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Culturally responsive advising in regards to Native American college students

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Culturally responsive advising in regards to Native American college students

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Content Copyright 2023 Jon Caponetto Jr.

Culturally Responsive Advising in Regards to Native American College Students

by

Jon Caponetto Jr.

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF EDUCATIONAL COUNSELING

August 2023

ii
Acknowledgments
I have an immense amount of gratitude and appreciation for my Thesis Chair, Dr. Sheila
Banuelos, and my committee members, Dr. Atheneus Ocampo and Dr. Chris Finley. I couldn’t
imagine going through this journey without the guidance and wisdom you all have given me at
one point or another. I truly appreciate the feedback and constructive comments that have
allowed me to elevate my writing. Additionally, I truly appreciate you all for allowing me to stay
true to my vision of what I wanted to study.
I want to show appreciation to my EC cohort peers who have shown immense support
and interest in my topic for this project. You all have truly allowed me to be seen and heard and I
want to carry that same energy into my future career and educational endeavors. I am beyond
happy to have had the opportunity to sit in classes with you all and ponder the idea of how to
make education more equitable and inclusive for minoritized students.
Finally, I want to show immense gratitude and appreciation to my three academic
advisors during my undergraduate years who were some of the most influential people I could
have met when I first started college. To Stephanie Tabibian, meeting you and hearing you speak
some Paiute to me in our advising sessions was so impactful to me and the trajectory of my
journey. To Nora Fandino, you are so caring and went above and beyond to understand me as an
individual. I am forever grateful to have met you. Last, thank you Alli Bach for being the best
music advisor who really helped me see the importance of advising by allowing me to be a peer
advisor under your guidance.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................. II
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. IV
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................... 1
CENTERING MY STORY ................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC ....................................................................................................... 4
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ...................................................................................................... 6
MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION ......................................................................................................... 8
PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................. 9
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................... 10
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 11
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS .................................................................................................... 12
OVERALL ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS ................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER TWO: RESEARCH DESIGN AND APPROACH .................................................... 15
DESIGN AND TECHNICAL STANDPOINT ....................................................................................... 15
TRUSTWORTHINESS OF THE DATA, RESEARCHER BIAS, AND OTHER RELATED ISSUES ............... 18
CONNECTIONS TO METHODS AND DATA ..................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 3: RELEVANT LITERATURE ................................................................................. 20
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS ...................................................................................................... 20
FAMILY EDUCATION MODEL ...................................................................................................... 21
TRIBAL CRITICAL RACE THEORY ................................................................................................ 23
NATIVE AMERICAN COLLEGE STUDENTS .................................................................................... 26
Native American Student Organizations ................................................................................ 29
Institutionally Supported Programs ........................................................................................ 30
CHALLENGES .............................................................................................................................. 31
DISCRIMINATION AND OTHER RELATED STRESSORS .................................................................. 33
THE ROLE OF FAMILY FOR NATIVE COLLEGE STUDENTS ............................................................ 36
NATIVE FAMILIES AND HIGHER EDUCATION .............................................................................. 37
SURROGATE FAMILIES ................................................................................................................ 38
STAFF AND FACULTY AS FAMILY ................................................................................................ 39
FAMILY NON-SUPPORT ............................................................................................................... 40
ACADEMIC ADVISING ................................................................................................................. 41
IMPORTANCE OF ACADEMIC ADVISING ....................................................................................... 42

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ADVISING APPROACHES .............................................................................................................. 44
Culturally Responsive Advising ............................................................................................ 45
ADVISING NATIVE AMERICAN STUDENTS ................................................................................... 47
CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 50
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ....................................................................................................... 51
RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................... 54
PRACTICE AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS ........................................................................................ 56
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ....................................................................................................... 57
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS ............................................................................................................ 58
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 60

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Abstract
Native American students in higher education face unique challenges and experiences that can
significantly impact their educational journey. Academic advising plays a crucial role in
supporting Native American college students and facilitating their success in higher education.
By adopting culturally sensitive and student-centered approaches, academic advisors can
effectively support Native American college students and contribute to their academic success,
personal growth, and overall well-being in higher education. The purpose of this Thesis is to
review some issues related to assisting Native American students from an academic advising
perspective and how those professionals can better understand this population. Looking into
factors such as: identifying who Native American college students; showcasing the kind of
discrimination this population faces; the role of family in helping this population succeed in
college; and finally, academic advising and how it can play a major role for these students.

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Chapter 1
Centering My Story
How’eh, Neh Jon Caponetto. I am an enrolled member of the Burns Paiute Tribe from
Eastern Oregon and a descendant of the Shoshone Bannock Tribes of Fort Hall, ID. I was raised
on the Burns Paiute Reservation in rural Eastern Oregon primarily by my mother and her many
sisters and brothers whom I am proud to call my aunties and uncles. Growing up on the
reservation, college or higher education was only ever talked about when the Ducks were doing
well in football or when the Beavers would lose to the Ducks. It was rare that anyone attempted
college and often would return home after a semester or two. I only knew school as this place I
had to go and so much of my formative years were spent tolerating it instead of loving it. In 5th
grade, I was introduced to band class and that was the moment in which set a course for my
eventual arrival into higher education.
I played constantly and ended up winning state music competitions and eventually
traveling abroad to perform in Australia and Europe. Music became a way for me to express and
showcase my talent unlike anything I had ever done previously. Honing my musical abilities is
why I wanted to pursue music as a major in college when I was a senior in high school. I wanted
to continue becoming a better musician, but I also was intentional about wanting to share my
knowledge with others who come from the same background as myself.
Upon choosing to attend the University of Oregon (UO), I was filled with immense
excitement as well as fear and anxiety. No one from my family had ever gone to college or at the
very least no one had ever gone long enough to receive a degree. Outside of my family, I had

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never really seen anyone from my tribal community go off to college either other than a few who
in my mind were the absolute coolest people ever. Once it was my time to head off and start my
own higher education journey, I had this immense feeling of having to do well and not drop out.
I wanted to be able to finish college and graduate with a degree and show that people from a
rural reservation in Eastern Oregon can make it in this new environment.
Throughout my entire four years at the UO, I experienced many accomplishments and
failures that have shaped my perspective of the world and how I play a role in society. One of the
biggest assets and resources I needed to use in order to survive this entirely new part of my life
was my advisors. The three advisors I had in college all helped my success in completing college
and now I am in a position of giving back to students starting their college journeys who may
feel the same feelings as I had all those years ago.
The advisor I had to see in order to receive my Diversity Excellence scholarship was the
Native American Student Retention Specialist & Academic Advisor. This person was the
absolute first time I had ever seen a Paiute working in an office job and immediately they were a
rockstar in my eyes. Every meeting with them made me feel confident and able to confront the
challenges of being a college student. They would also speak the Paiute words to me, and I will
never forget how much it felt like a part of my family was with me at college. I gained so much
confidence and willingness to persevere from this person. This person is who I remind myself
often of why I want to continue the path into higher education and one day help other first gen
native students who just want to make an impact on their families and communities.

3
My TRIO SSS advisor was another individual who was kind, considerate, and full of
compassion whenever I would meet with them. It was a nice feeling to express frustrations and
stress to someone who could truly understand what I was going through and provide resources
that might help alleviate the problem. I enjoyed hearing this person’s story and how it parallels
much of what I was going through. Additionally, this advisor really treated their advisees and
wanted to know everything about them. This person would come to several of my concerts
throughout my undergraduate career. This act was impactful for me because it was never a
possibility for my family back home to ever come watch me perform, so having someone out in
the audience to fill that role was the best feeling.
My major advisor was a kind and informational person who made sure that I was on track
to graduating. I was nominated by a faculty member from the School of Music and Dance at the
UO to be considered for a position as a peer advisor under the supervision of my major advisor. I
learned an immense amount of information and gained an in-depth understanding of what
academic advising was from my time working as a peer advisor. This position was monumental
in showcasing what working in higher education can look like when interacting with students. I
had the opportunity to learn about degree requirements and meeting with students who needed
advising services. My major advisor did an excellent job training me for this role and I could not
be more grateful for that person because I would not have thought of making a career out of
helping higher education students pursue their goals.
The story I present is important to understand because of how interconnected it is with
the topic of this thesis. I was a first generation, low income, Native American college student

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who had to learn and navigate this world of higher education. If it was not for the amazing
advisors, I may not have graduated or pursued my educational journey at all. I am a lucky
individual and some are not as lucky as I am which is why I wanted to write on this topic of
academic advising and its relation to Native American students.
Introduction to the Topic
de Brey et al. (2019) report that less than 1% of Native American college students
graduate with a bachelor's degree. The data also shows that Native American college student
enrollment has doubled over the past 30 years and participation rates have increased to 35
percent (Devoe et al., 2008; Kuna et al., 2016). “Despite these gains, progress has been uneven,
and differences persist between American Indian/Alaska Native students and students of other
racial/ethnic groups on key indicators of educational performance” (Devoe et al., 2008, p. 5).
Between 2000 and 2018, college-going Native college students' educational performance was
lower than any other group of students throughout the 18-year period (de Brey et al., 2019).
Many Native students find that in order to pursue educational opportunities, they must physically
leave their lives back home on the reservation or wherever their community is and go into
colleges and universities that are often considered Predominantly White Institutions (PWI) with
the hope of reinvesting their knowledge learned back into the community (Cech et al., 2019).
From the inception of the early colonial colleges, Native Americans have been
imprisoned to learn Western forms of education at the expense of their own traditional ways of
knowing as well as experience trauma impacting generations from these institutions (Fish &
Syed, 2018; Makomenaw, 2012; Wright, 1997). Top-tier institutions such as Dartmouth, William

5
and Mary, and Harvard, often referred to as ‘Ivy League’ schools were the first to implement
education programs designed to ‘Christianize’ and ‘save’ the savages from their way of life and
live in a European style of society (Fish & Syed, 2018; Wright, 1997). It is worth noting that
while American Indian people were being forced into this damaging form of education practices,
they were also forced to build and die under the very structures that were made to ‘save’ them
from themselves as seen within the California Missions (Klasky, 2013; Tinker 1993).
The boarding school system was created under the same premise as that of the colonial
colleges and sought to eradicate all aspects of indigenous knowledge, language, and traditions
for a more Euro-American and Christian way of living (Adelman et. al., 2013; Fish & Syed,
2018; Makomenaw, 2012; Nebelkopf & Phillips, 1972). Captain Richard H. Pratt, a principal
proponent of the boarding school systems, is often coined with the phrase, “Kill the Indian, Save
the Man'' (Churchill, 2004; Fish & Syed, 2018, p. 387) and his intention of the school was to
strip any form of indigenous identity from the Native American children attending the school so
that they can fit in with the rest of the dominant society. While many of these institutions have
either shut down completely or converted their educational philosophy to enrich Indigenous
students' lives rather than create trauma, the lasting impacts of these institutions have created a
negative view of attaining a Western form of education (Fish & Syed, 2018).
It is important to discuss the historical happenings regarding Native Americans receiving
a Western form of education because of the tremendous trauma and suffering it has caused many
generations from the first construction of the colonial colleges (Jacob et al., 2019; Tuck &
Gaztambide-Fernandez, 2013; Tuck & Yang, 2012; Turner, 2006; Wolfe, 2006; Wright &

6
Tierney, 1991). Even in modern society, remnants of the colonial colleges and boarding schools
missions are still in place in the many systems and policies seen within institutions in regard to
nurturing and educating Native students (Calderon, 2009; Jacob et al., 2019). While not as
blatantly physically or mentally abusive as the preceding forms of education, institutions play a
role in maintaining historical trauma through education by not putting forth the effort to include
Indigenous values, teachings, and culture as part of the curriculum and atmosphere of the school
(Jacob et al., 2019). Native Students are having feelings of isolation because of the
underrepresentation experience at any given school (Brayboy et al., 2015; Jacob et al., 2019;
Kirkness & Barnhardt, 1991; Shotton et al., 2013). The experience of isolation,
underrepresentation, and a feeling of being unwelcome can be described as a new tactic of
colonization and assimilation in order to keep minoritized students, especially Native American
students from achieving an education that could potentially help their tribal communities
(Calderon, 2009; Jacob et al., 2019; Klasky, 2013).
Statement of the Problem
While Native Americans were among the first minority groups within the United States
to be college educated, they are among the lowest rates of groups to start postsecondary
education, have lowest rates of graduation, and have a higher rate of dropping out than other
groups of people (EOP, 2014; Fish & Syed, 2018; Ross et al., 2012). As such, it is important to
recognize that even though Native Americans may have been the first minority group to attend
college, the education received was designed to strip them of their culture and traditions (Fish &
Syed, 2018). Therefore, having been forced to learn Western forms of education has actually

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been a detriment to Native communities and has created resistance to attending these institutions
because of historical trauma created by schools (Fish & Syed, 2018). It is important to recognize
what happened historically with the many issues that Native Americans face in education are
directly linked to these schools (Brayboy, 2005; Fish & Syed, 2018;).
Now that a college education is needed in order to make financial gains or educational
advancement, Native Americans are among the lowest to receive a postsecondary education
(EOP, 2014; Fish & Syed, 2018; Ross et al., 2012). There are a multitude of reasons as to why
Native Americans in general do not receive a postsecondary education; they include: poor
primary and secondary education, financial issues, long distance from family, break from
cultural traditions, and the list can go on even longer (Fish & Syed, 2018). Once a Native student
does manage to get past many of the obstacles of getting to college, there is a long list of issues
that they may encounter. Native students may have to worry about: racism and microaggressions,
isolation, disconnect with their home, financial troubles, and faculty and/or staff inability to
make students feel welcome (Fish & Syed, 2018; Guillory & Wolverton, 2008; Lin et al., 1988;
Perry, 2002). It is important to note that this list is not inclusive of all the other possible
challenges experienced by Native American college students. While other groups of students
may have similar issues, Native students have some of the largest gaps in terms of educational
success and success in other ways of life (de Brey et al., 2019). Some examples include, poor
academic preparation, significant cultural differences, historical Western education trauma, and
sense of loneliness.

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While so many issues and problems are present for Native American students, colleges
and universities have the power to work towards making their experience a positive one and
working to bridge the gap between the student communities and the institution. One possible
way this partnership can begin is through academic advising. Academic advising is an important
resource Native American students can utilize. Issues such as, difference of cultures, advisors
unable or unwilling to see perspective from their native students lens, and advisors unable to
create an environment for the Native students, this resource becomes lost and thus leaving these
students unable to feel welcomed or seen at their institution (Fish & Syed, 2018; Klasky, 2013;)
Advisors are often equipped to work with students whose culture and perspective do not align
with many Native students and trying to advise using these techniques is not helpful for these
native students (Klasky, 2013).
Main Research Question
Using the lens of Tribal Critical Race Theory (TribalCrit) and the Family Education
Model, the main research question leading this thesis is:
What are primary themes in current scholarship works that discuss Native American student
belonging, persistence, and sense of connection to family within academic advising at a
predominantly white institution?
A sub-question to the initial research question is:
What special techniques informed by the literature could be utilized by academic advisors to
create a culturally responsive environment for Native students to utilize services intended to
support their educational journey?

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Purpose and Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is to bring awareness of what current literature exists for
topics relating to advising Native American students at PWI’s and show the lack of literature that
exists for this population. Additionally, many of the topics within the relevant literature will be
an amalgamation of Indigenous scholars who push for culturally relevant and responsive
initiatives for the purpose of creating equitable education for Native American students.
This study will look at current literature related to academic advising and the many
techniques, skills, and abilities advisors should be learning to create positive advising
experiences for students. Additionally, literature related to Native American students and what is
existing in terms of culturally responsive pedagogy in higher education will be utilized as well.
While finding literature that parallels what this study is trying to achieve is minimal, the use of
scholarly work for other minoritized groups related to academic advising will be taken into
consideration. The purpose of utilizing research geared towards other minoritized groups is to
showcase what kind of work is being done to alleviate stressors from college students that share
similarities to Native American students. Historically, the concept of going to college was
created for wealthy white men, and thus leaving any other person who does not fit that
description unable to receive access until later in history (Lucas, 2006).
Native American populations are often left out of higher education research and other
areas of research too, so centering Native voices and experiences is critical to working towards
making equitable decisions for this population of students. While many PWI’s have Native
American student populations that are less than 1% and because of increased costs and low
funding, it can be almost impossible to serve every student. However, that does not negate the

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fact that these students are still attending these universities who have contributed to the removal
and erasure of Indigenous people, both physically and spiritually, on this continent. This
population deserves support just like other groups and it is important to look beyond numbers
and statistics because the lived experiences of these students is invaluable information for
upward mobility and equity.
Brief Description of the Theoretical Framework
The theoretical frameworks utilized for this thesis were created by Indigenous scholars
and educational practitioners. It is important to utilize frameworks created by Indigenous
scholars, because otherwise there is a risk of incongruence with other frameworks created by
non-Native Scholars. The two theoretical frameworks are the Family Education Model (FEM)
created by Dr. Iris HeavyRunner and Richard DeCelles and Tribal Critical Race Theory
(TribalCrit) created by Dr. Bryan Brayboy.
Starting with FEM, this framework centers family, especially for Native students, as a
way for persistence throughout a student's higher education journey. The model acts as a
resistance to colonial power structures that postsecondary institutions continually perpetuate by
forcing all students to work in a highly individualized and competitive environment
(HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002). While it is important for all students to embrace their
individuality and learn to interact within a new climate that is unlike their own, students who
come from collectivist cultures have potential troubles of feeling unwelcome, unable to make
connections, or too much of a cultural difference to continue (HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002).
However, FEM makes the argument that students who come from these collectivist cultures,

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especially Native students, find that recreating the family structure within higher education
institutional culture increases students' sense of belonging, thus leading to higher retention rates.
Using FEM as a lens will allow this thesis to target literature relating to family, culture, and
traditions as possible ways academic advising can better accommodate and serve Native
American students that attend PWIs.
The other framework utilized in this thesis is Tribal Critical Race Theory (TribalCrit) and
its main proponent is to expose and confront colonizing power structures within educational
contexts and societal structures (Brayboy, 2005). Additionally, TribalCrit also works to change
these structures for use by Indigenous people with hopes of not having to rely on dominating
societal ways of thinking and knowing as the default. TribalCrit proves that Native Americans
have autonomy of what it means to be Native and that Indigenous stories are in fact theory and
not abstract (Brayboy, 2005). This framework creates a lens of holding power to Indigenous
students and their lived experiences as students within PWI’s. Using this lens will work to find
literature that is not written by Native scholars, but also showcases the lives of Native students
and their stories. It works to center a purely Indigenous narrative where it goes against the
narratives that colonisation has created within educational contexts and especially when it comes
to Native Americans receiving a postsecondary education.
Brief Description of the Methodology
This thesis will be a robust literature review and will showcase work written by Native
American scholars for the improvement of Native American students attending higher education
institutions' experience and rates of success. The methodology that will be used in this research

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to organize the thesis will be a constructivist approach (Byrnes, 2008; Chen & Bonner, 2017)
because of its direct relation to Critical Race Theory (CRT) which has a direct link to the
framework of TribalCrit utilized to showcase the stories and experiences of Native American
students. In a constructivist approach, people are actively making their own knowledge, and
reality is determined by the experiences as a learner (Byrnes, 2008; Chen & Bonner, 2017)
Additionally, a constructivist approach ties in the Family Education Model (FEM) because of the
idea of bringing family to enhance a student’s college experience, in this case Native student’s
ability to learn. Both theoretical frameworks are utilizing the way an Indigenous college student
may learn best, persist through college, and have some sense of welcome in higher education.
Key Terms and Definitions
Throughout this study, certain terms, phrases, abbreviations, and acronyms will be
utilized and it is important to define these terms so that the flow of the thesis will be smooth and
to avoid redundancy. Additionally, providing the definitions of the terminology will help
mitigate having to redefine anything moving forward. Some of the key terms may come up
frequently include:
Academic Advising - Academic advising is integral to fulfilling the teaching and learning
mission of higher education. Through academic advising, students learn to become members of
their higher education community, to think critically about their roles and responsibilities as
students, and to prepare to be educated citizens of a democratic society and a global community
(NACADA, 2003).

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Predominantly White Institution(s) (PWI) - “institutions of higher learning in which
Whites account for 50% or greater of the student enrollment” (Lomotey, 2010).
Tribal College or University (TCU) - Higher education institutions that primarily serve
Native American students (TCU, n.d.).
Native American, American Indian, Indigenous, and Native - “Terminology is used to
describe someone or a group of people who are Indigenous to the countries that make up North
and South America. Some of these terms can be included for use by people who are within lands
occupied by countries in the American continent. For the purpose of this study, these terms will
be used interchangeably” (Youngbull, 2017).
Reservation - “An area of land set aside for a federally recognized tribe(s) to reside on
and use for their government and enterprises” (Youngbull, 2017, p. 24,).
Tribal Community - “A community where tribal nation(s) or group(s) of tribal members
reside. A tribal community can be located within the boundaries of a city, town, or rural area and
can include the tribal headquarters and/or tribal enterprises. Tribal communities are not
synonymous with tribal reservations” (Youngbull, 2017, p. 24).
Overall Organization of the Thesis
In Chapter 1, I provided how my own story is central to why this topic needed to be
studied, an introduction to the topic, a statement of the issue at hand, my main research
questions, the purpose and significance of the study, a brief description of the theoretical
frameworks, a brief description of the methodology, and the key terms utilized throughout the
Thesis. Chapter 2 of this thesis will go into detail about the design and research approaches that

14
will be utilized for this literature review. It will introduce limitations to the study, the personal
connection the author has to the topic, and the design and technical standpoint. Chapter 3 will be
the full review of relevant literature to the topic and will explore varying themes relating to
Native American students attending higher education institutions and the role academic advisors
play in achievement for this population. Lastly, Chapter 4 will consist of suggestions for
potential qualitative research and concluding thoughts.

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Chapter Two: Research Design and Approach
In this chapter, I will discuss the research process undergone and how I utilized various
search terminology, the various search engines, the articles reviewed, and the impact I want to
make in relation to Native American higher education students and the services of academic
advising. While my experience as a Native American student that has utilized services like
academic advising is relevant to the topic being studied, I want to acknowledge that during my
time at the University of Southern California, I made a commitment to include my indigeneity as
a lens in which I navigated classes. This includes bringing attention to Native American issues
within the context of higher education and sharing my own lived experiences whenever given a
platform. This vigilant awareness of bringing Indigenous perspectives to conversations has
allowed me to gain significant knowledge about the subject and knowing which scholars do
meaningful research for Native American students in higher education.
Design and Technical Standpoint
The literature review for this thesis utilizes a constructivist theoretical approach because
Native American students' stories, experiences, and ways of knowing are more than abstract and
can be theoretical references (Brayboy, 2005). This robust literature review takes a constructivist
approach complementing both TribalCrit and FEM theoretical frameworks.
The USC libraries were the main source where I looked for scholarly and peer-reviewed
articles, books, and any other important information. The available databases USC libraries
partner with include EBSCOhost, Sage, Project Muse, and ProQuest. I also utilized
connectedpapers.com to find research related to various search terms. I searched terms such as:

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1. “Native American College Students” and “Academic Advising” and found about 13
articles. These terms have a significant amount of importance for this study which is why
I decided to search those terms.
2. “Culturally Responsive Advising” included over 9 results. In using this phrase, I was able
to find articles that center the main point of this thesis. While most of the articles were
primarily centered around Native American college students, they do bring context as to
how this style of advising works for other minoritized populations.
3. “Native American College Student Success” had 2 results for articles related to this
phrase. Since academic advising is associated with college student success, I wanted to
include a search term that would bring up scholarship that proved it was included among
the other services colleges use to ensure success among their Native American
population.
4. "Native American College Students" and "Family" had 138 results. This phrasing
allowed for me to check out persistence factors specifically related to how the students'
family plays a role in their drive to go to college. This search term also helps to
illuminate what can be done at the postsecondary level to bridge the two entities so that
families are not exclusively left out of their student's college experience.
5. "Native American College Students" and "Culturally Responsive Advising" included 0
articles. When searching for these terms separately, they produce articles related to those
topics, but when presented together they do not. This search term was important because
of why a study like this needs to be conducted.

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6. “Native American College Student Persistence” had 131 results. It was important to
know what are the factors that assist this population of college students in order to
pinpoint where advising could fit within the persistence factor of Native students.
Upon looking for adequate peer-reviewed articles, I found that I would generally stop at the first
20 articles because the further I continued search phrases looking for articles, the more likely the
articles would become less relevant to my original search. However, if I was able to find a
significant number of related articles, I would continue further so that I could have as much
information related to my topic as possible.
In my search for relevant research, I modified my search parameters to include a time
period of 2012 through the present so I can showcase more relevant and recent information
within the past decade. This information may be more relevant for current Native college
students now than research conducted any further in the past. It is important to note that research
conducted about this topic is limited especially in regard to Native American students and so
there will be a significant amount of articles utilized that are older than a ten year timeframe. In
the instance this is used, there is great care taken into making sure that any older information
associated with this topic has relevance in the present.
Although utilizing the USC library database for search articles, I did find a large amount
of useful research within other articles. Upon reading, I would find certain statements would be
quoted from other researchers, so I would go and read those articles as well. I continued to do
this in order to find information that the USC library may not have had available.

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Trustworthiness of the Data, Researcher Bias, and Other Related Issues
The data collected from the various articles researching related topics that include Native
American college students and higher education student services such as academic advising was
conducted mainly by Indigenous scholars. The research conducted in the articles used in the
literature review relies heavily on student experiences and direct quotes from students. In
keeping with one of the tenets of TribalCrit, “Stories are not separate from theory; they make up
theory and are, therefore, real and legitimate sources of data and ways of being” (Brayboy, 2005,
p. 430).
As previously mentioned in the “Centering My Story” section of Chapter One, I identify
as someone who is Native American and has gone through the undergraduate college experience
and continuing my educational journey through graduate school. The bias I have relates to the
type of articles chosen to showcase within this literature review. To the best of my ability, I
wanted to use articles and research that centered around indigenous student narratives and the
people who conducted those studies had to be Indigenous as well. Indigenous scholars doing
research in this area are relatively scarce, so I want to emphasize utilizing Native scholars to the
best of my ability given the resources I had to work with. My reasoning for primarily utilizing
Indigenous student voices from Indigenous scholarly works is to showcase not only the
experience that Native students have experienced from their own voices but to bring awareness
of Indigenous scholars who are creating studies centered around creating good conditions for this
population of students.
Additionally, I focus on predominantly white institutions because many of these
institutions are doing a disservice to their Native American students primarily for having small

19
representation and thus do not give the time and attention needed to this population (Fish &
Syed, 2018). Because these types of institutions have low Native populations, data-driven
research, especially data that is needed for institutional improvement, does not consider this
group of students, thus leaving a gap in support that is immensely needed. The literature review
will tackle this issue more in-depth. As a student, most of my higher education journey has been
within PWI and so I have first-hand experience of what it is like to be a Native student at one of
these institutions.
Connections to Methods and Data
In the following chapter, I will utilize themes that have arisen when looking through all
of the various sources. This will create connections between articles that may not be directly
related but have information that can be used together. The themes will look at aspects relating to
family, persistence, academic advising, success initiatives, Native student voices, and a sense of
belonging for Native American students. The theoretical frameworks of the Family Education
Model and Tribal Critical Race Theory helped to create the themes and what lens the information
will be seen through.

20
Chapter 3: Relevant Literature
Theoretical Frameworks
Native American higher education students are not persisting as equal to that of other
groups of students because of lack of research geared towards enhancing the college experience
and lack of theoretical frameworks that come from an indigenous lens. While many theories can
be used in some capacity to show college success, persistence, and sense of belonging, many
come from a lens in which contradict the values and cultural teachings of Native American
communities. As a result, these theories are unable to address the issues of persistence, sense of
belonging, and success as a postsecondary student in a culturally responsive and sensitive
manner. Additionally, oftentimes Native American students or any students that are marginalized
are seen as those that are lacking and have no form of cultural capital that enables persistence,
sense of belonging, and college success. However, these students come with many more
strengths formed from their bonds within their communities and it is important to capitalize on
what they bring to the table and utilize these forms of cultural capital as assets within the
university setting (Yosso, 2005). While many Native American students who attend
Predominantly White Institutions (PWI) are separated from their families, the university can
intervene and provide a surrogate system designed to act in a culturally responsive way of
working with these students so that the values and their culture are respected and immersed into
their lives while in college. Students who come from backgrounds where not many people go to
college, whether it be in their community or family, might feel it necessary to assimilate and

21
possibly lose a part of who they are if colleges are unwilling to participate in making their
education culturally responsive.
For the purposes of this research study, it was imperative to use frameworks that consider
Native American students’ knowledge, values, and culture. Tribal Critical Race (TribalCrit)
theory (Brayboy, 2006) and the Family Education Model (HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002) will
be the primary theoretical frameworks that this study will utilize. HeavyRunner & Decelles’
(2002) Family Education Model will be explored first and then Brayboy’s (2006) TribalCrit
theory will be addressed afterward.
Family Education Model
The Family Education Model (FEM) was created by Native American researcher Iris
HeavyRunner and an educator at a Montana tribal college, Richard DeCelles (Heavyrunner &
DeCelles, 2002). FEM was developed from a collaboration between several Tribal Colleges &
Universities (TCU) who wanted to “improve educational access for students and to effectively
support students’ persistence toward degree completion” (HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002, p.
30). The establishment of the FEM was under the direction that; (a) students and families
needed the postsecondary institution to act as a connection to social and health services during a
crisis; TCU’s must work to incorporate the family of the students in order to increase support
efforts; and (c) TCU’s need to incorporate family members within the overall institution dynamic
that includes events, ceremonies, and other social activities (HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002).
The study that took place interviewed college presidents and administrators at various TCU’s

22
and the belief that family structure for Native American students in college was beneficial
(HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002).
The idea of family structures coming from those that govern the student body at these
institutions is important to note because of the attention to the actual needs the students have in
order to persist and graduate. At other institutions, mainly Predominantly White Institutions
(PWI) the governing body and administration of those institutions only see that financial
problems are the main source of why Native American students do not persist or have success
while in College (Guillory & Wolverton, 2008). While financial difficulties can be a major factor
in student's ability to persist through college, it is not the only thing that keeps them from
achieving their goals. If financial difficulties were the only cause or major concern for Native
American students attending higher education, then those same students who earn national
scholarships like the Gates Millennium Scholarship would not be among the lowest graduating
students in the history of the scholarship program (Youngbull, 2017). For reference, the Gates
Millennium Scholarship is a full-ride scholarship that covers the entire cost of attendance for
well-qualified minority students for their entire undergraduate experience (GMS, n.d.). Native
students struggle with many intersecting issues when they decide to pursue higher education and
looking through an Indigenous lens to help mitigate the issue will be life-changing for these
students.
The principal factor of FEM strengthens the idea of “establishing and maintaining a sense
of ‘family’, both at home and at college, fortifies American Indian students’ academic
persistence” (HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002, p. 30). Including familial ties of students to their

23
experience in college will in turn promote persistence, higher graduation rates, and
empowerment. Additionally, a sense of belonging can increase for the students since the
university or college is putting forth the effort to make sure cultural values and knowledge are
observed and replicated as much as possible. FEM actively searches for connection to family and
community so that Native American students are provided the tools and resources needed to
continue through higher education (HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002).
Tribal Critical Race Theory
Critical Race Theory (CRT) was developed in the 1970s as an effect of Critical Legal
Studies (Brayboy, 2005). CRT is credited to be an epistemology of scholarship that is
oppositional in nature (Brayboy, 2005; Calmore, 1992). CRT’s formation was due to CLS
moving at a slow pace “in its attempts to critique and change societal and legal structures that
specifically focused on race and racism” (Brayboy, 2005, p. 4; Delgado & Stefancic, 2013, p. 2).
The basic principles of CRT are: (1) “racism is endemic to society - racism is normal, not
aberrant, in American society”; (2) “challenge to racial oppression and the status quo through
storytelling”; (3) “interest convergence - white elites will tolerate or encourage racial advances
for blacks only when these also promote white self-interest” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2013, pp. 2-
3). One of the important elements to consider about CRT is that it puts a large emphasis on race
and racism as issues within all aspects of society (Brayboy, 2005). While that is a credible
argument about whether someone comes from various racial backgrounds, it still does not
answer many of the issues that are directly related to Indigenous people and thus the creation of
TribalCrit was created (Brayboy, 2005).

24
Upon the creation of Critical Race Theory, other theoretical frameworks have formed to
accommodate the unique challenges that other minoritized groups face in their daily lives within
society. These frameworks include LatCrit for Latino/a’s, AsianCrit for Asian Americans, and
TribalCrit for Native Americans (Brayboy, 2005). TribalCrit is like CRT in many ways, but the
main tenet that separates the two is the idea that “colonization is endemic to society” (Brayboy,
2005, p. 5). TribalCrit justifies a culturally unique way of learning of Native Americans
experiences while honoring the complex identities and the historical legacy of these people
(Brayboy, 2005). The basic tenets of TribalCrit are: (1) “colonization is endemic to society”; (2)
“U.S policies toward Indigenous peoples are rooted in imperialism, White Supremacy, and a
desire for material gain”; (3) “Indigenous peoples occupy liminal space that accounts for both the
political and racialized natures of our identities”; (4) “Indigenous peoples have a desire to obtain
and forge tribal sovereignty, tribal autonomy, self-determination, and self-identification”; (5)
“the concepts of culture, knowledge, and powers take on new meaning when examined through
an Indigenous lens”; (6) “Governmental policies and educational policies toward Indigenous
peoples are intimately linked around the problematic goal of assimilation”; (7) “Tribal
philosophies, beliefs, customs, traditions, and visions for the future are central to understanding
the lived realities of Indigenous peoples, but they also illustrate the differences and adaptability
among individual and groups”; (8) “Stories are not separate from theory; they make up theory
and are, therefore, real and legitimate sources of data and ways of being”; (9) “Theory and
practice are connected in deep and explicit ways such that scholars must work towards social
change” (Brayboy, 2005, pp. 5-6).

25
Brayboy (2005) was interested in finding a theoretical framework that could traverse the
lived experiences of Native American living and studying within a Eurocentric context and see
the persistence, sense of belonging, and graduation rates at these institutions of higher education
(Brayboy, 2005). TribalCrit is an appropriate theoretical framework for this study because of the
approach it takes in understanding Native American students' experience as they go through their
higher education journey at a PWI and receive services from non-Native academic advisors. The
use of student stories as theory and concrete data gives a voice to a group of people who have
historically been diminished through oppressive laws and systems of oppression in all aspects of
society, but especially in education.
The FEM and TribalCrit serve as theoretical frameworks that target Native American
students and their experiences at postsecondary institutions. While TribalCrit provides insight
into the formation of the FEM, the latter provides a positionality that goes to a deeper level of
understanding as the Native American student navigates college. TribalCrit will speak to the idea
that the students' stories and experiences will serve a purpose beyond just finding themes for the
study (Brayboy, 2005). Nobody can be an expert on the lived experience of Native Americans
other than the Native people themselves. For thousands of years, Indigenous stories have been
the undeniable source of fact and still Native people exist in modern society. This is a great
example of the importance of Indigenous knowledge has to offer and how Native students can
empower themselves with the tools their ancestors used prior to colonization. The Family
Education Model will look at what aspects of the students' culture and ways of knowing can be
incorporated into their lives while at college. It can also be the basis for how colleges and those

26
who govern over different aspects of student affairs are able to incorporate the indigenous
students' culture in their institutions. If the institutions are willing to rename buildings after
prominent Indigenous figures and slap Land Acknowledgements all over their websites, then
they should be able to put in the work to really serve the Indigenous students' needs for success.
After all, these institutions of higher learning all sit upon Indigenous land and have a mission to
serve those people that were caretakers of the land before colonization and establishment of the
institutions.
Native American College Students
Native American college students come from a variety of backgrounds and even more
diverse tribal communities. Indigenous college students are often the first in their families to
attend a higher education institution and can have complex intersectional identities that either
work against or for their success in school (Cech et al., 2019; Fish & Syed, 2018; Huffman,
2008). Some Native students come to college with a strong sense of their cultural identity, and
some find their own Indigenous identity through their college experience (Cech et al., 2019; Fish
& Syed, 2018; Makomenaw, 2012; Jacob et al., 2019). These students must navigate through a
Euro-American-centric culture of higher education and maintain or find their Indigenous
identities at the same time (Cech et al., 2019; Huffman, 2008). Native students come to college
with hopes of becoming doctors, lawyers, politicians, and educators, and go into every career
field like any other person would. Many hope to one day reinvest the knowledge and skills
learned while in college and bring them back to their communities (Cech et al., 2019).

27
American Indian college students attend a wide variety of colleges and universities
throughout the country. Looking at statistics presented by the U.S. Department of Education
(n.d.), most Native college students attend non-Tribal Colleges, which mostly consist of
Predominantly White Institutions (PWI). Out of the entire Native American college student
population, 8.7% attend a Tribal College or University (TCU) (Department of Education, n.d).
While it is beyond important to have TCUs available for Native American students to attend and
have their Indigenous culture centered in all aspects of learning, there is just not enough of these
types of colleges (Brayboy, 2015). There are only 32 TCUs located throughout the country and
many of them work more as community colleges and only 19 offer bachelor's degrees
(Department of Education, n.d.). Knowing this information, some TCUs may not offer the type
of programs that a PWI or mainstream higher education institution may have. However, TCUs
are going to offer programs and resources that relate back to the student's cultural values and
needs as Indigenous people (Makomenaw, 2012). As such PWIs tend to have more resources
available to offer a larger number of major programs and graduate-level degrees.
Additionally, many of the TCUs in the U.S. are near Reservations where many of the
tribal members are able to get a college education while maintaining their cultural heritage
(Crazy Bull & Guillory, 2018; Makomenaw, 2012). It is important to note the establishment of
TCUs was an act of defiance toward mainstream higher education institutions, specifically PWIs.
Crazy Bull and Guillory (2018) make a point that “Tribal colleges were not created to be
mainstream institutions with Western educational missions” (p. 95). Native American students
from all over the country, many of whom come from the reservations located near TCU’s and

28
some are closer to mainstream PWIs. This can be a highly determining factor when someone is
considering where they want to attain their postsecondary education. It makes financial, social,
and geographical sense to attend a PWI that is closer versus attending a TCU several states away.
Other Indigenous students come from highly urbanized areas due to the relocation and tribal
termination acts of the 20th century (National Archives, n.d; Jacob et al., 2019; Walls &
Whitbeck, 2012). It is important to note that some Native American students who come from the
reservation may have stronger ties to their identity, but this might not be the case for all
individuals (Martinez & Dukes, 1997; Schweigman et al., 2011). This is also true for Native
students who come from off the reservation or grew up in an urban environment where their
home life was highly centered around their culture as well as for those where culture was not
central to their way of life (Schweigman et al., 2011). Schweigman et al. (2011) found “The
association between cultural activities and ethnic identity was significant among urban youth but
not significant among reservation youth” (p. 5). While both ways of growing up are valid for
Indigenous students, there are multiple factors that can be considered when potentially working
with these students when they attend higher education institutions.
Native American Student Supports
While in college, Native American students have the possibility of having varied amounts
of support. The first kind of support can come from their family whether it be by blood relation
or chosen family (Guillory & Wolverton, 2008). Like any other college student, a student’s
family can be the underlying support needed to pursue their educational journey. Depending on
the university a Native student may attend, there could also be other forms of support available

29
that may not be directly related to the student (Martinez & Dukes, 1997; Schweigman et al.,
2011). These supports are seen through student organizations created by the students themselves
and programs or institutional initiatives designed to target Native student populations. Martinez
and Dukes (1997) discovered that self-confidence and purpose in life was increased with a high
level of ethnic identity. Giving students the opportunity to be surrounded by others who can
relate on various levels of identity can be a positive support system that can help students,
especially Indigenous students persist through college.
Native American Student Organizations
It has been proven that organizations designed for and created by students of color foster
positive outcomes that include racial and ethnic identity, self-perceptions of learning, a sense of
belonging, and the creation of interpersonal skills (Schachle & Coley, 2022). Across the U.S.,
Native American student organizations are created in order to build community and create
welcoming environments for the institution's Indigenous populations (Fish & Syed, 2018;
Guillory & Wolverton, 2008; Schachle & Coley, 2022). These student-run Native American
organizations ensure cultural traditions are honored even if the members all come from varying
tribal affiliations (Schachle & Coley, 2022). These organizations can show Native college
students’ Indigenous culture from other tribal communities as well. Since many of the
reservations within the United States are in rural areas, there are not many intertribal interactions
that take place.
Indigenous student organizations also work to create cultural awareness and competence
within the greater university community (Schachle & Coley, 2022). This can be seen in some

30
institutions where the student organization may hold powwows or events centered around
educating as well as showcasing the presence of Indigenous students on campus (Schachle &
Coley, 2022).
Schachle & Coley (2022) found a relation to how diverse a college campus is based on
the number of student-of-color organizations found on campus and how many or few there are
for each racial identity group. The results show if a higher education institution has organizations
and more than one for each population, then it is likely the racial diversity will be higher than
those campuses that may have one or no organizations at all (Schache & Coley, 2022). This is
important to recognize because if student-run organizations are unable to operate to make an
impact, then it will be up to the schools to create and support programs aimed towards these
populations.
Institutionally Supported Programs
In more recent years, institutions are starting to create initiatives to make their campuses
more inviting and culturally sensitive to Indigenous students. For example, the University of
California has created the Native American Opportunity Plan which “ensures that in-state
systemwide Tuition and Student Services Fees are fully covered for California students who are
also enrolled in federally recognized Native American, American Indian, and Alaska Native
tribes” (UC, 2022, Para. 2). This initiative creates a more financially feasible option for Native
American students located within the state of California. Additionally, the University of Oregon
has created the Home Flight Scholars Program which was recently announced in Fall 2022.
According to the University of Oregon (2022), “Home Flight Scholars Program includes

31
financial aid and addresses retention, graduation and professional development of students”
(para. 2). The Home Flight Scholars Program pushes beyond the narrative that finances are the
only barrier for Native American college students and seeks to create an initiative for better
graduation rates and retention rates for Native American students (UO, 2022).
An important aspect of the Home Flight Scholars Program is there will be an advisor
position created to solely work with Native American students to “enhance mentorship
opportunities and develop a culture-rich program for new students to help them launch
successful academic careers’“(UO, 2022, para. 3). Developing positions and programs like this
can potentially demonstrate that higher education institutions and specifically PWI’s can work to
provide welcoming environments for a population who has historically been plagued by Western
forms of education and ideologies (Fish & Syed, 2018; UO, 2022). While attending TCU may
not always be an option, Native American students should not have to choose between their
culture and needing an education in order to reinvest what they have learned and bring it back to
their communities or whatever their future goals entail.
Challenges
An important component of the history of education for Native Americans is the way
students currently must navigate institutional space from several lenses. Because of the rampant
trauma induced by Western forms of education, many of communities are hesitant and dismiss
the idea of getting a postsecondary education (Rivera, 2013; Calderon, 2009). Indigenous
students are given the burden to carry and live within two different worlds once they start their
higher education journey (Rivera, 2013). The one in which they keep their Indigenous traditions

32
alive and the other in the academic realm (Rivera, 2013). Additionally, the communities they
come from will often belittle the students for going off and getting the “white man's” education,
but on the other hand, for these communities to function and get the resources they need, college-
educated individuals are significantly needed (Rivera, 2013). This all comes back to Native
students not knowing what to do alongside having other issues they face as college students. This
is of course to say that Western forms of education are not the most important or effective ways
of leading a community of tribal citizens. Indigenous people utilized their traditional knowledge
well before the colonists ever set foot on this land and have used it for thousands of years (Fish
& Syed, 2018). Native Americans can look at the world and live in all aspects of it and it is ok
that believing in both forms of education to stay in a good place both culturally and within
society is important.
Native Americans that attend institutions of higher education may not have to go through
the brutal abuse of the early colonial and boarding school systems but are now subjected to other
forms of abuse and trauma while trying to engage in education. Racism is still rampant in many
postsecondary institutions and can take the form of several possible ways. Students may have
their identities, culture, or knowledge mocked and thought of as not scholarly (Brayboy, 2005).
Many college administrators don’t have a working knowledge of Native American culture and
heritage to properly create systems and policies to help bring in a Native American population to
their schools (Brayboy, 2005; Guillory & Wolverton, 2008; Fish & Syed, 2018). Even if the
school is trying to create an accommodating space for Native students, they are often relying on
the Native faculty to act as representatives for entire groups of people (Brayboy, 2015; Fish &

33
Syed, 2018). These faculty members are often placed in many roles that stretch their limits to
create research and forfeit their chance to gain any notoriety at the university (Brayboy 2015). It
is apparent that with all the success in creating spaces for Native people, colleges and
universities are far from providing safe and responsive environments for any associated
Indigenous person whether it be students, faculty, or staff. Native students are still subjected to
feelings of invisibility (Makomenomaw, 2012) on college campuses and need more support.
Discrimination and Other Related Stressors
Like other minoritized groups, Native Americans must deal with various forms of racism,
microaggressions, stereotyping, exclusion, and misconceptions from non-native people
(Adelmen et al., 2013; Brayboy et al., 2015; Fish & Syed, 2018; Makomenomaw, 2012; Tachine
et al., 2017). Whether an Indigenous student comes from the Reservation or from an urban
setting, many will face discrimination at some point in their college careers and the attacking of
their Indigeneity can lead to suppression of culture, ultimately leading to a disruption of their
survivance (Cech et al., 2019; Flynn et al., 2012; Tachine et al., 2017).
Native American students will face racist remarks and actions from classmates, staff, and
faculty at their respective institutions, especially at a PWI (Adelmen et al., 2013; Brayboy et al.,
2015; Cech et al., 2018; Fish & Syed, 2018; Makomenomaw, 2012; Tachine et al., 2017). Often,
Native students have to fight against comments related to Native Americans receiving free
college or don’t have to pay taxes as well as substance abuse (Cech et al., 2019; Cunningham et
al., 2016) It is worth noting that Native American students make up less than 1% of the student

34
population at most 4-year universities, and there are even less Indigenous students at PWI’s
(Brayboy, 2005; Cech et al., 2018; Guillory & Wolverton, 2008; Fish & Syed, 2018). This is
important because when a racist act is placed upon these students, whether it be verbal or
physical, most of the time there is no support or backing to help them through the ordeal (Cech et
al., 2018; Huffman, 2001). PWI’s are not hiring people to advocate for this population because
statistically there is no data suggesting that it is needed and thus leading these students to tackle
this obstacle by themselves (Cech et al., 2018; Huffman 2008).
In addition to experiencing racism through the various kinds of people at postsecondary
institutions, Native American students must face discrimination through their class textbooks and
course materials that inaccurately depict their culture or provide false information (Jackson et al.,
2003; Makomenaw, 2012). Cech et al. (2019) writes, “Entwined with these processes of
racialization, dominant U.S. institutions frequently portray Native Americans as “stuck in time,”
using romanticized, caricatured notions of Native American history, rituals, and symbols (p.
358). This can lead to Indigenous students having to be knowledge bearers and provide
informational labor to their professors and schools, so they are educated and informed for the
future (Cech et al., 2019). Many Native students feel they are making a positive contribution to
their higher education institution when they re-educate faculty on the subtle nuances of
Indigenous culture, traditions, and history (Cech et al., 2019; Makomenomaw, 2012). However,
this can potentially lead to ‘exoticized othering’ (Cech et al., 2019), which is a way for non-
native people to show interest in Native American traditions and practices, but ultimately for the
purpose of entertainment and appropriation of aforementioned traditions (Cech et al., 2019).

35
Additionally, when Native students are called to assist in educating their professors and
classmates, it is often at the expense of their own time with little to no compensation for the
Indigenous epistemologies that have been known since time immemorial (Cech et al., 2017).
This can potentially cause issues since no one person can claim that the Native American
experience is monolithic, so there is also a burden for these Native students to speak for
Indigenous people when it is not possible to hold that knowledge for another tribal community
(Rivera, 2013).
Whether an Indigenous student is going to a PWI directly from high school or transfers
from a TCU, they expect to experience some form of racist remarks, actions, or something that
will make them feel othered (Makomenaw, 2012). This ‘othering’ can also be attributed to the
more recent onslaught of higher education faculty members who were once conceived as
Indigenous but have come out or have been proven they are not of any Indigenous tribal
affiliation (Kolopenuk, 2023). Kolopenuk (2023) writes, “Some of the harms of pretendianism
include the misappropriation of resources earmarked for Indigenous students and researchers and
the promotion of harmful stereotypes and other misrepresentations about indigeneity by those
without lived experience” (p. 2). This sentiment that non-native faculty are utilizing this identity
to advance their own agenda can create an uncomfortable atmosphere for Native American
students, especially for those connecting with their identity while on campus (Kolopenuk, 2023).
Colleges and universities are already places originally not meant for the upward mobility of
Native American students, but including the people who only appreciate their culture and
identity to expand their own selfish goals is extremely dangerous, disheartening, and disgraceful

36
(Kolopenuk, 2023). Because of the damage that can be caused to not only Native students but
entire tribal communities, it is important that higher education institutions are diligent about
hiring practices (Kolopenuk, 2023). Additionally, for those who are reconnecting with their
indigenous identity, having someone who is not Indigenous would cause even more issues such
as providing misinformation or stereotypes that lead them further away from the student’s
journey to reconnecting (Kolopenuk, 2023; Schweigman et al., 2011). Reconnecting to culture,
traditions, and tribal communities is a process that happens to Native people who did not grow
up on the reservation or did not have any cultural knowledge practiced within their household
(Guillory & Wolverton, 2008; Fish & Syed, 2018; Kolopenuk, 2023). The reconnecting aspect
can be seen while a student is in college and is exposed to other Indigenous students who have
stronger ties to their own cultural background. This ultimately leads to reconnecting Natives to
further look into their own tribal community and cultural identity that once was not available to
them (Kolopenuk, 2023).
The Role of Family for Native College Students
Family tends to play a significant role in the lives of higher education students in any
given race, ethnicity, or identity group (Wright et al., 2020). This support can look like dropping
off students to move into their dorms, coming to visit during family weekend, and eventually
coming to watch their child complete their college journey by walking across the stage to receive
their diploma. This may not apply to every single person and depending on their family dynamic,
it may look completely different, but it is important to note that for many colleges and
universities, the idea of only acknowledging a student’s parents is erasing the complex family

37
systems that many students of color and Native students in particular come from (Fish & Syed,
2018). Ultimately, families can be seen as those beyond the nuclear family unit such as aunties,
uncles, grandparents, and entire tribal communities (Fish & Syed, 2018; Guillory & Wolverton,
2008; Wright et al., 2020). Families can create ways for students to persist through their time in
higher education by coming to events put on by the college or sending packages to remind their
child of the kind of support they have back home (Wright et al., 2020). However, for students
that come from marginalized communities, including Native American students, this kind of
support may not be as frequent or seen in the same way as other students (Fish & Syed, 2018;
Guillory & Wolverton, 2008).
Native Families and Higher Education
For many Native American college students, they are the first in their families to attend
some form of higher education and tend to have the pressure of performing well in order to break
generational cycles and societal stigma Native Americans have of having low education (Chee et
al., 2019). While having to bear this pressure of needing to pursue higher education and perform
well, the families of these students are often not equipped to provide the type of support their
student may need (Chee et al., 2019; Guillory & Wolverton, 2008). Many Native American
students will have to leave their families and everything they once knew back home in order to
attend a university, no matter where they live (Chee et al., 2019; Jackson et al., 2003). If coming
from the reservation, students are often located in highly isolated areas where access to
postsecondary institutions is few and far between and many indigenous students who want to
stay closely connected to other Native people for their higher education have only a few TCUs to

38
choose from throughout the entire United States (Fish & Syed, 2018). There are always going to
be obstacles for Native American students when deciding to choose which college will best suit
them. The most common option of leaving to go to a PWI has the drawbacks of fostering
individualism and competitiveness for which many students that come from non-white
communities have a hard time adjusting to (Fish & Syed, 2018; Knight et al., 2004).
Surrogate Families
Since many Native American students come to college as the only person from their
tribal community, reservation, or family, they will find themselves needing to have some kind of
support. Makomenaw (2012) writes, “American Indian students miss their families … but
American Indian organizations or other related student groups often serve as a family unit on
campus” (p. 856). Since many Native American students come to college as the only person
from their tribal community, reservation, or family, they will find themselves needing to have
some kind of support. This is where the Native American student organizations are needed in
order to bridge the familial gap that these students may need (Grande, 2015; Fish & Syed, 2018;
Makomenaw, 2012). It is within these organizations that students can find other individuals that
can relate back to their story and understand some of the hardships of being an Indigenous
person on a PWI (Grande, 2015; Fish & Syed, 2018). It is possible that the students who share
the background of being Native American can help to create a sense of family even when their
own family is not able to be present (Fish & Syed, 2018).

39
Staff and Faculty as Family
Alongside having other Native American students as a surrogate family support system
that works to create a welcoming and supportive environment, Native American students also
need to see this aspect within the faculty and staff as well. Native American students are more
likely to have higher persistence rates and positive experiences in college when faculty and staff
invest time guiding these students in and out of the classroom (Guillory & Wolverton, 2008; Fish
& Syed, 2018; Makomenaw, 2012). For Native American students, having these people in
positions of leadership and power who show interest in their success can have the same feeling
of leaders within their own families as well (Fish & Syed, 2018; Guillory & Wolverton, 2008).
The Native students can see an uncle or auntie figure within staff or faculty who understand the
struggles of navigating higher education or they can see a grandpa or Grandma in faculty who
teach, but do it in a way they can relate back to themselves as indigenous people and their culture
(Cech et al., 2019; Guillory & Wolverton, 2008; Fish & Syed, 2018).
It is also important to know that supporting a student and filling in a role that might
otherwise be the role of an immediate family member does not mean staff or faculty members
have to completely take on that role for the student (Cech et al., 2019; Fish & Syed, 2018). It can
work more symbolically and to show Native students someone does care about their education
and their lives because some may be going to school with little to no support from their own
families back home (Fish & Syed, 2018). Fish & Syed (2018) consider these educational
partnerships where faculty and staff are still able to promote learning, as is the purpose of higher
education, but creating congruence with their identities.

40
Family Non-Support
While families can provide an immense amount of support to aid in Native student
persistence and a sense of belonging, families can be the source of why Native students may feel
the need to drop out or not feel supported (Fish & Syed, 2018). As mentioned in Chapter One, it
is apparent the historical trauma that has been inflicted on many Indigenous nations throughout
the country from the forced Western education that has its beginnings within first colleges in the
United States (Fish & Syed, 2018; Lucas, 2016). Knowing this, it is important to recognize that
many Native American families, whether coming from the Reservation or from an urban setting,
have mixed feelings about higher education (Rivera, 2013; Calderon, 2009). When these families
have children who are wanting to pursue an education beyond high school, there can be a sense
of apathy for their child and the accomplishment that they have achieved in pursuing higher
education (Rivera, 2013; Calderon, 2009).
While some families may not have the most support for their children to continue more
Western forms of education, many are extremely encouraging and want what is best for their
kids to create a better future for themselves and their people (Fish & Syed, 2018; Sabzalian et al.,
2019). However, there is a level of inability to support their child as they undergo their
postsecondary journey (Fish & Syed, 2018). Many Native American students are first generation
college students, so the families are not equipped to properly support or understand the struggles
of their children while they are away at college (Fish & Syed, 2018; Guillory & Wolverton,
2008; Jacob et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2010).
Additionally, when Native students are away from home, they are required to miss many
important family and cultural events that happen or are not able to be with their family in times

41
of sorrow (Lee et al., 2010). They are unable to help with chores or take care of family members
if living in a multigenerational household (Lee et al., 2010). This guilt of not being able to help
the family can be highly stressful and prompt the student to potentially give up their education
journey to ensure their family is taken care of (Lee et al., 2010). Many Native students grow up
in family dynamics that center the needs of everyone over the needs of one individual and while
this is not inherently wrong, it does cause the potential missed opportunity for the student to
contribute to their family or community in positive ways.
Academic Advising
Academic advising has gone through innumerable changes in higher education
institutions within the United States. During the 17th-century colonial era, academic advising
was the sole responsibility of college administrators and faculty who saw the need for students to
have guidance beyond the classroom (Cook, 2009; Frost, 2000; Shaffer et al., 2010). These early
schools were small in comparison to modern institutions and advising was easier for faculty and
administrators to maintain. Once higher education institutions started to grow and created
specialized programs, the need for more personnel to help students through their educational
journeys started to become more important (Cook, 2009; Drake et al., 2013; Shaffer et al., 2010).
The term advisor, someone that offered counseling services to students, was first noted at
Kenyon College in 1841 and Johns Hopkins University in the 1870s (Cook, 2009; Shaffer et al.,
2010). These are the first stages of what academic advising was to become, but the major shift
that pushed advising into an actual profession was the ending of World War II (Cook, 2009;
Shaffer et al., 2010). The GI Bill gave many veterans the option to receive a college education

42
and with the influx of more students at universities, academic advisors needed to be hired (Cook,
2009; Shaffer et al., 2010). This also caused academic advisors to start thinking of best practices
and techniques to work with the ever-increasing diverse student population at institutions (Cook,
2009; Drake et al., 2013; Scott & Lindley, 1946; Shaffer et al., 2010). With nearly 30 years of
advising expansion, the National Academic Advising Association was created in 1979 with the
hope to advance scholarship and the profession of advising (Shaffer et al., 2010).
Importance of Academic Advising
“Through academic advising, students learn to become members of their higher education
community, to think critically about their roles and responsibilities as students, and to prepare to
be educated citizens of a democratic society and a global community” (NACADA, para. 6,
2006). The task of academic advising within higher education institutions serves an important
role in the lives of college students, making it a field that deserves to be studied and expanded to
ensure diverse populations of students are given proper support. In order for an effective advisor
to have a positive impact, they must create a relationship with their students that requires well-
informed decision making going beyond personal beliefs, values, and assumptions to ensure
student success (Drake et al., 2013; Suvedi et al., 2015) It is important to know that many college
students' retention can be linked to their experiences with their academic advisor whether it may
be positive or negative (Suvedi et al., 2015). Some research has found that students who do not
have satisfaction with student services, including academic advising, can have their timeline of
college completion altered or even the possibility of not graduating at all (Allen et al., 2013;
Braun, & Zolfagharian, 2016; Kotler & Fox 1995). On the other hand, if students are feeling

43
satisfied with the services offered through academic advising, there is a higher likelihood of
retention levels increasing and higher graduation rates as well (Braun, & Zolfagharian, 2016;
DeShields et al., 2005; Tinto, 1993). While satisfaction is an important aspect of the usefulness
of academic advising, there needs to be a call for providing what students need (Lee et al., 2010).
This need can look like acting as a surrogate family member that guides them through the world
of higher education or going the extra mile in order to truly understand and value their existence
as Indigenous people.
It is evident that the field of academic advising and advisors on an individual level have
an immense amount of influence on the trajectory of college students. It is important that
educational advisors are equipped with the proper tools and training to enable student
satisfaction because the students will reap the benefits as well as strong relationships will lead to
better outcomes. The importance of advising can be attributed to factors such as the amount of
knowledge an advisor has to offer, how approachable an advisor is, and the advisor's availability
to the student (Braun & Zolfagharian, 2016; Elliott & Shin, 2002). Studying various advising
approaches can support an advisor through their caseload of students. However, since student
populations are so diverse and require varying levels of support, relying on one advising
approach may not be the most effective strategy and an advisor should seek constant training and
education to better triage students' needs and wants. Students who identify as first-generation,
low-income, and from marginalized communities may need more nuanced variances of advising
approaches due to their specific circumstances. Humanizing Native American students instead of
framing the interactions as a transaction can be extremely helpful in helping this population

44
succeed while in college. While it is important to stay true to approaches and strategies that the
advisor is comfortable executing, not all students can learn or work with just one approach
(Drake et al., 2013).
Advising Approaches
There is a plethora of advising approaches and techniques that can be used as an advisor
works with students who need varying ways of support and how that support is administered.
Drake et al. (2013) go in depth of the strategies an advisor can use and they are Advising as
Teaching, Learning-Centered Advising, Developmental Advising, Motivational Interviewing,
Appreciative Advising, Strengths-Based Advising, Self-Authorship Informed Advising,
Proactive Advising, Prescriptive Advising, Advising as Coaching, Constructivism and Systems
Theory in Advising, and Socratic Advising. From the long list mentioned, there is obviously a
plethora of ways an academic advisor can be prepared to support different student populations.
The techniques, theories, and approaches used by advisors all contain ways of supporting
students and have effective outcomes when paired with students who require tailored ways of
being advised. Any one of these strategies has the potential to support student success, but not
one of these can be a one-size-fits-all practice, thus an advisor needs to have an expanded
knowledge of different approaches readily available to cater to the needs of all students they
advise (Drake et al., 2013). Combining techniques can be a useful way in order to meet the needs
of students who may sit outside of the necessary abilities of any given advising approach (Drake
et al., 2013; Hagen & Jordan, 2008).

45
With the plethora of different strategies, theories, and approaches available to use for
academic advisors during advising sessions with students, there needs to be some critical thought
as to whom these approaches were designed to be used by, meaning what kind of advisors, and
who are the recipients of these approaches, meaning the students. “Whiteness is composed of
normative constructions - rooted in White Supremacy - that are everyday ways of being, actions,
behaviors, policies, logics, and common sense that are taken for granted as ‘the way things are
done’...” (Tachine, 2022, p. 7). Looking at the profession of academic advising and the
techniques that an advisor can utilize, many are in fact rooted in whiteness and therefore may not
work well with students that come from racially or ethnically diverse backgrounds where
whiteness is not the default way of being. This creates tension within the advising session, the
tension between the school and the students, and sets an example that universities are not making
the effort to increase diversity, equity, and inclusivity in an authentic and meaningful way. The
creation of new advising approaches and amending older techniques can result in diverse student
populations feeling a sense of community, feeling heard and seen on campus, and ultimately
building a sense of being fully welcomed to the postsecondary environment.
Culturally Responsive Advising
Severinsen et al. (2020) reflected on the positive impact of correcting a school name to be
more in line with ‘te ao Māori’ (the Māori world). The basis for the name change was to
demonstrate a willingness to build closer connections with Māori students and the culture they
come from (Severinsen et al., 2020). An important factor to understand is that changing the name
was a step to ensure student success is possible and these students get to achieve their success

46
authentically as Māori (Severinsen et al., 2020). While this instance was referring to a K-12
school system in New Zealand, it has many points that can be applicable in many fields of
education, including academic advising. The culturally responsive approach the school took in
order to preserve and provide empowerment for the Māori students can be utilized for academic
advisors working with a diverse population of college students.
The idea of Culturally Responsive Advising (CRA) comes from seeing the student being
and considering their cultural background and how it can aid in allowing the student to feel a
sense of belonging at the school (Mitchell et al., 2010; Museus, 2021). Having an advisor that
can support an individual on a level where the student does not have to apologize for who they
are or have to leave aspects of their identity outside of the advising session can create an
immense positive impact for the student (Mitchell et al., 2010) This concept mimics and at times
parallels other advising approaches such as developmental advising, but looking from a cultural
perspective can eliminate the dominant society of individualism that is not customary in many
cultures (Mitchell et al., 2010; Museus, 2021). However, this institutional focus on efficiency
directly contradicts the numerous value-added and student-friendly initiatives that the university
in general and the advising office explicitly advocate.
Academic advising is one of the highest concerns for students of color in regard to
effective college success and retention (Fries-Britt & Turner, 2001; Harper & Quaye, 2009; Kuh,
et al., 2005; Mitchell et al., 2010; Nettles et al., 1986). Students of color are often not as
receptive to advising when placed with a white advisor because of the cross-cultural discomfort
created by historical schooling trauma and racism (Gilbert, 2003; Harper & Patton, 2007;

47
Mitchell et al., 2010). On the surface, a simple solution may be to hire more advisors who
identify closely with the background of the student populations that do not necessarily fit in the
dominant culture. From a more critical lens, it is apparent that in addition to having more
advisors hired with similar backgrounds, advisors need to consider the subtle nuances of how
students are in relation to their intersecting identities. If a first-generation college student needing
guidance is paired with an advisor that may share the same identity, but the advisor utilizes a
prescriptive approach, then the student may feel overwhelmed and come out of the session jaded
from the experience. Mitchell et al., (2010) wrote “Educators of color, who share a similar sense
of race-based alienation on PWI campuses, are perceived as the embodiment of the prevailing
(white supremacist) institutional discourses stealthily packaged in brown, red, or yellow flesh”
(p. 300). It is institutional policy and rule that causes many of these educators of color, primarily
those that are academic advisors, to go against the same people who closely identify with them.
Advising Native American Students
When it comes to advising Native American students, institutions can not solely rely on
their few Indigenous faculty and staff to handle the issues the students face. Even having an
advisor who identifies as a Native American will not be enough, because that person is probably
stretched thin with other responsibilities put on to them by the institution (Lundberg & Lowe,
2016). Indigenous faculty are often pressured to serve as knowledge bearers and liaisons between
tribal communities and postsecondary institutions for which they are often uncompensated
(Hurtado et al., 2012; Walters et al., 2019). It is important to recognize the work Native

48
American staff and faculty are already doing and in order to alleviate their stress, advisors that
serve Native students must be trained to additionally support this population.
A study conducted by Burk (2007) found that within a communication course, cultural
values of Native American students conflicted with the course requirements and ultimately
caused the faculty to think in a negative light towards the students. While this study focused on
what happened in the classroom, it can be utilized in advising since the key component of an
advising session is communication. If communication between an advisor and a student is not
understood between both parties, effective management of the session cannot possibly be useful
(Burk, 2007). It is important to understand that non-Native faculty and staff can be effective
mentors to Native American students if they are willing to understand the cultural knowledge of
their Indigenous students as well as work to be respectful towards the students' cultures
(Lundberg & Lowe, 2016; Waterman, 2007).
Just like any other student that walks into an advising session, Native American students
want to be supported by their advisors and have someone with whom they can connect. It is
important advisors who work at PWIs are trained to be culturally sensitive to Native students so
the students feel comfortable and welcome in those sessions (Chee et al., 2019). Looking at
TCUs, it is evident that the cultural needs of students and the centering of their backgrounds are
at the forefront of student services (Chee et al., 2019; Crazy Bull & Guillory, 2018). While it is
imperative to make sure the student is aware of institutional policy and culture they are at. Native
American students have every right to hold on to their culture while pursuing an education.
Advisors should note that postsecondary institutions privilege Whiteness as the default way of

49
being and much of how success is defined (Crazy Bull & Guillory, 2018). Knowing this
information, it is imperative to assist Native American students with flexibility because the
values of modern-day higher education institutions do not align with Indigenous values and
customs.

50
Chapter 4: Conclusion
In this chapter, the purpose, goals, and research questions will be restated to stay within
the continuity of the entire thesis from the beginning until the end. Additionally, the presentation
of the findings from the literature review will be discussed, a connection between the findings
and the implications for future research, a connection between the findings and policy
implications, recommendations for practice, and finally concluding thoughts.
The purpose of this robust literature review was to engage in research and scholarship
that was related to Native American college students and how the role of academic advising
within higher education institutions can assist this population in a more culturally responsive
manner. This thesis utilized Tribal Critical Race Theory (Brayboy, 2005) and the Family
Education Model (HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002) as lenses through which the literature was
interpreted. The methodology utilized in creating and finding relevant literature was a
constructivist approach given the scarcity of scholarship related to Native American students and
what it means to be a culturally responsive academic advisor working with this population.
The research questions utilized to guide this thesis were:
What is current literature discussing in regards to Native American student belonging,
persistence, and sense of connection to the family within academic advising at predominantly
white institutions?
A sub-question to the initial research question is:
What are techniques that could be utilized by advisors to create a culturally responsive
environment for Native students to utilize services intended to help their educational journey?

51
The goal of this thesis was to inform higher education professionals, specifically those
who are academic advisors, of various ways culturally responsive support can be made for
Native American students who seek services designed for their success in postsecondary
education through existing literature.
Presentation of findings
This literature review found that Native American college students have a unique
disposition within higher education institutions throughout the country and have had a complex
relationship with Western education since its inception in the colonial era (Fish & Syed, 2018).
Because of the historical trauma that has been caused by Western education, there are a
multitude of issues that Indigenous people are affected by when pursuing higher education.
While this Thesis does not delve into every issue that Western education has created for Native
Americans, it does go into detail on several topics that are highly important and occur frequently
in current research. These findings identified were showcasing who Native American college
students are, the role of family and its variances that emerge once a student is in college,
stressors related to on-campus discrimination, and academic advising.
Native American college students have some of the most unique and complex
relationships with education among any population, especially in Western education. Some come
from highly urbanized areas where their culture is not at the forefront of their daily lives outside
of the home and some come from the reservation where culture is seen daily (Fish & Syed, 2018;
Schweigman et al., 2011). They are students who attend PWIs as well as TCUs, many of which
go into higher education for a variety of reasons. One major reason Indigenous college students

52
wanted to receive a postsecondary education was so that they are able to return to their tribal
communities and reinvest the knowledge learned in these institutions back into the communities
that have supported them throughout their educational journey (Brayboy, 2005; Fish & Syed,
2018). Additionally, this population of students is also supported by student-run organizations
and institutionally backed programs that ensure successful completion of their degree programs
and feeling welcomed at the institution they attend. Lastly, the challenges faced by this
population of students range from being underprepared for postsecondary education coursework
to social issues caused by racism and other related issues that have been discussed in other areas
of this thesis.
The issue of racism and discrimination is not a foreign concept, especially for students of
color at postsecondary institutions. Native American students experience multiple ways
discrimination and often must rely on themselves in order to face these obstacles (Cech et al.,
2018; Huffman, 2001). Indigenous students must push through comments related to stereotypes
much of the country believes to be true, such as the idea that all Native people get free college
and that Native Americans are all alcoholics (Cech et al., 2018; Cunningham et al., 2016).
Additionally, it is found that Native American students are working to ensure accurate
information is displayed and taught within college classes and often must do this labor without
any form of compensation (Cech et al., 2017). It is also disheartening to find that Native
American students also must worry about college faculty and staff who utilize claiming an
Indigenous tribal community in order to climb social ladders (Kopenuk, 2023). This information
can be disheartening and shows the level of how little non-native people care to think about the

53
damage that can be done to this population. The level at which American Indian college students
must face racist remarks, actions, and various kinds of discrimination is astounding and it shows
why support systems such as counseling services, advising, and familial support are greatly
needed.
The familial role in support can provide so many reasons for Native students to continue
with their education. It is found to be that having a strong familial support system for Native
American students, benefits the students and they are more likely to persist through school and
eventually graduate (Fish & Syed, 2018; Guillory & Wolverton, 2008). For whatever reason,
some families are not supportive or do not have the means to provide the best support for their
students which leaves them to fend for themselves while attaining a college education (Guillory
& Wolverton, 2008; Fish & Syed, 2018). Students have the potential to create surrogate families
with other Native American students who can provide the familial support the student may need
and vice versa. Additionally, faculty and staff can serve in surrogate familial roles as well by
providing true and honest care for their Indigenous students (Cech et al., 2018; Guillory &
Wolverton, 2008; Fish & Syed, 2018). It is known that Native American students can better
acclimate to their institutional environment and succeed in their studies knowing that they have a
community backing them up both away and at the institution (Cech et al., 2018; Guillory &
Wolverton, 2008; Fish & Syed, 2018).
The final theme that was explored in this Thesis was the service of academic advising
and how it can play a major role in the success, persistence, and satisfaction Native American
students deserve to have while attending college. The research and scholarship created regarding

54
academic advising and how it can assist in helping all students succeed in college are extensive.
There are multiple approaches and theories that illustrate ways of interacting with students and
providing the best possible way to collaborate with a student and their success within the
institution. However, little to no research has been grounded in ensuring Native American
students are given proper service within academic advising sessions. This can be attributed to the
lack of research that is conducted that relates to how advisors can better work with their students.
Additionally, a large component that is needed is culturally responsive advising when working
with Native American students but can be beneficial to all groups of students as well. For Native
American students, culturally responsive advising looks like showing complete and honest
interest and respect toward an Indigenous student’s lived experience and the knowledge they
bring (Mitchell et al., 2010; Severinsen et al., 2020). It is important to be willing to learn about
their culture, but it is not up to the student to be the educator, and much of the work needs to be
done by the advisor to show the level of willingness to be a part of their lives both inside and
outside of the university (Mitchell et al., 2010). There is a chance that advisors can fill into roles
that traditionally are occupied by family members, which can be extremely beneficial to create a
working relationship designed for the student’s continued success. Of course, this surrogate
relationship does not have to completely take over that familial role but can show to the student
that in this academic space, the advisor or whoever works with them will be a useful resource.
Research Implications
The findings as it relates to research implications suggest that more scholarship is needed
in regard to how academic advising and other support systems can be utilized to better assist

55
Native American students through their higher education journeys. Through the available
research, there is considerable evidence that institutional services create a positive impact on
Native American students (Fish & Syed, 2018). However, there is not much research that digs
deeper into what or how academic advising is aiding Native American college student success in
college. The interactions between the student and advisors are not delved into and studied in
order to fully understand the possible complex interactions that happen. Native American
students should have a voice in what their experience is like when utilizing this service.
It is proven that academic advising can be an extremely useful benefit college students
utilize and can provide guidance into degree progress; advisors assist in finding resources needed
for student survivance, whether academically or socially; and advisors are often the go-to
individuals whenever any issue comes up for a student (Drake et al., 2013). Research in finding
out what Native American students experience with their advisors and what can be done to create
a more welcoming atmosphere for them could open possible ways of hiring culturally competent
personnel who have the experience to work with this population of students.
An important component of working with Native American college students is the
concept of family and the creation of those familial roles by higher education personnel such as
academic advisors. They are individuals who get to see students at high points in their lives as
well as low points where guidance is immensely needed from someone who has an idea of how
the university functions. It was important to understand the role that family has for Native
American college students because if it can be seen with faculty, the very same could be seen for
advisors who are also teachers and caretakers of these Indigenous students. It is proven that

56
having a support structure helps Native American students and if they can have advisors be a part
of the family that is created at the university, then it could be very much possible to see higher
rates of persistence and graduation rates among this population of students.
Practice and Policy Implications
Further research can also help to showcase why there is a demand to include Indigenous
students when collecting data in relation how. Without this viewpoint and full understanding of
what this population of students goes through, and in this case, academic advising, then they will
never be fully and authentically supported. The Thesis found that connecting higher education
institutions to fully understand Native American students beyond a statistical data point is
effective in creating policies and practitioner implications that wholeheartedly consider the needs
of this population. Policies that can create more jobs for individuals who have the experience and
background working with this population in a way that respects their Indigenous identities.
Additionally, training and workshops can be created to assist non-native advisors and higher
education personnel that work with Native American students in the importance of honoring
their whole self that includes their background, culture, and traditions. It is inaccurate to work
with this population, and really any minoritized population, and only see them as students
because many Native students are just more than that. Academic advisors who can push away
from the narrative of only assisting students will find it easier to connect and guide better
knowing that the Native kid who booked an appointment with them has so much to offer and
needs that require special nuance.

57
As I reflect on my own journey with the advisors who showed immense care and
responsiveness to my upbringing during my undergraduate career, I think of their actions and
natural abilities to understand who I was. They understood the multifaceted nature of the
identities I held and how that impacted my journey through college. Often, I would see my
advisor from the Center for Multicultural Academic Excellence come to one of my recitals
because at that moment she was my family support and that was beyond anything I could have
ever asked for as a first-generation college student from the reservation. My advisor recognized
the importance of having family support in moments like a recital in college making a positive
impact on the student's sense of belonging and persistence to continue their education.
Institutions should implore training practices for their academic advisors to recognize students'
cultural backgrounds beyond what is needed for academic support.
Limitations of the study
The limitations of this robust literature review thesis are that no original data was found
and all information was found through existing research. No direct quotes from a given group of
Indigenous students that currently attend a PWI were utilized. Another limitation is there are few
Indigenous scholars who are centering their work around topics relating to academic advising
and its usefulness to Native students. As such, I centered as many Native researchers and
scholars as I could find.
Because of this scarcity, the number of non-Native scholars who center their research
around these areas was needed in order to fill the gaps. As history has said, when white
researchers conduct studies around Native people, the narrative is always twisted to not reflect

58
the true reality of the Indigenous populations (Skille, 2022) Therefore, whenever studies by non-
native white researchers are used, attention to detail about what the study is proclaiming was
kept in mind. This was to ensure Native voices and words are not misconstrued.
The final limitation of this study is that it recognizes that Native American people are not
monolithic, meaning that tribes and communities have their own cultures and traditions unique to
themselves. There should be no way that any one tribal community or native student should be
subjected to feeling like they must conform to what it means to be Native in higher education.
This study does utilize various generalizations to highlight what may possibly occur with native
students who attend college, and it will be backed by the examples shown within the studies used
in this thesis. Student stories that have various themes will be highlighted but will not be made to
think all Native American college students experience the same academic journey.
While this study did attempt to capture the Native American college student experience,
those students who may not have grown up on the reservation or in households where their
culture was not at the forefront of daily living, are not as deeply studied. Additionally, Native
students have other identities that were not taken into consideration in this robust literature
review. Other factors such as identification of being in the LGBTQ+ community and coming
from mixed racial backgrounds to name a few.
Concluding Thoughts
It is evident of the necessity to have research conducted that will inevitably be used to
assist in creating more equitable and welcoming environments for Native American college
students who primarily attend PWIs. TCUs have already created factors leading to success while

59
honoring the culture and background of their students. However, TCUs are small in numbers and
are limited in what level of education a student can attain and limit what students can study,
which leads many Indigenous students to go to PWIs. At PWIs, Native Americans comprise the
smallest amount of the entire population and are often given little in terms of resources because
the data suggests that it is not needed.
When Indigenous student steps onto a college campus, whether coming from a strong
cultural background or not, they are defying the odds of society that has deemed them worthy.
They are pursuing their education in hopes of one day making a difference for their tribal
communities and becoming the next generation of leaders and role models. Receiving an
education is a way of acting in defiance to the historical trauma that has been inflicted on their
ancestors. They are using the education that was once used to tear down Indigenous people and
now utilizing it to break down systems of oppression brought on by colonization. This is why
colleges and universities, specifically PWIs, must be co-conspirators in ensuring their Native
students feel welcome, have higher rates of persistence, and higher graduation rates. It’s not just
about them as individuals, but the people they represent, and it is important that higher education
institutions recognize this.

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References
Adelman, Taylor, L., & Nelson, P. (2013). Native American students going to and
staying in postsecondary education: An intervention perspective: Reducing barriers
to Native American student success in higher education: challenge and best
practices. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 37(3), 29–56.
Allen, J. M., Smith, C. L., & Muehleck, J. K. (2013). What kinds of advising are important to
community college pre- and post-transfer students? Community College Review, 41(4),
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Native American students in higher education face unique challenges and experiences that can significantly impact their educational journey. Academic advising plays a crucial role in supporting Native American college students and facilitating their success in higher education. By adopting culturally sensitive and student-centered approaches, academic advisors can effectively support Native American college students and contribute to their academic success, personal growth, and overall well-being in higher education. The purpose of this Thesis is to review some issues related to assisting Native American students from an academic advising perspective and how those professionals can better understand this population. Looking into factors such as: identifying who Native American college students; showcasing the kind of discrimination this population faces; the role of family in helping this population succeed in college; and finally, academic advising and how it can play a major role for these students.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Caponetto, Jon Jr. (author)

Core Title Culturally responsive advising in regards to Native American college students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Master of Education

Degree Program Educational Counseling

Degree Conferral Date 2023-08

Publication Date 07/06/2023

Defense Date 06/26/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic advising,American Indian,indigenous,native,Native American,OAI-PMH Harvest,predominantly White institution,reservation,Tribal College or University,tribal community

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Language English

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Advisor Banuelos, Sheila (committee chair), Finley, Chris (committee member), Ocampo, Atheneus (committee member)

Creator Email caponett@usc.edu,joncaponetto@ymail.com

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