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Overrepresentation among students of color in special education programs
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Content
Overrepresentation Among Students of Color in Special Education Programs
Stacy Nicole Nichols
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2023
© Copyright by Stacy Nicole Nichols 2023
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Stacy Nicole Nichols certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Monique Claire Datta
Alan Gilford Green
Morgan Scott Polikoff, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023
Abstract
Despite efforts to ensure equity and exclusivity in education, studies have consistently shown
that students of color¾particularly African American males¾are overrepresented in special
education programs, as compared to their White peers. Improper placement in special education
can have stigmatizing effects on students of color that negatively affects their self-esteem or self-
worth over the long term. The present qualitative study explores overrepresentation among
students of color in special education programs, elevating concerns about bias and the systemic
factors that contribute to identification and placement of students of color in special education. I
highlight the disparity in representation of students of color within special education programs,
drawing attention to the recurring patterns observed in various studies and educational settings.
Using a qualitative methodology, I interviewed teachers and administrators about identification
and placement practices, and their impact on students. Factors contributing to overrepresentation
include cultural bias, assessment practices, teacher perceptions, and systemic inequalities.
Findings reveal a need for critical examination of these factors to address the underlying causes,
and promote fair and unbiased identification and placement procedures.
Dedication
To God, I praise and thank You, and give You the glory for blessing me with my doctorate
degree, and making my dream a reality.
To Alyce and Richard Nichols, my parents, in loving memory. Thank you for being my teachers
in life, leading by example, and always inspiring me to do my best. I cherish you with all my
heart, and I am forever grateful for your nurturing care.
To Jason Nichols, my nephew. Thank you for your expertise and assistance with technology.
Acknowledgements
Words cannot express my gratitude to the following individuals who have contributed to
the completion of this dissertation: My professors and members of my dissertation committee,
Dr. Monique Claire Datta, Dr. Alan Gilford Green, and Dr. Morgan Scott Polikoff for your
valuable insights, guidance, and feedback during various stages of this project. Your
commitment to academic excellence has been instrumental in refining the quality of this
research.
I am thankful to all of my classmates for your knowledge and educational experience, as
we collaborated on discussion boards and created group presentations. Thank you, especially, to
Ray, Preeti, Erik, Mike, Shehnaz, Ayanna, and Kelly for your kindness, which inspired me
throughout this undertaking. With gratitude, I acknowledge the participants in my study. I
appreciate you, Rev. Dr. S T Williams, Jr., for your moral support and prayers.
In closing, I am grateful to my family, especially my nephew, Jason, and my friends, for
your unwavering confidence in me and encouragement throughout this endeavor. Your belief in
my abilities and your love were a constant source of motivation for me to successfully complete
my dissertation.
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 2
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 3
Significance of the Study .................................................................................................... 3
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................. 3
Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 7
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 8
Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 8
History of the Demographics of Students of Color in Special Education Programs .......... 8
Education Policies ............................................................................................................... 9
The Special Education Referral Process ........................................................................... 12
Causes of Overrepresentation in Special Education ......................................................... 17
Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 21
Race and Socio-economic Status ...................................................................................... 23
Teacher Evaluation and Referral for Special Education ................................................... 25
Teacher Bias ...................................................................................................................... 26
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 28
Chapter Three: Research Methods ................................................................................................ 31
Research Design ................................................................................................................ 31
Sample and Population ..................................................................................................... 32
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 35
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 36
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 36
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 37
Ethics ................................................................................................................................. 38
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 40
Characteristics of the Sample ............................................................................................ 40
Background Information on Respondents ........................................................................ 40
Findings for Research Question 1 ..................................................................................... 43
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1 ................................................................ 58
Findings for Research Question 2 ..................................................................................... 58
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2 ................................................................ 65
Findings for Research Question 3 ..................................................................................... 65
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3 ................................................................ 70
Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 71
Findings Interpretation: Question 1 .................................................................................. 71
Findings Interpretation: Question 2 .................................................................................. 74
Findings Interpretation: Question 3 .................................................................................. 76
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 76
Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 77
Implementation ................................................................................................................. 79
Implications for Future Research ...................................................................................... 81
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 82
References ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Appendix A: Interview Questions ................................................................................................ 90
Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Letter ................................................................................ 91
Background ....................................................................................................................... 91
Confidentiality .................................................................................................................. 91
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 92
Voluntary Participation and Withdrawal of Consent ........................................................ 92
Relative Terms and Information ....................................................................................... 93
History............................................................................................................................... 93
Relative Terms .................................................................................................................. 93
List of Tables
Table 1: Interview Questions by Subject Grouping ...................................................................... 33
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 39
1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
A plethora of research suggests that students of color are overrepresented in special
education (SPED) programs. In particular, a 2007 report from the U.S. Department of Education
identified dramatic racial and ethnic disparities in the identification and placement of students in
SPED (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007). Nearly 16 years later, the issue persists. In
addition to the challenge of incorrect placement, SPED has been shown to have a stigmatizing
effect on students of color¾negatively impacting their self-esteem or self-worth. Identification
of students of color for SPED also impacts their learning, as teachers may have lower
expectations for them, increasing barriers to higher education and better employment
opportunities (NCLD, 2020).
The persistent overidentification of students of color for SPED has occurred within the
context of federal legislation meant to guide educational evaluation and referral processes. In the
late 20th-century, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) was passed to ensure
a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) for students with disabilities (Office of Special
Education Programs, 2007). The law was implemented with four aims: to assure a public
education with related services to meet students’ unique needs; to protect the rights of students
with disabilities and their families; to help state and local governments provide for students with
disabilities; and to assess and assure the effectiveness of education for all students with
disabilities (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007). In 1990, the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) improved on the EHA, increasing protections for students
with disabilities. IDEA expanded protections to thirteen classifying conditions and suggested a
greater focus on the needs of individual learners (Brandman University, 2020), with
implementation of tools such as individualized education programs (IEPs).
2
Although these federal laws were designed as a safeguard for students with regard to the
evaluation and referral process for SPED programs, research indicates that teacher bias and other
discriminatory practices still exist when determining eligibility for SPED programs (NCLD,
2020). Additionally, even as the EHA and IDEA are federal laws, implementation varies from
state to state (Rosen, 2020).
Background of the Problem
Much research links the overrepresentation of students of color in SPED to racial or
cultural discrimination. Research (NCLD, 2020) indicates that Hispanic, Black, and Native
American students all have higher risk ratios for being identified with disabilities than their
White peers. Among these overrepresented populations, African American students are most
impacted, as they are 40% more likely to be identified with a disability, when compared to other
students.
Statement of the Problem
Years of research have identified inequities in education for students of color. Existing
biases in assessments, academic, and other policies contribute to these inequities, and manifest in
the identification and referral processes for SPED. Such biases can have significant
consequences for students, families, and the education system. Furthermore, bias can occur at
different stages of the process and can be based on several factors, including race, ethnicity,
socio-economic status, gender, language proficiency, and disability. One consequence of this
bias is the overrepresentation of students of color in SPED programs. Thus, the processes of
SPED identification and referral warrant further examination.
3
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the present study is to examine the role of referral and identification
processes in contributing to the disproportionate representation of students of color in SPED
programs, particularly African American students. A critical question is: How does the referral
process contribute to the overrepresentation of students of color in SPED programs? The
problem of practice explores how and why students of color may be misidentified as having a
disability (NCLD, 2020).
Significance of the Study
The present study provides insight into the evaluation and referral process of students
placed in SPED programs, thereby shedding light on the impact of racial bias in such decision-
making processes. Using a qualitative research methodology, I interviewed SPED teachers and
administrators on their professional experiences with these identification and placement
practices. Based on these interviews, I analyzed and compared findings with existing literature
and identified relevant themes and trends in practice.
The results of this study illuminate the important role that the evaluation and referral
processes play in proper or improper identification of students with disabilities, and their
placement in SPED programs. Based on insights gathered, I provide guidance for improving
evaluation and referral practices for SPED programs, in order to eliminate inequities in education
among African American students.
Definition of Terms
• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): An act signed into law by President George
H.W. Bush on July 26, 1990, that prohibits discrimination on the basis of a qualified
disability (a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life
4
activity), and ensures that a qualified disabled student can have equal access and
opportunity for participation in the programs, services, and activities offered by a
recipient of federal financial assistance (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Assessment: The process of gathering information to monitor progress and make
educational decisions, if necessary (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Child Find: A method to identify, locate, and evaluate students that may need SPED
services—Part B of IDEA--34 CFR 300.111(Office of Special Education Programs,
2007).
• Eligibility meeting: A conference held after a preplacement evaluation to determine if
a student is eligible for SPED services (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Evaluation: A report which clearly describes the reason a student meets or does not
meet SPED eligibility criteria, and identifies the student’s strengths and needs,
irrespective of the disability category in which the student is identified (Office of
Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Free appropriate public education (FAPE): The section 504 regulation requires a
school district to provide a “free appropriate public education” to each qualified
person with a disability, who is in the school district’s jurisdiction, regardless of the
nature or severity of the person’s disability (Office of Special Education Programs,
2007).
• Individual assessment plan: A plan that lists the specific tests and procedures to be
used for a student who has been screened and needs further assessment (Office of
Special Education Programs, 2007).
5
• Individualized education program (IEP): A written plan of educational interventions
designed for each student who receives SPED (Office of Special Education Programs,
2007).
• Individualized education program (IEP) Team: The team specified in the IDEA
amendments to make decisions about SPED eligibility and interventions (Office of
Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): An act signed into law by
President Gerald Ford on November 29, 1975, to give a new name to Public Law
(PL) 94-142 (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Intervention: The use of a specific program or set of steps to target the academic,
physical, mental, and/or emotional need of a student (Office of Special Education
Programs, 2007).
• Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): An important part of an IEP that gives students
with disabilities the best possible education, by working to keep students with
disabilities in the same classroom as their non-disabled peers as much as possible
(Office of Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Overrepresentation (also known as overidentification): The phenomenon of
identifying students of culturally different groups who seem to be eligible for SPED
services, but who are actually not disabled, at a higher percentage than their White
peers (NCLD, 2020).
• Placement: The range or continuum of educational settings available in the school
district to implement a student’s IEP, and the overall amount of time he or she will
6
spend in a SPED or general education setting (Office of Special Education Programs,
2007).
• Public Law (PL) 94-142: Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA), signed
into law by President Gerald Ford, on November 29, 1975, supports states and
localities in protecting the rights of, meeting the needs of, and improving the results
for infants, toddlers, children, and youth with disabilities and their families (Office of
Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Qualification for special education: A comprehensive evaluation that meets the
following criteria (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007): the child has a
disability; the disability impacts their academic progress; and the need requires SPED
services.
• Referral: A written request for an evaluation that is given to the school district when
a child is suspected of having a disability and might need SPED services (Office of
Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Screening: A process of reviewing a referral to determine whether a student needs
further evaluation (Office Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Special education (also known as special ed. or SPED): Specialized teaching and
related services to help children with disabilities or special needs make progress in
school (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Special education services: Services not provided by regular education, but are
necessary to enable an individual with disabilities to achieve in school (Office of
Special Education Programs, 2007).
7
Organization of the Dissertation
The present dissertation is comprised of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of
the study. Chapter 2 reviews the scholarly literature. Chapter 3 offers a discussion of the
methodology. Chapter 4 presents results, and Chapter 5 focuses on findings, offering
recommendations for intervention and future research.
8
Chapter Two: Literature Review
The purpose of the present study is to examine the problem of practice of the
overrepresentation of students of color with disabilities in SPED programs. The problem is that
there is significant disproportionality, and it signals the possibility that some of the students may
not truly be disabled, and as a result, may have been incorrectly identified. The key component is
“significant disproportionality,” which refers to three separate but related trends that impact the
education of students of color: identification for SPED (also known eligibility); educational
placement (once a student is identified as eligible for SPED); and discipline (NCLD, 2020).
Research Questions
The present study was designed around three research questions:
1. How do educators describe the referral process for special education programs?
2. How does the referral process for special education programs differ for African
American males, compared to other students?
3. What impact (if any) does placement in special education programs have on African
American males?
History of the Demographics of Students of Color in Special Education Programs
There is much debate over how the issue developed, and the exact cause for the common
placement of students of color, particularly African American males, in SPED programs. One
possible explanation is that White American teachers may have a fear of African American
students, particularly male youth, because they believe that they are violent, unintelligent, and
not capable of being good students (Weinstein et al., 2004). Demographic data indicates that
more than a third of children in elementary schools are students of color (Weinstein et al., 2004).
Within the past three decades, studies continue to reveal a pattern of overrepresentation of
9
African American students in SPED programs for mental retardation, specific learning
disabilities, behavior disorders, physical impairments, visual impairments, and speech
impairments (Watkins & Kurtz, 2001).
There is a flow of injustice in the educational system, which has resulted in
contradictions and injustices, thereby creating inequity in education. “I suggest that education,
more than media, should help people in the task of learning to ‘go up the river’ to the roots of the
problem…” (de Oliveira Andreotti, 2012, p. 1). African American students are concentrated in
schools (urban) that rarely attain the successful outcomes typical of middle-class schools with
largely White populations (Orfield, Frankenberg, et al., 2016). Racial inequities in schools need
to be challenged (Patton, 2015). The flow of injustice in the educational system, the discrepancy
between White students and students of color, and racial inequities in schools are all challenges
that contribute to the problem of practice, making it easy for African American males to be
overidentified in SPED programs. This overidentification is a direct result of the marginalization
of students of color throughout history.
Education policies consist of a multitude of laws that affect students with disabilities at
local, state, and federal levels. However, federal legislation impacts all students across the nation
and exerts influence on how state and local governments legislate to be in compliance with
federal law. One of the first laws that impacted students with disabilities is Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act. First passed in 1973 and expanded in 2008, “Section 504 is a federal law
designed to protect the rights of individuals with disabilities in programs and activities that
receive federal financial assistance from the U.S. Department of Education” (Office of Civil
Rights, 2020). This legislation ensures that people with disabilities are able to apply for and
receive accommodations in places funded by the federal government. The 504 accommodations
10
not only pertain to students in Pre-Kindergarten through grade 12, but also apply to adults in
college and beyond. It was amended in 2008 to incorporate new classifications from the 2008
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).
In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) was passed. The EHA
was enacted to ensure a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) for students with
disabilities (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007). There were four main purposes of the
law: A public education with related services to meet student’s unique needs, protect the rights of
students with disabilities and their families, help state and local governments provide for students
with disabilities, and assess and assure the effectiveness of education for all students with
disabilities (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007).
Before the passing of the EHA, students with disabilities were denied access to
education. In fact, “in 1970, U.S. schools educated only one in five children with disabilities, and
many states had laws excluding certain students, including children who were deaf, blind,
emotionally disturbed, or mentally retarded” (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007). In
1990, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was passed. The IDEA improved
on the EHA and expanded protections for students with disabilities even more. This sweeping
legislation is a federal law that all states must comply with, but implementation varies from state
to state (Rosen, 2020). Instead of focusing on what schools have to provide students, the IDEA
focused on the needs of individual learners (Brandman University, 2020). This is evidenced by
the implementation of an individualized education program (IEP) and expansion of classifying
conditions to thirteen, including other health impairment and autism.
Although IDEA affords students with disabilities many protections that are essential to
their well-being, and provides them with access to specialized instruction and related services to
11
address their specific needs, SPED is not an appropriate solution, nor equitable, for students of
color who do not actually have a disability. Inappropriately placing children in SPED programs
has adverse effects, which can cause short-term and long-term consequences, particularly for
students of color with low socio-economic status. Therefore, placement disparities should be
avoided at all cost (NCLD, 2020).
Another piece of legislation that passed in 1990 was the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA). The ADA “gives civil rights protections to individuals with disabilities that are like
those provided to individuals on the basis of race, sex, national origin, and religion. It guarantees
equal opportunity for individuals with disabilities in employment, public accommodations,
transportation, state and local government services, and telecommunications” (Office of Civil
Rights, 2020). This law ensured that all students would have equal access to school and receive
the accommodations necessary, regardless of disability status. In 2008, the law was amended to
broaden the definition of “disability,” allowing more people to be protected under this law
(Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs, 2020). Today services have expanded access
and improved educational programming for children with disabilities. It is the goal of national
policy, endorsed by Congress, to ensure equality of opportunity for individuals with disabilities.
A disproportionate number of African American children have been placed, or rather, misplaced,
in SPED programs. African American students are three times more likely than White students to
be placed into categories as needing services in SPED programs. African American males have
historically been overrepresented in all categories of SPED. The disproportionality of African
American students, due to bias and inappropriate identification, is one of the most critical
problems in the SPED field in the United States (Skiba et al., 2006).
12
The Special Education Referral Process
The referral process for SPED has been a subject of concern because of the inequity
within the system (Mehan, 1996). Research shows that there is no evidence at the federal, state,
or local level in the United States that SPED practices are effective. Overall, representation of
data in SPED decisions are often flawed, resulting in the overrepresentation of African American
children in SPED programs.
If a parent or teacher is interested in a child being evaluated, the first step that should be
taken is to contact the school district and request an evaluation. The request for the child to be
evaluated for SPED services is called a referral. According to the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA), it is a requirement for local public-school districts to “identify, locate,
and evaluate” every child who may have a disability requiring SPED services. This is called
“Child Find” (Part B of IDEA [34 CFR 300.111]), and it covers children from birth through age
21. It applies to all children, including those who are homeschooled or in private school, and also
those who are migrants or homeless.
The “Child Find” coordinator will answer any questions and tell the person making the
request which school to make the referral to. The school will then review the information given
about the child, and respond in one of three ways:
1. Decline to do an evaluation.
2. Recommend that the child be screened to see if a full evaluation is needed.
3. Conduct a full and individual initial evaluation (FIIE).
There are phases of the referral process for SPED services (Project Ideal In Action, 2013).
13
Referral Phase 1: Recognition
All students have educational needs, and each individual student has a different skill set,
which is normally met by the teacher. However, there are children who have special needs that
are not typical for children of their age, and these consistent needs or problems are exhibited by
the student consistently. Usually it is the teacher who recognizes a discrepancy in the student’s
academic, social/emotional, behavioral, and/or physical abilities. However, the discrepancy
could be recognized by a parent, administrator, or counselor, and may be a sign that the student
needs additional support beyond the general education classroom.
During this phase, it is mandatory to have a meeting with the child’s parents or guardians.
The teacher should provide student work samples and/or classroom records that provide evidence
that the student needs additional support. There are questions that need to be considered: (1) Is
this a new or recurring problem?; (2) Do the issues and problems occur constantly?; and (3) Is
the child’s academic performance or behavior appropriate for their age level? There is a
possibility that the problems that are being demonstrated by the student may be eliminated by an
action plan between the teacher and the parents.
The teacher and the parents should collectively strategize the best way to approach and
solve the problems. The teacher should continue to collect student work samples and keep
relevant data about the student’s work performance and behavior. The parents or guardians
should be kept updated about any changes in the student’s academic and behavioral progress. If
the teacher determines that the problems cannot be resolved through classroom interventions,
then he or she should notify the parents or guardians that the next step should be to seek outside
help from a school-based pre-referral team.
14
Research indicates that the educational level of parents and parental involvement in their
child’s education plays an important role, and that the parents of most students in SPED have
only an elementary education and have not graduated from high school (Afolabi, 2014).
According to “Child Find,” parents are considered equal partners, along with others, on the IEP
team, and will use their knowledge about their child’s academic needs to help make decisions
that will determine their child’s eligibility for services and educational placement decisions.
Parents, or guardians, are vital to the IEP process because they can provide information
about their child’s strengths and weaknesses, background information on their child’s history and
development, and other factors that may affect learning. Therefore, parents, including surrogate
parents, must be given the opportunity to attend and actively participate in all meetings for their
child that involve identification, evaluation, eligibility for SPED, and educational placement.
School districts must provide advanced notice in writing, hold meetings at mutually agreed upon
locations and times, and allow options of in-person, phone conference, or videoconference
meetings.
Referral Phase 2: Pre-referral
The pre-referral step in the SPED process is to recognize, develop, and implement
educational strategies for students with unique needs before they are referred to SPED, and it is
usually conducted by a student-centered team (also called early intervention team, intervention
assistance team, student support team, teacher assistance team, or instructional support team). It
consists of the teacher, the parents or guardians, an administrator, other general education
teachers, nurse, guidance counselor, and any other adult who is aware of the academic or
behavioral problems of the child. The general education teacher provides background knowledge
of the student, and the team works together to provide possible solutions. Due to the changes to
15
IDEA in 2004, many states and independent school districts have begun using a more formal pre-
referral process called response to intervention (RTI). It is a model designed to address the needs
of all children through consistent practices, and it includes three elements:
1. Instruction and intervention (evidence-based or practice-based) strategies aligned
with the student’s needs
2. Progress monitoring
3. Applying data to make important decisions, such as intervention, placement,
curriculum, and instructional goals
RTI provides three levels of intervention for students with special needs. Generally, the
first level (sometimes referred to as Tier 1) is focused on high-quality general education
instruction in the core curriculum with all students. The premise of RTI is that approximately
80% of all students will respond positively to core curriculum and behavior systems that are in
place in the classroom. The second level (or Tier 2) provides targeted group instruction to
improve academic performance. At this level, the RTI model believes that academic performance
can be improved for approximately 15% of all students. Students who do not improve in the
second level of intervention are then moved to the third level, which consists of intensive,
individualized interventions.
The intention is to provide interventions that will help the student achieve academic
success without being placed in SPED. However, if these interventions do not improve the
student’s academic performance, then an assessment of the student will be conducted to
determine possible eligibility for SPED services.
16
Referral Phase 3: Referral for Special Education Evaluation
If the student continues to experience difficulty, they may be referred for an evaluation
for SPED. School personnel (including general education teachers, SPED teachers, counselors,
administrators, etc.) may initiate a referral, along with the child’s parents or guardians, or any
person involved in the education or care of the child.
The official referral begins the formal process of determining eligibility for SPED
services, and once the referral is initiated, the school must obtain consent from the parents or
guardians to begin the evaluation phase of the referral process.
Referral Phase 4: Special Education Evaluation
IDEA requires that students referred for SPED services receive a nondiscriminatory
evaluation, and it is mandatory that the school district complete the evaluation within 60 days of
the referral date. The evaluation is to be conducted by a team of individuals who can bring
different ideas and perspectives to the evaluation. Some examples of team members include: the
school psychologist (who is qualified to conduct intelligent (IQ), achievement, behavior
assessments, etc.); SPED teachers and general education teachers (who can provide data about
the specific needs of the student); parents or guardians; related service providers (such as the
audiologist, physical therapist, occupational therapist, etc.); and medical doctors (who can offer
their expertise in the field of medicine). Parents of students with developmental disabilities must
make a decision about completion of the legal process in order to become the legal guardian once
their child reaches 18 years old, the age of majority. The evaluation must be comprehensive and
consist of tools and strategies that are technically sound and acceptable. Most students receive
formal evaluations that measure intelligence, achievement, behavior, and medical issues.
Informal observations and evidence of the student’s past work should also be considered during
17
the eligibility determination meetings. Assessments should not be biased with regard to race,
culture, language, or disability, and the materials and procedures must be administered in the
language the child understands, so that accurate information about the child may be gathered to
determine eligibility for SPED services.
Causes of Overrepresentation in Special Education
Many studies over the past two decades have found that there is an overrepresentation of
students of color in SPED programs, which occurs when the percentage of minority students in
SPED is larger than the percentage of minority students in local education agencies (Overton,
2000). A disproportionate number of African American children have been placed, or rather,
misplaced, in SPED programs. This fact continues to be a dilemma in American education and
society. African American students are three times more likely than White students to be placed
into categories as needing services in SPED programs (Overton, 2000). African American males,
in particular, have historically been overrepresented in all categories of SPED.
The disproportionality of African American students, due to identification bias and
inappropriate identification, is one of the most critical problems in the field of SPED within the
United States (Skiba et al., 2006), and it has not gone unnoticed. On average, Black students are
40% more likely than other students to be classified as having a disability, while White students
are 10% less likely, and Asian students are 50% less likely (NCLD, 2020). This means that
students of color are identified at a higher rate than White students. Furthermore, Black girls are
less likely than Black boys to be identified, but more likely to be labeled than White girls and
boys. Much of the controversial issues and research center around the topics of socio-economic
status, disability and race, assessment, the referral process, and teacher bias.
18
Socio-economic Status
Half a century after the landmark case, Brown vs. Board of Education (1954), students of
color, particularly African American and Hispanic American students, face school segregation,
with the majority of them being economically disadvantaged and in poverty (Orfield & Eaton,
1996). Furthermore, students in SPED are considered to have a separate existence in schools,
although they have been given a free and appropriate education (FAPE) in the least restrictive
environment (LRE), through their individualized education programs (Orfield & Eaton, 1996).
Research has shown that racial minorities have been diagnosed with disabilities, and
these diagnoses are unjustifiable. A pattern has been discovered regarding students from low-
income backgrounds for several years. Students who come from low socio-economic status, and
living in poor housing conditions, have been mislabeled as emotionally disturbed, perceptually
and learning impaired, brain injured, and having an intellectual disability (ID). In fact, among the
categories, intellectual disability, (“formerly labeled as mental retardation”), is the label assigned
mostly to African American students. Furthermore, after being mislabeled, these students are
usually placed in classrooms where teachers have low expectations for their success; as a result,
their academic outcomes are worse (Schifter et al., 2019).
Although much research has suggested that socio-economic status accounts for most of
the disproportionality in SPED, current reports have illustrated that the problem involves not just
one variable, but the degree of overrepresentation is affected by many variables (Ferri & Connor,
2005). It is unfortunate that the problem of overrepresentation is starting much earlier, because
Black and Hispanic children from economically disadvantaged families are being labeled as “at
risk” even before they enter school (Mutua, 2001).
19
Race
According to the literature, the fact that African American students are overrepresented in
SPED programs continues to be a dilemma in American education and society. A quantitative
study was conducted (Fish, 2019), using data from Wisconsin, to test the interaction between
school-level racial composition and student-level race as a predictor of placement in SPED
programs. Wisconsin was chosen because it is a state with a wide range of racial compositions in
its schools and notable racial inequalities in education, specifically SPED. A data set from the
Wisconsin Department of Instruction was used that included all 895,791 students in all 2,214
schools in 2010–2011. The data was then sorted out by identifying the racial composition of
students with disabilities in categories, such as other health impairment (OHI), specific learning
disability (SLD), attention/deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and speech and language
impairment (SLI). The results suggest that categories of educational disability are constructed in
ways that intersect with race, and that schools sort students into SPED services in ways that may
reinforce racial inequalities. While White students’ risk of lower-status disabilities was
unaffected by school racial composition, the study showed that Black, Latinx, and less
consistently, Native American students experience increased risk of these disabilities when they
are racially distinct within a school.
A second study (Farkas et al., 2020) examined whether SPED racial risk ratios reported
by U.S. school districts are linked to racial achievement gaps. An analysis of merged data was
reviewed (1,952 districts for Black–White comparisons; 2,571 districts for Hispanic–White
comparisons) from the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights, Stanford
Educational Data Archive, and Common Core data sets. The results of the findings were that
district-level Black–White and Hispanic–White achievement gaps were strongly related to
20
district-level racial risk ratios for disability identification. Results of the study show that race was
linked to low achievement in determining the achievement gaps of certain minorities, which has
a strong correlation to identification for SPED programs.
Further research (Skiba et al., 2006) explored the disproportionate placement of African
American students in less restrictive educational environments. Specifically, the study
emphasized that the disparities in educational environments are due to the influence of certain
disability categories that are more often the result of service in more restrictive placements. This
study assessed disproportionality across two educational environments—the general education
classroom and separate class settings—within five disability classifications (emotional
disturbance, mild mental retardation, moderate mental retardation, learning disabilities, and
speech and language). This disaggregation enabled the researchers to examine the extent to
which African American students are disproportionately served in more restrictive educational
environments than their peers of different cultures with the same disability.
The data for this study included individual records of all students with disabilities in
Indiana during the 2001–2002 school year. Data for the disability category and educational
environment for students with disabilities in each of the state’s 295 school districts was collected
by the Indiana Department of Education as part of its IDEA reporting requirements. This
investigation focused on disproportionality for African American students for two reasons: First,
disproportionate identification and service are most consistent and severe for African American
students across numerous disability categories; second, statewide representation of other
minorities has not been high enough in the target state to permit accurate assessment of
disproportionality across a number of categories and educational environments. Overall, the
study suggests that students of color, especially African American students, are overrepresented
21
in restrictive educational environments more than their peers with the same disability, and
underrepresented in less restrictive environments.
The studies presented in this literature review share a common purpose—to examine
factors that contribute to the overrepresentation of African American students in SPED
programs. Results of the studies emphasize that race and low achievement are two critical factors
that play a role in the overidentification of African American students in SPED programs. Even
in restrictive educational environments, there is disproportionality between African American
students and their peers of other minorities with the same disability, which has resulted in
overrepresentation.
Theoretical Framework
Critical Race Theory (CRT) explains the problem of overidentification of students of
color in SPED programs because race plays a critical part of their selection (Stefancic &
Delgado, 1995). They are portrayed as a group that lacks intelligence, based on race, and
therefore, are unteachable in the general education population. As a result of this
overidentification, they are placed in SPED programs, so that the problem (lack of intelligence)
can be “fixed” in an educational setting with few children who also have the same learning
disabilities.
CRT is a theoretical framework in the social sciences, which has been used to examine
the relationship between society and culture and the identification of race, law, and power
(Connor & Annamma, 2016). First, CRT investigates the connection between White supremacy
and racial power over time, and essentially, that the law may play a role in this process. Second,
CRT explores the idea of possibly changing the link between the law and racial power, and also
seeking racial liberation and anti-subordination. CRT plays out in my problem of practice when
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predominantly White teachers use their power and positionality to view students of color with a
deficit mindset. The ideology of White supremacy is that African Americans are innately inferior
and not fully human; therefore, there are low expectations for educating them (Allen, 1994). A
critical factor is that the teaching force in the United States is predominantly White, middle-
class, and female (Ladson-Billings, 2001), and because African American students do not follow
the White middle-class norms of behavior, White teachers are prone to recommend them for
SPED services.
Another important theoretical framework that ties closely with CRT is African American
Male Theory (AAMT). Though AAMT is a multi-disciplinary and trans-disciplinary approach to
speculating about the experiences of African American boys and men, it can also serve as a
guide for practice (Lawson & Bush, 2013). Essentially, there are six tenets of AAMT. First, “the
individual and collective experiences of the lives of African American boys and men are
scrutinized by using an ecological system approach” (Bush & Bush, 2018, p. 5). Specifically,
this means that AAMT is vigorous enough to accommodate the physical and social scientists
who currently examine this theory. Second, “there is something unique about being male and of
African descent” (Bush & Bush, 2018, p. 5). While AAMT affirms that other populations and
groups are unique, it is mostly interested in what makes African American males similar to or
like other populations, and explores what is unique about this population as a group, along with
individual distinctions within the group. Third, the experiences of African American boys and
men are “influenced by their biology and the continuation of African culture” (Bush & Bush,
2018, p. 5). However, more research needs to be conducted in this area.
Fourth, African American boys and men are resilient, which means that “their capacity
for morality and intelligence is unlimited, and they were born with self-determination” (Bush &
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Bush, 2018, p. 5). The social and educational challenges facing them come from socially
constructed systems, rather than biological or cultural deficits. Fifth, the lives of African
American boys and men have been “profoundly impacted by racism, classism, and sexism”
(Bush & Bush, 2018, p. 5). Like CRT, AAMT views racism as a compelling force, and is
particularly interested in the effect of racism on African American boys and men. Sixth, “the
purpose of AAMT is to draw upon the historical and current culture, pursue social justice, and
diminish oppression” (Bush & Bush, 2018, p. 5).
Race and Socio-economic Status
One of the predominant explanations for disproportionality in SPED is the interaction of
race and poverty for students of color (Skiba et al., 2005). There is a strong correlation between
race and income in the United States. A large portion of minority students come from low-
income backgrounds, and receive free and reduced lunch (APA, 2007). According to the
National Survey of Children’s Health (Child Trends, 2013), children who live at or below the
federal poverty level are more than twice as likely to be identified with a specific learning
disability (SLD), when compared to other children who live in a home with income four times
the poverty level. Low socio-economic status has been connected to risk factors for a disability,
such as low birth weight, exposure to lead, and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Students
who have been exposed to four or more adverse childhood experiences have been identified as
being 32 times more likely to have a learning or behavioral challenge (Burke et al., 2011).
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) include the following events:
• economic hardship
• divorce or separation of parent
• death of a parent
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• incarcerated parent
• witnessing adult domestic violence
• victim or witness to neighborhood violence
• living with someone who is mentally ill or suicidal
• living with someone with an alcohol or drug problem
• being treated or judged unfairly due to race or ethnicity
According to the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and
Rehabilitative Services, and Office of Special Education Programs (2015), racial disparities vary
between thirteen federally defined educational disabilities, and the greatest disproportionality
occurs in emotional disturbance (ED) and intellectual disability (ID).
Although socio-economic status plays a significant role in identification inequalities,
income itself does not fully explain racial inequity (Grindal et al., 2019). Specifically, when
examining students within the same income bracket (i.e., only students from low-income
backgrounds across races, or only students from non-low-income backgrounds across races),
Black and Hispanic students are more likely to be identified for SPED programs, when compared
to White students. For example, in their study (Grindal et al., 2019), Black students who were
from non-low-income backgrounds were twice as likely to be identified with an intellectual
disability (ID) or emotional disturbance (ED), when compared to White students from non-low-
income backgrounds.
A noteworthy factor about this study is that an intellectual disability and emotional
disturbance are considered subjective disabilities. According to IDEA, subjective disabilities are
defined as “those disabilities for which non-subjective tests are not available,” meaning that
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identification depends on the professional judgment, and potentially the bias, of the teacher or
assessor (Grindal et al., 2019).
Research indicates that teachers are more likely to have negative attitudes toward
children with low socio-economic status. Evidence indicates that because of this negative
attitude, children who come from low-income backgrounds are more likely to be placed in
lower-level ability groups (Tach & Farkas, 2006), which leads to a misdiagnosis of their actual
academic ability.
Teacher Evaluation and Referral for Special Education
Much evidence points to the troubling factor of systemic racism and teacher bias in our
schools. As a result, students of color, particularly African American males, are being
overidentified at higher rates for SPED programs. According to the National Education
Association (2007), there is a strong correlation between race and teacher evaluation of students
for SPED. Overall, African American, or Black males, are frequently misdiagnosed by teachers
who consider them to be disruptive, and are referred to SPED.
Furthermore, The National Education Association (NEA): Truth in Labeling (2007)
reported that, “Black males who are viewed as having ‘challenging’ behaviors are referred more
often for SPED programs serving children with emotional disabilities” (p. 8). Placement in more
restrictive settings and harsher discipline is the plight of many students of color because of the
intersectionality of race and SPED, and it can negatively affect student outcomes (Codrington &
Fairchild, 2012).
Many researchers have presented significant findings about systemic racism linked to the
disproportionality of African American males in SPED. In most instances, referral for SPED is
based on teacher perception, rather than data. Research (Okonofua & Eberhardt, 2015) indicates
26
that students’ race affected how teachers perceived and interpreted the behavior, by their
recommendation of harsher punishments for African American students. Also, a study conducted
by Fish (2017), demonstrates that teachers most likely referred African American boys for SPED
because they were perceived as behavioral challenges. However, White students were more
likely to be referred for academic challenges. According to Cooc (2018), teachers mostly
disagreed on the need for SPED assessment for African American students with lower socio-
economic status, which indicates that their understanding of the students’ behavior and ability
was based on subtle race and gender relations, and not on data used to determine academic
assessment.
Teacher Bias
An abundance of research indicates that SPED placement is often due to cultural
selection, or teacher bias, which can cause students to be misidentified and placed in SPED
programs (Cooper, 2003). This could include teacher bias in referral, assessment, and placement
practices (Sullivan & Bal, 2013). Students of color experience teacher bias because the teacher
feels that these students are incapable of learning (Massey et al., 2014). Therefore, the teacher
has lower expectations of them, and they often receive poor instruction because of their
disability, which negatively impacts their academic performance. As a result, students of color
tend to have a higher dropout rate than White students and students without disabilities (Losen &
Orfield, 2002). Unfortunately, it is a vicious cycle, since students who fail to obtain a high school
diploma have limited opportunities for a career and occupation, which then leads to the increased
likelihood of poverty.
In their quest to understand the racial inequality of disability groups, Sullivan and Artiles
(2011) used a structural approach in an attempt to find out why minority students are
27
disproportionately represented in SPED programs. The researchers used information from the
Arizona Department of Education for the 2004-2005 school years and analyzed data from
general education and SPED enrollment; thus, they considered five racial categories and high-
incidence disability categories. The data consisted of 76 students in unified districts
(Kindergarten through grade 12), 92 elementary districts (Kindergarten through grade 6 or 8),
and 15 high school districts (grades 8 through 12), for a total of 216 local education agencies.
Sullivan and Artiles (2011) used a structural theory to understand racial inequality, which
examines the root of societal problems, such as institutional racism. Results indicated that 11.5%
were identified for SPED, and the greatest risk for overrepresentation was for minority students,
which included Native Americans (14.43%) and African Americans (13.95%). Overall, data has
demonstrated that students of color are more likely to be taught in more restrictive environments,
which is opposed by the IDEA, because these students miss out on experiences with their general
education peers and are denied rigorous learning opportunities. The data indicates that 55% of
White students spend more than 80% of their school day in the general education classroom.
However, only a third of Black students with disabilities, when compared to White students,
spend that much time in the general education setting (National Education Association, 2007).
IDEA advocates for the least restrictive environment, which means that students should
be placed in general education and with their nondisabled peers to the greatest extent possible.
There is evidence that inclusion is more beneficial for students, particularly when it begins early,
and supports are embedded into the curriculum. The results of educating SPED students in
general education classrooms with peers who are not receiving SPED services have shown
successful academic outcomes, such as higher test scores and graduation rates (National
Education Association, 2007).
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Teacher evaluation plays a major role in the referral of students for SPED programs.
According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities (2020), SPED evaluation and
placement often poses problems for students of color because they lead to negative outcomes.
Students who are misidentified suffer the educational consequences of a less rigorous
curriculum, lower expectations, stigma and racial separation in classrooms, loss of self-esteem,
and fewer opportunities to transition to postsecondary education successfully. Furthermore,
students of color are more likely to be at risk for dropping out of high school and not attending
college, and for being incarcerated. The stark reality is that once students of color are
misidentified, they are likely to stay in SPED programs for the remainder of their academic
career (National Education Association, 2007).
Summary
Disproportionality is a longstanding issue in SPED. However, the issue is complex and
involves many facets, including systemic racism, low socio-economic status, and teacher bias
(NCLD, 2020). In the present study, the theoretical frameworks of CRT (Stefancic & Delgado,
1995) and AAMT (Bush & Bush, 2018) are postulates used to explain and understand the
experiences of students of color in the larger culture, particularly African American males.
Specifically, inequities can manifest in the SPED referral and evaluation processes
through referral bias, cultural bias, gender bias, assessment bias, teacher and administrator bias,
socio-economic bias, and parental-involvement bias. Referral bias suggests that certain students
are more likely to be referred for special education evaluation than others, due to factors
unrelated to their actual need for services. Referral bias is likely to happen when teachers or
administrators make referrals based on stereotypes, cultural misunderstandings, or information
that is incomplete. Cultural bias occurs when students from different cultural backgrounds
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express their needs, emotions, or cognitive abilities in ways that are misunderstood by educators
who are not familiar with their cultural norms. Cultural bias can result in teachers overlooking or
misdiagnosing certain disabilities or needs of their students. Gender bias reflects conscious or
unconscious biases that lead teachers or administrators to overlook or misinterpret the needs of
their students based on gender. Certain learning or behavioral differences might be more easily
noticed in boys than in girls. For example, boys might be more readily associated with
behavioral challenges than girls. Also, gender stereotypes can influence teacher expectations
about students’ abilities. Assessment bias occurs when assessment tools or methods used in the
evaluation process are not culturally and linguistically sensitive, leading to inaccurate results. If
assessment tools are not appropriately adapted to fit students’ cultural backgrounds or language
proficiency, they can underestimate students’ abilities and needs. Similarly, teacher and
administrator bias can influence decisions about whether to refer students for evaluation or
provide appropriate accommodations. Whether conscious or unconscious, these personal biases
can shape perceptions of students’ abilities and needs. When socio-economic bias occurs,
students from lower socio-economic backgrounds may have limited access to medical and
psychological evaluations that can support their needs. Finally, parental-involvement bias may
occur through schools’ engagement with parents during the referral and evaluation processes.
Parents from diverse backgrounds may face communication barriers or cultural differences that
affect their ability to effectively advocate for their child.
The many adverse educational and emotional outcomes caused by systemic racism and
other biases demand immediate attention. Such educational practices need to be explored and
challenged (Patton, 2015). As such, research is needed to understand ways teachers and school
30
administrators can become more culturally sensitive and data-driven in their evaluation and
referral of students of color for SPED programs, as all students deserve an equitable education.
31
Chapter Three: Research Methods
To understand how students of color are disproportionally placed in SPED programs, the
focus of this chapter will be the qualitative approach, data collection, and methods utilized to
conduct this study. The purpose of this study is to examine the problem of practice of the
overrepresentation of African American students with disabilities in SPED programs. The
problem is that this disproportionality signals the possibility that some of the students may not
truly be disabled, and as a result, may have been incorrectly identified. The following questions
will be the basis of my study:
1. How do educators describe the referral process for special education programs?
2. How does the referral process for special education programs differ for African
American males, compared to other students?
3. What impact (if any) does placement in special education programs have on African
American males?
This chapter is comprised of five sections. The first section focuses on the reasoning
behind the decision of a study using qualitative methods. Next, I discuss the sample and
population for my proposed case study. Then, I transition into an explanation of the data
collection methods, highlighting the planned analysis of data. Finally, I discuss the limitations
and delimitations of the study.
Research Design
A qualitative approach was selected for this study. My research questions demand that I
investigate the referral process of SPED programs, and its possible contribution to the
overrepresentation of students of color. Through the process of interviews, the data collected
consisted of the “experiences, opinions, feelings, and knowledge” of the study participants
32
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 118.). This qualitative part of the research, the interviews, focused
on the experiences of teachers and administrators, regarding the referral process for SPED
programs.
Sample and Population
My goal in selecting the given sample was to collect data from school districts that serve
a large population of SPED students, which include students of color. The purpose was to gather
information, by interviewing teachers and administrators about the referral process for SPED. I
contacted the participants by phone and e-mail, introduced myself and the purpose of the study,
and obtained permission from the participants to join the study.
Participants
The purpose of this case study was to collect data from teachers and administrators who
serve students in SPED programs. The target population was SPED teachers who taught middle
school and high school. For the interview portion of the case study, the goal was to conduct an
interview with a minimum of six to ten teachers or administrators who serve students with a
variety of disabilities. The participants were given the option to volunteer their time for the
interviews. Through e-mail, I asked for volunteers to participate in the interviews, and as a token
of my appreciation, I gave each of them a gift card from Starbucks in the amount of twenty-five
dollars.
Instrument and Data Collection Procedures
The purpose of this study was to explore the overrepresentation of students of color in
SPED programs. According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), qualitative researchers examine
documents and interview participants by collecting data themselves. In addition, Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) show how the researcher is the primary person for collecting and analyzing data.
33
Interviews
To explore my research questions, I conducted multiple interviews online via Zoom
videoconference. Based on their availability, I scheduled 1-hour interviews with each teacher or
administrator. I assured questions were worded clearly and distinctly, with a mixture of
structured and less structured questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, I used follow-
up probes when further information was necessary, and for clarification. Also, I used “experience
and behavior questions” (Patton, 2015), in order to understand the participants’ experiences with
SPED programs.
Table 1
Interview Questions by Subject Grouping
Questions Group/Purpose
Participant background information Set up conceptual framework; create a
welcoming environment and get to
know the participant
How long have you been an administrator or
teacher in special education?
What grades have you taught in special
education?
What subjects have you taught in special
education?
Why did you choose to work with students
with disabilities?
Student demographics Collect student background information;
gather the participant’s experience
with the referral process
How many students are in your class?
How many boys and girls?
What types of disabilities are represented in
your class?
34
What is the race/ethnicity of the students in
your class?
Evaluation/Referral Collect the participant’s experience with
the referral process
Tell me about the typical referral process for
students with disabilities.
Examine the consistency or inconsistency
of the participant’s experiences with
the referral process
What are some ways the referral process
might vary?
Parent-Teacher-District Determine the role of the parent, teacher,
and district in the referral process
What role does the parent play in the
referral process?
What role do you, as the administrator or
teacher, play in the referral process of
students with disabilities at your school?
What role does the district play in the
referral process?
Closing questions Compare teacher expectations with
outcomes
Have you seen any examples where the
referral process played out differently
than what you had expected for your
students?
Is there any other information you would
like to share that I may benefit from,
which I may not have asked during this
interview?
How do learning opportunities create
positive change for students in special
education?
35
I used “knowledge questions” (Patton, 2015) to convey the actual knowledge of the
participants, regarding SPED programs. These knowledge questions focused on student
demographics and the teachers’ or administrators’ experiences with the referral process for
SPED programs. I prompted the SPED teachers or administrators to explain the typical referral
process for students with disabilities. Then I asked for insight on some ways this process might
differ from the normal referral process for SPED programs at their school site. Also, I asked the
participants to explain the role they played personally in the referral process at their particular
school.
Overall, the purpose of the interviews was to ensure responses about the typical referral
process for SPED programs, in comparison to the teachers’ or administrators’ experiences at
their school site, in order to determine if there is a discrepancy. Furthermore, the demographic
questions were essential (age, gender, and race/ethnicity), since the purpose of this study was to
examine the overidentification of students of color in SPED programs.
Data Collection
As the researcher of this study, I made contact with the participants via phone call or e-
mail, and specified an appointment via Zoom. I spoke to the participants, answered their
questions, and obtained permission to conduct the interviews. I also asked for permission to
audio record the interviews. Each interview was scheduled for an hour to an hour and a half. Any
additional instruments or data that the participants were willing to share was collected for data
analysis. They also answered a follow-up question that I posed that was pertinent information for
the study.
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Data Analysis
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the main objective of data analysis is to
answer the research questions through the responses I obtain from the interviews. For this
qualitative study data, I transcribed the interviews. Following Merriam and Tisdell (2016), I
began data analysis early, in order to create an active process that continuously built upon itself.
For example, I kept a journal to write down notes and reflections, as I proceeded through the
research process. I maintained reflective notes about the interviews I conducted, read them over,
and annotated them for data analysis. Furthermore, I developed a priori codes (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016); these codes refer to the words and phrases that stood out from the data collected,
and that reflect my conceptual framework. I also planned to keep notes of information I did not
expect from the methods perspective.
I utilized analysis from Corbin and Strauss (2008), once the data was transcribed, in order
to identify the patterns in the data. I implemented strategies, such as focusing on terms utilized in
the interviews, using my own background knowledge and personal experiences, and making
comparisons, in order to prevent any standard ways of thinking. In this way, I sought evidence
that contradicted my proclivities, based on comprehensive analysis.
Limitations and Delimitations
There were several factors, or limitations, that were beyond my control in this
dissertation. The data collection was solely based upon interviews, documents, and artifact
analysis. According to Weiss (1994), participant responses are not guaranteed to be truthful.
Thus, the results of this study did rely on the honesty and integrity of the interviewees. However,
I reminded my participants of the importance of their honesty with statements such as the
37
following: “Please give your open and honest feedback, and don’t feel as if you need to
sugarcoat anything. I promise you won’t hurt my feelings.”
The delimitations of my qualitative research were my limited experience conducting
research, and my own personal biases. Furthermore, an additional delimitation was the specific
time I had to collect my data. I collected my data within a period of 2 months. According to
Merriam and Tisdell (2016), it is important to triangulate the data, which means to collect
multiple options, such as interviews from various sources. Thus, I compared and cross-checked
data between different participants. Finally, I collected data from different school sites.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
To address the validity and reliability of my research, I thoroughly planned out the
interview instruments that I used, which provided me with sufficient data. I also collected
artifacts to analyze together with the interview data. As noted, I monitored my biases through
critical reflection and intuition (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Merriam and Tisdell
(2016), study results are only valid if the research is conducted in an ethical manner, which also
includes rigor in carrying out the study. On the other hand, Miriam and Tisdell (2016) further
state that validity and reliability can be addressed through the conceptualization of the study, and
ways data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted. To begin, I am aware that I am a highly
educated woman of color. Furthermore, my success as a teacher is the result of my college
education and hard work in the field of SPED. Also, I am aware that my educational practices
reflect on an awareness of White privilege, which influences and perpetuates the status quo.
Thus, I provided the participants with information about my personal and professional
background. Finally, before I conducted my interviews, I reviewed and practiced the questions,
so that they emerged freely during the interviews.
38
Ethics
According to Rubin and Rubin (2012), it is crucial that the participants involved with the
research are not harmed in any way. The purpose of this research was to ensure that it adheres to
the ethical guidelines as set forth by the University of Southern California’s institutional review
board. I clearly explained the purpose of the study to my participants prior to the interviews.
Also, I communicated honestly with them and asked them for consent to conduct the interviews.
Each participant was reminded that they have the right to opt out of the interview at any time,
request not to be recorded, or refuse to answer any question. The participants were fully aware
that their responses were kept confidential, and that all data would be destroyed after 5 years
(Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Finally, all reflective notes and data analysis memos supported thorough
and accurate findings (Creswell, 2018).
Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework, a visual representation of the properties of the
study, along with the interview introduction, questions, and closing comments that were
presented to the participants. The conceptual framework of this study is based on the
overidentification of students of color in SPED programs. The key components are:
• Evaluation and referral process for determining students eligible for special education,
which includes the policies and practices of Child Find, parent, teacher, and school
district.
• External factors that impact students of color, including socio-economic status, parent
educational level, and teacher bias.
• Theoretical framework of CRT and AAMT, which identifies the social construction of
the causes of institutionalized racism.
39
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework
The properties associated with the overrepresentation of students of color in SPED programs
include the evaluation/referral process, external factors, and theoretical framework (as outlined
in Chapter 2).
Evaluation/Referral
Policies/Practices
Child Find
Parent-Teacher-
District
External Factors
Socio-economic
status, Parent
Educational Level,
and Teacher Bias
Overrepresentation
of Students of Color
in Special Education
Programs
Theoretical Framework
Critical Race Theory (CRT)
African American Male Theory (AAMT)
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Chapter Four: Findings
In this chapter, interview responses of SPED teachers, a general education teacher,
clinical social worker, and administrators are analyzed to address the issue of the
overrepresentation of students of color in SPED programs. This study answers the following
research questions:
1. How do educators describe the referral process for special education programs?
2. How does the referral process for special education programs differ for African American
males, compared to other students?
3. What impact (if any) does placement in special education programs have on African
American males?
Characteristics of the Sample
For this study, I interviewed 10 participants. Nine respondents were chosen because of
their experience with different grade levels in SPED. They represent nine different schools in the
district. One respondent has worked with children outside of a school district. I describe each
respondent below.
Background Information on Respondents
Participant 1 (Charlotte) has been a building or site administrator for 8 years, and
currently works with middle and high school mild/moderate students in a full inclusion program
in SPED, with minimum pull-out. She became an administrator because she realized that
students have different needs, and she grew into the field of SPED. Her goal is to develop
expertise, and use strategies and tools to help all learners. Charlotte stated, “I gravitated towards
anything that would support students and help them benefit from school.”
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Participant 2 (Alice) has been in the field of general education for 6 years and currently
works with elementary students. She works alongside her staff in IEP meetings, student support
teams, and 504 plans to support teachers and students. Alice has the desire to grow within her
field, and she likes to “utilize great strategies which will guide and mentor teachers and help
students.”
Participant 3 (Sarah) has worked for 30 years in public education. Sarah started as a full
inclusion general education teacher and resource specialist teacher, and then became an assistant
principal and principal. She has worked with students in multiple grade levels with a variety of
disabilities. Currently, Sarah is an administrator, and she has had “an amazing experience of
working with children across the spectrum—from gifted and talented, to students with
disabilities.”
Participant 4 (Nelson) has been a SPED teacher for 16 years and has worked with ninth to
twelfth grade students. He currently works with young adults who are 18-22 years of age. When
Nelson began working in a residential care facility, he knew that being a SPED teacher was “the
gig” for him.
Participant 5 (Amber) is a SPED teacher and has taught students for 32 years in
Kindergarten through grade 12. Her present caseload is ninth grade to adults. She has served in a
variety of roles, which include a paraeducator; behavioral support specialist; regional center
intake counselor for identifying students with special needs diagnoses; induction specialist
working with educators who are learning to be SPED teachers; instructor teaching Autism
specialization; and working with the infant toddler unit for fragile children. Amber became a
SPED teacher because she wanted to be in a field where “she can be most effective.”
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Participant 6 (Justin) has been a SPED teacher for 5 years. Justin works with ninth and
tenth grade students. He chose the field of SPED because he feels he can make an impact in the
lives of children, by “helping people that need a little bit more voice, the students that are
unspoken for, but it has turned into helping individual students and helping a community.” Justin
desires that his students will have a successful high school experience.
Participant 7 (Anthony) started in the field of SPED as an assistant, and then became a
bus driver for 12 years; Anthony picked up special needs students from their homes and drove
them to school. He has worked in many school districts with students with a variety of
disabilities. It was during this time that he “fell in love working with students with special needs
and connected with them.” Anthony referred to the information he received about the students in
the IEPs as “pearls.” These students were known as “students with pearls” instead of “students
with IEPs.” Because of his experience as a bus driver, Anthony decided to pursue a credential in
SPED. He first became a substitute teacher, then a SPED teacher for 4 years, and has taught
students in sixth to twelfth grade. Currently, Anthony is a bridge coordinator/SPED coordinator,
and organizes IEP assessments, meetings, services, and personnel. He also facilitates
communication between families, teachers, and students.
Participant 8 (Grace) has been teaching in the SPED field for 9 years, and has taught all
subjects and every grade in elementary school, except third grade. Grace currently serves as a
dean that functions as an assistant principal and oversees SPED. When asked why she chose
SPED as her career, she stated, “I did not choose the field of special education. It chose me. My
school that hired me got to decide what they were going to hire me as. They needed a special
education teacher, so that’s what I became, and I liked it so much I stayed.”
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Participant 9 (Camille) has taught elementary, middle school, and high school for 15
years at public and non-public schools. SPED became her career by accident. Camille was a
stay-at-home mom looking for something to do to get out of the house and make some extra
money, and she saw an ad. She applied for a SPED assistant job and got it. She worked as an
assistant for 6 months. Camille liked “the challenge of dealing with the students and their
behaviors.” A teaching position opened up and she was asked to apply, and she “fell in love with
it.” She has also been a SPED coordinator for 3 years. Currently, Camille has been an APEIS for
the past 2 years, which is an assistant principal elementary instructional specialist, that works as
an itinerant administrator to assist principals with meeting SPED compliance obligations.
Participant 10 (Rose) has expertise as a mental health professional. For 25 years, she has
worked extensively in the field of trauma and trauma research as a clinical somatic movement
therapist and clinical social worker. Rose is a trauma specialist, experienced with populations
across the life-span and cultural divides. Her clinical experience includes trauma therapy with
children 3-5 years of age diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). She also created
a mentorship program as a bridge between General Equivalency Diploma (GED) training and
counseling of adolescents who are differently-abled with various mental health issues. Rose has a
heartfelt desire to ensure that students who have been emotionally harmed receive proper
treatment, because emotional abuse can adversely affect emotional development and academic
performance. Overall, she feels that, in order for children in SPED to be successful, “they need
cheerleaders on their team.”
Findings for Research Question 1
In this section, I present the responses of the participants to Research Question 1 and my
findings. RQ1: How do educators describe the referral process for special education programs?
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The Referral Process Begins with a Student Support Team
The first significant finding is that most of the educators stated that the referral process
begins with a student support team (SST) meeting, also known as a student success team, which
includes an initial and second meeting. Alice summarized her experience with the typical referral
process for SPED programs with the following account, by first discussing how the SST is
formed:
The teachers will do their interventions, and if they [students] show no progress or very
little growth in their standards, the teacher reaches out to the administrator right away,
and that’s when we start off with the process of an SST—and then the administrator will
look into the documents that the teacher fills out. We’ll pull out the [cumulative] folder to
see how the student has been doing previously, look at the data that the teacher is
showing in the classroom right now, and whatever assessment they’re taking, and discuss
it with the team. Then, we set up a date for the parent to come in and have a meeting. We
have the teacher, parent, the resource teacher is always there, and our intervention teacher
will be there, and our school counselors will be invited if there seems to be some
emotional disturbance going on, too. That will be our SST 1 meeting. We will talk about
the student’s strengths, cares and concerns, and the teacher will explain to the parents
what interventions they have utilized in the classroom, what the data is showing right
now (6-8 weeks of data that they have collected). Then we come up with a 6-8 week
plan, which is a goal for the student.
Anthony echoed this process:
It could be a parent or teacher, or an administrator who refers a student for more services;
this could be a behavior need or academic need. The process we use at our school is
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called an SST. Basically, what an SST does is that they look at the student, and they look
at the interventions that have been done in the general education setting, and they’re able
to see if the student needs more intervention in the general education setting. So, they
make that decision. From the SST, if the child can receive more intervention, then that’s
the route they’ll take before jumping ahead to an evaluation.
Grace made a statement about the referral process at her school site:
We have a committee in charge of special education. ... The process is pretty equitable
because there are so many hoops you need to jump through. You cannot recommend a
child for services without having a bunch of materials in place. Before the meeting
[initial], the teachers have to complete a 26-page report detailing everything the child is
doing, day in and day out. ... There’s a lot of information we have to gather before we can
say this student needs SPED services. You have to be very on top of it.
She continued with the following comment:
To give you a perfect example, there’s a student right now who is academically very
high, but he is struggling with a lot of emotions and behavior in the classroom, so we’re
in the process of getting an initial [SST]. The burden of proof has been on us to show that
this emotional need has been impacting the student, and it is stopping him from making
the progress that he could make, and in this effort we’ve been doing assessments: FBAs,
behavior charts, anecdotals [records], suspension letters, tracker, all communication with
the family, teacher reports, work samples, what we have tried, what we haven’t tried—all
this is going in to make the case, and it keeps students who should not be classified [for
SPED] from being classified.
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In their descriptions of the initial referral, Alice, Anthony, and Grace highlight the
collaboration between teachers, administrators, and parents in the early stages of the process.
Each elevate the importance of data and collecting information at the start of the process.
The Initial SST Meeting
During the initial SST meeting, the team may review the student’s academic and
behavioral history, assess the student’s current strengths and challenges, and discuss
interventions and strategies to support the student’s success. The team may develop an action
plan that outlines specific goals and supports to put in place, in order to help the student achieve
academic and behavioral success. Alice continued with an explanation of the second SST
meeting, that is usually held 6–8 weeks after the initial SST meeting, explaining:
When we do come back for the SST 2 meeting, we can show, with all these things we
implemented, were we able to support this particular student? If the student starts to show
progress, we continue to monitor, and then we go from there. After 6-8 weeks, if the
student has shown no progress, now we get the school psychologist involved. Now she’s
the one who does the state assessments, to see if there is any learning disability—where
the gaps are. We get the speech therapist involved because she also has to do her piece in
there as well with the assessments that she needs to conduct. We get our school nurse
involved. She has to do a hearing and a vision test to make sure the child is not suffering
from any of those things also. We invite the parent again and then we offer the parent an
explanation that we didn’t see any progress, so we need to move forward with an IEP, but
in order to conduct and set goals for an IEP, we need to conduct an assessment, which the
school psychologist will do. We have a 60-day process after that, so we have 60 days
after we hold SST 2. The school psychologist and the speech therapist will conduct
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assessments and gather all of the information to determine if the student needs SPED
services.
Anthony expressed similar thoughts about the second SST meeting:
If the SST team sees that the child has received possible interventions in general
education, and still there is a need, then they will go the next step, which will be an
evaluation. So, a comprehensive evaluation will consist of an academic evaluation, a
social-emotional evaluation, and a health evaluation, and that’s what we call an
assessment plan. An assessment plan will be sent out to the parent. If the parent signs the
assessment plan, then the child will be evaluated in those three areas: Academically by a
teacher, psycho-social/emotional by a school psychologist, and health wise by a nurse
usually. So once the evaluation is complete, they will have an IEP meeting. They call it
an initial IEP meeting, to go over the results of the evaluation. Based on this evaluation,
and whatever data they have, the IEP team will decide whether the student is eligible for
SPED services. That’s the way the process works at my school.
The purpose of an SST meeting is to bring together a group of educators and support staff
to identify and address any issues that may be impacting the student’s ability to succeed in
school. Both Alice and Anthony elevate the roles of school psychologist and school nurse, as the
process of evaluation continues after initial identification.
The Second Student Support Team Meeting
After the first SST meeting, a second meeting is held, in which the team may discuss the
effectiveness of any previous interventions, in order to determine if additional interventions are
necessary. Also, the team reviews any progress the student made since the last meeting, and
determines if any adjustments or interventions are needed. During the second SST meeting, the
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team may also discuss whether or not any previous interventions have been effective, in order to
determine if additional interventions are necessary. The team also reviews any new data or
information related to the student’s progress, and any concerns that may have developed since
the initial SST meeting, and then a plan of action is put into place to address those concerns.
Overall, the specific topics and agenda of the second SST meeting will depend on the unique
needs and progress of each student being discussed.
Within-School Variation in Referral Is Common
The second important finding of Research Question 1 is that, although most of the
educators stated that the referral process begins with an SST, the experience of some of the
respondents is that the referral process varies among school districts, and therefore, it is
inconsistent. Charlotte has worked at different districts and school sites. She described the
typical referral process, but interjected that she has observed that the referral process is not
always consistent within schools:
Students will not show growth based on teacher assessments or standard assessments.
They’re not differentiated, so students would not show any progress, or not much
progress. Then the teachers say they need to start the SST. A team will be put together,
mainly comprising of the administrator, psychologist, classroom teacher, literacy
interventionist and the English language interventionist as well, will also be on the team,
and then they will look at student assessments and what is happening and not happening.
The process was not consistent even within the schools. Sometimes it happened quite
often, that in particular, around parent-teacher conferences (after the first 6 weeks of
school, we would have parent-teacher conferences), some of the teachers would actually
tell parents that the student is not showing enough progress or is not at grade level, and
49
they should request for an assessment, so we had plenty of parents request for
assessments based on teacher referrals. Basically, directly or indirectly, it was teacher-
driven and teacher-warranted. Teachers would say they did interventions, but in very few
cases we would have some concrete data available. It would mainly be teacher
assessment and teacher perception. In rare cases, we would send the teacher back and
say, ‘Why don’t you implement these strategies, track, and collect data, and bring it after
6 weeks for us to see if it is working or not. The ideal would be that the teacher will say
that the student is not doing well and I want him to get evaluated and recommended for
special education services.’
Anthony agreed with Charlotte, noting:
At some schools, when the parent requests an evaluation, then the evaluation is given. At
some schools, when someone requests an evaluation, there’s a whole different process. I
know that at some point, depending on a case-by-case basis, usually it’ll go that route.
The response of these participants that the referral process is not always consistent means
that there may be variations in how students are identified and referred for SPED. As a result,
disparities in access to services can occur, along with inconsistent application of criteria for
determining eligibility for services. Inconsistent referral processes can be due to various factors,
such as differences in the interpretation of assessment data, variability in the quality of
assessments, or variations in the criteria used for determining eligibility for services. The referral
and evaluation process for all students must be conducted in a way that takes into account the
unique experiences of all students, and the process should be fair and unbiased.
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Misdiagnoses Are Common
The third notable finding of Research Question 1 is that due to the discrepancy with the
referral process for SPED programs, students are often misdiagnosed. As a result, they can be
overlooked and not receive the necessary resources they need to succeed in school. Amber
counteracted the statement of the other five respondents that “the referral process is the same for
all students” with the following response:
The referral process is flawed. My disappointment with the referral process is when they
choose one person, the program specialist, to monitor students when they transition from
middle to high school. When they get a diagnosis in middle school, they keep it. Every
year, I have found that they misdiagnose or misplace at least two or three kids. I have to
push back on the referral process and say, ‘No!’ This child needs another diagnosis, and I
have to fight for this child. I get why parents say, ‘Don’t label my kid,’ because once you
get a label, you’re stuck. African Americans are usually diagnosed with behavioral and
academic problems. … Academics create the behaviors. It’s like saying wet to water.
You can’t separate it out.
Sarah agreed with the sentiment of Amber, noting:
Many teachers have a bias. … When teachers say they want to help students, I sometimes
wonder, ‘Is this really what you want?’ Because there’s absolutely nothing stopping you
from helping this kid right now! But in your mind, the only way this kid is going to get
help is if you place him in SPED.
The frustration of these participants has been that they have observed students that have been
misdiagnosed or mislabeled, and unfortunately, the label stays with the student for life. The
interpretation of this statement is that misdiagnoses can lead to negative consequences for
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African American students because it will expedite them to be referred for SPED services. They
may receive inappropriate or inadequate instruction, and resources are diverted away from
students who truly need the services. In addition, misdiagnoses can result in students missing out
on opportunities for interventions that could help them succeed in school. Moreover, these
students are usually labeled for their entire school career.
Falling Through the Cracks
Another theme that emerged in the interviews are students whose needs are not being
met. Such students may be struggling with a particular challenge, such as a learning disability or
mental health condition, that is not being addressed properly. Other examples include students
simply not receiving the degree of attention or support they need because of various factors, such
as overcrowded classrooms, understaffed schools, or other systemic issues, such as racial and
ethnic disparities. When asked about the typical referral process for SPED, Justin, a SPED
teacher, was open and candid with his remarks about students who are getting lost in the system:
It is an individualized education plan (IEP). That’s where our world revolves in. We offer
special education to students whose disability affects their academic performance. The
question is actually a big bomb. Are we doing it correctly [the referral process]? Are we
doing it as efficiently as we can? I don’t have the answer to that. I’m only a teacher. It
could be as early as birth or as late as now [high school]. These kids have just now fallen
victim to the system, and have just fallen between the cracks. Now these students really
need special education. You know this happens.
The comment of the respondent that “these kids have now fallen victim to the system, and have
just fallen between the cracks,” is a way of saying that they are not receiving the support or
attention they need to succeed academically or personally, which can happen for various reasons.
52
There can be a lack of resources, insufficient attention from teachers or support personnel, or the
student may lack the ability to access the resources or support services that are needed.
When students “fall through the cracks,” serious consequences can occur for their
academic achievement, overall social and emotional wellbeing, and long-term academic success.
It is imperative for educators, parents, and other support staff to be aware of their students’
behavior, and take the steps necessary to provide support and resources they need to flourish.
Justin noticed that the referral and evaluation process for all students must be conducted in a way
that takes into account the unique experiences of all students, and the process should be
consistent for all students.
Determining Eligibility and Placement in Special Education
The participants explained the process whereby students are evaluated for eligibility for
placement in SPED. While the accounts varied, the role of health professionals is central to this
phase of the process. For example, a SPED teacher for 16 years, Nelson, made the following
statement about the typical referral process:
It’s a team. … [The school] contacts our district office, and then the district office
contacts our psychologist to meet and do an initial referral. The psychologist is looking at
mild/moderate or moderate/severe [placement]. … As the teacher, I’m just informational.
I give my input if the student would be a good fit. … The psychologist usually makes the
final decision about what’s the best place for them [the students].
Amber also explained the typical referral process. She gave an account, based on her experience
of being in the SPED field for 32 years:
The student is identified by any person on a team, so the parent or anyone can say there’s
something going on as early as elementary and middle school, and I need an assessment.
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The parent goes to the school and requests for their kid to be evaluated or assessed for
special needs or educational services. The school psychologist then would have 30
calendar days to assess and respond to the parent’s request, and they send out
notifications to a team of disciplinary people to assess the area of deficit—if they want
speech, the psychologist, an occupational therapist, physical therapy, or adaptive P.E.—
and all have an opportunity to look at the student, and then they do an assessment. Once
all of the disciplinary team members have had a chance to assess, then we come together
for an IEP meeting, and in that meeting, the reports are given out. At that time, it is
determined if the child has a need for a specialized academic program. If it is determined
that there is no need for an academic program, then they could be referred to SDC
[Special Day Class] academics or SDC behavior. They determine the level of service
need by the number of years of the learning gap, so if they test the student in academics,
and there is a 3-year deficit, like a 9
th
grade student who is functioning like he’s in 6
th
grade, then there’s a 3-year educational gap, and that student qualifies for an IEP.
She explained further about the crucial role of the psychologist in determining the eligibility
of students for services and placement in SPED programs, saying:
The psychologist will write presenting conditions and do a diagnosis of Autism, specific
learning disability, or an intellectual or functional disability. They [students] will be
assigned a diagnosis from the school psychologist. From there, they are referred to the
least restrictive environment for servicing that child. Once we meet and everybody is in
agreement, the parent tours the facility and the child is placed.
Grace made the following remark about the psychologist:
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The school psychologist determines the eligibility of students. Generally speaking, we
usually agree on the recommendation. We try to talk prior to the meeting so we’re all on
the same page, so nothing at the meeting should ever be a shock—so nobody’s saying
anything that’s outlandish.
In their discussion, Grace, Amber, and Nelson all elevated the role of the school
psychologist in the collaborative process of determining eligibility for SPED placement.
School Psychologists Play a Critical Role in Referral
The comments of the respondents can be interpreted to mean that the school psychologist
plays a crucial role in diagnosing students for SPED. A psychologist is trained to assess and
diagnose a wide range of mental health and developmental conditions, and makes important
decisions that may impact a student’s learning and educational performance. By conducting
comprehensive evaluations of students, a psychologist is able to determine if a student has a
disability or other condition that qualifies them for SPED services. These evaluations may
include several factors, such as assessments of a student’s academic skills, cognitive abilities,
behavioral patterns, and social-emotional functioning, as well as other factors.
Based on the results of the evaluations conducted by the psychologist, recommendations
are provided for IEPs that outline specific accommodations, modifications, and other services
that students may require to achieve academic success. A psychologist may also work with
teachers and other personnel to develop strategies and interventions to support the student’s
learning and total wellbeing.
In summary, the psychologist diagnoses and supports students with SPED needs by
providing comprehensive assessments, recommendations for individualized interventions, and
continuous support to promote the academic and social success of students. The IEP is an action
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plan that outlines specific goals and supports to put in place to help the student achieve academic
and behavioral success. The purpose of an SST meeting is to bring together a group of educators
and support staff to identify and address any issues that may be impacting the student’s ability to
succeed in school.
Parents are Part of the Referral Process
Some of the respondents further indicated that their experience with regard to the referral
process has been that the parent has approached them with a concern about their child, or they
have taken the leading role because they recognize an academic or behavioral deficit that is a
cause of concern. Charlotte stated, “Parents can be strong advocates for their children.”
Similarly, Nelson reported, “The parent and the team determine what is the best fit for their
child.” Amber elaborated on the parent’s role: “A child can be identified by any person on the
team, so a parent can say there is something going on as early as elementary and middle school,
and I need an assessment.”
According to these respondents, the parent and teacher are significant sources for the
referral process. They may observe a child having challenges with learning or behavior.
However, they depend on the SST to design the best strategies and interventions to help the
student succeed. The referral process usually begins with the teacher expressing concerns about a
student’s academic or behavioral performance to the school’s SPED team. The SST typically
includes people representing several groups (parent, general education teacher, SPED teacher,
psychologist, student, and other professionals involved with the student). Then they gather
information about the student’s performance and behavior to determine if a formal evaluation is
necessary. If the team determines that an evaluation is necessary, the parents will be asked to
give written consent for the evaluation to take place.
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The evaluation typically involves a range of assessments, including cognitive and
academic, as well as behavioral. The evaluation is designed to identify if the student has a
disability that is impacting his ability to learn and function in school. If the evaluation determines
that the student has a disability, an IEP will be developed. The IEP is a written document that
outlines the student’s educational goals, and the services and supports needed to achieve those
goals. The IEP team, which includes parents, teachers, and other school staff, will meet annually
and tri-annually to review and update the IEP.
The Gender and Racial Composition of Special Education
The respondents were asked about the composition of SPED in terms of gender and
race/ethnicity. Most respondents stated that boys outnumber the girls in SPED programs.
Charlotte, an administrator, stated, “I have observed mostly Black and Brown students.” Alice, a
general education teacher responded, “There is diversity among the students who are placed in
special education.” Sarah stated that there were different races and ethnicities among the students
at a school where she worked, and that “70% of the students were African American.” Nelson
responded that his class is “predominantly Hispanic (90%), with two girls and seven boys.”
Amber stated that her class is made up of three boys and one girl. One male is African American,
and the other students are Hispanic. Justin stated that he has a total of three girls and eight boys:
“one Asian student, one Caucasian student, and the rest are Hispanic.” Anthony responded that
his smallest class was made up of five students, and his largest class was composed of 24
students, which was “95% Hispanic with some Caucasian and African American students,” and
the gender of his classes were “heavily male.” He noted a previous class of 12 students who were
all male.
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Grace stated that out of a caseload of 80-85 students, the students are mostly Hispanic
(55%) and male (70% male-to-female ratio). Camille responded that when she was a SPED
teacher, “out of every 10 students, there were 7 boys and 3 girls. Most of the students were
Latino.” Rose stated that the children on her caseload were “mostly males (60%) and of African
American and Latino descent.”
In short, looking across the participants, we see that there is a pattern in the data they
have described. The demographics of the students is vital to Research Question 1 because it
demonstrates that males are the dominant gender in SPED programs, and the prevalent race/
ethnicity is African American and Latino.
Socio-economic Status
The respondents were asked about the socio-economic status of the students in their
classes. All participants serve low-income students, and are considered economically
disadvantaged. These include Title I schools, which offer the students free and reduced lunch.
Students of color are mostly disadvantaged and experience poverty-related stressors that can
affect their academic performance, such as inadequate nutrition and housing instability.
In short, looking across the participants, we also see another pattern in the data. A major
external feature of students of color is the difficulty they face with low socio-economic status. As
a result, they are prone to face more challenges in their learning environments, such as a lack of
resources, including books, supplies, and technology. Title I schools participate in a federal
education program that supports low-income students throughout the nation. Funds are
distributed to high poverty schools, as determined by the number of students who qualify for free
or reduced lunch.
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Summary of Findings for Research Question 1
The data revealed six outstanding findings. First, the referral process usually starts with a
Student Support Team (SST), for the purpose of identification, early intervention, and support
for students having difficulty in the general education classroom. Second, some of the responses
of the participants indicated that the referral process varies among school districts, and therefore,
it is inconsistent. Third, because the referral process is discrepant, students are often
misdiagnosed. As a result, they may not receive the resources needed for academic success.
Fourth, the participants stated that the school psychologist plays a critical role in determining
eligibility and placement of students of color in SPED programs. Fifth, the statements of the
respondents regarding the gender and racial composition of the students in their classes indicate
that there is a larger percentage of males, and the race/ethnicity is predominantly African
American and Latino. Sixth, the socio-economic status of the students was 100% low-income, or
economically disadvantaged.
Findings for Research Question 2
In this section, I present my findings for RQ2: How does the referral process for special
education programs differ for African American males, compared to other students?
Race Can Determine Placement in Special Education
The first important finding is that race plays a vital role in the placement of students of
color in SPED programs, particularly African American males. Overall, students of color are
often misunderstood and experience bias at the hands of their teachers. Sarah made the following
comment about race:
When you lay race on top of it—particularly African American boys are perceived as
‘much less than,’ in my experience—almost any other group in the classroom, and it’s
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very frustrating when you watch students in a classroom, and you watch African
American boys mediate and respond to that bias. I think students are getting a lot more
vocal and a lot more outspoken, and becoming better self-advocates for it. But there also
needs to be some work where the teachers help the students recognize about what is
appropriate advocacy and appropriate times to bring that up, because otherwise students
of color, Latino students, and second language learners, who advocate for themselves,
may find themselves experiencing even more bias than before, depending on the teacher.
She commented further:
A great example is White students with Autism in a primarily Black and Brown district.
Years ago, under the Modified Consent Decree, we had an issue where, depending on
your race, even if you were identified as a student with Autism, which almost always
comes with some kind of maladaptive behaviors, White students and Latino students
were more often not going to have a behavior support plan in the IEP. But Black students
with Autism not only had behavior support plans, they were much more likely to have a
BII [Behavior Intervention Implementation] service provider, which was interesting. We
had White students who had BIIs back in the day, and we called them one-to-ones, who
didn’t even have a behavior support plan, because the parents would push for it.
The consent decree Sarah alluded to was a legal agreement which addressed a major
school district, regarding its failure to meet their legal obligations to provide students with a
broad range of disabilities access to appropriate education. The consent decree could be used to
update the terms of the provision of educational services to students with disabilities. It could
also be used to expand the scope of the original agreement of the provision of SPED services to
cover new issues or areas of concern. It was terminated 4 years ago.
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Maltreatment of African American Males
The second notable finding is that, since the issue of race is prevalent in the
determination of students of color in SPED programs, particularly for African American males,
they consistently suffer from maltreatment. Charlotte shared her observance of the maltreatment
students of color receive, mainly African American boys:
Based on my experience at different schools, I have unfortunately witnessed that once a
student is identified for special education services, they become the responsibility of the
staff that is their case manager, or the paraeducator provides the service minutes. There is
a lack of belonging mainly for African American males, and it exacerbates after being
identified for SPED services, as the classroom teacher ‘hands over’ these students to
other adults in the building. This even goes for behavior support. I have seen teachers
send the African American boys to the resource room if they are having behavior
challenges. I distinctly remember that in one particular case, an African American second
grader, who was being considered for EBD [Emotional Behavioral Disability] support,
was convinced that his teacher did not like him, and I went in to observe that class. It was
disturbing to see that this student was frequently redirected by the teacher for the
behaviors that some of the other boys also demonstrated, and at one point, the teacher
gave him a ‘choice’ to work in the resource room, which he gladly accepted, grabbed his
stuff, and left the classroom.
Sarah also commented that she has observed that students of color who are self-advocates tended
to be labeled as having behavioral problems when they spoke up. However, White children who
exhibit the same behavior as African American males are not observed in the same manner.
Instead, the behavior of White children is considered acceptable. She continued:
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If they had a teacher who was much more open and inclusive to students with those
needs, even if the student was to be referred for SPED services, we tend not to see a
behavior plan. For example, for White children who are being supported at home and
taught how to speak up in the classroom, their self-advocacy may be seen as a positive
rather than a negative, even when it’s extremely disruptive.
Sarah uncovered a bias at a school where she worked, with regard to the way African American
males were evaluated for behavior. She reported, “80% of suspensions were from African
American students, even though they only comprised 36% of the students at the school.” Camille
called out the race of teachers as part of the challenge described by Sarah:
With the black students, I found that it was more behavior. These students were taught by
predominantly White teachers. The majority of them did not necessarily have way over-
the-top behaviors. They would have inappropriate behaviors or annoying behaviors, but it
would be more like the situation, a lot of times, of how it was handled that would cause
the behaviors to escalate, and then it would become more of an issue.
She also mentioned a scenario that came to mind of a student that called another teacher an
inappropriate name:
I knew the young man. He had behaviors, but he was always okay in my class. We never
went back-and-forth. He never cursed at me or anything like that. Ms. B was an older
White lady. She had been teaching for a very long time. She was pretty well-established
at our school. We were both SPED teachers that taught a special day program. So, when
Jack came to class, he looked a little upset, but he was okay, so I asked him, I heard that
you and Ms. B exchanged some words. Why? He said, ‘Well, she told me to shut up and
sit down! Well, she shouldn’t talk to me like that!’ Okay. How many times have I told
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you to shut up and sit down? He said, ‘When you say it, I know I really need to shut up
and sit down, and you say it in a different way. I know you still care about me, but when
she says it, she’s just saying it just to say it ‘cause she can.’
She further stated: “It lets me know that at least I’m doing something right, and to keep doing
what I’m doing.”
The responses of the participants indicate that students of color who are self-advocates
often suffer the consequence of being labeled as behavior problems. “Speaking up” is seen as a
threat to some White teachers, and they want these students to be silenced. The respondents
further stated that these students often voice their opinions or comments in a direct manner
because they are angry at the way they are being treated by the teacher, and also because often
they are being ignored or overlooked. However, White students who are outspoken and practice
self-advocacy are tolerated by these same teachers.
Teachers’ Evaluation of Students and Intervention Can Exacerbate the Problem
Before the referral process even begins, teacher evaluation is a significant external factor
that plays an important role. Students are often identified as being candidates for SPED when
teachers evaluate them and intervene. For instance, Charlotte described this scenario, saying:
Teachers sometimes think that students need extra help, and some kind of intervention,
and they will refer them for special education, when often special education is not an
appropriate support for them, but at least they think they can get some help for students
who are struggling in reading, math, and behavior. The interesting part is that sometimes
after 1 or 2 weeks of initial schooling, teachers will say, ‘I know that this student is going
to be identified for special education.’ I personally feel uncomfortable with this notion.
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We haven’t done anything to support them in general education. Why are we already
predetermining?
She further stated, “In my experience, about 50 to 60 students are recommended per year,
English language learners and students with actual learning differences, mainly Black and Brown
students.” Charlotte then described a scenario that she observed:
It was obvious that a White teacher did not want to be bothered with an African
American male student in her class because his behavior annoyed her, and she wanted to
refer him to special education. Three or four Black students were recommended for
special education because of behavioral issues, as well as a specific learning disability.
Two African American boys and one Hispanic boy were referred for emotional
disturbance.
Charlotte’s responses indicate that teachers play an important role in identifying students
for SPED because they are often the first individuals to observe when a student has academic and
behavioral challenges. Teachers can provide input about a student’s academic and behavioral
history, which is pertinent information that can be used to determine whether a student needs
additional support in a SPED program. However, teachers can also be biased, and allow their
personal feelings about a student to interfere with their evaluation. As a result, that student can
become misplaced in SPED. Furthermore, it is important to recognize that cultural differences
may exist between teachers and students from different racial or ethnic backgrounds. Teachers
must be aware of their own cultural biases and strive to create a welcoming and inclusive
environment for all students. Teacher bias occurs when teachers form expectations of their
students based on factors other than students’ prior academic achievement, such as their gender,
race, socio-economic status, or information gained from another source (e.g., other teachers or
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parents). Sarah agreed with Charlotte that teacher evaluation and intervention can exacerbate
problems, but that there are other factors that can also create problems in the classroom for
students with special needs.
Teacher Bias Can Lead to Student Bias
Multiple participants highlighted the impact of teacher bias on students. An extension of
teacher bias is student bias, as they pick up on and reinforce teacher biases. As Sarah noted:
I think when it comes to students who struggle, there’s a lot of bias in the classroom, but
not all of it comes from teachers. Sometimes other students will be bothered by working
in groups with students who are lower, struggling, not understanding, and don’t have a lot
of good background on the lesson. The students themselves tend to be very aware of or
perceive differences in their classmates, particularly in schools and in classrooms where
inclusion is not explicitly taught and is part of the classroom culture, and I think where
teachers struggle, and where that bias becomes much more evident is when students have
what I call “the invisible disabilities”—learning disabilities, behavioral challenges, and
emotional challenges—because on the outside, they’re neurotypical passing, or normal
passing, as a teacher would call it, so that becomes an issue.
Sarah suggests that students can also contribute to bias in the classroom. They may behave in a
disrespectful manner by excluding or ignoring peers that they perceive as “different” because of
their academic and behavioral challenges. Students can also pick up cues from the teacher.
Therefore, if the teacher does not promote a culture of inclusivity and tolerance in the classroom,
whereby all students feel respected, some students may feel that it is acceptable to share the same
sentiment as the teacher, and treat some students in a dismissive manner, as if they are less
important than the other students.
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Summary of Findings for Research Question 2
The data presented by the participants disclosed four remarkable findings. First, race
plays a pivotal role, and can be the determining factor of students of color, particularly African
American males, being placed in SPED programs. Second, because race is prevalent, African
American males are consistently subjected to cruel treatment. Third, when teachers assess
students and intervene, problems can intensify, especially when teachers are biased, due to
cultural differences. Fourth, when students observe bias from teachers toward certain students,
they also tend to discriminate against these students.
Findings for Research Question 3
In this section, I present the interview responses for Research Question 3 and my
findings. RQ3: What impact (if any) does placement in special education programs have on
African American males? The third research question investigates the perceived impact of SPED
placement on African American males. Sarah shared her experience about a school where she
worked, in the following scenario:
Boy did I have my eyes opened. Talk about a neglected school. I was embarrassed. This
school was identified as one of the lowest performing middle schools in California. ... I
was shocked at the number of African American students who were being referred to
special education for minor, really minor learning issues. The goal was never that special
education is a lifetime sentence. The disproportionality was seriously off.
Amber further stated the following remarks about students of color being referred for
SPED:
They are labeled for life, and you keep the label. It’s a lifetime sentence, or a sentence of
support. You can look at it either way. What generates the referral process for special
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education is behavior, not fitting into the status quo. That’s what starts the process. The
kids are acting out because their needs are not being met, and then we have the
overrepresentation of African American students in special education. That’s going on in
my district. The Black teachers work with students of color and the other resources go to
students of other cultures. In one school, in particular, there is one White student and the
rest are students of color.
Rose commented about the placement of children in special education programs:
The very nature of being placed in special education causes trauma. It is a burden
students bear. It causes a number of mental health issues. They’ve been told that they’re
not worthy over and over again. … As a Black child, they don’t feel as worthy as other
children. … This is a huge impact on their self-esteem. … They don’t have access to the
best. … It is very stressful.
As a result of students being placed in SPED programs for a long time, Rose further stated:
Students develop lifelong consequences as a result of being in special education. …
There is an issue of safety. They don’t feel safe. They want to belong, and they feel left
out. They’re not sure of themselves, and they lack self-worth. Because of the trauma,
there is no focus on learning. It is important who you have in the formative years. A good
teacher can make a difference. A bad experience can last a lifetime.
Students of Color Are Stigmatized
The terms “labeled for life” or “lifetime sentence” were terms used by the participants to
describe a situation where students are given a diagnostic label or classification that follows them
throughout their academic career and life. For instance, some of the students that the participants
serve have been labeled with Autism, which is classified as a developmental disability. Once
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students are given such a label, it is typically recorded in their educational records, and is used to
determine the types of accommodations and modifications they receive in school.
The terms are controversial because they imply that the disability is a permanent and
defining aspect of the student’s identity. Instead of using a diagnostic label, some educators and
advocates of students with special needs prefer to use more neutral language, such as “identified
as having a disability,” to emphasize that a student’s disability is just one aspect of who they are
as a person, and does not totally define them as a person.
The diagnostic label of students with special needs is a stigma that may be based on a
disability or other condition that affects their learning or behavior. Stigma in SPED refers to the
negative attitudes, beliefs, and stereotypes that people feel toward students with disabilities who
are receiving SPED services. These perceptions are negative and can lead to discrimination,
exclusion, and limited opportunities for these students to participate fully in society. The labels
that special needs students receive, such as “disabled,” “slow learner,” or “mentally challenged,”
can be stigmatizing and contribute to negative perceptions of their academic abilities.
Teacher Support Can Reduce the Negative Impact of Special Education
In order to reduce the negative perception and impact of students of color in SPED
programs, Charlotte and Rose indicated that students of color need a good teacher who will
support them, in order for them to achieve academic success. Charlotte recalled an experience
she had as an administrator in SPED, in which a teacher spent the time and effort to ensure that
her students received the interventions they needed:
When I hired a teacher from New York and she got fifth grade, there were three students
who had learning differences. They made 2 years’ worth of progress in 1 year. One
African American boy made 3 years’ worth of growth and he actually exited the special
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education program. It was because of this African American teacher who was very
structured and who wanted to provide the best learning opportunities for the student. The
White teacher he had the previous year in second grade was like, ‘poor kid. He doesn’t
have study skills and he needs a lot of help, and he doesn’t have many options. Let’s get
him in SPED.’ Two different approaches for the same student.
Nelson, likewise, commented about the learning environment and learning opportunities, noting,
“I think the learning that occurs in their natural environment is most beneficial. When they are
on community-based instruction, they get to practice what they have learned in the classroom,
and it supports more independence when they age out.” Justin, similarly, noted the importance of
learning opportunities:
It’s always important to make a connection with students who are learning functional life
skills. If we can create a learning opportunity and give a function for it, one individually
suited for that student, then they will have a better chance at success because it meant
something in their world. For example, students with Autism experience and
communicate with the world differently. Those opportunities could be useful for
practicing their social skills.
Learning Opportunities Can Create Positive Change
Charlotte presented her scenario describing the difference the African American teacher
made in the life of the student because she fully supported him, by providing him with “the best
learning opportunities.” These opportunities were the key to his academic success. The teacher
provided the student with rich learning experiences that were tailored to fit his individual needs.
Justin agreed with Charlotte that, in order to be beneficial, learning opportunities should be
“individually suited for that student.” Charlotte further commented that the teacher guided the
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student, and did not let him waiver from his goals. At the IEP meeting, the parent and student
were overjoyed that he had made such phenomenal progress. Because the teacher was positive
and nurturing, the student was motivated to meet his learning goals.
In addition, Nelson stated that learning opportunities are most successful when they occur
in the “natural environment,” and students become more independent when they have an
opportunity to apply the knowledge they have learned. Rose agreed with Nelson about the
necessity of students learning in their “natural environment,” and added the
following comment:
Supportive teachers differentiating lessons for struggling students is a requirement and a
great start to providing learning opportunities. However, there is no one-size-fits-all
answer. Learning opportunities can create positive change for a student if the ‘right’
learning opportunity is presented at the ‘right’ time for that particular student. A factor
that helps create positive change for a struggling student is having a safe, trusting
relationship with a teacher; experiencing a teacher's care, and his/her intersectional
understanding of that student. Also, a teacher’s understanding of childhood trauma and
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) would be essential in reaching struggling
students. A teacher needs to make time to create a trusting relationship. Creating a
trusted, safe space for a student opens access to learning—and the student’s receptivity
creates an opportunity to learn.
The educators who participated in the present study reflect a strong desire to see students
succeed. Drawing on their on-the-ground experience, they highlight the importance of getting to
know students and meeting them where they are academically. Such insights reveal a need for
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professional development and change around how some teachers and administrators relate to
students in and out of the classroom.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3
The data presented by the respondents divulged three noteworthy findings. First, students
of color, specifically African American males, are regarded as not deserving effort, attention, or
respect. As a result, placement in SPED has a profound effect on their lives, and they are
“labeled for life.” Second, students of color have a better chance of success in SPED if their
teacher is free of bias, takes personal interest in them, and is willing to provide accommodations
for their learning needs and challenges in a safe and productive learning environment. Third,
learning opportunities for African American males can enhance their academic and social-
emotional development and performance.
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Chapter Five: Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to further analyze why there is an
overrepresentation of students of color, particularly African American males, in SPED programs.
This study sought to answer the following questions:
1. How do educators describe the referral process for special education programs?
2. How does the referral process for special education programs differ for African
American males, compared to other students?
3. What impact (if any) does placement in special education programs have on African
American males?
The following sections offer a discussion of the findings from this study, their
implications, limitations of the study, and recommendations for further research.
Findings Interpretation: Question 1
Seven out of ten of the respondents answered that “the referral process for special
education is the same for all students.” This means that all students, including African American
males, are protected by the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), which governs the process
of identifying and providing services for all students with disabilities. IDEA protections mean
that they have the right to receive SPED services and accommodations if they have a disability
that affects their ability to learn and access the curriculum. Overall, IDEA protections are
designed to make sure students with disabilities are not left behind in their education and have
access to the resources and supports they need for academic success, and this includes African
American males, just as it includes students of all other racial and gender groups (Office of
Special Education Programs, 2007). Most participants indicated that the referral process begins
with an SST, which is designed to identify and provide intervention for students in the general
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education classroom who have academic or behavioral challenges. The SST uses a positive,
team-oriented approach, and is comprised of the parent, teacher, administrator, psychologist, and
others who work closely with a student, and assist him or her with a wide range of concerns
related to school performance and experience. The SST consists of an initial meeting and second
meeting. At the initial meeting, the team discusses any concerns about a student’s progress, and
will create an action plan with goals that can be used to address those concerns. The second
meeting is a follow-up to ensure the plan is working, and to make any necessary adjustments.
The SST is an efficient and effective way to bring together all resources in the best interest of
helping students reach their academic potential.
Theme 1: Within-School Variation in Referral is Common
Although most participants in the study stated that “the referral process is the same for all
students,” Charlotte and Anthony had a different experience, reporting inconsistency within
school districts. This within-school variation has resulted in a larger percentage of African
American males being placed in local education agencies (Overton, 2000). The response of these
participants that the referral process is not always consistent means that there may be variations
in the identification and placement of students of color in SPED programs. Disparities in access
to SPED services can occur, which may result in the discrepant application of criteria for
determining eligibility of services. Overall, the referral process for SPED programs has been a
topic of consternation because of bias within the system (Mehan, 1996).
Theme 2: Misdiagnoses Are Common
The data presented by Sarah, Nelson, Amber, and Justin indicate that African American
males are overrepresented in SPED programs because of misdiagnoses (Skiba et al., 2006). For
example, African American males are more likely to be diagnosed with a condition known as
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attention/deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) than their White peers, even when displaying
similar symptoms. Also, they are mislabeled as emotionally disturbed, perceptually and learning
impaired, brain injured, and having intellectual disability (ID), which was formerly referred to as
mental retardation. Furthermore, African American males are usually placed in classrooms
where teachers have low expectations for their academic performance, resulting in adverse
academic outcomes (Schifter et al., 2019). As a result, these students are often ignored and are
not considered worthy of receiving the resources they need for academic success. Inappropriately
placing African American male students in SPED can cause negative short-term and long-term
consequences. Therefore, it is critical that placement disparities should be avoided at all cost
(NCLD, 2020).
Theme 3: The Gender and Racial Composition of Special Education
All participants responded that there is a larger percentage of African American and
Latino males in their classes. Their statements tie in closely with research, which indicates that
there is a disproportionate number of African American male students in SPED (NCLD, 2020).
Theme 4: Low Socio-economic Status
There is a common intersection of race and poverty for students of color (Skiba et al.,
2005). All respondents stated that the students they serve have a low socio-economic background
and receive free and reduced lunch. According to the National Survey of Children’s Health
(Child Trends, 2013), students who live at or below the federal poverty line are more than twice
as likely to be diagnosed with a specific learning disability (SLD), when compared to other
children who live in a home with income four times the poverty level.
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Findings Interpretation: Question 2
Findings from Research Question 2 yielded four salient themes concerning race, gender,
teacher role, and teacher bias. The following sections elaborate each theme.
Theme 1: Race Can Determine Placement in Special Education
The responses of the participants point out that race plays an important role in the
placement of African American males in SPED programs, which correlates with research. One of
the predominant explanations of the overidentification of African American males is race (Skiba
et al., 2005). These students are often misunderstood by their teachers, and perceived as “much
less than,” according to Sarah. The theoretical framework of Critical Race Theory (CRT) is used
as an explanation for the problem of the overrepresentation of students of color in SPED
programs, due to race as a critical factor (Stefancic & Delgado, 1995). CRT has been used to
examine the connection between society and culture, and the identification of race, law, and
power (Connor & Annamma, 2016). A second theoretical framework, African American Male
Theory (AAMT) is closely related to CRT, and is a multi-disciplinary and trans-disciplinary
approach. AAMT consists of six tenets that speculate about the experiences of African American
boys and men, as a result of their race, or African American descent (Lawson, & Bush, 2013).
Like CRT, AAMT views racism as a compelling force.
Theme 2: Maltreatment of African American Males
Because race is a critical factor, African American males are often mistreated, according
to the participants. For example, these students are more likely to be disciplined harshly in
school, which includes being suspended or expelled, because of the negative attitudes and
stereotypes of others that view them as having “challenging” behaviors (The National Education
Association (NEA): Truth in Labeling, 2007).
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Furthermore, African American males are considered to be mentally deficient and
incapable of learning (Massey et al., 2014). The statements of the respondents are strongly
connected to research, which states that African American males have been “profoundly
impacted by racism, classism, and sexism” (Bush & Bush, 2018, p. 5). They often receive
maltreatment because of teacher evaluation and bias.
Theme 3: Teachers’ Evaluation of Students and Intervention Can Exacerbate Problems
When teachers assess and evaluate students, problems are often heightened. Furthermore,
teacher bias because of cultural differences can intensify these problems. Much research points
to teacher bias and systemic racism in schools. In most instances, referral for SPED is based on
teacher perception, rather than data (Okonofua & Eberhardt, 2015). There is a strong connection
between race and teachers’ perception of students, particularly African American males
(National Education Association, 2007). Black males are frequently misdiagnosed by teachers as
being “challenging” and having behavioral problems, and as a result, are placed in SPED. The
intersectionality of race and SPED is common, and has resulted in the overrepresentation of
African American males in SPED (Codrington & Fairchild, 2012).
Teacher evaluation of students can lead to negative outcomes, such as a less rigorous
curriculum, lower expectations, stigma and racial separation in classrooms, loss of self-esteem,
and fewer opportunities to transition to postsecondary education successfully. As a result,
African American males are at risk for dropping out of high school and not attending college.
Furthermore, they are more likely to be incarcerated. Once students are misidentified for SPED,
they are likely to stay there for the remainder of their academic career (National Education
Association, 2007). As Amber pointed out, SPED then becomes a “lifetime sentence.”
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Theme 4: Teacher Bias Can Lead to Student Bias
Discrimination can also occur when students observe the mistreatment of students by
their teacher. When students who are perceived as “challenging” are excluded or ignored by their
teacher, there is a tendency for their peers to engage in the mistreatment also. Because these
students, especially African American males, are treated in a dismissive manner by their teacher,
the other students feel that this type of behavior is acceptable, as stated by Sarah.
Findings Interpretation: Question 3
Findings from Research Question 3 yielded one vital theme: Students of color are often
stigmatized. Research indicates that African American males are often denounced, due to race,
and placed in SPED programs because they are perceived as having behavioral challenges (Fish,
2017). As a result of the stigma placed on them, they are “labeled for life,” according to Amber.
The diagnostic label of special needs students is often the result of the negative attitudes, beliefs,
and stereotypes of teachers, and can lead to discrimination, exclusion, and limited opportunities
for students of color. As a result of this teacher bias, African American males are misidentified
and placed in SPED programs (Cooper, 2003).
Limitations
The most important limitation for this research was the small sample size. For this study,
there were ten participants. Small samples may not be representative of the population they are
meant to represent, which can place limitations on the generalizability of the findings. Also,
small samples can produce increased sampling error, which can lead to random variability, and
make it more difficult to uncover real effects. In addition, the ability to explore complex
relationships is limited because there may not be enough data to draw meaningful conclusions.
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The second limitation was that the data collection was solely based upon interviews.
Interviews provide a limited perspective because the information is based solely on the
participants being interviewed. Also, interviews can be subject to bias on the part of the
interviewer and interviewee. The interviewer could ask leading questions that can steer the
conversation in a direction that achieves certain results, and the interviewees may provide
answers they know the interviewer desires to hear. Furthermore, interviews may not provide
enough depth to fully understand complex issues.
Recommendations
The present study revealed three critical changes that are imperative in the identification
and placement of students in SPED programs. First, teachers must learn to embrace cultural
differences, in order to more accurately assess the needs of their students. Second, additional
supports are needed to help teachers improve in assessing students for placement in SPED.
Finally, providing tailored learning experiences for different students can enhance learning and
prevent improper identification of students for SPED placement.
Recommendation 1: Teachers Must Embrace Cultural Differences
It is imperative that teachers embrace cultural differences, in order to support students of
color. There are six critical strategies that teachers should put into practice. First, teachers should
educate themselves about the cultures represented in their classrooms. They should learn about
the customs, traditions, and beliefs of their students. Second, it is important that teachers create
an inclusive environment, which is warm and welcoming, promotes acceptance and respect of all
cultures, and avoids biases and stereotypes. Systemic racism can lead to negative stereotypes and
attitudes toward students of color (National Education Association, 2007). Third, curriculum,
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such as literature, history, and social studies, should incorporate diverse perspectives and
experiences.
Fourth, open dialogue and communication should be encouraged. Teachers should create
a safe space for their students to share their thoughts, ideas, opinions, and experiences openly,
without judgment. Fifth, learning key phrases in their students’ native language is an excellent
way for teachers to build a rapport with their students, and to show respect for the diverse
population in their classrooms. Sixth, collaboration with families will build stronger
relationships, and provide valuable information about their students’ culture, language, and
customs.
Overall, teachers and school administrators must become more culturally sensitive, and
use academic data to assess and evaluate African American males, rather than their own
perceptions and biases. Supportive teachers can motivate students to reach their learning goals.
However, teachers who feel that students are incapable of learning can negatively impact
academic performance (Massey et al., 2014).
Recommendation 2: Teacher Support Can Reduce Negative Impacts of Special Education
African American males need the support of a good teacher, in order to offset the
aftermath of being placed in SPED programs. A teacher who is supportive will spend time and
effort with the students to ensure that they receive the attention and necessary resources they
need to succeed in school. Furthermore, a teacher who accepts cultural differences will also be
tolerant and accepting of differences in academic skills and behavior. Cultural differences refer
to the various beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, and norms that occur between different groups
of people, and are based on nationality, ethnicity, religion, language, gender, age, and social
class. These differences can manifest itself in various ways, such as language, art, music, food,
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dress, and social interactions. Teachers can support their students by appreciating and respecting
the diversity of the students in their classrooms.
Recommendation 3: Learning Opportunities Can Create Positive Change
African American males need to engage in the “best learning opportunities,” according to
Charlotte. Nelson, Justin, and Rose echoed this refrain. These learning experiences should be
tailored to fit the individual needs of each student, in a positive and nurturing learning
environment, in order to encourage students to reach their learning goals and potential. Research
indicates that African American males are likely to be taught in more restrictive environments,
which is opposed by IDEA, because they miss out on experiences with their peers in the general
education curriculum, and rich learning opportunities (National Education Association, 2007).
Implementation
Implementing the above recommendations for eliminating the overrepresentation of
students of color in SPED programs requires a comprehensive and multi-faceted approach.
Implementation requires eleven critical steps:
1. Data collection and analysis: Comprehensive data should be gathered and analyzed
by school districts, including student demographics, SPED referrals, and
placements, in order to identify patterns of overrepresentation and the specific areas
that need improvement.
2. Culturally responsive practices: Teachers should be trained to recognize and
appreciate cultural diversity, as well as to adapt their teaching methods to meet the
needs of diverse learners.
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3. Early intervention and support: Learning and behavioral challenges in classrooms
need to be addressed before they escalate; appropriate assistance should be provided
in the general education setting, so that the need for SPED referrals can be reduced.
4. Teacher training and professional development: Ongoing training and professional
development should be provided for educators, administrators, and support staff,
including sessions on cultural competence, differentiated instruction, evidence-
based interventions, and bias awareness.
5. Bias and disproportionality training: Implicit bias should be addressed within the
educational system by providing training to teachers, administrators, and school
staff; training should focus on recognizing and challenging biases that may
influence decision-making related to referrals for SPED.
6. RTI framework: Teachers should be trained and supported, as they implement the
RTI framework, which provides a tiered approach to identify and support students
who are academically challenged; this process can help ensure that all students
receive appropriate interventions before SPED referrals are considered.
7. Multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS): Teachers should implement MTSS, an
approach that provides a range of interventions and support to meet the needs of all
students, including those at risk for overidentification in SPED. Using a variety of
assessment methods and tools can provide a more comprehensive picture of
students’ abilities, reducing the risk of bias associated with a single assessment.
8. Consistent review and monitoring: Teachers need to continuously review data and
monitor the progress of their students to assess the effectiveness of the strategies
they have implemented, adjusting as necessary.
81
9. Family and community engagement: Families and communities should be involved
in decision-making processes related to SPED referrals; collaboration with parents
and community members can lead to a better understanding of the needs of all
students and culturally appropriate support.
10. Equitable funding and resources: Schools serving students of color should have
equitable access to funding, resources, and support services, in order to address the
diverse needs of their students.
11. Policy and advocacy: Policy changes at the district and state levels need to be
addressed to eliminate the overrepresentation of students of color in SPED
programs; this may involve working with policymakers, community organizations,
and advocacy groups.
Addressing the overrepresentation among students of color in SPED programs,
particularly African American males, is a long-term process that involves the collaboration and
commitment of all stakeholders in the educational system. It is essential for educators to create
an inclusive environment of caring and commitment that respects cultural diversity and the
individual needs of all students.
Implications for Future Research
The purpose of the present study was to understand the overrepresentation of students of
color, particularly African American males, in SPED programs. Future research should focus on
the underlying factors that contribute to this perplexing issue, and this knowledge can be used to
gain a deeper understanding of the effect of misdiagnoses on students of color in SPED
programs. There are five potential areas of focus for future research. First, the impact of implicit
bias should be investigated, and its effect on the identification and placement of African
82
American males in SPED should be explored. Second, teachers’ classroom practices should be
examined, including assessment and disciplinary practices, which has contributed to the
overidentification of African American males in SPED programs. Third, the cultural and
linguistic diversity of African American males, which may be viewed as deficits, should be
addressed. Fourth, systemic issues should be examined, including policies, funding, and political
factors. Fifth, intervention strategies should be developed and tested, for the purpose of
preventing the continual overrepresentation of African American males in SPED programs.
Targeted professional development for teachers and administrators should be implemented,
which includes culturally responsive teaching practices and family engagement strategies.
Conclusion
The topic of the overrepresentation of African American males in SPED programs is
complex and multi-faceted. It is difficult to fully understand and attempt to explain this
longstanding issue. The theoretical framework of Critical Race Theory (Stefancic & Delgado,
1995) and African American Male Theory (Bush & Bush, 2018) have attempted to shed some
light on this conundrum which plagues our society. The stark reality is that our current
educational practices need to be questioned, and more equitable educational practices need to be
implemented, in order to eliminate the short-term and long-term consequences that African
American males face when misplaced in special education programs.
83
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Appendix A: Interview Questions
Participants were asked 16 questions as part of the present research. Each question is listed
below:
1. How long have you been an administrator or teacher in special education?
2. What grades have you taught in special education?
3. What subjects have you taught in special education?
4. Why did you choose to work with students with disabilities?
5. How many students are in your class?
6. How many boys and girls?
7. What types of disabilities are represented in your class?
8. What is the race/ethnicity of the students in your class?
9. Tell me about the typical referral process for students with disabilities.
10. What are some ways the referral process might vary?
11. What role does the parent play in the referral process?
12. What role do you, as the administrator or teacher, play in the referral process of
students with disabilities at your school?
13. What role does the district play in the referral process?
14. Have you seen any examples where the referral process played out differently than
what you had expected for your students?
15. Is there any other information you would like to share that I may benefit from, which
I may not have asked during this interview?
16. How do learning opportunities create positive change for students in special
education?
91
Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Letter
The following materials were used to recruit participation in the present study. I provide
background information, share my research questions, and identity participant criteria.
Background
The title of the present study is Overrepresentation Among Students of Color in Special
Education Programs. My name is Stacy Nichols, and I am the primary investigator. The purpose
of this study is to examine the overidentification of students of color, particularly African
American males, in special education programs. I want to thank you for participating in this
study and agreeing to the interview process as part of my research. I am a student at USC’s
Rossier School of Education as a doctoral candidate in the Educational Leadership Program. I
am interviewing special education teachers and administrators to gain insight into this problem
of the overrepresentation of students of color in special education programs. In conducting my
research, I am looking to answer three research questions:
1. How do educators describe the referral process for special education programs?
2. How does the referral process for special education programs differ for African
American males, compared to other students?
3. What impact (if any) does placement in special education programs have on African
American males?
Confidentiality
I want to assure you that I am strictly gathering information and conducting interviews
solely as a researcher. The questions for the interview were written strictly for research purposes
only. The basis of the research questions is not evaluative, and do not reflect any judgment on
you as a teacher or administrator. The interview questions are strictly designed to understand
92
your perspective. The interview is confidential, and your name will not be shared with anyone
outside of the research team. Your name will not be shared with colleagues, other teachers, your
principal, or any district personnel. The data collected from this study will be compiled into a
report. I do plan on using some of what you say as direct quotes, but none of this data will be
directly attributed to you.
I am going to use a pseudonym to protect you and your confidentiality. I will try my best
to de-identify any of the data I gather from you. If you are interested, I am happy to provide you
with a final copy of my paper. All data and information will be kept in a password protected
computer, and all data will be destroyed after 5 years.
Instrumentation
In order to record responses, I will be using an audio recording device via Zoom. I will
also be taking handwritten notes using a notepad and pen. When all interviews have been
completed, I will transcribe what has been captured by the recording device and compare it to
my notes for accuracy. All responses will be coded for research purposes, and all identifiable
information will be removed to protect the identities of the participants in this study.
Voluntary Participation and Withdrawal of Consent
Participation in this study is strictly voluntary. Efforts to obtain your participation have
followed specific guidelines. Your participation is strictly at will. After your consent to
participate, you may withdraw your consent at any time during this research study, including
after the interview process. My contact information is provided in order for you to reach me at
any time. You may also add any specific information, comments, or details to this study at any
time. I will also reach out to you via e-mail or telephone to follow up with you, once the data
collection process has concluded.
93
Relative Terms and Information
The objective of this study is to gain insight into the overrepresentation of students of
color in special education programs. In order to adequately address the research and interview
questions, it would be helpful for you to become familiar with the relative terms.
History
Years of research have identified inequities in education for students of color. These
inequities are particularly apparent in SPED programs. There is significant disproportionality, or
a widespread trend of students of racial and ethnic groups being identified for SPED programs
(NCLD, 2020). Due to bias within the education system, (which includes assessments, academic,
and other policies), students of color can be misidentified as being in need of special education.
As a result, there is overrepresentation of students of color in special education programs.
Relative Terms
The following terms may be used in the study and/or interview. Please let me know if
you have any questions about their definitions.
• Evaluation: A report which clearly describes the reason a student meets or does not
meet special education eligibility criteria, and identifies the student’s strengths and
needs, irrespective of the disability category in which the student is identified (Office
of Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Individualized education program (IEP): A written plan of educational interventions
designed for each student who receives SPED (Office of Special Education Programs,
2007).
• Overrepresentation (also known as overidentification): The phenomenon of
identifying students of culturally different groups who seem to be eligible for SPED
94
services, but who are actually not disabled, at a higher percentage than their White
peers (NCLD, 2020).
• Referral: A written request for an evaluation that is given to the school district when
a child is suspected of having a disability and might need SPED services (Office of
Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Special education (also known as special ed. or SPED): Specialized teaching and
related services to help children with disabilities or special needs make progress in
school (Office of Special Education Programs, 2007).
• Special education services: Services not provided by regular education, but are
necessary to enable an individual with disabilities to achieve in school (Office of
Special Education Programs, 2007).
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Despite efforts to ensure equity and exclusivity in education, studies have consistently shown that students of color--particularly African American males--are overrepresented in special education programs, as compared to their White peers. Improper placement in special education can have stigmatizing effects on students of color that negatively affects their self-esteem or self-worth over the long term. The present qualitative study explores overrepresentation among students of color in special education programs, elevating concerns about bias and the systemic factors that contribute to identification and placement of students of color in special education. I highlight the disparity in representation of students of color within special education programs, drawing attention to the recurring patterns observed in various studies and educational settings. Using a qualitative methodology, I interviewed teachers and administrators about identification and placement practices, and their impact on students. Factors contributing to overrepresentation include cultural bias, assessment practices, teacher perceptions, and systemic inequalities. Findings reveal a need for critical examination of these factors to address the underlying causes, and promote fair and unbiased identification and placement procedures.
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Nichols, Stacy Nicole
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Core Title
Overrepresentation among students of color in special education programs
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Educational Leadership (On Line)
Degree Conferral Date
2023-08
Publication Date
09/06/2023
Defense Date
07/12/2023
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Tags
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