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Education after incarceration: identifying practices in prison education programs that positively affect the persistence of formerly incarcerated men to continue education

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Education after incarceration: identifying practices in prison education programs that positively affect the persistence of formerly incarcerated men to continue education

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EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION: IDENTIFYING PRACTICES IN PRISON
EDUCATION PROGRAMS THAT POSITIVELY AFFECT THE PERSISTENCE OF
FORMERLY INCARCERATED MEN TO CONTINUE EDUCATION

by

Leticia Serna

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2023

Copyright 2023 Leticia Serna
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Acknowledgements
To my children—Tori, Darienne, Bubby, and Dominic—you are my life, my heart, my
reason for all that I do and all that I strive to be. My life changed in 1991 and I would not have
had it any other way. In your own special way, each of you are responsible for the person I am
today, and my success is wholly attributed to being the best I can be for you.
To my parents, the four of you, thank you for supporting me through all my endeavors.
Your wall of honor and your encouraging texts pushed me to the end.
To my friends and my family, thank you for encouraging me when I wanted to give up
and reminding me that I can do this. From the phone calls, exercise, happy hours, reserved space,
prayers, songs, and approved days off, you played a role in getting me to the end, and I am
forever grateful.
To Charn Nichols, thank you for giving me a chance. You opened a door and changed my
life forever.
To my Chair, my committee and my fellow USC classmates, you pushed my thinking,
walked a life-changing journey with me and our class memories will forever live in my heart.
To the men and women currently in prison and to those who have been released, stay
focused on your success and hold your head high. Set goals and never stop learning. No one can
ever take away your knowledge.
And to you. You are no longer with us on this earth, but I know you are with me when I
walk the halls of any Texas prison. You were incarcerated at the age of 18 and you introduced
me to the world of incarceration when I was 17. I am committed to positively impacting the lives
of all I meet who are incarcerated in your honor. Until we meet again…

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. v
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... vi
Education After Incarceration: Identifying Practices in Prison Education Programs That
Positively Affect the Persistence of Formerly Incarcerated Men to Continue Education .............. 1
Context and Background of the Problem ............................................................................ 2
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 3
Purpose of the Project and Research Question ................................................................... 4
Organizational Performance Status ......................................................................... 5
Organizational Performance Goal ........................................................................... 7
Stakeholder Group of Focus ................................................................................... 8
Literature Review................................................................................................................ 9
Prison Education Programs and Their Impact on Recidivism Rates .................... 10
Past and Present Educational Experiences of Incarcerated Individuals ................ 11
Barriers and Challenges in Prison Education Programs ....................................... 12
Factors That Affect the Outcomes of Prison Education Programs ....................... 14
Knowledge and Skills to Continue the Pursuit of Education After Release ......... 15
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences ......................................... 16
Knowledge ................................................................................................ 16
Assumed Influences on Organizational Performance Goals ........ 16
Supporting Literature .................................................................... 17
Motivation ................................................................................................. 17
Assumed Influences on Organizational Performance Goals ........ 17
Supporting Literature .................................................................... 18
Organizational Support ............................................................................. 18
Assumed Influences on Organizational Performance Goals ........ 18
Supporting Literature .................................................................... 19
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 19
Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 21
Data Source: Interviews ........................................................................................ 21
Participants ................................................................................................ 23
Instrumentation ......................................................................................... 23
Data Collection Procedures ....................................................................... 24
Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 26
Validity and Reliability ......................................................................................... 26
Findings............................................................................................................................. 26
Participating Stakeholders .................................................................................... 27
Overall Findings .................................................................................................... 28
Knowledge Findings ............................................................................................. 30
Metacognitive Knowledge ........................................................................ 30
Procedural Knowledge .............................................................................. 33
Motivation Findings .............................................................................................. 35
Self-Efficacy ............................................................................................. 35
Goal Orientation........................................................................................ 37
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Organizational Support Findings .......................................................................... 39
Cultural Model .......................................................................................... 40
Cultural Setting ......................................................................................... 41
Summary ............................................................................................................... 44
Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 45
Discussion and Recommendations for Practice .................................................... 45
Recommendation 1: Ensure WSD Teachers Promote Persistence ........... 46
Recommendation 2: Provide Quality Educational Opportunities ............. 46
Recommendation 3: Increase Student Knowledge of Goal Setting .......... 47
Recommended Area for Development 1: Goal Setting and
Preparedness ............................................................................................. 48
Recommended Area for Development 2: Staff Professional
Development ............................................................................................. 49
Limitations and Delimitations............................................................................... 50
Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................ 51
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 51
References ..................................................................................................................................... 54
Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders, With Sampling Criteria, for Interviews ....................... 58
Appendix B: Protocols .................................................................................................................. 61
Appendix C: Credibility and Trustworthiness .............................................................................. 66
Appendix D: Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................... 67
Appendix E: Ethics ....................................................................................................................... 68

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List of Tables
Figure 1: Winston School District Participation and Completion Statistics for the 2021–2022
School Year by Program ............................................................................................... 6
Figure 2: Demographic Information of Participating Stakeholders ........................................... 27

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Abstract
Formerly incarcerated males face many barriers and hardships upon their return to society. The
purpose of this study was to gather data on the Winston School District’s performance as it
relates to the perceptions of formerly incarcerated men regarding prison education programs and
the role, if any, such programs have in influencing goal setting, attainment of educational
achievement goals, and persistence to continue education. Data supports the need for an
educational program, inclusive of all partners, that increases the self-efficacy of students to
continue education, even when it is not mandated. The research question guiding this study
sought to determine what knowledge, motivation, and organizational support influences of the
Winston School District (WSD) led former WSD students to set and attain educational
achievement goals. The study utilized a qualitative research approach for the gathering and
analysis of information to evaluate the assumed barriers or influences. Interviews were conducted
on 11 participants recruited using both the purposeful and snowball sampling approaches. The
findings of this study suggest the organization did contribute to the student’s persistence throughout
the program, influencing the desire of students to continue education after release. Implications of the
study include: ensuring teachers promote persistence; providing quality educational opportunities;
and increasing student knowledge of goal setting. A pseudonym has been used to protect the
anonymity of the organization. Data collected from the organization’s website will be noted in the
document, but not directly referenced or linked.

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Education After Incarceration: Identifying Practices in Prison Education Programs That
Positively Affect the Persistence of Formerly Incarcerated Men to Continue Education
The attainment of an education provides economic opportunity, knowledge, and a
personal sense of accomplishment (Fabelo, 2002). For those who are incarcerated, attaining a
prison education may be the first step toward starting over and promoting change in an inmate’s
self-perception and goals for the future (Thomas, 2012). But what leads a once-incarcerated
individual to the pursuit of education? A large quantity of data exist that support an inmate’s
level of education being negatively associated with recidivism and positively associated with
attainment of employment after release. However, few researchers have explored the practices of
prison education programs that positively affect the persistence of those who were once
incarcerated to continue education upon release. The problem of practice addressed in this study
is understanding the perceptions formerly incarcerated men have of prison education programs
and the role, if any, that such programs have in influencing goal setting and attainment of
educational achievement goals. A pseudonym has been used to protect the anonymity of the
organization. Data collected from the organization’s website will be noted in the document, but
not directly referenced or linked.
In Fiscal Year 2022, Texas released 43,289 incarcerated individuals into the community,
of whom 36,797 were men; 74% of those men had participated in educational programming
during their incarceration. Piotrowski and Lathrop (2012) stated that 60%–70% of those
incarcerated were caught in a perpetual cycle of release, rearrest, and incarceration. It is vital that
all incarcerated men receive the opportunity to participate in one or more educational programs
during incarceration designed to promote persistence and pursuit of continuing education after
release. For the purposes of this study, “persistence” is defined as a formerly incarcerated
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individual’s attempt to continue any form of education within 1 year of release, and “continuing
education” is defined as enrollment in any academic or vocational program resulting in a
diploma, degree, or certificate. In this study, I identified the practices of the Winston School
District (WSD) prison education program that positively affect the persistence of those who were
once incarcerated to continue education.
Context and Background of the Problem
Established by the Texas Legislature in 1969, and reauthorized in 1995, WSD serves as a
school district in Texas and is the education provider for offenders in the Texas Department of
Criminal Justice (TDCJ); the district is headquartered in Huntsville, Texas, and has 85 campus
facilities. WSD provides three educational programs to eligible offenders: academic, vocational
(or career and technical), and life skills. Annually, the WSD organization receives approximately
$68,000,000 in federal, state, and local funding, with a reported Financial Year 2022 cost per
participant of $1,235.16.
WSD’s mission is to provide quality educational opportunities in partnership with its
stakeholders. In the 2021-2022 school year, WSD had 1,145.5 full-time equivalent positions
dedicated to meeting the needs of 48,955 male and female students with varying educational
backgrounds who engaged in WSD educational services. The district superintendent and all
principals, student advisors, teachers, and diagnosticians have obtained professional
certifications issued by the State Board for Educator Certification of Texas. A typical WSD
student is approximately 33 years old with a history of academic challenges; WSD students are
women and men with a variety of levels of educational attainment from all racial and ethnic
backgrounds and with a wide range of ages.
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Importance of the Study
It is important to examine the perceptions of formerly incarcerated men regarding prison
education programs and the role, if any, such programs have in influencing goal setting and
attainment of educational achievement goals because these perceptions are crucial contributors to
identification of influential practices in prison education programs. Participation in prison
education programs reduces the rate of recidivism, the propensity of a convicted criminal to
reoffend (Esperian, 2010). Studying these practices can help identify staff attributes to deliver
instruction that supports continued learning, appropriate resources and organizational supports
that play a key role in assisting formerly incarcerated men as they return to society.
Fabelo (2002) found that the more education released inmates had, the more likely they
were to secure high-paying employment and avoid returning to prison. By understanding and
identifying barriers, challenges, and supports that contribute to the level of persistence to
continue education after release, formerly incarcerated men can receive a second chance to serve
as productive citizens of society. When a formerly incarcerated man does not return to prison,
they contribute to their community, family, and economy (Simpkins, 2015). Collecting and
analyzing perception data of formerly incarcerated men who participated in the WSD prison
education program and were enrolled at the time of the study in any academic or vocational
program resulting in a diploma, degree, or certificate, as well as collecting perception data on the
WSD organization’s performance, yielded information that stakeholders need to make decisions
that positively impact WSD and its students. The data collected can also help stakeholders,
policymakers, and the public identify educational resources and supports available to formerly
incarcerated men to assist with goal setting and attainment of educational achievement goals.
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Purpose of the Project and Research Question
The purpose of this study was to gather data on WSD’s performance as it relates to the
perceptions of formerly incarcerated men regarding prison education programs and the role, if
any, such programs have in influencing goal setting, attainment of educational achievement
goals, and persistence to continue education. Data collected will support the need for an
educational program, inclusive of all partners, that increases the self-efficacy of students to
continue education, even when it is not mandated. The mission of WSD is to provide quality
educational opportunities. At the time of the study, WSD had a 74% program participation rate
but needed to reach more students, if not all of those eligible. By evaluating the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational support influences of former WSD students as they relate to the
services provided by WSD, I used this evaluative study to identify the practices of the WSD
prison education program that play an integral part in formerly incarcerated men’s persistence to
continue education.
The focus of analysis consisted of WSD’s knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences. Although a complete analysis would focus on the role of all WSD stakeholders and
partners—such as the TDCJ, TDCJ offenders and former offenders, offenders’ families,
employers, colleges, workforce and reentry service providers, volunteers and other community
members, the Texas Legislature, and all Texans devoted to reducing recidivism and changing
lives—for practical purposes, the primary stakeholders evaluated in this study were formerly
incarcerated men over the age of 18 who participated in a WSD academic or vocational program
at any time during their incarceration and who within one year of release were enrolled at the
time of the study in any academic or vocational program resulting in a diploma, degree, or
certificate.
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Clark and Estes (2008) stated that the three critical factors to be examined during the
analysis process are knowledge, motivation, and organization. These factors must be in place and
aligned for successful achievement of the WSD mission of providing quality educational
opportunities. Examining knowledge and skills when problem solving is essential for job
performance under the conditions of accomplishing performance goals and anticipating future
challenges (Clark & Estes, 2008). When examining the persistence of formerly incarcerated men
to continue education after release, it is important to recall that Rueda (2011) stated that
motivation is important because although a person may know how to complete a task, they must
also want to complete the task. The organizational setting, available resources, and culture
surrounding WSD are critical contributors to increasing the level of motivation and persistence
of formerly incarcerated men to continue education after release as they transition from
incarceration to the community. Therefore, the research question that guided this study was as
follows: What knowledge, motivation, and organizational support influences of WSD lead
former WSD students to set and attain educational achievement goals?
Organizational Performance Status
Table 1 provides WSD performance data for the 2021–2022 school year. To identify the
appropriate educational program a student should be enrolled in, each student receives an annual
individualized treatment plan. Priority for enrollment in the WSD program depends on age,
program availability, projected reentry date, and educational need. Those prioritized are those
under the age of 22 years, those under the age of 35 years who have no high school diploma or
equivalent, and those within 5 years of their release dates. The data indicate the existence of
pockets of success for students attending WSD prison education programs during incarceration
but also reflect differences between vocational and academic program success rates.
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Understanding the root cause of these differences would aid identification of practices that
increase success within the academic and vocational programs and could uncover barriers and
challenges resulting in reduced rates of completion and possible contributors to reduced levels of
persistence to continue education after release.
Table 1 indicates that 14.82% of offenders who engaged in WSD programs obtained high
school equivalency certificates (HSECs) while incarcerated, 17.04% attained a level of literacy,
and 61.34% earned career and technical education certificates. The vocational program appears
to have a greater rate of completion than the academic programs and, although the counts likely
include duplication, more industry certificates were earned than career and technical educations
certificates. However, not represented in the table are students who began any of these programs
during incarceration but were either released before completing their programs or did not
complete their programs. These statistics are pertinent to this study because they identify
differences in student interest and student success between the academic and vocational aspects
of the WSD. These differences support the need to understand the knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences that positively impact a student’s level of persistence to continue
education after release.
Table 1
Winston School District Participation and Completion Statistics for the 2021–2022 School Year
by Program
Category n
Total engaged 48,955
Academic program
Obtained high school equivalency certificates 7,256
Attained a literacy level 8,342
Vocational program
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Category n
Earned career and technical education certificates 12,395
Earned industry certificates 17,634

Organizational Performance Goal
Two statutory organizational goals of WSD are to reduce recidivism and increase the
success of former inmates in obtaining and maintaining employment. To attain these two
statutory organizational goals, WSD commits, through its mission, to provide quality educational
opportunities. However, of the 43,289 offenders released during school year 2021-2022—male
and female—only 32,033 (74%) had the opportunity to participate in one or more WSD
programs during incarceration. WSD seeks to provide valuable learning opportunities to all
students regardless of their educational attainment level through partnerships formed with
industry and workforce partners that offer programs aimed at helping offenders obtain skills and
certificates to support employability and successful reentry into society before and on release.
These goals support WSD’s efforts to reduce recidivism and ensure success in employment after
incarceration.
With regard to educational achievement, the aspirational organizational goal guiding this
study is that WSD will provide prison education programs that influence a WSD student’s goal
setting and attainment of educational achievement goals, resulting in 100% enrollment of all
formerly incarcerated WSD students in continuing education programs within 1 year of release.
The development of a prison education program that is inclusive of all partners and increases the
self-efficacy of students to continue education, even when it is not mandated. In this evaluative
study, I sought to address the perceptions of formerly incarcerated men of prison education
programs and the role, if any, of such programs in influencing persistence, goal setting, and
attainment of educational achievement goals, it was important to identify the practices of WSD
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that help to meet the organization’s statutory and aspirational goals and fulfill its mission. Was it
their curriculum, the professional development for teachers, the partnerships within the unit
including Wardens, Correctional Officers, Education leaders and staff, or was it a combination of
them all? Goals must support the persistence of former WSD students’ enrollment in continuing
education programs, community or vocational college, or institutions of higher education within
1 year of release or support former WSD students’ development of degree plans that result in the
completion of any diploma, degree, or certificate program.
Stakeholder Group of Focus
Stakeholders can include a variety of individuals who bring different voices and
experiences to bear on an organization. WSD has multiple stakeholder groups—including
teachers, administrators, correctional officers, and students—who, for purposes of this study, are
all stakeholders. An analysis of all stakeholders may be critical to determining the impact of
WSD prison education programs on the persistence of formerly incarcerated men in their pursuit
of education. However, in this study the focus was former WSD male students, as the primary
stakeholder group, and their perceptions of WSD prison education programs and the role, if any,
of such programs in influencing goal setting and attainment of educational achievement goals.
These stakeholders served as the means by which I captured valuable perception data to reveal
the experiences and influences of former WSD prison education program students and the
practices that contributed to their pursuit of continuing education.
Unlike other stakeholders who contribute to the educational well-being of WSD students
or contribute to the setting of the WSD prison education program, former WSD students have
firsthand experience of the WSD prison education program through daily attendance and
participation in teacher-led instruction. Correctional officers lead WSD students into classrooms,
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students have minimal conversation with other students (but at times share table space),
classroom teachers deliver instruction while maintaining control of the classroom environment,
and attendance is taken midway through class to ensure all students are present. Former students
can articulate the effects of disruption in an unorthodox classroom setting with hallways
patrolled by correctional officers, the difficulties of including a variety of learning levels in a
single classroom, and the impact (or lack thereof) of the WSD prison education program on the
promotion of persistence to continue education after release. The higher a formerly incarcerated
person’s level of education is, the lower the chance is that the person will return to prison
(Fabelo, 2002). Through this study I sought to demonstrate the benefits of delivering a prison
education program that promotes persistence to continue education after release, goal setting, and
attainment of educational achievement goals.
Literature Review
The purpose of this literature review is to determine the role, if any, prison education
programs play in goal setting and attainment of educational achievement goals among formerly
incarcerated men and the ability of such programs to positively affect persistence to continue
education. In my experience, I have observed a need for an educational program, that includes all
partners working to increase the self-efficacy of students to continue education, even when it is
not mandated. Prison education programs positively impact recidivism even when taking into
consideration the past educational experiences of those enrolled. Identifying the barriers and
challenges that prison education programs encounter while seeking to understand factors that
affect student outcomes can assist with the development of a student’s knowledge and skills to
continue the pursuit of education even after release.
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This literature review begins with a summary of the existence of prison education
programs and their impact on recidivism rates. Providing positive outlets for prisoners returning
to society in the form of education or employment can serve as a deterrent to returning to a life
of crime and influence persistence to continue education. Next, the review discusses past and
present educational experiences of those who are incarcerated, including the operations of
education programs in prison. A discussion follows of common barriers and challenges those
who are incarcerated encounter when participating in prison education programs. Previous
educational experiences and barriers and challenges contribute greatly to the motivation needed
to continue education (Anders & Noblit, 2011). The literature review then addresses the factors
that affect the outcomes of prison education programs. Organizations cannot afford to implement
lackluster prison education programs that fail to promote the rewards of obtaining an education.
The review of the literature concludes with identification of the knowledge and skills former
prison education program students require to continue their pursuit of education after release.
Prison Education Programs and Their Impact on Recidivism Rates
Prison education programs exist in prisons across the nation and play a vital role in
efforts to reduce the recidivism rates (Anders & Noblit, 2011). Data gathered through a
multistate study indicated prison educational programs reduced the rate of recidivism from 49%
to 20% (Esperian, 2010). The higher the level of education attained was, the greater the reduction
in recidivism was (Anders & Noblit, 2011; Fabelo, 2002; Piotrowski & Lathrop, 2012). A
positive relationship exists between a person’s level of education and the magnitude of its effect
on recidivism (Chappell, 2002).
The U.S. Department of Justice (2003) found that as many as 60% of the nation’s
incarcerated men were functionally illiterate. Functional illiteracy is the state of person whose
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ability to read and write is below the threshold needed to complete day-to-day tasks necessary to
properly function as a contributing member of society. Low levels of educational attainment and
high levels of illiteracy occur among those living in correctional facilities (Steiner, 2005). To
ensure prison education programs positively affect persistence of formerly incarcerated men to
pursue education after release, high-quality, high-impact prison education programs must be
designed to give incarcerated men an enhanced educational experience that promotes goal setting
and attainment of educational achievement goals.
Past and Present Educational Experiences of Incarcerated Individuals
Hall and Killacky (2008) remind us that because the past educational experiences of
many prisoners have been negative, the deliberate purpose of a prison classroom must be to
promote positive educational outcomes. Successful educational experiences are few and far
between for many incarcerated individuals (Shippen; Houchins; Crites; Derzis; & Patterson,
2010). Jovanic (2011) reported that only one third of Texas’s prisoners participated in any
educational programs offered. A prominent characteristic shared by most prison inmates is
having had unsuccessful experiences in education, including leaving education early, being
retained, and simply not acquiring foundational literacy skills (Shippen et al., 2010). The
relationship between successful educational experiences and a person’s desire to persist in setting
and achieving educational goals and returning to educational settings is indicative of the need to
ensure the provision of successful prison education programs and that caring and supportive
individuals are cornerstones of prison classrooms.
Hall and Killacky (2008) found that students reported being most engaged when they
were with teachers who “treated them fairly, with respect, and who encouraged them to do good
things” (p. 314). Such positive relationships afford inmates opportunities for education they may
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have once decided to abandon. Although inmates are fully aware of their personal deficits, about
half choose not to participate in programs offered in prison (Piotrowski & Lathrop, 2012).
Although some may believe inmates are hardened criminals, inmates often experience feelings of
regret regarding missed educational opportunities, which often then become a motivation to
change (Hall & Killacky, 2008). This motivation flourishes in a prison classroom offering the
best opportunity for an inmate to reach the goals of true rehabilitation and a more successful life
on release (Thomas, 2012). It is at this juncture that a prison education program can have a
lasting effect on the persistence and an increase in one’s self-efficacy to continue education.
However, students in prison education programs face many barriers that reduce the positive
impact of programs on the persistence of formerly incarcerated men to pursue education after
release.
Barriers and Challenges in Prison Education Programs
Students participating—and students wishing to participate—in prison education
programs face many barriers, including day-to-day prison operations and oversight, negative
perceptions of offering educational opportunities to prisoners, reductions in funding and
resources, and enrollment prioritization. Both social and programmatic barriers affect the
operation of educational programs in prisons. On a social level, some among the general public
perceive operating educational programs in prisons as compromising the spending of taxpayer’s
funds and providing inmates with growth and opportunities at the expense of victims (Larson,
2015). On a programmatic level, some obstacles to operating educational programs in prisons
relate to funding to support incarcerated men and their pursuit of education after release, and
other obstacles relate to day-to-day prison operations, such as daily schedules, continuous
monitoring by correctional officers, and potential for inmate segregation. The day-to-day
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operational structure of a prison requires inmates to adhere to a strict code of conduct, with an
often adversarial relationship between inmates and staff resulting in natural antagonism between
those supervised and those charged with controlling behavior (Thomas, 2012).
Some have expressed the opinion that offering educational programs inside prisons goes
against the intended correctional approach of such institutions and that such programs constitute
an unearned luxury (Jovanic, 2011). Larsen (2015) provided insight into the opinions of both
members of the public and lawmakers, claiming that the single task of those behind bars was to
“to suffer state-sponsored punishment” (p. 10). Education provides opportunities for
employment, critical thinking skills, and the promotion of self-confidence. Meyer et al. (2010)
found a prison staff member expressed feelings of inequity at educational opportunities being
afforded to prisoners but not staff members (Meyer, S. J., Fredericks, L., Borden, C. M., &
Richardson, P. L., 2010). A reasonable further supposition is that such educational opportunities
seem unjust to those victimized by an inmate receiving them.
Funding forms another barrier to the positive impact of prison education programs on the
educational persistence of formerly incarcerated men. Prison educational programs experienced a
heavy blow in 1994 with the elimination of federal Pell Grant funding for such programs
(Esperian, 2010; Greenberg et al., 2008; Simpkins, 2015). One impact of this elimination was a
reduction in program offerings (Anders & Noblit, 2011; Meyer et al., 2010). Although programs
have continued to exist, many have been reduced, eliminated, or required to establish student
eligibility criteria to prioritize inmate participation (Fabelo, 2002). When funding for a prison
education program impacts the number of students allowed to participate, prioritization of
inmates can occur based on age, date of release, current education status, and other criteria
determined by the program. Decreasing the rate of recidivism remains a complex problem to
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solve and there are many components and partners necessary in order for a prison education
program to be successful. Despite the challenges, prison educational programs have continued to
exist and positively affect those fortunate enough to attend. However, gathering the perceptions
of formerly incarcerated men regarding prison education programs and the barriers and
challenges they have faced in connection with such programs helped determine which practices
promote persistence to continue education.
Factors That Affect the Outcomes of Prison Education Programs
While challenging to implement, educational programs have had successful outcomes
including HSECs, adult basic education, literacy, and vocational and higher education courses,
which provides a glimpse into the return on investment of offering educational opportunities to
prisoners (Simpkins, 2015). Common difficulties faced by prisons that offer these programs
typically revolve around the need to train or hire skilled and experienced teachers with the ability
to properly support this population (Hall & Killacky, 2008; Jovanic, 2011). To offer courses
taught by unprepared teachers would be both detrimental to prisoners and a wasted cost to
prisons (Jovanic, 2011). Furthermore, a lack of qualified teachers could negatively impact an
inmate’s persistence to pursue education after release or negatively affect the resources and
guidance provided to promote goal setting and attainment of educational achievement goals.
Other factors affecting the outcomes of prison education programs and their ability to
positively impact the persistence of formerly incarcerated men to pursue education after release
are inability to access the internet, limited study time in a noise-free environment, lack of
allowable social interaction, and disadvantages of obtaining or accessing educational materials
and resources (Simpkins, 2015; Watts, 2010). Successful social reintegration depends on
educational opportunities (Jovanic, 2011). Requiring inmates to attend educational programs—
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contrasted with voluntary participation—can help to reduce the chance that they will return to
prison. Some correctional institutions require prisoners to attend educational programs, but
others have lengthy waiting lists (Piotrowski & Lathrop, 2012). Inmates in a prison who
participate in the education programs offered by the prison are less likely to find themselves
returning to prison after release (Vacca, 2004). Findings reported in existing literature support
the importance of prison education programs and their effect on lowering prisoners’
susceptibility to return to prison, thereby promoting successful, crime-free life after
incarceration.
Knowledge and Skills to Continue the Pursuit of Education After Release
If the expectation of prisons is indeed to rehabilitate prisoners, numerous existing
findings support the need to offer prison education programs to those who are incarcerated
(Watts, 2010). Prison education programs offer an enormous opportunity to provide a positive
educational experience, delivering the knowledge and skills a student needs to continue their
pursuit of education after release (Meyer et al., 2010). As stated by Esperian (2010), “Education
is a humanizing process, one which clearly would have an ameliorative effect on recidivism rates
when one considers that education will only sharpen rationality and critical thinking” (p. 329).
Not seeking ways to expand the impact of prison education programs on the persistence of
formerly incarcerated men to pursue education after release would further increase recidivism
rates. Education can serve as a cornerstone of changing behavior and help reduce the number of
former inmates returning to prison. It is essential to seek to educate those in prison for the
betterment of both them and society.
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Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
This section organizes literature supporting the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences affecting the persistence of formerly incarcerated men to pursue
continuing education after release. Supporting literature reviewed as part of this evaluative study
yielded extensive information on the assumed influences affecting the organizational
performance goal. This section situates literature within the conceptual framework as it relates to
prison education programming and its impact on persistence that supports goal setting and
educational attainment.
The supporting literature regarding knowledge relates to the importance of building
knowledge and skills that ultimately reduce barriers to reintegration and introduce the process of
setting and accomplishing goals. The supporting literature regarding motivation relates to the
influence of prison education programs and their impact on motivating students to increase their
self-efficacy. The supporting literature on organization relates to the role of a prison as an
organization in its commitment to the rehabilitation and personal growth of incarcerated
individuals.
Knowledge
Assumed Influences on Organizational Performance Goals. Knowledge is assumed to
influence organizational performance goals in two ways:
1. Formerly incarcerated male WSD students need to know how to set educational goals
(a metacognitive skill).
2. Formerly incarcerated male WSD students need to know how to achieve their
educational goals (a procedural skill).
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Supporting Literature. It is important to examine knowledge and skills because they are
required for optimum performance when accomplishing goals and when anticipating future
challenges (Clark & Estes, 2008). Increased internal motivation combined with internal
motivation indicators (such as active choice, persistence, and mental effort) often result in goal
achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Through self-reflection and self-regulatory
processes, a person can apply a considerable amount of influence on their own outcomes and
environment (Denler et al., 2006). An individual’s self-efficacy consists of their judgments of
their personal capacity to learn or perform at a desired level (Pajares, 2006). Students should
receive encouragement to identify reasons for changing and opportunities for employment and
education after release that deter them from returning to crime (Anderman, 2015). Simpkins
(2015) said that even in the unforgiving atmosphere of prison, prison education programs make a
difference. Prison education programs help reduce various barriers to positive reintegration by
strengthening intellectual, cognitive, and life skills of students (Fabelo, 2002). Distinguishing
between mastery goal orientation and performance goal orientation aids the development of
strong educational achievement goals (Rueda, 2011). Although some may define a goal as a
guidepost for measuring the outcomes of performance, goals can shift over time, and individuals
tend to rewrite history in a way that masks the true goal performance outcome (Lewis, 2011).
Motivation
Assumed Influences on Organizational Performance Goals. Motivation is assumed to
influence organizational performance goals in two ways:
1. Formerly incarcerated male WSD students need to believe they can achieve academic
success and continue education after release (self-efficacy).
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2. Formerly incarcerated male WSD students need to attain diplomas, degrees, or
certificates (goal orientation).
Supporting Literature. Motivation is important because although a person may know
how to complete a task, they must also want to complete the task if it is to actually be completed
(Rueda, 2011). The two major types of motivation are internal (or intrinsic) and external (or
extrinsic; Clark & Estes, 2008). External motivation influences, such as social and cultural
influences, form part of the development of motivation through a person’s environment and
those they interact with (Rueda, 2011). The question of whether prison education increases
interest in continuation of education after release has remained largely unaddressed (Gaes, 2008).
Students can meet educational goals if positive forces—such as organizational and teacher
support, family support, and self-persistence—surround them (Tinto, 2002). Motivation has a
cultural aspect, and people develop beliefs that motivate them based on interactions with others
in various contexts (Rueda, 2011). Self-efficacy theory, as it applies to WSD students, indicates
that virtually every person has the ability to identify, set, and accomplish goals for change or
achievement (Pajares, 2006). Interest increases motivation, and motivation helps development of
the confidence needed to enter new activities (Schraw, 2009). A student in a prison education
program may have regret about past educational and life opportunities and experiences, but the
student can use these experiences as motivators for change (Hall & Killacky, 2008).
Organizational Support
Assumed Influences on Organizational Performance Goals. Organizational support is
assumed to influence organizational performance goals in two ways:
1. WSD needs to convey the value of setting and attaining educational achievement
goals (cultural model).
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2. WSD needs to provide instruction and education that helps prepare students to set and
attain their educational achievement goals (cultural setting).
Supporting Literature. Without proper skills and training, convicted felons find
themselves at a great disadvantage once outside prison (Thomas, 2012). Today, the United States
Department of Justice (2023) states over 650,000 men and women leave prison each year in the
United States, with more than two thirds returning to prison within 3 years of release. The
education and training systems operating in most prisons serve as a key component of the
rehabilitation mission of those prisons to assist prisoners as they move toward release
(Greenberg et al., 2008). Commitment, expectations, support, feedback, involvement, and
learning are critical conditions for persistence, and when an atmosphere is conducive to learning,
student persistence and success are possible (Tinto, 2002). WSD staff members must encourage
students to ask two basic questions derived from expectancy–value motivation theory— “Can I
do the task?” and “Do I want to do the task?”—when preparing students to set and attain their
educational achievement goals (Eccles, 2006). Hall and Killacky (2008) reported that prison
students said they were most engaged in education when remembering teachers who treated them
fairly and respectfully and who encouraged them to do good things. The maintenance of order
and the tensions of continuous security can lead to marginalization of teaching and learning in a
prison setting (Watts, 2010). The strict codes of conduct prisoners must follow and the
adversarial relationships among inmates and prison correction officer staff often results in
antagonism between those supervised and those conducting the supervision (Thomas, 2012).
Conceptual Framework
This section discusses the conceptual framework of the study. A conceptual framework is
a theory that allows for the presentation of ideas and beliefs held regarding phenomena studied
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(Maxwell, 2013). Clark and Estes (2008) stated that the purpose of gap analysis, whether at the
individual or team level, is to determine whether all parties have adequate knowledge,
motivation, and organizational support to meet the goals established within an organization.
These three areas are vital to the success of an organization. The goal of gap analysis is to
diagnose human causes behind gaps in performance and bring out the perceptions of key
stakeholders and team members (Clark & Estes, 2008). The result of gap analysis can be a
combination of motivational programs created and implemented to close the gap or achieve a
goal of the organization analyzed (Clark & Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes’s knowledge,
motivation, and organizational support framework was used as the conceptual framework for this
evaluative study and links the literature review to the methodological approach used.
To attain WSD’s mission and goal, stakeholders, including students, must be
knowledgeable and willing to engage in conceptual, factual, procedural, and metacognitive
growth and awareness. The aspirational organizational goal of WSD’s prison education
programs—to influence WSD students’ goal setting and attainment of educational achievement
goals, resulting in 100% enrollment of all formerly incarcerated WSD students in continuing
education program within 1 year of release—will be achieved by using the gap analysis
framework to determine existing gaps hindering attainment of such a goal. The study involved
use of a deductive framework to explore factors contributing to and influencing former
prisoners’ perceptions of prison education programs and the role, if any, of such programs in
influencing goal setting and attainment of educational achievement goals. Using a deductive
pattern of theory, participants were asked open-ended questions to allow movement toward
testing a theory or hypothesis to understand the most influential factors formerly incarcerated
men experienced that influenced their continued pursuit of education. The impact of knowledge,
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motivation, and organizational support on the organization was analyzed through former WSD
students’ perceptions to determine which practices positively affected the persistence of formerly
incarcerated men in their pursuit of education.
Figure 1 represents the WSD organization in the large circle and the stakeholders
considered in this study, WSD students, in the small circle. WSD provides education programs to
all who are incarcerated, and WSD students attend WSD education programs afforded to them
while incarcerated.
Methodology
This section presents the methodology used for this study, including the research
approach used and the methods used for data collection (i.e., interviews). Appendices A–E
describe the participating stakeholders and sampling criteria, interview protocol, credibility and
trustworthiness, validity and reliability, and ethics.
Data Source: Interviews
This study relied on a qualitative research approach for gathering and analysis of
information to help address the problem of practice. The aim of qualitative research is to allow
researchers to answer important questions while remaining focused on meaning and
understanding (Creswell, 2014; McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
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Figure 1
Stakeholder and Organizational Relationship

Winston School District (WSD)

Educational provider for the incarcerated
Needs to convey the value of setting and attaining
educational achievement goals
Needs to provide instruction and education that helps
prepare students to set and attain their educational
achievement goals

WSD Students

Need to know how to set
educational goals
Need to know how to achieve
educational goals
Need to believe they can
achieve academic success
Need to attain diplomas,
degrees, or certificates
WSD will provide prison education programs that influence WSD students’ goal
setting and attainment of educational achievement goals, resulting in 100% enrollment
of all formerly incarcerated WSD students in continuing education program within
1 year of release.
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Participants
Interviews were used to collect the perceptions of formerly incarcerated men over the age
of 18 years who had participated in the WSD academic or vocational prison education programs
at any time during their incarceration and who were enrolled at the time of the study in any
academic or vocational program resulting in a diploma, degree, or certificate or had attained a
diploma, degree, or certificate since release. The goal of collecting these perceptions was to
study the impact of the WSD prison education program on formerly incarcerated men’s
persistence to continue education after release. Interviews of 11 participants were conducted
from January to March of 2018. Gathering student perception data regarding how the WSD
prison education program positively affected the persistence to continue education of those who
were once incarcerated aided identification of WSD practices and determination of the best
answer to the guiding question of this study, the aim of which was to increase the level of
persistence of formerly incarcerated men to continue education after release.
Instrumentation
An important component of qualitative research is a focus on the primary instrument of
data collection and analysis, the researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). An important element of
the methodological approach used in this study consisted of its underlying philosophical
assumptions. Creswell (2014) reiterated that a researcher, when planning a study, must include in
their thought process the following three components of the study: their philosophical worldview
and the assumptions they bring to the study, the research design, and specific methods and
procedures bridging the gap between methodological approach and practice. According to
Creswell (2014), the researcher should seek to determine what works. Fink (2013) provided rules
to guide the writing of questions and suggested that such questions should be meaningful to
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participants and use standard language. I intended the results of this study to help all who are or
have been incarcerated with setting and attaining educational goals and accessing their potential
to achieve academic success.
Obtaining answers to the research question guiding this study provided deeper
understanding of the organizational influences of WSD that lead former WSD students to set and
attain educational achievement goals and prepare WSD students to persist with continuing
education after release. Fink (2013) said that people are not always willing to reveal their
opinions. Interviews allowed for rich conversations with former WSD students based on flexible
questions that provided opportunities for emerging topics to be explored.
When trying to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational support factors
that former WSD students perceived to have increased their persistence with continuing
education within 1 year of release, I sought to gain substantial awareness through the use of an
interview protocol that allowed insight into the design and implementation of the WSD prison
education program and an understanding of the educational history and educational goals of the
former WSD students. Interview questions were designed to collect data on each student’s
perception of the WSD program, the influences they experienced leading to their persistence to
continue education after release, goal setting and goal attainment, experiences with WSD
teachers, organizational constructs (such as student educational support) both inside and outside
the classroom, and instructional resources used to build student knowledge and capacity to
continue pursuing education after release.
Data Collection Procedures
Interviews were conducted of participants recruited using both the purposeful and
snowball sampling approaches. By obtaining the cooperation of a personal contact, I solicited
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participation in the study through the assistance of a Travis County probation officer. I also
identified two community organizations that provided educational resources, guidance, or
support to formerly incarcerated individuals. Both the probation officer and community
organizations were asked to publicly post the purpose of the study and criteria for interview
selection in a highly visible place.
Interviews were conducted with 11 participants who met the criteria. I led all interviews
and conducted each interview at the Travis County Probation Office in DelValle, Texas, a
community organization, or another location convenient to the interviewee. The interviews were
conducted in English only, designed to complement the conceptual framework of the study, and
recorded to assure collection of data. Each interview was transcribed without using names or any
other identifying personal information. Participants were informed that participation in the study
was voluntary and that the participants had the option to withdraw at any time during the
interviews. After collecting the names of interested formerly incarcerated men who met the
established criteria for participation, I scheduled times for interviews. Each interview lasted no
longer than 1 hr. In the event the first eight interviewees were all of the same ethnicity, I was
prepared to adjust my criteria and seek additional interviewees.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) argued that semistructured interview questions allow
flexibility with interviews and give a researcher a chance to comprehend an interviewee’s views
and ideas regarding the subject under investigation. The interviews were semistructured in an
attempt to gain understanding of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational support
influences on students’ perceptions of prison education programs and the role, if any, such
programs had in influencing setting and attainment of educational achievement goals and
persistence to pursue education after release. This semistructured interview process allowed for
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the asking of open-ended questions as well as follow-up questions based on responses provided
by the interviewees. The use of open-ended questions allowed for the expansion of all responses.
Discussion of the formalities of recording the interview, providing the participant with a copy of
the questions, and informing the participant they could withdraw from the interview occurred at
the beginning of each interview. For the sake of comfort and ease, every interview was held in a
setting comfortable to the participant and accommodated their location and schedule (Merriam,
2009).
Data Analysis
Data from completed interviews were transcribed prior to the commencement of analysis.
Transcription of recorded interviews was verbatim and included phrases and explicit language
used by the participant when describing their educational experiences. Final transcription
documents were double-checked for accuracy by a second party prior to analyzation.
Demographic variables such as ethnicity and age were analyzed as nominal variables. The use of the
constant comparative method was used to identify meaningful themes found within the transcribed
textual data. The use of open coding assisted the process to generate labels based on the use of
common phrases and words, while axial coding assisted with the grouping of codes and selective
coding led to the development of categories to address the research question (Marriam, 2009)
Validity and Reliability
Appendices C and D discuss the validity and reliability of the study.
Findings
The purpose of this qualitative study was to identify the practices of WSD that played an
integral role in formerly incarcerated men’s persistence to continue education after release using
data to support the need for an educational program, inclusive of all partners, that would increase
the self-efficacy of students to continue education, even when it is not mandated. This section
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includes the overall findings and begins with an explanation of the stakeholders’ perceptions of
prison education programs and their influences gathered through participant interviews and
analysis, which provide a baseline from which impactful organizational change can begin and be
measured. I discuss the knowledge, motivation, and organizational support findings as they relate
to the research question: What knowledge, motivation, and organizational support influences of
WSD lead former WSD students to set and attain educational achievement goals? The section
concludes with a summary of how the themes answer the research question.
Participating Stakeholders
A total of 11 formerly incarcerated men over the age of 18 years voluntarily participated
in this study. Each had participated in a WSD academic or vocational program at some time
during their incarceration and had, since release, attained a diploma, degree, or certificate from
any academic or vocational program (or were enrolled at the time of the study in such a
program). The 11 participants represented all of the organization’s prison education programs:
HSEC or general education diploma, literacy, and vocational. Table 2 provides the demographic
information of the 11 study participants. To protect the participants’ identities, they were
informed at the interview that any identifiable information would be masked during data
analysis. Pseudonyms are used in Table 2 to protect the participants’ identities.
Table 2
Demographic Information of Participating Stakeholders
Pseudonym Age range
(years)
WSD program
experience
Ethnicity Current education
program
Kurt 18–29 GED Black Community college
Clayton 18–29 GED White GED
Chris 18–29 GED Black GED
Craig 18–29 GED White GED
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Cory 30–39 GED Black GED
Marcus ≥40 GED West Indian American Vocational
Rod 30–39 Vocational Black Vocational
Rick 18–29 Literacy Hispanic GED
Hector 18–29 Literacy Hispanic Literacy
William 30–39 Literacy Black Literacy
Martin ≥40 Literacy Black Literacy
Note. WSD = Winston School District; GED = general education diploma.
Overall Findings
Data collected and presented regarding age and ethnicity demonstrated that the
organization’s efforts to promote persistence varied among individuals both generationally and
racially but were still successful. Tinto (2002) posited that student persistence is achievable in an
atmosphere conducive to learning. Age and ethnicity data help to illustrate how WSD’s setting
could influence persistence and how participants perceived goal achievement generationally and
racially. Students can meet educational goals if positive organizational forces exist (Tinto, 2002).
For example, with regard to age, younger participants articulated what they believed to be the
meaning of persistence more easily than participants over the age of 40 years. The data also
provide insight into participants’ experiences in the education programs offered during
incarceration. The data support positive student–teacher relationships impacting a student’s
confidence in their capacity to continue their education, and the data also support a lack of
confidence negatively impacting student’s self-efficacy and persistence to continue (Hall &
Killacky, 2008).
To what extent has WSD been meeting its mission to provide quality educational
opportunities to all students? The findings presented in this section provide insight into former
students’ knowledge and experience in connection with defining persistence and the process of
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goal setting, how or whether they believed the organization met its mission, and how or whether
meeting that mission either (a) increased a student’s persistence to continue their education after
release and (b) contributed to an increase in knowledge needed to set and attain educational
achievement goals. The findings are presented as themes obtained through participant interviews
and organized according to the categories of knowledge, motivation, and organizational support.
The findings identify and describe the knowledge, motivation, and organizational support
influences contributed to WSD meeting its two organizational goals of reducing recidivism and
increasing former inmates’ success in obtaining and maintaining employment. These influences
were taken into consideration with respect to the stakeholder goal of ensuring students enroll in
continuing education courses after release.
The knowledge examined in this study consists of metacognitive knowledge and
procedural knowledge of how to set and achieve educational goals. A person’s metacognitive
knowledge is their awareness of their cognition and processes, and their procedural knowledge is
their knowledge of how to do things (Rueda, 2011). The motivation examined in this study
conformed to the self-efficacy and goal-orientation theories because these theories provided
insight into the organizational features that led former students to believe they could achieve
academic success and continue their education after release to attain a diploma, degree, or
certificate. In support of the stakeholder goal to ensure students enroll in a program to continue
education after release, organizational support examined was related to the cultural model and
cultural setting; the aim was to determine how the organization conveyed the value of setting and
attaining achievement goals and the guidance and supports provided to prepare students to
accomplish these tasks.
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Knowledge Findings
A person’s knowledge consists of all the facts, concepts, processes, and principles a
person is aware of having learned, can remember, and can think about, including knowledge a
person cannot recall obtaining (Clark & Estes, 2008). The organization’s stakeholder goal was to
ensure all students are enrolling in continuing education courses after release. A key
responsibility of the organization was to educate and increase students’ knowledge, which would
ultimately result in reduced recidivism rates. This section examines two main types of
knowledge: metacognitive knowledge (i.e., awareness of self) and procedural knowledge (i.e.,
awareness of how to do things).
Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognitive knowledge allows a person to know the “when” and “why” of their actions
and is a key problem-solving component (Rueda, 2011). During the interviews, participants
provided insight into their metacognitive knowledge in one of two ways. The first was
participants describing how, and in some cases whether, they knew how to set educational goals;
for example, a participant might articulate their knowledge of their own cognitive ability to set
educational goals. The second way was participants sharing their metacognitive knowledge of
persistence; for example, a participant might be aware of their own persistant capabilities, what
persistence meant to them, and whether they were aware of how persistence influenced their
actions when choosing to continue their education. Tinto (2002) stated that persistence is the
quality of pursuing a goal even in the presence of challenges. As a result of each participant’s
reflection on metacognitive knowledge, the participant interviews provided insight into WSD’s
guidance and instruction on goal setting and how WSD contributed to the former students’
persistence to continue education after release.
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Nine of 11 participants demonstrated metacognitive knowledge of persistence, including
the actions of WSD that invoked their desire to persist. Participants used common language
when explaining persistence, such as “never giving up.” For example, Kurt stated, “Persistence is
me. I made it from the projects and out of a gang. I am now in college. I will never give up.”
Rick shared, “Persistence is hustling on the street so your family can eat. It is choosing to learn
how to read English when you can barely speak English.” William, Rod, and Chris all
coincidentally used the exact same words: “Persistence is not giving up.”
Quotes from each participant captured metacognitive knowledge of persistence. Rick and
Hector associated persistence with “hustling” to take care of family and keep going. The
remaining four participants, Clayton, Hector, Cory and Craig also associated persistence with not
giving up or quitting. Both participants aged 40 years or older, Marcus and Martin, said they
were unsure and unable to provide a definition of persistence.
When describing metacognitive knowledge acquired from the organization’s education
program regarding promotion of persistence to continue their education after release, four of the
participants shared a common belief that the organization influenced their persistence through
realization and positive self-belief. For example, Martin stated, “It [WSD] made me believe I
could actually read. That I was smart if given the chance.” Rick said the influence of the
organization’s program made him realize that he “could be somebody better … someone else.
Not Rick the car thief.”
Greenberg et al. (2008) said operational education and training systems are a key
component of a prison’s rehabilitation mission. Seven of the participants stated that WSD had an
influence on their continued pursuit of reading, learning, or education, and four participants
indicated the program had no influence on their pursuit of continuing education after release.
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Simpkins (2015) stated that even in the harshest of prisons an education program can make a
difference. The participants’ responses, regardless of whether their experiences of the WSD
education program were positive or negative, demonstrated metacognitive knowledge and an
acquired awareness of the pursuit of education that in some cases did not previously exist.
Additional metacognitive knowledge findings indicated that all 11 participants shared a
common belief that money and resources, resources in the form of family assistance and
guidance regarding systems and processes, were key components of their successful pursuit of
continuing education. Eight of the participants believed money, along with some form of
assistance, was a necessary component of continuing education after release. The following
excerpts were collected when participants were asked what they believed was necessary to
continue education after release: Rod stated, “You need to be able to afford school.” Martin
shared, “Help and money were what continued my education.” Chris shared, “You need to have
money and the desire to finish.” Kurt stated, “Time and money is what you need.” Each
participant stated some form of assistance was vital to their success, whether monetary
assistance, assistance with researching education programs, assistance with enrollment, or
assistance with obtaining a transcript.
As with the metacognitive knowledge identifying a need for income and assistance, 10 of
the 11 participants described bits of knowledge they had acquired since release but wished they
knew prior to release. For example, when reflecting on their ability to persist, six of the 11
participants described difficulties they faced in their pursuit of continuing education after release,
difficulties that knowledge could have been minimized or eliminated. Craig and Kurt each
expressed regret; Craig described “wishing” he could have completed his educational journey
while in jail, and Kurt admitted he wished he was never incarcerated at all. These data support
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Rueda’s (2011) assertion that metacognitive knowledge is a key problem-solving component.
The participants’ reflections demonstrated the maturity needed to understand the hardships
incarceration leads to on release and the distractions that challenged their persistence to continue
education after release.
Baker (2006) stated that metacognition is a person’s knowledge about themselves as a
learner, which includes strategies for effectively carrying out tasks indicative of procedural
knowledge to be discussed next. The themes that emerged from the interviews demonstrated the
participants’ awareness of their persistence to continue education, with more than half believing
the organization contributed to their persistence. Assistance, whether monetary or familial, was a
necessary component of their pursuit of education. The ways each participant overcame
hardships and persisted to continue their education after release depended on their procedural
knowledge, discussed next.
Procedural Knowledge
As Clark and Estes (2008) explained, procedural knowledge covers the procedures and
rules required to perform specific tasks. When asked to describe their goal-setting processes,
participants found those processes difficult to articulate. It was possible that participants had
goal-setting knowledge but simply failed to demonstrate it during the interviews.
The participants had a propensity to describe procedural knowledge in terms of actions
that support persistence and were unaware of a formal process for setting goals. For example,
outside the metacognitive knowledge of persistence, nine of the participants’ procedural
knowledge of persistence entailed not giving up. Tinto (2002) stated that persisting, the active
form of persistence, is another way to speak of motivation. This argument also supports the
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motivation findings, which received support from participants overcoming negative beliefs in
their self-efficacy and persisting to continue their education.
An array of responses emerged in response to the request to describe procedural
knowledge of continuing education after release. These responses encompassed resources and
assistance necessary to the process of continuing education. For example, eight participants knew
that “money” was a necessary resource to continue their education and included it as a step in
their process to continue education. When explaining the steps taken to continue education, Rick
said, “Need money, then guidance or help, then need a tutor.” William similarly explained,
“Need money, then need to believe in one self, then need to believe in God, then never give up.”
These quotes provide a glimpse of the participants’ procedural knowledge related to
performing the task of continuing education after release. Aside from the eight who said money
was needed, the remaining three each said some form of “help” was a necessary step in their
process to continue education after release—help from family or help from school/program
assistance. Eight participants described effort—with phrases such as “hard work,” “put in effort,”
and “need to focus”—as an additional step in their plan to achieve their educational goals.
The participants did not express knowledge derived from the organization’s guidance
regarding the steps to complete goal setting and promote persistence to continue education after
release. Clark and Estes (2008) listed knowledge as critical to achieving a goal. The themes that
emerged suggested participants did not know how to implement and achieve their educational
goals after release. However, participants did demonstrate metacognitive knowledge in relation
to persistence and commitment to continuing education after release.
To what extent did the organization promote students’ persistence to continue education
after release? Only three of the 11 participants indicated that the organization did not contribute
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to their pursuit of education, and eight participants felt the WSD program played a role in their
pursuit of continuing education after release. Participants’ articulation of procedural knowledge
on goal setting learned through the WSD program was minimal, indicating the organization
could better prepare students for reentry into the community and meet the organization’s goals of
reducing recidivism and improving former inmates’ success obtaining and maintaining
employment. Although the emergent themes support the organization’s positive impact on
persistence to continue education after release, the themes also suggest that the participants
lacked necessary resources and guidance that would aid their pursuit of education. WSD had an
influence on the persistence of former students to continue education after release but had not
provided resources that would contribute to the goal-setting process that would properly assist
participants with their pursuit of education after release.
Motivation Findings
For this study, motivation characterizes the degree to which an individual wants to
complete a task (Rueda, 2011). As Clark and Estes (2008) explained, motivation gets a person
going, keeps them moving, and is a determining factor in how much effort they will expend on
tasks. A responsibility of WSD was to educate students and increase their knowledge, resulting
in reduced recidivism rates and improvements in former inmates’ success obtaining and
maintaining employment. This section examines motivation’s role in terms of self-efficacy and
goal orientation.
Self-Efficacy
An individual’s self-efficacy is their self-perception of their capabilities (Pajares, 2006).
This belief connects to motivation because individuals’ positive beliefs about themselves make
them more likely to engage in work necessary to achieve a goal (Rueda, 2011). During
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interviews, participants described the extent to which they believed in their ability to achieve
academic success and the contributing factors, if any, that affected those feelings and impacted
(negatively or positively) their beliefs that they could continue their education after release.
Four of the 11 participants expressed negative self-efficacy regarding education.
Participants used common language and explained that they “never thought” they would like or
could be good at school. For example, Rick stated, “I never thought I was good at this
[expletive]. I mean, I could barely speak English. I felt stupid in school.” Martin similarly stated,
“I always thought I was stupid.” These quotes capture the participants’ self-efficacy in relation to
achieving academic success. Rick described the language barrier as a contributing factor to
negative self-efficacy, and Martin shared what he believed to be true about himself.
Seven of the 11 participants shared common phrases of positive self-efficacy beliefs and
described themselves as “smart,” “not giving up,” and “being a success.” Cory illustrated
positive self-efficacy through self-evaluation: “I never really thought I would be good at school.
But I am much better at school as an adult. I find it more interesting.” William stated, “I know I
can do it. I believe in myself. It is a change in my state of mind and my being. It is knowing that
there is something greater in me, that I can be better.”
Quotes from these participants demonstrate positive self-efficacy, indicating the
participants were confident in their abilities. Pajares (2006) stated that confident individuals
anticipate successful outcomes. Participants demonstrated confidence with regard to pursuit of
education and overcoming barriers. The themes that emerged indicate a majority of the
participants’ self-efficacy regarding their ability to attain the goals they set played a large role in
their success. The next subsection discusses the effects on students’ motivation that led students
to set and attain, or seek to attain, educational achievement goals.
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37
Goal Orientation
As Anderman (2015) explained, goal orientation theory explains why a student engages
in academic work. Participants’ explanations of why they chose to continue their pursuit of
education after release support this assertion. The evidence gathered revealed how WSD’s
knowledge, motivation, and organizational support influences helped lead participants to conduct
their goal setting and attainment processes.
A person not only must believe they can meet a goal (i.e., self-efficacy) but should also
take part in the development of mastery and performance goals. Anderman (2015) stated that
men tend to be more performance oriented. All study participants identified as male.
Performance goals differ from mastery goals in that mastery goals correspond to mastering a
task, but performance goals correspond to demonstrating an ability compared with others
(Anderman, 2015). The findings indicate that participants attributed much of their motivation to
another person, usually a family member, but on occasion a staff member. Six of the 11
participants demonstrated a desire to make family members proud by performing and
accomplishing their educational tasks. Interpreted through Anderman’s goal orientation
definition, stated above, the findings indicate that participants engaged in academic work
because of family but had as their goal successful performance resulting in the completion of that
work. Hector said, “My kids, they affected how I feel. They really make me want to be better.”
Rod explained a similar perspective:
My children. My baby mama who stayed by my side through these last 5 years. I ain’t
easy. I done a lot of [expletive] wrong in my life. It’s time I did things the right way. Do
something I can teach them. Show them a different way.
Rick described the influence of his mother:
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My mama’s face when I got arrested for stealing. I was in a gang. I learned that’s the way
to survive and make money for my family. When I got busted and my mama came to see
me in prison, I thought, there has to be a better way.
These responses demonstrate the influences that led participants to remain engaged in education
after release and set and attain educational achievement goals to continue their education after
release, even if they were mental goals rather than written goals. Schraw (2009) stated that
increased motivation helps a person to develop confidence to start new activities. These
participants demonstrated their capacity to complete a performance goal by meeting their goal to
pursue and continue their education. Through a goal-orientation lens, these participants used a
common language demonstrating their aspirations to “be better” or find a “better way,” which
supports the reasons participants remained engaged in education after release.
Six participants attributed any positive influences on their continued pursuit of education
after release—as Anderman (2015) indicated common reasons why a student will engage in
academic work—to loved ones and family members. Eight of the participants responded
positively that WSD influenced their decisions to continue education after release. Themes that
emerged supported the presence of a loved one as a driving force to continue the pursuit of
education after release. Although participants did not articulate goal setting processes or devise
goal-attainment plans outside the organization, they remained motivated to continue their
education after release and set goals to improve. Descriptions of WSD organizational influences
contributing to former students’ motivation to continue education after release continued to
include experiences with staff and confidence built by participating in the WSD program.
The findings indicate participants overcame negative beliefs in their self-efficacy and
demonstrated persistence to continue their education. Evidence from the interviews indicate that
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
39
although family and loved ones was a driving force to continuing education, by building
confidence in students and promoting a positive learning environment, the WSD provided some
influence regarding the goal-setting process. However, through familial relationships,
organization staff, and the positivity of the WSD program, participants found motivation to
continue to pursue educational achievement goals. Participants at no point articulated the
organization’s involvement in the introduction, support, or implementation of the goal-setting
process.
Organizational Support Findings
This section discusses the organizational support findings as they relate to the
organization’s cultural model and cultural setting. In this section, I discuss the organizational
support findings as they relate to the organization’s cultural model (defined as the organization’s
shared mental schema) and the organization’s cultural setting (the “who, what, when, where,
why, and how of the routines,” Rueda, 2011, p. 57). The cultural model organizational support
relates to the organization conveying the value of setting and attaining educational achievement
goals. The cultural setting organizational support relates to the organization providing instruction
and education that helps prepare students to set and attain their educational achievement goals.
An organization’s culture can have a direct impact on both the knowledge and motivation
influences of an organization’s stakeholders (Clark & Estes, 2008). This direct impact can also
affect the organization’s ability to successfully meet its mission and goals. Participants were
interviewed to better understand the organizational support influences and potential barriers that
have affected WSD’s stakeholders as it has attempted to provide quality educational
opportunities to all students that would increase persistence to continue education after release.
The interview data suggest that participants may not have been fully prepared to continue the
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
40
pursuit of their education after release, in part because of limitations within the organization’s
cultural model and setting.
Cultural Model
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that organizational performance increases when processes
and resources align with goals established collaboratively. The cultural model influence depends
on the organization conveying the value of setting and attaining educational achievement goals.
During examination of the organization’s cultural model, participants were asked (a) to describe
their perceptions of the education programs they participated in and (b) whether they believed
the organization met its mission to provide quality education to all students that increased
students’ persistence to continue their education after release.
Common language regarding participants’ perceptions of the program indicated that
Martin, Chris and Rod, 3 of the 11 felt the program was “a waste of time,” while, 5 participants
used a common language indicating they believed the WSD had a positive effect on their
continuing education. Rod explained:
What good is a program if you don’t leave with [expletive]? I still have to be in school. I
should have had more time in the program and finished with something that could get me
a job. Instead, I left without [expletive].
In sharp contrast, Clayton asserted, “Yes, they get your mind right. Help you realize you can do
other [expletive]. You can be somebody.” The remaining three participants used a common
language either indicating they “didn’t need the program” or chose not to provide a response.
During examination of beliefs regarding the organization’s ability to achieve its mission
of providing quality education to all students that increases students’ persistence to continue their
education after release, participants were asked to explain why the organization did or did not
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
41
achieve its mission. Of the 11 participants, seven agreed that the organization achieved its
mission, and the remaining four were adamant that it did not and did not contribute to the
participants’ persistence to continue their education after release. Of the seven participants who
agreed WSD achieved its mission, four stated that teachers encouraged them or would not let
them quit. Cory stated, “The teachers would really make me try and not let me off the hook.”
Craig said, “The teacher would not let me give up on a problem.”
The four dissenting participants expressed disdain for not passing a test, not being
qualified when released, or not being able to attend technology classes. Rod shared, “When I was
released and realized I still wasn’t qualified to get a job, that’s when I knew it failed.”
Themes related to the cultural model influence demonstrate that the participants believed
the organization did not adequately prepare students to persist in education within 1 year of
release. Students reentered society frustrated and ill-equipped, although they still carried with
them the positivity of staff who encouraged them to persist.
Cultural Setting
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that when organizational goals, policies, or procedures
conflict with organizational culture, performance problems typically occur. The cultural setting
influence corresponds to the organization providing instruction and education that helps prepare
students to set and attain their educational achievement goals. With regard to the organization’s
cultural setting, participants were asked to provide a description of some of what they learned,
how staff and resources influenced and supported the pursuit of their educational goals and
attainment, how participants continued to learn outside the classroom, and how they felt overall
about the program and whether it achieved the organization’s mission. Responses related to each
of these areas provided additional context on WSD’s cultural setting and how it did or did not
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
42
contribute to its mission to provide quality education to all students which in turn increases their
persistence to continue their education after release.
The cultural setting of an organization is capable of influencing employee behavior,
which can then impact the performance goals of both individuals and the organization (Rueda,
2011). Responses regarding what participants learned from the organization indicated that nine
of the 11 former students could describe what they learned during their time in the program.
Participants were proud to explain what the WSD education program offered, from core subject
areas to building vocational trade skills. When asked to describe the content received while
attending the WSD education program, Clayton shared, “I learned about writing, reading, and
math. I never been good at math, even though I made it to tenth grade, I barely paid attention in
school.” Cory stated, “Algebra. Reading. I like math though. It feels good when you work a
problem with a lot of steps and you get it right.”
However, two of the participants, Chris and Marcus, felt as though they did not learn
anything or already knew all they needed to know. Chris stated, “The [expletive] is a waste of
time.” And Marcus shared, “I did the GED [general education diploma] program, but I did not
need it really because I passed my test without it.” Seven of the 11 participants recalled a
positive educational experience, one in which they had gained confidence to continue education
after release.
To further understand the cultural setting of the organization, I asked participants to share
how the staff and resources influenced and supported the pursuit and attainment of their
educational goals to promote their persistence to continue education after release. Each of the 11
participants praised a teacher for supporting or encouraging their pursuit of continuing education
during their time in the program. Cory shared, “One of my teachers really helped me. She was
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
43
patient and made me try harder. She would not just give me the answer.” Craig stated, “My
teacher was always helpful. He wanted me to listen and believe I could do it. He wanted that for
everyone.”
All participants agreed WSD staff members sought to prepare students through
instruction that included motivation, encouragement, and patience. However, when asked about
resources the organization provided to assist them in their pursuit of continuing education after
release, seven of the 11 participants said they received nothing. William said, “Nothing really,
just some information on reading programs, but none were in my area.” And Cory shared, “They
did not give me anything; my probation officer did.” The remaining four participants indicated
that shared information provided direction on certain types of programs, but they added that this
information did not contribute to them continuing education after release. Regarding documents
or artifacts related to the curriculum that participants found helpful or wanted to speak about,
eight participants said there was nothing they wished to discuss or share. The participants felt
WSD either lacked or failed to provide tangible resources to students that would further prepare
them to attain their educational achievement goals after release.
Participants were asked to describe how the organization contributed to their continuity
of learning while outside the classroom but still incarcerated. Only two of the 11 participants said
the environment was unfavorable to learning and that they could “do nothing” (Rod) or found it
difficult to read because it was “too loud” (Marcus). The remaining nine, however, continued to
read, complete assignments, or revisit daily learning outside the classroom. Clayton said, “I read
books and practiced my writing skills with work they gave me.” Martin shared, “I practiced and
practiced every night all the work I was given.” Craig said, “I just tried to remember problems or
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
44
questions and work on them.” Describing how he continued to learn outside of the classroom,
Rick stated:
My teacher gave me books to read and practice, and I read and practiced that [expletive]
every night. I practiced writing in my book. She gave me work to practice, and that’s all I
did. It kept me out of trouble, too.
The findings indicate WSD staff members, especially teachers, were a strength of the
WSD education program to provide instruction and education to prepare students to set and
attain their educational achievement goals. Seven participants felt the organization achieved its
mission of providing quality educational opportunities to all students to increase their persistence
to continue education after release. Themes related to the cultural setting influences suggest that
although delivery of resources was lacking, the participants described engaging instruction that
sparked interest and prepared students for education after release. The environment outside the
classroom did not always support continuous learning, but participants persisted to attain their
educational goals.
Summary
The Findings section presented the research findings gathered through content analysis of
data collected from 11 participant interviews. The section addressed the following research
question: What knowledge, motivation, and organizational support influences of WSD lead
former WSD students to set and attain educational achievement goals?
The organization did promote persistence throughout the program, influencing the desire
of students to continue education after release, but there was a general lack of procedural
knowledge to support participants when continuing education after release. Participants felt the
organization did not necessarily convey the value of setting educational achievement goals and
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
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could do more to prepare students before release. However, participants described a positive
learning experience and quality educational opportunities in the classroom that increased their
persistence to continue education after release.
Recommendations
This section provides interpretation of the findings and identifies and discusses the
practices of WSD that support setting and attaining educational achievement goals and delivery
of quality educational opportunities that improve persistence to continue education after release.
The section also provides recommendations for promotion of persistence to continue education
after release in terms of knowledge, motivation, and organizational support influences. The
section concludes with limitations and delimitations, and recommendations for future research.
Discussion and Recommendations for Practice
The Findings section identified knowledge, motivation, and organizational support
strengths and weaknesses, but the aim of this section is to identify recommended practices—
practices that influenced persistence and educational goal setting and attainment to increase the
persistence of former WSD students to continue education after release—and recommendations
of areas in need of further development—suggestions for organizational change rather than
prescriptions. Identification of these recommendations depended on the finding that
organizational support influenced both knowledge and motivation. Organizational support
largely determined the knowledge essential to continue education after release and how
motivation and persistence could influence the pursuit of knowledge to set and attain academic
achievement goals. Staff developing and implementing instruction and building positive
relationships with students play a vital role in building a strong prison education program.
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
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However, recidivism remains a complex problem to solve with many components and partners
necessary for a prison education program to be successful.
Recommendation 1: Ensure WSD Teachers Promote Persistence
García and García (2021) stated that schemes and attributions have a positive impact on a
student’s study motivation, persistence, and achievement, invoking feelings of pride that can
help maintain interest in school. Findings from this study suggest WSD promoted persistence
and influenced the desire of students to continue education after release. When asked how the
staff members of the organization’s education program supported or encouraged their pursuit to
continue education, every participant spoke positively of a teacher. Participants recalled traits
such as positivity, encouragement, and motivation. Meyer et al. (2010) described the positive
impact an education program can have on inmate behavior. The practice recommended for the
organization is employment and retention of teachers who exhibit skills needed to invoke
commitment to continue education after release. Such skills include: ability to motivate students,
capable of building self-efficacy in students, and adept in articulating a goal-setting process.
Through its teaching staff, WSD demonstrated evidence of its ability to promote student
persistence to continue education after release.
Recommendation 2: Provide Quality Educational Opportunities
Thomas (2012) said that the purpose of correctional education is to provide a learning
experience designed to address academic and vocational competency and promote positive
changes in self-image and aspirations. Findings from this study generally suggest the
organization provided a positive learning experience and quality educational opportunities in the
classroom. Study participants described moments when they newly realized they were capable of
learning. When asked to explain some of what they learned while participating in the program,
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
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nine of the 11 participants described learning in a core subject area, such as reading or math, or
obtaining a vocational skill. The mission of the organization is to provide quality educational
opportunities in partnership with its stakeholders, and seven of the participants agreed WSD
achieved this mission. The practice recommended for the organization is commitment to provide
and deliver quality educational opportunities that increase persistence to continue education after
release. The offering of classes that include active learning and participation and classes leading
to pathways in employment or higher education which include the sequencing of classes that
build upon each other to gain the student’s interest in future coursework and content. Through
quality educational programs, WSD has demonstrated evidence of its ability to promote student
persistence to continue education after release.
Recommendation 3: Increase Student Knowledge of Goal Setting
Goals motivate and direct students (Pintrich, 2003). Findings from this study suggest a
general lack of procedural knowledge of the setting and attainment of educational achievement
goals to support students in their pursuit of continuing education after release. It is important to
recall Clark and Estes’s (2008) assertion that the majority of knowledge begins as conceptual and
conscious knowledge, but, with repeated use, knowledge can evolve to become unconscious. The
third recommendation based on the findings is to provide for students a resource document that
introduces goal-setting vocabulary, key definitions, and behavior exercises that can influence
procedural and metacognitive knowledge. Staff-developed resources such as decision flowcharts
and timelines introduced before release would afford students the opportunity to familiarize
themselves with the goal-setting process and begin thinking about the value of setting personal
goals to attain on release. Teachers could develop relevant lessons that would include vocabulary
building and writing exercises on self-reflection and goal setting that would provide WSD staff
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
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members with the opportunity to evaluate the goal-setting plans of students before their release.
Prison education programs help reduce various barriers to positive reintegration by strengthening
intellectual, cognitive, and life skills of students (Fabelo, 2002). Increased effort to build
vocabulary and comfort with the goal-setting process would help students set and attain
academic achievement goals both during and after incarceration.
Recommended Area for Development 1: Goal Setting and Preparedness
Self-regulatory strategies, including goal setting, enhance learning and performance
(Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Denler et al., 2006). The findings of this evaluative study suggest the
organization failed to convey the value of educational achievement goals and could offer more to
prepare students before release. Bandura (2000) stated that an individual’s self-efficacy increases
when they successfully complete a task. WSD administrators should also update curricula to
include real-life scenarios demonstrating the experiences students will encounter when seeking
to continue education after release. Lessons and discussion exercises on building awareness of
educational entities in the community where a student expects to be released, modeling the
enrollment process of educational or vocational programs, preparing students for the
technological advances of the 21
st
century, and providing examples of financial assistance and
corresponding application processes would help to prepare a student for education after release,
encourage persistence, and deter disruption. Interest increases motivation, and motivation helps
the development of the confidence needed to engage in new activities (Schraw, 2009). Although
WSD promotes students’ persistence to continue education after release, a need remains to
provide guidance and tools and explain the value of goal setting to motivate, promote
preparedness, and support continuity of education after release.
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Recommended Area for Development 2: Staff Professional Development
Rationales that include discussion of the importance and utility value of work or learning
can help learners develop positive values (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). The findings of this
evaluative study suggest WSD could further develop organizational supports to promote and
provide guidance on the goal-setting process. Students can meet educational goals if surrounded
by positive forces, such as organizational and teacher support, family support, and self-
persistence (Tinto, 2002). WSD should create and implement professional development in the
areas of persistence, motivation, and goal setting for administrators and teachers. To introduce
and fully develop a culture that promotes the need to set and achieve educational achievement
goals, teachers should receive training to enhance their ability to demonstrate the value of setting
and attaining educational goals, their knowledge of what persistence means and how it can be
developed, and their knowledge of how students can self-motivate themselves. A tangentially
related recommendation for the administrators of the organization is to include as part of their
observation and evaluation protocol the expectation that elements introduced in professional
development are visible in the classroom, with established goals, timelines, and feedback loops
to communicate classroom observation findings. Commitment, expectations, support, feedback,
involvement, and learning are critical conditions for persistence, and an atmosphere conducive to
learning allows students to persist and succeed (Tinto, 2002). Recommendation 1 also relates to
teachers, and the continued training and development of new and veteran teachers should be of
the utmost importance with regard to meeting the mission of the organization and preparing
students to continue education after release. Building on the expertise of all teachers would
support and enhance WSD’s ability to provide quality educational opportunities to all students to
increase their persistence to continue education after release.
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Limitations and Delimitations
Interpretation of the practices and recommendations identified in this study should take
into consideration a number of limitations of the study. First, I examined the perceptions of
former students of the organization. I did not gather the perceptions of the organization’s leaders
or staff members. The findings and recommendations of this study are therefore limited to the
perceptions of student stakeholders and do not take into consideration the potential bias of the
students regarding their relationships with any prison personnel during their incarceration.
Second, the sample was small (11) relative to the number of people released from Texas
prisons during the 2021–2022 school year (43,289). Sampling of individuals released from jails
all over Texas was impossible. Had the sample included more individuals, the findings and
conclusions might have provided more insight into the variations of programs and their success
and potentially might have provided additional information on persistence and goal setting.
Although the findings and recommendations were based on several factors (e.g., age, race, and
program of study), the sample was too small to ascertain the degree to which WSD’s promotion
of persistence impacted former students to continue education after release.
Third, this evaluative study relied on a broad definition of continuing education—
enrollment in any academic or vocational program resulting in a diploma, degree, or certificate. I
did not examine enrollment in a single educational program or focus on a single type of
credential. For example, WSD stated that students participated in many academic course
offerings. It is therefore difficult to determine whether one program led to more persistence,
motivation, and goal setting than another.
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Recommendations for Future Research
The limitations discussed in the previous section suggest a number of opportunities for
future research. Future research should include interviews of teaching staff members and school
leaders to provide understanding of curriculum, teacher professional development, and
leadership evaluation protocols. Future researchers should seek to use larger, random samples to
comprehensively improve the findings. Future researchers should also seek to interview former
students of a single educational program or students who all seek the same credential. For
example, future researchers could aim to answer questions such as the following: What is the
recidivism rate for students who earned a high school diploma while incarcerated? The problem
of practice regarding prison education programs and the role they play on influencing the goal
setting and attainment of educational achievement goals is complex, not easily addressed through
a single study, and requires future research to address the problem.
Conclusion
The purpose of this qualitative study was to gather data on WSD’s performance as it
relates to the perceptions of formerly incarcerated men regarding prison education programs and
the role, if any, such have in influencing goal setting, attainment of educational achievement
goals, and persistence to continue education. Data supports the need for an educational program,
inclusive of all partners, that increases the self-efficacy of students to continue education, even
when it is not mandated. As I reflect on my own experiences with various prison education
programs, the settings and culture in which they are delivered, and the interviews gathered
through this study, the complexity of prison education programs is clear.
The mission of WSD is to provide quality educational opportunities. During the 2021–
2022 school year, 43,289 individuals returned to the community from the TDCJ, with 74%
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having participated in educational programming during their incarceration. Two of four statutory
goals of the WSD are to reduce recidivism and to increase the success of former inmates in
obtaining and maintaining employment. To achieve these statutory goals, it is necessary to
identify the practices of the WSD prison education programs that positively affected the
persistence of formerly incarcerated men to continue education after release and reproduce those
practices across all units. Analyses of instructional materials, teacher professional development,
leadership evaluation, and additional stakeholders is critical in determining the impact prison
education programs have on the persistence of formerly incarcerated men to pursue education
after release.
The focus of this study was solely former male students and their perceptions of the
prison education programs they participated in and the role, if any, of such programs had in
influencing their goal setting and attainment of educational achievement goals. Participants
emphasized the practice for achieving the goal of the organization was the employment and
retention of teachers who exhibit skills that invoke commitment in students to continue education
after release, evidence of the organization’s strategy to promote persistence. The findings suggest
students have a need for goal-setting guidance and tools and an understanding on the value of
goal setting and how it can motivate and support continuity of education after release. Teacher
professional development in the areas of persistence, motivation, and goal setting, along with
leader professional development regarding enhanced evaluation protocols to support the
observation of applicable staff professional development strategies and supportive post-
observation communication, would promote a holistic approach to continued organizational
growth. As evidenced through the findings, to reach optimal success there are many components
of a prison education program that must operate synergistically to increase the self-efficacy of
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53
students to continue education. By remaining committed to providing quality educational
experiences to all students, WSD will reduce recidivism and promote persistence of formerly
incarcerated students to continue their education after release.
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54
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Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders, With Sampling Criteria, for Interviews
Participating Stakeholders
Creswell (2014) stated that results based on a sample provide a researcher with the ability
to generalize or draw inferences about an identified population. The stakeholder population of
focus for this study consisted of formerly incarcerated men, over the age of 18 years, each of
whom participated in a WSD academic or vocational program at any time during their
incarceration and was enrolled at the time of the study in any academic or vocational program
resulting in a diploma, degree, or certificate (or had attained a diploma, degree, or certificate
since release). This stakeholder group was selected because of the firsthand knowledge and
experience of former WSD students. As former students, this stakeholder group could provide
valuable insight into the organization’s constructs, systems, resources, and support. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) defined purposeful sampling as a method of sampling in which a researcher seeks
to “discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the
most can be learned” (p. 96). Through a combination of purposeful and snowball sampling, I
sought to identify gaps in motivation, knowledge, and organizational support contributing to the
success of former WSD prison education program students and the WSD prison education
program’s influence on goal setting and attainment of educational achievement goals.
Sampling Criteria
Criterion 1
Every participant had to be a formerly incarcerated man over the age of 18 years. For this
study, this criterion meant that every participant had to have been released from a TDCJ prison
facility and be over the age of 18 years. Participants selected for the study self-identified their
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gender as male. Every participant had to have been released from TDCJ within 1 year of being
selected to participate. Future studies may consider examining persistence data from females.
Criterion 2
Every participant had taken part in a WSD academic or vocational program, which meant
that every participant had to have been enrolled in and participated in a WSD prison education
program at some time during their incarceration.
Criterion 3
Every participant had to have been enrolled in an academic or vocational program after
release. A participant could be enrolled at the time of the study in any academic or vocational
program resulting in a diploma, degree, or certificate, or a participant could have attained a
diploma, degree, or certificate since release.
Recruitment Strategy
Through criteria-based selection, I decided which attributes of the sample were crucial to
the study and found participants meeting those criteria (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I thus ensured
appropriate respondents were selected for interviewing to inform this evaluative study. I sought
by participants who could help me properly answer the research question driving the study.
Recruitment of participants consisted of purposeful identification of those who could best
answer the research question and met the selection criteria. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated
that when a researcher begins to hear the same information repeated in interviews, they have
reached the point of saturation. Krueger and Casey (2009, pp. 66–68) stated that the use of
random selection is especially appropriate when a researcher wishes to make inferences
regarding a large population, because whatever they study will apply to that population.
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Although interviews of in-person, currently enrolled WSD students would provide the
most accurate reflection of the contributing factors encouraging students’ enrollment in
continuing education courses after release and the motivation, knowledge, and organizational
support gaps of WSD, this method of collection would have been lengthy and arduous, and
access to this protected population would have been difficult. I was similarly unable to observe
WSD program implementation and classroom instruction because of privacy laws governing
inmates. I therefore chose interviews of former WSD students over other methods of data
collection.
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Appendix B: Protocols
Interview Protocol
Interview location: __________________________________
Date and time of interview: ______________________________________
Interviewee name and WSD program attended while incarcerated:
______________________________________________________________________________
Interviewer: Leticia Serna
Introduction and intent and purpose of the study:
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. Your time is valuable and I
commit to making this a pleasant experience. The purpose of this interview is to gather
information on prison education programs and to what degree such programs influence the goal-
setting and attainment of your educational achievement goals to continue education. This study
aims to identify the practices that positively impacted the persistence of formerly incarcerated
males and their pursuit of education. The research questions guiding this study are the
following:
1. To what extent does the WSD promote persistence in WSD students to continue
education post-release?
2. What knowledge, motivation and organizational influences of the WSD lead former
WSD students to goal-setting and attainment of a student’s educational achievement
goals?
3. What are the practices of the WSD organization in the areas of knowledge, motivation
and organizational influences as they relate to increasing a former WSD student’s level of
persistence to continuing education within one year of release?
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I have provided you a consent form and would like to allow time for you to read it over
and ask any questions. I would like to make clear, if at any point you wish to withdraw from the
study, you are more than welcome to withdraw from participating immediately. During the
interview, I will be recording so that I do not miss any of the valuable information and insight
you share. I will also take handwritten notes so my apologies in advance if I am not always
looking up at you. Additionally, if there is any question you feel uncomfortable answering,
please state for the record that you do not wish to provide a response to the question and I will
gladly skip to the next question. All information gathered through this interview will be
transcribed and stored in a secure environment under lock and key. Student names, your name,
names of prison staff, and any identifiable information provided during the interview will be
masked during data analysis. Should you wish to obtain a transcript of your interview after all
interviews, please let me know and I will get one to you. At the conclusion of the interview, you
will be provided a token of appreciation for the time you took to help me with my study. Do you
have any questions on the information I have shared with you? We are ready to begin the
interview and I will now begin the recording.
I will begin with some demographic questions to gather some background information on
you that will help inform the study. From there, I will begin with knowledge questions, what
you know, what you need to know and what you wish you would have known. We will then
move to motivation questions. These questions are geared to understand what drives you to
continue education or what you feel influenced your pursuit of education. Lastly, we will move
to organizational questions. These questions are looking for information on the WSD program,
how they prepared you to continue education post-release and what assistance or resources you
were provided. You have a copy of the questions in front of you, let’s get started.
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Interviewee demographics:
1. Tell me a little about yourself and your background (ice-breaker, anything they wish to
share)
2. How old are you?
3. What ethnicity do you self-identify as?
4. What is the highest grade level you completed?
5. What program did you participate in under the WSD prison education program (HSEC,
Literacy, Vocational, combination)?
6. About how long did you participate in the program?
7. Were you enrolled in the WSD program up to your last day of incarceration?
8. Tell me about the continuing education program you are currently enrolled in.
9. In just a few words, tell me your definition of persistence.
Knowledge influences:
10. You are currently enrolled in a continuing education program, describe to me the
educational goals you set for yourself to get to this point.
a. Tell me about your process to set these goals.
b. How will you achieve these goals?
11. What do you believe is necessary to continue education post-release?
12. Now that you are enrolled in a continuing education program, is there anything you know
now that you wish you would have known prior to your release?
Motivational influences:
13. You did this with “persistence” earlier, in just a few words, tell me your definition of
motivation.
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14. Describe to me how you feel about your ability to be academically successful.
a. What has affected how you feel?
15. Thinking about your goals, what influenced your decision to set and achieve goals?
16. Thinking about your pursuit to continue education, tell me about your reasons for
pursuing your current diploma/degree/certificate (dependent on the program they are
currently in).
Organizational influences:
17. Tell me about your perceptions of the WSD program you participated in during your
incarceration.
a. Briefly explain some of what you learned while participating in the WSD
program(s)?
18. Describe for me how you believe the program you participated in while incarcerated
influenced your education goals and attainment.
19. What assistance or resources, if any, were you provided by the WSD that assisted you
with your pursuit to continue and enroll in a continuing education program post-release?
20. Describe how the WSD prison education program staff supported or encouraged your
pursuit to continue education and/or set and attain educational achievement goals.
21. While you were incarcerated, describe to me how you continued to learn once outside of
the WSD classroom and back in the general population.
22. The mission of the WSD is to provide quality educational opportunities to all students,
would you agree that the WSD is meeting this mission? Why or why not?
a. If yes meeting mission, describe a time you felt the WSD was meeting the
mission?
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b. If not meeting mission, describe a time you felt the WSD was not meeting the
mission?
23. To better serve students, what suggestions would you give to the WSD to strengthen the
WSD prison education program to further motivate students to set and attain educational
achievement goals and continue education post-release?

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Appendix C: Credibility and Trustworthiness
I worked to maintain credibility and trustworthiness in this study to ensure the study was
sound and yielded accurate data captured during interviews. Glesne (2011) wrote of informed
consent as building an awareness for participants in a study before ever beginning the work of
data collection. My plan to maintain credibility and trustworthiness began with understanding
and respecting the ethics of the WSD organization, making every effort to fully achieve data
confidentiality and participation confidentiality, and securing storage of collected data. Strategies
used to ensure credibility were transparency in data collection methods, creation of an interview
protocol well suited to answering the research question within the conceptual framework and
remaining unobtrusive and nonbiased with respect to the educational status of the former WSD
students interviewed.
During the data collection and data analysis phase, strategies to help ensure the data
remained valid and representative of what occurred in interviews consisted of immediate
transcription and asking clarifying questions, if needed. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described
limitations in data collection and the need for congruence between the data collected and the
research problem addressed. I was aware that an interview could include some element of
falsification, but I developed trustworthy relationships with the former WSD students and
provided comfortable and welcoming interview settings to discourage any need for
misrepresentation.

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Appendix D: Validity and Reliability
At its simplest, “a valid test is a test that measures what it is supposed to” (Salkind, 2017,
p. 123). I used subject matter experts in the knowledge, motivation, and organizational support
constructs of WSD to provide responses needed to answer the research question driving this
study. Appendix A specifies in detail the characteristics of these subject matter experts, formerly
incarcerated men who had participated in WSD educational programs and continued their
education after release. The speed at which collection of data occurs is an important variable to
consider, and a larger sample is more desirable than a smaller one because it helps to reduce
sampling error (Fink, 2013). However, time pressure threatened my ability to establish external
validity because the sample could include only a fraction of former WSD students (Salkind,
2017). I specified before beginning the study that, if time permitted, I would use member
checking, a common strategy for ensuring validity and reliability (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Sharing my preliminary findings with some of those interviewed would have been of great value
because they could have agreed or disagreed with my initial findings and interpretations.
Reliability of a study is the extent to which its results are replicable (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). I hope that in the event the study is replicated, similar results emerge. However, because
this study was conducted in a social context, and similarity of responses across multiple
individuals is a problematic assumption, I understand that replication of the study will not yield
the same responses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Strategies such as adequate engagement in data
collection, peer examination, and use of and rich and thick descriptions were applied as needed
to assist with provision of a history of the conduct of the study. Question creation and data
collection occurred at the highest level of reliability.

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Appendix E: Ethics
Ethical considerations are vital to the integrity of research. As a qualitative researcher
conducting a practice study, I was committed to producing a trustworthy study aligned with the
conceptual framework and responsive to the research question. The trustworthiness of a
qualitative study largely depends on the credibility of the researcher, and to ensure their study is
trustworthy, it is important that the researcher practice rigorous thinking and be familiar with
ethical considerations and dilemmas that may surface when collecting data (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). For this study, the academic history and current academic enrollment of formerly
incarcerated men were discussed during one-on-one interviews. Because this research involved
examining the experiences of human subjects, the five basic principles of institutional review
boards were implemented to uphold the rights of participants. There were no existing
relationships between me and interviewees, and I met each participant for the first time on the
day of their interview. Every participant was provided with an informed consent form at the
commencement of the study to ensure they understood the research being conducted, were aware
of any risks, were not forced or coerced into participating, and understood they could withdraw
at any time (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
It is important to build trust between a researcher and research participants (Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). For every interview conducted, I informed the participant that a recording of the
interview would be made and offered a copy of the final interview transcript for the participant’s
records and a period of review of the transcript. Reciprocity captures more than just monetary
reward for time but also covers compensation for sharing of intimate stories and inclusion of a
researcher in public and private events (Glesne, 2011). I informed all participants that upon
EDUCATION AFTER INCARCERATION
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conclusion of each interview, to express my gratitude for their time and valuable information, the
interviewee would receive a small token of appreciation in the form of a gift card.
This study received scrutiny from the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board. Furthermore, I was committed to addressing potential biases discovered as a
result of the interviews or data analysis and planned to examine potential implications for future
researchers studying the same topic. As the lead researcher, I committed to following the
University of Southern California rules and guidelines protecting participants and committed to
ensuring the safety of all participants.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Serna, Leticia Angela (author)

Core Title Education after incarceration: identifying practices in prison education programs that positively affect the persistence of formerly incarcerated men to continue education

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-12

Publication Date 09/11/2023

Defense Date 09/01/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education,goal-setting,impact,OAI-PMH Harvest,practices,Prison,prison education programs,recidivism

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Green, Alan (committee member), Malloy, Courtney (committee member)

Creator Email letiaserna@gmail.com,lgovea@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113305075

Unique identifier UC113305075

Identifier etd-SernaLetic-12344.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-SernaLetic-12344

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Serna, Leticia Angela

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Source 20230911-usctheses-batch-1094 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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