge and experiences for both educators and learners. Access to education is not enough;
institutional and organizational climates must also provide the opportunity to build a sense of
belonging to increase students’ persistence and retention in college. Research states that
students’ persistence and retention in higher education success are drawn on various narratives.
However, a sense of safety, inclusion, engagement, connection, and belonging are valuable
centering factors that derive a successful college experience for students (Shelton, 2019).
According to Lewis et al. (2021), students in higher education find a sense of belonging by
building connections, community, and relationships to which they can relate. Social, cultural,
and environmental responsibility practices in learning communities enhance collegiate
experiences. Luedke (2019) stated that “a negative campus climate can decrease students’ sense
of belonging and increase feelings of marginality for Latino students” (p.373). On this basis,
students may find it difficult to become engaged in educational environments that do not have a
cultural connection that helps them feel comfortable and welcome. On the contrary, these
settings affect academic performance, persistence, retention, and takes on academia.
Social Capital
In this section, I discuss the notion of social capital centered on relationships and its
connection to student success in retention and persistence to achieve higher education degrees.
According to Bhandari and Yasunobu (2009), social capital is a collective asset of shared norms,
values, beliefs, trust, networks, and relationships that facilitate cooperation and collective action
for mutual benefits. Social capital is a multidimensional concept with different measurement
levels concerning student success. This section’s properties of social capital appear as an
explanatory variable in students’ educational performance.
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The literature states that one in five college students will drop out during or after their 1st
year, making intervention and initiative-taking necessary (D’Lima et al., 2014). Additionally,
some college students might have difficulty balancing multiple personal and career
responsibilities as they strive to meet their educational goals. This is more often seen among
underserved Latino students from inner-city urban communities, who may have trouble
balancing their time, feel unprepared, and worry about financial matters (D’Lima et al., 2014).
For example, in a study focused on minority higher education students and the influence of
environmental factors on their degree attainment, 83% of women of color who reported taking
care of their families were more likely to leave college than their male counterparts (Arbona &
Nora, 2007). Therefore, setting goals is not enough to perform and succeed.
Awareness of social capital is essential to help students face challenges and navigate
foreign environments, personal obligations, economic concerns, race, and ethnic oppression.
Latino students’ social networks and relationships are central to their lives, success, and
achievement and are resources that positively impact, expand, facilitate, and activate successful
postsecondary trajectories (Rios-Aguilar & Deil-Amen, 2012). In other words, to foster Latino
students’ resilience, educators must nurture growth through social contexts, inspiring motivation,
facilitating socially responsive learning environments, and expanding students’ social network
ties. Rios-Aguilar and Deil-Amen (2012) emphasized that, to transition through college, Latino
students must either reconfigure their social networks or create new ones that inspire and
motivate them and lead their educational journeys. These efforts require studying the distinctions
of students’ social capital and how it operates in postsecondary settings.
According to D’Lima et al. (2014), research focusing on Latino students has discovered
social support and organizational connection; their college climate is strongly correlated with
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academic persistence and retention. Students express that their reasons for remaining in college
are primarily connected to fear of parental disappointment, family encouragement, and positive
relationships with faculty and peers. Researchers have also found that Latino students with
diverse experiences, backgrounds, community involvement, and engagement in internal and
external climates perform better academically (Stokes, 2021). Students require support in hostile
racial environments. Educational communities harbor negative stereotypes. For students of color,
awareness of their ethnic and social positionalities by their peers, educators, and community
provides hope, capability, and willingness to put aside political and racial oppression.
Cultural Capital
In this section, I discuss cultural capital as a factor represented in the literature on Latino
students’ persistence and retention in achieving higher education success. Through this lens, it is
demonstrated that culture is a fundamental component of students’ academic achievement,
particularly in HSIs. Fostering a connection between cultural heritage and college culture
environments offers a safe space and sense of belonging for students to blend into (Gonzalez &
Morrison, 2016). On this basis, it is significant to acknowledge that several diverse U.S. civil
rights groups have sought fair and equitable education for over 100 years. The concepts of
superiority, White supremacy ideologies, embedded practices, and property rights continue to
create inequitable justice systems. It is essential to consider that students’ cultural positionalities
are at the foundational core of this justice framework. Individuals’ cultures are grounded by
beliefs, values, and ethical principles that are not always acceptable, respected, or welcomed in a
culturally diverse society. Research has identified cultural relevance as an underlying factor that
encourages students’ persistence and retention (Colón-Muñiz & Lavadenz, 2016). Gonzalez and
Morrison (2016) referenced that literature has found the Latino culture complex and multifaceted
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based on several factors: generation, immigration status, country of origin, and socioeconomic
status. This community’s classification and oppressed ideologies automatically construct
inequitable paths, label identities, and reduce the attainment of academic success for Latino
students.
Applying culturally relevant strategies to better support Latino students in higher
education is vital to their success. Underserved Latino students’ cultural positionalities
automatically place them at risk of the intersectional barriers they face in their communities.
Yosso (2005) theorized this as awareness of community cultural wealth. According to Yosso,
culture, as a set of characteristics, is neither fixed nor static. Individuals constantly grow, learn,
and develop through language, identities, behaviors, and cultures. Therefore, when educational
learning communities foster inclusivity and drive culturally relevant efforts, students feel
empowered, build resilience, and nurture their identities. In other words, community cultural
wealth theory depicts students’ ability to understand their potential, skills, abilities, and
knowledge to overcome disparities and oppressed environments. Yosso mentioned that cultural
capital is narrowly defined by White and middle-class values and is more limited than wealth.
Centering on this lens, becoming change agents requires increasing resources and
creating intentional opportunities for Latino students; cultural capital must be aspirational,
navigational, linguistic, familial, and resistant throughout various learning environments (Yosso,
2005). For example, aspirational capital refers to students’ ability to dream, hope, and elevate
their interest in achieving academic success despite real and perceived barriers, challenges, or
obstacles. Linguistic capital refers to the social skills, cognitive abilities, and experiences
attained by knowing more than one language. It also refers to the ability to communicate through
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visual art, music, and poetry. Yosso (2005) explained that these tools help students enhance their
literacy and metalinguistic awareness and engage their learning in relatable social climates.
Familial capital refers to the nurtured understanding of familia, which may include
immediate family (Yosso, 2005). Familial wealth regards emotional connections, support,
religious beliefs, community settings, and moral encouragement from those close to us. These
ties enhance students’ motivation, self-efficacy, persistence, and consciousness as they go
through their educational trajectories. As outlined in the previous section, social capital can be
understood as the relationships, networks, and community people are connected to that are
instrumental support to navigating academic environments. Lastly, navigational capital refers to
the skills, strategies, presence, conditions, and competencies students may take to navigate,
survive, and overcome educational obstacles or challenges (Yosso, 2005). Lastly, resistant
capital fosters students’ verbal and non-verbal behavior through persistence (Yosso, 2005).
Resistant capital can be transformative among first-generation Latino students to increase their
interest, passion, and motivation in the face of adversity in oppressive environments.
For example, according to Rivera et al. (2019), despite Latino students’ growing
enrollment, one of the most significant challenges in the United States is improving the gaps in
educational achievement of this community, who are at risk for academic failure. The factors that
may lead students to fail in achieving their goals can be attributed to many of the capital
elements outlined by Yosso (2005). There is a 29% increase of Latino students dropping out of
school when critical elements of support are not in place (Rivera et al., 2019). Therefore,
students must strive to uncover their culture to persist through the academic support they receive.
Exploring their cultural journey allows them to become more aware of their identities by
building self-efficacy and adopting initiative-taking behaviors, practices, and positive mindsets.
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This is likely to occur and be supported when cultural relevance, individual leadership,
creativity, diversity, and strengths are encouraged and developed by teachings and intentional
pedagogical practices. Cultural relevance to their learning creates a sense of victory in their
everyday lives and builds confidence, purpose, and awareness to persist in academics. Investing
in student programs and resources that foster a sense of community is an example of initiative-
taking actions to improve, connect, and support students’ cultural capital.
Environmental Capital
In this section, I discuss environmental capital. For this literature review, environmental
capital refers to the environments that impact student success, persistence, and retention.
Environmental capital refers to community resources, information literacy, college support
programs, educational development opportunities, and relationships that enrich students’
academic environments and shape their educational trajectories (Rivera et al., 2019).
Environments that create a sense of belonging and where individual differences, unique
capabilities, innovation, and creativity foster purposeful and intentional meaning for students to
grow and persist.
Students’ academic environments play a significant role in their persistence and retention.
At the same time, they also help frame students’ active, productive, and positive learning
environments. Therefore, it is important to evaluate educational resources, organizational
structures, programs, and community relationships as environments wherein Latino students
complete higher education. The ongoing inequalities and discrimination Latino students face
often prevent them from expressing their unique skills, talents, creativity, and innovative abilities
(Rivera et al., 2019). Addressing these inequalities requires high-level discussions and
intellectual conversations on the narratives and counternarratives surrounding identity,
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inequality, desegregation, and policy as ongoing efforts to improve students’ conditions and
experiences, not only in the college environment but also in our societal environments (Colón-
Muñiz & Lavadenz, 2016).
The impact of an enriched educational environment creates a growing body of support,
commitment, and social responsibility. Underserved Latino youth from inner-city communities
often live in higher-risk environments. According to Martinez and Polo (2018), these
environments are more likely to have limited educational resources, social-economic inequities,
and violent neighborhoods. Exposure to these can create challenges and intersectional barriers
for students limiting their success in advancing and completing higher education degrees
(Martinez & Polo, 2018). Educational leaders, systems, and organizations often lose sight of
what it is to live and teach in inner-city urban communities and consider what drives
disadvantaged and underserved students. Educators, counselors, mentors, and academic advisors
can help students construct counternarratives about themselves and their communities to help
them succeed in their academic careers (Anderson, 2017). For example, Chicago, Illinois, is
historically known as one of the country’s most racially segregated, inequitable, and violent
urban communities (Anderson, 2017). In a state like Illinois, educational systems, administrative
leaders, and community advocates must first understand students’ identities, culture,
positionalities, barriers, and challenges they face in their environmental communities to be
understood and affirmed before learning occurs (Anderson, 2017). According to Anderson
(2017), teachers in under-resourced communities in Chicago often use and adapt alternative
pedagogical practices, curricula, and paths to show and empower students that they have the
value to succeed and can use their education to allow themselves to persist in obtaining higher
education degrees.
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Education enables upward mobility and is key to individual career, social, and economic
development. Arellano (2020) reported that by 2050, one out of every three individuals (31%) in
the United States will be of Latino descent. Therefore, attention to developing and creating
equitable learning environments for this group is ethical and critical. Their advancement, growth,
and success significantly impact social, economic, and cultural sustainability efforts that affect
the United States and our global environments (Arellano, 2020).
However, the quality of education must provide inclusive and equitable opportunities to
ensure long-term success for all students. Student activities pertaining to pre-college transitional
programming, in-college student services, and co-curricular advocacy can offer unique
experiences to explore and enhance student growth and development. Efforts in intentional
programming strengthen their communication, technical skills, and confidence and empower
their resilience to continue pursuing higher education degrees attainment.
According to Rivera et al. (2019), college readiness programs provide an opportunity to
invest in Latino youth from inner-city communities who show academic promise but are
considered at risk. “At risk” is a term used to designate students who may face academic
difficulty or are perceived as more likely to drop out of school (Fairbrother, 2008). What then
encompasses a thriving program environment? Rivera et al. (2019) found that successful college
transitional programs change mindsets toward pursuing educational, personal, and career goals.
Effective programs develop intentional and transformational outcomes that shift students’
paradigms, enhance cognitive abilities, and inform the disadvantaged or underserved
communities of color of the many possibilities to reach their dreams and goals regardless of race,
ethnicity, or socioeconomic situation.
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Furthermore, studies show that students’ participation in academic programs, community
resources, and activities creates a sense of belonging, inclusion, and purpose (Hallett et al.,
2020). Intentional programming and measurable holistic environments empower students to go
beyond their circumstances by finding personal validity to their success. The literature outline in
this section brings attention to community resources, educational systems, intersectional barriers,
and culture attributed to educational environments. These elements are channels that support
preparing the college-ready student and are not questioned, changed, or evaluated.
Educational systems must be set up for success and provide equitable opportunities
regardless of geographical location. Therefore, uncovering inequitable educational patterns
advances students’ well-being, particularly impacting urban inner-city underserved youth
communities. These social and environmental determinants should not affect students’
educational dreams, goals, and aspirations throughout the country; more than barriers, they
present gaps of decreasing degrees, social-economic advancement, and equitable mobility among
communities of color.
Cognitive Abilities and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Critical Components of
College Readiness
There are many components to why students fail or struggle in their 1st year of college.
According to Yavuz et al. (2019), approximately 40% of high school graduates in the United
States are not prepared to meet the rigor of college coursework. When students fail their first
semester, the common assumption is that they are not prepared to succeed in higher education.
However, this outcome can be due to many intersectional barriers, challenges, and broken
systems of power that produce a lack of college readiness for first-generation students of color,
especially those from inner-city communities. For example, most Latino students in U.S.
36

colleges and universities are first-generation and often lack the support and understanding to
perform well academically (Flink, 2018). Besides the lack of academic readiness, there is also a
gap in retention and persistence, particularly concerning students’ cognitive abilities and
pedagogical practices.
Aligning cognitive abilities and culturally relevant pedagogical practices to student
learning allows for intentional and transformational teaching spaces contributing to persistence
and retention (Ali, 2017). An essential aspect of students’ educational experiences is their
surrounding learning environments. Because of this, it is necessary to prepare teachers,
educators, and administrative leaders who are critically conscious of their positionalities and
those of the diverse student populations they serve (Douglas & Nganga, 2015). For example, in
classrooms, students notice instructional behaviors, communication, expectations, beliefs, and
feedback facilitated by their faculty (Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education, 2015).
These components are instrumental to students’ performance, mindsets, conceptual growth,
relevance, and interaction, impacting their cognitive development. Studies of cognitive
development emphasize that students’ reasoning is not limited or determined by an underlying
cognitive stage linked to age or grade level (Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education,
2015). Students are capable of higher-level thinking when interacting with others, exposed to
challenging tasks, and connected to sociocultural contexts they are familiar with (Coalition for
Psychology in Schools and Education, 2015). Therefore, to better support college-ready students’
understanding, the principles that affect their learning are vital to helping them make sense of
their goals, dreams, aspirations, purpose, and motivation to succeed academically.
According to Miller (2011), teachers must consider what cognitive research has found
regarding students’ memory, psychological factors, and information processing to better frame
37

their instruction and performance in and outside the classroom. Obtaining and holding students’
attention improves their persistence and retention because of individuals’ different learning
styles (Miller, 2011). Significant attention to students’ intellectual orientations and cognitive
reasoning abilities in teaching spaces is essential to shape practices and approaches and enhance
skills to assist students transitioning into higher education (Culver et al., 2021). The key lies in
prioritizing the development of students’ cognitive abilities through a purposeful curriculum,
equitable syllabi, comprehensive advising approaches, and relevant pedagogy that directly
influences their learning, adaptability, preparedness, and personal growth.
Instructional engagement across different pedagogical approaches also improves student
autonomy, motivation, and self-efficacy. Intentional learning techniques contribute to their
adaptability to new environments (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2016). Students’ performance
increases when epistemological frames are enhanced, influenced, and aligned with creative
pedagogical materials. According to the Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education
(2015), applicable to cognitive development, “students enjoy learning and do better when they
are more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated to achieve” (p. 16). Intrinsic motivation means
feeling competent and expressing willingness and joy when taking on tasks, assignments, or
projects (Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education, 2015). On the other hand, extrinsic
motivation focuses on reward, praise, and engaging in learning tasks to an end (Coalition for
Psychology in Schools and Education, 2015). As students develop competence, knowledge,
skills, and techniques that are foundational to support their learning, they construct ways that
either intrinsically or extrinsically motivate their performance, persistence, and effort to engage.
Therefore, promoting intrinsic pedagogical practices can better motivate and support
students’ college readiness and, thus, positive college transition. Equitable learning environments
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thrive from creativity, innovation, exploration, and intentional leadership. Transformational
pedagogical, methodological, and theoretical approaches that meet the complex demands of 21st-
century academics are essential to aid college readiness. These elements are potent predictors of
engagement, persistence, and retention for first-generation Latino students learning (Lundberg,
2014).
In addition, inequalities such as test-taking are a significant block for inner-city students’
college readiness. Research has demonstrated that minority students of color score lower than
their White counterparts in standardized testing. However, many institutions and educational
organizations have recently removed mandatory standardized testing like the Scholastic Aptitude
Test, American College Testing, or the Graduate Record Examination. For example, an article
published by the University of California Los Angeles (Pham & Sato, 2021) stated that removing
standardized test score requirements help bridge income disparities and racial
underrepresentation. First-generation and underrepresented minority students have
disproportionately low access to advanced placement courses, counselors, and academic
resources forcing students to navigate the college experience alone and become self-reliant
learners (Pham & Sato, 2021).
The disparities among urban communities, first-generation, and underrepresented
students in academic environments make it significantly more challenging for them to achieve
higher education degrees. Ladson-Billings and Tate (2006) emphasized that when comparing
African Americans and Latinos with incomes comparable to Whites, there is still an achievement
gap as measured by standardized testing. Because of this, educational leaders across the United
States should consider revisions to Common Core practices. The Common Core Standards
represent guidelines across individual states in English, language arts, and mathematics. The
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National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and the Council of Chief State School
Offices lead these standards to develop and establish consensus on expectations for students’
knowledge and skills in grades K–12 (Porter et al., 2011). Moving toward more informed,
innovative approaches, curricula, pedagogic practices, critical thinking, and access to
information literacy that is not well addressed by standardized testing can better prepare students
for college and the workforce (Samson, 2010). Academic Common Core literacy has been
heavily criticized for its narrow concepts of cognitive reading skills and isolated facts (Turner,
2019). Per Turner (2019), literacy should be about mastering critical thinking, social
imagination, expressing creativity, exploring innovative efforts, and cultural consciousness to
achieve college and career success (Turner, 2019).
For first-generation Latino students, sharing equitable expectations, assessment, and
intentional and meaningful pedagogy supports representation, value, and sustained educational
environments for lifelong learning. First-generation students from low socioeconomic
backgrounds have the most difficulty accessing college, let alone becoming college-ready (Reid
& Moore, 2008). Focus and relevance to their social and cultural frameworks foster support,
encouragement, and resiliency, developing motivation, personal goals, and positive behaviors
(Rivera et al., 2019). This entails creating a sense of belonging, providing mentoring, expressing
creativity through their performance, and acknowledging abilities best measured by the student
to accomplish their goals.
Identifying and assessing learning outcomes is critical to students’ knowledge in
retrieving and effectively using information, skills, and techniques related to college readiness
(Samson, 2010). The stories and challenges faced by first-generation Latino students from urban
inner-city schools and underserved communities cannot continue to be overlooked. With the
40

continual increase of Latino students in colleges and universities, their academic success has
significant political, social, and economic implications for the United States’ sustainability
efforts (Flink, 2018). These implications include increased employment opportunities,
businesses, accessibility to community resources, financial stability, housing initiatives, and
quality education. The statistical representation in higher education systems indicates the need
for better support across collegiate organizations for Latino students. Approximately 58% of
Latino students enrolled in institutions of higher education are enrolled in community colleges,
and 25% are enrolled in HSIs (Flink, 2018). Nonetheless, Latino students face systemic and
intersectional barriers despite this growth, automatically placing them at risk (Dee & Penner,
2017).
Supporting students through college means understanding their cultural, social, and
cognitive abilities. College readiness is not an uncomplicated action to offer easy outcomes that
do not require systemic change but a step to move forward universally and ethnocentrically by
acknowledging cultural differences (Andreotti, 2016). Students’ knowledge is based on their
upbringing, everyday experiences, social interactions, feedback, and beliefs about their
intelligence (Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education, 2015). What they have been
taught in other settings is equally essential and impacts their classroom performance. These
experiences and cultural differences affect how they incorporate new learning, educational
understandings, growth, and academic transformation (Coalition for Psychology in Schools and
Education, 2015). For example, outlining clear and shared goals allows educators to build
comfortable learning environments, broaden opportunities, and take bolder approaches to refine
education to create equitable opportunities. Therefore, developing high-impact, equity-minded,
and data-driven practices can promote socially and culturally conscious development for students
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and educators to assess performance deliverables. Constructing intentional syllabi from primary
school to college creates commitment, persistence, and purpose for the learner to seek
educational advancement (Arbona & Nora, 2007).
Relevance to real-world competencies is needed for Latino students to succeed in
academia and their communities (Samson, 2010). Education research has demonstrated that
culturally relevant pedagogy helps to unlock students’ potential, particularly from inner-city or
marginalized communities (Dee & Penner, 2017). Achievement gaps among underrepresented
groups are a continued deficit effect of cultural capital: skills, techniques, and dispositions
related to the dominant culture that could otherwise support persistence, retention, and student
success (Dee & Penner, 2017). Incorporating cultural competencies into pedagogical practices
creates intentional learning. For example, drawing in cultural environments for underserved
students of color from urban inner-city schools into classroom spaces engages the learner,
affirms identity and sense of belonging, and promotes academic success by giving value to their
diverse intersectionalities (Dee & Penner, 2017).
Students’ college adjustment involves feeling connected, enjoying acquiring new
knowledge, engaging in co-curricular activities, and building relationships with peers and faculty
committed to their academic success (Zea et al., 1995). Research has found that students benefit
from interactions with faculty, student organizations, and educational communities that validate
and enhance their commitment, persistence, and sense of belonging (Lundberg, 2014).
Additionally, studies demonstrate that students in mentoring relationships with faculty increase
social and academic integration at their educational institutions (Lundberg, 2014). According to
Kumar and Lauermann (2018), the teacher workforce is far from diverse in the United States,
with White teachers representing 88% of classroom representation in K–12. This
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overrepresentation of a racialized teaching space can develop racial ideologies, practices,
interpretations, and privileges, making racially minoritized faculty and students feel less
supported, encouraged, and silenced (Liera, 2019).
Equitable education is multicultural, creates justice, and disrupts the traditionally
designed opposing ideals and beliefs of maladaptive classroom practices (Kumar & Lauermann,
2018). Therefore, Kumar and Lauermann (2018) noted that teacher education programs must
foster critical reflection into building culturally diverse instructional practices that support
growth, strengthen teaching space climates, and focus on intra-individual efforts rather than
normative comparisons between students. Intentionally adapting instructional leadership,
introducing relevant pedagogy, and valuing cultural identities allow institutions to tap into
students’ creativity and traits often seem missed or not realized by oppressed environments.
Validating individual direction requires building trust, instilling awareness, and creating
objectives and goals to foster resilience and block disparities.
Supporting Latino Students in the 21st Century
What factors best distinguish the college-ready student in 21st-century academia?
Specifically, what does this mean for the U.S. Latino college student? According to Flores et al.
(2021), a prognosis for higher education expansion suggests that Latino students from low-
income underrepresented minority communities are the lead population enrolled in colleges and
universities in the United States. The traditional narrative of White students as the majority
enrolled in higher education institutions is no longer the norm, transforming the composition of
higher education in 21st-century practices, support, and experiences (Flores et al., 2021). Latino
students are central figures in the enrollment and completion of higher education degrees and
currently represent most students in the nation’s largest school districts and postsecondary
43

systems. However, while Latino students are the largest ethnic group enrolled in colleges and
universities in the United States, they have the lowest completion rates (Mireles-Rios & Garcia,
2019).
In 2019, the National Center for Education Statistics reported that 15% of Latino students
held a bachelor’s degree, compared with 41% of Whites, 63% of Asians, and 22% of Black
people. Low completion rates among Latino students present a problem, necessitating the
identification of factors contributing to Latino students’ persistence and retention in 21st-century
academic support. Research suggests that the extent to which students interact, engage,
communicate, and perceive their culture in their educational environment plays a pivotal role in
their success (Mireles-Rios & Garcia, 2019).
For example, Latino students from underrepresented communities traditionally excluded
from college transition resources and support can find it challenging to navigate the world of
academia, especially those who may be the first in their families to attend college (Baber, 2018).
In conducting a college transition assessment, Rowe et al. (2015) reported on the skills relevant
to students to be college- and career-ready in the 21st century. Research suggests that the
transitional process in 21st-century academics should include academic achievement, self-
determination, career interest and exploration, and adaptive behavior for students to be
successful in higher education environments (Rowe et al., 2015). Providing helpful information
on career choices, course of study, performance, and culturally relevant learning helps students
set goals, build relationships, and guide their transition planning process.
Hui et al. (2021) reported that 21st-century employers expect new graduates to be job-
ready by demonstrating and having the competencies of top academic qualifications. For
example, employers are calling for college graduates to be competent in leadership techniques,
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people skills, communication skills, global awareness, and technology base knowledge to
succeed in their career development (Hui et al., 2021). Because of this, it is essential to create
learning spaces that promote and develop students’ competencies to gain well-rounded
experiences in and outside the classroom. According to Hui et al. (2021), firsthand activities,
learning, extracurricular performance, and leading innovation efforts according to students’
interests enhance their academic performance and job readiness.
Therefore, equipping the college-ready student means promoting students’ discovery of
their selected field of interest’s opportunities and challenges. Through collaborative and
intentional learning environments, students improve their performance, and the quality of
education supports equitable opportunities (Hui et al., 2021). Supporting Latino students in the
21st century means appreciating individual diversity and culture, building self-esteem and
confidence, and demonstrating inclusivity to gain the skills necessary to succeed (Hui et al.,
2021). For example, academic advising often goes beyond the daily one-on-one student
interactions. Like academic advising, student clubs, institutional organizations, and community
networks help support and lead individual self-efficacy.
Academic advising’s influence on student achievement must be considered. According to
Folsom and Joslin (2015), it is an exciting time for academic advisors because global recognition
of advising is growing. Research affirms academic advising as an integral component of
universities’ missions to improve students’ experiences (Folsom & Joslin, 2015). These
experiences may include implementing co-curricular offerings through workshops, seminars,
conferences, training, internships, and other student services resources that equally contribute to
building students’ core competencies and moving through their academic trajectories. Because of
this, providing knowledgeable, intentional, equitable, and realistic counsel to students in their
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academics is essential to help them frame their educational journeys and success. According to
the National Academic Advising Association (NACADA), academic advisors help to build
students’ leadership skills through their interactions and experiences in student organizations on
campus. The interaction and relationships between students and institutional leadership, staff,
and faculty contribute to their retention and persistence (Young-Jones et al., 2013). Drake and
Miller (2013) emphasized that academic advising can become the most necessary educational
resource in higher education to drive and articulate institutional goals, innovation, and creativity,
build community, and push the literary world for students in the 21st century.
Moreover, robust and innovative approaches to academic advising enrich informational
avenues for the underserved first-generation Latino student. Drake and Miller (2013) mentioned
that the vision is to motivate and inspire students to succeed. Holistic, intrusive, and
developmental academic advising increases students’ skills, traits, awareness, and knowledge.
Anchoring guidance through academic support fosters involvement, confidence, and self-
efficacy and helps them advocate for their passions. According to NACADA, the core values in
academic advising support a holistic approach to counseling that includes understanding
institutional deliverables and students’ needs. Academic advising helps shape meaningful
experiences for all students by encouraging their achievement, persistence, motivation, and life
goals (Young-Jones et al., 2013). Adapting intrusive academic advising efforts in 21st-century
academics increases students’ performance, particularly those considered at risk. Thomas (2020)
connected intrusive academic advising with the ability to offer introductory, developmental
courses to students about university life. Such a framework can help students develop the skills
needed to be successful college students and lifelong learners through classroom activities,
interactions, presentations, and the adaptation of high-impact projects. Creating a direct approach
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to learning expands students’ abilities and maximizes their performance within higher education
environments; the need is much greater among the first-generation Latino student community.
Gateway courses or college readiness intervention curricula impact longer-term college
success. For example, a study from Florida initiated a statewide implementation and exploratory
comparison. Mokher and Leeds (2019) explored the experience of 69 Latino students enrolled in
a first-semester general chemistry course who did not complete the class. The study evaluated
the students’ quantitative reasoning and analyzed their experiences based on prior knowledge of
chemistry and mathematics and an understanding of entry-level college skills. The findings
revealed that the students would be at risk early in their academic careers without the
fundamental techniques. For example, a broader career understanding of the field of chemistry
and the absence of essential soft skills (i.e., confidence, time management, teamwork, public
speaking, conflict resolution, motivation, and leadership) obstruct students’ abilities to succeed.
These techniques could have resulted in the students not passing the course.
The study further elaborated on applying high-impact practices to address students’
shortfalls in these areas to improve persistence and retention (Mokher & Leeds, 2019). High-
impact practices promote deep learning by supporting student engagement through research,
community-based experiences, collaborative projects, and emerging intellectual experiences in
1st-year seminar courses. Students can benefit from these approaches if they are deficient in
confidence, self-esteem, passion, and motivation. The study further evaluated seven higher
education institutions as part of a 4-year-long research project. First-year seminar courses that
support students’ transition and retention have become integral to 21st-century student success
and curriculum, particularly for college readiness. According to Stephen and Rockinson-Szapkiw
(2021), 1st-year experience courses promote self-regulation, self-direction, and self-efficacy
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learning to develop autonomous learners. At the same time, integrating high-impact practices in
pedagogical approaches supports students learning objectives, knowledge of diverse literature,
and human agency by building persistence and goal-minded student scholars (Stephen &
Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2021).
The factors associated with impacting persistence and retention among Latino students in
the United States are beyond the foundational aptitudes of college readiness. A look into the
21st-century college-ready student reveals that aiming and supporting Latino students through
holistic, equitable, and intentional approaches leads to long-term effects. Students look toward
leadership, relationships, cultural intervention, and safe classroom spaces to build their
creativity, aim to succeed and redefine their personal and academic goals. Therefore, when
students fall short in soft skills, educational leaders need to reassess students’ learning outcomes,
deliverables, and goals to achieve retention and persistence. The value of developmental advising
and building learning educational ecosystems that foster and support student persistence and
retention is vital to higher education success, particularly among first-generation Latino
communities.
Theoretical Framework: Schlossberg’s Transition Model
In this section, I present the theoretical framework guiding this study: Schlossberg’s
(2011) transition theory. The theory helps to understand the experienced transitions that alter
people’s lives and are drawn upon events or non-events, whether anticipated or unanticipated
(Schlossberg, 2011). Analyzing human adaptation to transition requires studying how
individuals’ life stages, cultures, identities, perceptions, and situations impact internal and
external occurrences (Schlossberg, 1981). This study will later illustrate such experiences
through the study’s interviews. Concerning college readiness, I also review the literature and
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studies that analyze human adaptation to transition, impacting the preparation of the college-
ready student for persistence and retention in higher education academics.
Schlossberg (2011) explained that people move through life experiencing transitions that
alter their lives. These events are usually expected or unexpected, and individuals’ reactions
change for better or worse while they experience the transition. Individuals move in and out of
shifts throughout their lives, particularly as their lives progress. Through those transitional
journeys, self-efficacy and the situations, surrounding support, and strategic approaches people
take could either support or obstruct their transitional process (Schlossberg, 2011). For example,
Schlossberg (1981) stated, “It is not the transition itself that is of primary importance, but rather
how that transition fits with an individual’s stage, situation, and style at the time of the
transition” (p. 5).
Schlossberg’s (2011) transition theory is based on a psychological model of development
that examines life events that affect several aspects of a person’s life and their societal roles,
relationships, routines, and assumptions. The principal component of Schlossberg’s theory is the
4S system model, an approach used to identify and help understand how people cope and are
influenced by their transition. Schlossberg’s (1984) 4S system model takes into consideration the
positive and negative assets people might have as they undergo a transition. These factors are
situation, self, supports, and strategies (Figure 1). Schlossberg (2011) explained that a situation
can trigger change, timing, and control of an event or non-event. Self refers to a person’s inner
strengths, sense of meaning, resilience, outlook, culture, and identity for coping with the
transition. Supports reference the network, associations, relationships, and resources that benefit
the sense of well-being during the transition. Lastly, Schlossberg referred to coping factors that
can reframe the transition process and help change how people view situations to cope better.
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According to Schlossberg (2011), strategies are opportunities to reduce stress, build resilience,
and identify approaches to handle transitions.
Schlossberg’s transition theory brings forward a level of individual variability by hearing
students’ stories, experiences, opinions, and behaviors of their educational journeys (Huerta &
Fishman, 2014). The theory and model help examine environmental factors such as family,
friends, culture, community, and resources as support mechanisms for a successful transition or
change in one’s life (Huerta & Fishman, 2014). Examining these elements of college readiness
can further aid educational researchers, academic leaders, and learning community advocates in
developing and implementing intentional, supported, equitable learning and college preparation
programming. Moreover, educational researchers and academic leaders can identify systemic,
institutional, and community influences that alter Latino students’ educational journeys for
persistence and retention. In the following section, I include three studies exploring students’
transitions to college and higher education degree attainment, which can reference Schlossberg’s
transition theory. The studies yield results in the same areas of situational settings, self-advocacy,
support systems, and strategic approaches to transition. These authors and academic scholars use
data sources such as interviews, observations, case studies, and focus groups (Bukoski & Hatch,
2016; Convertino & Mein, 2020; Michel & Durdella, 2019).
Convertino and Mein (2020) framed their research by analyzing first-generation Latino
engineering students’ representations of college readiness in their transition to college by
demonstrating what the students experienced. Through interviews and focus groups, students
described how they felt or did not feel ready to manage the college transition. The study yielded
results from students reporting that they did not feel prepared because they had no prior
instruction in technology, learning platforms, or material access used in college courses
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(Convertino & Mein, 2020). The transitional stories outlined are connected to Schlossberg’s
situation and support stages.
Michel and Durdella’s (2019) case study examined first-generation, low-income Latino
students’ social experiences and familial support during their transition from high school to 4-
year universities. The findings focused on students’ experiences and showed relationships,
information literacy, opportunities, community involvement, encouragement, and services as
guiding factors to help create and support self-productive environments in their transition. These
components are connected to educational networks, academic relationships, and organizations.
Schlossberg’s transition theory is instrumental in further analyzing and advancing students’
educational transitions and the influences contributing to their success in becoming college-ready
in 21st-century academic environments.
Bukoski and Hatch’s (2016) study acknowledges elements such as confidence, resilience,
positionality, and community through the students’ narratives revealed in the research. This
study focuses on Black and Latino men’s transition to community college. The data showed core
themes of mindset, skills, strategies, adaptation, and persistence. Although Bukoski and Hatch
(2016) did not directly use Schlossberg’s theory, the narratives that emerged from the research
reveal how essential it is to view college readiness through this theoretical lens. Students’
situations, self, support, and strategies vary depending on a person’s environment. The model
clarifies the transition people experience by identifying the type of transition (anticipated,
unanticipated, or non-event) and to which degree one’s life has been altered to process, persist
and approach different situations (Schlossberg, 2011).

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Summary
Schlossberg’s transition theory has been used to examine multiple college student
populations: first-generation students, Latino students, international students, veterans, and
transfer students. Because of this, the current study draws attention to Latino students’ bachelor’s
degree completion in the United States. According to a 2019 U.S. Census report, 18% of Latino
students obtain a bachelor’s degree within 6 years. Understanding these students’ positionalities
is vital to further aid equitable support and mobility in their educational transition. Social,
cultural, and educational environmental factors can potentially and automatically position Latino
students as at risk (Arbona & Nora, 2007). Schlossberg’s (2011) transition theory relates to
students’ perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors of feeling part of a community, and this is
particularly important as students navigate through education. Viewing college readiness through
this theoretical lens can provide students with the collegiate capital needed to help prepare them
to navigate higher education, academia, and realms of transition.
In summary, viewing college readiness through this lens helps highlight first-generation
Latino students’ transitional challenges, adaptations, and barriers they might face. It is important
to hear students’ stories, trajectories, and educational pathways to learn to better support and aid
their college readiness and increase equitable mobility. In alignment with this research,
conducting qualitative interviews will allow the study to reveal first-generation Latino students’
perceptions, thoughts, observable behaviors, opinions, and understanding of their college
preparation and transitional experiences. The researcher can also unfold students’ educational
stories and backgrounds and capture individual voices and experiences through interviews.
Developing an intentional, semi-structured, and refined interview protocol will help support this
research’s goal to examine the experiences of first-generation Latino college students at an HSI
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as it relates to their identities, values, and academic journeys. Finally, through Schlossberg’s
(2011) theory, the experiences set forward by students through their transitional experiences can
help view the types of events, challenging or non-challenging, moving in and out of transition.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter describes the research methods of this study, recruitment, data collection,
instrument, plan for data analysis, key definitions, and limitations. This study examined Latino
students’ experiences, thoughts, opinions, and beliefs on their educational journeys and college
readiness to better understand their college persistence and retention process at an HSI. The
research aims to establish a relationship between the pre-college educational, personal, and
pedagogical influences on the transitional events or non-events impacting students’ persistence
and retention. A qualitative approach to phenomenology experiences will look at real-world
behaviors, expectations, social structures, and beliefs of students’ capabilities (Agee, 2009). This
methodology is less controlled and more interpretive by the interviews conducted. The study
addressed the following research question: How do first-generation Latino students at an HSI
perceive college readiness and transitional experiences influence their persistence and retention
to earn a higher education degree?
Population and Sample
Historically, educational achievement gaps between communities of high and low
socioeconomic status have been a central concern. What does this mean for the first-generation
Latino student pursuing higher education degree attainment? Moreover, what is keeping the first-
generation Latino student from persisting in college? Research on college readiness does not
focus on this population’s social, cultural, and community educational and environmental capital
as elements in persistence (Gonzalez & Morrison, 2016). Therefore, there is a need to observe
and examine the factors that influence people’s motivation, ability, and willingness to persist in
their educational journeys and transitions. This qualitative study entailed semi-structured
interviews to reveal first-generation Latino students’ perceptions, thoughts, behaviors, opinions,
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and understanding of their college preparation and transitional experiences before, during, or
after their 1st year of college. According to U.S. News & World Report (2023), one in three 1st-
year students will not persist to sophomore year. The reasons are many: academic struggles,
financial hardships, a sense of belonging, family involvement, and other circumstances.
Therefore, the 1st-year experience is foundational in understanding, aiding, and better supporting
first-generation students who statistically show high dropout rates (U.S. News & World Report,
2023).
The goal is to support and increase equitable mobility by understanding students’
positionalities, particularly from inner-city urban communities and underserved populations
facing multiple systemic and intersectional barriers. Using Schlossberg’s (2011) transition theory
and 4S systems model, the study gives shape and direction to students’ perspectives and
experiences with college readiness and educational transition changes. The research brings
forward students’ resilience, barriers, conditions, and inequitable challenges in degree attainment
through the applied theoretical framework.
Site Selection
The study consisted of interviews with 10 students from Southern Public University
(pseudonym), a university in California recognized as an HSI by the U.S. Department of
Education. In 2021, the institution reported a total of approximately 27,000 undergraduate
students, with nearly half identifying as Hispanic or Latino. Furthermore, over 58% of these
students were pioneering a new path in their immediate families by pursuing a college degree.
The transition to college can pose unique challenges, especially for first-generation Latino
students. To gain valuable insights into their experiences, the study involved conducting
interviews with students from the College of Business Administration, which is the second
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largest college within the institution and has an enrollment of approximately 4,500
undergraduate students. The significant percentage of Hispanic or Latino students in the
institution highlights the importance of providing adequate support to promote their persistence
and retention, particularly in the context of a Hispanic-Serving Institution (HSI) where over 50%
of students identify as Hispanic or Latino.
The study site must focus on access, opportunity, resources, and services via robust,
intentional, and transformational equitable programming to help students succeed. This case
study sought to identify students’ college readiness and transitional experiences and contribute to
closing the equity graduation gaps between this minority and the future leading group of
scholars.
Participant Selection
The study participants were required to possess the following characteristics: self-
identification as Hispanic or Latino, first-generation undergraduate status, active enrollment at
Southern Public University, being 18 years of age or older, and successful completion of the
freshman experience course offered by the college of business administration. Students who did
not meet these criteria were excluded from the study.
The case study was specifically designed to establish intentional connections with first-
generation Latino students who had successfully completed the freshman experience course BUS
100. In the following section, I will provide an overview of the purpose, focusing the case study
on this course.
BUS 100
The designated campus includes eight distinct colleges, several of which mandate that
incoming freshman students enroll in a first-year experience course tailored to their specific
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major. Taking this course is of utmost importance for students starting college. These courses
provide a foundation for a transition into higher education by equipping students with skills,
knowledge, and strategies. They offer guidance on academic expectations, study skills, time
management, and effective communication, enabling students to navigate college coursework.
Moreover, these courses often foster personal growth and self-discovery, promoting students’
self-awareness, goal setting, and resilience. Additionally, freshman college experience courses
provide opportunities for students to connect with peers, faculty, and support services on
campus, fostering a sense of belonging and community. By engaging in a freshman college
experience course, students gain the tools and resources to thrive academically, socially, and
personally. For this case study, I concentrated specifically on the freshman experience courses
offered by the college of business administration. This decision was motivated by the fact that
the college is the second largest at the institution, with enrollment of 4,500 undergraduates, of
whom 60% are first-generation students and 52% identify as Hispanic or Latino.
The freshman experience course in the college of business administration serves as an
introduction to university life and aims to cultivate the skills for students to excel academically
and become lifelong learners. In addition to emphasizing personal and academic performance,
the course highlights ethical responsibility and provides a comprehensive understanding of the
business field. Despite the college’s notable population of first-generation Latino students, who
have shown high retention and graduation rates, there are still degree attainment gaps within this
group. To address this, the course incorporates these students’ experiences, challenges, and
transitional journeys, providing a platform to promote academic excellence while addressing
opportunities, support systems, programming, equity, and guidance tailored to their needs.
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Improving graduation rates and closing the equity gaps should be a central priority. This
case study sought to contribute to the investment, mentoring, and support of innovative efforts to
ensure all students achieve their academic goals. Furthermore, my interest in studying first-
generation Latino students stems from my identities, lived experiences, educational trajectories,
college transition processes, and the gaps in college readiness support programming for this
population across the United States.
Recruitment and Procedures
According to Lochmiller and Lester (2017), purposeful sampling is widely used in
qualitative research, particularly in studies involving a larger scale of interest, like students’
college readiness in the United States. Through purposeful sampling, the study intentionally
sought first-generation Latino students who completed the freshman experience course and
persisted in their education to earn a degree. Concentrating on selecting information-rich student
cases allowed the study to gather insight, meaning, inquiry, and experiences ascribed to a
particular phenomenon shared within a community, first-generation Latino students at a public 4-
year university. In addition, I used a snowball sampling method to generate student participation.
Through this approach, participants can refer others who may share the characteristics with the
targeted population (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).
The study’s procedures included sending an email invitation to actively enrolled
undergraduate college of business administration students, regardless of their class level, who
had completed the freshman experience course. The email communication included the study’s
flyer and screening questionnaire with a code generator (QR code) for simple access to the
online questionnaire (Appendices A, B, and E). Since the examination consisted of interviewing
actively enrolled students, the study required double approval from the institutional review
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board. I maintained initiative-taking follow-up email communication with the recruitment list to
guarantee 10 student participants. Once the students agreed to participate, I provided them with
an information sheet (Appendix C). The information sheet summarized the research project and
process in a format accessible to non-expert audiences. It also included the risks, harms, and
benefits of their participation.
Instrument
Participants took part in 60-minute individual interviews conducted in person, but they
had the option of an alternative method via the virtual video conferencing platform Zoom. A
semi-structured interview protocol aided in facilitating the interviews. Questions consisted of
personal thoughts and experiences with college readiness. I asked about their college transition,
focusing on understanding the support, resources, and pathways they faced through their
academic journeys. Finally, I asked about the types of support they received or did not receive
surrounding college readiness. In addition, as outlined in the interview protocol (Appendix D),
during each conversation, I reviewed the purpose of the study and asked for verbal permission to
record the interview, assign a pseudonym, and ensure consent and confidentiality measures were
addressed before starting the interview. Lastly, participants also received a $30 Amazon gift card
for their participation and contribution to the study.
Data Collection
According to Small (2009), when interpreting a study, the researcher can expect to learn
something empirical, observe conditions, or recognize the validity of the problem through
interviews as a criterion. Because of this, it is essential to create clarity and apply intentional
language to the study for non-experts and outside audiences to interpret. Doing so generates
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thoughtful responses from participants and can be observed for any ethical, cultural, or identity
biases (Small, 2009). The interviews in this study pertained to the participants’ educational
journeys by capturing their experiences or non-experiences related to college readiness that
informed their decisions and impacted their persistence and retention toward degree attainment.
Interviewing fewer participants in field-based research like this study can enable the researcher
to identify critical underlying factors, such as social inequities in environments. The study
investigated college readiness among first-generation Latino students at an HSI. Thus, this
dissertation used a case study approach to understand college readiness and transition among the
interviewees. A case study is a research method that involves in-depth examination and analysis
of a particular individual, group, or situation to gain insights and understanding of real-world
complexities and phenomena.
The interview recordings were transcribed verbatim, analyzed for thematic coding, and
edited for accuracy. In addition to asking participants to record their interviews, I took extensive
reflective notes, which I utilized for data analysis and reporting. Analyzing, reviewing, and
summarizing field notes aided in transcription. Patton (2002) emphasized that recording
interviews presents substantial fieldwork and qualitative analysis of participants’ insights,
beliefs, and opinions during a study’s data collection process.
Confidentiality and Withdrawal
All participant information was kept confidential, and I did not share the data, reporting,
and analysis with anyone outside the research. As the investigator, only I had access to the data
and maintained confidentiality to the extent permitted by law. I also ensured that participants
knew their answers and comments would not be shared with any organization. Audio records,
transcriptions, and a list of pseudonyms names were kept under password protection. According
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to Atkins-Duckworth (2019), social responsibility is necessary for exercising a study surrounding
students’ identity, cultural positioning, intersectionality, and diverse positionalities. As the
researcher, I took an honest, flexible, confident approach to the research and dissemination of
findings to not jeopardize participants’ relationships and connections at the institution (Atkins-
Duckworth, 2019). In addition, given the voluntary design of the study and sensitive topics
addressed by the interview questions, participants may have felt uncomfortable talking about
their experiences and sharing their opinions, thoughts, or beliefs. Because of this, participants
had the option to withdraw from the interview at any time. Moreover, the study’s participants
received a consent form and clear expectations of their role in the analysis, incentives, and data
collection.
Validity and Reliability
When reflecting and analyzing the validity and reliability of the study’s design, it is
essential to adapt consistency, accuracy, and statistical facts to the reporting process. For
example, discussing and demonstrating the data findings in the research by providing
participants’ opinions, thoughts, and experiences regarding college readiness generates validity
to what is being measured. The conditions and administering efforts in which the research is
conducted can also be assessed for reliability. In other words, comparing data, categorical
variables, and approaches to assessing the findings and their environment creates validity in the
study. Purposeful sampling allowed me to explore students’ perspectives on college readiness
and create validity to the study’s experiences through their responses. Utilizing an interview
guide and performance checklist provides clear and concise guidance to the researcher before
and after the study. Critically reviewing the study’s content creates validity, and it is instrumental
in obtaining desired outcomes.
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Data Analysis
Data analysis helps capture, interpret, and uncover information about the intended study
and process (Malloy, 2011). Transcribing and identifying themes emerging from the data helps
make sense of the material. According to Malloy (2011), the analysis should focus on essential
data needs and consider time and simplicity, as very time-consuming data can be challenging to
interpret. In this study, critically organizing, guiding, and transcribing students’ interview
recordings further aided the reporting of the participants’ experiences, influences, and support
during their 1st year in college, thus strengthening validity.
The data analysis involved iterative steps. This process consisted of recording,
transcribing, and coding students’ interviews line by line, considering the context of the research
question and the theoretical framework. Conducting close readings of the transcripts refined the
emerging themes, discussion points, and supplemental data (Garces-Cogburn, 2015). Creating a
multistep coding strategy supported the research by looking for specific words, concepts,
similarities, and differences in students’ interview responses. After organizing the data into
categories, thematic memos helped support students’ experiences in connection to the research
question. Kolb’s experiential learning theory’s assertive approach to all forms of learning,
development, and change (Creswell, 2013) provides an instrumental framework to assess
students’ experiential learning process, transition, development, and actions as they navigate
toward college readiness, mainly when transcribing interview responses. In a qualitative study,
the ongoing process of questioning is an integral component of understanding the opinions,
perspectives, beliefs, and lives of others (Agee, 2009). Therefore, to influence and strengthen the
study’s findings, a good qualitative research question and guided interviews further helped
inform, refine, and create an interactive inquiry reflecting on the research question (Agee, 2009).
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Role of Researcher
The intersectional challenges, inequities, and barriers first-generation Latino students
face in the United States to earn degrees do not define their resilience in the face of disparities.
As the literature outlines, students’ persistence and retention are attributed to many factors and
elements that contribute to their success and achievement. Students’ positionalities and
experiences position them to build courage, passion, and strength and act toward the opposition
and not toward the forces oppressing them. Therefore, how are educational organizations,
institutions, and academic environments leading equitable change, given their power and
positionality? Recognizing and unpacking students’ positionalities, community wealth, culture,
and identity are essential to avoid developing inequities and building systemic barriers. In life,
every person creates a space for individual self-actualization, development, and performance.
This is the same in educational ecosystems. Therefore, given current inequities, reflecting on
positionality helps to structure success.
In this qualitative research, I reflected on my positionality and educational journey. I
identify as a first-generation Latino woman of color who has overcome intersectional barriers,
systemic oppression, and inequitable challenges in pursuing higher education success, but have
these inequities ever stopped? I can relate to the many stories commonly shared by first-
generation Latino student communities. Early in life, it became clear to me how diverse and
culturally different school environments are. I found myself inadequately prepared for college,
and integration into college life was a challenge for me. I was unfamiliar with institutional
expectations, financial literacy, and career exploration and unaware of the various resources or
programs offered. Because of my positionality, I developed academic practices and behaviors
while identifying my strengths and discovering weaknesses that caused me to fully understand
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what I could contribute to the classroom, society, community, and my social environments. In
the face of that growth, I discovered the educational values that shaped my academic and
professional journeys. However, the realm of privilege, racism, and Whiteness as the socially
dominant culture and the normal persists (Cabrera, 2014).
Because of the inequities I faced, I became a self-reliant learner paving my way through
academia. My resilience and abilities emphasized my willingness to continue and break down
barriers, allowing me to achieve a higher education degree. Did I feel college ready? Did I feel
prepared? My answer is no. Because of this, the problem of college readiness deserves attention
beyond the contextualized idea. For the first-generation Latino student, college readiness must go
beyond the high school diploma, satisfied curriculum, and ability to meet state or federal
requirements. To become change agents, individuals must align equity and quality with the
educational goals, support systems, programming efforts, and understanding of students’
positionalities to increase equitable mobility. As a researcher, academic scholar, and leader, I
reflect on my power, positionality, and professional experiences that allowed me to influence
students’ educational frameworks and encourage support, passion, and commitment. My position
in higher education gives me the power to question, analyze, examine, and critically view the
many challenges first-generation Latino students face.
Conducting semi-structured interviews through purposeful sampling was intended to
allow voices to be heard, question the status quo, and disrupt the narratives of oppressed
environments concerning college readiness. To control biases, I was critically engaged in self-
reflection of my assumptions, views, and opinions regarding this study, given my positionality.
My research role required reflecting transparency and allowing the study to be intentional and
transformational by serving the stories of students who face inequitable barriers. However, my
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preferences cannot assume that all students perform the same, as every person develops biases
and paradigms that shape how they view the world. Therefore, an appropriate methodology is
essential for individual studies and can provide suited themes, questions, and appropriateness to
avoid biases. This is particularly valuable in seeking equity and change through an embedded
environment and culture that historically was built on White supremacy ideologies and property
rights, such as the American education system.
According to Douglas and Nganga (2015), a person’s knowledge is created through their
daily positionality by the internal and external influences they are presented with. Therefore,
leading and developing equitable victories across all educational platforms is essential to creating
opportunities for students. Educational institutions may provide access to first-generation
unrepresented Latino students. However, college entry without provided opportunities does not
reflect representation and the student’s ability to persist amid the inequitable environments they
may be presented with. Intentionally and symbolically structuring students’ educational paths
frames direction, motivation, purpose, and vision and inspires performance (Bolman & Deal,
2017). According to Bolman and Deal (2017), symbolic structure notices individuals’
positionalities, strengths, and unique stories. In college readiness, these dimensions address the
needs of first-generation Latino students from underserved communities, creating a sense of
belonging and inclusion to tap into students’ positionalities and better understand current
inequities.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study presented several limitations and delimitations. These directly impact and
influence the interpretation of the study’s findings, analysis, and reporting. Limitations are
constraints outside the researcher’s control and abilities. However, the examination must be
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carefully designed to understand the practice of its limitations in the research method to prove
the results’ internal and external validity and trustworthiness (Price & Murnan, 2004). On the
other hand, delimitations refer to the study’s methodology boundaries, which are based on the
researcher’s decision of what to include and exclude (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). In other
words, the delimitations criteria allow for fluidity and manageability of the research.
Because this study heavily depended on individual experiences, limitations include
reliance on participants’ responses to answer honestly, provide in-depth answers, motivation, and
emotional constraints. Therefore, the study’s objectives were specified to secure the research and
evaluate the impact, relevance, and underlying factors affecting college readiness among first-
generation Latino students’ persistence and retention to complete higher education. In addition,
qualitative research interviews require labor-intensive analysis of coding, transcriptions, and
interpretation of the data making them time-consuming. Another limitation of this study centered
on my role as the researcher. Because I am in a position of power at the research site, as the
primary lead in conducting the interviews, limitations included institutional constraints on
policies and procedures. For example, the university may limit the access to student records as
my primary instrument to identify participant selection, given the institution’s legal
confidentiality surrounding the entrance to student records and identified measures concerning
race, ethnicity, income, or first-generation status.
The qualitative interview elicits unique data or insightful perspectives on issues
individuals face. Therefore, an intentional interview protocol and methodological approach can
provide transformational results. Delimitations of this study include actively enrolled first-
generation Latino students who have completed a 1st-year experience course at the college of
business administration at the research site. The populations excluded from the study were
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students who had not taken the 1st-year experience course and did not identify as first-generation
and Latino in their admission records. The study focused on first-generation Latino students at
the college regardless of gender, age, income, academic class level, unit course enrollment, or
concentration. Such an approach can offer diversified data by hearing the experiences of students
at different levels of higher education. These delimitations informed intentional and clear
findings of first-generation Latino students’ experiences to influence, change, and empower the
support and development of the college-ready student in 21st-century academia. According to
Pazzaglia et al. (2016), an intentional review analysis, data collection, guided protocols, and
variables adopted in a study will allow the research to assess various targeted findings. To this
end, this study’s results are not generalizable because of its inclusionary and exclusionary criteria
(Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).
Summary
Outlining an informed and intentional methodological approach is essential to unveiling a
study’s focus, process, and outcomes (Agee, 2009). This qualitative research intended to report
on first-generation Latino students’ experiences with college readiness and degree attainment.
The data analysis yielded emerging themes from student interviews and detailed perspectives on
students’ educational journeys. All participants were actively enrolled undergraduates, Latino,
first-generation students who completed the college of business administration’s BUS 100:
Freshman Experience course at Southern Public University, an HSI. The study followed a
developed interview protocol and structure. All participants’ information was kept confidential
under password-protected software by removing names and identifiable information from the
interview transcripts. Pseudonyms were used to protect students’ identities. All information
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obtained from participants and interview recordings will be retained for 5 years and then
destroyed.

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Chapter Four: Findings
In this chapter, I introduce 10 student participants. I am particularly drawn to
understanding and identifying how well-prepared students feel as they navigate college
transition, coursework, and institutional culture environments. The qualitative case study aimed
to explore experiences, lived educational stories, persistence, and retention among first-
generation Latino students at a 4-year public HSI. Qualitative research distinguishes
characteristics, themes, and approaches and particularly looks at the origins illustrated by the
research question, its participants, and its design (Jones et al., 2021). These elements are further
associated and connected with the participant’s interview responses to the case study.
Schlossberg’s transition theory (2011) serves as the theoretical framework for this study. As
Schlossberg (2011) noted, transitions or phases of events and non-events impact our lives,
approaches, and behaviors and trigger change. The data provided a humanizing experience of
college transitions through Schlossberg’s 4S systems model: situation, self, support(s), and
strategies to identify students’ academic engagement, relationships, and responsibilities
impacting their success. The findings present results on the main research question that guided
this study: How do first-generation Latino students at an HSI perceive the influence of college
readiness and transitional experiences on their persistence and retention in pursuing a higher
education degree? I reviewed the interview transcripts, organized the response by the research
question, and collected responses into code, where the most common codes became themes. This
chapter illustrates the themes that emerged from the interviews.
Participants
The participants were 10 actively enrolled students. They attend a Southern Public
University, classified as a 4-year HSI. In the following section, I provide a brief overview of
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each participant’s biography to further foster a personal experience and engagement and
construct the nature of reality by connecting to their stories. All participants self-identified as
first-generation students of Hispanic or Latino origin who completed the freshman business
experience course and participated in a pre-college program or experience. All responses were
retrieved and confirmed from the screening questionnaire. Pseudonyms were provided to protect
the students’ participant’s identities see Table 1 for details.

Table 1
Participants’ Self-Identified Class Level and Participation in a Pre-college Program or
Experience
Participant Class level Pre-college program or
experience
Alfredo Senior AP/EOP/UBP
Amalia Senior TTP/CPW
Armando Senior AVID/EOP/REACH
Alejandro Senior None
Antonia Senior AVID/AP/DE/EOP
Andres Senior AVID/EOP
Alonso Junior AVID/AP
Alondra Sophomore AP
Alvaro Freshman AP/CT
Adriana Freshman AVID

Note. Advanced Placement (AP), Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID), College
Track Program (CT), College Preparation Workshops (CPW), Dual Enrollment (DE),
Educational Opportunity Program (EOP), REACH Summer Business Camp, Tech Trek Program
(TTP), Upper Bound Program (UBP)
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Alfredo
Alfredo is from Orange County in Southern California. He is a senior majoring in
accounting. Alvaro hopes to teach financial literacy in the future; his high school economics
teacher inspired him to pursue a career in accounting, and he would like to be able to encourage
young adults just like he was motivated to seek higher education. Alfredo has worked as an
orientation leader on campus and holds a peer mentor position with California State University’s
EOP, which provides admission, academic advising, and financial support services to historically
underserved students throughout California. In high school, Alfredo enrolled in AP courses and
the Upward Bound Program, which exposed him to the college environment. Like EOP, the
Upward Bound Program serves students from low-income families and provides fundamental
support in their preparation for college entrance. Alfredo is also an advocate for first-generation
college students. He believes in the support of this community and stresses that education and
learning come from an individual’s “comfortable mindset of their set goals, time, and terms” and
utilizes those elements to persist in college.
Amalia
Amalia is majoring in business administration. She lives 15 minutes from campus and has
commuted to the university since freshman year. She is the president of a club on campus and is
excited to pursue her career in business administration. Her interest and awareness of majoring in
business came from the college experiences of several of her cousins who also majored in the
field. During middle school, Amalia participated in Tech Trek, a summer camp program for
middle school girls focused on science, technology, engineering, and math. Amalia is also
president of an LGBTQ+ student community club. She holds conversations on how to support
better equitable opportunities for this group in a field that she stresses is primarily White and
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male-dominated. Participating in the student club has allowed her to become less introverted and
more comfortable getting to know and talking to people. Amalia also has a very close connection
and relationship with her younger sister and hopes to serve as a role model and mentor to her as
she starts to think and prepare for her own college transition experience. Amalia believes in an
“If I can do it, you can do it too” framework.
Armando
Armando lived on campus during his freshman year. He is majoring in accounting and
lives off campus with roommates. In high school, Armando participated in the AVID program,
which was later cut due to budget constraints. His school then offered first-generation students
the REACH program as alternative support. Armando has also participated in EOP, where he
attended pre-college preparation meetings and workshops to learn more about the college
transition process. Armando was a student-athlete in high school for 4 years and believes this
experience helped him to integrate socially into college life. He also recognizes that his early
university housing experience helped him merge into the campus community and culture. He has
worked for university dining services on campus, an exposure that connected him with new
people. Armando identifies his background as low-income, and both parents not being able to
provide financially when he was a child. His mother was constantly in and out of the hospital,
and his father worked three jobs. They now hold their own business, which geared Armando to
pursue a career in business.
Alejandro
Alejandro lives off campus with his parents and older sister. He attended high school in a
nearby city and commutes to campus. He acknowledges his sister for trailblazing his footsteps
into college as a first-generation student herself. Alejandro is a senior majoring in accounting.
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His family has a strong background in the business field, which led him to pursue a major in
business. He was also heavily involved in his high school marching band, and upon his transition
into the institution, he became a part of the university’s pep band. He is no longer an active
member. Alejandro was also part of the track team in high school, along with several other
programs. He stresses that university life is about being realistic with your expectations, and
walking into college life was all new territory to him.
Antonia
Antonia was born and raised in Mexico. Her family moved to the United States during
her early childhood years. English was not her first language, and immersing herself in English
literature allowed her to catch on quickly. She is a senior majoring in business administration
with an emphasis in human resource management and a concentration in entrepreneurship with a
minor in finance, real estate, and law. Antonia commutes to school and has lived off campus
throughout her time with the institution. She is roommates with her sister near a local city near
campus. Antonia has been involved in the Latino Cultural Center on campus and has been a
member of Hermanas Unidas since freshman year. Hermanas Unidas is an organization that
promotes and engages women and men of color in academics, community resources, and
networking. She participated in EOP in college and the AVID program in high school. During
high school, she served as an officer in several student clubs and was involved in various
organizations. She also completed DE in high school, enabling her to take college courses, earn
college credits, and get a head start on her educational goals. Antonia believes in the power of
institutional resources and the support they bring to students’ academic journeys.

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Andres
Andres majored in accounting before changing his major to marketing management.
Andres hopes to focus his studies on digital marketing. He comes from a single-family
household and lives 20 minutes away from campus with his mother and younger sister. In high
school, Andres was a member of the AVID program and later became a participant in the EOP in
college. During his first 2 years in the institution, he was a part of Hermanos Unidos, a cultural
organization focused on improving the Latino male graduation rate. The organization strives to
enrich academic success, community service, and social interactions. During college, Andres has
held many jobs, including as a lifeguard in his local city’s community center. His interest in
majoring in business administration evolved from his interaction with his uncle’s and
grandfather’s fresh produce business, instilling in him curiosity and a desire to run his own
business.
Alonso
Alonso lives with his parents and commutes 20 minutes to campus. In high school,
Alonso first enrolled in AP courses during his junior year. He is now a finance, real estate, and
law major with a minor in economics. He is a part of two student-led organizations on campus,
the Finance Society Club and the Student Managed Investment Club. Alonso serves on the
executive board of one of the organizations. He likes to surround himself with like-minded
people who share similar interests in finance. Before changing his major to finance, real estate,
and law, he had majored in human resource management. His goal after college is to be able to
obtain a position at a well-known reputable financial firm and be able to advance his career in
finance.

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Alondra
Alondra is majoring in human resource management. In high school, Alondra was part of
AP courses, a program created by the College Board to offer undergraduate-level curricula and
examinations to high school students. Alondra lives 20 minutes away from campus and
commutes. She is a part of the Professionals in Human Resources Association, a student-led
human resources organization dedicated to providing college students opportunities to network
with industry professionals, build community, explore internships, and develop themselves into
viable candidates for their professional careers. Alondra hopes to obtain an internship soon in her
field of interest, maintain a work-life balance and would like to travel the world and continue
meeting new people after graduating.
Alvaro
Alvaro is majoring in accounting. He lives off campus and commutes to school. He is a
part of the Male Success Initiatives Program (MSI), an organization on campus committed to
helping young men of color in their academic journey through college. Alvaro identifies as a
first-generation Latino whose parents immigrated to the United States. He looks up to his older
brother, who actively encourages him not to make the same mistakes he made while attending
college; Alvaro’s brother withdrew from college and did not earn a degree. In high school,
Alvaro was part of the College Track Program and enrolled in several AP courses. A short-term
goal for Alvaro is to obtain an internship while in college, and when he completes his degree
program, he would like to “get a job, earn money, and be able to give back to my parents.”
Adriana
Adriana lives with her parents 10 minutes away from campus and commutes to school.
Adriana began as an undeclared student and then decided to major in finance, real estate, and
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law. She is, however, considering changing her major again. Adriana participated in the AVID
program for 7 years. In high school, she felt less involved and struggled to maintain a social
environment with her peers. She now actively participates and is involved in several Associated
Students, Inc. (ASI) events and programs. These involvements allow her to build community and
experiences and emerge into college life. The ASI is a student government association that
connects and engages students with college programs, services, facilities, and employment.
Providing the participants’ biographies introduces their stories and provides a closer look
at their positionalities as students. In the following section, I present the findings and responses
of students by connecting them to Schlossberg’s transition theory and the lens of Schlossberg’s
4S system model.
Student Participation Data: Schlossberg’s 4S Systems Model
The participants brought unique stories, cultures, and diversity to their educational
environments. They have experienced and continue to experience life transitions throughout their
development. Transitions are often seen as confusing and challenging, raising the need for
assistance, clarity, support, and making sense of their positionality (Anderson et a., 2011). The
transition framework originally developed by Schlossberg (1984) incorporated the notion of
moving in, through, and out of transitions by identifying four categories common to all transition
events and non-events, the 4S System model: situation, self, support, and strategies (Schlossberg,
2011).
This section of Chapter Four answers the research question, “How do first-generation
Latino students at an HSI perceive the influence of college readiness and transitional experiences
on their persistence and retention in pursuing a higher education degree?” Guided by
Schlossberg’s 4S systems model, the report presents findings of students’ situations; every
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person’s situation varies according to specific triggers, change, timing, control, roles, and
experience of events or non-events (Anderson et al., 2011). The reporting assesses findings in
themes related to students’ situation experiences in academia and their life. In addition, the
findings look at what students bring to the transition self.
Findings identified common characteristics, skills, techniques, and mindsets as students
cope with change, environments, culture, and development. The assessment also presents
Schlossberg’s notion to support. Students address the various support services, resources,
relationships, communities, and people that have influenced participation in their college
transition. According to Anderson et al. (2011), support comes in many forms and can be shaped
for the better or worse as people approach transitions. The final 4S element refers to how people
may cope with transition strategies. Students may or may not ask questions about what they
should do, seek advice, create efforts, and problem-solve as they transition (Anderson et al.,
2011). Schlossberg (2011) noted that the transition model clarifies the transition people
experience by analyzing, assessing, and identifying the type of transition (anticipated,
unanticipated, or non-events), the degree to which one’s life has been altered, where a person is
in the transition process, and the resources they can apply to succeed. The following section
utilizes the participants’ narratives, stories, and experiences to illustrate common themes and
challenges first-generation Latino students face in their educational transitions and college
preparation at an HSI. In addition, their responses address how specific academic involvement
influenced their persistence and retention. The themes are illustrated in the next section in
connection to the 4S systems model.

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Situation
The first S is a person’s situation, and life situations vary by events, non-events, triggers,
timing, and the control the person has over the transition. The following section highlights the
collected themes in which participants’ situations have altered or contributed to their persistence
and retention.
Theme 1: Financial Constraints
Financial constraints are experienced through restrictions, economic status, actions, and
accommodations that create obstacles, challenges, and struggles for individuals to grow,
overcome, and succeed. First-generation Latino students often struggle financially to afford their
education, and for many, financial illiteracy causes disparities or receiving proper guidance on
how to finance their education. The choices they make financially critically impact their
persistence and retention. For example, deciding whether to live on a university campus or at
home is not easy. When asked whether they lived on or off campus, all 10 participants indicated
they lived off campus. Five commuted a minimum of 20 minutes to campus. Participants referred
to the high cost of college housing fees as a reason for living off campus. For example, Adriana
said, “I live off campus with my mother and sister. Financially, the high cost of dormitory does
not allow me to do so.” Alvaro, Antonio, and Antonia had a common sentiment that “college
housing fees are too expensive. Financially, it makes more sense to stay at home, close to
family.”
Armando shared his experience of needing to take out a student loan during his 1st year
in college to cover dormitory expenses:
I had to take a student loan out just to cover my housing meal plan fees. It was a
requirement to enroll in a meal plan. I didn’t feel the need to do so since I was working in
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university dining services, and I was already receiving all my meals at no cost as a
student employee.
Living off campus is a convenience for the participants, with an understanding that financially, it
could not be possible any other way. Gaps in higher education degree attainment persist for first-
generation and low-income students. These disparities can be attributed to a lack of affordability,
access to financial assistance, and information of asymmetries not supporting this group of
students.
Theme 2: Career Information Literacy
I asked participants if they had changed their major and, if so, what motivated them to do
so. If they had not changed majors, I asked if they had ever considered it. Five responded that
they had considered changing their major, two indicated that they would keep their major, and
three indicated that they did change their major. Alondra said, “I have considered changing my
major. Sometimes I feel I don’t know why I chose the major I did.” Amalia and Armando shared
the sentiment of not changing their majors because of the fear of delaying their graduation. They
felt they had discovered their interest in other majors and gained a much more in-depth
understanding of their selected major later in their college journey. If they had known what they
know now, they would have made the change. For example, Amalia said,
I felt it was too late for me to change my major. I didn’t want to stop the process of
graduating on time. If I would have discovered what I know now about other majors in
my sophomore year, then I would have done it.
For participants, the absence of knowledge structured around the concepts and principles
of their selected discipline later became a limitation to experience and engaging in a major of
much greater interest due to the fear of delaying their degree completion. Adriana had an
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undeclared major during her first semester in college. She later selected finance, real estate, and
law and felt she might change it again. Adriana said,
I was originally undeclared when I started. I then decided to select business. However, I
am thinking of changing it again. I don’t know if I am excited about business, what it
entails, or if it will make me successful.
In these cases, participants felt undecided about their career choices, unknowledgeable of
the field, or the options they had to better understand their industry and perhaps made other
choices that would have impacted their performance, persistence, and retention.
Theme 3: Familial Care and Support
I asked participants to share reasons they decided to pursue a college degree and what
inspired them to select their majors. Seven mentioned they wanted to give back to their parents,
secure a future, advance in their careers, and seek stability. For example, Alejandro said, “I
decided to pursue a college degree because I knew the power that it had, especially coming from
a Latino household where financial hardships is a constrain.” Armando stated,
I grew up poor, with my parents not being able to provide as much financially. My dad
worked three jobs, and my mother was always in and out of the hospital. Growing up, my
parents constantly would tell my siblings and me to go to college to earn a good job and
not have to live the way they were.
Participants also discussed the desire to serve as role models for their younger siblings or make
their families proud. For example, Andres said, “Growing up in a single-family household, I felt
I needed to step up and pursue college because I wanted to make my mother proud and be a role
model for my younger sister.” Familial care and support were expressed through the participants’
responses and what might be some of the underlining impacts addressing their persistence,
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transitions, and college readiness. Alondra shared that her parents have been her biggest
motivators. She stated,
My parents always talked to my siblings and me about college. They would even mention
attending a community college as an option. Unfortunately, they didn’t have the
opportunity to attend college, so they wanted us to have that: to advance in a career.
Breaking through systemic barriers and challenges is difficult, especially when learning about
the different mechanisms needed to be applied and acquired to navigate the process, such as the
college application processes, financing college, career choice knowledge, and available
community support services. It is more challenging when those elements are compromised by
other factors affecting persistence and retention. Familial care and support empower students to
succeed, but most find it a struggle, especially being the first in their families to seek higher
education.
Theme 4: Social Environment
When I asked what challenges and obstacles impacted their persistence and retention, a
common response was that they struggled with developing social environments. This includes
sociocultural influence, a sense of community, a sense of belonging, and the confidence to speak
up, ask questions, seek resources, and engage with peers, faculty, and staff. For example, Amalia
said, “I was struggling to transition, I felt uncertain of what I wanted to do in college, I felt
socially anxious not being able to adjust to the environment.” When asked to elaborate, she
explained, “I felt I couldn’t find my place, a community that I could relate to, relationships that
contributed to my persistence, or connection to the college campus life.”
Being unable to connect to social environments that stimulate growth and positive
mindsets creates uncertainty, as opposed to rewarding experiences, opportunities, and the
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development of cognitive abilities to drive past disparities. Alfredo shared, “I was very involved
socially in high school. When I came to college, it was different. I felt imposture syndrome.”
When asked to elaborate, he explained, “I felt self-doubt about my choice of attending college,
like I didn’t belong. [Wondering] if this was the right pathway for me [caused] a decrease of
dissatisfaction.” Andres shared,
Some of the biggest challenges I faced were during my 1st year, I felt depressed, I was
failing my classes, I didn’t know anyone, [and] I didn’t have anyone to talk to. It was a
different space from high school.
As a final example, Amalia said, “The distraction of engaging in social environments caused me
to fail courses my first semester. I lost myself for a little bit there.” When asked to elaborate, she
explained, “I felt I needed to find a community first and an environment in which I felt I belong,
feel comfortable, and confident for me to perform.”
In these cases, participants felt transitioning into college affected their persistence and
retention, causing them to feel disconnected, isolated, unsure of their choices, and unhappy.
Social environments are comprised of different perceptions and interactions. Understanding the
impacts contributing to these perceptions is critical to analyze and define how to better support
this group of students.
Self
The second S is self, which refers to a person’s inner strength for coping with a situation
(Schlossberg, 2011). In this case study, I sought to understand students’ transition experiences
through their adapted and non-adapted behaviors, attitudes, self-efficacy, self-esteem, paradigms,
optimism, and positionalities.

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Theme 1: Adaptive Mindsets and Skills
When students think of college readiness, transition, and persistence, having an adaptive
mindset is critical to their educational development. Having an adaptive mindset means
responding to change proactively and positively, framing the transition process as an opportunity
for growth, innovation, expression of creativity, and diversity rather than an obstacle (Rivera et
al., 2019). The theme of adaptive mindsets and skills arose when participants were asked what
college readiness meant to them. Armando said, “College readiness requires a strong mentality,
being open to the college experience. There are going to be challenges along the way. Just be
able to roll with the punches.” Alonso also shared, “You must be ready to be disciplined. College
is a choice, and no one is going to hold your hand. You are there voluntarily, be prepared to
change your mindset.” Alejandro and Antonia shared a similar sentiment, “You must be ready to
be in a different mindset. Be confident with your abilities and realistic in your goals. How to
manage your responsibilities and prioritize your personal and academic life.” Andres said,
“Being able to adapt to your college environment is important. You must find a balance.”
Participants also shared that educational leaders supported their college readiness,
mindsets, and skills. For example, Alfredo said, “Educational leaders play a huge role. They can
influence students’ perspectives, experiences, and opinions about college.” Andres also said,
“Educators are in a position to lead by example, engage, and provide learning spaces where
students can feel comfortable and supported.” Two participants indicated that seeing more
women and male Latino leaders in administrative and faculty positions inspired them to believe
that they, too, could succeed in a career. Developing adaptive mindsets and skills helps students
to respond well to change. It embraces positive performance, motivators, and attitudes and builds
self-awareness.
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When participants were asked what skills, abilities, and knowledge they would have liked
to have before their college transition, their responses varied. However, five participants would
have liked to learn more about their college degree and its power, learning environments, and the
skills required to succeed in and outside the classroom. Communication skills, presentation
techniques, peer-to-peer dialogue abilities, team engagement, agenda planning, and time
management were some of the mechanisms mentioned. For example, Andres reflected on his
growth during the past 4 years:
If you want to do anything in life, you must be disciplined by adopting a growth mindset.
Never think that you are good enough. Never think that you are less enough. There is a
middle ground. It is important to ask for help and be willing to engage and learn.
The power of upholding inner strength, positive optimism, and resilience when coping with
transition can affect individuals’ views, associations, commitment, and purpose when moving in,
out, and through transition (Schlossberg, 2011).
Adaptive mindsets and skills assimilate changes in behaviors, perceptions, and thinking
by impacting individuals’ reactions to how information is processed. Alvaro reflected on the start
of college and further stressed obtaining skills to succeed in and outside of the classroom from a
personal level and professional standpoint. He said, “I would have liked to learn more interactive
skills, be more social, feel comfortable with my communication skills to be able to openly
engage and interact with others with ease.” Alonso shared, “Be true to yourself and what you
like, what you are passionate about. If you find something you enjoy learning, just do that, find
the skills to be successful, and focus on that.” Self-discovery requires looking inwards, reflecting
on your values, strengths, abilities, passion, motivation, and purpose. Recognizing these critical
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elements of success guides your true self to execute by chasing after those aspirations, goals, and
dreams.
Support
The third S is support: the support individuals receive at the time of transitions is critical
to their well-being, sense of belonging, and development of strengths driving their resilience and
encouraging their persistence (Schlossberg, 2011). In this case study, I investigate the
educational support systems, academic relationships, networks, and camaraderie students
experience that contributed to their college completion. The data analysis identified the
following themes.
Theme 1: Program Participation and Experiences
Many pre-college programs and experiences offer students the opportunity to prepare and
adapt skills and applications needed for college entry. For example, nine participants shared their
enrollment experience in the AVID program. The program offers a variety of resources and
ongoing support to enhance students’ academic success. For example, pre-college programs and
experiences are set to enhance students’ participation in various classroom activities, co-
curricular involvement, educational lesson plans, professional learning opportunities, career
development, and academic goal setting. Alvaro said, “My AVID counselor played a major role
in keeping me on track to college, from sharing information about how to finance college to
ensuring I completed my college applications.” Like Alvaro, Antonia stated, “The AVID
program was very helpful when it came to the college transition process. Exposure to this pre-
college program helped me to get acclimated into the college environment quickly.”
According to Schlossberg (2011), the support that is available at the time of a transition is
critical to an individual’s sense of belonging and adaptation when stepping into new territory.
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Finding safe places where they feel comfortable, diversity, inclusion, and equity can be seen and
felt allows people to cope with the transition by associating their knowledge with the support and
resources available to them (Schlossberg, 2011). When asked who or what supported and
encouraged their transition to college, four participants specifically mentioned the EOP. For
example, Armando said, “Being an EOP student impacted my college transition experience in
many aspects. Attending events, workshops, and various learning opportunities helped me
become aware and exposed to what college life would look like.” Additionally, Alfredo said,
“Participating in the EOP program helped me gain friendships and community. It feels different
when you know other peers are going through the same pathways you are. Having my best friend
experience this with me made me feel reassured.” Pre-college programs and experiences are a
great opportunity for students to receive exposure to different fields, industries, and
communities. The literature and students’ experiences inform us about how students’
involvement in pre-college programming enhances their interest, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and
action-driven initiatives in their academics.
Theme 2: Community
The types of support people receive from family, friends, organizations, relationships,
and various communities impact the ability to adapt, manage, or address transitional situations,
challenges, and obstacles (Anderson et al., 2011). Another interview question addressed who or
what supported their persistence in their college academic journey. Four participants mentioned
that their high school counselor or advisor supported their transition to college. Participants also
mentioned their parents, siblings, grandparents, and members of their communities as forms of
support in their persistence. For example, Alondra said, “I push myself when I see other people
around me who are extremely knowledgeable. Seeing my friends who are doing the same makes
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me feel supported.” Antonia said, “My parents are a big support in my persistence. They
motivate me to seek a better education and a better future.” Additionally, Alvaro mentioned that
his older brother has been his biggest supporter:
My brother did not have an opportunity to finish college. He dropped out. He always tells
me not to make the same mistakes he did but rather encourages me to keep going. I look
up to him for pushing through his life challenges.
Furthermore, Alonso and Andres shared that their self-motivation, search for a better future, life,
and drive of not wanting to fail but rather fight for what they want to have impacted their
persistence and retention to obtain a higher education degree.
To assess participants’ current social community engagement on campus, I asked if they
were part of any university organizations, programs, or student clubs. Seven participants in this
case study shared that they are active members of a university-led organization. Students also
mentioned their interaction with the different resources and services available to them on
campus. In addition, they mentioned their participation in cultural centers, programs, and
associations. For example, Alvaro is a member of the MSI Program, Alondra is a member of the
Professionals in Human Resources Association, and Amalia is the current club president for the
LGBTQ+ student organization. Additionally, Antonia described her involvement with Hermanas
Unidas, and Alonso described his experience with finance-student-led organizations and his
leadership role with one club and membership in an unknown organization. Furthermore, Amalia
mentioned she was the current club president for her organization, and Antonia regularly visited
the Latino student cultural center.
It is equally relevant to consider some factors that might prevent first-generation Latino
students from participating in an organization or other affiliation. For example, Andres said, “I
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stopped engaging in clubs because I had to pick up a lot of work hours and needed to focus on
helping my mother financially.” Andres stated, “It is challenging at times to be involved with
extracurricular activities. I am sometimes given the responsibility to take my siblings to see that
they are okay. I take them to school, pick them up and care for them.”
External responsibilities like caretaking, needing to pick up extra work hours,
transportation, housing, and food insecurities should not be seen as outward barriers to college
success. These factors can have a significant impact on a student’s learning, development,
motivation, and persistence and should be supported by institutional resources to enhance
environments and performance, which leads us to the fourth S.
Strategies
The fourth S is strategies, referring to the habits, functions, techniques, adaptation, and
application an individual engages in when coping with transition (Schlossberg, 2011). In this
case study, I investigate the strategy mechanisms students have adapted in their educational
trajectories, degree advancement, and institutional experiences.
To address the transitional strategies they yield toward, I asked participants to describe
the types of support, guidance, opportunities, and resources that influenced their path to higher
education attainment. Five participants took AP courses during high school to earn college
credit. Alvaro said, “I took [AP] courses in high school. The goal was to go to college, and
taking these courses helped me in preparing for that next step.” Antonia enrolled in DE courses
during high school, allowing her to have concurrent enrollment in high school and a local
community college. This opportunity enabled her to be taught by college professors and get a
head start on her college curriculum and goals. Antonia said, “Participating in [DE] courses
motivated me to look ahead of high school. The professors were very nice, I felt supported, and it
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allowed me to experience what college would be like.” Additionally, four participants shared that
they began learning more about college during middle school. Alondra stated,
In middle school, I was enrolled in a course that focused on college readiness. The
teachers would share with us strategies, resources, support, and guidance to become
college ready. They would take us on field trips to university campuses, and being
exposed to this environment helped me become aware of how to cope with the transition
to college when the time came.
When asked what they believe is critical in becoming a college-ready student. Alvaro said,
“Being college-ready means being open with yourself. It is putting yourself in uncomfortable
situations and learning from them. The answer is not always going to be yes. Get involved
socially in and outside the classroom.” Alondra said, “It is critical to have the self-confidence,
choose what you want to do, take your route, and work towards it. It is enough.” Alonso shared,
“You must want it for yourself. You must love what you are learning. If you don’t, then you’ll
feel burned out and struggle.” When asked to elaborate, he explained, “It’s like the famous
phrase, find a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life.” For Armando,
being college-ready means having a strong mentality. From his perspective, mentality is
everything to persevere in education. Armando shared,
You may have all the resources, assistance, and support. But if you don’t have the
mentality to persevere and feel that you belong and have a choice to succeed, to stick
with your plans, and not give up. Mentally, it will be challenging.
The interview responses regarding this question lean further into the individual self: the
you. For example, Adriana said, “You have to realize the impact college readiness has in your
future, you have to prioritize your goals, and you have to be willing to enter that stage in your
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life.” Antonia and Andres shared a similar sentiment of the self-efficacy that is needed to be able
to lead your academic aspirations. They shared that as individuals, “you” must be willing to
grow, execute, and gain the skills, strategies, and abilities to seek and reach your dreams.
Additionally, all 10 participants stated that “you” are your greatest asset to achieve
success; only “you” have the power to change your life to whatever you want it to be. For
example, Alonso, Alejandro, and Andres shared a sentiment about the need to be true to yourself
when wanting to grow and learn. It is critical to understand your strengths, what you are good at,
and your passion, and once you understand this notion as individuals, we need to put in the work.
Your ethnicity, race, or religion do not come into play. They express that what matters the most
is showing up to make a difference, a change. Andres shared, “Show up, just keep showing up
even when it seems challenging because it is, it’s going to be, just keep showing up.”
Cultivating positive mindsets, behaviors, and actions empowers and helps guide goals by
staying focused, committed, and encouraged to persist. Inner resilience, however, is built through
relationships, community, resources, network, equity, inclusion, and diversity, which are
elements addressed by the 4S system model.
Summary
Schlossberg’s theory of transition identifies four sets of factors that influence a person’s
ability to cope with the transition. This chapter described the participants and presented findings
related to situation, self, support, and strategies. Students react differently to transition; their
knowledge, skill sets, and self-abilities are determinants of how well they will cope with
transition. Elements such as relationships, self-efficacy, responsibility, resilience, and purpose
were releveled mechanisms and critical applications used in their educational transitions by the
students and what the literature presents us with.
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For example, participants remain focused on their higher education and feel responsible
for financially supporting their parents or other family members. Understanding their financial
situations has encouraged their transitional persistence in education. On the other hand,
information literacy is a building block to lifelong learning and encourages the development of
skills, techniques, strengths, critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving.
Participants shared that their lack of knowledge of their industry-selected major made them feel
they did not know what they were doing nor what choices to make to ensure the pursuit of their
degree. Participants, however, used familial care and support from peers to drive their transition
and educational growth.
Family engagement contributed to their positive outlooks in academic pathways,
particularly as first-generation Latino students. Social environments are of significant assistance
to the college-ready student. In an educational context, classroom spaces, learning communities,
programs, resources, and community involvement contribute to and support the participants’
persistence and retention. Participants cope with adaptive mindsets and skills by seeking to learn
more. Their responses illustrated making the most of opportunities, embracing change, and
exchanging ideas with others to improve their awareness, mechanisms, and capacities to succeed.
Mindset is everything for this group of students when facing transitional experiences, challenges,
or obstacles.
Furthermore, participants revealed that their program participation and experiences
helped them shift their perspectives and gain new knowledge, strategies, and abilities to believe
in themselves and the possibilities of achieving a higher education degree. Although the pre-
college program and experiences varied by participants, students felt supported, encouraged, and
motivated by the opportunity of their involvement in a learning community. Community support
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can be defined from many perspectives. For participants, the community was a form of
experiencing support during challenging times. Network support, cultural relevance, diversity,
and inclusion promoted a sense of belonging, solution-seeking, focus, and voice in communities
where students of color often seem oppressed by barriers, intersectionality, and systems not built
to support the Latino community. Lastly, participants shared that as individuals, we are our
greatest asset to succeed when experiencing transitional life events or non-events. According to
the participants, awareness of their qualities, skills, experience, strengths, resources, and
weaknesses in a time of transition contributed to persistence, drive, motivation, and purpose to
keep going, keep showing up, and stay true to themselves.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to hear about students’ experiences,
opinions, thoughts, behaviors, and relationships relating to college readiness, persistence,
retention, and transition. The study unfolds students’ educational trajectories and the factors
contributing to degree attainment. The research was led by interviews with first-generation
Latino students attending an HSI where 50% of the student body identifies as Hispanic or Latino.
The focus was to identify elements that influence college persistence and retention among this
group of students (Arbona & Nora, 2007). In this case study approach, the following research
question was presented: How do first-generation Latino students at an HSI perceive the influence
of college readiness and transitional experiences on their persistence and retention in pursuing a
higher education degree? Participants’ interviews were conducted separately via Zoom; the study
recorded responses to 15 semi-structured questions, with each session lasting 40 to 60 minutes.
In the previous chapter, the results of the findings were presented. In this chapter, the identified
themes uncovered by the research are highlighted from the interviews and discussed within the
larger context of the relevant literature, areas of dissonance, and connected to Schlossberg’s
theoretical framework. I also offer the study’s limitations, recommendations, future research, and
concluding thoughts.
Discussion: Experiences of the First-Generation Latino College Student
With over 4,300 higher education institutions in the United States, supporting the
transition experiences, pedagogy, access, opportunities, and student success of minority
communities contributes to the growth and development of diversity, equity, and inclusion-
driven environments (Bess & Dee, 2012). Educational communities across the country are
comprised of racially and ethnically diverse student bodies, especially in an increasingly
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multicultural society when the U.S. population is becoming more racially and ethnically diverse,
and racial inequities persist in educational attainment (Garces, 2021). Historically, these walls
were not built to admit, let alone serve and support non-white students. Examining students’
educational transitions from secondary school to higher education broadens an understanding to
better support their success and become college ready.
This case study highlights the persistence and retention of first-generation Latino students
as they navigate college, writing their educational trajectories and life journeys. Drawing on
Schlossberg’s transition theory, this theoretical framework helps explain how first-generation
Latino students have handled their educational transitions, challenges, experiences, relationships,
and self-motivators in pursuit of completing their college degree. This theory also helps
understand students’ educational shifts, readiness, support, resources, and life pathways. It helps
highlight patterns of transitions, student positionalities, and factors that may alter their
willingness and resilience to adapt, pursue, and thrive. These patterns are identified through
Schlossberg’s 4S systems model, tenets that impact a person’s ability to cope with transition
through situation, self, support, and strategies. This case study identified factors and areas of
alignment for this group of students connecting them to Schlossberg’s model.
According to Red and Moore (2008), a high percentage of underserved students come
from economically underserved urban areas and some remote rural locations. This rang true in
this case study, as 80% of the participants were from the surrounding area, within 20 miles of the
campus, whereas the other 20% were from rural areas in California. Students with the most
difficulty accessing postsecondary education are often first-generation and from low
socioeconomic backgrounds (Reid & Moore, 2008). Education enables upward mobility, growth,
development, and knowledge gain, key elements to student success. However, first-generation
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Latino students’ positionality in reference to educational affordability, access, and opportunity
continues to be a challenge (Conner & Rabovsky, 2011).
While many elements contribute to students’ success, common themes were identified
among the participants’ responses. The themes presented similarities to the literature review
addressed in Chapter Two. For example, the theme of financial constraints was connected to the
studies led by D’Lima et al. (2014). Participants discussed that financial constraints impacted
their experience to fully participate in college resident life, extracurricular activities, networking,
and seeking campus resources and services. Students shared that college housing was too
expensive, and additional student loans went toward covering meal plans and maintaining their
financial contributions at home. In addition to taking out loans, they also worked extra hours to
contribute toward tuition and other hidden fees and uphold other personal responsibilities like
overseeing the care of their siblings. Similar findings by D’Lima et al. (2014) mention that
Latino students from urban communities who report balancing several commitments,
responsibilities, and personal care worry about their financial constraints affecting their
commitment, perseverance, and retention. These results are also true among the participants who
shared their experiences with financial constraints that served as challenges that impacted not
only their transition into college but their overall experience in college.
Participants also indicated that a deficit in career information literacy of their disciplines
limited their space for growth, expression, creativity, and emotional intelligence of the pathway
to lead their academic career. According to Andreotti (2016), intentionally crafted pedagogy
exhibits space for development, community, and inclusion by acknowledging students’ cultural
positionalities. This is important to consider as students have unique experiences and identities.
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Fostering welcoming environments of inclusivity and support for everyone enhances
collaborative communities where diversity, equity and inclusion can be felt and visible.
Additionally, these findings reflect the research of Dee and Penner (2017), validating the
development of culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP). Navigating classroom environments with
faculty and peers may be challenging for many students, particularly in the absence of CRP.
Research shows that students feel excited to learn when they feel connected and develop
relationships with faculty, peers, mentors, and programming that allows them to explore their
field. Amalia felt she had discovered more career options later in college and did not want to
change majors for fear of delaying her graduation. As she transitioned up class levels, she
became more confident to engage in class and with peers, faculty, and organizations where she
gained more knowledge of the business industry.
When cultural awareness is incorporated into pedagogical approaches, intentional and
transformational learning is created for students. Transitioning into higher education
environments requires space for this learning to occur, support, and allow students to gain skills,
techniques, and strategies to succeed. For example, Alfredo felt that teachers, classroom spaces,
and educators can influence students by considering everyone’s opinions, contributions, and
stories in learning spaces. Additionally, Alonso felt that educational leaders who take the time to
understand and explain learning items through open and transparent safe spaces make students
feel comfortable. They connect and look toward guidance without trepidation.
Additional themes that emerged were familial care and support and social environment.
These two theme elements overlap by the connecting components tied to an individual’s
experiences with familial and social ecosystems. For example, participants indicated that support
from their families, siblings, or other outside social relationships and interactions impacted their
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persistence and retention. Seven participants shared that they wanted to give back to their parents
for all their support and sacrifice to ensure their well-being. Earlier, I mentioned Armando
experiencing financial constraints growing up; however, his drive and commitment were
nurtured through the motivation to give back to his parents, which served as a key strength for
him to persist in college.
On the other hand, in a social environment context, Alfredo felt imposture syndrome
when entering college, the sense of belonging was not present for him, and the space for growth
seemed absent. Additionally, Alvaro felt that taking too many AP courses did not allow him time
to engage socially in high school, limiting his involvement in social environments. Alondra,
however, felt that surrounding herself with other Latino students in high school clubs and
organizations enhanced her confidence, public speaking skills, and organizational abilities. In
relation to the literature, Stokes (2021) described the need to engage and interact in internal and
external social and cultural environments for first-generation Latino students to perform
academically. As such, developing spaces for relationships, community, and interactions builds
supportive environments where students feel empowered and find reasons to persist.
These findings also reflect a connection to Yosso’s (2005) community cultural wealth
model, in which familial and social capital are outlined as cultural indicators impacting the
college experiences of students of color. Drawing from familial and social community networks
invites students to participate, feel a sense of belonging, and honor their identity to navigate the
college experience.
Acquiring adaptive mindsets and skills largely depends on exposure, practice, and
repetition that leads to new knowledge or techniques (APA, 2015). Validating, developing, and
crafting skills reinforces students’ unique abilities, strengths, and characters. Participants
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reported that college readiness requires disciplined and responsible mindsets. A growth mindset
is central to a student’s educational transition. Students also mentioned that educational leaders
and advocates play a major role in ensuring this development in and outside the classroom.
Students’ practices, approaches, and efforts can be encouraged by teachers in a variety of ways
(APA, 2015). In the literature on the top 20 principles for teaching and learning, the adaptation
of skills mindsets appeared as an attitude for students’ development (APA, 2015). Teachers,
educators, academic advisors, and classroom spaces build students’ confidence, engagement, and
abilities to perform by improving their skills.
Because educational spaces and learning communities develop students’ skills, they must
incorporate exposure and participation in programs, community services, resources, and pre-
college experiences. Program participation and experiences encompass a variety of platforms not
always available nor visible to underserved and underrepresented students. Pre-college
programming provides environments where students can thrive, gain knowledge, and learn about
persistence and reasons for retention. Nine interviewees reported participating in a pre-college
program or experience. Participants also reported that their involvement with college readiness
programs helped them gain familiarity with new information about college environments,
practices, and approaches as they transitioned into college. For this area, the literature indicated
that fostering intentional, equitable, and transformational program environments honors and
serves students from underrepresented communities to enhance their exposure, resources,
services, and educational framework to pursue higher levels of education (Rivera et al., 2019).
Connecting students to pre-college programs or experiences where students can evolve and find
a sense of purpose honors their positionalities and possibilities to reach their goals. Furthermore,
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supporting students’ transitions also means bridging them with opportunities, access, and strong
educational foundations to build their success.
Community support, involvement, and growth derive in many forms: parental
involvement, faculty relationships, peer-to-peer connections, sibling support, program
participation, and mentor guidance are some of the forms in which community can be
recognized. Community helps ensure students’ social and emotional needs are addressed while
also providing meaningful connections, relationships, cognitive abilities, and interactions that
elevate their persistence and retention. For example, Alondra felt that she best performs when
she sees herself surrounded by other people who engage and invest in their career growth,
learning, and goals. This finding connected to the work of Drake et al. (2013), which emphasized
that community builds strong educational transitions, a sense of belonging, and inclusion and
drives students to gain a literary world of experiences of knowledge. The literature speaks to the
anchoring of guidance through community involvement and support which in return builds self-
efficacy, increases performance, and abilities to motivate (Drake et al., 2013).
Investing in your development through learning, skills, knowledge, experience, and
understanding enriches your success. Students need to be exposed to college readiness and
transitional experiences early in their educational journeys to further picture new ideas, help
them find their purpose, motivators, and strengths and, therefore, support their persistence in
college. The literature discusses adaptive mindsets, community, resources, and student
programming to navigate college transition and readiness. However, it fails to examine the
weight of the individual self. In other words, students must see themselves as their greatest asset.
Understanding their strengths amplifies students’ ability to perform and succeed in college.
Duncheon’s (2018) research aids in understanding students’ positionalities and efforts toward
99

self-development. For example, Alvaro felt that being college-ready is to be open with yourself,
putting yourself in environments of growth mentality, physically, and emotionally. In doing so,
Alvaro indicated that you learn about your abilities, mentality, emotions, and behaviors that drive
your persistence and retention. Individual persistence is determined by many components of
one’s life transitions, experiences, and relationships. However, individuals must be willing to see
beyond obstacles, stay motivated and find the courage and determination to look at challenges as
opportunities for growth. Therefore, in the following section, I provide the limitations of the case
study, which can be influenced by personal views, assumptions, or preferences.
Limitations
The limitations in qualitative research directly impact and influence the interpretation of
the study’s findings, analysis, and reporting. Limitations are the constraints outside the control
and abilities of the researcher. However, the examination must be carefully designed to
understand the practice of its limitations in the research method to prove the results’ internal and
external validity and trustworthiness (Price & Murnan, 2004).
While the study did include students at all college levels, a balance was not obtained, as
six participants were seniors. Therefore, it is unclear the extent to which the findings of different
class-level groups are different. In addition, because this study heavily depends on individual
experiences, limitations can include reliance on participants’ responses to answer honestly,
provide in-depth answers, motivation, and emotional constraints. This may impact an insufficient
sample size for data analysis and difficulty investigating its influences on college readiness and
transition. Moreover, the students’ narratives and experiences are limited to the college business
administration and did not include other first-generation Latino students with different majors,
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which could provide additional insight into other factors affecting degree completion among this
group of students.
The interview questions were designed to address questions related to Schlossberg’s
transition theory in relation to the 4S system model. However, alternative themes arose that were
not directly connected to the questions: historical reference to familial educational challenges,
outside factors affecting their performance, and the struggle to develop holistic communication
approaches while meeting their academic deliverables. Lastly, the study’s research was limited to
first-generation Latino students’ participation, anchoring responses from other first-generation
student populations who identified with another race would carry additional value to the study
data.
Recommendations for Policy
Research states that students’ readiness to achieve higher education is drawn on various
narratives, approaches, practices, and implications for educational development and learning.
However, if platforms are not drawn by the development of equitable structures, policies, and
systems that offer access to opportunities for students, inequitable barriers, oppressed
environments, challenges, and obstacles will continue. Critical race theory calls for analyzing
educational inequities and systemic barriers that obstruct learning ecosystems, such as preparing
for college in 21st-century academia. The theory helps promote social justice and transformation
by bringing forward the challenges and intersectionality underserved communities face (Garces,
2014). Viewing college readiness through this lens highlights the salience of race that continues
without interrogation (Garces, 2014).
To better support students in 21st-century academia, the action steps surrounding
institutional policies and procedures, especially for financial aid, housing services, and food
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insecurity difficulties, should be examined to ensure support for all students. This could mean
looking into the barriers various systems present or the practices institutions adopt that may or
may not provide services to underserved and unrepresented students. Federal, state, and
government educational officials should study the policies and implications at HSIs, especially
as HSIs face different challenges regarding the support needed in these areas that directly impact
students’ attendance, persistence, and retention. For example, establishing on-campus
partnerships, local city community groups, and operative allies committed to adapting,
innovating, and exploring new approaches could contribute to moving education forward.
Recommendations for Practice
Student success depends on familiarity with college materials, planning, goal setting, and
obtaining relevant strategies to succeed in college. Degree attainment occurs by focusing on
proactive academic habits, mentorship programs, educational technology platforms, advising
initiatives, and receiving exposure to professional career organizations, networks, and affiliations
from faculty.
According to Anderson et al. (2011), coping with transition takes effort, proactive
responses, optimism, and self-assertion strategies to address challenges, barriers, and stressors
that may hinder students’ performance. By adapting practices and strategies to redefine problems
and situations, individuals are more likely to take control and action of their transitions,
planning, performance, and academic aspirations. For college students, self-confidence, self-
efficacy, adaptive mindsets, and a sense of self-discovery by making mistakes and not giving up
validates and demonstrate persistence and a drive to succeed.
Support and exposure to social and academic resources form the basis for first-generation
Latino students to earn college degrees. This may include more state, federal, or government
102

funding to support additional pre-college programming in schools starting from secondary
education. Illuminating a focus on college readiness early elevates information literacy, develops
inspiration, and enables the human action to seek more.
A sense of belonging, inclusion, engagement, and equity are all centering factors that
derive a successful college transition experience (Shelton, 2019). Schlossberg’s transition theory
helps identify the major influences people adapt to cope with transition, growth, or development
as they move in, out, and through life events and non-events. College readiness encompasses
several elements that prepare the college-ready student. The goal is to understand the whole
student, their culture, identity, ecosystems, and community. Anchoring discussions earlier in
their schooling to assess student readiness will support student persistence and retention along
their educational journeys. This can be done by connecting parents and family members to early
conversations and exposure to college opportunities, resources, and services. Partnering with
families can help shift the culture of expectations of who goes to college. Studies show that less
than 60% of students in the United States at a 4-year institution complete a degree within 6
years; rates for underserved minoritized students of color are much lower (Tierney et al., 2014).
As such, academic support, guidance, community capital, family involvement, information
literacy, and advocacy among Latino students are central. As previously mentioned in this report,
by 2050, Latinos will make up 30% of the population in the United States. Therefore, a detailed
landscape and informed solutions to prepare college-ready students are necessary. Improving
access to creative literacy, scholarly best practices, cultural awareness, problem-solving, and
intrusive educational advising efforts serve as recommendations.
Career development plays a crucial role in the lives of first-generation Latino students, as
highlighted in the case study findings. It holds immense significance as these students navigate
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their educational journey. Just as Schlossberg’s theory suggests, moving in, through, and out of
transitions creates transformative experiences. By exposing students to the diverse aspects of
their chosen majors, their perspectives are shaped, and they are empowered to act, whether it be
persisting, making changes, or adapting based on their evolving outlook. Recognizing the value
of career development in this context is essential for supporting the success and growth of first-
generation Latino students.
Incorporating intentional programming, pedagogy, and curriculum tailored to their
specific needs becomes crucial. This approach enables these students to acquire invaluable
insights and knowledge about their chosen fields. By providing targeted resources and support,
they can deepen their understanding of industry best practices and expectations. Equipping first-
generation Latino students with the necessary tools and skills not only during their degree
attainment but also beyond becomes the cornerstone of their success. To foster this growth,
institutions must create environments that encourage career development, exploration, and
innovation. By doing so, they empower students to overcome obstacles, establish professional
networks, and flourish in their chosen careers.
Recommendations for Future Research
What are first-generation Latino students’ experiences with college readiness,
persistence, and retention? College should be a great experience for all students, regardless of
race, ethnicity, or background. College readiness requires informed decisions, planning, robust
pedagogy, intentional curriculum, and engagement in cognitive skill-building. Drake et al.
(2013) mention that students’ clear visions motivate and inspire them to succeed. Despite the
gaps in college readiness, retention, and persistence, the potential and power of students’ abilities
104

are present. Improving means tapping into those unknown skills, strengths, and weaknesses to
build mastery, passion, motivation, and purpose to succeed.
Future research should explore and measure the experiences of all first-generation
students regardless of ethnicity rather than examining only Latino students. In addition, future
research should study other students in different majors rather than limiting the research to a
single discipline, as was done in this study. Moreover, balanced participation from all class
levels should be considered in the sample to better identify the motivational beliefs, engagement,
support, services, and experiences students perceive as they transition into each academic level.
Additionally, rather than relying on interviews, future research should use other collection
approaches, including self-reported data through surveys and group observations, to uncover
other persistence and retention determiners. Finally, longitudinal studies would help examine the
whole student experience, especially with an emphasis on moving in, through, and out of life
transitions.
Summary
This qualitative case study explored how first-generation Latino students experience
college readiness, transition, and persistence. The study examined how students navigate various
transitions in academia. Findings indicated several types of anticipated, unanticipated, or non-
events supported their persistence and retention. The degree to which students cope varies by
educational experience, life alterations, and relationships. However, there is a clear
understanding of the elements that support and sustain student success. As we know, institutional
environments are rich with knowledge, and leveraging diversity, equity, and inclusion provides
holistic and positive interactions for all students to become college ready, gain knowledge,
explore career options, participate in programs, build community, and plan their academic goals
105

and aspirations. College readiness is about building partnerships, collaboration, and increasing
networks between colleges and K–12 systems. Current initiatives may not serve all students. In
other words, pre-college programs, experiences, resources, and services exist but not in the ways
they should equity-wise to support all underserved and underrepresented students.
Students’ success, regardless of ethnicity or socioeconomic status, lies in shifting
historically oppressed systems, promoting excellence through transformational leadership
practices, charting intentional actions in the student’s development, and considering the whole
student when support, resources, services, policies, and practices are created. Shifting these
paradigms allows work to be done and move toward more inclusive and equity-driven
educational opportunities. While inequality and disparities continue in educational arenas,
transitional support and mobility help prepare the next generation of leaders. It is about inviting
creativity, diversity, and culture by building on ideas from the ground up, keeping an eye on the
horizon of opportunities, and welcoming change. These approaches take compassion, bravery,
transparency, and passion for working toward proactive education ecosystems to serve all
students.
For the Latino student, however, deficits and unsatisfactory graduation rates continue to
be a problem for a population that will make up 30% of the country’s workforce by 2050 (Flink,
2018). The shifts need to happen now; the policies need to be modified now; the experiences
need to develop now; and the attention to this growing community needs to happen now. The
lessons from participants drawn from this case study serve as a reminder that more work still
needs to be done to better serve and support first-generation Latino students.

106

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121

Appendix A: Email Communication
Subject line: Participate in a Dissertation Study & Receive a $30 Amazon Gift Card
Hello, College of Business Administration student!
Your input is needed for a student-led dissertation study on the experiences, thoughts,
opinions, and beliefs regarding first-generation Latino students’ college readiness and
transitional journeys in higher education.
Be heard by a fellow Southern Public University (pseudonym) alumna, Professor, and
first-gen Latina and receive a $30 Amazon gift card upon completing your participation. To
participate in the interview, you will need to meet the following criteria:
● 18+ years old
● Actively enrolled undergraduate student at Southern Public University (pseudonym)
● First-generation college student (neither parent attended college)
● Self-identify as Hispanic or Latino
● Successfully completed the BUS 100: Freshman Experience course in the college of
business administration
The purpose of this communication is to invite you to participate in the study. Please also
see the flyer attached for more details.
You are not obligated to take part in this study. If you agree to participate, you remain
free to withdraw from the study at any time and without the obligation to give a reason. If you
are interested in sharing your story, please complete the participant pre-screening questionnaire
(link below). If you meet the study’s criteria, you will be contacted via email to schedule an
individual interview.
122

Cal Poly Pomona (CPP) benefits from a richly diverse community; 50% of enrolled
students at CPP identify as Hispanic or Latino origin. The university is in the top 25 colleges
awarding baccalaureate degrees to Hispanic/Latino students. Your voice, stories, and feedback
will lead to recommendations to improve, support, and advance equitable education and
outcomes for future students in the 21st century.
Please do not hesitate to contact me if you would like to ask questions before agreeing to
participate in the study.
Thank you for your time.
Sincerely,
Jacquelyn K. Trejo
Ed.D. Candidate

123

Appendix B: Recruitment Flyer

PARTICIPATE
IN A
DISSERTATION STUDY
-------------------------------------
FIRST-GENERATION
LATINO STUDENTS
-------------------------------------
CONTACT INFORMATION
Jacquelyn Trejo, Ed. D Candidate
jktrejo@usc.edu
ph. 909. 904.1334

ABOUT THE STUDY
As a doctoral student, I am interested in learning and
hearing the voices of first-generation Latino students’
educational experiences and pathways to higher
education degree attainment.

STUDY ELIGIBILITY
• 18+ years old
• Actively enrolled undergraduate student at Cal
Poly Pomona
• Must identify as a first-generation college
student (neither parent(s) attended college).
• Must self-identify as a Hispanic or Latino
• Successfully completed the BUS 1010
Freshman Experience Course in the College of
Business Administration

TIME COMMITMENT
• Complete a screening questionnaire (2 minutes)
• 1:1 Interview online via zoom (1 hour)

COMPENSATION
A $30 Amazon gift card will be provided to student
participants.

Screening
Questionnaire
QR Code
IRB APPROVAL
#UP-22-00992
124

Appendix C: Information Sheet
STUDY TITLE: College Readiness: The Causal Effects Impacting Persistence and Retention
among Latino Students in the United States to Achieve Higher Education Degrees
PRINCIPLE INVESTIGATOR: Jacquelyn K. Trejo, Ed.D. Candidate
FACULTY ADVISOR: Sheila M. Bañuelos, Ed.D.

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE
The case study aims to hear students’ experiences, thoughts, opinions, and behaviors regarding
college preparation and transitional journeys. We hope to learn and understand the transitional
college experiences first-generation Latino students face, which may impact their persistence and
retention in obtaining higher education degrees beyond their first year in college. You are invited
as a possible participant because this study looks towards interviewing students who identify
with the following criteria: (1) identify as an undergraduate college student, (2) identify as a
first-generation college student, (3) identify as Latino, (4) active enrollment status at the set
institution; Southern Public University (pseudonym), and (5) completion of the Business
Administration college freshman experience course.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
The study’s procedure consists of 60-minute individual interviews conducted in person face-to-
face or via Zoom. The interview will consist of 15 questions with potential probing questions.
The interview will also be audio recorded to capture your responses accurately. The recording is
solely for my purposes to best capture your perspectives, thoughts, opinions, and experiences,
and answers will not be shared with anyone outside the research. You can request to end the
interview if you choose to do so at any time; no implications will be taken. However, you will
not receive the compensation gift card if your participation has not been completed. Your safety
and well-being are of top priority during this process. In addition, before the interview process
begins, you must give verbal permission to record the conversation. Moreover, your information
will be kept confidential by removing your name and identifiable information from the interview
transcripts, and a pseudonym name will be used to protect your identity. Finally, your
information will not be shared with the university, or any other organization for that matter, and
audio records will be kept under password protection. If you decide to take part, you will be
asked to: (1) Complete the screening questionnaire, (2) review and agree to the information
sheet, (3) participate in a 60-minute individual interview with the principal investigator (to be
performed face-to-face or online), and (4) give verbal permission to record the conversation via
audio on Zoom/recording device.

125

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive a $30 Amazon gift card for your time and participation in the study. The card
will be given to you electronically at the end of the interview when all questions have been
answered and your participation has been completed.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
If you are unable to attend a face-to-face interview discussion, your alternative may be to
participate virtually through Zoom. A scheduled 60-minute interview will be scheduled by you
and the principal investigator with a date and time that works best for both parties.

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team, the University of Southern California Institutional Review
Board (IRB), and the IRB of the recruited institution in which this study is recruiting its
participants may have access to the data to its entirety (i.e., audio recordings, reporting, analysis,
collection of data, etc.). The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and
welfare of research subjects.

Confidentiality of all participant information will be kept under password protection. The
principal investigator will not share the collected data, reporting, and analysis with anyone
outside the research. Audio records, transcriptions, and a list of participants’ pseudonyms will be
kept under confidentiality protection. The principal investigator will be the primary transcriber
and will have access to all the data, and participants will not have access to review/edit the
recordings or transcripts. Participants will be given pseudonyms to protect their identity and will
be de-identified from any data gathered for reporting purposes. In general, no answers will be
directly attributed to the participant.

The data collected in the study will be compiled into reporting and released to the University of
Southern California Rossier School of Education to complete the Doctor of Education degree
dissertation requirements set forward by the institution for the principal investigator Jacquelyn
K. Trejo.

Participants may be harmed if it was revealed that they participated in this study. Doing so would
disclose that they possessed all the social identities required for participation: (1) identify as an
undergraduate student, (2) identify as first-generation, (3) identify as Hispanic or Latino, (4)
active enrollment status at the set institution; Southern Public University (pseudonym), and 5)
completion of the business administration college Freshman Experience (BUS 100) course.

Overall, all confidential measures for this study will be maintained as much as possible.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Jacquelyn K. Trejo at (909) 904-1334
email jktrejo@cpp.edu or Sheila M. Bañuelos, Ed.D. at email smsanche@usc.edu.

126

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu
127

Appendix D: Interview Protocol
The research question guiding this study asks, “How do first-generation Latino students
at an HSI perceive the influence of college readiness and transitional experiences on their
persistence and retention in pursuing a higher education degree?”
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. I appreciate the time and support you
have set aside for this interview. As mentioned in my email, I am currently a doctoral student at
the University of Southern California (USC). I am conducting a dissertation study on college
readiness and transitional experiences of first-generation Latino students. I am particularly drawn
to understanding and identifying how well-prepared students feel as they navigate college
transition, coursework, and transitional environments from the start of their 1st year in the
institution.
The interview will consist of answering 15 questions, and with your verbal permission, it
will also be audio recorded. Your information will be confidential and will not be shared with
anyone outside this research. Your answers and comments will not be shared with the university
or any other organization, for that matter, and audio records will be kept under password
protection. The data collected today will be compiled into a report, and while I plan to use some
of what you say as direct quotes for my reporting, none of this data will be directly attributed to
you. I will use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify
any of the information I gather from you. I am happy to provide you with a copy of my final
paper if you are interested at the end of my studies.
Before we begin, I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of a researcher
today. Not as a staff or faculty employee. What this means is that the nature of my questions is
128

not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments on how you are performing as a student or
interviewee. My goal is to understand your perspectives, opinions, thoughts, and educational
story contributing to the data needed for this report. Today, I will use this recording device to
accurately capture what you share with me. The recording is solely for my purposes to best
capture your perspectives and answers. It will not be shared with anyone outside the research.
You can request to end the interview if you choose to; no implications will be taken at any time
in the interview process. Your well-being is my top priority.
May I have your permission to record our conversation? Please answer by saying “yes”
followed by your full name agreeing to the recording. If not, please state so now.
Opening Questions
1. Do you live on or off campus?
2. Are you part of any university organizations, programs, or student clubs?
3. Since beginning your university journey, have you changed your major? If yes, what
motivated you to do so? If not, have you considered it? If so, please explain the
reasons behind your consideration.
Exploration Questions
I would first like to start by asking you some questions about your personal thoughts and
experience with college readiness.
1. Can you share with me some of the reasons you pursued a college degree? (Probing
question: What inspired your major in business administration?)
2. As a first-generation Latino student, looking back, can you share with me how your
high school experience prepared you for college, academically and socially? (Probing
question: Can you share some specific examples?)
129

3. What does college readiness mean to you?
4. As a first-generation Latino student, what role do you believe educational leaders,
scholars, and educators contribute in supporting students’ college readiness?
Now I would like to ask you some questions about your college transition process. The
following questions are aimed to focus on understanding the support, resources, and pathways
first-generation Latino students face as they navigate through their academic journey.
1. As a first-generation Latino student, can you share with me who or what supported
and encouraged your transition to college? (Probing question: Can you walk me
through your transitional experience to college?)
2. As a first-generation Latino student, what are some of the skills, abilities, and
knowledge you would have liked to know before your college transition? (Probing
question: Can you please describe your experience from high school to college?)
3. As a first-generation Latino student, what are some of the challenges and obstacles
that impacted your persistence and retention? Please explain why. (Probing question:
Can you walk me through some of these challenges and experiences for you?)
Lastly, I would like to ask you some questions about the influence of support surrounding
college readiness.
1. As a first-generation Latino student, what or who has supported your persistence in
your college academic journey?
2. As a first-generation Latino student, looking back at your educational journey from
primary school to college, please describe the types of support, guidance,
opportunities, and resources that influenced your path to higher education attainment.
130

3. Looking back at your college preparation and transition process, what do you believe
is critical in becoming college-ready?
Closing Questions
1. What goals do you have after you graduate?
2. Is there anything else you would like to share about your experiences that you have
not gotten a chance to so far?

131

Appendix E: Screening Questionnaire
1. Has either of your parents attended/completed a 4-year higher education institution?
● __ Yes
● __ No
2. Do you self-identify as Hispanic or Latino origin?
● __ Yes
● __ No
3. Did you successfully complete the freshman experience (BUS 100) with the college
of business administration?
● __ Yes
● __ No
4. What is your current class level?
● __ Freshman
● __ Sophomore
● __ Junior
● __ Senior
5. Do you have an interest in participating in an hour-long interview?
● __ Yes
● __ No

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The phrase “college readiness” references many critical elements connected to postsecondary degree attainment. This qualitative case study analyzed factors associated with persistence and retention among first-generation Latino college students. Understanding the influences of this phenomenon aids in addressing inequities and moving toward more equitable, inclusive, and diversified resources, support, and intentional educational programming, particularly for underserved and underrepresented minority groups. Attention to this next generation of rising scholars provides an opportunity to hear students’ stories, challenges, thoughts, opinions, motivators, and experiences. Their stand on college readiness echoes their academic journeys and positionalities regarding what student success looks like in the 21st century. The study examined first-generation Latino students who majored in business administration at a 4-year public Hispanic-serving institution in Southern California. Drawing on Schlossberg’s transition theory, the theoretical framework helped explain how the participants experienced their education transitions, challenges, relationships, and self-motivators in pursuit of degree attainment.

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College readiness: terms and conditions may apply

Asset Metadata

Creator Trejo, Jacquelyn Karen (author)

Core Title College readiness and transitional experiences: the factors that contribute to first-generation Latino students’ persistence and retention to achieve higher education degrees

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2023-08

Publication Date 07/25/2023

Defense Date 07/10/2023

Publisher University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag college readiness,first-generation,Higher education,Hispanic-serving institutions,Latino,OAI-PMH Harvest,persistence,retention

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Bañuelos, Sheila (committee chair), Acuña, Arely (committee member), Melguizo, Tatiana (committee member), Torres-Retana, Raquel (committee member)

Creator Email jktrejo@usc.edu,trejojacquelyn@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113289546

Unique identifier UC113289546

Identifier etd-TrejoJacqu-12143.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-TrejoJacqu-12143

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Trejo, Jacquelyn Karen

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230726-usctheses-batch-1074 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu