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Improving audience development for small town arts non-profits

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Improving audience development for small town arts non-profits

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Content 1
IMPROVING AUDIENCE DEVELOPMENT FOR SMALL TOWN ARTS NONPROFITS
Melissa Butler Klein
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2023

Ⓒ Copyright by Melissa Butler Klein 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Melissa Butler Klein certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Dr. Marsha Boveja Riggio
Dr. Don Trahan Jr.
Dr. Eric Canny

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
A thorough review of the literature regarding small nonprofits and small arts organizations
identifies commonalities surrounding gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational aspects
that stifle growth. Specifically, these gaps contribute to difficulties in evolving organizations and
responding to changing demographics in smaller communities. Lack of staff expertise, time, and
financial resources impacts the organization’s ability to operate in a way that is responsive to the
unique needs of its community, and to create measurable, feasible plans for it to move forward
with regard to inclusivity and cultural vibrancy. The study used Clark and Estes’s Gap Analysis
(2008) as a theoretical framework with Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization (Clark &
Estes, 2008) and sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978, Chirkov, 2020, Dunphy, 2018) lenses to
better understand audience development from both the position of the organization, and the
values of the consumer. Respondents confirmed the challenges and barriers expressed in the
literature but also communicated great successes and optimism about the future of their
organizations. Through the course of this study, it has been determined that small arts
organizations are under-researched, and very few roadmaps are available. Although all of the
leaders interviewed are operating by using resources very efficiently, there is room for
improvement and assistance. Through this study, feasible and practical recommendations are
established to help leaders develop processes and procedures which contribute to planning and
operations which support audience development and overall growth as an organization.

v

Acknowledgments
John C. Maxwell is quoted as saying “Change is inevitable. Growth is optional.” I have
revisited this quote many times during my three years in the OCL program. I remember clearly
my first Saturday morning classes and the comfortable camaraderie built with my cohort. Most
of us stuck with at least some Saturdays throughout the program, and I looked forward to the
scholarship and support we shared during this time. My own journey included a cross-country
move, two jobs, my own children growing up, and moving away to college. Choosing to see
these changes as an opportunity for growth while in the program, and not just another hurdle,
was critical to completing the program. I took comfort in watching my colleagues also start new
jobs and experience major life changes along the way as well. As a student who had difficulty
seeing the light at the end of the tunnel many times, I owe my ability to persist in the program to
the Saturday Crew and their candid vulnerability each week. I enjoyed so many of my
professors, including but not limited to Dr. Patricia Tobey, Dr. Eric Canny, and Dr. Eric Fecht.
Each of these understood the value of my study and met me with patience and grace during my
academic path.
Approximately once a week, one of my younger children will ask “Why have you gone to
school for so long” or “Will you ever be done with school?” Having returned to school in 2009
to complete my Bachelor’s, I have been in school for the majority of my children’s lives. This
has been a sacrifice of time and energy, and I owe them all an enormous amount for patiently
watching this experience from the sidelines. They have inspired me, and I hope I have inspired
them. Alex, Lainey, Lewis, Adam, and Casey: I hope that you make a commitment to yourselves
to reach your dreams, no matter how many times you may feel like quitting.

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My friends and family have also followed along; many listening to some commiserating,
or unintentionally cheering me on by also asking “How long have you been in school?” I want to
thank my mom and Laura, for listening without judgment (or without expressed judgment) and
checking in periodically on my progress. Lastly, I must give much credit to Jon for also listening,
taking care of kids, Saturday errands, weeknight dinners, and all the time and effort it took to
keep things going during the program. I couldn’t have done it without you.

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Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 2
Marketing ................................................................................................................................ 5
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 7
Programming........................................................................................................................... 8
Marketing ................................................................................................................................ 8
Outreach ................................................................................................................................ 10
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 12
Programming......................................................................................................................... 13
Marketing .............................................................................................................................. 13
Outreach ................................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 1 ................................................................................................................................. 15
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 15
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 16
Programming......................................................................................................................... 18
Marketing .............................................................................................................................. 19
Outreach ................................................................................................................................ 19
Definitions................................................................................................................................. 20
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations ........................................................................... 21
Assumptions .......................................................................................................................... 21
Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 22
Delimitations ......................................................................................................................... 23
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 24
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 25
Search Description .................................................................................................................... 25
Table 1 .................................................................................................................................. 27
Table 2 .................................................................................................................................. 27
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 27
Figure 2 ................................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 3 ................................................................................................................................. 32
Characteristics of Nonprofits .................................................................................................... 33
Mission and Organization ..................................................................................................... 34

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Gaps in Knowledge ............................................................................................................... 34
Gaps in Motivation ............................................................................................................... 35
Organizational Gaps.............................................................................................................. 36
Audience Building .................................................................................................................... 40
Barriers for Audiences .............................................................................................................. 40
Overcoming Perceptions ....................................................................................................... 40
Lack of Education and Exposure .......................................................................................... 43
Pricing ................................................................................................................................... 44
Opportunities............................................................................................................................. 45
Programming in the Arts ....................................................................................................... 45
Marketing in the Arts ............................................................................................................ 47
Marketing in Small Towns.................................................................................................... 48
Outreach in the Arts .............................................................................................................. 48
Outreach in Small Towns...................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 51
Research Design........................................................................................................................ 51
Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 52
Setting ....................................................................................................................................... 53
Participants ................................................................................................................................ 53
Target and Accessible Population ......................................................................................... 53
Sample................................................................................................................................... 54
Sampling Method .................................................................................................................. 54
Recruitment ........................................................................................................................... 55
Data Collection ......................................................................................................................... 55
Demographic Survey ............................................................................................................ 56
Interview Protocol ................................................................................................................. 57
Procedures ................................................................................................................................. 57
Confidentiality Parameters.................................................................................................... 59
Data Management ................................................................................................................. 59
Encryption ............................................................................................................................. 60
Dissemination of Findings .................................................................................................... 60
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 61
Descriptive Analysis ............................................................................................................. 61
Thematic Analysis ................................................................................................................ 61

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Reliability .................................................................................................................................. 62
Dependability ........................................................................................................................ 62
Confirmability ....................................................................................................................... 63
Validity ..................................................................................................................................... 63
Credibility ............................................................................................................................. 63
Transferability ....................................................................................................................... 64
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 64
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS............................................................................................................. 65
Demographic Data .................................................................................................................... 65
Table 3 .................................................................................................................................. 65
Research Question One ............................................................................................................. 66
Table 4 .................................................................................................................................. 66
Knowledge Factors ............................................................................................................... 67
Factual Knowledge ............................................................................................................... 69
Conceptual Knowledge ......................................................................................................... 71
Procedural Knowledge .......................................................................................................... 72
Metacognitive Knowledge .................................................................................................... 72
Table 5 .................................................................................................................................. 73
Motivational Factors ............................................................................................................. 74
Table 6 .................................................................................................................................. 74
Efficacy ................................................................................................................................. 75
Organizational Buy-In .......................................................................................................... 75
Understanding and Engaging in Change-focused Activities ................................................ 77
Research Question Two ............................................................................................................ 78
Table 7 .................................................................................................................................. 78
Organizational Factors .......................................................................................................... 78
Table 8 .................................................................................................................................. 79
Volunteers ............................................................................................................................. 80
Physical Resources................................................................................................................ 81
Professional Development .................................................................................................... 82
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 83
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................ 83
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 83
Summary of Findings ................................................................................................................ 84

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Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 86
Research Question One ......................................................................................................... 86
Research Question Two ........................................................................................................ 87
Discussion of Findings .............................................................................................................. 88
Recommendations ..................................................................................................................... 89
Knowledge ............................................................................................................................ 89
Motivation ............................................................................................................................. 92
Organization .......................................................................................................................... 93
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................... 95
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 97
Appendix A: Recruitment Messages ........................................................................................ 99
Appendix B: Demographic Survey ......................................................................................... 101
Appendix C: Informed Consent .............................................................................................. 104
Appendix D: Interview Script ................................................................................................. 106
Appendix E: Interview Questions ........................................................................................... 107
Demographic Survey .............................................................................................................. 110
References ............................................................................................................................... 111

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Sources Used in Data Analysis…………………………………………………...…….27
Table 2: Sources Used to Address Research Questions……………………….…………..……..27
Table 3: Gaps in Knowledge in Small-Town Arts Organizations……………………………….65
Table 4: Selected Interview Responses to RQ1: Knowledge……………………………………66
Table 5: Gaps in Motivation in Small-Town Arts Organizations……………………………..…73
Table 6: Selected Interview Responses to RQ1: Motivation…………………………………….74
Table 7: Gaps in Organization in Small-Town Arts Organizations…………...………………..78
Table 8: Selected Interview Responses to RQ2: Organization…………………….…………….79

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Components of Audience Development………………….………...…………………15
Figure 2. Sociocultural Theory……………………………..……………………………………29
Figure 3. Clark and Estes’s KMO Gap Analysis…………………………...……………………30

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Arts organizations in small towns in the United States (U.S.) are poised for important
roles as our communities rebuild, reorganize, and reassess. These spaces possess unique
strengths unseen in larger, urban organizations in that they are keepers of cultural heritage and
places of connection and shared experiences (Gadwa, 2014). Cultural practices such as craft
artisanship, language, dance, and culinary traditions have been continued and passed on in rural
communities (Nicodemus, 2014). The arts are also important economic drivers in rural
communities. According to the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA, 2017), the arts add five
times greater value to the economy than the agriculture sector (During Economic Highs and
Lows, the Arts Are Key Segment of U.S. Economy | National Endowment for the Arts, n.d.).
More generically, the arts create vibrant communities, bolster economic growth, and
improve the quality of life in small towns across the U.S. More so than in other areas, the arts are
seen as entertainment in line with sporting events or agricultural programs and must address not
only cultural value but the ways in which the arts are relevant and valuable in each distinct
community (Skippington & Davis, 2016). Lastly, arts organizations are increasingly seen as part
of the tourism industry and can be an important ally to visitor bureaus and to a town’s
marketability (Hager & Sung, 2012). small towns are frequently visited destinations, and the arts
provide a unique cultural asset that is unquantifiable.
However, rural and small-town arts organizations face broad challenges in sustainability
and funding in the cultural landscape. Successful nonprofits have the ability to create
programming, marketing, and outreach that is tailored to their communities, in turn sustaining
current patron bases and increasing the potential for new audiences. In small towns, limited

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resources, including budget, time, and staffing resources, exacerbate the general challenges any
organization faces in terms of the arts. These challenges are addressed in this study with the
intent to identify practices in order to build audiences through successful programming,
marketing, and outreach.
Background of the Problem

In 2017, 90% of arts nonprofits had budgets under $1 million (NEA, 2017). Those
organizations only received 21% of all arts funding. Small arts organizations with 0-4 employees
comprise more than 78% of the total arts sector according to the 2006 Census (Chang, 2010).
More specifically, in the U.S., 20% of the population lives in rural counties, where only 2% of
arts funding is distributed (Helicon Collaborative). A majority of arts policies are developed
based on large organizations and do not scale down to benefit smaller-sized groups (Chang,
2011). While challenged, small organizations have the propensity to be more nimble and better
able to quickly respond to the direct needs and demands of their constituents (Möntmann, 2021).
Therefore, they are uniquely positioned to represent culturally significant, diverse, and
meaningful programming, as opposed to content for the stereotypical arts audience. However,
given the barriers to effective programming, marketing, and outreach, building audiences is a
challenge.
Programming, marketing, and outreach require knowledge of how to reach community
members and an understanding of their values in order to plan and execute audience-building
activities. Lack of time for a small non-profit staff can generate versatility, efficiency, and
creative ingenuity. It can also lead employees to turn inward, churning out work and responding
to never-ending demands. All of this is done at sub-market pay and with most often no path for
advancement within the organization. This is a leading reason why staff turnover is alarmingly

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high at these institutions: it is difficult to get a raise or be promoted without changing jobs. This
work environment can prevent organizations from building consistent outward relationships in
the community.
Non-profit professionals are widely underpaid and seen by some as supplementary
compensated volunteers (Slatten et al., 2021). The concept of donative labor, the assumption that
pay is low because the employee is donating a portion of their time because they are passionate,
is antiquated at best (Kim & Charbonneau, 2020). So much has changed, yet so many boards are
unwilling to move forward and out of the comfortable rut so many organizations have become
accustomed to occupying. The non-profit starvation cycle (Coggins & Howard, 2009) occurs
when budget decisions are made which seem efficient, yet actually contribute to the demise of
operations. One example is the emphasis on the overhead/programming ratio. nonprofits (large
and small) focus on reducing overhead costs in relation to the amount spent on programs. This is
meant to signal to donors and other stakeholders that funds are being used responsibly. However,
this results in the under-compensation of staff, the inability to attract qualified staff, and a
decrease in expertise to support quality programming (Radilova & Ziomek, 2020). As a result,
the quality, and often quantity, of programming decreases and nothing is achieved.
The arts have a reputation for being unwelcoming, exclusionary, and requiring
background knowledge to fully understand and appreciate. Meanwhile, change leaders in the arts
are faced with “fear of change, fear of outsiders, racism, and homophobia” in many small towns
(Nicodemus, 2014), not to mention the understated power of small-town politics. Finding a
balance between old and new and preservation and growth presents major challenges to small
arts organizations.

4
Lareau’s 2015 study illustrates a direct correlation between class structure and a lack of
cultural knowledge. Unfortunately, the disparity of early arts experiences among middle-class
and lower socio-economic groups precipitates a disconnect from cultural activities and further
education in arts-related subjects (Lareau, 2015). With regard to knowledge and motivation,
much attention has been paid to barriers to audience building. Groups who did not grow up in
households or communities where they were exposed to the arts do not associate the arts with
value to them personally. The unknowns of the experience and the perception of otherness
prevent entry (Simon, 2016). Arts organizations must learn how to be transparent, welcoming,
and relatable to encourage those without cultural knowledge to participate in the arts.
Programming
Programming in small towns requires a specific and intimate knowledge of the
community being served. In metropolitan areas, artistic planning assumes forward trends,
including programming which addresses the promotion of contemporary artists and composers,
tackles social issues, and appeals to educated and culturally experienced, well-traveled
audiences. The beginning of orchestras in the U.S. can be traced to philanthropists who gained
wealth through the industrial revolution. The Gilded Age, when most U.S. orchestras were
established, was directly connected to social status and influenced by European aesthetics
(Accominotti et al., 2018). The arts have long been associated with a specific, homogeneous
demographic that includes older, wealthy white citizens. As these priorities are largely
disconnected from rural audiences, how can arts administrators ensure they are reaching their
communities? The research in this study addresses this gap.

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Marketing
Marketing is a facet of arts administration that is multi-faceted and that requires up-to-
date skill sets and the ability to effectively communicate with stakeholders. In small arts
organizations, there is often not a single marketing professional on staff, there is often no
marketing plan, and their budget for advertising is limited. This is an area where the lack of
resources is often justified by the involvement of volunteers and reliance on volunteer labor to
supplement small staff (Kim & Charbonneau, 2020). Volunteers are often tasked with jobs such
as distributing print material and disseminating information at their churches, garden clubs, or
other social communities. This leads to a repetitive cycle of only reaching the same people,
which does not support audience development. Volunteer labor can further exacerbate the
challenges of engaging in professional and effective practices, for marketing non-staff labor can
include subjective opinions, a “we’ve always done it this way” mentality, and a failure to
understand the business acumen necessary to run a non-profit organization. Missteps in
marketing, such as appearing unwelcoming, using exclusive language, and failing to connect
with stakeholders, can push audiences farther away and prevent community buy-in.
Marketing in practice requires not only creative expertise but analytical and data-driven
decision-making. Existing arts managers are trying to keep up by learning and practicing
standard business practices such as SMART goal setting, performance tracking, and financial
analysis (King, 2017). These practices put many managers at odds with the reasons why they
went to work in nonprofits to begin with, as many are artists turned managers. Some see
professionalism in conflict with values-based career paths, forcing some to sacrifice their
integrity for the sake of metrics and financial achievement (King, 2017). These conflicting
priorities can result in a workforce lacking the knowledge and expertise to keep up with

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increasing demands to produce measurable outcomes or compete in a community with multiple
nonprofits and a small pool of potential supporters. This lack of knowledge contributes to low
motivation, as audience development may seem unattainable.
While a large corporation may have entire departments dedicated to analyzing consumer
trends, updating and refreshing branding and marketing messaging, and developing meaningful
partnerships, nonprofits are often barely reaching organizational functionality. The fundamental
tasks are getting done, but there are no resources for the type of expert-level work needed to truly
diagnose and treat audience development quickly enough to be impactful. Marketing and
communications in small nonprofits are at times a secondary (or tertiary) activity. Facebook
posts, newspaper ads, and email newsletters are hastily sent to quickly push information on event
sales and other pertinent information. Brand marketing, storytelling, or even consistent voice are
afterthoughts. Learning how to connect visually, positionally, and effectively should be a priority
for arts organizations of any size.
Outreach
Building audiences requires outreach as a means to initiating investment and engagement
between organizations and the community. Due to attrition, our older cornerstone patrons and
donors are falling away and arts organizations are failing to attract the next generation of
supporters. The answer is community outreach, but creating and executing meaningful
community outreach is challenging without the resources to listen and respond to activities that
are valuable to one’s community. Organizations wrestle with numerous issues: How to remain
relevant? How to promote new art and art forms? How to communicate welcomeness and
relevance to a new generation of patrons? We must ask these questions and boards must be
prepared to listen to the answers—and act. Inaction results in the quieting of theaters, concert

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halls, dance studios, and artists’ collectives in cities across the country. Without these threads
holding together our cultural fiber, our communities lose their uniqueness. Our quality-of-life
drops, and our economies suffer. Impactful audience development strategies are necessary to
understand where an organization should move both operationally and artistically to meet the
needs of the community being served. Efforts must be cohesive, able to address a changing
community, and succeed in engaging the community as active participants in order to achieve
success (Rogers, 2005).
In this industry, many programmatic decisions, mission statements, and overall activities
are extremely antiquated and do not appeal to Generation X and younger patrons. Diversity goes
unaddressed and most organizations are struggling to gain new members and patrons. Kim and
Mason (2018), discuss representation in leadership and the subsequent impact on community
involvement. Without due attention to inclusion strategies, nonprofits will fail to attract new
participants and will remain insular and homogenous. Outreach is critical to authentic
relationship building, which in turn supports an increase in diversity both in the audience and
within leadership and volunteer structures.
Statement of the Problem
Arts organizations across the country have been historically challenged with sustaining
and growing their audiences. Changes to community preferences, trends in expenditures in
disposable income, and increased demands on time have caused organizations to compete for the
attention of once loyal customers. Further, the availability of philanthropic funds has changed
leaving small organizations unable to access needed funding. By nature, small towns have a
limited pool of applicants for any job, but jobs requiring specialized knowledge are especially

8
challenged in finding qualified employees. This is exacerbated by fewer candidates interested in
moving to small towns and small organizations due to a lack of salary and opportunities.
Programming
As we consider programming in smaller markets, it is easy to fall prey to a “bringing
culture to the country” mentality. And, while there is value in creating exposure to new and high-
quality programming, these practices can come at the risk of being intimidating, further
alienating a potential audience base. In the U.S., the performing arts are facing an identity crisis.
European traditions of ballet, classical music, and opera have attempted to evolve from the stale
stereotypes evoked over the past century. Many of our cultural institutions were born out of the
industrial revolution, with elite socialites filling concert halls. Two significant concepts in the
overall picture of success are value and relevance. Research has shown that the trust and
reliability of an organization are directly connected to value perception by arts participants
(Hume & Mort, 2006). Value is directly tied to satisfaction, and therefore programmatic
decisions are especially critical and must be customer-oriented (Hume & Mort, 2006). When
organizations fail to address changing culture, demographics, and artistic preferences, it is
increasingly difficult to remain in business. The disconnect between decision-makers and the
audience they hope to acquire causes gaps in knowledge.
Marketing
Successful marketing relies on the ability to express the value and meaning of one’s
mission to a wide range of stakeholders. Communicating to small towns is critically different
from the marketing taught in business schools. While reliance on print, digital, and media
channels is still important, the unique demographics of small towns necessitate a further
examination of how potential audiences can be reached. Messages, both positive and negative,

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can spread very quickly. Language can have a polarizing effect. Print media is still relied upon
for primary knowledge. Smaller populations allow for narrow margins of error when sales and
success can be directly traced to word of mouth or perceived pretension (Chang, 2011; NEA
2017). Organizations with limited resources can feel pulled between old and new, recognizing
the need for both. But these organizations cannot afford both. Addressing these gaps leads to
uncovering customer motivation and to engagement, which is critical knowledge.
Arts organizations in rural and small towns must be precise in their delivery of
information, especially messaging events or artists which are unfamiliar or unknown, as
communities may have less risk tolerance when considering ticket-purchasing decisions. When
stakeholders are diverse, defining which creative activities are meaningful, valuable, and relevant
becomes highly complex. Hence an understanding of the community is necessary for making
organizational decisions that reflect existing and future patrons and donors. Without this
connection, arts organizations are less likely to succeed.
While rural and small towns may vary greatly in their artistic priorities and may largely
shun traditional Western-leaning art forms, the need to connect to community members with
offerings remains the same. This study provides a greater understanding of how rural and small-
town arts organizations can address community objectives, demands, and values while also
taking part in activities that build sustainability and success for the organization. Moreover,
small towns must continue to adapt and evolve to keep their communities alive. Cultural
vibrancy attracts younger populations, which is necessary to economic development (Can the
Arts Save Rural America from the Recession? – OZY | A Modern Media Company, n.d.).
Without the skill to strategically address gaps in organizational abilities to attract and sustain

10
audiences, arts organizations cannot provide the community development component that is
needed and expected in smaller areas (Skippington & Davis, 2016).
Outreach
A 2014 Rural Establishment Innovation Survey indicated that a majority of rural arts
organizations provide civic leadership in their communities (U.S. Department of Agriculture,
2014). This is because arts organizations are embedded in the lives of many citizens and serve as
partners to other nonprofits and businesses. For small arts nonprofits to provide meaningful
outreach, connects citizens and should be addressed not only as a mission objective but as a
component of community planning in small towns. As urban regeneration continues to threaten
the cultural identities of small towns and rural communities, it is imperative that stakeholders
engage in more local-level, strategic decision-making to preserve the identities of urban
neighborhoods.
Policymakers and planners use both macro and micro techniques to build community
assets and encourage interaction among diverse groups. Both the presence of arts organizations
(Foster et al., 2016) and of community-led participatory arts programs (Grodach, 2011) can
provide connectivity, decrease disadvantaged status among residents, offer distinctiveness of
place (Kelkar & Spinelli, 2016), and give populations a voice (Sharp et al., 2016). However,
older models of placemaking focus on effective and efficient usage of space and issues of
population density, transportation, and the overall physical makeup of a geographic area
(Duconseille & Saner, 2020; Kelkar, 2016). Furthermore, these solutions are based on general
policy, often at the state level or higher, which does not reflect the vibrant and often silenced
populations that occupy those areas (Sharp et al., 2016; Gallagher, 2019).

11
When choices are made regarding arts programming and placement, which could include
public art or performances, they are often made by those who are out of touch with that
community and are therefore seen as elitist, operating with a “hero” mentality, or engaging in
tokenism by including historically excluded representatives yet not using their input for planning
(Ellery & Ellery, 2019; Sharp et al., 2016; Kelkar & Spinelli, 2016). Additionally, without
considering the cultural perceptions or interpretations of art, leaders may unknowingly incite
divisions within a community if the work relates to one cultural group and not the other or can be
seen in a political context (Sharp et al., 2016). A bottom-up approach to creative placemaking is
essential to realizing the benefits of using the arts as a tool for urban regeneration (Gallagher &
Ehlman, 2019; Kim & Charbonneau, 2020).
By utilizing “human-centered design thinking” as defined by IDEO CEO Tim Brown
(Kelkar & Spinelli, 2016; Ellery & Ellery, 2019), the emphasis shifts to how the residents use the
space and can benefit from the introduction of mindfully developed arts programming and
business. Outcomes include increased interaction among neighbors and social capital, inspiration
to engage in the arts, creating a community center as an unofficial gathering space, increasing
neighborhood assets, and giving voice to those who were previously silenced (Foster et al., 2016;
Grodach, 2011; Gallagher & Ehlman, 2019).
There is a distinct difference between being “in” a community and being “of” a
community. Effective nonprofits are fully integrated into the cultural fiber of the population they
serve. Through programming and marketing, their brand is top of mind when citizens consider
how to spend their time or money. However, this is not accomplished solely through those
activities. A critical component of audience development is community outreach. Outreach is
defined as activities intended to bring enrichment, education, and involvement to the community.

12
In the area of arts organizations, this requires staff power, volunteers, and often an education
specialist to plan and execute activities. Again, this is a specialized position not found in the
standard organizational structure of small nonprofits. Without the ability to mobilize the value of
a mission and create engagement, potential audiences will likely not understand the organization
and therefore resist interactions with it, fearing the unknown. Creating a fertile ground for
audience development in an environment where a majority of the population is familiar with
each other requires meaningful and authentic opportunities for involvement.
Purpose of the Study
This study seeks to gain insight into improving audience development for small-town and
rural arts nonprofits. This is done using Clark and Estes’s Gap Analysis (2008) as a theoretical
framework with Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization (Clark & Estes, 2008) and
sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978, Chirkov, 2020, Dunphy, 2018) lenses to better understand
audience development. More specifically, the study attempts to identify what is needed to
provide a framework for small-town and rural arts nonprofits to build audiences through the
effective use of programming, marketing, and outreach. Through an examination of these three
facets of arts administration, this study will contribute to the success of small arts nonprofits by
providing best practices for audience development. This study addresses the role of audience
development as a critical component in sustaining rural and small-town arts organizations. In
turn, these arts organizations strengthen and enrich the towns they serve.
Recent changes in small towns and rural communities, due to the availability of remote
work and to the rising crime and cost of living in big cities, have contributed to changes in
demographics, resulting in the need to reevaluate our small arts nonprofits in these areas. This
specific type of arts non-profit is understudied and under-represented in the field. Through

13
research, best practices focusing on programming, marketing, and outreach will be identified
with the goal of serving as a tool for rural and small-town arts organization directors who lack
the time and dedicated staff to lead audience development initiatives.
Programming
Programming choices are unilaterally difficult; they are subjective, emotionally charged,
and easily arguable. This study does not uncover what should be programmed, but rather how
audiences can be approached, how a balance can be achieved with regard to diverse stakeholder
demands, and consideration of cost-benefit when considering programming options. This study
aimed to identify the most effective means to listen, learn, and observe a community in order to
select and execute meaningful programming. This will help organizations effectively navigate
the subjective opinions of stakeholders and create a framework to program artists and art forms
that are meaningful to the community. The results will be community investment and ultimately
sustainability for the organization.
Marketing
Without marketing, organizations are unable to communicate their mission, vision, and
values. This study aimed to identify what is working well and what isn’t in order to provide a
path for efficient resource usage toward marketing. The focus is on cost-effective measures,
reaching diverse audiences, and workflow solutions for a small staff to reach current and
potential patrons. Research shows that value creation has a strong correlation with marketing
(McDonald et al., 2019. Marketers must be able to relate value to their customers, in turn
increasing satisfaction. Improving business processes in order to convey and deliver value is
critical to organizational success.

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Outreach
Successful outreach builds audiences, improves an organization’s reputation in the
community, and enriches citizens with educational experiences. Outreach can involve (a)
bringing the organization to community members where they are, (b) bringing community
members to the organization for accessible, welcoming events and classes, (c) finding avenues
for partnership with both other nonprofits and businesses in the community, and (d) providing
specific activities that tie into the uniqueness of the community. This study aimed to identify the
most impactful path for outreach in order to draw the community to the mission, build
relationships, and grow audiences. Through an examination of successful examples, cost-benefit
analysis, and strategic planning guidelines, a template can be created for initiating and managing
an outreach program structured to improve sustainability through audience development. Figure
1 below illustrates the relationship between audience development and programming, marketing,
and outreach, and describes the components of each.

15

Figure 1
Components of Audience Development

Research Questions
To uncover and illustrate practical and relevant information, this research examined
standard organizational functions across all arts organizations and attempts to triangulate data
into information specifically usable to rural and small-town arts organizations by using
information received from interviews, previous research relating to best practices in nonprofits of

16
any size or type, and an examination of the components of successful arts organizations. Each
research question was examined under the three key focus areas: programming, marketing, and
outreach. It should be noted that there is no definitive guideline as to what size an arts
organization is determined to be “small,” as there are discrepancies in terms of budget, staff size,
and intent to grow. It is important to consider that 78.4% of all performing arts organizations
have less than five staff members, full or part-time (Chang, 2010).
Below are the research questions which form the basis of this study:
● RQ1: How do knowledge and motivation influence audience development for rural arts
organizations?
● RQ2: How does the organization influence audience development for rural and small-
town arts?
Significance of the Study
Arts organizations are significant indicators of vibrant, healthy communities. Over the
past five years arts and culture initiatives contributed $67.5 billion to states with at least 30%
rural population (Starr, 2020). The presence of music, dance, theater, and visual arts is tied to
improved health outcomes and increased social connection (Perkins et al., 2021; O’Connor et al.,
2019; Pesata et al., 2021). Additionally, the arts are an important economic driver for many
communities and help recruit quality employees to the area. Without the arts, the vibrancy of a
community is diminished, and community members will seek creative enrichment in other towns
or states. The arts are essential to “keep and attract young people” to small towns by offering
cultural opportunities of value to these groups (Starr, 2020). Rural and small-town arts
organizations are unique cultural institutions with mostly unstudied challenges. Issues of
audience development are compounded by fewer grant opportunities, changing funder

17
guidelines, and an overall generational shift in philanthropic priorities for small-sized
organizations. More importantly, small-sized arts organizations have difficulties attracting
patrons and donors and reflecting the communities they serve.
Arts organizations are understaffed, plagued by low wages, and supplemented by
volunteer labor (Slatten et al., 2021, McCallum, 2018). Among all arts organizations, urban
establishments employ on average 62 employees, while rural organizations on average employ
24. Urban organizations average $16 per hour, while rural organizations pay $12 per hour (NEA,
2017). Other administrative factors impacting the potential for success of rural organizations
include the availability of high-speed internet and cell phone service, local roads and bridges,
and environmental regulations (NEA, 2017).
Donor and audience engagement is a major challenge as there is pressure to do more with
less, which actually creates more labor with less output (Radilova & Ziomek, 2020). Without
dedicated staff to collect and analyze data on audience development, directly tied to ticket
revenue and donations, the potential for success is greatly diminished. Moreover, recent studies
have noted a connection between rural and small-town arts organizations and person-to-person
marketing, and a greater reliance on reputation as a marketing tool (Chang, 2011; Radilova &
Ziomek, 2020). There are few tools to support marketing and communications practices in small
towns. Lastly, audience development assumes that an organization has methods for building
relationships within the community. This study addressed these deficiencies and identified
actions that can universally improve audience development in small-town and rural arts
organizations focusing on the areas of programming, marketing, and outreach.

18
Programming
Selecting programming that reflects current and future audiences impacts audience
development. As with for-profits, the product being offered must be understandable, accessible,
needed, and timely. Small-town and rural arts organizations often make decisions not based on
data regarding what programming they feel is right for their communities. Making artistic
decisions with limited resources including staff, money, and lack of data will result in lower
ticket sales revenue, less overall engagement, and the potential for being perceived as
disconnected from the needs of one’s community.
Small towns and rural communities have experienced a shift in demographics. Factors
such as the COVID-19 pandemic, rising home prices, decreases in school quality and urban
safety, and a return to homesteading trends have brought many urban and suburban inhabitants to
the country. As a result, audiences that once relied on homogenous and repetitive programming
are being challenged by demands from new community members with different priorities. Issues
such as DEI, challenging and thought-provoking art, and art that tackles social and political
crises are expected from those coming from larger markets. Audiences in metropolitan areas
demand that organizations illicit a response to current topics, whereas arts organizations in
smaller communities have been slower to become involved in activism/advocacy. Arts
organizations must respond to the needs of both existing and incoming community members in a
manner that is non-exclusionary and that retains the vision and values of the organization. How
far in each direction the organization should reach should be carefully analyzed, yet
organizations may not be equipped to collect, interpret, and respond to these changes in demand.

19
Marketing
Marketing research and analytics are required to respond to audience values and
demands. Reaching existing and potential customers is critical to audience development. Lean
staff and resources can create blind spots in decision-making on the best way to spend marketing
dollars. Blind spots, or misunderstandings about patron behaviors, can result in budget-wasting
activities such as inefficient advertising placement, too frequent or infrequent interaction with
customers, or the use of alienating language. Communicating the value of the arts is a challenge
for all arts organizations. Defining the undefinable, describing the esoteric, and persuading
people to participate in something unknown make arts marketing very different than designing
an ad for a physical product. Arts marketers must convey relevance, value, entertainment
experience, themes, ambiance, and emotions. In addition, marketing itself has gained complexity
with the advent of sophisticated digital marketing. Effective implementation requires an
understanding of algorithms, pay systems, schedules, and digital design. Without the means to
stay up to date with trends, skills, and arts-specific practices, organizations will fail to find and
retain a relationship with their customers. This most obviously impacts the ability to sell tickets,
but also to communicate mission, vision, and values to the community.
Outreach
For small-town and rural arts organizations, community involvement means creating and
executing activities in the community that are accessible, welcoming, and relevant. Outreach
serves as a means of connecting people to the organizational mission and providing opportunities
for people to gain an understanding of an organization’s programming. This outreach can occur
within specific community spaces, as free opportunities for enrichment and partnership-building

20
endeavors within the community, as well as in schools as a component of K-12 education. In
short, the arts provide meaningful opportunities for societies to interact.
As was demonstrated during the pandemic, humans long for in-person experiences.
Furthermore, faced with digital-only arts events including gallery tours, music, dance, and
theatrical performances, humans longed for live, breathing, sensory-expanding involvement. In
surveys, patrons often state that the reason they buy tickets to events is for social interaction.
There is an irreplaceable quality to sitting in a theater (or walking through a gallery) among the
energy of other passionate individuals. It is transformative. For this reason, arts organizations are
key to creative placemaking, and even more so in small towns and rural communities.
The ways in which an organization strategically interacts with community members can
be the initial point at which audiences are built. Large organizations may find that a robust
school program, adult education offerings, or even satellite locations in other areas of a larger
city are effective. For smaller groups, this interaction could be as simple as bringing an artist to a
retirement home or school, or possibly having a speaker on a Sunday afternoon give a talk on
antiques. Offering enrichment and interaction beyond paid-ticket programming can provide
inroads for first-time visitors to an organization. A barrier to participation, and sales, can be the
unknown, and outreach helps sell the arts in an important and meaningful way to communities.
Definitions
The following terms are used regularly throughout the study. The context may vary
slightly, but the common and understood meanings of these terms are listed below.

Arts Organization: A non-profit organization whose mission is to serve its community
through the presentation, production, or creation of artistic activities.

21
Audience Development: The act of growing and sustaining patrons, donors, and other
stakeholders with the intent of fortifying the stability of an arts organization.
Dance: The act of creative movement.
Engagement: Activities that support relationships within the community as conducted by
the organization.
Marketing: Administrative and creative functions that promote and communicate the
mission, culture, and programming of the organization.
Music: Instrumental, vocal, or natural sounds combining to form harmonic or non-
harmonic patterns.
Outreach: Administrative and creative functions conducted to engage, enrich, and
educate community members in relation to the organizational mission.
Performing Arts: The sectors of arts including music, dance, and theater.
Programming: Activities, events, and performances produced or presented by an arts
organization.
Rural: Being of or around a geographic area outside of a metropolitan or suburban area.
Theater: 1) arts venue; 2) plays, musicals, or other dramatic productions involving
actors.
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
Assumptions
For the purpose of this study, it is assumed that interview participants have an
understanding of the importance of the arts as a critical component of human enrichment.
Further, it is assumed that they are acting in their roles as stewards of their organization and will
be truthful and knowledgeable regarding their field. It is also assumed that participants and

22
readers have a basic understanding of the field of non-profit arts and support the inclusion of
artistic endeavors in small towns and rural U.S. At this post-pandemic stage, it is expected these
workers may be less hopeful, more burned out, and increasingly stressed about the coming year.
Many do not know how audiences will respond to a full, regular season, and how their funders
will behave in the face of a looming economic slowdown. However, due to the overall altruistic
nature of most leaders in the arts, it can be assumed that the respondents will answer truthfully
and candidly regarding their organizations. This research does not delve into controversial areas
or subjects that could potentially be harmful for the respondent if their comments came to light.
I recognize, acknowledge, and will communicate my positionality in relation to this
research topic. I am an arts administrator with two decades of experience working in multi-
disciplinary arts organizations of varied budget sizes. I am a musician, reside in a small-town,
and am employed by a community arts non-profit. The impetus for this study can be traced to my
own struggles in locating, engaging, and sustaining audiences.
Limitations
This study has the potential for limitations in two areas. First, this study attempts to
create an overall understanding of arts organizations in small-town and rural communities.
Limitations in knowledge (K), motivation (M), and organizational barriers (O) contribute to the
performance gaps considered in this study (Clark & Estes, 2008).
In an attempt to collect data that is comparative, only organizations with music, dance,
theater (professional not civic), or visual arts were contacted. To keep the scope of the study
manageable and relevant to the stakeholders (arts administrators of small-town and rural arts
organizations), historic landmarks, parks, gardens, or festivals were excluded. Identifying

23
information such as position, employer, tenure at the organization, geographic location, and
budget size is critical to sorting and analyzing responses.
Other arts organizations such as museums, organizations affiliated or housed within
universities, or advocacy groups were not included. While this may limit the scope of the study,
those organizations’ experiences would not be in alignment with the research. Including these
organization types would add little value to creating the framework for programming, marketing,
and outreach for this study.
Limitations due to sample size may also be a concern. Time constraints on arts
administrators were a barrier to participation in this study. This study acknowledges that it may
be difficult to confirm a large sample size for this reason. A broad definition of administrator
was considered, leaning towards those in decision-making roles and those who regularly perform
tasks in the areas of programming, marketing, and outreach. Due to the nature of small-town and
rural organizations, it proved time-prohibitive to travel to each participant, and therefore a digital
means of conducting interviews was preferred.
Delimitations
I chose this topic because of an experience within the non-profit arts sector and the
universal barriers to audience development. Arts administrators with limited resources are forced
to allocate their time very efficiently and often lack the tools to find solutions to low
participation. The knowledge of these difficulties and universal challenges led to the motivation
for this study. Furthermore, this experience informed decisions regarding methodology.
Specifically, it narrowed the proposed sample to professionals with certain skill sets, staff levels,
and responsibilities. This participant had to hold decision-making roles within their organizations

24
and have an understanding of the full scope of arts administration work including programming,
marketing, and outreach.
Additionally, to further narrow the scope of this study, arts organizations were limited to
studying performing arts and visual arts institutions as these organizations share many
fundamental organizational traits. Organizations such as museums which are historical in nature,
botanical gardens, and festivals were not studied, nor was their staff included in the sample.
Conclusion
Sustaining the arts in small-town and rural U.S. is critical to the economic and cultural
vibrancy of communities. However, organizational success relies on the ability of arts
organizations to efficiently and effectively build audiences through programming, marketing,
and outreach. Impactful work in these three areas is key to establishing value and meaning for
music, dance, theater, and visual arts in these unique small communities with diverse
stakeholders. A universal lack of resources including budget, staff, and time often results in
challenges related to executing effective audience development. In addition, research is limited
regarding studies specifically related to small-town arts organizations. This study serves as
means of collecting information directly from decision makers within these organizations and
converting those insights into beneficial tools for improvement.
Organization of the Study
The organization of this study consists of a comprehensive overview of the problem in
Chapter 1, including the background, purpose, and significance of the issue being researched.
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the context of arts organizations in small towns, and also a
preview of challenges relating to the research questions stated earlier in this chapter. A brief
overview of the study’s framework and limitations is also included. Chapter 1 previews the

25
background of issues and topics in Chapter 2 and the literature review. Chapter 2 includes a
summary of processes used to research the literature and also references the theoretical
framework as it relates to the methods for completing the literature review. Chapter 3 addresses
the methods used to collect data and conduct the research. Chapter 4 reports findings from
conducting the research and applies these to the research questions. Lastly, Chapter 5 uses those
findings, organized by research questions, to form solutions and recommendations. These
findings will contribute to framing best practices in programming, marketing, and outreach to
support audience development in small-town and rural U.S.
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Rural arts organizations face unique challenges when building audiences for
sustainability and relevance. Studies specifically pertaining to the arts in rural or small-market
geographic locations are limited, indicating a need for future scholarship. Studies specific to
small arts nonprofits and small nonprofits, in general, are rare. Hence studies about the general
non-profit sector were sought and examined for generalizability to the arts. This review is an
examination of current literature identified through searches including terms outlined in this
section. Search terms were used along with words associated with knowledge, motivation, and
organization as well as words aligning with sociocultural theory to incorporate Gap Analysis
Framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) and Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky, 1978, Chirkov, 2020,
Dunphy, 2018).
Search Description
In order to thoroughly research this topic, peer-reviewed articles, books, news articles,
and government publications were reviewed. Most materials were sourced from the University of
Southern California Library, Google Scholar, Google Books, and textbooks used throughout the

26
OCL program. Sources under 10 years old were prioritized, as the landscape of both the arts and
small communities has changed drastically during this time. COVID-specific materials were not
separated out, although it is acknowledged that the pandemic has shaped arts administration in
profound ways.
Reviewing related information requires not only examining arts-specific studies, but also
materials focusing on the non-profit sector as a whole. The relationship between lean resources
and barriers to growing audiences (or donors, or customers, or guests) is universal, and there will
be generalizability across nonprofits. Further, a correlation between non-profit staff functions of
programming (translated to programs for broader interpretation), marketing, outreach
(engagement), and budget size that is also relational across non-profit types was anticipated.
To ensure the most inclusive results while searching databases, many terms, word
combinations, and organizational types were used to identify relevant sources. Words such as
arts relevance, organizational structure, rural, small-town, arts, staff, music, dance, visual arts,
and culture were used to locate useful resources.
The following literature review reveals themes correlating a lack of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational support to challenges with audience development among arts
organizations in small towns with limited budgets and high volunteer involvement (Kim &
Charbonneau, 2020). Those same factors contribute to a lack of customer engagement resulting
from ineffective programming, marketing, and outreach.
The current literature prioritizes researching the challenges of arts organizations in
primarily metropolitan areas. When reporting on arts in crisis, most scholars identified
deficiencies in fundraising, relevance, and competing activities. We know from the literature that
one reason for failure in the non-profit sector stems from an inability to create a product that has

27
a demand. When this occurs, it not only impacts sales revenue but the donations that often
comprise a significant portion of the budget. While these are valid arguments, they do not speak
to the challenges of a small-town arts organization striving to meet its community’s values and
motivations.
Table 1
Sources Used in Data Analysis
Demographic Surveys Interviews
Descriptive Analysis x x
Thematic Analysis x

Table 2
Sources Used to Address Research Questions
Demographic Surveys Interviews
RQ1 x x
RQ2 x

Conceptual Framework
Maxwell (2014) describes a conceptual framework as means to form ideas surrounding a
hypothesis. Because of the assumed misalignment between objectives and results combined with
consumer values, this study can best be analyzed through the Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organization (Clark & Estes, 2008) lens of the Gap Analysis Framework (Clark & Estes, 2008)
and Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky, 1978, Chirkov, 2020, Dunphy, 2018).
Vygotsky (1978) proposed that children’s learning is connected to their environment and
culture and that learning and development take place as a result of what is observed in their

28
youth. For the purpose of this study, this framework poses that participation and interest in the
arts stems from the involvement and emphasis on the value of arts early in life. An example
would be growing up with adults who brought children to concerts, music lessons, or themselves
prioritized cultural participation which was observed by the child resulting in that child also
valuing the arts as an adult (Kelly, 2007.)

29

Figure 2
Sociocultural Theory

Note: This figure is reprinted from Kelly, L. J. (2007). The Interrelationships between
adult museum visitors' learning identities and their museum experiences. Sydney, Australia:
University of Technology, Sydney.
In the non-profit space, we lack resources in almost all areas of operation and
management. Additionally, we lack funding for consultants or for large-scale analyses of our
organizational issues. As mentioned previously, knowledge and skills have been an area where
the sector has seen the most change. Arts management previously consisted of musicians,
dancers, actors, and other creatives who sometimes unintentionally ended up performing
administrative tasks. This employee often ends up being the manager or director, albeit ill-

30
equipped to handle strategic planning, business operations, or human resources. KMO gap
analysis is appropriate for this study because the goal is to identify practices to move
organizations towards both current and future sustainability and growth. The overarching
concept in building audiences for small-town and rural arts organizations is process
improvement.
This study assesses gaps in the functional areas of programming, marketing, and outreach
in order to identify solutions to improve outcomes. Basic gap analysis procedures as defined by
Clark and Estes (2008) include establishing a baseline of the organization, deciding where the
organization should be, and then identifying steps to meet the goal metric. In terms of this study,
the definition of success for the organization can be described as no net loss of audience year
after year, and a further stretch objective would be to increase ticket sales/visitors/participants by
5% annually.
The study’s research questions require an understanding of knowledge and motivation,
and the desire to understand what is missing in the organization which contributes to these
challenges. With those factors in mind, this study utilized Clark and Estes’s Gap Analysis as a
theoretical framework for the study (Clark & Estes, 2008). In addition, this problem was
examined through a sociocultural theory lens, as previous experience in the arts, an upbringing
including arts exposure, and a comfortability with the arts increase participation among
community members (Vygotsky, 1978, Chirkov, 2020, Dunphy, 2018). This literature review
will illustrate gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources which contribute to
the difficulty of establishing audiences through programming, marketing, and outreach.
Using this framework, this study seeks to understand the disconnect between both non-
profit staff, lack of knowledge, and the impact on carrying out effective administration, in

31
addition to the audience’s understanding of the arts contributing to lack of participation. The
studies reviewed helped explain and illustrate the distance between optimal operational and
community-based activities, the current state of small-sized arts nonprofits, and what can be
done to improve outcomes.
Gap analysis and sociocultural theory work congruently in that this study examines gaps
which contribute to the inability of small arts organizations to build audiences, while
sociocultural theory addresses the root problems that prevent community members from
becoming audience members. Sociocultural theory explains the connection between societal
values and participation; with those who have less exposure to the arts less likely to participate in
arts activities (Dunphy, 2018). An understanding of deficiencies and limitations on both the
organizational side and the participant side is necessary to work towards improved outcomes.

32

Figure 3
Clark and Estes’s KMO Gap Analysis

33
Characteristics of Nonprofits
In the U.S., nonprofits accomplish myriad missions utilizing funding from many sources.
Typically defined as not deriving profit from revenues, nonprofits run on a combination of
donations, grant funding, and in some instances earned revenue from programmatic activities.
According to the Council of Non Profits (2023), “America’s 1.3 million charitable nonprofits
feed, heal, shelter, educate, inspire, enlighten, and nurture people of every age, gender, race, and
socioeconomic status, from coast to coast, border to border, and beyond.” These organizations
vary in size from large institutions such as the Red Cross or universities to small grass-roots
organizations with extremely specific missions such as local food banks and animal rescue
agencies. The IRS classifies non-profit organizations according to their work. For this review
and study, nonprofits classified as 501(c)(3) charitable organizations were examined. According
to the IRS, organizations with a 501(c)(3) designation are defined as charitable organizations,
and are eligible to receive tax-deductible contributions (IRS, 2023).
Similarly, non-profit arts organizations (NPAO) can span a wide range of business
activities, sizes, and missions. In the U.S., large institutions such as the Los Angeles
Philharmonic work with annual budgets of $110 million (Propublica, 2020) with over 100 staff
members, excluding musicians (LA Phil, 2023), while the Albany (Georgia) Symphony
Orchestra operates on $266,000 per year (Propublica, 2020) and three staff members. The
business activities and missions of both organizations are similar, but the scope of their output
and the means to accomplished it differ significantly.

34
Mission and Organization
The signature of any non-profit is a mission statement. This is a concise description of
why the organization is in existence and what it endeavors to do; at times it also provides a
glimpse into the strategic intent of an organization (Bart Baetz, 1998). If well-constructed, the
mission statement provides concise information about the activities of the organization, while
inspiring action by stakeholders and employees to serve a meaningful cause (Macedo et al.,
2016). Often the mission is accompanied by the vision and values of the organization. The vision
reflects the organization’s long-term, overarching goal, while the values include the culture of
the organization or the ethical considerations (SHRM.org). Macedo et al. (2016) examined the
link between mission statements and organizational performance and found that mission
statements that were clear, purposeful, and meaningful contributed to increased success both
internally and externally (Macedo et al., 2016).
Gaps in Knowledge
Ideally, the mission statement is used to inform organizational planning (Bart Baetz,
1998). Hu et al. (2014), examined the impact of strategic planning on small-sized non-profit
organizations and showed that time and financial resources are the main reasons that small
organizations do not engage in strategic planning, yet could benefit from implementation.
Outcomes such as improving community relations, effectively utilizing limited resources, and
engaging in financial planning can be accomplished through strategic planning. Hu et al. (2014)
also identified that leaders of small nonprofits not only fail to create strategic plans, but report
that plans are often not engaged with or implemented or evaluated after creation due to lack of
time and resources (Hu et al., 2014).

35
In addition to strategic planning, non-profit organizations can benefit from utilizing data
to inform decision making leading to improved audience development. A survey conducted by
EveryAction, a customer-focused software developer, and Nonprofit Hub found that 40% of non-
profit professionals take part in data-driven decision making (Messina, 2018). Nuccio and
Bertacchini (2022), examined the use of data in arts and cultural organizations. They found that
there has been a pivot to customer-driven focus from demand focus, which has increased the
usage of customer relationship management tools to examine audience and donor trends. This
increase in information allows organizations to segment and customize messaging, advertising,
and programming to meet customer behaviors (Nuccio & Bertacchini, 2022).
Gaps in Motivation
Santora et al. (2010) report that 10% of employees at small-to-medium-sized nonprofits
participate in any long-term leadership training, or coaching. Only 5% are offered external
professional development activities or tuition reimbursements. Professionals in the non-profit
sector are trained in a broad range of educational backgrounds, with many government and
educational workers holding degrees in public administration, and increasingly degrees with a
non-profit management emphasis at the graduate level are being obtained (Hur & Bae, 2021).
Regardless of size and mission, the non-profit sector is plagued by challenges which
can be generalized across the country. NPOs historically suffer from high turnover rates. In
2022, the turnover rate was 19% among all nonprofits, compared to 12% across all industries
(SHRM, 2023). Several factors contribute to turnover, including low compensation, failure to
develop employees, burnout from stress and hours, as well as a misalignment with the job and/or
mission. However, Wang (2022) argued that employees in nonprofits are less likely to leave

36
positions due to lack of pay but are more likely to leave due to conflicts between internal and
external stakeholders. This balance of relationships occurs due to the power structure between
paid staff leadership and board leadership.
Additionally, employees feel left out of decision making and disconnected from the
community and mission that originally led them to the position (Wang, 2022). Hur and Bae
(2021) determined in their study that non-profit employees stayed at their jobs longer, and
reported increased satisfaction when there was alignment between their education and their job.
For example, when the leader of a historic preservation organization studying architecture or
history in college, a perceived mismatch in expertise and organizational mission resulted in
higher probability of quitting (Hur and Bae, 2021). Furthermore, employees feel unsupported,
especially with regard to mental health, given the lack of training resources and formal
procedures (Wang, 2022).
Lack of training, lack of connection to tasks, and lack of support all contribute to low
motivation. Wigfield & Eccles (2000) used expectancy value theory to show that people lacking
confidence they can be successful at a task are less likely to be motivated to work towards the
goals of their organization. Moreover, lack of satisfaction with the tasks assigned further relates
to low motivation. Expectancy value theory further illustrates Hur and Bae’s (2021) findings of a
disconnect between education and tasks correlating to higher turnover rates.
Organizational Gaps
Operations in the non-profit sector are filled with challenges. Most significantly, finances
can be difficult to project as they are directly tied to the variable nature of grants and donations.
Fundraising is resource consuming and requires skillsets and financial investments that many

37
nonprofits do not have (Nageswarakurukkal et al., 2020). The overarching financial structure of
nonprofits is that they are funded by grants, donations, and in some cases earned revenue. Large
organizations with more staff are better positioned to raise larger amounts and therefore provide
more services or programming (Nageswarakurukkal et al., 2020; Kim, 2017).
However, nonprofits are measured by their ability to keep expenses low, devoting as
much funding as possible to programming. This results in a phenomenon called the “starvation
cycle” in which organizations reduce overhead costs to the extent that they lose functionality as
an organization (Wing & Hager, 2016; Lecy & Searing, 2014). The cost of fundraising
(donations divided by cost) is an indicator used to evaluate the efficiency of non-profit
operations. The use of this calculation is misleading, as fundraising is not a linear pursuit, and
this ratio does not accurately represent money raised. Employees at large NPAOs are more
similarly aligned to a for-profit structure, with their ability to hire marketing professionals with
marketing credentials and education, and fundraisers with knowledge and experience
(Nageswarakurukkal et al., 2020).
Development resources can vary among organizations. Krawczyk et al. (2017) studied
the connection between organizational resources and fundraising success, finding a positive
correlation between financial and staff investment and fundraising improvement (Krawczyk et
al., 2017). Marudas et al. (2007) found that 66% of non-profit organizations were engaged in
“insufficient fundraising” and underutilizing resources to improve perceived efficiency. Their
study showed that just a 1% increase in fundraising resources (spent on staff, activities,
technology, or information) resulted in a 6% increase in gross donations on average (Marudas et

38
al., 2007), but that the emphasis on low overhead expenditures deterred organizations from
investing in this area.
In small non-profit arts organizations, staff and volunteers usually share labor duties,
which can create tension, communication problems, and resentment in the organization (Lopez et
al., 2020). Organizations are led by volunteer boards of directors, who are responsible for
finances, decision making, participating in planning, and managing the organizations Lopez et
al., 2020). The effectiveness and involvement of boards vary and are significant to the
operational success of the organization. Characteristics of successful boards include the ability to
combine expertise, diversity, and time towards the goal of mission fulfillment (Harris, 2014).
Board expertise, as well as general volunteer involvement, is particularly important because in
many instances this expertise is used in place of equivalently paid staff. Recruitment for boards
ideally considers key skill gaps in professional skills such as accounting, legal, and other
specialized knowledge related to the organization’s mission (Brown, 2007).
Since the 1980s, nonprofits have experienced a shift to towards an increase in paid staff
over volunteers due to increased demands and organizational responsibilities requiring expertise
(Maier et al., 2020). Activities such as management, finances, marketing, and fundraising have
become more business-like, and require a higher level of time dedication and knowledge to
improve outcomes (Maier et al., 2020). Small organizations have been slower to adapt to this
trend and still rely heavily on volunteer manpower, which can impede their ability to grow
(Chang, 2010).
Chang (2010) compiled general and specific research on small arts organizations by
utilizing data from the U.S. Census, National Endowment for the Arts, Americans for the Arts,

39
and the Ohio Arts Council. He found that while there was no agreed-upon definition of what
comprises a small arts organization, numbers are also complicated as many staff and artists work
for multiple organizations. Furthermore, Chang extrapolated that 61% of small organizations
employ only zero to four employees and comprise over 78% of arts organizations as a whole
(Chang, 2010).
The persistent understaffing of small arts nonprofits has several consequences. Burnout,
turnover, and negative impact on productivity and motivation are commonly seen in understaffed
organizations (Hudson & Shen, 2015). Employees enter the non-profit sector because of a cause,
or an altruistic desire to serve, but are often conflicted by multiple priorities and stakeholders,
financial instability, and a lack of human resource guidelines and practices (Phillip &
Arrowsmith, 2020).
In the arts, many employees begin their careers as artists and end up as administrators.
According to a 2019 study by the National Endowment for the Arts, approximately five million
workers are employed in the arts and culture industry (NEA, 2020), of which 26% are employed
in the non-profit sector. Of those, 80% hold a bachelor’s degree or higher in an artistic field. This
is perhaps a logical choice and provides leadership that understands the value of the artform.
However, this also contributes to lower levels of business acumen and leadership abilities, which
are important when managing tight financial climates and constantly changing staff.
Stewart and Kuenzi (2018) studied the backgrounds of non-profit professionals and
concluded that workers come from a variety of educational environments and enter the industry
for myriad reasons. Interestingly, over 46% of employees in their study had spent their entire
career in the non-profit sector (Stuart and Kuenzi, 2018). They concluded that there is a lack of

40
leadership and managerial skills among non-profit executives, which has failed to improve with
an increased demand for professional skills. A majority of their sample identified a desire to be
part of a mission-driven organization as the reason they entered the non-profit sector, with most
also citing job movement due to lack of opportunities within their own organizations (Stuart and
Kuenzi, 2018).
Audience Building
Arts nonprofits rely on community members, tourists, and arts enthusiasts to support their
activities by purchasing tickets and participating in programming offered by the organization.
Historically, arts organizations have been sustained by wealthy individuals and groups that can
be traced back to the Gilded Age patrons who brought their passion for European artforms to the
U.S. at the end of the nineteenth century (Accomonatti et al., 2018). Families such as the
Carnegies and Vanderbilts created the original homes of the New York Philharmonic and
Metropolitan Opera, defining both European style and classism in the U.S. Fueled by social
aspiration and competitiveness, the foundation of the relatedness of white privilege and the arts
was established in the U.S. (Accomonatti et al., 2018).
Barriers for Audiences
Overcoming Perceptions
Uncovering what keeps our audiences predominantly white has been a major challenge
for arts organizations across the country. In 2015, the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA)
released a seminal study focused on participation and engagement in the arts from 2002 to 2012
(NEA, 2015). The demographics reported that 66.3% of arts attendees were white, with only
14.9% being Black and 11.4% identified as Hispanic (NEA, 2015).

41
Bourdieu (1984) argues that a refined taste in art is the result of upbringing, legacy, and
pedigree. While there may be less of an emphasis on “high” versus “low” art, there remains the
preconception that wealthy, educated individuals are the deciders of value in the arts (Bourdieu
& Darbel, 1990). Overcoming the perceived exclusivity of the arts, particularly the performing
arts, has been difficult. Arts organizations have been forced to address the demographics of their
audiences for decades, trying various tactics to increase participation as numbers have dwindled
for traditional performances. Seeking relevance, the arts have attempted to evolve, for example
by playing with performance start times: earlier times to allow for dinner, shorter performance
times, and matinees have all been used to attract new and different audiences.
Perhaps more importantly, it is critical to examine the role of “otherness” when
examining audience motivation. As in the late 1800s, the arts today have not been welcoming to
those not in the “right” circle. In her book The Art of Relevance, Nina Simon speaks of the
unknowns that keep newcomers from attending a performance (Simon, 2016). The rules of
attendance are often not printed. Potential audiences do not know what to wear, when to clap, or
how to behave (Harlow, 2014). Fear of the unknown, rather than start time or ticket price,
prevents many from purchasing tickets (Simon, 2016). The issue of identity and membership
further complicates the motivation of future patrons’ participation in the arts. Usher’s 2018
study outlines those complex factors, such as social group membership, status, education, and
ancestry, which are linked to motivation. Taking part in activities outside of one’s identity
(perceived or actual) is stressful and comes with risk (Usher, 2018). Membership is correlated to
motivation and learning and must be considered when developing strategies to welcome those
who may identify as “outsiders” to cultural events.

42
Even more complex an issue is that the arts have failed to welcome minorities and those
with disabilities. Not only have performing arts organizations been predominantly white from the
audience side, but actors, dancers, and musicians have followed the same trends. For example,
the New York Philharmonic welcomed their first African American principal musician only in
2014. According to a study by Bettleheim for the League of American Orchestras, in 2015 the
total of non-white musicians in larger budget groups hovered at 13.1%, whereas in smaller
budget groups that number grew to 15.9%. Similarly, non-white office staff was reported to be at
14% and conductors at an average of 22% across all budget sizes (Bettleheim, 2023).
When arts administrators at the leadership level do not reflect the audience they wish to
attract, programming and accessibility suffer. Arts administrators are failing to include people
with disabilities as patrons and artists for their organizations. Reasons for this lack of
engagement are linked to physical, mental, emotional, and economic challenges (Fujimoto et al.,
2010; Fancourt & Mak, 2020; Ludwig, 2012). Ludwig (2012) also explains that another
perceived barrier is stigma and self-stigmatization, referring to internal thoughts of making
others uncomfortable or being unwelcome to participate despite organizational efforts to include
people with disabilities. According to U.S Census records, one in five people report experiencing
some level of disability, with one in eight reporting a severe disability (National Endowment for
the Arts [NEA], 2011). The NEA states that this subgroup was less likely to participate in the
performing arts compared to adults without disabilities, with only 7% of that population
participating in some capacity (NEA, 2011).
The statistics are equally daunting from an audience perspective. Uncovering what keeps
U.S. audiences predominantly white has been a major challenge for arts organizations across the

43
country. Sociocultural theory provides an understanding of how community members are shaped
by their developmental experiences and exposure to the arts (Dunphy, 2018). Those who have
limited opportunities to have first-had arts experiences, or did not live in households where the
arts were valued are less likely to participate (Dunphy, 2018).
Lack of Education and Exposure
How to improve these numbers has been a conundrum. As school arts programs
decrease, children have less connection and exposure to the arts. While availability of music
programs may be prevalent across urban schools, they vary in quality, and participation is closely
tied to socioeconomic status (Elpus and Abril, 2019). Obstacles include cost of instruments and
maintenance, fees and accessibility of private lessons, and transportation availability to off-site
and after school opportunities (DeLorenzo, 2012). Other disruptors that contribute to disparities
in participation include lack of materials, large class sizes, and drop-out rates (Doyle, 2012).
Family mobility, or frequent school-switching, parental involvement, and perceived gender-
stereotyped roles impact students’ decisions to participate in secondary music programs (Kinney,
2010).
In addition to the factors above, which are tied to socioeconomic status, other barriers are
social or behavioral in nature. There is a disconnect between curriculum, context, and the
potential bias of educators that cannot be ignored. The relevance between the program and the
lives of students must be considered (Doyle, 2020). The content in secondary programs must be
updated and adjusted to appeal to a more diverse student population and to connect social justice
and equity through the exploration of all musical genres (DeLorenzo, 2012). Additionally, the
lack of representation stemming from under-participation in urban schools stifles growth and

44
creates divisions in performing arts settings, directly impacting the future of the field of music
itself (DeLorenzo, 2012).
Pricing
In 2017 the NEA found that the most common barriers to arts participation were cost,
lack of time, and physical distance. Ticket pricing has been a priority and constant experiment in
attracting new audiences. Eigo and Wilson’s 2019 study revealed that while organizations
employ different approaches to ticket pricing, free tickets did not equate to increased
engagement. Small organizations often lack data to understand their patrons’ sensitivity to price
increases. While ideally ticket revenue keeps up with the cost of the performance, increasingly
this is proving impossible (Kim et al., 2017). Organizations rely on sponsorships and grant
funding to cover the cost of events, and tickets only partially cover expenses.
Additionally, Kim’s 2017 study found that organizations are seeking other revenue
streams such as gift shops and concessions to subsidize free and complementary tickets.
Traditionally, larger organizations such as symphony orchestras and theater companies have
relied on subscribers to stabilize their revenue (Flanagan, 2012). These subscribers are also
linked to major and consistent donations. However, with an increasing number of options for
entertainment (NEA, 2017; Kim, 2017), organizations are trying new methods to provide options
while still attracting reliable subscribers. Many organizations are now offering flexible packages,
which allow consumers to create a subscription based on their preferences, and “pay what you
can” models, in hopes of capturing younger customers with busy schedules and lower incomes
(Pompe et al., 2018).

45
Opportunities
Programming in the Arts
Without a foundation created by arts education, there is a lack of understanding of music,
dance, and theater. For most, it would be difficult to find motivation to attend an event when you
do not know anything about the performance. Arts organizations have sought to overcome
familiarity with programming by creating arts experiences that have popular components to
attract new audiences (Graser, 2009). Examples of this have been successful, including classic
movies (Har-Evan, 2019) such as “Star Wars” (VGL, 2019) with a live orchestra, or “Video
Games Live,” in which the soundtracks to video games are performed. COVID-19 provided
opportunities for theater performances to take place in parking garages (Parking Garage
Performances, 2022), and in store windows (Joseph, 2020). Events like “Beer and Ballet”
combine local breweries with short ballet performances.
Rhine and Murnin (2018) studied start time and run time as motivators for arts
participation. In an attempt to attract audiences, some groups have experimented with these
factors to improve the convenience of attending a performance. The NEA reported in 2015 that
lack of time was the largest barrier to attendance. Rhine and Murnin’s study indicated that the
best day for performances was Saturday, and that an earlier start time was preferred. More
interestingly, audiences respond best to show times of 75 minutes or less.
Programming in Small Towns
Small NPAOs are uniquely positioned to build audiences. Because of their direct
engagement with their communities, they are able to be flexible and responsive to their
audience’s programming preferences (NEA, Rural, 2017). However, to learn about their

46
communities, collecting data is critical. This can include post-performance surveys, online polls,
and community-wide surveys to gain an understanding of strengths and weaknesses. Developing
performance indicators for artistic products can vary among organizations and a complete
evaluation includes looking at both demand (sales) and the resources (operational effectiveness)
used to execute the performance (Labronne & Tröndle, 2018). Dunphy (2018) suggests five
measurable outcomes that organizations should consider when collecting data on audience
engagement: creativity inspired, aesthetic enrichment experienced, knowledge or insight gained,
diversity of experience appreciated, and sense of belonging/sense of cultural connectedness.
Small NPAOs rely on audience response to make decisions, which results in a reactive approach
to decision-making rather than using data to inform programming and activities.
Programming often relies on previous knowledge and certain gatekeeping measures
(Labronne & Tröndle, 2020), which discourages innovation and adaptability. Organizations rely
on “tried and true” programs which promise attendance but discourage repeat attendance (Rhine
and Murnin, 2018). Small towns rely on information from their customers more than on urban
organizations, with 38% of rural organizations reporting direct information from their customers
about new opportunities (NEAb, 2017). In addition, small non-profit arts organizations are
uniquely positioned to provide economic benefits to their communities (NEAb, 2017) and
participate in advocacy within their community (Kim & Mason, 2018). Connecting social issues
that are community-specific to arts programming can increase engagement and public opinion
for an organization. (Kim & Mason, 2018).
Skippington and Davis (2016) examine the role of listening and relationship-building to
improve audience participation in small towns. While it is recognized that there are social

47
benefits from the arts, they are seen as directly competing with other community events such as
festivals or sporting events (Skippington & Davis, 2016). Arts audiences in small communities
may view programming as just another community event, without priority. Lack of community
engagement, programming which is not interesting to the community, and the perception of
elitism are cited as barriers to participation in small communities (Skippington & Davis, 2016).
Creating community cohesion while also embracing change is critical to creating programming
that sustains and builds new audiences (Rogers, 2005).
Marketing in the Arts
Large arts organizations increasingly hire professional branding strategists, media buyers,
and full-time public relations teams to manage all aspects of communication from the
organization. This professionalization is in line with the competitive nature of vying for the
attention of audiences (Worth, 2013). Consumers have become increasingly attuned to
messaging and expect to be reached on the channels they frequent. Compared to other 501(c)(3)
organizations, arts groups spend twice as much on marketing (Lee, 2021). These findings assume
a similarity to for-profit product marketing and a need to build relationships between the
organization and customers (Lee, 2021).
Social image is a significant concern for non-profit organizations. The ability to convey
value can be difficult with a product that can seem esoteric or vague. For that reason,
organizations rely on marketing and brand image not only to sell tickets but to secure donations
(Cacija, 2016). The positive relationship between marketing resources expended and amount of
funding raised introduces the question of viability for smaller organizations that cannot commit
to these resources (Cacija, 2016).

48
Marketing in Small Towns
The use of data in making decisions that build audiences is lacking in small art
organizations. The time and staff to conduct surveys and the expertise to analyze results is not
available. Marketing analytics, SEO optimization, and consumer trends could improve response
to changes in audiences and demographics, particularly in small towns. As a result, word-of-
mouth testimonials and social media sharing/commenting are critical marketing tools (Chieffi et
al., 2020, NEAb, 2017; Colbert & Dantas, 2019; Chang, 2011). The sharing of negative
experiences at a performance or with the staff of an organization can be particularly damaging in
smaller communities and directly impact return ticket purchases, and the recommendation to
others to purchase by known community members positively can impact sales (Colbert &
Dantas, 2019). Chieffi et al. (2020) suggest that managers meet their audience with messaging
that uses language understandable and familiar to the audience they are trying to reach.
Developing belongingness and collective experiences can help audiences more effectively share
their experience, whether through word of mouth or digitally. Arts marketers in small
organizations can affect this by providing easy access to resources that supplement the arts
experience (Cheiffi et al., 2020).
Outreach in the Arts
Arts organizations have sought to remedy the early disconnect by offering community
outreach that fills voids and creates opportunities for students to engage in the arts. Additionally,
outreach in non-formal settings can allow individuals to interact with art from a different
perspective (Eckoff, 2011). Further, offsite events allow organizations to interact with members

49
of the community who have been historically underrepresented in the arts, providing a safe and
casual means of interacting with the arts (Garber, 2018).
With the decrease in school arts programs, local organizations have been able to fill voids
providing opportunities for area youth to participate in the arts. McDonald et al. (2021) suggest
that there is a socio-cultural threat to the arts that impacts participation. However, this threat can
be mitigated by providing opportunities for children to participate in classes and workshops that
create a pathway to engagement (McDonald et al., 2021). Creating value in the arts by providing
auxiliary opportunities to gain experience and agency as a patron can cultivate familiarity and
interest in the experience of attending performances as students mature. Examples of these
activities include bringing professional artists into schools for concerts and workshops,
presenting camps and classes in the community, and providing free tickets to students and
community groups (Sidorowicz, 1994; Ulbricht, 2005).
These initiatives serve several purposes. First, they allow more interaction between artists
and students, which can remove perceived barriers of elitism (Garber, 2018). Next, they allow
students to feel safe at an arts venue, increasing belonging in the space or within the
organization. This engagement also creates the foundation for future involvement in the arts. A
common model for community outreach involves connecting the community to already
established programming by involving artists in ancillary classes or educational performances
leading to the potential for increased attendance for the actual performance (Ulbricht, 2005).
Many communities are served by education-based non-profit organizations which
provide music education and outreach not funded by school systems or affiliated with
performing arts organizations. ArtsReach in Charlotte, NC, and Sound Impact based in

50
Washington, DC, are examples of organizations providing services which both complement
existing schools and also provide services where there are none (artsreach.org, 2023;
soundimpact.org, 2023).
Outreach in Small Towns
According to Bandura’s social learning theory (1977), we learn from watching those
around us. An implication of this in the arts is that if someone does not grow up with exposure to
the arts, they are less likely to participate in them as an adult. The barriers impacting arts
education and exposure in the U.S. are compounded in small communities where proximity to a
variety of art forms may be limited (Sabol, 2010). Decreases in field trips as a result of funding
cuts have further exacerbated the opportunities for students to attend performances with their
school (Eckoff, 2011).
Both the presence of arts organizations (Foster et al., 2016) and the presence of
community-led participatory arts programs (Grodach, 2011) can provide connectivity, decrease
disadvantaged status among residents, distinctiveness of place (Kelkar, N.P. & Spinelli, J.2016),
and give marginalized populations a voice (Sharp et al., 2016). Communities that encourage and
participate in arts outreach reap multiple benefits. These include increased interaction among
neighbors and social capital, inspiration to engage in the arts, creating a community center as an
unofficial gathering space, increasing neighborhood assets, and giving voice to those who were
previously silenced (Foster et al., 2016; Grodach, 2011; Gallagher & Ehlman, 2019).
Smith and Vetica (2020) describe the impact of arts outreach on a small-town. Their
study focused on integrating arts programming in partnership with other local organizations,
which resulted in increased trust within the community, greater participation in the arts, and

51
improved participation with existing programming (Smith & Vetica, 2020). Furthermore, this
outreach provided after-school and weekend activities for underserved youth in locations that
were accessible to their community. In addition to arts nonprofits, local, state, and regional arts
commissions often engage in offering local arts outreach. In 2021, the New Mexico Music
Commission offered a complete roster of arts programming for rural communities across the
state with the goal of reenergizing communities post-COVID (New Mexico Culture, 2021).
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Arts organizations are very much distinctive and rich with differences related to
geographic, cultural, and historical heritage. For this reason, data collected must be carefully
obtained and thoughtfully received and recorded. By nature, the arts are subjective and
undefinable, which creates the possibility of a wide array of responses and the need for
additional questioning and response to enrich the narrative.
Research Design
This study sought to examine the experiences of participants in order to form a
comprehensive understanding of the problems faced by administrators and their organizations in
an attempt to uncover solutions. This type of research indicates the need for a qualitative,
phenomenological design that allows for a thorough understanding of experiences through semi-
structured interviews (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Using a phenomenological approach is
appropriate, as the experiences of arts leaders in their organizations allowed improved insight
into their unique efforts in building audiences. This information is not suited to quantitative
analysis but relies instead on the detailed explanations, reasoning, nuances, emotions, and details
provided by arts leaders.

52
This study utilizes Clark and Estes’s Gap Analysis (2008) as a theoretical framework
with Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization (Clark & Estes, 2008) and sociocultural theory
(Vygotsky, 1978, Chirkov, 2020, Dunphy, 2018). Given this, a qualitative design was used due
to the nature of the information to be collected and the objective of the study focusing on
improvement (Maxwell, 2014). A phenomenological approach is used to examine the
experiences of participants and align their responses within the gap analysis framework. As
described by Maxwell (2014), this study required an understanding of meanings and context,
phenomena, processes, and influences as well as the ability to form theories from the information
collected. Because of the inductive and emergent nature of this research, qualitative research
methods such as open-ended questions, observation, and a holistic approach to design are needed
(Morgan, 2014). Furthermore, qualitative interviewing allowed for the emergent flow of
information transfer and collecting a greater depth of insights (Morgan, 2014). These techniques
are necessary for the understanding of the problem due to the nuanced, emotional, and unique
nature of the arts.
Research Questions
Research questions were constructed with the aim of describing the background of the
problem, an overview of arts organizations in general, and understanding the experiences, both
similar and different, of arts administrators working in small-town and rural arts organizations.
By examining these themes, a framework was developed to address challenges and barriers and
to create an effective path toward success for these organizations.
Familiarity with the arts field is critical to understanding the issues these organizations
face. For this reason, the following research questions address both historic and projected issues
faced by small-town and rural arts organizations. The primary source of data collection to answer

53
these research questions was one-on-one interviews, supplemented by research obtained in
completing the literature review.
RQ1: How do knowledge and motivation influence audience development for rural arts
organizations?
RQ2: How does the organization influence audience development for rural and small-
town arts?
Setting
To facilitate participation, interviews took place synchronously via Zoom (Zoom, 2011).
and recorded and transcribed for reference. This research utilized Zoom in order to reach
participants beyond my vicinity and to facilitate convenient times for participants. Interviewees
were located in their geographic areas, with some participating in their offices and some in their
homes. Interviews were scheduled at various times of day including early morning and during
work hours.
Participants
Target and Accessible Population
The target population is decision-making administrators of small, rural non-profit arts
organizations in the U.S. The accessible population is decision-making administrators of small,
rural non-profit arts organizations primarily in the southeastern United States. According to
Chang (2010), there is no agreed-upon metric that defines a small-size arts organization,
however the guidelines below were considered in recruitment. The population includes
participants who meet specific professional criteria:
1. should be at a decision-making level within their current organization in a position
related to programming, marketing, and/or outreach,

54
2. have at least three to five years’ experience in non-profit arts organization,
3. experience in an arts non-profit with a budget under $1 million, and
4. in a county or town defined as rural, a town of fewer than 5,000 residents, or a
community whose primary economic driver is agriculture.
Sample
The sample consisted of six decision-making administrators of small, rural non-profit arts
organizations in the U.S., with a majority working in the southeast. According to Merriam and
Tisdale (2016), saturation should be reached at a smaller sample size due to similarities across
organizations and an anticipated thematic connection between resources and challenges for these
groups. Working within a sector such as the arts, similarities are present across all sizes of
organizations, only on differing scales.
At the start of the recruitment, a goal of 10 participants was set. It proved difficult to find
participants, and the number was lowered to six as the interview responses were similar and
increasingly generalizable across the population indicating saturation. After speaking with the six
leaders, I discovered common themes that are universal to the non-profit sector as a whole.
Sampling Method
Merriam and Tisdale (2016) present the concept of non-random, purposive, non-
probabilistic sampling as a means of successfully collecting information in a qualitative study.
This strategy involves selecting participants with specific knowledge and experience which can
be the most relevant to the study, thus adding specific information. Probability sampling was
used in choosing the six leaders of small, rural arts organizations primarily located in the
southeastern United States. Recruitment messaging (Appendix A) was sent to 85 leaders who
met the organization size and community size criteria. The sampling method included asking

55
interested respondents who made contact as a result of receiving the recruitment message
(Appendix A), which outlines the purpose of the study, usage of collected information, and
privacy/security protocol for data. I sent an email reply (Appendix A) reiterating the
qualifications for participation with regard to organizational position, professional experience,
and the geography and size of the current organization as referenced in the earlier recruitment
message.
Recruitment
After obtaining permission from the University of Southern California (U.S.C.) Internal
Review Board, recruitment for the study began. Participants were identified through an internet
search by organizational size and geographic location (southeastern U.S.) and focused on
performing arts, visual arts, and museum/historic space non-profit organizations as defined by
the Internal Revenue Service. Publicly provided email addresses were used to contact arts
administrators via the recruitment message (Appendix A). Portions of the standard recruitment
message) were used as appropriate for brevity but stated that further information could be
provided upon request.
To keep the scope of the study manageable and relevant to the stakeholders (arts
administrators of small-town and rural arts organizations), this study does not include historic
landmarks, parks, gardens, or festivals. Performing arts organizations were targeted because their
similarities would allow for the results of this study to be more specifically useful to those
organizations. Future studies involving other arts organization types would be beneficial.
Data Collection
For this study, data were collected at two points. First, a demographic survey (Appendix
B) was administered to collect information that was used to qualify participants for the study and

56
verify their experience level and that their organization included performing arts. Next, semi-
structured interviews (Appendix E) took place at a time I determined with the participant and
were carried out online via Zoom (Zoom, 2011).
Demographic Survey
The demographic survey (Appendix B) established an overview of participants with
regard to their personal and professional backgrounds. Ten questions were asked using Qualtrics
(Qualtrics, 2023). This survey was administered after the respondent indicated interest in
participating and was used to establish that the candidates met the criteria for participation.

57
Interview Protocol
A semi-structured interview protocol (Appendix D) was used to gain information
regarding the experiences of participants. Thirteen open-ended interview questions were asked,
along with probing follow-up questions to clarify and provide a further understanding of the
respondent’s intent. This study utilized a standardized open-ended interview, with the same
questions posed to each participant (Johnson & Christensen, 2019). Questions were carefully
ordered to achieve the best flow and capture of energy by the participants (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
Interview questions were created in keeping with both the study’s research questions as
well as the structure of the literature review, allowing for connection points among concepts. In
addition, interview questions pointed to assumed gaps in knowledge, motivation, and
organization. This allowed data to be categorized into themes providing a means to assess
commonalities.
Procedures
After it had been established that participants had met the required parameters, interested
respondents were asked to set up an appointment using Calendly. Interviews were conducted
individually, and instructions were sent ahead of time to interviewees to secure a quiet,
distraction-free environment for approximately two hours, with cell phone and other notifications
turned off. At the start of each interview, a brief statement was read to introduce the interview,
reestablish protocols, and give the participants time for questions (Appendix D). Using the
aforementioned sampling method, eligible participants who responded to the recruitment letter
were contacted prior to the interview date to review the informed consent form (Appendix C).
Procedures regarding confidentiality, data management, and use of data were discussed and

58
participants had the opportunity to ask questions. At that time, the demographic survey was sent
(Appendix B). A date and time were confirmed for the interview and an informed consent form
outlining confidentiality procedures, risks, and protocol was reviewed.
Respondents were notified during the recruitment process, at interview confirmation, and
prior to the start of the interview that the interview would be recorded, both audio and video and
also transcribed for data analysis. Interview questions began with a more general rapport,
building background questions to gain relational comfort with participants in order to encourage
the sharing of insights from each interviewee (Johnson & Christensen, 2019). The last interview
question included an invitation to provide further resources for insights on this topic from the
interviewee.
At the scheduled interview time, the interview protocol was reviewed with the
participant. Both video and audio had to be on at all times, in order to capture nuanced responses
throughout the interview, which might be cause for further questions. Respondents were
introduced to the interview by a scripted description of the interview protocol, a description of
the format of the interview, a brief review of the confidentiality/informed consent document, and
further remarks regarding the availability of the study once it was completed. Recognizing and
addressing power imbalances, as well as the receipt of sensitive or harmful information, was
critical to conducting these interviews (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Timing is not specific to the findings or expected outcomes of the study and was
determined by the availability of participants. The research began in November 2022 and the
interviews were completed at the end of December 2022.

59
Confidentiality Parameters
Qualitative interviews present several potential privacy risks, as personal, emotional, and
potentially consequential information could be shared during these conversations. Risks include
employer retribution, professional or personal backlash, or unwanted attention in the form of
unsolicited contact or stalking. Steps which are outlined in the Informed Consent Form
(Appendix C) were taken to reduce the possibility of privacy risks.
In order to protect personal information, an informed consent/confidentiality policy form
(Appendix C) was distributed prior to the interview stating that all identifying information was
removed and not used in any way in the study. Participants were given the option to remain
anonymous, and/or only use their organization’s name, or an alias for both. Names and emails
were removed from demographic survey responses to avoid the potential for personal
information to be shared. Records from interviews were kept confidential in password-restricted
files on my computer. Information was not to be shared between interviewees at any time prior
to the completion of this study.
Data Management
In order to securely store all data, including interview transcripts, email communication,
and other sensitive or identifying information, several layers of security will be used to protect
the integrity of the study and the privacy of participants. It was important that information be
safe and confidential as interviewees were providing information specific to their employment,
community, and potentially donors. Most critically, if not appropriately secured, data could be
used to the detriment of these leaders who were assured confidentiality. This is not only
potentially damaging to their professional careers but diminishes the integrity of the researcher.

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The interviews (Appendix E) responses were transcribed from Zoom using Word
(Microsoft, 2023) and then uploaded into Atlas.ti for analysis. Interview responses were coded
for themes, and quotations were tagged for relation to the topic. Finally, results were aligned to
the two research questions:
RQ1: How do knowledge and motivation influence audience development for rural arts
organizations?
RQ2: How does the organization influence audience development for rural and small-
town arts?
Encryption
All information was saved on devices with up-to-date privacy and malware protection,
including a firewall and automatic updates to ensure systems were operating with optimal
security. Data were encrypted with a password through Google docs. Data were also backed up
to iCloud using a strong password, as well as saved to a backup drive stored securely in a locked
drawer.
Dissemination of Findings
The purpose of this study is to uncover best practices for small-town and rural arts
organizations to develop audiences. Therefore, this study will not only be available for
participants but can take other formats in order to effectively share its findings. Publications,
conference sessions, and consulting pitches are examples of channels through which this
information could be communicated. Additionally, summarizing it into a concise ‘quick start
guide’ could be an easy way to provide suggestions and guidance directly to arts administrators
in an easy-to-understand manner.

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Data Analysis
An advantage of qualitative interviews is that a large amount of information can be
gained, including descriptive and nuanced insights. Even so, it was expected that common
themes would present themselves, allowing for the organization and analysis of data. Both
descriptive and thematic analysis were employed to process information related to the
participants, their professional insights, and organizational information related to improvement.
Descriptive Analysis
Descriptive analysis was used to examine data from the demographic survey and
interviews. A demographic survey was sent after participants confirmed interest in order to
qualify them for the study (Appendix B). The survey was conducted through Qualtrics
(Qualtrics, 2023) for analysis. The summary analysis tools in Qualtrics were used to view the
data and ensure participants fit the constraints of the study.
Thematic Analysis
This study used Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) to describe qualitative data taken from
interviews. I used ATLAS.ti Mac (Version 22.0.6.0) transcription tools to support the
transcription and analysis process. Data were analyzed and coded to denote themes linked to the
established research questions. I used a six-step process consisting of the following:
familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and
writing up. The research findings from the TCA were organized per each of the four research
questions. From this information, relevant and valuable quotes were excerpted for use.
It was especially important that this information be properly dissected, as these arts
organizations are somewhat similar in overall structure, experience similar challenges, and

62
operate with limited resources. How each organization responded, the respondent’s word choices
when giving information, and the successes and failures were critical to note.
Information was grouped into categories and sorted by overall observations, feelings,
thoughts about small-town arts organizations, factors specific to their organization that impact
successful audience development, and challenges/opportunities in the areas of programming,
marketing, and outreach.
All information obtained through interviews and secondary sources (organizational
websites, 990’s) was triangulated to identify themes and patterns. Information was
communicated using rich, descriptive language (Merriam & Tisdale, 2009) to establish an
understanding of the setting, context, and tone for the reader. The data were similar in theme
across organizations and therefore were more broadly generalizable to other organizations in
different geographic locations.
Reliability
Dependability
Dependability refers to the strength of probability that this study can be replicated and
produce the same results. Some universal challenges which were described in Chapter 2 can
easily be applied to small organizations. By using a consistent approach customized to the
challenges encountered by smaller organizations, we can increase the probability that similar
studies will produce the same result. By creating clear, vetted questions, and choosing a broad
sample, reliability can be increased, providing an accurate depiction of small-town and rural non-
profit arts organizations.
In qualitative research, replication can be complicated (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016).
However, due to the universality of challenges across nonprofits, small nonprofits, and small arts

63
organizations, one can assumed that findings would generalize across multiple organizations and
be consistent. Given these factors, I utilized a peer debriefer (Creswell & Creswell, 2018)
familiar with the arts administration sector to read two drafts at different stages to ensure the
content was clear and free of bias and to increase reliability.
Confirmability
Confirmability is the ability to confirm data as truthful and therefore valuable in
connecting the information received to the problem of practice (Moon et al., 2016). This concept
is critical to this study as the objective is to seek solutions that are generalizable across
organizations. Therefore, ensuring that the information being used is free of personal bias and
directly represents organizational experiences is crucial. This was achieved by a thorough
examination of responses in relation to each other, of connections between the responses and
assumed positionality, and of information received versus organizational activities confirmed by
other sources.
Validity
Credibility
Credibility was established and communicated for both me and the interview participants.
For myself, a clear communication of positionality with regard to arts administration conveyed a
direct tie to the topic being studied and a genuine interest in seeking to improve the arts as a
whole. For the interviewer, credibility was established by vetting participants using the
recruitment procedures listed previously. By confirming the intent of both parties, the study itself
gains credibility, with results more likely to become replicable and representative of arts
administrators as a sector.

64
As suggested by Johnson and Christensen (2019), steps were taken to increase internal
validity and credibility, including:
● the establishment of rapport,
● the clear communication of my positionality, including my background and
investment in the arts sector,
● the encouragement of candidness and an accompanying adherence to
confidentiality,
● respecting the participant’s time,
● encouraging participation through response and body language, and
● an emphasis on contributing to improving outcomes in our sector and the
participant’s role in helping other organizations as well as their own.
Transferability
Moon et al. (2016), describe transferability as an example of external validity, which
describes the usefulness of information when applied in different contexts. For this study, a
priority was that the findings could be applied to other types of small organizations, government
cultural entities such as community arts councils, and economic development groups including
rural development organizations and planning commissions. Therefore, transferability is an
important factor and was affected by examining phenomena in relation to the broader benefits to
community life and civic policy objectives.
Conclusion
Data collection for this study was rich in expression, emotion, and thought. The complex
nature of the intersection of art and business has created leaders who can be sensitive, analytical,
and creative problem-solvers able to flexibly fulfill many roles within their organizations. It is

65
hoped that respondents recognized the need for further study to benefit their specific
organization type and were eager to participate. Challenges included keeping the interviews
concise, as there was a great amount of material to cover, and selecting qualified respondents
who could communicate the intricacies of the obstacles they encountered.
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS
This study was conducted to better understand the challenges that small non-profit arts
organizations face in sustaining and building audiences. The findings of this study will be used to
create impactful, strategic, and efficient resources and services to support organizations struggling
to understand their audiences and communities. The study used Clark and Estes’s Gap Analysis
(2008) as a theoretical framework with Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization (source) and
sociocultural theory (source) lenses to better understand audience development.
Demographic Data
This study comprised six arts leaders in different types of organizations, across various
genres, but all working with small staff and budgets. Three participants were women and three
were men. Participants held leadership roles and were directly involved in decision making and
had worked over than five years in their industry. Five of the participants answered questions for
the demographic survey (Appendix F). Survey data was only used to qualify participants for the
study with regard to their experience and details about their organization.
Table 3
Results from Demographic Survey
Survey Question Survey Responses
How long have you
worked in your current
organization?
0-1 years: 0
2-5 years: 4
6-10 years: 0

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11+ years 1

Do you have a
background in the arts?

Yes: 3
No: 2

What is your current
organization’s current
budget?

$51k-$74k: 1
$101k-400k: 2
$700k-$999k: 1

What arts discipline does
your organization
produce?

Music: 4
Dance: 5
Theater: 3

What is the population of
the community you
serve?

10,000-12,000: 1
13,000-15,000: 2
>19,000: 2

Research Question One
How do knowledge and motivation influence audience development for small-town arts
organizations?
Table 4
Gaps in Knowledge in Small-Town Arts Organizations
Factual
Knowledge
Conceptual Procedural Metacognitive
Staff lacks
education and
experience to build
audiences.
Staff lacks complex
expertise to
communicate critical
messaging in order
to build audiences.
Staff lacks
structured processes
to build audiences.
Staff lacks ability to
connect business
skills and
abstract/creative
concepts to build
audiences.

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Knowledge Factors
The ability to successfully build audiences relies not only on administrative skills to
operate in a non-profit setting, but also on the propensity to connect and communicate the
organization’s mission to a diverse group of stakeholders. The interview subjects in this study
each have unique educational and professional backgrounds and approach barriers with varied
skills and techniques. To establish an overview of the knowledge gaps, present in the interviewed
participants, Krathwohl’s (2002) revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy was used. Themes
emerged from the interviews and are summarized in Table 3 with quotations listed in Table 4.
Table 4
Selected Interview Responses to RQ1: Knowledge
Procedural/Metacognitive: The shift (in audience building) is a strategic way of marking using
more social media reaching the algorithms, making sure we are posting at the right times and what
we post reaches the right people.
Procedural: I just go with it for that year and if it doesn’t work, then we change it.
Factual: We received a grant to do some out-of-county advertising, just trying to figure out how
to draw X [city] in.
Procedural: We’re getting ready to launch a survey at the end of the month that asks people what
kind of music you want to listen to next year or what kind of events you want next year.
Procedural: We’re finally to the point where we have team members, so we’re starting to create
these sort of measurement tools to sort of collect more of that data.
Factual/Conceptual: I have no previous experience; I was a trustee and a volunteer.

68
Factual: We have a marketing director that has been with us for seven years and was a volunteer
for 15 years before that.
Procedural: We don’t really go out and do surveys. It’s really difficult for us from a manpower
perspective.
Factual: I’ve really created this thing out of passion, very organically without probably relying on
those sorts of textbook lessons they’ve taught you.
Factual/Procedural: You can’t give good customer service if you don’t have the right staff, and
if you’re not giving them the time off, they need to recover because it’s exhausting.

69

Factual Knowledge
Arts leaders must be knowledgeable about the foundational tenets of non-profit
administration, performing arts as an industry, and elements of community building. Leaders
who were interviewed had previous experience in a wide range of organizations. Most were
unrelated to non-profit administration but were peripherally connected. Two respondents had
worked in the education field, and one had worked in hospital administration, one in tourism, and
the remaining two had backgrounds in the arts and community planning. The leaders interviewed
each had previous leadership experience including planning, budgeting, marketing, and
associated business skills. One leader expressed a lack of textbook knowledge, and that their
skills had been obtained “organically” through on-the-job experience but acknowledged a
possible need for either themselves or a staff member to obtain additional training, especially in
the area of fundraising.
Secondarily, the leaders interviewed expressed potential gaps in staff knowledge. One
respondent noted they had employees actively taking classes in graphic design and videography
to fill skill gaps at their organization. Three of the six respondents indicated shortcomings in
fund development professionals, citing the need for increased expectations regarding data
collection and analysis.
Half the respondents indicated that their employees were not career artists or arts
administrators but were workers seeking part-time or flexible employment. This is due to a lack
of candidates in their small towns, and to the inability to provide candidates with competitive
salaries and benefits. One respondent noted hiring a younger staff member to work on social

70
media, admitting that their understanding was limited and the need for quality engagement was
increasing.
There were mixed experiences regarding staff knowledge and expertise. One organization
successfully transitioned trained volunteers into paid staff positions. Other organizations stated
that other administrative employees were dedicated to their mission.
Two organizations explained how they creatively filled gaps in staff by shifting
responsibilities among multiple employees. None of the organizations utilized contractors or
consultants to fill administrative gaps. One organization shared roles that were not necessarily
connected but that worked for them. Another, perhaps the most geographically remote, had
established an impressive staff pipeline by training and retaining long-term volunteers with the
goal of hiring them as staff as openings became available. This allowed the organization to have
a constant pool of candidates who were committed to the organization and mission, and their
skill sets were already customized to the work.
Without specialized staff, especially regarding marketing, procedural knowledge is also
substituted for different protocols than would be expected in a for-profit environment. All
respondents indicated “word-of-mouth” or “grass roots” marketing as critical to their efforts.
Half the respondents reported engaging in significant print advertising. One noted that this was
due to the older demographics’ reliance on reading the newspaper, while another indicated it was
due to a long-standing partnership with the local newspaper. Only one organization was actively
collecting analytics on advertising reach and effectiveness.

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Conceptual Knowledge
Arts administrators often find themselves at the intersection of creative inspiration and
market analysis. An understanding of how to connect audiences to art, and how to use resources
to successfully serve a community is necessary to lead an arts organization. Use of data was
explored with participants, with only two out of six engaging in surveys or other feedback with
the community when making decisions regarding programming. Reasons noted included lack of
staff, time, and resources to conduct larger-scale surveys or to collect other information to inform
about the activities carried out by their organizations. Furthermore, three leaders indicated being
the sole decision-makers for their organization without consultation of a committee, survey data,
or other community input.
None of the organizations cited messaging or brand strategy as deficits for their
organizations. The organizations polled had no budget for this, nor was it part of long-term
planning. Two leaders stated that if they had more time and resources, a brand refresh could
potentially improve their organization by creating new energy and moving past preconceptions
of what an arts organization can be. Five leaders used words like “stuffy” and “outdated” to
describe their reputation in their community. However, there were no ideas or actions to
overcome this issue due to missing expertise on their teams. Brand strategy involves being able
to use data along with the emotive qualities of the organization to create identity. In the for-profit
sector, these activities are common, and entire departments may work on branding. For small arts
organizations who are (reportedly) barely able to carry out their seasons, the complexity of a
brand strategy may make it unachievable.

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Procedural Knowledge
Small nonprofits often lack the structure and organization necessary to create and execute
formal plans, especially long term. Optimally, data, past experience, board and community input,
and financial resources are used to form strategic plans. The arts leaders interviewed said they
often made decisions by risk taking, or simply by seeing what works.
Metacognitive Knowledge
A takeaway from these interviews is how extremely stretched arts leaders are in their
organizations. While some noted their role as connectors in their community, and the importance
of their public identity in the community, others were one-staff member organizations, working
part time or completely behind the scenes. For arts leaders, decision-making must consider both
quantitative and qualitative information. Interviewees indicated that ticket sales, revenue, and
sponsorships are used in booking music, dance, theater and other events at their venues. A
unique factor in small towns is the swift response by word of mouth when something is
unfavorable, and this must be factored in and weighed with regard to the organization as a whole
and its goals and mission. Community solidarity in smaller areas can result in a large group
souring on an organization.
One area where leaders were effectively connecting the dots was in creating demand
through psychology. This could be read as their ability to motivate audiences in non-traditional
ways by creating exclusivity. One organization created a special event where a sneak peek was
given of their upcoming season. Attendees were then invited to purchase a subscription, but first
had to make a donation at a specific level to enter the room and make the purchase. This is

73
unintentionally metaphorical for the arts but did allow this organization a great deal of success in
either fundraising or ticket sales.
Another organization created excitement around renewals, to such an extent that they
were sold out year after year. The circumstances were that this organization had not raised prices
in over five years and was able to subsidize expenses with long-standing sponsorships.
In contrast, one organization held a classical series that was attended by only dozens of
patrons, because a small group of donors valued that programming. They were aware that this
programming did not appeal to their community, but continued because it was sponsored by
important individuals.
Table 5
Gaps in Motivation in Small-Town Arts Organizations
Efficacy Organizational buy-in Connecting perceptions to
change
Lack of efficacy contributes
to low motivation to build
audiences when actions do
not result in improved
audience building.
Lack of altruistic
commitment to the
organization and career
trajectory contributes to low
motivation to build
audiences. Arts leaders
recognize opportunities but
are often unable to resort to
action due to resource gaps.
Lack of understanding of
how to improve reputations,
outdated feelings about the
organization, and the
inability to connect with
underserved populations
lead to non-action.

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Motivational Factors
The interviews uncovered important themes regarding the role of motivation when
considering building audiences. Working in concert with knowledge, motivation is impacted by
the lack of qualified employees who consider their roles impactful and meaningful. Additionally,
motivation is complex, and when coupled with the subjective and ethereal qualities of the arts
involves an understanding of why employees choose to work in nonprofit organizations. When
employees see their role as “just a job” it can be difficult to motivate them to succeed without
benefits, adequate pay or performance bonuses, or opportunities for advancement. The themes
illustrated above in Table 5 reflect information gained from interviews, quotations listed below
in Table 6.
Table 6
Selected Interview Responses to RQ1: Motivation

Connection to Change/Efficacy: We’ll build an audience, not necessarily for the next five years,
but that kid will grow up … and hopefully they’ll be lifelong supporters.
Buy In: We are totally mission driven.
Connection to Change: What we hear over and over is ‘I don’t know anybody there’.
Connection to Change: Everyone knows each other, if I come by myself, I feel dumb – like I’m
out of place.
Connection to Change/Efficacy: They, you know, age into the arts, so people who are replacing
residents that may expire or move to assisted living, those residents are typically 55 and older. We
knew we needed to segment them into appropriate kind of groups.

75
Connection to Change/Efficacy: Our appearance of elitism is there, but they know that they have
to turn it over to someone to continue this culture in our community.
Buy In/Efficacy: People aren’t sending their children to private music lessons like they used to.
So, we’ve got to do something to kind of fill that gap or we’re going to not have artistry as solid
as we have it right now.
Efficacy
Efficacy in small arts organizations is complex. For some leaders who were interviewed,
efficacy means getting through a concert, a day, or a season. There is no time to consider
motivation when the motivation is keeping your organization alive, often with little help. Even
considering these challenges and practical goals, non-profit workers are generally connecting
altruistically to their missions. Each arts leader in their own way expressed a meaningful tie to
the work they did, work that was not connected to salary or benefits. They had unique reasons
for coming to their jobs, but all were there because they chose to enter the field. Some had been
previously involved in an auxiliary way, as volunteers or patrons, while others fell into it as
leaders in other capacities, wanting to make a difference in their communities. Only one arts
leader had a musical background and had studied both the arts and business in order to be a
better art leader. Regardless of their background, the meaning behind their work was inspiring.
Organizational Buy-In
When arts leaders spoke about their staff members, a majority cited staff who were “just
doing a job.” However, over time these employees were engaged and “bought-in” to the mission.
Five out of six interviewees spoke of the dedication of their employees and their understanding
of the importance of the work they do. Reasons these employees were seeking employment at an

76
arts organization included wanting to serve their community, the desire to use their time to create
a positive impact for their neighbors and an interest in the organization’s work.
A common thread among the arts leaders interviewed is that they believe their
organization is a “hidden gem” and that their work fills a void in the community. For some, that
meant bringing world-class artists typically seen in larger cities to their small communities. This
is valued, as it provides an opportunity for citizens to experience novel art forms, such as ballet
or opera. Each of the leaders interviewed indicated that they were providing a unique experience
for their community, something that they could not see elsewhere and was rare in their
community. They saw themselves as service providers and expressed pride in being able to
contribute to the vibrancy of their town.
Additionally, there was a consensus about bringing people together in their communities.
This was achieved by providing a range of programming and price points. One interviewee
presented only free community concerts. The other five participants all expressed a lack of
effectiveness with most pricing discounts for their audiences. For outreach and youth programs,
ticket pricing is meant to provide an invitation to participate. Participants noted that no one
wanted to exclude whole families from attending those activities. However, for their main
programming, they reported that discounts, complimentary tickets, and other pricing strategies
did not improve audience participation.
Arts leaders were also motivated to engage in education and community outreach as a
tool for creating new audiences. Three expressed concerns over the lack of arts education in their
town, and that their programming was the only means for students to have access not only to
performances but also to educational opportunities. Three participating leaders indicated that

77
their organizations ran camps and classes, some also for adults, that introduced the arts. This was
explained as being an entry point, a way to remove barriers and encourage first-time
participation in their organizations.
When asked if the boards of directors approved of outreach and education that did not
bring in revenue but cost money, participants indicated complete support of their board
leadership. These endeavors improved perceptions and reputations in the community, filling
voids and encouraging future audiences. One leader indicated that their organization was
creating the next generation of arts patrons.
Understanding and Engaging in Change-focused Activities
Arts leaders in small towns are aware of the need to improve inclusivity. They are
motivated to change the perception that they are “old and white” or “elitist.” One leader
indicated that he had read minutes from a 1955 board meeting where a goal was established to
recruit younger audience members. Aging and homogenous audiences were noted in five of the
six interviews. Efforts have been made to accommodate younger professionals and families, such
as earlier start times, casual dress codes, and alternative venues such as parks and amphitheaters.
Organizations engage in non-arts activities such as plant sales and Santa drive-up events to create
touch points with new community members in hopes of later involvement in arts programming.
Only one leader spoke in depth regarding the racial profile of his community and stated
that as a leader they prioritized artists who are reflective of that profile. This included
considerations of quality, diversity, and emphasis on moving the organization forward in these
areas. Another leader commented on their organization’s role as a community partner, and that
their ability to engage with people outside of their organization improves their reputation with

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many underserved groups in their community. By providing space for other groups to use free of
charge, this organization is attempting to build bridges with groups that are not currently
involved in the ultimate goal of increasing inclusion.
Research Question Two
How does the organization influence audience development for rural and small-town arts?
Organization
Table 7
Gaps in Organization in Small-Town Arts Organizations
Culture Volunteers/Changes in
Organizational
Structure
Physical Resources Professional
Development
Small arts
organizations do not
have the time or
resources to devote
to developing
culture.
Changes to volunteer
availability and a need
for professional arts
administration staff have
led to a shift in staff
needs that small arts
organizations have not
addressed.
Small arts
organizations must
often prioritize
physical resources
such as buildings
and equipment over
audience-building
activities.
Small arts
organizations do
not prioritize
staff training and
professional
development.
Organizational Factors
Nonprofit organizations operate under the assumption of maximum efficiency. It is not
expected that benefits are extended to employees including not only insurance, but support
activities such as onboarding, teambuilding, and training. Additionally, organizations are

79
accepting of their circumstances; and often work with outdated equipment and software. Often
financial decisions come down to “the squeaky wheel gets the grease” mentality, instead of the
ability to prioritize choices that could support staff and further the organization. The themes
listed in the Table 7 reflect themes heard throughout the interviews quoted below in Table 8.
Table 8
Selected Interview Responses to RQ2: Organization

Volunteers: And that’s why our board is so large, because our board members, for the most part,
do a lot of the hands-on work because we have no other employees.
Volunteers: So, our business model and our organizational plan is really still built around
housewife mentality, where there were gobs of women looking for something to do.
Physical Resources: Our largest gap is finding funding to keep these buildings in good shape, and
to make sure they are ADA-compliant.
Volunteers: We talk all the time about the fact that the volunteer base we had 40, 30, 20, 10 years
ago is dwindling away.
Culture: And then we bring it to the table and our strategy – we’re pretty close as a team – our
strategy would be to talk about it at the staff meeting and get everybody’s collective opinion on
something.
Volunteers: Volunteers fill the gaps at productions for us, as docents, as bartenders, as ticket
takers or ushers. That’s because we don’t have enough staff.
Professional Development: I’m all about collaboration. I send them to classes. So, everybody’s
just kind of encouraged to grown themselves.

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Culture
In the for-profit sector, culture has come to be associated with snacks and ping pong
tables. A commitment to team building, or maybe persistent communication of the company
vision is common. For small arts organizations, culture is not a top priority. All of the arts
leaders interviewed reported a deep care for and commitment to their organizations, and staff if
applicable. Each of them was able to identify the extraordinary qualities of their communities.
Many described the loyalty and impact of their volunteers, and of donors who consistently
stepped up when there was a need. Many others described their communities as tightly knit and
supportive of their organization. However, none reported planned staff activities, procedures for
communicating, or anything they did that was special for their workplaces. However, it is clear
that each leader emphasizes and lives the values of their organization and demonstrate a
commitment and work ethic that shapes the work done at their organization. One leader pointed
out that a strength of small arts organizations is that the leaders are able to more directly support
staff, without the need for a complex organizational structure. This leader described her
relationships with staff as “candid, open, and caring.”
Volunteers
Each art leader described a different reliance and relationship with volunteers. It should
be noted that all but one of these organizations were initially founded and administered by
volunteers. Nationally, the professionalism of non-profit organization has increased over the past
three decades. One leader described this transition perfectly, explaining that when their
organization was founded, droves of women were at home, looking for meaningful work to do
while their children were at school. Arts organizations were considered high-status and

81
meaningful endeavors. At that time, they were often the only charitable organization in town not
competing for philanthropic dollars. Over time, those moms have gone to work. The robust and
committed volunteers are aging out and no one is replacing them. This is causing a shift in how
work is accomplished, and in some instances limiting the number of activities an organization
can undertake, as some of these programs were successful due to volunteer involvement.
In addition to the decreased reliance on volunteers, the role of volunteer board has also
changed. While each organization still relies on board members to fill skill gaps, executive
directors are being saddled with increased financial and strategic responsibilities. It was noted
that most of the board of directors of these organizations were not directly involved in
fundraising. Creating a board that understands the importance of development is a challenge, and
creating a fundraising board is even more difficult. Interview participants did not engage in
board development or training activities at their organizations. Some of the leaders expressed
deep respect and appreciation for their board’s work, while others described inconsistent
commitment and effectiveness. This, again, was communicated as another area where there was
simply no time or expertise to follow through with this work.
Physical Resources
A variable across leaders was their responsibility for the physical structures in which they
work. Two leaders noted the stress related to the upkeep and maintenance of their venues and
surrounding buildings. These two represented multi-disciplinary organizations that
independently cared for their campus. When financial resources must be used to cover capital
expenditures, this detracts from what can be spent on programming. Moreover, time spent
supervising repairs and renovations is time taken away from supporting the mission. Another

82
aspect includes office supplies and software needed to improve efficiency and effectiveness
among small staffs. One leader worked in a university setting and another in city government.
While these organizations are able to afford standard equipment for operations, the smaller
organizations were lacking updated office machines and were using the leanest software
versions. While some noted using resources such as Tech Soup for software, two organizations
reported the underutilization of customer management or ticketing systems, and one used no
system at all. CRM systems are critical in collecting and retaining data. These systems
maintaining information that is used to report donations and ticket sales, which support
development functions such as acknowledgments as well as financial statements. In addition,
these systems should be used to collect email addresses for marketing and other communications
purposes. Without dedicated and quality attentiveness to a CRM system, there is room for error
in data, which impacts many areas of operations.
Professional Development
Two leaders indicated offering educational opportunities for staff to learn new skills. One
encouraged their staff to seek opportunities to learn skills to enhance their abilities at work, while
the other ran an internship program. After identifying a gap in technical skills for audio/visual
production workers, they sought a solution: they decided to partner with local trade programs
and colleges to offer opportunities for students to work with them over the summer, training
them for professional work within their organization. This has provided an excellent pool of
production workers at zero cost to them. As mentioned earlier, another organization used
volunteer opportunities and training to construct a trajectory for volunteers to eventually become
paid staff. These examples illustrate the industrious and innovative nature of small arts

83
organizations, though more formal procedures, including onboarding, reviews, and ongoing
professional development, did not seem to be cemented in most of the organizations polled.
Conclusion
The findings from these interviews were expected and aligned with previous reading,
research, and experience as an arts administrator. A separation of the researcher’s positionality
was required to not read into the responses of participants. The interviewees were candid,
vulnerable, and also extremely passionate and optimistic about their roles. It was clear that each
leader came into their position with a genuine desire to preserve and also grow the arts, and cared
deeply about the communities they serve.
It was observed, however, that the gaps they were experiences, coupled with a lack of
understanding of the changing demographics of their audiences allowed them only to work in the
moment for survival, and not necessarily engage in impactful activities for the future of their
organizations. A prioritization of raising funds, supporting staff, and engaging in strategic
planning and data collection would improve each leader’s ability to build audiences each season
and over the next five years.
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
Introduction
Building audiences in small towns requires not only a deep understanding of the
communities being served, but the resources to respond to those needs in meaningful ways. This
means the ability to create programming, marketing, and outreach that is authentic and accessible
to existing audiences and welcoming to new ones. Small arts organizations, and especially those
in small towns, face resource deficits. This study has outlined the experiences of six arts leaders

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who are thriving despite lean finances, staffing, and varied board involvement. Each leader
expressed optimism, positivity, and an understanding of steps that could improve their
organization. The barriers to moving forward include lack of career-oriented staff with expertise
in key business areas, lack of commitment by existing leadership to professional development,
lack of data collection and analysis in decision making, and ambiguity surrounding board and
volunteer roles.
Using Clark and Estes’s Gap Analysis (2008) as a theoretical framework with
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization (Clark & Estes, 2008) and sociocultural theory
(Chirkov, 2020, Dunphy, 2018) this study aimed to gain understanding of why arts organizations
struggle to build audiences, and how to overcome those challenges. This framework allowed the
researcher to consider barriers from both an organizational and consumer perspective. Both areas
must be considered when creating plans to attract new patrons and sustain existing audiences.
Interviews conducted for this study were comprehensive and complementary to sources
included in the literature review. The following findings rely on information gained from these
informative interviews. The demographic survey was not considered in the findings and only
used a qualification tool for participants.
Summary of Findings
As mentioned earlier, these challenges are not unique to arts organizations but also
describe common challenges in nonprofits across the country. The difference is that arts
organizations are selling a subjective product filled with emotion, sentimentality, and personal
preference. Three arts leaders expressed a “something for everyone” approach when faced with
audience development. While all leaders understood the need to understand and respond to their

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communities, very few were collecting information and engaging in earnest with non-patrons to
expand audiences. It could be said that this broad strategy contributes to a dilution of brand and
mission. Moreover, without further discussion, introspection, and examination of mission, vision,
and values, arts organizations can get lost in trying too hard to reach the masses.
The response to this challenge is multifaceted and requires a commitment to fortifying
the organization’s current resources using effective strategies that allow a small team to feel
successful because their goals are defined. For some, this may mean a narrowing of scope, while
for others it can mean reallocating a budget to invest in the foundations of growth, including
expansion of staff and community engagement. Most importantly, an organization must define
what success looks like for them and engage in honest conversations regarding fiscal priorities.
Building audiences requires action by the board of directors and staff to examine their
current state and define their goals. This involves a thorough assessment of available resources
and necessary investments. Organizations must look beyond their audience, and even beyond
their most loyal stakeholders, to see the next generation of patrons. Arts organizations are legacy
organizations, at times built on outdated business models. Frequently, programming decisions
are made based on the tastes and desires of the largest donors but fail to reach the community
(Kim, 2017). This study illustrated the limited information used in making programmatic
decisions, the lack of strategic planning used in small arts organizations, and a failure to define
goals and priorities and align business activities with boards and staff. Furthermore, the ongoing
and outdated assumption that non-profit workers must accept low pay, large workloads, and
limited opportunities for professional growth will not sustain organizations over the coming
years.

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Conclusions
Research Question One
How do knowledge and motivation influence audience development for rural arts organizations?
One interviewee summed it up perfectly: “If I just had one donor to give one million
dollars, I could do all of it.” The root of the problem isn’t a lack of staff; it is a lack of funding
which results in deficiencies in many areas, with the most critical resource gap being people.
Small arts nonprofits are plagued by gaps in knowledge resources which impede their ability to
engage in activities that could build audiences. The primary gap in knowledge is directly related
to funding and how it relates to staff resources. While it is admirable and inspirational that these
arts leaders can make artistic decisions, create, and manage budgets, direct marketing and
communications, and be the public face of the organization in the community, it is not
sustainable. The result is turnover, burnout, and in some circumstances resentment. Therefore,
fundraising, budgeting, and financial priorities and investments must be considered as part of
addressing gaps in staff and resources.
The leaders interviewed were qualified, intelligent, passionate, and effective as managers.
Each was making the best decisions possible with the resources available. However, they are all
stretched thin, and, in many cases, unreasonable expectations are placed on them by various
stakeholders. They were all mission motivated and expressed excitement when discussing their
successes and the work their organizations do in their communities. Each discussed the value of
the arts in similar terms: bringing vibrancy to the community, providing opportunities for
exposure to the arts from students and historically excluded populations, and making their
neighborhoods a better place to live. Three discussed the legacy of their organizations in the

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community, and their reputation as a hub for creative activities and social galleries. But
alarmingly, five of six leaders spoke of an aging audience with a decline in participation in this
loyal group. While efforts were being made to address younger patrons, it seemed no one really
understood what they wanted. Current efforts to attract a younger audience were largely
unsuccessful.
Arts leaders are expected to be intrinsically rewarded for extraordinary work. The legacy
of volunteer workers and community-based organizations has led to an assumption that non-
profit workers don’t expect or deserve to be paid at the same rate as for-profit counterparts,
regardless of their qualifications. A reflection of the “starvation cycle” or merely an emphasis on
program versus overhead, the lack of investment in staff results in the underperformance of the
organization. Two leaders reported that their boards did not prioritize a commitment to staff
support. An emphasis on educating boards in the professional skills needed to successfully run a
non-profit could help build an understanding of the importance of retaining qualified leaders.
In turn, this emphasis on resource development would also allow resources to hire staff with
specialized skills in areas such as marketing and education, which are critical to successful
audience building.
Research Question Two
RQ2: How does the organization influence audience development for rural and small-town arts?
The organizations depicted in the interviews aligned with previous research and
assumptions regarding organizational gaps in the non-profit sector. More specifically, that
framework is absent with which to create a fertile ground for success and growth. Much of this is
a relic of perceptions surrounding the transformation of nonprofits into professionalized,

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business-like entities and the movement away from volunteer-run groups. The friction caused by
wanting to spend minimal resources on overhead, and the inability of organizations to adapt to
new audiences hinders growth.
Due to the lean nature of nonprofit organizations, organizations did not have complex
organizational needs, and responses were mostly related to basic workplace resources such as
software that would increase efficiency, and office equipment that functioned consistently.
Funding for office upgrades was definitely not a priority, and only one participant mentioned the
upkeep of physical buildings being a concern. Complacency with the way that nonprofits are
expected to make do was felt among interview participants. Each had a wish list of what could
help them be more effective and efficient at their job but seemed resolved to accept there was no
money for improvements and that board members would not see these needs as a priority.
A similar response to training and development was observed, with these organizational
benefits being seen as not pressing, and there was also no time or funding for these activities.
Nonprofit employees are expected to learn on the job and pick up new skills on their own time in
many circumstances. New nonprofit workers coming from other backgrounds may feel
unsupported in these work environments, contributing to turnover in the workplace.
Discussion of Findings
One glaring issue with the findings of this study is that without a documented or known
current state, it is difficult to develop a plan to reach the desired state (Clark & Estes, 2008)
Analyzing where the organization is now would be difficult, as these small organizations are not
following metrics of success, strategic plans, or collecting data to assess where they should be.
Without an identifiable starting place and definition of success, it makes it more difficult to truly

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know what needs to happen to reach the desired state. Moreover, without a strategic plan and
ongoing measurements of success, it is difficult to assess where the organization is going. And
without data, it is impossible to understand the needs of the community which is necessary to
create an optimal state for the organization to grow (Crittenden & Crittenden, 2003).
Not only do arts leaders have very little time to consider and investigate ways to
supplement knowledge and expertise, but their boards are not suggesting measures of support.
Fortunately, this group of arts leaders is motivated to see their organizations succeed. They
illustrate this by going above and beyond, working independently to solve complex problems,
and filling all the gaps to the best of their abilities.
Recommendations
Knowledge
The first step is the recognition of the need for change. Glow et al. (2021) found that
some organizations needed a “jolt” to overcome avoidance when faced with change. Many
BODs do not recognize that nonprofits have evolved away from volunteer organizations, or that
there are arts professionals with degrees specializing in leading arts organizations. They continue
perpetuating the low-skills/low-pay phenomenon that stifles growth and encourages a “we’ve
always done it this way” mentality. Some BODs may require a wake-up call that continuing to
operate at the status quo is no longer working, and many smaller organizations are not surviving
in the current competitive environment due to an increase in nonprofits across the country. This
is an important conversation that should be initiated by the executive director, board president, or
other consultant who is contracted to lead change within the organization. Without successful

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communication of why it is necessary to change, it will be difficult to effectively address those
gaps that prevent building audiences.
Organizations should begin the process of evaluating their needs and resources by first
conducting a gap analysis, as described in this study. The executive director, or consultant if
feasible, should develop a board training session to communicate these gaps, corresponding with
changes across the non-profit sector, including successful fundraising practices, shifts in
organizational structure away from volunteers, the use of data to inform strategic planning, and
the need for investment in professionally trained staff. A starting point could be the example of a
successful large arts organization and the takeaways that are scalable for smaller organizations.
A primary concern for correcting the gaps identified in the organizations interviewed
stems from a lack of funding. For the most part, these organizations, leaders, and boards were not
engaged in active fundraising strategies. In the absence of a full-time development professional,
it is recommended that the board retain a consultant to provide fundraising training and direction
for the organization and execute training for board members on how they can be effective
fundraisers in the community. In addition, boards should consider a contract grant writer. The
return on this investment is significant and also frees the executive director to engage in other
activities in the community. Often boards do not recognize the time required for effective and
consistent grant efforts, and this turns into an after-work hours and weekend project for
executive directors because they do not have enough time in their regular day. Increasing
donations should be equally important to increasing earned revenue through ticket sales.
Another avenue for identifying funding to help narrow gaps is to form a committee to
evaluate the current budget, spending, and savings. Some organizations mentioned having

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savings, endowments, or investments that are sitting unused. While it is certainly valuable to
have a safety-net, saving money at the expense of organizational growth, health and
sustainability is counterproductive. A case should be made to invest in staff, expertise in areas
such as marketing and fundraising, as well as branding and professional looking/feeling
materials such as brochures and digital advertising.
Crittenden and Crittenden (2003) indicated that in 2000, only 46% of nonprofits had
formal, written strategic plans. Responses from these interviews indicated a lower rate than that,
with only one-sixth reporting a formal plan. A roadmap is necessary for improvement. By
utilizing Clark and Estes’s gap framework, organizations can align goals to the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organization resulting in a framework for even limited staff to
develop a plan (Clark & Estes, 2008). The executive director and BODs should engage in basic
planning sessions over the course of each summer to revisit previously identified gaps, mission,
vision, and values, and identify three to five achievable goals for the next one, three, and five
years.
It is suggested that the executive director, or consultant if feasible, provide a starting
point for planning discussions to provide focus and direction ahead of any full board discussions.
To accomplish this initial framework, a survey should be developed and distributed to board
members, top donors, long-term patrons, and other important stakeholders to create a starting
point. The data collected should shape discussion and prevent conversations from getting off
track during planning sessions. Survey results should be converted into easy-to-understand
charts, tables, and bullet points for board members’ review.

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If funding permits, a third party should be hired to facilitate the actual strategic planning
sessions to provide an unbiased voice and keep conversations moving forward. The final plan
should be simple, concise, and measurable. For small arts organizations, there is no need for the
strategic plan to be lengthy and abstract. Key goals and outcomes can also be included in the
organization’s annual report. Lastly, after implementing any strategic plan, accountability should
be prioritized. An evaluative scorecard or other tool is necessary to measure goals and outcomes
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Motivation
Involving staff in analyzing survey data, patron feedback, and performance reports can
help less experienced staff understand the importance of the work they are doing and equate their
efforts to success. It is often assumed that staff understands what leaders define as success, but in
the often-chaotic nature of non-profit communication, many things can be miscommunicated.
For this reason, it is critical that leaders share their definition of success and define attainable
staff goals to provide direction and motivation. Otherwise, it is easy for less experienced staff to
focus on the wrong goals or work aimlessly on less important tasks. Providing support,
encouragement, and immediate feedback produces employees who are working effectively and
efficiently.
Establishing a strong and positive culture in an organization does not have to be time and
cost prohibitive. Executive directors should establish weekly staff meetings where ideas are
welcome, and everyone can share their accomplishments. A next-level suggestion is to establish
a monthly arts or non-profit roundtable meeting where community leaders meet to share
upcoming events, share resources, and provide support and encouragement. Building community

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participation and engagement contributes to a deeper connection to the day-to-day work of an
arts organization.
Executive directors should develop processes and regular means to recognize employees
for their work and provide small incentives and rewards. It should be the responsibility of the
executive director to encourage the board of directors to prioritize staff appreciation through
bonuses if feasible, lunches, or even a simple “thank you” in regular conversation to recognize
the important work staff is doing. Non-profit staffs frequently report being underappreciated and
under-recognized, which is easily remedied through thoughtful and sincere communication. A
valued team will be motivated to work towards meeting challenging goals and committing to the
team and organizational mission.
Organization
Training for both volunteer and board pools should be developed and carried out annually
by the executive director or board president. Included in this session should be not only the
mission, vision, and values, but also the expectations of all board and staff members.
Kirkpatrick’s training model (1994) is an example of an appropriate tool to use as the foundation
of a volunteer learning program. Volunteers should understand the image that the organizations
seek to portray and how patrons should be treated. Both board and other volunteers should be
trained as ambassadors for the organization and utilize their networks to bring new people into
the organization.
Snavely and Tracy (2000) noted the idea of collaboration among rural and small-town
nonprofits. Volunteer and board training, and even professional development for staff, could be
easily shared among local nonprofits. Another practical implementation of cross-organization

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collaboration is the ability to share marketing to increase exposure. Creating opportunities to
share information, such as arts leader round tables or monthly professional meetups, can provide
the opportunity to benefit from varying resources across a community.
Furthermore, boards should engage in developing procedures for identifying and
cultivating board members who meet key qualifications, including filling gaps in expertise.
Metrics should be developed for evaluating current board members, with the goal of motivating
existing members to engage more deeply with the needs of the organization (Brown, 2017).
Board members should also be examined for their capacity to connect the organization with other
partners in the community (Cody et al., 2022). This process should include the expressly
communicated expectation that board members make a yearly financial contribution and commit
to a set number of volunteer hours for the organization. There is a false belief that large boards
are superior to small boards, and for small organizations, this is not always the most effective
structure. Large boards tend to have a percentage of dead weight, and the addition of more
stakeholders can make meetings less productive and coming to a consensus difficult. A smaller
group of dedicated board members with time, skills, and resources can provide better leadership
in this scenario. Adopting policies and procedures to ensure the board functions within this
structure can lead to greater organizational potential.
To address physical resources, the executive director should conduct an annual inventory
of organizational starting points that includes the state of physical assets, including building,
equipment, and records, as well as software licenses and subscriptions. Each year, these
inventories should be reviewed and updated. Recommendations should be made regarding
affordable improvements and suggestions for longer-term upgrades and repairs should be noted

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and scheduled. A community-centric assessment tool such as the DIRECTIONS Resource
Directions Model (Zimmerman et al., 2003) can help organizations organize groups and
committees to evaluate what is working, what is needed, and how to fill gaps.
Executive directors should seek professional development opportunities and conferences
for staff members. Many classes and conventions offer scholarships, and this is also an effective
way to provide a meaningful giving opportunity for a major donor to sponsor a staff member for
training. Furthermore, organizations such as the United Way and local non-profit councils
provide free training sessions for grant writing, marketing, and leadership that are easily
accessible. State arts organizations are also incredible resources for supporting knowledge
sharing and continuing education opportunities.
Recommendations for Future Research
As this study illustrated, there has been very little research in the academic realm on
small arts organizations. Nonprofits, including leadership and data-based decision-making, are
regularly studied, but aside from government entities such as the National Endowment for the
Arts and Americans for the Arts, and larger entities such as the Wallace Foundation,
participation in these groups is not being tracked or reported on. A better understanding of what
successful organizations are doing in their communities could provide a framework for
organizations to follow in the absence of expertise or consultants to help with planning.
A significant area that should be addressed is fundraising in small arts organizations,
specifically how philanthropy has changed in the past five to ten years and how trends in giving
have evolved. Trends in the passage of generational wealth and the differences in younger

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generations’ giving habits should be further examined. An understanding of these changes is
critical to the future of fundraising in small arts organizations.
More information on the use of data-driven decision-making in small nonprofits could be
beneficial in the arts. The leaders interviewed for this study did not have backgrounds in
analytics, or the ability to distill information into usable communications with varied
stakeholders. A blueprint for using simple data, and formats to distribute this information clearly
and concisely to a volunteer board, could be impactful. But without experts in data and
leadership to examine how to fill these gaps without large financial commitments, arts
organizations will not have the time to develop their own materials. As arts administration
becomes a field more actively studied at the graduate level, researchers interested in these areas
may emerge and should be encouraged to publish and present findings at arts conferences at both
the regional and national levels.
Furthermore, consultants working with small arts organizations should research, develop,
and distribute simple-to-use planning tools. By extrapolating information from larger
organizations’ planning processes, board procedures and framework, and organizational
structure, information can be scaled and applied to smaller organizations. The similarities
between a $10 million organization and a $100,000 organization are significant, and by
examining how larger organizations structure their processes for programming, marketing, and
outreach, small arts groups can gain insight into best practices.
Research should be aimed at understanding audience motivations in small towns.
Fluharty et al. (2021) examined participation and found strong connections between engagement
and an enhancement of social capital. Especially among older individuals, the arts are a social

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connector, a place to meet others and overcome loneliness (Fluharty et al., 2021). Small arts
organizations are poised to capitalize on this by providing a welcoming, community-focused
atmosphere within their organizations. It has been said that in small communities, arts
organizations are seen as entertainment and that they compete with everything from high school
football games to dance recitals. This can be a positive factor if the arts organizations can learn
how to fit into the fabric of the community with activities that are relevant. Challenges include
the likelihood that members of a small town may not have grown up with cultural experiences, or
family and friends who conveyed the value of the arts to them in their youth. This creates a
barrier to becoming new arts participants, due to a fear of unknown experiences.
This in turn leads to the challenges of marketing and branding, and how those directly
relate to outreach. Without attention to brand perception and messaging, arts organizations are
unknowingly alienating their community with language that is intimidating or creates the feeling
that the programming is not for them. This can also be the result of using the wrong marketing
channels to reach our desired audience. Further study into marketing for small arts organizations,
what messaging is effective, and examining what type of advertising converts community
members into ticket buyers would benefit arts administrators trying to make decisions with
limited specialized expertise.
Conclusion
While the findings of this study were not surprising, it was remarkable that the arts
administrators communicated positive sentiments with regard to their organization’s ability to
meet the challenge of building audiences. This area is important to study and improve because
small-town arts organizations serve important roles in their communities. Arts organizations

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provide vibrancy in otherwise rural, industrial, and sleepy communities. They fill cultural voids,
provide educational opportunities, opportunities for small towns to gather and connect, and allow
local and regional artists to showcase their talents.
It is difficult for small-town arts organizations to attract qualified leaders and staff
because the pay and status is much lower than at larger institutions. New graduates of arts
administration programs are attracted to organizations with opportunities to advance, artistic
significance, and access to a more influential network. Small organizations lack this cachet, but
in many ways require even more expertise than their larger counterparts. For this reason, this
work is critical, and resources should be developed to support small arts organizations with
limited funding and other resources.
More research and resources regarding small-arts organizations that is easily found,
accessed, and consumed could help overburdened leaders understand best practices in small
communities. By documenting goals and defining gaps organizations can begin to do work that
will improve outcomes and reduce time spent experimenting with programming, marketing, and
outreach, which may be ineffective in their communities. The aspects that make arts
organizations in small towns unique, such as community closeness and homogeny, also create
great challenges for growth and change. Only by understanding these specific populations can
meaningful programming be offered. Moreover, due to the specificity of each town,
organizations must take the time to collect information related to their community and not rely
on programming trends or what one leader may feel is important. Listening to the community,
engaging in relationship development, and strategizing a path to meet new patrons and welcome
to the arts are key to building audiences in small-town and rural U.S.

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Appendix A: Recruitment Messages
Dear Colleague,
My name is Melissa Klein and I’m a doctoral student at the University of Southern
California in the Organizational Change and Leadership program. I am working on my
dissertation as a requirement for the Doctor of Education degree and am studying audience
development in small towns in the U.S. Currently, I live in Madison, Georgia where I am the
Executive Director of the Madison-Morgan Cultural Center. I am a career-long arts administrator
(classical musician turned manager) and am passionate about the future of small arts nonprofits.
My goal is to identify impactful practices to guide the unique challenges of these specific
organizations.
I am specifically looking at programming, marketing, and outreach as tools for building
audiences. Through this study, I am working to identify usable, practical, and efficient tools for
arts administrators in small arts organizations to build audiences. I am seeking insight from other
arts administrators about what has been successful and unsuccessful in their own organizations.
I would be grateful if you would consider taking part in my study by participating in a
one-hour interview via Zoom. Interviews can be scheduled at your convenience. Participation is
voluntary. Data collected will remain confidential during and after the study, and further details
regarding privacy can be provided upon request. Results of the study will be distributed to all
participants in both its full and final format, and an abbreviated toolbox resource for your
organization.
Please feel free to contact me if you are interested in participating or have any questions.
I look forward to hearing from you.

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Hi there,

Thank you so much for signing up for an interview slot. I really appreciate your time. Ahead of
our meeting, could you take a couple of minutes to complete this quick demographic survey
(below) and sign my consent form (attached)? This just reiterates that all data will be kept safe
and used anonymously. Please let me know if you have any questions.

https://usc.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_3PGNv0r5DvjJq6O

Thanks again!
Melissa

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Appendix B: Demographic Survey
1. How would you describe your gender?
a. Male
b. Female
c. Other
d. Prefer not to answer
2. What is your age?
a. 18 – 24 years old
b. 25 – 34 years old
c. 35 – 44 years old
d. 45 – 54 years old
e. 55 – 64 years old
f. 65 +
g. Prefer not to answer
3. How would you describe yourself?
a. Hispanic, Latino, or of Spanish Origin
b. American Indian or Alaska Native
c. Asian
d. Black or African American
e. Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
f. White
g. Prefer not to answer
4. What is your highest level of education?

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a. High School
b. Some college
c. Bachelor’s Degree
d. Master’s Degree or above
e. Other
f. Prefer not to answer
5. What is your employment status?
a. Contract
b. Part time
c. Full time
d. Other
e. Prefer not to answer
6. How long have you worked at your current organization?
a. Less than one year
b. 1 – 3 years
c. 4 – 6 years
d. 7 – 9 years
e. 10 + years
f. Prefer not to answer
7. Do you have a background as a musician, dancer, artist, or actor?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Prefer not to answer

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8. What is your organization’s annual budget?
a. 0 – $50,000 per year
b. $51,000 – $75,000 per year
c. $76,000 – $100,000 per year
d. $101,000 – $400,000 per year
e. $401,000 – $700,000 per year
f. $701,000 – $999,999 per year
g. $1,000,000 +
9. Which arts discipline does your organization produce? (select all that apply)
a. Music
b. Dance
c. Theater
d. Visual Arts
e. Other
10. What is the population size of the community you serve?
a. < 2,000 people
b. 3,000 – 6,000 people
c. 7,000 – 9,000 people
d. 10,000 – 12,000 people
e. 13,000 – 15,000 people
f. 16, 000 – 18,000 people
g. 19,000 +

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Appendix C: Informed Consent
Informed Consent
This agreement describes the protocols the researcher will take in order to maintain the
confidentiality of an academic study. The researcher, Melissa Klein, will be collecting
information for the sole purpose of a dissertation with the topic of Building Audiences in small-
town and Rural America. While this is considered a low-risk survey, data collected will be
protected and treated securely to uphold the integrity of the participant’s information and the
validity of the study. The following protocols will be used to securely collect and manage data:
• Identifying information such as position, employer, tenure at the organization,
geographic location, and budget size are critical to sorting and analyzing responses.
• Participants will be given the option to remain anonymous, and/or only use their
organization’s name, or an alias for both.
• Demographic information will be coded in order to organize data but avoid the potential
for personal information to be shared.
• Records from interviews will be kept confidential in password-restricted files on the
interviewer’s computer. Information will not be shared between interviewees at any time prior to
the completion of this study.
• In order to securely store all data including interview transcripts, email communication,
and other sensitive or identifying information, the researcher will participate in several layers of
security to protect the integrity of the study, and the privacy of participants.
• All information will be saved on devices with up-to-date privacy and malware protection,
including a firewall and automatic updates to ensure systems are operating with optimal security.

105
• Data will be encrypted with a password through Google docs.
• Data will be backed up to iCloud using a strong password, as well as saved to a backup
drive stored securely in a locked drawer.

I (participant), acknowledge that there are limited risks with this research
and that steps will be taken to safeguard my identity, identifying information, organizational
information, and other details provided in either the demographic survey or semi-structured
interview facets of my participation.

Participant Signature/ Date

11/1/22
Researcher Signature/ Date

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Appendix D: Interview Script

Introduction to the Interview:
Thank you for taking the time to sit down with me today. I would like to just remind you that
participation in this interview is voluntary and results will be kept confidential, as was
communicated previously. I hope that you will feel comfortable answering these questions
thoroughly and candidly, but please know that you can skip any question you do not want to
answer. Today’s interview will be recorded through Zoom and I will be taking notes. Results
will be transcribed and identifying information will be removed. I hope that ultimately my
research produces data that is useful to you and your organization. I will follow up with you
when my study is finished. Do you have any questions about this subject?

Post-Interview:
Do you have any further questions for me? Thank you again for your time. If you think of
anything else, please feel free to call or email me at any time. I will be in touch in the next year
with the final results of my research.

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Appendix E: Interview Questions
1. Describe to me the value of the arts in rural America. How do you communicate that
value to your stakeholders? RQ1/2
2. Has the demographics of your town changed in the last 5 years? Did your organization
have the skills to respond to those changes? Has your audience increased or decreased?
RQ1
3. What does audience development mean for your organization? How do you approach it
with regard to programming, marketing, and outreach? What gaps can you identify with
regard to organizational support and resources. RQ1/2
4. How would you say that audience development is different in small towns than in
metropolitan areas? How would you describe the differences in audiences? RQ1
5. What steps has your organization taken to gain new audiences? What has been successful
and unsuccessful? RQ1
6. Does your staff have the knowledge and motivation to accomplish successful audience
development? If not, what is missing and why? RQ1/2
7. What types of programming does your organization present? Do you feel your offerings
are relevant and welcoming to your specific audience? Do you and your staff have the
knowledge to create targeted programming to reach new audiences? How do you locate
artists to hire? RQ1
8. At your organization, who makes the programming decisions? Do you utilize feedback
from surveys or other sources when making those decisions? RQ1

108
9. What marketing channels and techniques do you use, and who on your staff is
responsible for implementing those activities? How do you evaluate what works? Is your
staff motivated to engage in new marketing trends? RQ1
10. How important is pricing to your audience? Do they respond to incentives such as promo
codes or giveaway? What are some techniques you have used to entice community
members to participate for the first time? RQ1
11. How does your organization engage in outreach in your community? What has been
successful/unsuccessful. What types of outreach are most meaningful? RQ1/RQ2
12. What are some barriers to carrying out community outreach for your motivation? Do you
feel your staff has the knowledge and motivation to accomplish outreach? Is your board
motivated to engage in outreach even though it is not bringing in revenue? RQ2
13. What are the challenges you face with regard to staffing at your organization, and how do
those relate into difficulties with audience development? RQ1/2

109
Appendix F: Demographic Survey Results

110

111
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Asset Metadata

Creator Klein, Melissa Butler (author)

Core Title Improving audience development for small town arts non-profits

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-08

Publication Date 09/11/2023

Defense Date 09/08/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Arts,arts administration,audience,community building,dance,Marketing,Music,OAI-PMH Harvest,outreach,patrons,Performing arts,programming,theater

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Riggio, Marsha (committee chair), Canny, Eric (committee member), Trahan, Don (committee member)

Creator Email kleinmb@usc.edu,mbklein7@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113305009

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Legacy Identifier etd-KleinMelis-12342

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Klein, Melissa Butler

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