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Motivation to move: seeking to understand the motives and barriers in older adults to participate in physical activity classes
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Content
Motivation to Move: Seeking to Understand the Motives and Barriers in Older Adults to
Participate in Physical Activity Classes.
Kenny Aaron Yu
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
December 2023
© Copyright by Kenny Aaron Yu 2023
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Kenny Aaron Yu certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Courtney Malloy
Helena Seli
Kimberly Hirabayashi, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023
iv
Abstract
According to social cognitive theory, an individual’s motivation to engage in physical activity is
based on three reciprocally interacting influences: personal (e.g., cognitions, beliefs, skills,
affect), behavioral, and social/environmental factors. The purpose of the present study was to
examine age, motivation to exercise, and barriers to participation in relation to those postulates in
128 active older adult continuing education students aged between 54 and 91. A mixed methods
approach was taken to conduct analyses for types of motives and identified barriers as dependent
variables, while age, gender, working status, and living situation (with whom a person lives)
served as independent variables. Results indicated minor to moderate correlations between age
and specific health-driven motives. Statistically significant data with minor to moderate
correlations were also observed between the number of classes taken and exercise motives.
Perceived barriers related to physical limitation, competing commitments, and psychological
issues provided inhibitions to exercise and strategies to examine to overcome these challenges
seniors face. The implications are that interventions to increase participation in physical activity
should consider a multifaceted approach when promoting and designing research-recommended
health and wellness programs.
v
Acknowledgments
I greatly acknowledge my dissertation committee and program faculty for their
knowledge and guidance. I greatly acknowledge the encouragement and support from my
mother, Velma, sisters Korene and Karen, my girlfriend Amy, friends, and students. This
research is dedicated to all the older adult students I have worked with and future seniors who
might also benefit from it. I especially thank my father for “motivating” me to pursue this.
vi
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
Literature Review.............................................................................................................................3
Prevalent Health Issues in Older Adults ..............................................................................3
Exercise Guidelines and Recommendations for Older Adults .............................................4
Salient Physical Activity Goals for the Older Adult Population ..........................................6
Motivating Reasons to Exercise May Change As We Age ..................................................7
Obstacles and Barriers That Impact Older Adults to Engage in Physical Activity ..............8
Physical Activity Settings, Classes, Options, and Conditions .............................................9
Theoretical Foundations.....................................................................................................10
Positionality ...................................................................................................................................12
Methods..........................................................................................................................................13
Participants .........................................................................................................................14
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................14
Data Collection ..................................................................................................................15
Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................15
Findings and Results ......................................................................................................................16
Demographic Results .........................................................................................................16
Research Question 1: Which Reasons Motivate Older Adults to Take Health and
Wellness Classes Designed to Help Them Engage in Research-Recommended
Guidelines for Physical Activity? ......................................................................................17
Research Question 2: What Do Older Adults Perceive to Be the Perceived Barriers to
Taking Physical Health and Wellness Classes? .................................................................24
Discussion and Implications ..........................................................................................................28
vii
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................................29
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................................31
Recommendations for Future Research .........................................................................................33
Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................34
References ......................................................................................................................................35
Appendix A: Study Information Sheet ..........................................................................................45
Appendix B: Survey .......................................................................................................................46
Appendix C: Social Behavioral Protocol Template .......................................................................50
viii
List of Tables
Table 1: Guidelines for Frequency, Intensity, Duration, and Mode for Exercise 5
Table 2: Guidelines for Exercise With Age-Related Comorbidities 6
Table 3: Participants’ Sociodemographic Characteristics (N = 107) 17
Table 4: Descriptive Statistics for Exercise Motivations Inventory-2 (EMI-2) 1 = Not True to
6 = Very True ) 18
Table 5: Descriptive Statistics for Motives for Physical Activities Measure- Revised
(MPAM-R) 1 = Not at all True 5=Very True 20
Table 6: Correlations for EMI-2 and MPAM-R Items, Age, and Classes Taken per Week 21
Table 7: Identified Barriers and Resources/Supports to Motivate Exercise: (N = 92) 25
Table 8: Guideline Options for Aerobic Exercise 31
1
Motivation to Move: Seeking to Understand the Motives and Barriers in Older Adults to
Participate in Physical Activity Classes
Adults 65 years and older are the fastest-growing population in the United States,
according to the U.S. Census Bureau (2020), and are vulnerable to many age-related health
issues that significantly compromise their quality of life. Chronic diseases, such as hypertension,
diabetes, arthritis, and dementia, are among the most prevalent (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC], 2023). Eighty percent of older adults have at least one chronic health issue,
while 1 in 3 has limitations in activities like preparing meals and housekeeping (CDC, 2023).
Alzheimer’s disease, the most common type of dementia, is the fifth-leading cause of death
among older Americans (CDC, 2023), and many of these comorbidities are associated with
inactive lifestyle behaviors. Therefore, staying healthy requires remaining active and can be
effectively managed by engaging in research-recommended physical activity. It is recommended
that older adults aged 65 and older follow the guidelines on physical activity set forth by the
CDC and the American College of Sports Medicine (Zaleski et al., 2016).
While studies find that exercise as part of adopting a healthy lifestyle effectively
improves the overall health status of older adults, a significant percentage of this population still
fails to meet the minimum recommendation for physical activity. Compared to other
demographics, the senior population is the least active (Watson et al., 2016). Only 22% of adults
65 and over meet the recommendations for physical activity developed by the American College
of Sports Medicine (Zaleski et al., 2016). Data indicate that 66% of older adults do not meet
national physical activity guidelines, and 24% are sedentary (Mummery et al., 2007; Sport and
Recreation New Zealand, 2008).
2
Continuing education for older adult programs offers physical activity-oriented evidence-
based classes. However, the proportion of older adults enrolling in these programs is small
compared to the large number who stand to benefit most (Ory et al., 2018). These courses are
delivered through partnerships between the school and host sites from local businesses and
organizations, including community centers, senior centers, independent living, assisted living,
skilled nursing, and memory care facilities. Studies support maintaining and developing an
affordable and inclusive continuing education program in local communities to achieve
successful and active aging (Narushima et al., 2013). These are prime locations accessible to this
demographic and help to meet the environmental, sociocultural, psychosocial, and health-related
barriers and motives that facilitate older adults’ abilities and willingness to participate in exercise
(Bundon et al., 2011).
Extensive research has examined the role of motivation in younger adults and physical
activity, but less is known about older adults 65 years and older. Both motives to engage in
physical activity and perceived barriers that prevent participation should be studied to develop
effective strategies for recruiting and maintaining older adults to participate in health and
wellness classes. Parslow et al. (2011) reported that healthy behaviors taught in these classes,
particularly physical exercise, predicted successful aging to a greater extent than social support
or social contact, thus enhancing success and lifelong learning.
This study aimed to understand the motivations underlying the participation of older
adults in health and wellness courses centered around physical activity, identify barriers to
participation, and examine viable program options for healthcare professionals and facilities.
Surveys were used to learn more about the motives and barriers to engaging in physical activity
3
classes and allow participants to share their perspectives that might not be reflected in the current
body of literature.
Staying physically active provides benefits to increasing lifespan and helps improve older
people’s quality of life. Understanding older adults’ unique and diverse combinations of
motivation for exercising regularly has important implications for gaining insight into aging
(Ferrand et al., 2014). Motivation is a fundamental component of human performance, a critical
issue for academic performance, and a deciding factor in personal health and well-being (Hidi &
Harackiewicz, 2000; Li et al., 2005; Pinder, 2011). The consequences of not advancing the
benefits of physical activity courses for older adults surrender these low-cost and wide-spreading
strategies to age-related health conditions that lead to disability and diminished quality of life.
This perspective fuels negative perceptions of aging and can further harm the older adult
population, as they commonly attribute health decline to old age (Menkin et al., 2022).
Literature Review
Extant research on physical activity motives addresses mostly younger adults. For this
article, I begin by reviewing literature that examines the most prevalent chronic health conditions
older adults face. Studies and sources with data to support exercise guidelines and exercise
prescriptions based on these conditions and age are necessary for program design. Data on
evidence-based physical activity modalities are studied to support and improve on existing
recommended practices. Research on older adults’ barriers and limitations will be cited to
discuss how to create interventions so that more older adults can participate.
Prevalent Health Issues in Older Adults
The most prevalent age-associated health issues may challenge adults 65 and older to
maintain a physically active lifestyle. Aging increases the prevalence of chronic diseases, such as
4
hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, and dementia (CDC, 2023). Comorbidities such as
cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and chronic lower respiratory infections are the leading
causes of death among older adults (Murphy et al., 2013). Managing common age-related health
issues helps to improve the chances of successful aging. Health behaviors predict successful
aging to a greater extent than social support or social contact (Parslow et al., 2011). While
behavioral recommendations for this population include increasing physical activity, actual
physical activity levels remain low, which underlines the need for research into psychosocial
determinants of physical activity in this population (Nelson et al., 2007; Schüz et al., 2013; Zhao
et al., 2011). Most risk factors associated with chronic disease increase with age, as does the rate
of comorbidities in older adults, where two out of every three older adults manage multiple
chronic conditions, accounting for 66% of the country’s health care budget in treatment costs
(CDC, 2023).
Exercise Guidelines and Recommendations for Older Adults
The CDC, the American Heart Association, and the American College of Sports
Medicine (ACSM) provide guidelines and recommendations for physical activity levels in
persons 65 and older and adults aged 50–64 with functional limitations that affect activities of
daily living or clinically significant chronic conditions. The use of these guidelines aims to
promote health, prevent disease, and mitigate disabling conditions that commonly affect older
adults. Table 1 shows recommendations for older adults outlining types of physical activity,
frequency, intensity, and duration. Nelson et al. (2007) referenced ACSM’s position for
apparently healthy older adults. Table 2 shows ACSM’s position for patients with the most
common age-associated comorbidities (Zaleski et al., 2016).
5
Table 1
Guidelines for Frequency, Intensity, Duration, and Mode for Exercise
Aerobic activity Strength training Flexibility Balance
Minimum 3 days/wk Minimum 2 days/wk Minimum 2 days/wk Minimum 2
days/wk
Moderate intensity Moderate intensity Mild to moderate
intensity
Task appropriate
Minimum 30
minutes
8–10 major muscle groups;
10–15 reps
All major muscle
groups
Overall systems
training
Note. Adapted from ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription (11th ed.) by G.
Liguori, 2021. Wolters Kluwer. Copyright 2021 by American College of Sports Medicine.
6
Table 2
Guidelines for Exercise With Age-Related Comorbidities
Hypertension Type II diabetes mellitus Dyslipidemia Arthritis
Aerobic activity:
Most, preferably
every day, 30 min
of moderate
intensity
Aerobic activity: 3–7
days/wk, 30 minutes
up to 150 minutes/wk
of moderate to
vigorous intensity
Aerobic activity:
5+days/wk, 30–60
minutes, moderate
intensity
Aerobic activity: 3–
5 days/wk, 10–30
minutes, light to
moderate intensity
Strength training:
2 days/wk, moderate
intensity, 10
exercises, 8–12
reps
Strength training:
2 days/wk, moderate
intensity, 10 exercises,
10–15 reps
Strength training:
2 days/wk, moderate
intensity, 8–10
exercises, 10–15
reps
Strength training:
2 days/wk, light to
moderate
intensity, 8–10
exercises, 10–15
reps
Stretching 2 days/wk
or more; 10
minutes of mild to
moderate intensity
Stretching 2 days/wk or
more; 10 minutes of
mild to moderate
intensity
Stretching 2 days/wk
or more; 10
minutes of mild to
moderate intensity
Stretching 2
days/wk or more;
10 minutes of
mild to moderate
intensity
Balance training if
there is a
substantial risk of
falling
Balance training if there
is a substantial risk of
falling
Balance training if
there is a
substantial risk of
falling
Balance training if
there is a
substantial risk of
falling
Note. Adapted from ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription (11th ed.) by G.
Liguori, 2021. Wolters Kluwer. Copyright 2021 by American College of Sports Medicine.
Salient Physical Activity Goals for the Older Adult Population
Improving cardiovascular health, strength, flexibility, and balance are key goals that
healthcare providers emphasize regarding functional capacity, health outcomes, and quality of
life measures for older adults (Zaleski et al., 2016). These challenges and declines also motivate
older adults to engage in physical activity (Hardy & Grogan, 2009). Preserving or improving
physical appearance is another strong motivator. For others, the goal is to delay the onset of
7
chronic illness, which causes most misery, until as late in life as possible (Butler, 2010; Hardy &
Grogan, 2009).
Aerobic and strength training regimens for older adults have been well documented and
stand at the top of the list of goal-oriented health outcomes. Research demonstrates that regular
aerobic exercise in sedentary older adults can reduce the neurobiological and cognitive
consequences of age-related declines (Chapman et al., 2013; Colcombe et al., 2004; Macintosh et
al., 2012). Sustained physical activity, particularly aerobic exercise, enhances blood biomarkers,
physiology, psychological factors, and cardiovascular conditions (Tyndall et al., 2018).
Resistance training can improve bone density, body fat composition, resting metabolism,
glucose levels, blood pressure, muscle mass, and mental health (Kravitz, 2019). Among older
adults, progressive and sustained resistance training has been shown to significantly increase
strength and improve several limitations associated with aging (Latham et al., 2004).
Maintenance or improvements in musculoskeletal strength and function resulting in functional
mobility, psychological well-being, and overall quality of life have also been discovered
(Warburton et al., 2006).
Flexibility and balance are important physiological traits that factor into keeping older
adults independent. Older adults who fall are prone to developing a fear of falling, limiting
activities with an increased risk of falling, and subsequent further loss in physical function
(CDC, 2014). The goal to stay healthy through appropriate stretching and balance work is critical
to seniors remaining independent.
Motivating Reasons to Exercise May Change As We Age
A deeper understanding of perceived norms in older adults might help to explain the
differences in motives for participation in physical activity and associations between motives for
8
participation in it and physical activity behavior across the adult lifespan. Moreover, existing
research highlights that understanding strong participation motives across types of activity, age,
and gender may effectively promote physical activity (Molanorouzi et al., 2015). Older adults
who perceive themselves as old are more autonomously motivated to exercise because exercising
aligns with their age group’s perceived norms (Pelssers et al., 2018). There are distinct age-
related prioritizations of social factors in motivation to exercise so that as we age, our motivation
shifts from future-oriented and instrumental goals to more present-focused and emotionally
meaningful ones (Steltenpohl et al., 2019). Research also indicates that older participants will
exhibit greater concern for consequences related to psychological health than younger adults
(Molanorouzi et al., 2015). Additionally, health behaviors predicted successful aging to a greater
extent than social support or social contact (Parslow et al., 2011).
Obstacles and Barriers That Impact Older Adults to Engage in Physical Activity
Various factors preventing older adults from participating in physical activity classes
stem from individual, interpersonal, environmental, and community-level barriers. Lack of
motivation, perceived incompetence, and time constraints are key barriers to older adults’
participation in physical activity (Patel et al., 2013). Problems with communication, beliefs,
relationships, and the environment also contribute to disempowerment (Horne & Tierney, 2012).
Previous research has suggested that physical activity participation is lower among older
women and less educated older adults (Droomers et al., 2001; Janke et al., 2006; Weiss et al.,
2007). The National Center for Health Statistics reported that women’s life expectancy of 79.3
years is higher than that of males at 73.5 years and accentuates identifying obstacles and barriers.
Lower physical activity rates have also been found in older individuals from other minority and
racial/ethnic groups (Haley & Andel, 2010).
9
Although participants with three or more chronic health conditions had stronger motives
and perceived more benefits from physical activity than those without chronic health conditions,
they also perceived more personal barriers to physical activity participation. Personal barriers to
physical activity for participants with multiple chronic health conditions were centered on health
and medical factors (e.g., experiencing pain when engaging in physical activity). Two other
studies also reported that health and medical factors were both motives and barriers to physical
activity in older adults (Mathews et al., 2010; Newson & Kemps, 2007). Patel et al. (2013)
argued that, in some cases, older adults may be motivated to engage in physical activity to help
manage chronic health conditions. At the same time, their medical conditions may limit their
ability to engage in regular physical activity. Older adults’ perceived barriers, benefits, and
motives for physical activity can be strongly influenced by demographic factors such as chronic
health conditions and increasing age (Belza et al., 2004; Guerin et al., 2008; Kalavar et al., 2004;
Kolt et al., 2004) as cited by Patel et al. (2013).
Physical Activity Settings, Classes, Options, and Conditions
Research-recommended physical activity programs for older adults are offered in various
settings and platforms. Community-based continuing health education courses, medical health,
wellness classes, and private health and fitness programs conducted both in person and online
provide access and opportunities for the older population. Personal preference, physical
environments, structural, organizational, physical, and mental health aspects are potential
barriers to older adults taking non-credit health and wellness classes (Bethancourt et al., 2014).
Older adults are interested in attending a multi-modal lifestyle intervention program and can
make health behavior changes that can improve health and overall functioning (Ory et al., 2018).
Most older men and women, irrespective of socioeconomic status, healthy or not, similarly desire
10
cognitive and intellectual stimulation (the psychological stimulus of learning) and are motivated
by practical and extrinsic reasons such as affordable fees. Older adults’ intersectionality calls for
maintaining and developing an affordable and inclusive continuing education program in local
communities to achieve successful and active aging for all (Narushima et al., 2013). Given the
complexity associated with behavior in these real-world settings, interventions with cognitive
and behavioral components can improve participants’ initial and sustained outcomes
(Olanrewaju et al., 2016). Whether in person or remotely, courses should be available and
accessible to meet the participant’s needs and conditions. The Active Lifestyle app can be a
successful remote physical activity course intervention to help independently living elderly
people perform balance and strength exercises autonomously at home while motivating them to
adhere to a routine of physical exercises (Silveira et al., 2012).
Theoretical Foundations
This article aims to understand the positive and negative impacts of maintaining a
physically active lifestyle in older adults. Social cognitive theory (SCT) provides the theoretical
underpinnings for evaluating the attributes and mindsets of active and sedentary older adults.
Motives and barriers cannot be conflated with health and disability in a population segment as
agentically diverse. Social cognitive theory highlights the significance of human agency in which
individuals attempt to exercise a large degree of control over their thoughts, feelings, and actions
(Schunk, 2012).
Social cognitive theory recognizes key sources or factors for targeting self-efficacy,
including mastery experiences and vicarious experiences that may translate into health behavior
change (Baird et al., 2021). The triadic reciprocity of personal cognitive factors, behavioral
patterns, and social environmental structures all operate as interacting determinants that
11
influence each other bidirectionally (Bandura, 1999). Research suggests that self-efficacy (a
personal factor) influences motivated behaviors such as task choice, effort, persistence, and
effective learning strategies (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2016; Usher, 2015). Behaviors can then
alter the instructional environment based on feedback and performance (Schunk & Usher, 2019).
The scope of reciprocal causation applies to groups or individuals.
Social cognitive theory emphasizes an individual’s confidence in their ability to organize
and execute a given course of action to accomplish a task (i.e., can I do it?) as defined through
self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy focuses on performance capabilities rather than
personal qualities. They are task or domain-specific, context-dependent, and refer to future
performance. A systematic literature review of physical activity and exercise interventions
indicates that a change in self-efficacy was positively associated with participation in exercise
among older adults (Koeneman et al., 2011). Extensive research has studied a variety of
determinants regarding physical activity in the later stages of life and outlined physical activity
health and wellness benefits (Haley & Andel, 2010; Koeneman et al., 2011). The health-
enhancing influence of multiple factors, including self-efficacy, the practical application of
physical activity into daily activities of life, building a sense of community, having financial
resources for physical activity, and knowledge about community-based physical activity
programs supports the importance of these programs for older Americans who typically have
comorbidities (Haley & Andel, 2010; Koeneman et al., 2011; Ory et al., 2018).
Improving self-efficacy in the aging population is an important goal because of its
association with increased resilience against the development of depression and with better
overall health (Scult et al., 2015). People’s self-efficacy beliefs also have a greater effect on their
motivation, emotions, and actions than what is objectively measured by skill level (Bandura,
12
1997). Increased experience of self-efficacy may lead to increased physical activity, partly
through an improved sense of enjoyment (Lewis et al., 2016). The effects of autonomy and
intrinsic motivation on physical activity are mediated by social cognitive variables in an older
adult population (Arnautovska et al., 2019). Judgments of self-efficacy have a direct impact on
behavior and its effect on other behavioral predictors, including outcome expectancies,
facilitators, goals, and perceived barriers to the behavior (Bandura, 1997).
Positionality
Engaged reflection and representation occur when researchers and participants reflect
together to think through what is happening with age and activity in a particular research
community (Milner, 2007). Building a sense of community in my classroom by listening to my
students and allowing their voices to be heard has profoundly influenced my choice of studying
motives in older adults. An environment designed for equity and inclusion means that I am aware
of how teachers benefit when they are encouraged to explicitly reflect on their values and
perspectives as methods to adapt to evolving systems (Maxwell, 2013). My identity as an Asian-
American male and my role as a health education faculty instructor, mentor, and advocate define
my positionality and epistemology. As a systems teacher, I look for unity, symmetry, and order
when closely examining the environment of my study for optimal respondent participation. As a
critical conscience scholar-practitioner, my goal in addressing the validity of this research allows
for the examination of competing explanations and discrepant data so that this research is not
simply a self-fulfilling prophecy (Maxwell, 2013). I remain highly reflexive by continuously
revising my interpretation and reflection on prior knowledge related to new findings (Haynes,
2012). A triangulated approach uses multiple theories, research methods, instruments, and data
13
analysis to reduce threats to reliability, validity, and bias resulting from my experience working
with this demographic.
Methods
The current study examined the motivations of active older adults in health and wellness
courses as well as identified their perceived barriers and supports. Past research has shown that
health issues are prevalent among older adults (CDC, 2020). A social cognitive theoretical
framework for understanding the motivating factors was used to examine this growing problem.
This study used quantitative and qualitative questions to better understand motives and barriers
to physical activity engagement. To avoid generalization, survey questions were selected to
include the individuals in the study population (Maxwell, 2013). The following research
questions guided this study’s design:
1. What reasons motivate older adults to take health and wellness classes designed to
help them engage in research-recommended guidelines for physical activity?
2. What do older adults perceive to be the barriers to taking physical health and
wellness classes?
Specific individual questions were selected from two valid and reliable instruments.
These individual questions were selected from each existing scale to align with a social cognitive
framework and to cover a larger scope of exercise motives while avoiding redundancy.
Therefore, entire subscales were not utilized. Three qualitative questions were created for the
study to report perceived barriers to exercise and the supports participants found useful in
addressing these barriers.
14
Participants
A non-probability sampling approach of 128 older adults currently participating in health
and wellness classes offered by North Orange Continuing Education (NOCE) was used to
identify and sample participants. Health and wellness classes are scheduled to meet twice a week
and offer students 90 minutes of physical activity and other health-related instruction. The
organization offers 41 classes per week where students can register for multiple courses. There is
no cost to take these classes, and the average attendance ranges from 20 to 60 students per class.
In all, 107 participants met the requirements of this study for being 55 years or older and
completing the survey.
Instrumentation
Study information forms and surveys were used to obtain data for this study. As part of
recruitment, the study information sheet describes the study, notification of involvement, and
explanation of risks and benefits (Appendix A). Items are written in language that is accessible to
the respondent with clear and definite instructions. Additional notifications about permission,
incentives, participant rights, privacy, and contact information were also provided. Physical
activity surveys were designed with objective closed-ended, subjective, and open-ended
questions to gather data about exercise frequency, duration, mode, and intensity for comparisons
to research-recommended exercise guidelines (Appendix B). To maximize the range of possible
valid motives, 28 survey questions were adopted from the Exercise Motivations Inventory-2
(EMI-2), and 14 questions were selected from the Motives for Physical Activities- Revised
(MPAM-R).
15
Data Collection
Classes offered by NOCE at local senior centers, community centers, and residential
facilities provided diverse samples of popular settings for older adult physical activity
programming. Staff members from each facility handed out research information sheets and
surveys in person to each older adult participant. Before the start of each class, I provided the
instructor with a briefing on the study. I then introduced myself as the primary investigator. Staff
members and I escorted respondents to a quiet and private room. They had 5 to 10 minutes to
read the information sheet and 10 to 15 minutes to complete the survey. To maximize response
rates, I provided all materials in multiple languages. The constructivist approach to this
qualitative aspect of the study targets my interest in studying older adults under the assumption
that multiple variables can be studied. This research was derived from my understanding of these
realities while working through the participants’ perspectives and represented data for the
challenge of motivating seniors to remain physically active (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).
Data Analysis
Using SPSS V 28.0, quantitative data analysis calculated the central tendency and
performed bivariate correlation analysis between the included measures. Spearman’s rank
correlation assessed the relationships between age and exercise motives. Constant comparison
analysis was used to analyze the qualitative measures of motivating factors to exercise, desired
health benefits, and perceived barriers and obstacles to participation (Leech & Onwuegbuzie,
2007). A codebook was developed using an inductive approach. Member checks were performed
by maintaining regular contact with the participants throughout data collection and analysis
while verifying specific interpretations of the analysis to improve validity and accuracy (Curtin
& Fossey, 2007). Expert reviews from health and fitness professionals to ensure credibility and
16
peer debriefing from fellow graduate researchers to check for authentic question interpretation
helped analyze the data. Investigating older adults from multiple settings helps to reduce
inconsistencies. These documents and methods provided data on the context within which
research participants operate and can help researchers understand historical roots while
minimizing the risk of chance associations and systematic biases due to a specific method
(Bowen, 2009; Curtin & Fossey, 2007).
Findings and Results
Demographic Results
In all, 107 respondents met the criteria for this study and completed the survey. The
majority of respondents were retired females living with others (Table 3). The ages spanned from
57 to 91, displaying a range of approximately 37 years, an important premise to search for
possible correlations between aging and any potential change in their motives. A better
understanding of the processes involved in adopting and maintaining ongoing physical activity as
part of one’s lifestyle would reduce the prevalence of sedentary lifestyles, marked by low
participation and lack of adherence to physical activity programs. The reported number of health
and wellness classes taken per week resulted in a mean of 2.54 classes per week with a standard
deviation of 1.44. This translates into approximately 228 minutes of physical activity per week
for this participant group, which meets and exceeds the recommendation of 150 minutes per
week.
17
Table 3
Participants’ Sociodemographic Characteristics (N = 107)
Demographic variable n or (mean) % or (SD)
Gender
Female 91 85.0
Male 14 15.0
Prefer not to answer 1 1.0
Age (74.9) (7.2)
Employment status
Part-time 6 5.6
Retired 101 94.4
Living status
I live by myself. 30 28.0
I live with other. 76 71.0
I prefer not to answer. 1 1.0
Classes taken per week. (2.5) (1.4)
Research Question 1: Which Reasons Motivate Older Adults to Take Health and Wellness
Classes Designed to Help Them Engage in Research-Recommended Guidelines for Physical
Activity?
Aging, behavior, and recommended guidelines for physical activity were closely
measured statistics used to help understand specific reasons that motivate seniors to exercise
from a personal, behavioral, and environmental perspective, respectively. For survey questions
taken from the EMI-2 index, the most frequently reported motives were to have a healthy body,
maintain good health, and build up strength. These three motives are considered the most
influential positive health outcome measures based on the EMI-2 assessment scale and resulted
in a mean of 5.75 (SD = .551) to have a healthy body, 5.77 (SD = .524) to maintain good health,
and 5.71 (SD = .601) to build up strength (Table 4). Other motives, ranging from exercise to
18
prevent an illness that runs in their family to exercise to help them look younger, generally
scored lower with means of less than 4.0 collectively.
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics for Exercise Motivations Inventory-2 (EMI-2) 1 = Not True to 6 = Very
True )
Item n M SD
1. To have a healthy body 105 5.77 .524
2. Because I want to maintain good health 107 5.75 .551
3. To build up my strength 106 5.71 .601
4. To prevent health problems 106 5.60 .902
5. To maintain flexibility 105 5.59 .716
6. To Stay/become flexible 106 5.58 .754
7. To stay/become more agile 107 5.56 .803
8. To increase my endurance 107 5.46 .872
9. To avoid heart disease 107 5.13 1.198
10. Because I feel my best when exercising 107 4.98 1.244
11. Because I find exercising satisfying in and of itself 107 4.85 1.413
12. Because it helps reduce tension 107 4.76 1.324
13. Because I find exercise invigorating 107 4.74 1.376
14. To give me goals to work towards 107 4.63 1.424
15. To enjoy the social aspects of exercising 106 4.59 1.337
16. To help manage stress 107 4.55 1.609
17. Because I enjoy the feeling of exerting myself 105 4.50 1.415
18. For the enjoyment of the experience of exercising 105 4.39 1.464
19. To spend time with friends 105 4.30 1.442
19
Item n M SD
20. Because exercise helps me to burn calories 107 4.09 1.640
21. Because my doctor advised me to exercise 106 3.96 1.723
22. To help prevent an illness that runs in my family 106 3.75 1.883
23. To help recover from an illness/injury 107 3.63 1.906
24. To lose weight 107 3.42 1.812
25. To help me look younger 107 3.07 1.852
26. To give me space to think 105 2.94 1.737
27. Because I enjoy physical competition 106 2.86 1.630
28. To show my worth to others 106 2.30 1.605
For survey questions taken from the MPAM-R index, the most frequently reported
motives were wanting to maintain their physical health and well-being, wanting to have more
energy, and that it makes them happy. These were the top three influential motives based on the
MPAM-R assessment scale and resulted in a mean of 7.64 (SD = .745): because they want to
maintain their physical health and well-being, 6.95 (SD = 1.376) because they want more energy,
and 6.04 (SD = 1.843) because it makes them happy (Table 5). Other motives, such as exercising
because they want to define their muscles to look better or because they will feel physically
unattractive if they do not exercise, generally scored lower with means of less than 5.0
collectively.
20
Table 5
Descriptive Statistics for Motives for Physical Activities Measure- Revised (MPAM-R) 1 = Not at
all True 5=Very True
Item n M SD
29. Because I want to maintain my physical health and well-
being
107 7.64 .745
30. Because I want to have more energy 107 6.95 1.376
31. Because it makes me happy 107 6.04 1.843
32. Because I want to improve my existing skills 107 5.85 2.013
33. Because I enjoy spending time with others doing this
activity
107 5.59 2.128
34. Because I want to look or maintain weight, so I look better 107 5.27 2.153
35. Because I think it’s interesting 107 5.14 2.300
36. Because I want to obtain new skills 106 5.04 2.004
37. Because I want to be with my friends 107 4.71 2.163
38. Because I want to define my muscles so I look better 107 4.66 2.210
39. Because I want to meet new people 107 4.17 2.117
40. Because I want to be attractive to others 107 3.81 2.253
41. Because I will feel physically unattractive if I don’t 107 3.27 2.157
42. Because my friends want me to 107 2.52 1.905
A descriptive statistical analysis of the quantitative survey questions revealed that
participants responded with a high rating of 4.0 or greater on a scale of 0 to 5 for EMI-2 and 6.0
or greater on a scale of 0 to 7 for MPAM-R when answering questions identifying health benefits
as a reason to exercise. Participants answered survey questions from both scales, reporting how
21
“very true” it was that they exercise to have a healthy body and because they wanted to maintain
good health and well-being. This trend of high motivation ratings was observed from all EMI-2
and MPAM-R questions, indicating the salience of improving and maintaining health.
An examination of age and scores from EMI-2 and MPAM-R items used in this study
was analyzed to address possible changes in motivational orientation towards physical activity.
In seniors, age has been found to be the best predictor of self-efficacy and outcome expectations
(Netz & Raviv, 2004). Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was used to study the strength and
direction of the monotonic relationship between age and motivation. A statistically significant
correlation (p < .05) was seen between age and having a healthy body, indicating that as these
individuals grow older, their motivation to exercise potentially increases to have a healthy body
(Table 6). Another statistically significant correlation was also observed between age and the
motivation to maintain good health (Table 6). Age and the feeling of exertion through exercise
were also statistically significant (Table 6).
Table 6
Correlations for EMI-2 and MPAM-R Items, Age, and Classes Taken per Week
Item Age Classes per
week
1. To have a healthy body .193* .116*
2. Because I want to maintain good health .220* .215*
3. To build up my strength .088 .300**
4. To prevent health problems .056 .207*
5. To maintain flexibility .126 .136
6. To Stay/become flexible .118 .299**
7. To stay/become more agile .302** .269**
22
Item Age Classes per
week
8. To increase my endurance .122 .204
9. To avoid heart disease .115 .122
10. Because I feel my best when exercising .109 .257**
11. Because I find exercising satisfying in and of itself .263** .104
12. Because it helps reduce tension .143 .109
13. Because I find exercise invigorating .179 .266**
14. To give me goals to work towards .157 .264**
15. To enjoy the social aspects of exercising .101 .268**
16. To help manage stress .086 .200
17. Because I enjoy the feeling of exerting myself .121 .171
18. For the enjoyment of the experience of exercising .171 .258**
19. To spend time with friends .125 .217
20. Because exercise helps me to burn calories -.060 .096
21. Because my doctor advised me to exercise .004 -.016
22. To help prevent an illness that runs in my family -.054 .058
23. To help recover from an illness/injury -.014 -.132
24. To lose weight -.157 -.012
25. To help me look younger .083 .118
26. To give me space to think .070 .100
27. Because I enjoy physical competition .074 .103
28. To show my worth to others .033 -.063
29. Because I want to maintain my physical health and
well-being
.088 .273*
30. Because I want to have more energy .195* .412*
31. Because it makes me happy .194 .421*
32. Because I want to improve my existing skills .121 .337**
23
Item Age Classes per
week
33. Because I enjoy spending time with others doing this
activity
.081 .102
34. Because I want to look or maintain weight, so I look
better
.007 .172
35. Because I think it’s interesting .125 .297**
36. Because I want to obtain new skills .178 .211
37. Because I want to be with my friends -.033 .122
38. Because I want to define my muscles so I look better .089 .101
39. Because I want to meet new people .071 .175
40. Because I want to be attractive to others .046 .120
41. Because I will feel physically unattractive if I don’t .100 -.058
42. Because my friends want me to .018 -.180
Note. Variables 1–28 are items from the EMI-2, and variables 29–42 are items from MPAM-R.
* = significant correlation coefficients (p <. 05).
** = significant correlation coefficients (p<.01).
The frequency of taking classes was also investigated for program adherence to research-
recommended guidelines. Minor correlations were observed between the number of classes per
week taken and specific motives (Table 6). Participants reported taking more classes per week
when they exercised to have a healthy body, to maintain good health, to prevent health problems,
to increase energy, because it makes them happy, and because they want to maintain their
physical health and well-being. Taking physical activity classes because their friends wanted
them to, participation to help recover from illness or injury, and to show their worth to others
were notable items with an inverse relationship.
24
The participants responded with a high score from survey questions taken from the
MPAM-R (n = 107, M = 7.64, SD = .745) related to their desire to maintain physical health and
the pursuit of well-being benefits (Table 4). The lowest response for physical health maintenance
and well-being benefit motives was 5 out of a maximum response of 8, indicating the salience
for these statements. All other items from the MPAM-R had scattering scores ranging from 1 to
8. Like EMI-2 questions related to appearance, the trend continued to reflect lower average
scores, indicating that exercise for improving a sense of attraction to others or themselves was
not much of a motivator (Table 4). A statistically significant correlation was found between age
and wanting more energy (r(107) = .195) and age and how happy they feel from exercising
(r(107) = .194), as presented in Table 6. These observations support the themes of what
researchers have already identified as how seniors define and perceive optimal health (Song &
Kong, 2015).
Research Question 2: What Do Older Adults Perceive to Be the Perceived Barriers to
Taking Physical Health and Wellness Classes?
Ninety-two respondents described their perceived barriers to taking physical health and
wellness classes, which type of support they use to address these barriers, and the resources or
support that could help. Physical health issues, personal commitments, psychological challenges,
aging, and no barriers were five coded themes identified from the survey (Table 7). Social
support, online programming, pain medication, transportation, braces, physical therapy, and time
management strategies were the most common themes for supporting participants to exercise in
class.
25
Table 7
Identified Barriers and Resources/Supports to Motivate Exercise: (N = 92)
Theme Definition Representative example n %
Physical health
issue
Mentions that physical
limitations prevent
motivation to exercise,
such as knee pain, lower
back pain, leg weakness,
or being sick
“Leg weakness, a result of
a neurological condition,
prevents me from
performing certain
exercises in the
program.”
43 46.7
Personal
commitments
Mentions that personal
commitments prevent
motivation to exercise,
such as caring for loved
ones, family crises,
medical visits,
professional work, or
lack of time
“Sometimes other
appointments. part-time
work or medical visits.”
16 17.4
Psychological
issue
Mentions that behavioral
problems prevent
motivation to exercise,
such as laziness, mood
problems, or lack of
energy
“Mood. If I feel down,
depressed, stressed, I’m
less likely to want to take
the extra effort to get
myself out of the house
to attend a class.”
12 13.0
No barriers Mentions that there are
currently no barriers to
exercise motivation
“None at this time.
However, it also depends
on the instructor. They
must know what they are
doing.”
17 18.5
Aging Mentions that age-
associated health issues
present barriers to
engaging in physical
activity.
“Age-related ailments.”
4 4.3
Resources and supports
Social support Mentions the use of other
people to support
accountability or
motivate exercise
behaviors
“Having a friend who I go
with or will meet at
class. The accountability
is a motivator. Being
invited or inviting others
helps, too.”
18 19.6
Pain medicine Mentions the use of pain
medicine like Tylenol or
Tramadol to support
exercise
“Take Tramadol for back
pain. I wear a brace for
back and for my knees.”
10 10.9
26
Theme Definition Representative example n %
Physical therapy Mentions the use of a
physical therapist/coach
to support exercise
“exercises from physical
therapists. I am a self-
starter.”
10 10.9
Time
management
Mentions the use of
scheduling or time
management techniques
to coordinate exercise,
“Prioritize calendar” 10 10.9
Transportation Mentions the use of
transportation to access
the exercise class
“As long as my 2002
Pontiac Grand Am gets
me to exercise. It's like
me, getting older!”
7 7.6
Online programs Mentions the use of online
exercise programs to
support exercise
“Sometimes I will exercise
on You Tube or
previously recorded
classes.”
6 6.5
Braces “Sometimes I will exercise
on You Tube or
previously recorded
classes.”
“I use braces for my back
and knees.”
3 3.3
Forty-seven percent of respondents (n = 43) reported physical limitations due to body
pain as a barrier to exercise, such as knee pain, lower back pain, leg weakness, or being sick.
These items were coded as a theme of physical health issues and were the most prevalent barrier.
Knee pain, low back pain, shoulder pain, and arthritic conditions were the most commonly
reported physical health issues. A participant mentioned, “Chronic lower back due to injury,
arthritis in both knees, [and] loss of balance” as barriers. Another explained that having “arthritis
head to toe, deteriorating knees and feet, neuropathy in feet/toes, various pains in any area
different days” was a barrier.
Another barrier theme reported by 17% of respondents (n = 16) was personal
commitments that prevented them from exercising, such as caring for loved ones, family crises,
medical visits, professional work, or lack of time. These items were coded as competing
27
commitments. One respondent explained that a “conflict in time with other mandatory
appointments [like] doctor’s appointments [and] church activities” was a barrier. Other responses
included comments with regards to having “sometimes other appointments, part-time work, or
medical visits.”
Psychological challenges were reported as a barrier, which accounted for 13% of the
respondents (n = 12). These were coded as psychological issues when respondents reported how
behavioral problems lowered their motivation to exercise, such as laziness, mood problems, or
lack of energy. One participant explained, “Mood. If I feel down, depressed, stressed, I’m less
likely to want to take the extra effort to get myself out of the house to attend a class.” Another
respondent mentioned that “laziness or procrastination” were barriers to taking exercise classes.
Sixteen percent of respondents (n = 15) explained that they had no barrier to participating
in health and wellness classes. One response noted that they had “none at this time. However, it
also depends on the instructor. They must know what they are doing.” Another participant
explained, “I do not have difficulty or barriers to participate in the classes.” These items were
coded as “no barriers,” categorized as having little or no barriers to exercise motivation.
Resources and support that help seniors with barriers were also reported. Social support
from other people helped to hold them accountable to exercise and kept them motivated. The
results showed that 19.6% (n = 18) of the participants rated this as the most important form of
support. One participant mentioned, “Having a friend who I go with or will meet at class. The
accountability is a motivator. Being invited or inviting others helps, too.” Pain medicine was the
second most noted support to barriers the participants faced, as 10.9% (n = 10) reported using
pain medicine supported them to exercise. A participant explained that they “take Tramadol for
back pain. I wear a brace for back and for my knees.” Another wrote, “I use Tylenol before class
28
to help my hip and knee pain.” Other resources and supports participants mentioned were time
management strategies to coordinate exercise into their schedule (10.9%), physical therapy to
support exercise (10.9%), the use of transportation services to access class (7.6%), and the use of
online programming (6.5%) to supplement their exercise routine from home.
Discussion and Implications
An abundance of research to explore factors influencing the practice of regular physical
activity by older adults suggests that future interventions should focus on how physical activity
can contribute to life satisfaction, a sense of purpose, improvements to the quality of life, and a
sense of role fulfillment in older age (Morgan et al., 2019; Song & Kong, 2015). The
identification of exercise motives and barriers to participating in physical activity classes from
the current study finds that appropriate motivational strategies in older adults should center
around health benefits facilitation and promotion. Physically active older adults were chosen for
this study to investigate their key motives that lead to a successful lifestyle of regular exercise.
Active seniors enrolled in health and wellness classes were mostly aware of the need, health
benefits, and the appropriate frequency for positive outcomes. Maintaining good health and
preventing health problems are salient reasons for participating in physical activity classes,
supporting other research indicating that older participants exhibit concern for consequences
related to psychological health (Molanorouzi et al., 2015). Active seniors place a high value on
exercise as a means to having a healthy body and maintaining their health. According to Ferrand
et al. (2014), motivational profiles for active older adults indicate that health-related quality of
life encompasses perceived health attributes such as the sense of comfort or well-being, the
ability to maintain good physical, emotional and intellectual functions, and the ability to
satisfactorily engage in social activities.
29
Prominent barriers to physical activity participation are physical limitations due to health
conditions or aging, lack of professional guidance, and inadequate distribution of information on
available and appropriate health and wellness classes (Bethancourt et al., 2014). The current
study presents respondents' motives to achieve and maintain healthier bodies while also reporting
perceived barriers they faced and which resources and supports they utilized to overcome their
challenges. This observation might be a key element since satisfaction with health is one of the
domains to show an accelerated decline in the oldest groups studied by McAdams et al. (2012).
As a result, self-rated physical health may differ from a more objective measure of physical
functioning.
Recommendations for Practice
Results from this study suggest that a strategic implementation for seniors to exercise
should center around healthy-bodied activity models that practice physical exertion and energize
participants while engaging them in enjoyable activities. Training routines should target
exercises that build strength, improve aerobic conditioning for increased energy, and incorporate
modalities to improve flexibility. These preferred health goals, as identified from this study, also
satisfy recommended guidelines for optimal health and wellness. Fitness trainers and senior
centers using these exercise parameters in their program design for exercise frequency, duration,
intensity, and mode might help to provide vicarious reinforcement to increase positive behaviors.
When individuals work on tasks and observe their learning progress, their self-efficacy for
continued learning is enhanced (Schunk & Usher, 2019).
The most significant barrier recorded from this study was physical limitation due to body
pain and discomfort to move. Participation in regular exercise training programs is a cost-
effective intervention with known health benefits that can delay physical dysfunction, improve
30
health, prevent/treat chronic disease, and improve quality of life among older adults, yet only
32% of clinicians deliver exercise counseling or education during office visits (Zaleski et al.,
2016). Seniors may benefit from greater support and information from their healthcare providers
and allied health systems on how to safely and successfully manage pain or discomfort, allowing
them to improve or maintain physical activity levels. Collaborative efforts of allied health
professionals should focus on managing diverse health conditions for comfort, safety, and care.
Participants from this study reported competing personal commitments as a significant
barrier to exercise. Time allocation and motivational sustenance are crucial considerations that
address barriers and facilitate positive behaviors to exercise, respectively. Kuvaja-Köllner et al.
(2013) find that the amount of time individuals allocate to physical exercise depends on the cost
of time and their motivation. When time is a factor, programs should offer alternative options to
the current standard 90-minute classes. A recent report by the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services pinpoints evidence-based research highlighting the benefit of 150 minutes of
aerobic activity broken into segments or conducted all at once to accommodate an individual’s
schedule (Harris, 2023). Segmental formatting manipulates duration, frequency, and intensity to
illicit comparable health benefits. Table 8 presents recommended time options.
31
Table 8
Guideline Options for Aerobic Exercise
Single class duration Frequency Intensity Total time
20 minutes 3 times per week Vigorous 60 minutes
30 minutes 5 times per week Moderate 150 minutes
60 minutes 3 times per week Moderate 180 minutes
75 minutes 1 time per week Vigorous 75 minutes
90 minutes 2 times per week Moderate 180 minutes
Note. Adapted from ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription (11th ed.) by G.
Liguori, 2021. Wolters Kluwer. Copyright 2021 by American College of Sports Medicine.
Physical activity classes should allow individuals to act in accordance with the values and
outcomes they desire, especially for such an agentically diverse group. As a source of motivation
support, program and task demands designed to facilitate personal agency might catalyze further
learning experiences and internal forms of motivation. Fostering this personal condition can lead
to increased self-efficacy, a key behavioral influence on motivation and aspects of task selection,
effort, persistence, and achievement (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2016; Usher, 2015). Further
enrichment of learning can be realized through social and environmental factors where equitable
comparisons and healthy competitions created by a culture of encouragement provide additional
feedback to learning and goal attainment. Understanding and utilizing resources and supports to
reduce barriers and obstacles should be a focus to promote program adherence, recruit new
participants, and reduce program attrition.
Limitations and Delimitations
Central to the limitations of this study is how diverse backgrounds and cultures may
affect how and what motivates individuals to participate in physical activity. Markus and
Kitayama (1991) asserted that people from various cultures have different construals of
32
themselves and others, and the interconnection of the two leads to a multiplicity of individual
experiences, cognition, emotion, and motivation. Respondents' ability to accurately and
effectively articulate authentic feedback might be limited by various health issues such as visual,
hearing, verbal challenges, or cognitive disorders. Individuals’ understanding and concept of
what it means to be physically active varies from person to person, potentially limiting
consistency in analyzing data relating to motives and barriers to participation. Self-reports of the
number of hours spent each week and the volume devoted to exercise could be
overestimated. More objective exercise measures are needed to give verifiable results framed
with questions that require minimal calculation and interpretation.
Survey questions were selected from the two instruments to align with the theoretical
framework and reduce the length of the questions limiting validity and reliability of study
findings. The non-probability sampling approach limits the findings and results to similar
populations and is not applicable or generalizable to the real world. Complete subscales were not
used from either index, so tests for reliability could not be performed.
The relatively small sample size (128 respondents) for this study limited the breadth of
feedback potential. Time constraints were a limiting factor since data was collected during class
hours. Data from seniors who engage in physical activities under other conditions and settings
was missing (e.g., home gym, large corporate gyms, boutique fitness centers, private fitness
clubs). Sedentary seniors were not a part of this study to reveal why they lack motivation or to
identify barriers to participation. The population sample for this study was delimited to
surveying actively enrolled health and wellness older adult students taking continuing education
classes.
33
Recommendations for Future Research
The participants exercised regularly and provided their perceived motives to exercise and
insight into the barriers they face through aging yet can overcome. Researchers and health
professionals may expand on this study and existing data to provide a deeper explanation of
exercise motives and barriers among seniors who may be in poor health objectively but still feel
that they are aging successfully. Indicators of successful aging include having and maintaining a
healthy body throughout the lifespan, two strong motives observed in this research. Health
professionals and researchers should conduct further studies into defining measures of positive
health determinants for the senior population and which biological and socioeconomic
characteristics influence them.
The irony of being retired yet identifying time constraints as a barrier to exercise warrants
additional investigation into potential changes in later stages of life (post-retirement) regarding
forethought activity and its effect on motives and barriers to exercise. This concept not captured
in the present study would examine the role of health and wellness in relation to its meaning and
purpose in the later stages of life. Researchers could reframe the approach to consider a dynamic
set of health goals and aspirations that are of greater personal importance to older adults as they
relate to aging. Future interventions should focus on how physical activity can contribute to life
satisfaction, a sense of purpose, and a sense of role fulfillment in older age. In line with these
studies, future research might generate a strategy of preventative measures to manage the onset
of age-associated comorbidities such as dementia, osteoporosis, diabetes, and cardiovascular
disease.
34
Conclusion
Older adults have the ability to adapt and respond to physical activity, yet only a small
percentage of seniors meet recommended guidelines. The observations found that active seniors
act following their values of staying and maintaining their health and well-being. Self-efficacy is
a critical influence on motivation and aspects of exercise choices, effort, persistence, and
achievement through aging. Allied health and fitness professionals should align the
recommended physical activity guidelines to promote healthy behavior and to produce positive
health outcomes. Social interaction with others provides support and further information on their
learning and goal attainment for overall health. Seniors may benefit from greater support and
information from their healthcare providers and allied health systems on managing pain or
discomfort safely and successfully, allowing them to improve or maintain physical activity
levels. It seems that being motivated by good health is associated with seeking well-being.
Healthcare providers should take note of this and encourage seniors to enroll in programs and
interventions that maximize both their health and well-being. The findings and results from this
study regarding the importance of health and wellness in older adults are two-fold in that it
further reinforces what researchers know about exercise and physical activity as important
predictors of overall well-being as we get older and as a catalyst for the motivation to move.
35
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45
Appendix A: Study Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Research Information Sheet
PRIMARY RESEARCHER: Kenny Yu
PROTOCOL TITLE: Motives and barriers to physical activity in older adults.
DESCRIPTION
You are invited to participate in a research study. The study’s primary goal is to investigate
motives and barriers in older adults to engage in physical activity classes. The secondary goals
are to evaluate participant outcomes.
TIME INVOLVEMENT
Your participation will take approximately 30 minutes to complete a survey.
Permission: Your participation in this study is voluntary.
RISKS AND BENEFITS
The risks associated with this study are minimal. The learning sessions are similar to other
professional education and training classes. We cannot guarantee or promise that you will
receive any benefits from this study.
PAYMENTS
You will not receive any payment for your participation.
PARTICIPANT’S RIGHTS
If you have read this form and have decided to participate in this project, please understand your
participation is voluntary, and you have the right to withdraw your consent or discontinue
participation at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled.
The alternative is not to participate. You have the right to refuse to answer particular questions.
The results of this research study may be presented at scientific or professional meetings or
published in scientific journals. Your privacy will be maintained in all published and written data
from the study. Your private information collected as part of the research, even if identifiers are
removed, will not be used or distributed for future research studies.
CONTACT INFORMATION
Questions: If you have any questions, concerns, or complaints about this research, its procedures,
risks, and benefits, contact
Kenny Yu at 714-808-4905.
INDEPENDENT CONTACT
If you are not satisfied with how this study is being conducted, or if you have any concerns,
complaints, or general questions about the research or your rights as a participant, please contact
the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB) to speak to someone independent of the research team
at (323)-442-0114 or send an email to oprs@usc.edu or irb@usc.edu. You can also write to the
USC IRB, University of Southern California, 3720 S. Flower Street, Suite 325, Los Angeles, CA
90089.
46
Appendix B: Survey
It helps to have basic personal information about those who complete this survey.
1. How old are you?
2. Your gender:
3. Your employment status P/T (29 hours/week) F/T (30 +/week) Retired
4. Your household situation: I live by myself I live with others
5. On average, how many health or wellness classes do you participate in a week?
6. On average, how many minutes of physical activity do you engage in on a weekly
basis?
Below are a number of statements concerning the reasons people often give when asked
why they exercise. Please read each statement carefully and indicate, by circling the appropriate
number, whether or not each statement is true for you personally. If you do not consider a
statement to be true for you at all, circle the 0. If you think that a statement is very true for you,
indeed, circle the 5. If you think that a statement is partly true for you, then circle the 1, 2, 3, or
4, according to how strongly you feel that it reflects why you exercise or might exercise.
Remember, we want to know why you personally choose to exercise or might choose to
exercise, not whether you think the statements are good reasons for anybody to exercise. 0 = Not
true and 5 = Very true
Personally, I exercise (or might exercise)
7. To help me look younger
8. To show my worth to others
9. To give me space to think
10. To have a healthy body
47
11. To build up my strength
12. Because I enjoy the feeling of exerting myself
13. To spend time with friends
14. Because my doctor advised me to exercise
15. To stay/become more agile
16. To give me goals to work towards
17. To lose weight
18. To prevent health problems
19. Because I find exercise invigorating
20. Because it helps to reduce tension
21. Because I want to maintain good health
22. To increase my endurance
23. Because I find exercising satisfying in and of itself
24. To enjoy the social aspects of exercising
25. To help prevent an illness that runs in my family
26. To maintain flexibility
27. To avoid heart disease
28. To help manage stress
29. For the enjoyment of the experience of exercising
30. To help recover from an illness/injury
31. Because I enjoy physical competition
32. To stay/become flexible
33. Because exercise helps me to burn calories
48
34. Because I feel at my best when exercising
The following is a list of reasons why people engage in physical activity. Respond to
each question (using the scale given) on the basis of how true that response is for you. On this
scale, 0 means not at all true for me, and 7 means very true for me.
35. Because I want to obtain new skills.
36. Because I want to look or maintain weight, so I look better.
37. Because I want to be with my friends.
38. Because I want to improve my existing skills.
39. Because I want to define my muscles so I look better.
40. Because it makes me happy.
41. Because I want to have more energy
42. Because I think it’s interesting.
43. Because I want to be attractive to others.
44. Because I want to meet new people.
45. Because I want to maintain my physical health and well-being.
46. Because I will feel physically unattractive if I don’t.
47. Because my friends want me to.
48. Because I enjoy spending time with others doing this activity
49
Perceived barriers to taking physical health and wellness classes.
49. What challenges or barriers make it difficult for you to participate in physical health
and wellness classes?
50. What supports and resources, if any, do you currently use that help address these
challenges or barriers?
51. What resources or supports, if any, might help you better address the barriers to
participating in physical health and wellness class?
50
Appendix C: Social Behavioral Protocol Template
Study title: Motivation to Move. Seeking to Understand the Motives and Barriers in
Older Adults to Participate in Physical Activity Classes
PI name: Kenny Aaron Yu
Study Procedures
1. Background/Rationale (previously iStar section 11 [exempt] or 12 [expedited/full
board]). This study will examine the motives and barriers in older adults to participate
in physical activity classes. Research indicates that approximately 87% of older adults
have at least one barrier to exercise participation, including low self-efficacy, fear of
injury, lack of social support, and social isolation; however, pain (i.e., fear of pain or
exacerbation of existing pain) is often reported as the most common barrier among
older adults (Costello et al., 2013; O’Neil & Reid, 1991; Pescatello et al., 2013).
Education, positive social support, and behavior theories to promote exercise and
build self-efficacy are necessary to improve exercise engagement and adherence
among older adults for positive health outcomes through physical fitness (Zaleski et
al., 2016).
2. Purpose/Objectives/Aims/Research Questions (previously iStar section 11 (exempt)
or 12 (expedited/full board)
The following research questions will be addressed in this study:
• Which factors motivate older adult students to take health and wellness classes
designed to help them engage in research-recommended guidelines for physical
activity?
• What are the perceived barriers to taking physical health and wellness classes?
51
The purpose of this study is to understand the motivations underlying the participation of
older adults in health and wellness courses, identify barriers to participation, and examine viable
program options for healthcare professionals and facilities to offer. A theoretical framework for
understanding the intersectionality of motivating and limiting factors related to personal,
behavioral, and environmental conditions is presented. Allied health professional programs,
higher education institutions, senior centers, senior residential communities, instructors, and the
student population benefit from this study. The research questions being answered in this study
are listed above.
4. 100–300 Participants (sample) Consistent with iStar sections 10 (expedited and full
board) and (for all submission types)
• Inclusion criteria for this study are active older adults who participate in
formal physical activity classes from multiple community settings.
• The study does not include young adults as it looks at older adults’
experiences.
• The PI is associated with North Orange Continuing Education (NOCE) as a
full-time faculty instructor but is not the instructor for any classes
participating in this study. This study includes physically active seniors from
various class settings throughout north Orange County communities.
5. Recruitment/screening process (sampling strategy)
• A variety of senior facilities will be used to recruit respondents for this study.
These include non-credit older adult continuing education health and wellness
classes in partnership with local community and senior centers.
52
• Respondents will be recruited directly from existing enrolled health and wellness
participants. A survey form will be passed out to all interested students in each class.
The average class size is 50 students. The following announcement will be made by a
staff member at each facility to recruit respondents: You are invited to participate in a
study to examine the motives and barriers to older adults participating in physical
activity courses. The study is being conducted by Kenny Yu as part of his doctoral
dissertation. Your participation in the study is entirely voluntary, and participant
identities will not be known to the organization. If you are interested in participating
in this study and are currently an active participant in the physical activity class,
please read the study information sheet and complete the survey and return it to
Kenny Yu.
Abstract (if available)
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Yu, Kenny Aaron
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Core Title
Motivation to move: seeking to understand the motives and barriers in older adults to participate in physical activity classes
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Educational Leadership
Degree Conferral Date
2023-12
Publication Date
09/07/2023
Defense Date
08/31/2023
Publisher
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