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How to lead to liberate: an Afrocentric examination of leadership and organizational effectiveness of Black organizations
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Content
How to Lead to Liberate: An Afrocentric Examination of Leadership and Organizational
Effectiveness of Black Organizations
By
Ma’Ronda X
A dissertation submitted to the
Faculty of the Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2023
© Copyright by Ma’Ronda X 2023
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Ma’Ronda X certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Dr. Chike Akua, Committee Member
Dr. Akilah Lyons-Moore, Committee Member
Dr. Esther Kim, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023
4
Abstract
In this study, a Black organization was characterized as an organization that centered the cultural
experiences, ideologies, needs, and perspectives of Black people in its structure, culture, and
practices. The leadership of Black organizations was composed of Black individuals, and the
team and community it served were predominantly Black. This research study examined the
leadership and organizational effectiveness of Black organizations. The purpose of the study was
to explore and uncover best practices that contributed to positive outcomes within Black
organizations. Afrocentricity (Asante, 2003) and the Liberatory Leadership Method (LLM)
guided and informed the methodology within this study. Using an Afrocentric qualitative
research design, the study employed purposeful sampling and conducted semi-structured
interviews with 16 Black leaders from various Black organizations, including non-profit
organizations, community organizations, grassroots organizations, a religious organization, an
independent Black institution, and an online internet publication, to identify patterns and themes
related to organizational effectiveness. The findings of this study revealed the significance of
Afrocentric values, leadership, and management practices (core components) within Black
organizational culture. While examining these core components, the following four themes
emerged that contributed to the research participants’ organizational effectiveness: community,
identity and politics, meeting needs, and love. The findings underscore the importance of
Afrocentric values, leadership, and management practices within Black organizations. The study
also highlights the need for continued research of Black organizations to further enhance their
effectiveness as a driving force of change and transformation in their communities and to
contribute to the advancement of the field of leadership.
Keywords: African-centered, Black organizations, leadership, Afrocentricity, liberatory
leadership practices, liberatory leadership method
5
Dedication
To those who are committed to the liberation and the victory of Black people.
This is for you
And to you belongs freedom.
6
Acknowledgements
And He gives you of all you ask of Him. And if you count Allah’s favours, you will not be able to
number them.” - Holy Quran 14:34, Maulana Muhammad Ali translation
In The Name of Allah, The Beneficent, The Merciful
I give all thanks, praise, and honor to Allah (God).
To my ancestors, thank you for fighting so that I could live, and thank you for living so that I
could fight. If I stand tall, it is because I stand on your shoulders.
To my parents, Mahisha and Ronald, I am because you are. May God be pleased with you both
for your efforts, love, and sacrifices.
To my siblings, Derric (r.i.p), Tony, Andrew, Tre, Ronnail, Ronnae, Rontavia, Ronald, Da’Ron,
and Cam’Ron, we are the sun, the moon, and the stars– we are the light in the darkness. We defy
all odds– we are the roses that grew from concrete. And since we are, therefore, I am. And I am
only, but a mere reflection of you.
To my chair, Dr. Esther Kim, thank you for your patience, grace, and gentle challenges. Thank
you for being an intellectual safe space for me to learn and to be me.
To my committee members, Dr. Akilah Lyons-Moore and Dr. Chike Akua, thank you both for
your scholarship and commitment to culturally responsive and African-centered pedagogy, and
for being liberatory educators. Special thanks to Dr. Akua for being that one Professor at the
illustrious Clark Atlanta University who changed my life. Thank you for fulfilling your ancestral
obligations so that I could be on the path to fulfill mine.
To Dr. Marquita Gammage, at a time when I felt discouraged and intellectually inadequate,
without hesitation, you were there for me. I am sincerely grateful for you and the CSUN
Africana Studies Department for being the first to introduce me to African-centered pedagogies.
To my support system, Alicia Yancey, Kendon Tillis, Shantelle Blackburn, Tierica Berry, and
Taharkah Anderson, thank you for being there for me; for being my safe spaces; for being my
lifeline; and for affirming me and speaking to the god in me. Special thanks to Alicia and
Taharkah, my academic coaches, for dedicating countless hours to help me get through this
program. Without your guidance, I would not have come this far.
To the rest of my family, believing family, and community, it takes a village. Thank you for your
grace, your love, your prayers, and your faith in me. Thank you for always seeing my potential
and recognizing the god in me.
To my research participants, thank you for your undying, unflinching, unwavering love and
commitment to Black people. May the fight for liberation live on until freedom is ours.
Lastly, Very Special Thanks to the Most Honorable Elijah Muhammad, the Honorable Minister
Louis Farrakhan, and the Nation of Islam for teaching me and the world how to lead to liberate.
7
Table of Contents
Abstract 4
Dedication 5
Acknowledgements 6
List of Tables 10
List of Figures 11
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 12
Introduction 12
Background of the Problem 15
Statement of the Problem 17
Purpose of the Study 18
Overview of Theoretical Framework 18
Definition of Terms 19
Organization of the Study 22
Chapter Two: Literature Review 23
Early Signs of Organizational Change and Leadership 23
Communication and Writing 24
Technology, Architecture, Agriculture, Arts, and Culture 25
The Unspoken Standard: White Culture, Influence, and Dominance 27
The Normalization of Whiteness in Leadership 27
Ontological Expansiveness of Whiteness 28
Centering Blackness: Practices, Concepts, and Frameworks 29
Afrocentric Leadership Theories and Frameworks 29
Black Organizations 34
Conceptual Framework for Afrocentric Organizational Effectiveness 38
Afrocentric Organizational Dimensions 38
Afrocentric Epistemology 38
Afrocentric Ontology 41
Afrocentric Cosmology 42
8
Afrocentric Axiology 44
Summary 46
Chapter Three: Methodology 48
Overview of Design 48
The Researcher 49
Data Sources 50
Interviews 50
Document & Artifact Analysis 52
Credibility and Trustworthiness 52
Ethics 53
Chapter Four: Findings 55
Participants 55
African American Male Education Network and Development (A
2
MEND) 56
African National Women’s Organization (ANWO) 57
African People's Socialist Party (APSP) 58
Afrikan Black Coalition (ABC) 58
All African People Revolution Party (A-APRP) 59
Aya Educational Institute (AEI) 59
Black Agenda Report (BAR) 59
Black Alliance for Peace (BAP) 60
Black Men Build (BMB) 60
Black Students of California United (BSCU) 61
Florida African American Student Association (FAASA) 61
International Black Freedom Alliance (IBFA) 62
Nation of Islam (NOI) 62
Racial Justice NOW! (RJN!) 63
Students Deserve (SD) 64
Findings 64
Organizational Culture from an Afrocentric Perspective 65
Leadership 65
Decision-making 67
9
Management Practices 70
Organizational Practices 71
Centering Community 71
Identity and Politics 73
Meeting Needs of the Community 77
Genuine Love for Black People 79
Summary of Findings 83
Conclusion 83
Analysis of Findings 85
What values, styles of leadership, and management practices are implemented in Black-led
organizations? 85
How do the implemented values, styles of leadership, and management practices contribute to
organizational effectiveness in Black-led organizations? 86
How do Black leaders meet needs and solve problems within their communities? 86
Implications for Practice 88
Recommendations for Practice 89
Recommendation 1: Promote the Normalization of Blackness in Leadership 90
Recommendation 2: Center Afrocentric Leadership and Organizational Frameworks 90
Recommendation 3: Embrace and Invest in Black Thought and Practice 91
Future Research 92
Limitations and Delimitations 93
Conclusion 94
References 95
Appendix A: Full Glossary 102
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 104
10
List of Tables
Table 1: Overview of Afrocentric & Eurocentric Organizational Dimensions and Core-
Components 21
Table 2: Data Sources 49
Table 3: Participant and Organization Overview 56
Table 4: Summary of Findings 82
11
List of Figures
Figure 1: Egyptian Hieroglyphs for Leadership, Leader, and Follower 25
Figure 2: Liberatory Leadership Method Conceptual Framework 47
12
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
When understanding and analyzing the leadership and organizational effectiveness of
Black organizations, we must first understand that Black leaders and organizations are more than
their contribution to American and European societies. Secondly, it is critical that we understand
that Black leaders and organizations existed and were successful before Africans were ever
introduced to Europeans. Lastly, it is vital to understand that Europe and European ideologies are
not the standards for effective leadership or organizational change when it comes to (1) serving
Black people or the larger human family and (2) meeting the needs and solving problems within
the Black community. To this end, it is vital to have a foundational understanding of how people
of African descent have developed, orchestrated, modeled, and operated organizations. This
study seeks to address a gap within the literature and the field of leadership. This study exposes
leaders to an additional perspective and mode of effectiveness that aims to improve the quality of
life in spaces that serve Black people. Findings from this study can be beneficial to all scholar-
practitioners seeking authentic and effective leadership and organizational praxis outside of
whiteness.
Introduction
During my undergraduate career, several historical moments shaped my leadership such
as the second term of the Obama-Biden administration, the birth of the Black Lives Matter
Movement, the 20th anniversary of the Million Man March, and the election of Donald Trump as
the 45th President of the United States. At this time, there were also several uprisings across the
country because of police brutality and the senseless violence and killing of Black men, women,
and youth. From Trayvon Martin, 17, unarmed, killed by a racist in Sanford, Florida in 2012;
Tamir Rice, 12, unarmed, killed within seconds of police officers approaching him in Cleveland,
13
Ohio in 2014; Kendrick Johnson, 18, found dead in a rolled-up gym mat at his school in
Valdosta, Georgia in 2013; to Sandra Bland, 28, found hanging in her jail cell in Waller County,
Texas in 2015. As an American citizen, I remember my heart aching and going into a deep state
of sadness and paralysis because I could not understand why these acts of terrorism and violence
toward Black people were happening. I thought because we lived in a “post-segregated,” “post-
enslavement,” and “post-lynching” society that racism, hatred, and oppression of Black people
no longer existed. However, the 2014 gruesome deaths of Eric Garner in Staten Island, New
York, and Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri in 2014 that shifted my feelings of naiveness,
sadness, and helplessness to anger, curiosity, and inquiry. I began removing personal blame from
the individuals that caused harm to members of my community by interrogating the
organizations these people represented. I began questioning the organization’s values, ideologies,
culture, training, and ethics. In witnessing Eric Garner being choked to death by police officers, I
questioned, where was the leadership? Why didn’t anyone stop and re-evaluate their methods?
Why didn’t anyone step in once Eric Garner stated he could not breathe several times? Why did
no one on the team attempt to de-escalate the situation? In Michael Brown’s case, where his
lifeless body lay on the ground for hours, I questioned again, where was the leadership? Where
was the humanity and decency of the officers? Where were the skills from their sensitivity
training? Why was his body lying on the ground for four hours? Where was the urgency of the
leadership to address this issue? In both situations, I questioned, why does this problem continue
to exist and persist toward the Black community? How could the leadership have handled these
situations better? It was in these experiences, that I reflected on the fight and spirit of my
ancestors and recalled a quote from Assata Shakur (1987) stating, “Nobody in the world, nobody
in history, has ever gotten their freedom by appealing to the moral sense of the people who were
14
oppressing them” (p.139). Upon my reflection on Assata Shakur’s statement, I came to the
realization that if I wanted to change the treatment of Black people; if I wanted to stop feeling
helpless and sad; and if I wanted to follow in the footsteps of my elders and my ancestors, I had
to become an active participant in the fight for the liberation of all African people. I had to step
up and learn how to serve, meet needs, and solve problems within my community. Due to those
experiences and reflections, I joined Black organizations on and off campus and became an
advocate and change agent within my community. As I evolved as a leader, during times of
crisis, I no longer asked, “Where was the leadership” and began to implement and develop
systems and practices that worked in the best interest of my community.
Over time, I came to the realization that I was not fighting against racist or oppressive
individuals but fighting against a system that perpetuated Eurocentric, White supremacist, and
anti-Black rhetoric and ideologies. A system that produced hyper-vigilance, harassment, and
disproportionate executions of Black people. I began to understand that police brutality was
simply an underlying issue of a larger systemic problem and how those in leadership used racist
and supremacist ideologies to justify and execute outcomes that harmed Black people. I began to
understand how those in leadership created and upheld structures and cultures of White
supremacy. I developed an interest in the relationship between race, leadership, culture, and
systems. I wanted to de-center Eurocentric ideologies in the field of leadership, but I also wanted
to center ideologies and practices that improved the quality of life of Black people. Therefore, I
pursued a doctoral degree to conduct further research and address any of my knowledge and skill
gaps.
During my first year as a doctoral student, I was exposed to the foundation of
organizational change and leadership. I was introduced to courses, theories, leaders, practices,
15
and systems meant to demonstrate effective leadership and organizational change. Yet, many of
those theories were not centered in Blackness or fully address the ways in which they could bring
about changing Black people's material conditions. There was a disproportionate representation
of middle-aged, White men in the curriculum, theories, videos, and class discussions. I observed
how the expertise and experiences of these men were valued and subtly deemed superior within
my courses. I observed how even on a doctoral level and at a prestigious private school that
aimed to address disparities and interrogate systems of power, Eurocentric and White
supremacist practices and beliefs were upheld and interwoven in the program through the course
materials. As a result of my experiences, I found myself questioning my school’s leadership. Are
White people and Eurocentric ideologies the standard in leadership? If I’m not learning about
leaders and practices that are improving the lives of Black people, how can I solve problems in
the Black community? Do Black experiences, voices, and scholarship really matter? Where do
Black leaders, scholars, and people fit in the school’s mission, and how does it reflect in the
curriculum and courses? My questions are what bring me to this study.
Background of the Problem
Race, culture, and racism lie at the heart of our society. Each is implicated in how we
structure systems and educate the American people. Gooden & Dantley (2012) claim that race
and the impact of race shape the decision-making process of leaders. They state how “a person’s
leadership philosophy influences how he or she operates as a leader” (Gooden & Dantley, 2012,
p. 149). To this end, they assert a race-centered approach to leadership. Yet, the concept of race
has always been centered on leadership. However, the centering is traditionally from a European
standpoint. As a result, we have been socialized to believe Eurocentric ideologies and
approaches are the rule and not the exception. Therefore, whiteness in leadership is assumed as
16
the norm (Ladkin & Patrick, 2022) and operates under the cloak of universality (Ani, 1994). This
belief has been preserved since the founding of this country. The way America’s founding
fathers thought of race, influenced how Americans were taught and treated, and how systems
were created and maintained. Under their leadership, people of African descent were legally
enslaved and lynched. Under American leadership, systems and laws were used as tools to
preserve European ideals and practices. The constitution classified Black people as three-fifths of
a person and prohibited their right to vote. American systems preserved European-American
ideals and excluded Black people and non-White people from leadership. As a result, Barack
Obama made history as the first Black President of the United States, 232 years after the country
was founded. Obama’s historical win did not eliminate Eurocentric ideologies in America or
American leadership. However, it shed light on the racial barrier and disproportionate
representation of Black, Latino, Indigenous, and Asian people in leadership. According to the
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (2022), approximately 82% of Americans who hold
management occupations within the workforce identify as White, while approximately 9%
identify as Black. Furthermore, of those who work in management, only 6% of Black people
hold chief executive positions, while approximately 86% are held by White people. The
aforementioned statistics and highlights of the impact of America’s leadership and laws
demonstrate a disparity of Black people in leadership and a history of White supremacy within
America.
Based on the literature, the underlying issue within the field of leadership is not the
centering of race. The problem within the field of leadership is the centering of experiences,
scholarly work, and culture of one group of people–Europeans, and the adoption and
implementation of their practices as the standard or means to meet needs and solve problems for
17
all people. This not only results in the marginalization of Black, Indigenous, Asian, and Latino
people, but it fosters the notion that European ideologies and people are more significant and
superior. Within this study, I aim to de-center Eurocentric practices and the normalization of
Whiteness in the field of leadership and argue for the centering of practices, methods, and
approaches that not only work in the best interest of Black people and leaders but can aid in the
development of strategies that strive to improve and address larger issues within our
organizations.
Statement of the Problem
Black leaders and organizations have dominated, pioneered, transformed, cultivated, and
gifted the world and their communities with their innovation, skills, and practices, yet there is
little or no analysis of the leadership and organizational effectiveness of Black organizations in
the field of leadership. Scholars such as Peter Northouse and John C. Maxwell are valued as
leadership experts. Theorists such as Urie Bronfenbrenner, Richard Clark and Fred Estes,
Warner Burke and George Litwin, Lev Vygotsky, and Albert Bandura are known for their
conceptual frameworks that help people understand human and organizational development. All
scholars differ in their own right, and their theories are applicable to different environments and
situations. However, each of them shares the following characteristics: (1) middle-aged, (2)
European (3) men. Whether intentional or unintentional, these men are used as the standard for
leadership and organizational theories which then skews, erases, and/or silences the perspectives
and methods of other cultures.
When Western-dominated theories of leadership or organizational change are developed,
their validity in how it connects and includes all races and cultures is never raised, questioned, or
examined. Traditionally, western leadership theories and frameworks are blanketed and innately
18
selected as the standard which is a cause for concern in a world full of diverse people. Lev
Vygotsky stresses the importance of culture in the learning process and Urie Bronfenbrenner
emphasizes how one’s development is influenced by their environment. The same can be said
about leadership and organizational theory and practice– one’s culture, worldview, and
environment play critical roles in understanding, examining, and implementing leadership and
change. Leadership is culture and culture varies from group to group. Therefore, leadership
varies from group to group. There is no one standard or blanket solution for all groups of people.
This study will explore and inform how Black leaders and organizations transform, solve
problems, and create sustainable change within their respective work communities.
Purpose of the Study
The qualitative study aims to (1) center the experiences and practices of Black leaders
within Black organizations and (2) examine how Black leaders and organizations meet needs and
solve problems in their stakeholder community. The study is guided by the following questions:
1. What values, management practices, and styles of leadership are implemented in Black
organizations?
2. How do the implemented values, management practices, and styles of leadership
contribute to organizational effectiveness in Black organizations?
3. How do Black leaders meet needs and solve problems within their communities?
Overview of Theoretical Framework
For this study, Afrocentricity is used as the theoretical framework. Theorized by Molefi
Asante (2003), Afrocentricity is defined as the placing of African people and ideals in the center
of any analysis of African phenomena. Afrocentricity does not seek to undermine or dismiss
existing standards but rather to expand the discourse in leadership. To assess research
19
organizations justly, an African-centered framework was needed. Afrocentricity provided a
theoretical lens that placed African people at the center of one’s analysis. It is committed to ideas
that work in the best interest of African people and seeks to eliminate oppression (Asante, 2003).
Afrocentricity also ensures that effectiveness is defined by the experiences and from the
perspective of Black people. By incorporating Afrocentric principles, such as (1) centrality of
African people, culture, ideals, and experiences (Asante, 2003); (2) agency; and (3) the end of all
forms of oppression and White racial domination (Asante, 2003), Afrocentricity contributes to a
more comprehensive understanding of effective leadership. In addition, Afrocentricity challenges
systemic racism and structural inequalities and offers an opportunity to address the limitations of
Eurocentric approaches in leadership research and practice.
“Afrocentricity is not a mere option or alternative. It is an imperative of sanity, survival, and
meaningful and lasting development for the Afrikan world” (Akoto, 2018, p.69).
Definition of Terms
This section provides definitions of terms to emphasize the contrast between Afrocentric
and Eurocentric organizational dimensions within the conceptual framework of this study. It is
important to note that the terms Afrocentric and African-centered are used interchangeably
throughout the study. For an overview of Afrocentric and Eurocentric organizational dimensions
and core-components, review Table 1. Additionally, Appendix A provides a comprehensive
glossary containing definitions for the terms utilized throughout the study.
● Afrocentric Axiology (Value System): Based on harmony with nature, cooperation, and
communalism (McDougal, 2017). These issues shape what is acceptable and what is not
(Alkebulan, 2007).
● Afrocentric Cosmology (Structure of Reality): Oneness of being and interdependent
20
(Nobles, 1978)
● Afrocentric Epistemology (Branch of Knowledge): Validates knowledge through a
combination of affective-cognitive synthesis, historical understanding, scientific research,
and intuition. What is known, what can be proven is demonstrated through the
harmonization of the individual consciousness with community consciousness and the
best traditions in the African past (Muzorewa, 2005).
● Afrocentric Ontology (Nature of Being): It assumes reality to be both spiritual and
material at once. In this regard, everything becomes one thing, spirit manifesting… When
the spiritual/material ontology is adhered to completely, one loses the sense of
individualized ego/mind and experiences infinite mind or consciousness manifesting as
oneself… Self in this instance includes all of the ancestors, the yet unborn, all of nature,
and the entire community (Myers, 1985).
● Eurocentric Axiology (Value System): Value is determined by one’s productivity and
achievements due to the emphasis on man-to-object relationships (Nichols, 1972) and
value is placed on individualism (Baldwin & Hopkins, 1990).
● Eurocentric Cosmology (Structure of Reality): Characterized by the following concepts:
survival of the fittest and humanity versus nature (Baldwin & Hopkins, 1990).
● Eurocentric Decision-making: Competitive, win-lose approach to issues, and winning is
the only satisfactory outcome (Warfield-Coppock, 1995).
● Eurocentric Epistemology (Branch of Knowledge): Knowledge is acquired and validated
through a Cartesian way of thinking (Nichols, 1972).
● Eurocentric Leadership: Authoritarian, must maintain control and must force people to
work (Warfield-Coppock, 1995).
21
● Eurocentric Management: Hierarchical, controlling, and fear drive motivation (Warfield-
Coppock, 1995).
● Eurocentric Ontology (Nature of Being): The science of what is and the study of what
might exist (Smith, 2012).
Table 1
Overview of Afrocentric & Eurocentric Organizational Dimensions and Core-Components
Afrocentric Eurocentric
Axiology
(Value System)
Emphasis on person-to-
person and human-human
relations
Emphasis on man-to-object
relationships and
individualism
Cosmology
(Structure of Reality)
Worldview places emphasis
on interdependence,
collectivism, and oneness
Worldview places emphasis
on survival of the fittest and
humanity versus nature
Epistemology
(Branch of Knowledge)
Knowledge is acquired and
validated through a
combination of affective-
cognitive synthesis,
historical understanding,
scientific research, and
intuition
Knowledge is acquired and
validated through a Cartesian
way of thinking
Ontology
(Nature of Being)
Emphasis on a spiritual basis
of nature and describes a
reality that is interconnected
with both spiritual and
material world
Emphasis on the science of
what is and the study of what
might exist
Decision-making Collaborative techniques
outweigh competitive or
confrontational means to
solve problems
Competitive, win-lose
approach to issues, and
winning is the only
satisfactory outcome
Leadership Based on responsibility,
admiration, and love. Rarely
forced or maintained by
force or control
Authoritarian, must maintain
control and must force people
to work
22
Management Communal or group-
oriented
Hierarchical, controlling, and
fear drive motivation
Note. This table provides an overview of Afrocentric & Eurocentric organizational dimensions
and core-components.
Organization of the Study
Chapter One lays the groundwork by addressing the issue of Whiteness within the
leadership field. This discussion highlights the problem of limited Afrocentric examination of the
effectiveness of Black organizations and the resulting gap in the literature. Chapter Two reviews
of the existing literature, aiming to uncover Eurocentric influences in leadership. Moreover, it
examines the effectiveness of three specific Black organizations, providing a general but non-
exhaustive analysis. Additionally, this chapter introduces the Liberatory Leadership Method,
which serves as the Afrocentric conceptual framework for assessing organizational effectiveness.
Chapter Three focuses on the methodology employed in this study, shedding light on the
rationale behind using non-probability purposeful sampling for participant selection. It also
offers a summary and analysis of the interview data collected for this research. Chapter Four
takes the study’s findings and interprets them, providing in-depth analysis and interpretation.
Lastly, Chapter Five presents a discussion of the study's findings, along with further
recommendations and implications for both this particular research and the broader field of
leadership.
23
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Chapter One introduced a major issue within the field of leadership: Whiteness in
leadership. Therefore, the review of the literature within this chapter will expand on this
assertion. Prior to examining the aforementioned area, historical concepts of leadership and
organizational change will be introduced to the reader. This study's historical context is
significant because it highlights the world’s earliest concepts, practices, and examples of
leadership and organization. Ancient Africans pioneered change and exemplified effectiveness
yet there is little to no analysis of their work in leadership. Therefore, a foundation of African
leadership and impact is established at the beginning of this chapter. As a result of the
disproportionate examination of Black leaders and organizations within the discourse of
leadership, this chapter also examines the literature on leadership theories and frameworks from
an African-centered perspective and explores the impact of the three Black organizations. This
chapter concludes with literature that provides additional insight into the conceptual framework
used in this study.
Early Signs of Organizational Change and Leadership
As a result of humanity beginning on the continent of Africa, ancient African
civilizations have provided the foundation of the world’s oldest examples of the concepts that we
contemporarily understand as organizational change and leadership. The impact of ancient
Africans in shaping and building civilized society across the continent is evident through their
contributions to various domains. These include the development and advancement of “reading
and writing, language, literature and leadership, agriculture and astronomy, mathematics and
medicine, and science and technology” (Akua, 2022, p. 45-46). This section explores the
influence of ancient Africans specifically in the areas of communication and technology,
24
architecture and agriculture, and arts and culture.
Communication and Writing
One of the world’s oldest writings, Hieroglyphics, originated in Ancient Egypt (Hilliard,
1987; Mark, 2016). The original name of Egypt is Kemet and means “Land of the Blacks”
(Browder, 1992). The term hieroglyphics is Greek in origin. The original term is Mdw Ntr
(sometimes spelled Medu Netcher) and means “God’s Words” (Hilliard, Damali & Williams,
1987; Daniels & Bright, 1996). Asa Hilliard (1987) described Mdw Ntr, hieroglyphics as:
Not the only evidence of pre-Kemetic national civilization farther South in the Hapi
Valley. The burial of the dead, the existence of a highly developed monotheistic religious
system, the existence of a pharaonic-led political system, the existence of astronomy and
many other things associated with cooperative and intelligent human society proved the
existence of early civilization in the Hapi (Nile) Valley, more developed than anywhere
else in the world at that time. (pp. 8-9)
Hieroglyphics not only highlight Kemetic leadership practices but also document early
signs of religious, scientific, cultural, and political systems. Ancient Kemites understood the
importance of communication and how it could be used to “meet people’s individual needs and
enable important human connections” (Leading Effectively Staff, 2022). As shown in Figure 1,
early leadership concepts also existed during this time. Figure 1 shows leadership (seshmet),
leader (seshemu), and follower (shemsu) in hieroglyphics (Bass & Bass, 2008, p.5). Including
these principles in their writing system demonstrated how Egyptians valued and communicated
the chain of command and/or leadership roles and styles. The oldest complete text in the world is
by a Kemetic scribe named Ptahhotep who educated youth and trained them for leadership
(Hilliard, Damali & Williams, 1987). Over 4500 years ago, Ptahhotep recommended, “If you are
25
a person who controls the affairs of many, then seek the most perfect way of performing your
responsibility so that your conduct will be blameless” (p. 18). Other examples of his wise
counsel to young leaders in training include the following: With regard to organizational
leadership, he recommended, “If you are among the people, then gain your supporters by
building trust” (p. 23). In terms of maintaining fidelity in organizational communication and
strategic alliance, Ptahhotep warned, “If you are a person of trust sent by one great person to
another great person, be careful to stick to the essence of the message that you were asked to
transmit. Give the message exactly as it was given to you” (p. 20). Regarding organizational
security, he taught, “Follow this rule from the first: Never leave your post, even when fatigued”
p. (22). In political leadership, he warned, “To create obstacles to the following of laws, is to
open a way to a condition of violence. The transgressor of laws is punished, although the greedy
person overlooks this” (p.19).
Figure 1
Egyptian Hieroglyphs for Leadership, Leader, and Follower
Note. Bass, R. R., & Bass, B. M. (2008). The bass handbook of leadership: Theory, research,
and Managerial Applications. Free Press.
Technology, Architecture, Agriculture, Arts, and Culture
26
Many other ancient civilizations like the Kemites demonstrated early signs of leadership
and organization through public administration, technology, architecture and agriculture, and arts
and culture. The great migration of the Bantu people brought great technological and agricultural
advancements to Africa and was one of the most striking and impressive cultural movements in
the world (Huffman, 1970). As a result of the Bantu people’s leadership, crops were produced to
meet the needs of their community, and tools and weaponry improved due to their ability to
create iron (Cartwright, 2019).
Under the leadership of Pharoah Khufu, more than 2,300,000 blocks of stone, each
weighing between 2 and 9 tons, were used to build the Great Pyramid of Giza (Levy, 2007), the
tallest structure on earth for more than 4,300 years (Craig Smith, 2004). Many scholars are still
perplexed about how the pyramids were built (Mark, 2016) because the Kemites did not have
sophisticated mechanical tools, wheels, or pulleys for moving or lifting loads to support their
construction (McKinney, 2020).
The city of Meroe was known as the producer of agriculture and livestock, and much of
the agricultural fields were expanded through their irrigation canals (Shoup, 2017). The
agricultural advances aided Meroe’s expansion and ability to adopt new crops and meet the
demanding needs of growing populations (Nixon et al., 2014).
Lastly, the Blombos Cave in present-day South Africa documented early human culture
and expression and showcased early humans’ ability to produce graphic designs on various
media using different techniques (Henshilwood et al., 2018). The showcase of culture in art,
media, clothes, and crafts highlighted the value culture and tradition played in these societies. All
the previously mentioned civilizations fulfilled the needs of their growing communities. The
presented examples in this section highlight how ancient Africans aided in advancing humanity
27
by developing sociocultural systems that would ultimately evolve society into what we see and
experience today. The examples also display how experts can marvel at the magnificence of the
great pyramids, acknowledge hieroglyphics as one of the world’s earliest writings systems,
glorify symbolism within the Blombos cave, and yet hold intellectual contributions of Africans
in academia with little to no regard by excluding their intellectual thoughts and ideas within the
field of leadership. The following section will provide insight into why African scholarship is
overlooked within leadership.
The Unspoken Standard: White Culture, Influence, and Dominance
The perpetuation of White dominance is prevalent in the field of leadership studies.
Based on the available literature across sectors and disciplines, it is believed that leadership
theory and practice are rooted in White supremacy, culture, privilege, and experiences (Ladkin &
Patrick, 2022). Whiteness in leadership isn’t simply defined as one’s skin color but is
operationalized and normalized as the standard. Ladkin and Patrick (2022) state that whiteness in
leadership is automatically assumed to be the “right way” while other methods of leadership are
othered or deemed deviant. Understanding whiteness in culture, space, and theory in leadership
studies is critical given the implications and impact other groups and cultures have contributed to
the discipline, yet the little to no analysis or recognition of their scholarship within this field.
The Normalization of Whiteness in Leadership
In examining whiteness in leadership, Liu and Baker (2016) discovered that White
domination is perpetuated in leadership due to the media’s portrayal of whiteness as neutral. This
belief has caused the socialization of whiteness being the standard in leadership and caused
White leaders to believe they could best decide how to improve society (Liu & Baker, 2016)
instead of just their own racial and social groups. This notion further supports Ladkin and
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Patrick’s (2022) statement in their examination article of Bernard Bass’ transformational
leadership theory, arguing how leadership theorizing is White leadership theorizing. They assert
their claim by describing how when Black scholars discuss leadership and theory, their (Black
scholars) research and expertise are often limited to “African American leadership,” but when
White men such as Bernard Bass discuss leadership and theory, his research and expertise is
highly regarded and often referred to as just “leadership” (Ladkin & Patrick, 2022). In a 2008
study, Rosette et al. (2008) discovered that many, regardless of racial background, associated
being White with being a business leader. They also found that, dependent on organizational
success, White leaders were described as being more effective and possessing more leadership
potential than their non-White counterparts (Rosette et al., 2008).
Ontological Expansiveness of Whiteness
Critical White Studies scholars have argued that whiteness consists of the following
practices: normalization, solipsism, and ontological expansionism (Liu & Baker, 2016; Ladkin &
Patrick, 2022). This sub-section will further examine the meaning and impact of ontological
expansionism. Ladkin and Patrick (2022) state:
Ontological expansionism is the assumption that White people have the right to extend
themselves into every geography or psychic landscape. It is epitomized by European
colonization, which now includes the colonization of outer space itself. (p. 211)
White-Europeans have a history of operationalizing the ideological beliefs of ontological
expansionism to justify their “right to extend themselves into every geography or psychic
landscape” (Ladkin & Patrick, 2022) and exercise total mastery over their environment (Sullivan,
2006). There is a litany of examples of White Europeans declaring their right to land and space
in history. This is evident as early as Christopher Columbus’ “discovery” of America.
29
Christopher Columbus is revered as one of America’s heroic leaders. He is one of few with a
federal holiday in his name in the United States. According to history.com, his holiday,
Columbus Day commemorates his discovery of the Americas. To emphasize his impact on the
world, even in a fictional account of Christopher Columbus, Washington Irving describes
Columbus’ discovery as “the effort of an active genius, guided by experience, and acting upon a
regular plan, executed with no less courage than perseverance.” The act of memorializing
Columbus through a holiday and documenting him as an “active genius, guided by experience”
are prime examples of ontological expansionism. Both in the individual act of Christopher
Columbus, assuming his right to the Americas despite it being inhabited by the Indigenous
people, and in the documentation of Christopher Columbus in American history to control the
narrative of White-European power and colonization.
The reign of Whiteness in leadership must be addressed, dismantled, and eliminated if the
field of leadership studies desires to grow and produce more effective leaders and organizations
that serve the best interest of all people. Frameworks outside of Whiteness must be analyzed,
utilized, and operationalized. The following section will introduce Black organizations and
frameworks from Black scholars that have examined leadership and organizational effectiveness.
Centering Blackness: Practices, Concepts, and Frameworks
Black leaders, scholars, and organizations have informed leadership and organizational
development through human development and socialization for centuries. This section provides a
glimpse into the examination of leadership and organizational theory from an Afrocentric
perspective in the 20th and 21st centuries.
Afrocentric Leadership Theories and Frameworks
The frameworks discussed within this section are not intended for this study. The
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following frameworks aim to introduce African-centered approaches to leadership that can meet
needs and solve problems within our personal and work communities. African-centered is an
approach that centers African people, ideals, history, and experiences. The work of four scholars:
Jerome Schiele, Nsenga Warfield-Coppock, Uhuru Hotep, and Chike Akua is highlighted in this
section due to their examination of Afrocentric leadership and organizational theory. Jerome
Schiele’s framework is rooted in social work and human services while Nsenga Warfield-
Coppock’s framework provides a comparative analysis of three types of American organizations,
including Afrocentric organizations. Uhuru Hotep’s leadership framework is rooted in African
ideals and traditions while Chike Akua’s framework is informed by his work in Education. The
scholarship of these individuals demonstrates the range of Afrocentricity and illustrates the
ability to apply African-centered practices to multiple disciplines and fields.
Jerome Schiele’s article, Organizational Theory from an Afrocentric Paradigm, provided
a foundation for organizational theory from an Afrocentric perspective (Warfield-Coppock,
1995). Schiele asserts the following tenets as characteristics of Afrocentric organizational theory:
(1) Human beings are conceived collectively, (2) human beings are spiritual, (3) human beings
are good, (4) the affective approach to knowledge is epistemologically valid, (5) much of human
behavior is nonrational, and (6) the axiology or highest value lies in interpersonal relations. This
framework aims to improve and diversify the theory and knowledge within the human service
organization, highlight Afrocentric organizational theory, and enhance the applicability of this
framework (Schiele, 1990). Though his conceptual framework provides an alternative lens for
human service organizations, it is applicable to any formal organization (Schiele, 1990).
Schiele’s framework offers an alternative approach to traditional hierarchical structures by
emphasizing collective well-being and equity within organizations. It recognizes the spiritual and
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ethical responsibilities organizations have towards their communities. Instead of coercion or
relying on external incentives, the framework acknowledges individuals' intrinsic motivation to
serve and improve their communities and themselves. Alongside quantitative and scientific
reasoning, this framework embraces the role of emotions and personal experiences in decision-
making. The framework prioritizes people, connections, and relationships over productivity and
material gains. This article lays the groundwork for Afrocentric organizational theory and
leadership practices, and its ability to center these lived experiences of Black people.
Nsenga Warfield-Coppock’s article, Toward a Theory of Afrocentric Organizations,
expands on Schiele’s Afrocentric organizational theory conceptual framework. While Schiele’s
work introduced an African-centered perspective to human service organizations, Warfield-
Coppock utilized an Afrocentric lens to examine culture and attributes within different
organizations. She conceptualized three types of organizations found in American society:
Eurocentric organizations, enculturated organizations, and Afrocentric organizations. The
Eurocentric organization is the dominant organization in American society and is rooted in the
cultural beliefs of Europeans (Warfield-Coppock, 1995). The enculturated organization attempts
to be Afrocentric but is rooted in confusion as individuals of African descent practice and
operate under Eurocentric management practices (Warfield-Coppock, 1995). The Afrocentric
organization is the ideal organization and what organizations should strive to become as it is
rooted in Africans’ cultural beliefs and values (Warfield-Coppock, 1995). Warfield-Coppock’s
(1995) conceptual framework provides a comparative analysis of these organizations' non-
exhaustive characteristics and functions through an Afrocentric lens. The characteristics of each
organization type are as follows: cosmology, axiology, ontology, management style,
epistemology, organizational philosophy, leadership style, administrative policies, decision-
32
making, staff relations, work orientation, and productivity. Warfield-Coppock's (1995) models
facilitate the implementation of Schiele's framework and Afrocentric ideologies. Warfield-
Coppock offers specific approaches that are in alignment with the Afrocentric paradigm, such as
promoting collectivity, prioritizing people over profit, and valuing interconnectedness and
harmony. Warfield-Coppock's framework emphasizes the significant influence of culture on
organizational behavior and practices.
In his article, African Centered Leadership-Followership: Foundational Principles,
Precepts, and Essential Practices, Uhuru Hotep introduced African Centered Leadership-
Followership (ACL-F), an ethnic group-specific approach to leadership (Hotep, 2010). African
Centered Leadership-Followership asserts that leaders and followers share the same level of
power, and neither is superior to the other (Hotep, 2010), but are meant to balance one another.
This framework seeks to transform the African world community by radically re-ordering Black
leadership thought (Hotep, 2010). This conceptual framework consists of four interconnected
practices: (1) Restoration of sovereignty: empowering Black individuals to regain control over
their affairs, pursue self-determination, and achieve self-sufficiency. (2) Sankofa installation:
emphasizing the significance of learning and embracing African culture and history to enhance
current and future aspirations. (3) Maat restoration: combating oppression and working towards
the restoration of peace, justice, and equality to enhance the quality of life for Black individuals.
(4) Johari Sita installation: encouraging exploring and accepting one's identity and culture to
foster self-awareness and improve the community. Hotep describes the ACL-F model as a
spiritual calling to contribute to the redemption of humanity. This model underscores the
interconnectedness of leaders and followers, recognizing that every leader has experienced being
a follower, and every follower possesses the potential to emerge as a leader. Within this
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framework, leaders and followers are responsible for guiding their communities toward
sovereignty and liberation. The framework emphasizes the value of community, cultural identity,
self-determination, and ancestral obligations. It is deeply rooted in Afrocentric principles and
presents a leadership approach that centers on the experiences of Black individuals.
Chike Akua’s article, Standards of Afrocentric Education for School Leaders and
Teachers, introduced Afrocentric Educational Standards (ACE Standards), an African-centered
conceptual framework for educational leaders and teachers. Akua asserted that the concept of
Afrocentric educational standards was not new (Akua, 2020). However, the goal of his ACE
Standards was to support educational leaders in improving their instruction, curriculum, and
educational practices. The framework comprises 13 standards focusing on (1) Centering African
people, experiences, and educational ideologies. (2) Encouraging critical analysis of portrayals of
African people and culture. (3) Infusing African values into the classroom and school culture. (4)
Promoting cultural awareness and identity. (5) Connecting students with their inner strength. (6)
Addressing social inequities and oppression. (7) Using culturally relevant methods for learning.
(8) Empowering students to problem-solve and seek solutions. (9) Prioritizing the collective
benefit and best interests. (10) Highlighting shared experiences of African people globally. (11)
Valuing all cultures. (12) Fostering self-sufficiency and community support. (13) Equipping
students to build and sustain sovereign entities. Akua's ACE Standards place significant
emphasis on cultural awareness and identity, community, independence and agency, and the
fight for liberation. These standards help educators empower students to transform themselves
and their communities by embracing the richness of African culture. In this article, Akua also
illustrates how Afrocentric values and practices have historically resulted in high achievement,
increased cultural awareness, and strengthened a sense of belonging among Black students. In
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general, Akua (2020) defines leadership as the process of organizing and mobilizing people and
resources to address needs and resolve problems. More specifically, Akua defines Afrocentric
educational leadership as, “the process of using African ideas and ideals to organize and
mobilize people and resources to meet needs and solve problems in African (Black)
communities” (Akua, 2020, p.17). The article emphasizes the importance of the role
Afrocentricity has in improving institutions and systems that cater to the needs of Black
individuals. Additionally, it prompts us to explore the relationship and influence that
Afrocentricity has on leadership and the effectiveness of organizations.
The mentioned frameworks hold importance in the field of leadership as they offer
potential insights and remedies to organizational practices and challenges while centering the
African experience in African lives (Mazama, 2003, p.5). It is important to note that these
frameworks are not exhaustive, and further academic discussions and research on Afrocentric
leadership and organizational theory are necessary and encouraged. Chapter 5 will delve deeper
into some of the practices outlined in these frameworks as potential recommendations.
Black Organizations
This section aims to highlight the significance of leadership and organizational
effectiveness within an Afrocentric framework by providing an overview of three Black
organizations that are considered effective. While only three organizations are discussed for
brevity, it is crucial to acknowledge the admiration and respect for numerous other unlisted
Black organizations that have struggled to liberate all African people and have had local,
national, and global success and impact. The three organizations outlined in this subsection are:
the Nation of Islam (NOI), the Black Panther Party (BPP), and the Afrikan Black Coalition
(ABC). It should be noted that despite using an Afrocentric lens to evaluate organizational
35
effectiveness, none of the organizations or leaders described in this section self-identify or are
identified as "Afrocentric," "Afrocentric organizations," "Afrocentric leaders," or
"Afrocentrists."
The Nation of Islam (NOI), a theocratic organization in America, was established by
Master W. Fard Muhammad, who made his public appearance in July 1930. The mission of the
NOI is to restore and resurrect (Brief history on origin of the Nation of Islam, 2022) Black
people in America by imparting them with the knowledge of God and themselves and guiding
them towards self-sufficiency and independence. The NOI aims to restore the dignity and
sovereignty of Black people through its teachings and principles. Master Fard Muhammad’s
teachings laid the groundwork for the liberatory ideology of the NOI. Prior to Master Fard
Muhammad's departure, he imparted his knowledge and teachings to the Most Honorable Elijah
Muhammad (MHEM), preparing him to assume leadership within the NOI. The Most Honorable
Elijah Muhammad took on the crucial responsibility of sharing the teachings he received,
working towards the resurrection of Black people, and guiding them towards a deeper
understanding of God and their true selves. Under the leadership of the MHEM, the teachings of
the NOI experienced remarkable growth. They had a profound influence on various movements
in history, including the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement. Guided by the
MHEM, various institutions emerged, including farmlands supporting national food production
and distribution, along with delivery trucks, restaurants, supermarkets, clothing factories, and
bakeries. These establishments enabling the Black community to embrace self-reliance, break
free from their oppressor, foster self-love, and unity, adopt healthy practices, and undergo a
personal transformation for the betterment and long-term prosperity of the community. The
MHEM's influence extended to influential figures such as Malcolm X and Muhammad Ali.
36
Before the departure of the MHEM, he appointed the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan
(HMLF) to assist him in spreading the teachings of the NOI and to serve as the national
representative of the Nation of Islam. For more than 90 years, Master Fard Muhammad, the
Most Honorable Elijah Muhammad, and the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan, have
collectively dedicated over 90 years to the process of re-educating, re-defining, and re-building
the Black community (Brief history on origin of the Nation of Islam, 2022). Through their
teachings and practices, Black men and women have experienced significant transformations in
their physical, spiritual, psychological, financial, and cultural well-being, and their overall
environment. The NOI embraces Afrocentric principles by placing Black people and their
experiences at the center of its organization. The NOI actively promotes peace and confronts
systemic inequalities and injustices disproportionately affecting the Black community. It strives
to establish institutions, schools, and systems that prioritize the well-being and self-
determination of Black people, ultimately working towards achieving sovereignty. Lastly, the
NOI and its teachings are dedicated to fostering a more promising future for humanity.
The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was founded in 1966 by Huey P. Newton and
Bobby Seale (The Black Panther Party, 2022). The Black Panther Party was a revolutionary
organization that believed in the self-determination of Black people and the right to bear arms.
The Black Panther Party (BPP)’s ideologies and practices influenced Black people and
organizations worldwide to protect and serve Black communities (The Black Panther Party:
Challenging police and promoting Social Change, 2020). The BPP embraced Afrocentric
principles by prioritizing the welfare of Black individuals and adopting a community-centered
approach. The BPP exemplified the agency of Black people as self-determined catalysts for
change, actively engaging in addressing and resolving issues within their communities through
37
innovative and creative means. They trained and educated their members in civil rights, political
education, and how to serve their communities. Among the over sixty social and community
programs that the BPP had, the Free Breakfast program for youth was one of their most effective
and revolutionary programs (Pien, 2010). This free program would feed children with nutritional
meals before school to address a hunger need in the community and to improve academic
achievement and engagement of Black youth in the classroom (Blakemore, 2018). It is critically
important to note that this program deeply influenced the United States government to develop
and expand its free breakfast program for low-income students across the country (Blakemore,
2018).
The Afrikan Black Coalition (ABC), founded in 2003, is a statewide youth-based and
volunteer-led organization in California that trains and organizes Black student clubs,
specifically Black Student Union clubs on college campuses in leadership development, political
education, and community organizing and engagement (Afrikan Black Coalition, 2022).
Throughout its organizational life cycle, ABC has assisted Black Student Unions in California to
secure over one million dollars in funding and resources for Black students on their respective
campuses (Haile, 2020). Most significantly, in 2016, the Afrikan Black Coalition successfully
led a campaign that pushed the University of California college system to divest over $20 million
from private prisons and a year later, helped terminate $475 million worth of contracts with
Wells Fargo and the University of California due to Wells Fargo’s predatory lending practices
against Black people (Haile, 2020). ABC practices Afrocentricity by centering the experiences,
perspectives, and needs of Afrikan/Black people within their organizational framework. ABC
actively advocates for social justice and equality by challenging universities’ commitment
38
toward Black students, aiming to foster a more safe and culturally inclusive environment within
college campuses.
Conceptual Framework for Afrocentric Organizational Effectiveness
This section provides an overview of my conceptual framework for Afrocentric
organizational effectiveness. It provides a literature review of the four Afrocentric dimensions
and core components I use to identify African-centered practices and to measure organizational
effectiveness.
Afrocentric Organizational Dimensions
After carefully reviewing the literature, the following dimensions and core components
are used to describe what I have coined as the Liberatory Leadership Method (LLM), an
Afrocentric approach to understanding leadership and organizational effectiveness.
Afrocentric Epistemology
Although not coined as Afrocentric epistemology, the concept of epistemology from an
African-centered perspective was mentioned in the early 1970s by Edwin J. Nichols. In his
paper, Child Mental Health in the 70s, Nichols discusses how White mental health practitioners
would assess and measure Black families from a deficit model. He argues that this deficit model
assumed that Black families were culturally deprived, needed to be trained, were pathological,
and had to be cured based on White standards (Nichols, 1972). He describes cultural pluralism in
American society and the increased awareness of cultural differences between White and Black
people. Based upon his analysis of cultural differences between the two groups, Nichols
advances and constructs epistemological differences between Black and White-European
cultures. He describes epistemology from a Black perspective as I feel, I think; therefore, I am
(Nichols, 1972) which emphasizes the significance of how feelings and intuition are connected to
39
how Black people learn and acquire knowledge. The emphasis on feelings is significant when
understanding how Black people learn because it differs from and conflicts with White-European
epistemological standards. Nichols describes epistemology in White-European culture as, I think,
therefore, I am in the Cartesian reference (Nichols, 1972) which solely places emphasis on
rationality when acquiring knowledge.
Scholars such as Vernon Dixon have continued to advance research in Afrocentric
epistemology and the worldview differences between Africans and Europeans. In his article,
African-oriented and Euro-American-oriented World Views: Research Methodologies and
Economics, Dixon provides a comprehensive understanding of epistemology from an African-
centered perspective which he coins as Africanized epistemology. His idea of epistemology is as
follows:
The concern here is not intelligence. This refers to one's ability or capacity to know,
which IQ tests attempt to measure. Rather, the focus is on how, or the way in which one
knows reality or phenomena; i.e., the grounds or method of knowledge. A particular
mode of knowing is independent of native ability and is defined independently of specific
substantive content. The dominant mode of knowing in the "pure" Euro-American
orientation I call Object-Measure Cognition; whereas, in the respective Africanized view,
reality becomes known in a way that I call Affect-Symbolic Imagery Cognition (Dixon,
1977, p. 131).
Dixon (1977) explains how the relationship between affect and symbolic imagery
produces knowledge for African people. Affect is one’s feelings towards an experience while
symbolic imagery is the use of phenomena to convey meaning (Dixon, 1977). Affect is a
credible mode of learning because it is supported and backed by symbolic imagery. As a means
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to understand the world and reality, Black people personalize (affect) their thoughts, behaviors,
and actions concerning things, people, and places (symbolic imagery). To better understand how
Black people acquire knowledge through affect-symbolic imagery cognition, Dixon (1977)
provides an example:
Consider, for example, the way in which Blacks with this cognitive mode learn a new
dance. They feel the music (Affect) and they watch other Blacks dance (Symbolic
Imagery). (p. 134)
The examination of Africanized epistemology, affect-symbolic imagery cognition, by
Dixon (1977) further advances Nichols’ I feel, I think; therefore, I am, epistemological
description of Black people’s orientation by providing deeper insights into feelings (affect) and
including symbolic imagery as a means to acquire knowledge.
Within an Afrocentric epistemological framework, it is suggested that organizations
should employ the Afrocentric Core Components of Leadership, Decision-making, and
Management to identify Afrocentric practices and/or evaluate their effectiveness.
Afrocentric Epistemological Leadership. Leader or organization is shaped by one’s
feelings, thoughts, intuition, dreams, and values to benefit humankind (Nkulu-N’Sengha,
2005).
Afrocentric Epistemological Decision-making. Leader or organization makes decisions
based on what leaders or organizations believe to be right, just, and fair (Nkulu-
N’Sengha, 2005).
Afrocentric Epistemological Management. Leader or organization is influenced by
their values, feelings, intuition, and what they believe is best for the collective. (Nkulu-
N’Sengha, 2005).
41
Afrocentric Ontology
Notable psychologist, Wade Nobles, advanced the understanding of ontology within the
African worldview. In his article, Toward an Empirical and Theoretical Framework for Defining
Black Families, Nobles (1978) states:
Ontologically, the African belief system contained the conception of all things in the
universe as being “force” or “spirit” (cf. Temples, 1959). It is logical, or at least
consistent, therefore, that if one believed that all things, including humans were endowed
with the same Supreme Force, that one would also believe that all things are “essentially”
one. (p. 684)
Nobles describe how African people’s understanding of the universe consists of two
concepts: (1) humans are one with nature and (2) the universe is living and dynamic. These
beliefs affirm the intense complementary rhythmic connection between the person and reality
(Nobles, 1978) of the African experience.
Earlier scholars such as John Mbiti reference African ontology as a religious ontology
(Mbiti, 1990). In his book, African Religions and Philosophy, Mbiti (1990) states the
anthropocentric implications within African ontology due to its relation to man and provides a
breakdown of his constructs of ontology into five categories which are as follows:
1. God as the ultimate explanation of the genesis and sustenance of both man and all things
2. Spirits consist of extra human beings and the spirits of men who died a long time ago
3. Man including human beings who are alive and those about to be born
4. Animals and Plants, or the remainder of biological life
5. Phenomena and objects without biological life (p. 15-16).
Mbiti further explains how each category of ontology is a complete set, and to remove
42
some of the constructs or to destroy the entire concept is to destroy the whole existence including
the destruction of the Creator (Mbiti, 1990). Each construct balances one another and together,
they are one, and the one (African ontology) presupposes all the others (Mbiti, 1990).
Within an Afrocentric ontological framework, it is suggested that organizations should
employ the Afrocentric Core Components of Leadership, Decision-making, and Management to
identify Afrocentric practices and/or evaluate their effectiveness.
Afrocentric Ontological Leadership. Leader or organization describes how their sense
of leadership and execution is maintained by, connected to, and influenced by
socialization, the Creator, Deities, and/or Ancestors. Leader describes a higher sense of
purpose and seeks collective freedom (Aliye, 2020).
Afrocentric Ontological Decision-making. Leader or organization describes decisions
being made through experiences, historical analysis, and ancestral or spiritual obligation.
Afrocentric Ontological Management. Leader or organization describes their
relationship to/with power beyond oneself or leadership team. Leader describes a group
management system that goes beyond one person or leader.
Afrocentric Cosmology
Joseph Baldwin, also known as Kobi Kambon, advances the idea that to understand
African cosmology, one must first understand African ontology which describes African’s
oneness with nature. The human-to-nature relationship is connected and interdependent. Baldwin
(1987) states,“All aspects of nature then are interrelated and interdependent, forming one
phenomenal reality– a communal phenomenology” (p.58).
This communal phenomenology is African cosmology. Therefore, as a result of African
ontology, African cosmology consists of groupness, collective responsibility, and
43
interdependence (Baldwin, 1987) which ultimately informs the African worldview. Baldwin
interchangeably references African cosmology as the philosophy of life of African people
(Baldwin, 1987), African worldview, and the African survival thrust (Baldwin, 1986). The
African survival thrust is an essential factor in the mental health of Africans. When Africans act
outside of their survival thrust due to being controlled-determined by another racial group’s
cosmology (European cosmology), their consciousness is vulnerable to disorientation and
misorientation by the alien influence (Baldwin, 1984). Baldwin (1984) states:
When the alien cosmology is in fact anti-African, as in Western society, where the
dominant cosmology is “European cosmology” (Baldwin, 1980a), then the nature of the
distorting and misorienting influences on African Self-Consciousness becomes “anti-
African” as well. (p. 184)
When Africans act within their cosmology, it aids in advancing African identity, survival
thrust, mental health, and the struggle for liberation for all African people.
Within an Afrocentric cosmological framework, it is suggested that organizations should
employ the Afrocentric Core Components of Leadership, Decision-making, and Management to
identify Afrocentric practices and/or evaluate their effectiveness.
Afrocentric Cosmological Leadership. Leader or organization emphasizes
interdependence within their leadership.
Afrocentric Cosmological Decision-making. Leader or organization describes the
decision-making process as a series of consultations with key stakeholders to achieve
what is in the best interest of the collective.
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Afrocentric Cosmological Management. Leader or organization describes common
belonging, mutual respect, cooperative skills, and teamwork within management
practices(Asante & Mazama, 2005).
Afrocentric Axiology
In his paper, Child Mental Health in the 70s, Edwin Nichols also introduces the basic
foundation of axiology in the Black culture as valuing man-to-man relationships instead of
valuing man-to-object relationships as to their White counterparts. Based on their axiological
value system, Black people have intrinsic value in and of themselves (Nichols, 1972) and
understand reality through human relations.
In his article, African-oriented and Euro-American-oriented World Views: Research
Methodologies and Economics, Vernon Dixon provides additional insight into African axiology
by providing additional context to man-to-man relationships, as he coined as, man-to-person
relationships. The African does not attempt to control, master, acquire, or exploit nature like their
White-European counterparts. The African is one with and in nature in an attempt to maintain
balance or harmony among the various aspects of the universe (Dixon, 1977). Dixon (1977)
states:
Implicit in the unity of the African-oriented world view is the nonseparation of man in
relation to his fellow men. The individual's position in social space is relative to others.
He does not and cannot exist alone except corporately. The individual is not a human
being except as he is part of a social order. As Mbiti points out: "Whatever happens to the
individual happens to the whole group, and whatever happens to the whole group
happens to the individual.” Communalism refers to the individual becoming conscious
45
only in terms of other people of his own being, duties, privileges, and responsibilities
towards himself and others. (pp. 128-129)
Communalism is rooted in African axiology. In addition to the human-to-nature
orientation, Dixon introduces two additional components to the axiological value system: time
and activity (self-expression). Time value for African people is not simply the past, present, and
future, or valued as a commodity. For the African, time must be experienced in real-time (the
present) or the past in order for life and things to make sense or to become real (Dixon, 1977).
The idea of the future and planning for things that have not happened yet is not more important
than experiencing what is happening at the moment which Dixon references as felt-time. Felt-
time controls the day of the African as opposed to the time clock of twenty-four hours in a day.
The activity-value (self-expression) of the African is not based on productivity, competitiveness,
or external and measurable accomplishments, but rather simply “being.” Termed by Dixon, the
concept of being is how well individuality unites with the phenomena or how well your affective
self feels phenomena (Dixon, 1977). The African is connected with oneself and does what one
feels during that time to experience life. The concepts of human-to-nature relations (man-to-
person), time (felt), and activity (being) all make up African axiology.
Within an Afrocentric axiological framework, it is suggested that organizations should
employ the Afrocentric Core Components of Leadership, Decision-making, and Management to
identify Afrocentric practices and/or evaluate their effectiveness.
Afrocentric Axiological Leadership. Leader or organization places emphasis and value
on people and interpersonal relationships Carroll, 2018).
Afrocentric Axiological Decision-making. Leader or organization places emphasis and
value on group or collective decision-making. (Carroll, 2013).
46
Afrocentric Axiological Management. Leader or organization places emphasis and
value on collaboration (Carroll, 2013), accountability, group strategy, and problem-
solving to achieve organizational goals and mission.
The Liberatory Leadership Method is a conceptual framework that can be used to identify
African-centered practices within organizations, and used to assess leadership and organizational
effectiveness, from an African-centered perspective. The conceptual paradigm consists of four
dimensions: epistemology (knowledge), ontology (being), cosmology (reality), and axiology
(values) which are defined from an Afrocentric perspective. These Afrocentric dimensions are
the lens through which effectiveness is measured based on the core components. Each dimension
consists of three core components: leadership, decision-making, and management. This
conceptual framework contributes to the study of leadership and organizational effectiveness and
seeks to highlight existing Afrocentric methods and practices used to achieve this goal. View
Figure 2 for Conceptual Framework Illustration
Summary
This chapter introduced the leadership and organizational practices during ancient times
to establish a baseline and timeline of African people affecting change in their communities.
Then, this chapter addressed the issue of whiteness in leadership. Due to the field of leadership
not sufficiently accounting for the experiences, expertise, and worldview of people of African
descent, organizations and scholars who have explored leadership practices and organizational
theory from an African-centric perspective are uplifted and examined within this chapter. To
bridge the gaps of Afrocentricity within the field of leadership, the literature review is concluded
with research that explores the conceptual framework used for this study.
Figure 2
47
Liberatory Leadership Method Conceptual Framework
Afrocentric approach to organizational effectiveness
Note. Source: Author
48
Chapter Three: Methodology
“Methodology combines methods with the paradigms, assumptions, theories, concepts,
and ideas that give life, interpretation, and meaning to data” (McDougal, 2017, p.34). An
Afrocentric methodology was used to guide this study to ensure the research was “fruitful and
liberating for African people” (Pellerin, 2012, p.150). The study aimed to conduct an Afrocentric
analysis of Black-led organizations to understand the leadership and organizational implications
of how problems within the stakeholder community were addressed and solved. The questions
that guided this research were as follows:
1. What values, management practices, and styles of leadership are implemented in Black
organizations?
2. How do the implemented values, management practices, and styles of leadership
contribute to organizational effectiveness in Black organizations?
3. How do Black leaders meet needs and solve problems within their communities?
This chapter will provide a detailed overview of the methodology used for this research
study. The chapter begins with the research design which includes details on the research setting,
participants, and participant selection. The chapter also includes the data collection methods used
to conduct the research. This chapter concludes with the study’s credibility, ethical
considerations, and limitations.
Overview of Design
In this study, an Afrocentric qualitative approach was employed to conduct research. To
enhance the understanding of organizational effectiveness, data collection methods such as
interviews and document analysis were utilized. The aforementioned strategies were
49
implemented to honor and align with the nature of African people, aiming to gain deeper insights
into the main issue addressed in the study.
Table 2
Data Sources
Research Questions Interview
Document
Analysis
RQ1: What values, management
practices, and styles of leadership are
implemented in Black organizations?
X X
RQ2: How do the implemented values,
management practices, and styles of
leadership contribute to organizational
effectiveness in Black organizations?
X
RQ3: How do Black leaders meet needs
and solve problems within their
communities?
X
The Researcher
The researcher is a Black woman, a Black student organizer, a leadership and
organizational consultant, and a lifetime freedom fighter for the liberation of African people. She
also serves as the Executive Director of the Afrikan Black Coalition, a participant organization
described in the study. For nearly a decade, the researcher has had the opportunity to work
closely with several Black-led organizations to witness the organizational impact, help build
team and organization capacity, and to create effective leaders through training, workshops, and
curriculum development. In relation to leadership studies, the researcher’s scholarship explores
the impact Black leaders and organizations have on society as “a contribution to the
emancipation of people of African descent and humanity” (McDougal, 2017) and as a means “to
interrogate leadership and reimagine how leadership may be exercised beyond domination and
50
oppression” (Liu & Nkomo, 2021). Throughout the study, the researcher was mindful of
essentializing her participants. “Essentialism is when researchers attribute characteristics to
specific racial or ethnic groups that we presume hold true for all members of that group”
(Esposito & Evans-Winters, 2022). As a scholar-activist, the researcher is committed to the
principles of Ma’at: truth, justice, propriety, harmony, balance reciprocity, and order (McDougal,
2017) as a means of accountability and an ethical compass as a researcher.
Data Sources
The data collection methods employed for this study consisted of interviews and
document analysis. Document analysis was utilized as a supplementary resource to support the
interviews whenever necessary. Interviews were conducted using Zoom and telephone platforms,
with each session expected to last no longer than two hours. Public documents were sourced
from websites, as well as newspaper and newsletter articles, to gather relevant information.
Interviews
The primary source of data for this study was interviews. The interviews were conducted
with the aim of gaining a deeper understanding of how participants interpret and comprehend
organizational effectiveness within their respective organizations (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Participants
Purposeful sampling was selected for this study. The researcher used personal
connections and relationships to recruit and select participants. All participants identified as
Black or African, varied in age and experience, and held a leadership position within their
organization. Participants were selected for this study based on their expertise and valuable
insight into the research topic, experience within their organization, and successful impact within
their stakeholder community.
51
Interview Protocol
The interview protocol included basic information about the interview such as date, time,
and participant name; an introduction to the interview to highlight important aspects of the
interview; interview questions; probing questions; and closing instructions such as thanking the
interviewee and informing them of next steps (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The interview
protocol for this study can be found in Appendix B. Semi-structured interviews were conducted
for this study including a mixture of flexible and structured interview questions (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). This interview structure allowed the researcher to stay on course with the
intended direction of the interview. However, it also allowed space to inquire and follow up on
responses from the participant that need additional insight or can provide additional context to
the subject matter. Furthermore, McDougal (2017) asserted that structured interviews are too
rigid for qualitative research. (p. 308) In addition, this type of interview is in alignment with the
African worldview. It permitted the researcher and the participant to engage in more of a
dialogue and conversation regarding the research topic rather than engage in a formal, strict, and
methodical approach to obtain further information.
Interview Procedures
Each interview lasted for a duration of one to two hours. Participants were interviewed
once initially, but they made themselves available for any necessary follow-up questions. The
primary location for conducting the interviews was Zoom, the online meeting platform. The
interview questions were thoughtfully designed to capture diverse perspectives on the research
topic. These questions covered various aspects, including participants' experiences, behaviors,
opinions, values, feelings, and knowledge related to the topic (Patton, 2015). To document the
participants' responses, strategies such as field notes and recordings were employed. All
52
interview information was securely stored in a password-protected location on the researcher's
laptop. Any handwritten notes taken during the interviews were transcribed online and
subsequently shredded for confidentiality purposes.
Document & Artifact Analysis
Document analysis was conducted as a supplementary resource to interviews whenever
necessary. It was also utilized to triangulate the data obtained from interviews (Esposito &
Evans-Winters, 2022). Merriam & Tisdell (2016) indicate public records and personal
documents are common documents used in qualitative research. (p. 163) The researcher inquired
and requested specific and relevant documents from interviewees to gain further insight into an
event or topic referenced in the interview. Documents relevant to this study ranged from federal
reports, speeches, newspaper articles, online publications, and historical video footage. For the
researcher, the document analysis aimed to inform hunches, support findings, interpret data,
identify themes and gaps, and examine the accuracy and authenticity of data collected from
interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Credibility and Trustworthiness
To maximize the credibility and trustworthiness of this study, the research methodology
and conceptual framework centered the perspective and experiences of African people and aimed
the research toward the “freeing of African peoples’ thoughts and realities” (Pellerin, 2012,
p.151). The centering on African people ensured the researcher’s intent to check and maintain
the accuracy of the findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). To strengthen the research's validity
and credibility, the following validity procedures were employed: triangulation, member checks,
peer debriefing, and clarity on any researcher bias. Triangulation helped verify and identify
common themes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Creswell & Creswell, 2018) within the data
53
collection process. Triangulation is the process of cross-referencing multiple sources to examine
the data to confirm the validity of the information (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In order to
verify the accuracy of the data, the researcher performed member checks. Member checks
involve verifying key themes or descriptions with different participants within the study
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The researcher also employed peer debriefing to help determine
the accuracy of the findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Peer debriefing allowed the researcher
to seek out a peer to review and assess the findings of the study to gain credibility and
significance with people other than themselves (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The researcher’s
positionality and interpretation of the findings also helped validate the findings by establishing
an open, transparent, and honest narrative with the readers (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In
addition to guaranteeing the reliability and trustworthiness of the study, the results should be
consistent with the data collected (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
To conduct this research, several measures were implemented to protect and value the
participants involved in the study. In compliance with the United States Department of Health
and Human Services Title 45, Part 46 of the Code of Federal Regulations, all participants were
given a consent form that outlines the details of the study. The consent form included the
description and duration of the study; risks and benefits; guaranteed anonymity and
confidentiality; voluntary participation, privacy, and withdrawal rights; researcher’s contact
information; and how to find a summary of the results post-study (McDougal, 2017). Before
each interview, the guidelines and rules outlined in the consent forms were verbally explained to
each participant to ensure their understanding. Sufficient time was provided for participants to
ask any questions they had. Participants were informed that the researcher would be taking notes
54
during the interview while they were speaking, which might limit direct eye contact.
Additionally, as an optional measure for notetaking, the researcher sought permission from each
participant to record the interview for transcription purposes. Participants were assured that the
recordings would remain completely optional, private, and confidential.
Data collected from each participant was stored on a laptop within a secure and
password-protected location. Lastly, approval from the University of Southern California’s
Institutional Review Board was granted to ensure no harm was caused to participants (Esposito
& Evans-Winters, 2022).
55
Chapter Four: Findings
This study aimed to (1) center the experiences and practices of Black leaders within
Black organizations and (2) examine how Black leaders and organizations meet various needs
and solve problems in their respective communities. The primary research question for the study
specifically examined the effectiveness of Black-led organizations. The following three research
questions guided the findings presented in this chapter:
1. What values, styles of leadership, and management practices are implemented in Black-
led organizations?
2. How do the implemented values, styles of leadership, and management practices
contribute to organizational effectiveness in Black-led organizations?
3. How do Black leaders meet needs and solve problems within their communities?
An Afrocentric analysis was used within this section to ensure the examination of the
participants’ experiences and practices was authentic and in alignment with an Afrocentric
paradigm. Afrocentric is an approach that centers African people, ideals, history, and
experiences. One-on-one interview research methods were used to collect the data presented and
analyzed within this chapter. The chapter begins with a brief overview of the 16 participants.
Then, it addresses the various findings grouped into categories that aligned with my conceptual
framework. This chapter concludes with a summary of the key findings.
Participants
Sixteen Black leaders participated in this study. This study involved various
organizations, including non-profit organizations, community organizations, and grassroots
organizations. This varied representation provides a comprehensive understanding of Black
organizational effectiveness across different sectors. This study does not use pseudonyms
56
because the real names of people and places play a pivotal role in understanding each
organization's effectiveness. Table 1 provides an overview of the participants and organizations
in my study.
Table 3
Participant and Organization Overview
Participant Position Organization
Acronym
Organization Type Organization’s
Political Ideology
Edward Co-Founder A
2
MEND Non-profit Organization Pan Africanism
Zakiya Co-Founder & Co-Director RJN, Non-profit Organization Pan African Nationalism
Tonie Board Chair FAASA Non-profit Organization Pan Africanism
Angelia
Co-Founder & Interim Executive
Director BSCU Non-profit Organization Pan Africanism
Phillip Co-Director BMB Community Organization
Anti-Capitalism & Anti-
Patriarchal
Ajamu
National Organizer &
Spokesperson BAP Community Organization
Anti-War, Anti-
Imperialism, & Pro-Peace
Yoel Former Political Director ABC Community Organization
Pan Africanism & Black
Nationalism
Joseph Director SD Community Organization
Black-centered &
Abolitionism
Yejide President ANWO Grassroots Organization African Internationalism
Chimurenga National Organizing Director APSP Grassroots Organization African Internationalism
Adrienne Cadre (Senior Organizer) A-APRP Grassroots Organization
Socialist Pan-African
Political Party
Tory Director of Black Organizing IBFA Grassroots Organization Pan African Nationalism
Afiya Co-Founder & Co-Director AEI Independent Black Institution Pan Africanism
Margaret Editor & Senior Columnist BAR Internet Publication Black Left, Socialism
Abdul Malik
Western Regional Student
Minister NOI Religious Organization Theocracy
Ishmael
Student National Assistant to the
HMLF NOI Religious Organization Theocracy
Note. This table provides an overview of the participants, including their organization acronym,
organization type, organization's political ideology, participant's name, and position within the
organization.
African American Male Education Network and Development (A
2
MEND)
A
2
MEND is a statewide non-profit organization in California that seeks to increase the
personal, professional, and academic success of Black male students in community college.
57
A
2
MEND aims to provide an institutional change of Black male student success by (1) providing
training and professional development opportunities to the colleges within the California
Community Colleges (CCC) education system, (2) creating leadership and mentorship programs
for Black male students, and (3) being a network hub for Black male professionals. This
organization is led by Black male educators and administrators within the CCC education
system.
Dr. Edward Bush is the Co-Founder of A
2
MEND. Since he was a child, Black
consciousness and activism have been at the center of his values. His service with A
2
MEND
allows him to contribute to the liberation of all African people by reawakening the minds of
Black men, giving them the tools to change their current realities and to become self-sufficient.
Leadership and organizational philosophies from leaders such as Kwame Ture and Marcus
Garvey have played an important role in how Dr. Bush informs his work as a professional
educator and leader in A
2
MEND.
African National Women’s Organization (ANWO)
ANWO is a grassroots community organization with membership throughout the United
States that educates and organizes African women against systems of oppression. ANWO seeks
to (1) politicize African women, (2) advocate for social, political, and economic equality of
African women and men, and (3) abolish the economic exploitation and the social and political
oppression of African women worldwide.
Yejide Orunmila serves as the President of ANWO. Yejide always questioned the power
and suffering of Black people. However, it was until after attending an annual African Liberation
Day event in Washington, D.C., that she would get involved with an organization and become an
active agent in changing the material conditions of Black people. Her service with ANWO
58
allows her to contribute to the liberation of all African people through educating, defending, and
organizing poor and working-class Black women worldwide.
African People's Socialist Party (APSP)
APSP is a nationwide grassroots community organization that educates and organizes the
masses of African people to end the system of domestic colonialism within the United States.
APSP seeks to (1) unify the poor and working class and (2) abolish the colonial domination and
exploitation of people of African descent in the United States of America.
Chimurenga Selembao serves as the National Director of the Organization at APSP. He
was introduced to movement building and political work at the age of 17. His service with APSP
allows him to contribute to the liberation of all African people by radically transforming the
minds of Black people and fighting against systems of oppression. At 71 years old, he continues
to live up to the meaning of his name: revolution and keeper of tradition.
Afrikan Black Coalition (ABC)
ABC is a statewide youth-development community organization in California that trains
and educates Black college students in political education, leadership development, and
community engagement and organizing to enhance the quality of life of Black people both on
and off-campus. ABC seeks to (1) address anti-Blackness on college campuses, (2) develop
effective and efficient Black student organizations, and (3) produce critical and creative student
leaders on campus.
Yoel Haile served as the former Political Director of ABC. Born and raised in Eritrea, a
country that received its independence after 30 years of armed struggle, Yoel was conditioned to
fight, advocate, and resist any and all forms of oppression of Black people. His service with the
ABC allowed him to contribute to the liberation of all African people by addressing and meeting
59
the material needs of Black college students. Leaders such as el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz, also
known as Malcolm X, inspire and inform his work.
All African People Revolution Party (A-APRP)
A-APRP is a grassroots community organization based in Africa, with membership
throughout the United States that educates and organizes the masses of African people to unify
and liberate Africa. A-APRP seeks the total liberation and unification of Africa under an all-
African socialist government.
Adrienne Cabouet serves as a Senior Organizer of the A-APRP. Since joining the A-
PRP, she believes she’s found her purpose and is contributing to something beyond her as an
individual. Her service with A-APRP allows her to contribute to the liberation of all African
people by shaping Black people into revolutionaries by transforming and developing their minds.
Aya Educational Institute (AEI)
AEI is an independent Black institution based in Stone Mountain, Georgia with an
African-centered school, an African-centered leadership program, and an agricultural initiative.
AEI seeks to (1) heal African people, (2) challenge oppressive policies and practices, and (3)
train African people to build and unite with each other.
Afiya Madzimoyo serves as the Co-Founder and Co-Director of AEI. Mama Afiya was
raised in rural Central Alabama, where she witnessed oppression, racism, and discrimination up
close and personal. In fifth grade, she would be responsible for integrating her elementary
school, an experience she would never inflict on herself again. Her service with AEI allows her
to contribute to the liberation of all African people through healing African people from injected
oppression and educating students using practices that align with their culture and traditions.
Black Agenda Report (BAR)
60
BAR is an international internet publication that provides news and analysis from a Black
left perspective based in the United States. BAR seeks to provide quality information regarding
local and global issues impacting Black people.
Margaret Kimberley serves as an Editor and Senior Columnist of BAR. As a journalist,
she enjoys addressing the history and condition of Black people from a left point of view. Her
service with BAR allows her to contribute to the liberation of all African people by arming
people with knowledge and information.
Black Alliance for Peace (BAP)
BAP is a community organization that organizes and unites Black organizations
throughout the diaspora to galvanize the power of all African people to transform the material
conditions of Black people globally. BAP seeks to abolish domestic militarization and the war
and repression against Black people.
Ajamu Baraka serves as the Co-Founder and former National Organizer of BAP. After
being forced into the military in 1972, Ajamu began his journey as an activist and organizer. His
service with BAP allowed him to contribute to the liberation of all African people by organizing
people to fight against anti-war and anti-imperialism and to build effective systems and
structures guided by a liberatory framework.
Black Men Build (BMB)
BMB is a nationwide community organization with local hubs in Atlanta, GA; Columbus,
OH; Detroit, MI; Miami, FL; Milwaukee, WS; New York, NY; and St. Louis, MO, dedicated to
providing political education and organizing training for Black men. BMB seeks to (1) provide
radical personal transformation to Black men, (2) provide mutual aid, service, and mentorship in
the community, and (3) to become a powerful political force for Black men.
61
Phillip Agnew serves as the Co-Founder and Co-Director of BMB. Phillip grew up in a
very Afrocentric household in Chicago. He found his purpose in leadership and service after his
collegiate experience. His service with BMB allows him to contribute to the liberation of all
African people by organizing and transforming the minds of Black men. Leaders such as Fred
Hampton and fellow graduates of Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University (FAMU),
Virgil Miller and Daryl Parks, inspired and informed his leadership.
Black Students of California United (BSCU)
BSCU is a statewide youth development non-profit organization in California that
develops Black youth in leadership, civic engagement, and cultural awareness. The BSCU seeks
to inspire, educate, organize, and activate Black youth in California to make local and structural
changes to improve the quality of all Black lives.
Dr. Angelia Barfield serves as the Co-Founder and Interim Executive Director of the
BSCU. As an educator, she witnessed the marginalization and mistreatment of Black youth and
decided to create space to support and elevate Black students ultimately to positively impact the
lives of future leaders. Her service with the BSCU allows her to contribute to the liberation of all
African people by helping Black youth find themselves and find their voice so they can become
active participants in their schools and local communities.
Florida African American Student Association (FAASA)
FAASA is a statewide youth development non-profit organization in Florida that
provides academic, cultural, political, and leadership development training and opportunities to
Black college students. FAASA seeks to (1) raise the self-identity and socio-ethnic
consciousness and (2) identify and address educational, economic, and cultural concerns of
Black students.
62
Dr. Tonie Anderson-Steele serves as the Chair of the Board of Elders of FAASA. She
has been a member of FAASA for nearly 20 years. Activism and serving her community were
ingrained in her as a child, from supporting her father as a youth to witnessing prominent leaders
such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and other activists camp out and prepare for marches in the
1960s from her grandmother's front porch. Her service with the FAASA allows her to contribute
to the liberation of all African people by providing Black youth with the cultural and political
tools to become active change agents within their communities.
International Black Freedom Alliance (IBFA)
IBFA is a grassroots community organization based out of Ferguson, Missouri that
organizes community members around local and global events and issues that impact the Black
community.
Tory Russell serves as the Director of Black Organizing of IBFA. As a child, Tory was
exposed to Blackness and activism by his parents. However, it was the murder of Michael Brown
in August 2014 that led him to be more than just a bystander; he went from being a passive
participant in protests to an active organizer and leader in his community. Born and raised on the
West side of St. Louis, Missouri, Tory developed an uncompromising, unconditional, and
unwavering love and commitment to see the masses of his community free and united. His
service with the IBFA allows him to contribute to the liberation of all African people through
unifying and organizing his community.
Nation of Islam (NOI)
The NOI is a nation within the United States of America that educates, transforms, and
organizes people of African descent through spiritual and cultural reawakening. The NOI seeks
(1) freedom, justice, and equality of all oppressed people regardless of creed, class, or color, (2)
63
to teach Black people the knowledge of God and of themselves, and (3) to become a sovereign
nation. The NOI was included in this study because the global majority recognizes them as a
Black religious organization.
Abdul Malik Sayyid Muhammad has served as the Western Regional Student Minister
of the NOI for nearly 30 years. Student Minister Abdul Malik’s desire for freedom, justice, and
equality started early in his childhood, when he witnessed civil rights protests, and police
brutality and dog attacks against his people in the 1960s. Ever since he was 12 years old, he has
been an advocate for Black people. His service with the NOI allows him to contribute to the
liberation of all African people through (1) mental and spiritual resurrection, (2) settling
differences and disputes of gang members, and (3) uniting different communities through the
teachings of the Most Honorable Elijah Muhammad.
Ishmael Muhammad has served as the Student National Assistant Minister to the
Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan within the NOI for over 30 years. Student Minister Ishmael
is a native of Chicago and has proudly committed his life to improve the quality of life of Black
people. His service with the NOI allows him to contribute to the liberation of all African people
by liberating the minds of Black people and teaching them the values of love and respect of self
and community through the teachings of the Most Honorable Elijah Muhammad.
Racial Justice NOW! (RJN!)
RJN! is a non-profit organization that educates and organizes Black parents and men on
how to end the criminalization of Black youth and families in the PreK-12 school system in Ohio
and Maryland. RJN! seeks to (1) provide Black parents with the advocacy tools on how to push
back against schools’ harsh disciplinary actions and policies that negatively impact their
64
children, (2) challenge discriminatory practices and policies in education, and (3) eliminate the
school-to-prison pipeline.
Zakiya Sankara-Jabar is the Co-Founder and Co-Director of RJN! Her work as an
organizer began when her son, at the age of three, was criminalized and policed during his
introduction to Education in PreK. Her service with RJN! allows her to contribute to the
liberation of all African people by defending Black youth’s right to learn without policing,
harassment, and unjust treatment in Education. Zakiya’s role as a mother and her commitment to
quality education for Black youth is what birth RJN! it continues to fuel her today.
Students Deserve (SD)
SD is a youth-led community organization that educates and organizes high school
students against racial inequities and the criminalization of Black youth in the Los Angeles
Unified School District (LAUSD). SD seeks to (1) center the voices, experiences, and leadership
of Black youth and (2) eliminate policies and practices that criminalize Black youth in LAUSD.
Joseph Williams serves as the Director of SD. His service with SD allows him to
contribute to the liberation of all African people by investing in and transforming the youth and
giving them the tools to fight against educational injustice in order to change and transform their
educational experience. Joseph remains inspired by and follows in the footsteps of the late Civil
Rights Leader, Reverend L. Francis Griffin of Norfolk, Virginia, who fought for fair and
equitable treatment of Black youth in Education.
Findings
The following section highlights findings that emerged from interviews with the 16
participants. The research questions for this study examined the effectiveness of Black
organizations based on their organizational culture and practices. The findings of this dissertation
65
study identified African-centered practices within Black organizations and how African-centered
practices are key to the success and effectiveness of Black organizations. View summary of
findings in Table 4.
Organizational Culture from an Afrocentric Perspective
Previous chapters of this study highlighted concerns such as the normalization of
Whiteness, the dominance of Eurocentric ideologies, and the lack of research on Black
organizations and their effectiveness in leadership studies. To address these concerns and center
the cultural reality and experiences of the participating Black organizations, this study utilized
the Liberatory Leadership Method (LLM) to examine the organizational culture of the research
participants through an Afrocentric lens. This sub-section focuses on the three core components
that shape an organization: Leadership, Management, and Decision-making.
Leadership
Leadership is shaped by several dimensions within the African worldview. From an
Afrocentric cosmological standpoint, organizations prioritize interdependence and collaboration
in their leadership approach. For example, RJN!’s leader, Zakiya, described leadership within her
organization as “collaborative.” She said:
We don't do the whole ‘top-down…we're the directors, you do what we tell you to do.’
We are always questioning [how to include team members]. We are always interested in
our members. Our members are the ones who we center in our meetings and how we
plan.
Zakiya’s opposition to a top-down leadership approach is key to understanding RJN’s
Afrocentric leadership philosophy. RJN rejects the traditional authoritarian and hierarchical
66
leadership style and instead takes an inclusive and people-centered approach to leadership and
values the thoughts and ideas of their team members regardless of rank or title.
Afrocentric leadership also emphasizes affective-cognitive methods of knowing reality
and validating knowledge. Historically, Black people have been marginalized and excluded from
sharing their experiences with the organization. Organizations such as BAR exist to uplift and
validate Black people’s lived reality and cultural experiences and combat false narratives
regarding Black people. Margaret from BAR stated that even if an article is well-written or is on
a popular topic, BAR has an uncompromising duty to carry out its mission and will not produce
an article that does not feel right or true to its mission. Margaret stated, “That means someone
may submit something [an article], and you're like, ‘Nope, can't do that– that's not from a Black
left perspective.’” In BAR’s attempts to remain ethical, an essential factor in leadership,
Margaret also provided an Afrocentric epistemological example of doing what felt best for her
organization instead of only allowing traditional ideologies such as rationale, objectivity, or
empirical data to decide for her.
Organizations practicing Afrocentric ontology are driven by a higher purpose and strive
for collective freedom. Afrocentric leadership typically recognizes the influence of one’s
ancestors or a higher power. In the case of the Nation of Islam (NOI), members described the
leadership of the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan as "divinely guided by God." Student
Minister Abdul Malik stated, “There are a lot of leaders, but it ain't many that can claim that they
are divinely guided.” The recognition of the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan's actions and
decisions being "divinely guided by God" exemplifies how the NOI transcends beyond material
gain, emphasizing a deeper existence beyond the physical realm.
67
Organizations that place value on people and interpersonal relationships demonstrate
Afrocentric axiology. In the IBFA and ABC, the value was placed on people, who people are,
and in general, people’s alignment with their organization’s mission. Tory from IBFA stated
proudly:
We got people from every walk of life. We got people who were incarcerated as a part of
our organization…and that's a thing when you get leaders who come from the
community…who are of the community in every facet, and not just to us,
‘intersectional…check the box here….when you get everybody in the trenches, you get to
what some people call the proletariat or working class kind of movement.
Tory stresses the importance of inclusivity, community-centered leadership, and
authenticity. From an Afrocentric axiological perspective, inclusivity, authenticity, and exposure
were recurring themes. Similarly, Yoel from ABC stated:
We did like so much political education and exposure for our students who are like 18-19
years old who were meeting former political prisoners who have been down like 20-30
years. I can't imagine other places where that happened regularly or at all, and we were
able to create space for that.
The ability to provide and expose young students to extensive political education and
provide a space for young leaders to interact with former political prisoners was groundbreaking
and important to ABC.
Decision-making
Decision-making is shaped by several dimensions within the African worldview. From an
Afrocentric cosmological perspective, organizations consult with multiple constituents to
determine the course of action that serves the collective's best interests. FAASA’s Board
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President, Dr. Anderson-Steele, highlighted the independent and straightforward nature of
decision-making in her day-to-day job, emphasizing her autonomy in making decisions.
However, as the Board President of FAASA, she participates in a more inclusive and group-
centered decision-making process. She states:
With FAASA, I gotta send an email. I gotta send a text. I gotta wait till they respond…
The board of elders or the student board can decide to do something, but [there] must be a
commitment from both boards to do it.
Dr. Anderson-Steele underscores the significance of involving diverse stakeholders in
order to facilitate effective decision-making and take action on issues relevant to FAASA.
Collaboration and collective decision-making were common themes. In A
2
MEND, Dr. Bush
stated, “Although we have positions, we operate position-less. So, the President doesn't
necessarily have any more influence than me. I don't necessarily have any more influence than
the Vice President, right? It's collaborative. Dr. Bush describes their organization as "position-
less," emphasizing that every member within A
2
MEND holds value and contributes to shaping
the organization's overall direction.
At AEI, significant decisions are reached through the collaboration of the co-founders
and co-directors. Afiya explains that after working together for 25 years, they “trust each other's
instincts for what we're working on.” Even in the event of a disagreement, they engage in
discussions rather than resorting to voting or formal procedures. She stated, “We don't take
votes. We don't, like, raise hands and say, ‘all in favor,’ that's not our way.” This approach
exemplifies Afrocentric epistemological decision-making, which values shared knowledge,
intuition, and consensus-building rather than relying solely on formal voting mechanisms.
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Similar to AEI, decisions within NOI are also based on a sense of trust and collaboration.
The teachings of the Holy Qur'an also guide decisions within NOI. Student Minister Ishmael
stated:
No matter what the affair is, it is decided by four principal laborers, and it follows what
Allah has given to us as Muslims in the Holy Qur’an...If we are all coming together to
make a decision, and all of us are aligned with God, and we want to render a decision that
is just, that is fair, that is equitable.
The statement suggests that the NOI bases its decision-making process on the guidance
provided by God in the Holy Qur'an. This approach aligns with Afrocentric ontological decision-
making, emphasizing the interconnectedness between one's nature of being and their decision-
making process.
Decision-making in APSP, BAP, and ANWO follows similar principles. According to
Chimurenga from APSP and Ajamu from BAP, decisions within their organization are based on
a “democratic” process. Chimurenga and Ajamu explain a collective decision-making process
where multiple voices and perspectives are heard and considered. Similarly, ANWO relies on its
international executive committee (IEC) for decision-making. Yejide of ANWO states:
Within the IEC, we are collective decision-makers. When we have a majority, and the
majority says yes, we go ahead…even if one person is a dissenter, that person is going to
have to go with the majority... that's what we call democratic centralism… the masses
speak for us.
Yejide emphasizes collective decision-making within the IEC, with the majority
consensus driving action. These organizations exemplify Afrocentric axiological decision-
70
making by prioritizing community involvement and collective participation in the decision-
making process.
Management Practices
Management practices are shaped by several dimensions within the African worldview.
From an Afrocentric cosmological perspective, organizations prioritize common belonging,
mutual respect, collaboration skills, and teamwork within their management approach.
According to Phillip, management within BMB is “central,” but it also involves extensive
consultation with team members regarding their work plans. This highlights the importance of
collaborative decision-making and consultation in shaping management practices within BMB,
exemplifying Afrocentric cosmological management principles.
Joseph from SD doesn’t like to use the word management, “especially when it comes to
human beings in the workplace... it’s a very like capitalist [word].” Joseph stated:
Yes, I'm the Director, and (emphasis added) also, I need your feedback. I need support on
how you need to be supported. To be an effective leader, as a ‘manager’ (emphasis
added) or supervisor, it takes a lot of work to really understand who the folks are that
you're supporting, what their capacity and their talents are, and all the beautiful things
that they bring to the work.
SD disrupts the conventional notion of management and underscores the significance of
collaborating with team members to deliver optimal support. Joseph’s attitude toward and
rejection of the word “management” is also an example of Afrocentric epistemology, as it
challenges the traditional connotation of the term that tends to devalue people. In A-APRP, tasks
are “organized into committees for the work that's happening every single day and for planning
for years in advance.” Adrienne explained that A-APRP management involves organizing people
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and resources to achieve goals and objectives. The utilization of committees exemplifies a
participatory approach to management and highlights its value, showcasing an example of
Afrocentric axiological management practices.
To summarize this section, every leader has behaviors and actions (core components) that
shape their organization. These behaviors are informed by attitudes and beliefs (dimensions) that
drive an organization, which ultimately form organizational culture. Similar to individuals,
organizations are influenced by their beliefs, which shape their actions and decision-making
processes. This study employed the four dimensions of the Liberatory Leadership Method to
identify African-centered practices within the 15 Black organizations. Organizational practices
that contribute to the effectiveness of Black-led organizations are examined in the following
section.
Organizational Practices
The effectiveness of an organization is heavily influenced by its organizational practices.
This section highlights the five key themes that emerged from the interviews with research
participants, which were identified as critical factors contributing to the effectiveness of their
respective organizations. These themes include Community, Identity and Politics, Meeting
Needs, and Love. By examining these themes, we gain insights into these organizations'
practices and strategies to enhance their effectiveness. Understanding the significance of these
themes provides valuable knowledge for fostering effectiveness in organizational settings.
Centering Community
The interviews with the research participants revealed a prominent theme of community,
which emerged as a central focus of their work. The participants emphasized the significance of
community-centered approaches, working collaboratively with the community, and actively
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serving the needs of the community. Words and expressions such as “unity,” “including
community members,” “working together,” “for the totality of the human family,” and “the total
unification of Africa” were used across organizational sectors. The BSCU, for instance,
expressed their deliberate focus on “creating a space where Black students can come together
and find unity within themselves.” Creating a space that promotes unity and solidarity among
Black students held great significance for the BSCU.
In addition to creating space, A-APRP emphasized the importance of building strong
community connections. Adrienne recalled:
In our canvassing, we met the owner of a cafe, an African from Jamaica, who had a
business in the lobby of a government-owned subsidized housing, and we made friends,
and he let us use the space for the breakfast program. Then in our door knocking, we met
a number of families with kids and those are the first kids that came to the breakfast
program.
Adrienne shared a memorable encounter during her canvassing efforts, where A-APRP
members actively engaged with local business owners and residents, establishing meaningful
relationships. Through these connections, they could secure spaces for A-APRP’s breakfast
program with the generosity of business owners who had become supporters. Additionally, the
families they encountered during their visits were among the first to join and actively participate
in the program, illustrating the positive impact of their community-building efforts.
Another important aspect of the community discussed in the interviews is the concept of
global unity. BAP emphasized the significance of unity that extended beyond the borders of
America and Africa and highlighted the importance of addressing issues impacting the Black
community on a global scale. Ajamu of BAP quoted Malcolm X, stating, "You can't understand
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Mississippi if you don't understand the Congo and you can't understand the Congo unless you
understand Mississippi." This quote signifies the interconnectedness between these two places
and emphasizes the need to comprehend the circumstances of Black people in different locations
to gain a comprehensive understanding. Furthermore, Ajamu implies that educating ourselves
about global issues is essential because the struggles faced overseas are also present in America.
The fight for liberation can only be achieved through unification and solidarity.
Identity and Politics
Identity and Politics were common themes that emerged in the interviews with the
research participants. Drawing upon the findings and extensive literature by scholars such as
Kwame Ture, Charles Hamilton, Amos Wilson, and the Most Honorable Elijah Muhammad,
politics is defined as the collective and constant struggle for power, land, and resources and the
destruction of all oppressive forces and systems to achieve ultimate liberation for all people of
African descent.
Power. [Black] Power is the full participation in the decision-making processes affecting
Black people’s lives and recognizing their virtues as Black people (Ture & Hamilton, 1967). A
recurring theme from the interviews with research participants was shaping consciousness and
fostering personal identity. Many participants demonstrated a deep commitment to engaging
their community in critical education and raising awareness about different facets of Black
identity.
For A-APRP, the significance of revolutionary African identity and culture held great
importance. Adrienne stated, “We've been taught all kinds of lies about who we are and what we
are to make us believe that we're inferior.” She underscored the impact of centuries of
colonization, stating that African people have been subjected to falsehoods aimed at instilling a
74
sense of inferiority. However, she emphasized “the right to define who we are for ourselves” and
the right to shape one’s own culture independently from one’s oppressor. A-APRP implemented
a work-study program as a means to “shape people into revolutionaries and help build
consciousness.” Adrienne described the work-study program as a transformative journey,
impacting her personal growth and development. Adrienne recalled:
Before I joined, I was focused on individual advancement, making more money, having
more material wealth, etc. After joining the A-APRP, I have done better at my job, but I
feel like it's because I'm more organized and disciplined. What I consider success, it's not
about my individual advancement; it’s about my contribution to the liberation of my
people.
Reflecting on her own experience within A-APRP, Adrienne acknowledged a significant
transformation, shifting her focus from individual advancement and material wealth to a broader
commitment to contributing to the liberation of Black people.
Money and its access frequently serve as symbols of power and the capacity to exercise
control over one's circumstances. The majority of the research participants conveyed certain
conditions when it comes to receiving money. Almost all participants emphasized that they
would not accept money from just anyone [emphasis added]. ANWO is dedicated to operating as
a self-funded and self-reliant organization. They purposefully refrain from seeking grants from
foundations and, instead, rely on donations from their members to sustain their operations. To
support their endeavors, ANWO has established the DeColonaise economic development project.
This initiative involves the creation of a bath, body, and hair product line, which not only serves
as a source of income but also as a platform to raise awareness about the global impacts of
colonization among all those who purchase and support these products.
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Land and resources. The vast majority of the research participants exhibited a strong
dedication to achieving self-sufficiency and sovereignty. In pursuit of self-determination, the
Most Honorable Elijah Muhammad, the revered and eternal leader of the NOI, devised an
economic blueprint that embraced the collective effort, ownership, and independence to address
the enduring material needs of Black people. This plan advocates for Black people to contribute
approximately twenty dollars annually, harnessing their collective spending power to construct a
nation, an environment, and a future that serves the best interests of Black people. The funds
collected are utilized to acquire land and initiate financial ventures that benefit Black
communities worldwide. Since the 1930s, the Nation of Islam and its members have invested in
farmland and established numerous businesses, ensuring sustainability for themselves, their
communities, and future generations. Additionally, the Muslim Program of the Nation of Islam,
under point number four of "What The Muslims Want," demands land reparations from the U.S.
government (“Nation of Islam,” 2023). NOI holds a steadfast belief that the United States has a
clear obligation to provide and maintain the land owed to Black people for 20 to 25 years until
the community achieves self-sufficiency.
The belief in economic empowerment extends beyond the Nation of Islam, as evident in
the principles upheld by A
2
MEND and its leader, Dr. Bush. Driven by the goal of breaking the
"paternalistic relationship" with White people, A
2
MEND actively resists “foreign ideologies that
will keep [Black people] perpetually oppressed and subservient.” Dr. Bush took a stand against
systems and ideologies perpetuating the notion of Black people as subordinate or inferior. In a
significant move, A
2
MEND recently acquired 10 acres of land in Ghana, symbolizing their
commitment to cultivating sovereignty and self-control. Dr. Bush emphasizes the importance of
preparing students to take charge of their own resources. He raises thought-provoking questions,
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asking, "Are we equipping students to have control over their own resources? Are we instilling
in them an understanding of sovereignty?" Dr. Bush prompts intentional reflection on student
preparedness and empowerment. A
2
MEND is dedicated to guiding students on a transformative
journey from dependence to liberation. He states, “And that's why I pushed to buy land in
Africa…because we need to give as many people a glimpse of what freedom looks like.” The
deliberate choice to acquire land in Africa serves as a powerful symbol, representing freedom
and boundless potential.
The destruction of oppression. The research participants were deeply committed to
challenging and dismantling oppressive systems that specifically target individuals of African
descent. Organizations dedicated to youth development, such as SD and ABC, played a crucial
role in advocating against the oppressive systems that directly affect Black youth. Yoel, who
previously served as the political director of ABC, reminisced about a significant achievement
that was realized through a highly impactful advocacy campaign. In 2015, a significant campaign
was launched by ABC, aiming to compel the University of California (UC) college system to
sever its ties with private prisons. The movement gained momentum as ABC not only called for
divestment but also demanded the termination of the UC system's association with Wells Fargo
(WF) due to WF's discriminatory lending practices that disproportionately affected Black
individuals and their investments in private prisons. The relentless efforts of ABC bore fruit in
2017 when the UC system successfully divested $475 million worth of contracts with Wells
Fargo, marking a significant victory for the cause ("Afrikan Black Coalition," 2023).
SD took on a crucial role as a co-leader in a campaign that sought to bring about
comprehensive transformation in education. Their efforts focused on spearheading a movement
that demanded divestment from the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) by the Los Angeles
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Unified School District (LAUSD), with the intent of redirecting the allocated funds, totaling $25
million, towards the employment of counselors and therapists in schools that predominantly
catered to Black students. Joseph stated, “We are working to end Black kids going to schools in
LAUSD and then getting pushed into the jail and prison system.” Joseph emphasized SD’s
commitment to ending the cycle of Black students being funneled from schools into the criminal
justice system within LAUSD. Through their advocacy efforts, SD achieved the implementation
of a groundbreaking initiative known as the "Black Student Achievement Plan (BSAP)" in
LAUSD. Joseph highlighted the significance of this plan, stating “For the first time in the
history, the school district is targeting resources specifically towards Black students” and
expressed that the BSAP attempts to “address that long history of severe disproportionate
underserving and overcriminalization.” Joseph explained how the plan addresses the long-
standing issues of disproportionate underserving and over-criminalization of Black youth. The
fight for freedom, justice, and equality continues as many of the research participants relentlessly
advocate and fight against all systems that harm Black people.
Meeting Needs of the Community
The research participants were driven by a common purpose: to address specific needs
within their communities. Each organization shared stories of identifying a need and taking
action to meet it.
Growing up in St. Louis, Tory acknowledged the harsh reality that surrounded him. With
a mixture of seriousness and passion in his voice, he described his city as “the nation's murder
capital,” recounting the reality of his city. “St. Louis is either one or two in murders every year
for the last 20 years,” Tory revealed. “We top one, two, or three in police shootings every year
for the last 10-15 years. We are the fifth most segregated city in the country.” Tory explained
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the city's persistent struggle with violence and inequality. Tory's passion for change ignited when
he learned about the unjust killing of Michael Brown. It was a pivotal moment in his life that
compelled him to step into the forefront of his community, demanding justice for the tragic
incident. Tory recounted an unexpected break in the violence in St. Louis. “For 12 days after
Mike Brown got killed, we had no murders in the murder capital,” he recalled. “Now, we killing
more niggas than we ever killed. We breaking records.” Tory expressed disdain for how the
peace in St. Louis at that time was short-lived, and the cycle of violence resumed.
Despite the challenges faced by his community, Tory found solace and inspiration in the
wise words of Mama Julia, a respected elder in the community. “Mama Julia sat me down and
said, ‘You got to do something for our people that's really going to mean something,’” he
recalled. Mama Julia urged Tory to channel his influence into meaningful action to uplift their
community. Motivated by her guidance, Tory and a group of like-minded individuals heeded
Mama Julia's call and united in their determination to tackle the pressing issues plaguing their
community. At this moment, the International Black Freedom Alliance (IBFA) was born with a
vision to unite Black people from all corners of the world. They started with a breakfast program,
a small yet significant step to nourish the community and provide support to those in need. The
creation of IBFA was a response to the urgent need for solidarity, understanding, and collective
action. Recognizing the need to uplift and support one another, the members of IBFA sought to
provide a tangible solution to the prevailing violence and division that had afflicted St. Louis. In
pursuit of community transformation, IBFA was steadfast in its commitment to supporting one
another, fostering unity, and leaving a lasting legacy for generations to come.
BMB exemplified another instance of addressing community needs. Phillip passionately
expressed BMB’s mission to provide Black men with the necessary tools to become influential
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political forces in their communities and beyond. Reflecting on the challenges faced by Black
men, Phillip identified patriarchy, capitalism, white supremacy, and Eurocentric thinking as
detrimental influences ingrained in young Black men at an early age. He emphasized the urgency
of interrupting and countering these harmful narratives, offering alternative ways of being.
Phillip expressed:
If we can build a cadre or army, a membership of Black men who are transformed and
see the world differently, they see themselves differently, they see their partners
differently, see the movement differently, then we will have done a great service to all of
us and ourselves as well.
Phillip presented a visionary perspective of BMB, creating a shift in perspective and
empowering Black men to redefine themselves and their place in society. To advance their
mission and vision, BMB established community men's circles as safe spaces for Black men to
fully express themselves, engage in meaningful conversations, confront obstacles, acquire
knowledge, and forge strong connections. Furthermore, BMB emphasized the significance of
political and civic education, urging each BMB member to become educational ambassadors in
their respective communities.
Genuine Love for Black People
IBFA leader, Tory, described his service to his community as an “act of love.” He
solemnly stated:
Hating White people ain't gonna keep you in the work. I've seen a lot of homies, or what
people call ‘comrades,’ quit the movement. They really are no longer part of the
movement if I'm being honest with you because they were fueled by how bad the White
people did us and not by how beautiful our people are.
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Resentment is not sustainable within the liberation movement. As Tory stated, it “ain’t
gonna keep you in the work.” Irrespective of their shared dissatisfaction toward oppressive
systems, love is the primary motivation behind all sixteen research participants’ work. When
describing their service to people of African descent, their words, actions, tone of voice, and self-
expression all reflected a sincere and genuine love for the Black community. This deep affection
for Black people serves as a fundamental driving force behind their effective practices, as
explored in this study.
In RJN, Zakiya articulates one of the core values of significant importance: “A deep love
for our people…Love undergirds everything that we do." This highlights the profound role of
love within the organization. Similarly, the Black men-led and centered organizational
participants also acknowledge the profound significance of love in guiding their work. Dr. Bush
of A
2
MEND believes that all Black men “have value and are worthy to be loved.” Dr. Bush's
work is driven by a profound belief in all Black men’s inherent value and worthiness. While in
BMB, Phillip wanted the world to know that BMB is more than a “Black male organization.” He
stated, “We consider love to be the most powerful, transformative tool for personal and political
transformation.” Love in BMB is a catalyst for personal and societal transformations. In AEI and
the BSCU, love for Black people appears as “high expectations, high nurturance, and support”
(Afiya). They recognize that Black students may not be expected to excel in many educational
settings. Therefore, AEI and the BSCU aim to “cultivate excellence in them [Black students] that
they're not getting in the school system” (Dr. Barfield). By setting high expectations and offering
support, they create an environment that fosters growth, success, and love for Black students.
For organizations like BAP and ANWO, political education, organizing, and resistance
against oppressive systems are expressions of love. Ajamu expresses that serving BAP brings
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him a sense of fulfillment as he believes he is “upholding the responsibility” to serve and
continue the resistance for his people. Similarly, Yejide finds joy in her involvement with
ANWO as it allows her to “create, think through, and problem solve issues that Black people are
confronted with.” Both BAP and ANWO leaders derive fulfillment and purpose from their work.
ABC’s expression of love for Black people appeared in the form of advocacy for the basic needs
of Black college students. Yoel stated, “We started our demands campaigns to address what are
the material needs of Black students on these campuses?” ABC focused on the welfare of Black
students on college campuses and sought to improve their quality of life. While in FAASA, love
for Black people looked like, “Let go to the thrift store…Get you some outfits, and I'll pay for
them.” FAASA would arrange visits to thrift stores with Black student leaders, aiding them in
finding suitable attire for trips to alleviate concerns about not having the necessary clothes. This
initiative aimed to ensure that financial constraints or proper attire would not hinder Black
students from participating fully in FAASA’s annual trips.
Lastly, love for Black people appeared as gratitude to serve in one’s capacity in
organizations like SD, A-APRP, and the NOI. Words such as “blessed,” “humbled,” and “pride”
was used to describe how their service to Black people made them feel. Adrienne stated:
It definitely makes me feel like I found my purpose. I am doing what I'm supposed to do,
that I'm making a contribution to something that's bigger than me, that I'm part of a
collective process that’s gonna end with the liberation of my people.
Adrienne expressed personal fulfillment and a higher purpose in life due to her service to
Black people. In APSP, despite difficulties and tiredness, Chimurenga described his service to
Black people as “the best job in the world.” Chimurenga remained committed and passionate
about his work and service to his community regardless of the challenges in his organization. For
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the research participants, love is duty; love is sacrifice; love is community; love is educating;
love is meeting needs; love is fighting for the liberation of all African people. Genuine love for
Black people is the gravitational force that keeps all organizational practices on the pathway to
effectiveness.
Table 4
Summary of Findings
Findings Themes Summary
Organizational Culture Leadership Organizations prioritized interdependence
and collaboration within their leadership
practices.
Decision-Making Organizations prioritized collective best
interests and implemented series of
consultations apart of their decision-
making process.
Management Organizations prioritized common
belonging, mutual respect, collaboration
skills, and teamwork within their
management practices.
Organizational Practices Centering
Community
Participants emphasized community-
centered approaches, working
collaboratively with the community, and
actively serving the needs of the
community.
Identity and Politics Participants demonstrated a deep
commitment to identity and politics.
Meeting Needs Participants addressed specific needs
within their communities.
Love Participants were grounded with genuine
passion and love for Black people
Note. The information presented in this table offers a summary of the findings discovered in this
study.
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Summary of Findings
This chapter presented the findings related to organizational culture and practices.
Findings within organizational culture included leadership, decision-making, and management
practices (core components). While examining these components, Afrocentric practices were
identified and summarized. Furthermore, the findings related to organizational practices and
highlighted five key themes: community, identity, politics, meeting needs, and love. These
themes are supported by evidence and are also summarized within this chapter.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the interviews with the 16 participants provided valuable insights that
further illuminated the themes and findings discussed earlier. Chapter five of this study examines
and discusses these themes and findings organized around the research questions, the
implications for practice, and recommendations stemming from these findings.
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Chapter Five: Discussion
While Black organizations have made remarkable progress in transforming and
improving the quality of life of Black people, there remains a research gap regarding the
exploration of leadership and organizational practices, theories, and frameworks that prioritize
the cultural reality and lived experiences of Black people. This study seeks to bridge this
research gap by examining the effectiveness of Black organizations, specifically through an
Afrocentric lens, to shed light on the approaches and strategies that enable Black organizations to
effectively address the needs, concerns, and priorities of the Black community. Afrocentric is an
approach that centers African people, ideals, history, and experiences. Through an analysis of 15
Black organizations, including findings from their websites, online articles, and participant
interviews, this chapter provided insights into the best-implemented practices. The research
participants were purposefully selected based on their positive impact on the lives of Black
people, ensuring a diverse range of perspectives and experiences.
In addition, this chapter will explore the practical implications and offer
recommendations for future research. The effectiveness of Black organizations was examined
through the lens of an Afrocentric framework, guided by three research questions. The questions
for this study are as follows: (1) What values, styles of leadership, and management practices are
implemented in Black-led organizations? (2) How do the implemented values, styles of
leadership, and management practices contribute to organizational effectiveness in Black-led
organizations? (3) How do Black leaders meet needs and solve problems within their
communities or organizations? Each of these research questions will be addressed in the
following sections.
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Analysis of Findings
What values, styles of leadership, and management practices are implemented in Black-led
organizations?
The first research question sought to uncover whether Black organizations were
implementing African-centered practices; this question was explored using the Liberatory
Leadership Method (LLM). Through interviews, participants were asked to identify
organizational values, define leadership, management, and decision-making, and describe their
practices. The findings related to Afrocentric values revealed that Black organizations value
community, collectivity, and the centering of Blackness. These values reflected similar
sentiments from the literature in Chapter 2, where Dixon (1977) shared that communalism is
rooted in African axiology. Furthermore, Baldwin (1984) described the significance of
embracing pro-Blackness as the African survival thrust (AST), which represents one’s inherent
drive to safeguard African culture and identity as an integral part of their worldview (Baldwin,
1986). He also shared how African survival thrust is essential to the mental and emotional health
of Black people. Black organizations have a responsibility to teach, center, and advance the idea
of Blackness to achieve liberation and wellness for humanity. The findings related to Afrocentric
leadership revealed that leadership is collective, ethical, spiritual, service-oriented, and values
the goodness of others. The findings related to Afrocentric management revealed that
management should unify others, solicit feedback from organizational constituents, share
responsibility and accountability, and value personhood instead of simply one’s productivity or
contribution to the organization. These findings revealed that Black organizations were indeed
implementing African-centered practices despite not necessarily identifying as African-centered
organizations.
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How do the implemented values, styles of leadership, and management practices contribute
to organizational effectiveness in Black-led organizations?
The second research question examined the impact of Afrocentric practices on
organizational effectiveness in Black organizations. By incorporating pro-Blackness, communal,
and collective values into their practices, Black organizations fostered a sense of belonging
among their team and community members, established psychological and cultural safety,
nurtured personal and professional development, and encouraged collaboration and community-
building. By incorporating collective, ethical, spiritual, and service-oriented leadership styles,
Black organizations promoted collaboration and trust, increased employee engagement,
maintained a positive work culture, and increased community impact. By incorporating unity,
encouraging feedback solicitation from organizational constituents, shared responsibility and
accountability, and personhood within management practices, Black organizations were able to
foster strong team and community relationships, promote participatory decision-making,
encourage collaboration, and create a supportive work environment. The study also revealed that
individuals within these organizations were willing to make personal sacrifices, such as
volunteering or accepting lower compensation, to advance the organization's mission. Overall,
the findings highlighted the positive contribution of Afrocentric practices to the effectiveness and
growth of Black organizations.
How do Black leaders meet needs and solve problems within their communities?
The third research question addressed the relationship between problem-solving and
organizational effectiveness. This question aimed to explore how addressing community needs
aided in organizational effectiveness. Similar to resource centers on college campuses, the
findings reveal that Black organizations serve as local resource centers for their communities.
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Although varying in support services, Black organizations are centering the Black experience
and providing varying resources and services in the following areas: cultural and ideological
awareness, economic and socio-political education, personal and spiritual transformation,
community development, childcare, food and shelter, mental and emotional support, and land
and business development.
Black organizations are also serving as rehabilitation centers that tackle the condition of
mental enslavement. It was the Most Honorable Elijah Muhammad in Message to the Black Man,
who informed us that Black people “must be taught the knowledge of self…anyone who does not
have a knowledge of self is considered a victim of either amnesia or unconsciousness and is not
very competent” (Muhammad, 1965, p.39). Kwame Ture and Charles V. Hamilton in their book,
Black Power: The Politics of Liberation stated, “our basic need is to reclaim our history and our
identity from what must be called cultural terrorism, from the depredation of self-justifying white
guilt…this is the first necessity of a free people, and the first right that any oppressor must
suspend.” (Ture and Hamilton, 1967). Later, Oba T’Shaka advised that in order “to be victorious
in the Black liberation movement, it is absolutely necessary that we know ourselves and our
enemy” (T’Shaka, 1990, p. 282). And Dr. Na’im Akbar (1999) in Know Thyself taught that:
The process of equipping the human being with the consciousness (awareness) of their
"true" nature was an essential task that every society provided for its
offspring…Education was both a sacred right and responsibility because without it, no
one born into the world could become fully human. Our humanity is defined and
distinguished by the development of knowledge and particularly self-knowledge,
therefore it is critically necessary for each generation to learn who and what they are.
(p.1)
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Through programs and training, Black organizations are providing a re-orientation
process to their community that teaches Black people about their Blackness, independence, and
self-sufficiency, and how to dismantle systems of oppression. Amilcar Cabral called this the re-
Afrikanization process. Kwame Akoto (1992) speaks on this process and shares three
foundational stages of the re-Afrikanization process: (1) rediscovery and historical recovery, (2)
redefinition and cultural reaffirmation, and (3) revitalization and national liberation. Findings in
this study suggest that identity, whether personal, cultural, or political, serves as the foundation
of Black liberation and of all Black organizations.
The commitment towards the re-education process of Black people is improving the
quality of life of Black people, and Black organizations are serving as lifelines in many Black
communities. The very existence of Black organizations is increasing the survival rate and
improving the upward mobility of Black people. These findings revealed that meeting
community needs, solving community problems, and addressing issues that impact Black people
contribute to the success of Black organizations.
Implications for Practice
This study yielded valuable insights and findings that have practical implications for
organizations and leaders dedicated to improving the quality of life of people of African descent.
While these implications are relevant to the Black community, they also hold significance for all
organizations and leaders seeking to engage, collaborate, and uplift Black individuals. The study
revealed that Black organizations thrive through collective work and activities, emphasizing the
primacy of community over hierarchical and unilateral structures. When constructing systems for
Black people, it is crucial to adhere to the foundational African principle of "Is it good for the
89
people?" and ensure that these systems serve the collective interests of the community.
Madhubuti (1994) also asks the question, “Is it best for African people?”
Furthermore, the study demonstrated that most Black organizations are driven by the
purpose of addressing specific issues affecting Black communities. This suggests that Black
individuals are proactive and self-willed agents of change, capable of shaping their
circumstances and relying on external saviors or notions of helplessness. In addition, this study
found that most Black organizations sought to dismantle or destroy forms of oppression. This
implication suggests that there’s a need to both critique and provide action against institutional
and systemic barriers. Lastly, this study found that genuine love and concern for Black people
played a key role in effectiveness. This implication suggests that love influences organizational
culture and one’s connection to their work. By embracing these implications for practice,
leadership and transformative efforts within Black organizations can be enhanced while also
addressing the imperative of providing a culturally relevant and Afrocentric approach to
leadership studies.
Recommendations for Practice
The interviews with the research participants provided valuable insights into the practices
and strategies that contribute to the effectiveness of Black organizations. However, the study also
uncovered a significant gap in research and support for Afrocentric approaches. In light of this,
the following recommendations are put forth:
1. Promote the normalization of Blackness in leadership
2. Center Afrocentric Leadership and Organizational Frameworks
3. Embrace and Invest in Black Thought and Practice
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By implementing these recommendations, the field of leadership studies can advance,
fostering environments that are more inclusive, equitable, and supportive of Black leaders and
Black-led and Black-centered organizations.
Recommendation 1: Promote the Normalization of Blackness in Leadership
It is crucial to address and reclaim the psychological perception and orientation of
Blackness within the discipline of leadership studies. Blackness extends beyond color, and
represents a deep understanding of Black history, culture, and the lived experiences of Black and
African People (Dei, 2018). Rather than viewing Blackness as extraordinary, exceptional,
marginalized, or subpar, it is essential to recognize and affirm that Blackness is inherently
excellent and deserving of recognition and respect. As evident from the findings of this study,
Blackness served as the standard in many organizations, and the freedom to express and embody
Blackness contributed to the effective functioning of these organizations. Therefore, Blackness
should not be approached from a deficit or inferior perspective. To improve future implications
in the field of leadership, it is recommended to infuse the normalization of Blackness into the
cultural fabric of leadership and its practices. This shift in mindset and practice can lead to more
equitable and diverse leadership practices, with positive implications for leaders and
organizations.
Recommendation 2: Center Afrocentric Leadership and Organizational Frameworks
In leadership studies, it is imperative to incorporate Afrocentric leadership and
organizational frameworks. Afrocentric leadership is the process of using African ideas and
ideals to organize and mobilize people and resources to meet needs and solve problems in
African (Black) communities (Akua, 2020). While other frameworks may be applicable in
various contexts affecting Black individuals, it is crucial to include frameworks that honor the
91
rich contributions and lived experiences of Black people. Afrocentric frameworks challenge
prevailing ideologies, theories, and paradigms that center Whiteness and perpetuate Black
inferiority within leadership and educational discourse. Furthermore, Afrocentric frameworks
have the potential to generate productive dialogue and healthy tension within academic spaces.
According to McDougal (2017), frameworks grounded in an African-centered lens ensure that
important aspects of the lives of people of African descent are thoroughly examined. These
aspects include recognizing the necessity of racial and cultural specificity, prioritizing Africana
needs and interests, embracing heterogenous collectivism, promoting collective emancipation
and empowerment, fostering agency and self-consciousness, and acknowledging historical
location. Africana is the “critical and systematic study of the thought and practice of people of
African descent in their past and present” (Karenga, 2002). Integrating these features in research
is crucial for accurately understanding the Black experience. By incorporating Afrocentric
leadership and organizational frameworks, leadership studies can move beyond Eurocentric
perspectives, dismantle oppressive structures, and promote more inclusive and equitable research
and practices.
Recommendation 3: Embrace and Invest in Black Thought and Practice
This study has underscored the significant role of Black leaders and organizations within
Black communities. To advance the field of leadership studies, it is imperative to address two
key areas. Firstly, there should be a deliberate effort to increase the representation of existing and
future Black theorists and scholars who can contribute to and challenge the current structures in
leadership research and discourse. This would ensure a more inclusive and comprehensive
understanding of leadership. Secondly, the field of leadership must create intentional and
92
targeted spaces and opportunities to prepare, recruit, and develop high-quality Black leaders and
organizational practitioners who can effectively improve the quality of life for Black people.
Drawing inspiration from teacher residency programs, which intentionally recruit, coach,
mentor, and place aspiring educators on a trajectory to become highly effective teachers in
school districts predominantly serving Black, Latino, and Indigenous communities, a similar
approach should be adopted in leadership studies for aspiring Black leaders. Such a space would
honor Black people’s cultural and social experiences with approaches and practices firmly
grounded in equity, justice, and freedom principles. By implementing these recommendations,
we challenge narratives and systems that diminish or disregard Black scholarship and
practitioners and proactively invest in, create, transform, and sustain Black thought, leadership,
and practices This transformative approach is essential for fostering an inclusive and thriving
leadership ecosystem that uplifts and empowers Black leaders and positively impacts Black
communities.
Future Research
This research study has provided valuable insights into the best practices employed by
Black organizations, and how they meet their communities’ needs. However, the existing
research on the effectiveness of Black organizations is limited, and there is a notable absence of
Afrocentric perspectives within leadership studies. Consequently, exploring further and
investigating general best practices within Black organizations, alongside African-centered
leadership styles, theories, and frameworks is crucial. This study has generated several future
research ideas that warrant exploration. These ideas revolve around investigating conflict
management, team retention, capacity-building, and resource acquisition within Black
organizations.
93
The first research study idea explores how Black organizations effectively manage and
resolve conflicts within their structures. Understanding the strategies and approaches employed
by these organizations can provide valuable insights for improving conflict resolution practices.
The second research study idea focuses on team retention within Black organizations. The
current findings indicate a high level of volunteerism and dedication among individuals involved
in these organizations. Exploring the factors that motivate and inspire individuals to commit their
time and efforts to serve in Black organizations can shed light on the compelling aspects of their
missions, cultures, and leadership. The third research study idea centers around investigating
Black organizations' capacity and resource management strategies. Despite often operating with
limited resources, these organizations sustain themselves and carry out their work. Examining
their innovative approaches to resource utilization can provide valuable lessons for other
organizations facing similar challenges.
Additionally, a mixed-method case study approach could be employed to
comprehensively analyze the long-term impact of a specific Black organization or conduct a
comparative analysis between a Black organization and a well-established government entity
with similar missions. Such research would provide a deeper understanding of Black
organizations' effectiveness and unique contributions within their respective communities. By
exploring these research ideas, future studies can contribute to a broader understanding of the
dynamics and practices within Black organizations, ultimately enhancing the field of leadership.
Limitations and Delimitations
The primary delimitation of this study was my worldview. I intentionally used my
worldview as a guiding framework to explore, analyze, and evaluate the research topic and to
select, connect, and engage with the study participants. My worldview also informed the
94
framework and research methods employed in this study. To disregard my worldview in an
attempt to mitigate bias would have been equivalent to rejecting Afrocentricity, despite it being
the foundational framework of the study. However, a limitation of this study was the need for
additional information collected from participants regarding their approaches to conflict
resolution and overcoming challenges within their organizations. The focus of the study was
primarily on exploring positive and relevant practices, neglecting to inquire about common
negative experiences encountered by most organizations. It would have been valuable to
investigate how Black organizations handle adversity and assess the impact of such challenges
on their effectiveness, particularly from an Afrocentric perspective.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Black leaders and organizations are at the forefront of many global issues.
As mentioned in Chapter Two, not only have people of African descent advocated for freedom,
justice, and equality, which have benefited all people, but they are the creators and founders of
the world’s earliest concepts of leadership and change. These early concepts have made it
possible for societies worldwide to grow and evolve in communication, writing, technology,
architecture, agriculture, arts, and culture. Given the historical and contemporary impact of Black
organizations and the current climate of social and racial justice in America, the world cannot
afford to exclude the best practices of Black organizations within leadership and change
discourse and scholarship. An analysis of leadership and organizational effectiveness of Black
organizations is critical, not only for the benefit of Black people but for the advancement of
mankind.
95
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Appendix A: Full Glossary
● Africana: The “critical and systematic study of the thought and practice of people of
African descent in their past and present” (Karenga, 2002).
● African Survival Thrust: Represents one’s inherent drive to safeguard African culture and
identity as an integral part of their worldview (Baldwin, 1986).
● Afrocentric (African-centered): An approach that centers African people, ideals, history,
and experiences.
● Afrocentric Axiology (Value System): Based on harmony with nature, cooperation, and
communalism (McDougal, 2017). Answers the questions of ethics and values. These
issues shape what is acceptable and what is not (Alkebulan, 2007).
● Afrocentric Cosmology (Structure of Reality): Oneness of being and interdependent
(Nobles, 1978).
● Afrocentric Epistemology (Branch of Knowledge): Validates knowledge through a
combination of historical understanding, scientific research, and intuition. What is
known, what can be proven is demonstrated through the harmonization of the individual
consciousness with community consciousness and the best traditions in the African past
(Muzorewa, 2005).
● Afrocentric Leadership: The process of using African ideas and ideals to organize and
mobilize people and resources to meet needs and solve problems in African (Black)
communities (Akua, 2020).
● Afrocentric Ontology (Nature of Being): It assumes reality to be both spiritual and
material at once. In this regard, everything becomes one thing, spirit manifesting… When
the spiritual/material ontology is adhered to completely, one loses the sense of
individualized ego/mind and experiences infinite mind or consciousness manifesting as
oneself… Self in this instance includes all of the ancestors, the yet unborn, all of nature,
and the entire community (Myers, 1985).
● Blackness: Extends beyond color, and represents a deep understanding of Black history,
culture, and the lived experiences of Black and African People (Dei, 2018).
● Culture: A process which gives people a general design for living and patterns for
interpreting their reality (Nobles, 1985).
● Eurocentricity: Based on White supremacist notions whose purposes are to protect White
privilege and advantage in education, economics, politics, etc. (Asante, 1991).
● Eurocentric Axiology (Value System): Value is determined by one’s productivity and
achievements due to the emphasis on man-to-object relationships (Nichols, 1972) and
value is placed on individualism (Baldwin & Hopkins, 1990).
● Eurocentric Cosmology (Structure of Reality): Characterized by the following concepts:
survival of the fittest and humanity versus nature (Baldwin & Hopkins, 1990).
● Eurocentric Decision-making: Competitive, win-lose approach to issues, and winning is
the only satisfactory outcome (Warfield-Coppock, 1995).
● Eurocentric Epistemology (Branch of Knowledge): Knowledge is acquired and validated
through a Cartesian way of thinking (Nichols, 1972).
● Eurocentric Leadership: Authoritarian, must maintain control and must force people to
work (Warfield-Coppock, 1995).
● Eurocentric Management: Hierarchical, controlling, and fear drive motivation (Warfield-
Coppock, 1995).
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● Eurocentric Ontology (Nature of Being): The science of what is and the study of what
might exist (Smith, 2012).
● Kemet: Land of the Blacks
● Leadership: The ability to meet needs and solve problems within respective communities.
● Liberatory Leadership Method: A methodological approach to identify African-centered
practices within organizations, and used to assess leadership and organizational
effectiveness, from an African-centered perspective.
● Liberatory Leadership Practices: Refers to the Afrocentric practices within organizations
that contribute to organizational effectiveness.
● Mdw Ntr: God’s Words
● Politics: The collective and constant struggle for power, land, and resources and the
destruction of all oppressive forces and systems to achieve ultimate liberation for all
people of African descent.
● Power: The full participation in the decision-making processes affecting Black people’s
lives and recognizing their virtues as Black people (Ture & Hamilton, 1967).
● Shemsu: Follower
● Seshemu: Leader
● Seshmet: Leadership
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Appendix B: Interview Protocol
1. Tell me about your background in serving Black people.
a. When did it start?
b. Why did it start?
c. Tell me about your role within your organization.
d. How does being a part of your organization make you feel?
e. If someone were to ask you how you and/or your organization were contributing
to the liberation of African people, how would you respond?
2. For recording purposes, please tell me, what is your organization?
3. What values guide your organization’s practices?
a. How are they reflected in your organization and its programs?
b. What are your organization’s values around money, spending, investing, and
financial support?
4. How would you define leadership?
a. How would you describe the leadership within your organization?
5. How would you define management?
a. How would you describe management within your organization?
6. How would you define decision-making?
a. How would you describe the decision-making process within the organization?
7. Describe the relationship your organization has with its stakeholders.
8. How would you define success and how is it measured within your organization?
9. Do you think your organization’s values, practices, and leadership have had an impact on
your organization’s success? If so, how?
10. What problem does your organization solve within your community?
11. What impact has your leader or leadership team had on your community?
12. What are your organization’s major accomplishments?
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
In this study, a Black organization was characterized as an organization that centered the cultural experiences, ideologies, needs, and perspectives of Black people in its structure, culture, and practices. The leadership of Black organizations was composed of Black individuals, and the team and community it served were predominantly Black. This research study examined the leadership and organizational effectiveness of Black organizations. The purpose of the study was to explore and uncover best practices that contributed to positive outcomes within Black organizations. Afrocentricity (Asante, 2003) and the Liberatory Leadership Method (LLM) guided and informed the methodology within this study. Using an Afrocentric qualitative research design, the study employed purposeful sampling and conducted semi-structured interviews with 16 Black leaders from various Black organizations, including non-profit organizations, community organizations, grassroots organizations, a religious organization, an independent Black institution, and an online internet publication, to identify patterns and themes related to organizational effectiveness. The findings of this study revealed the significance of Afrocentric values, leadership, and management practices (core components) within Black organizational culture. While examining these core components, the following four themes emerged that contributed to the research participants’ organizational effectiveness: community, identity and politics, meeting needs, and love. The findings underscore the importance of Afrocentric values, leadership, and management practices within Black organizations. The study also highlights the need for continued research of Black organizations to further enhance their effectiveness as a driving force of change and transformation in their communities and to contribute to the advancement of the field of leadership.
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
X, Ma'Ronda
(author)
Core Title
How to lead to liberate: an Afrocentric examination of leadership and organizational effectiveness of Black organizations
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Degree Conferral Date
2023-08
Publication Date
07/13/2023
Defense Date
07/05/2023
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
African-centered,Afrocentricity,Black organizations,leadership,liberatory leadership method,liberatory leadership practices,OAI-PMH Harvest
Format
theses
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Kim, Esther (
committee chair
), Akua, Chike (
committee member
), Lyons-Moore, Akilah (
committee member
)
Creator Email
mnx@usc.edu,mx.maronda@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113263930
Unique identifier
UC113263930
Identifier
etd-XMaRonda-12082.pdf (filename)
Legacy Identifier
etd-XMaRonda-12082.pdf
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
theses (aat)
Rights
X, Ma'Ronda
Internet Media Type
application/pdf
Type
texts
Source
20230713-usctheses-batch-1067
(batch),
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
African-centered
Afrocentricity
Black organizations
liberatory leadership method
liberatory leadership practices