Exploring the role of early trauma on academic performance: qualitative study

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Exploring the Role of Early Trauma on Academic Performance:
Qualitative Study
A DISSERT ATION
Submitted to the Faculty of
Rossier School of Education,
University of Southern California
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
by
Lejla Tricic
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA
August 2023
© Copyright by Lejla Tricic 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Lejla Tricic certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Esther Kim, Committee Member
Gitima Sharma, Committee Member
Robert Fillback, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California 2023

iv

Abstract
This study addresses the macro problem of inadequate resources and support for trauma
survivors in higher educational institutions, resulting in students with prior trauma experiences
being less able to adjust, adapt, and succeed in college. Trauma management is defined as the
development of coping skills necessary to deal with traumatic experiences. Triaging and
managing trauma is a complex endeavor, particularly because not all traumatic experiences leave
lasting damage, and some leave more than the others. This study investigates whether colleges
and universities need to do more to provide a more robust development of skills that will help
manage all types of traumas that students experience, as it is of utmost importance to study every
potential avenue that can be used to help trauma survivors adjust to the classroom, overcome the
effects of the trauma and remain committed to learning and growth. Numerous studies have
delineated the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and post-traumatic stress and
pointed out the consequences of such experiences to adults. Thus, not examining the effect of
trauma on children and young adults, particularly in the classroom, will not only be detrimental
to the impacted population, but to future generations and the entire society, as the effects are
carried into adulthood.

Keywords: trauma management, higher education

v

Dedication
To my beloved Emina and Muhamed who always found a way to cheer me up on a bad
writing day. To my husband Sabahudin, who loved me unconditionally and encouraged me to
pursue my dreams, settled for cold sandwiches on many a day, and put in endless hours of free
babysitting. To my cherished family who have always been a constant source of support and
encouragement in my life, namely tetka Nermana, Emina, Elvira, Aida, and especially Admir
who gave me the best dissertation writing advice ever. To my dear friends who have relentlessly
and fiercely cheered me on: Edisa, Dijana, Melisa and Ramiz, Amela and Muhamed, Semira and
Edin. I also dedicate my work to my late grandmother Halida who I am truly thankful and
blessed to have had in my life, and all the other victims of Bosnian Genocide. And lastly, thank
you, my bff Halida Suljkic, for celebrating each step of this journey with me. My love and
gratitude to you all.

vi

Acknowledgements
This research idea has come to life through the efforts of many people. First and
foremost, I would like to extend a huge thank you to all the individuals that have taken the time
to participate in my study. Next, I am especially grateful to my advisor and committee chair, Dr.
Robert Filback, whose patience and wisdom followed me around the world, as I worked on my
study on almost all the continents. Without your help and encouragement, I wouldn't have been
able to reach where I am today. I am also grateful to my dissertation committee members, Dr.
Esther Kim and Dr. Gitima Sharma, as my doctoral journey would not have been possible
without their enduring support, invaluable guidance, and expertise. I owe you a great deal of
gratitude for much-appreciated advice and constant encouragement throughout my dissertation.
Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Lyn Johnson, Dr. Vida Samiian, and Dr. Honora Chapman. I am
very fortunate to have such encouraging mentors during my educational journey. Thank you, Dr.
Michelle Gundy and Dr. Jolie Mason, for being my study buddies, and the amazing Cohort 18. I
firmly believe that my words and gratitude will never be able to express how much I appreciate
all those who helped me complete this project. Thank you.

Study registration #
Lejla Tricic is now at the English Department, California State University of Fresno.
She has no conflicts of interest to disclose.
Correspondence regarding this study can be sent to Lejla Tricic, Mail Stop 390, Peters Business
Building, 5245 N. Backer Ave., PB98, Fresno, CA 93740-8001. Email: Ltricic@csufresno.edu.

vii

Table of Contents
Page
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
List of Abbreviations...................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY................................................................ 1
Context and Background of the Problem ............................................................................ 2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .................................................................. 6
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 7
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 9
Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................... 11
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................. 12
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................. 14
Early Definition of Trauma ............................................................................................... 14
Characteristics of the Affected Population ....................................................................... 15
Human Development Theory .......................................................................................... 211
Existing Strategies for Trauma Management in High-Risk Communities ....................... 25
Challenges in the Context of Trauma Management .......................................................... 34
Pessimistic Approaches to Trauma-inspired Care ............................................................. 35
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 40
Implications of Learning and Motivational Theory .......................................................... 42
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 42

viii

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 43
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 44
Overview of Design .......................................................................................................... 49
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 63
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 64
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 65
Trauma Effects .................................................................................................................. 66
Environmental and Social Relationships .......................................................................... 78
Institutional Support.......................................................................................................... 86
Summary of Research Findings ........................................................................................ 96
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................ 99
Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 100
Themes ............................................................................................................................ 103
Recommendations ........................................................................................................... 108
Limitations and Delimitations......................................................................................... 121
Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................................... 122
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 123
References ................................................................................................................................... 125
Appendix A: Recruitment Flyer .................................................................................................. 137
Appendix B: Recruitment Email ................................................................................................. 139
Appendix C: Consent Form ........................................................................................................ 141
Appendix D: IRB Letter .............................................................................................................. 145
Appendix E: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 148

ix

List of Tables
Table 1 Participant Demographic, Degree, and Trauma Detail and Summary ........................... 555
Table 2 Domains, Core ideas, Categories ................................................................................... 611
Table 3 Summary of Results ....................................................................................................... 977

x

List of Figures
Figure 1 Student Enrollment per Campus, California Public Universities ..................................... 8
Figure 2 Crime Rates in California Counties, 2021 ...................................................................... 19
Figure 3 Distribution of international students in California public universities ......................... 20
Figure 4 NOLA Framework ........................................................................................................ 388
Figure 5 NOLA’s K-12 Intervention Programs ........................................................................... 400
Figure 6 Conceptual Framework (according to Creswell & Plano Clark, (2011)). .................... 411

xi

List of Abbreviations
ACE Adverse Childhood Experience

APA American Psychological Association

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

NCTSN National Child Trauma and Stress Network

PTSD Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

1

Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Statistics show that more than half of all U.S. children have experienced one or more
traumatic events in their childhood, with many not only exposed to just one, but an
amalgamation of multiple traumatic events of distinct types (CDC, 2023; SAMHSA, 2022).
According to Felitti et al. (1998), 67% of the total US population has suffered at least one
“adverse childhood experience” (ACE), and 12.6% have experienced more than four such
experiences (p. 37). The National Survey of Children’s Health (2016) reports, “46% of the
nation’s youth aged 17 and under report experiencing at least one trauma,” with divorce, family
violence, incarceration and drug abuse listed as the most common traumatic experiences (para.
1).
Koslouski and Stark (2021) explain that despite such widespread encounters of American
school children with at least one traumatic event “which may have significant negative impact
and negative consequences in the classroom…teachers are not routinely taught trauma-informed
practices” (p. 430). Teachers compensate for the lack of a systematic, organized approach in
dealing with trauma, by self-informing and improvising in the classroom, while balancing their
regular duties, relationships with parents, administration, and accrediting bodies, which is
leading to burnout and chronic stress. Adolescents that somehow manage to transit out of such a
system into college classrooms will unequivocally be lacking skills to meet the challenges of
college education.
Moreover, while many K-12 educational institutions have adopted some method of
dealing with the common adverse childhood experiences such as divorce, domestic violence,
substance abuse, or parent incarceration, a recent body of research shows that that might not be
enough. Due to a growing number of mass shootings, terrorism, gang-related violence, as well as

2

the influx of refugees from the war zones, and the increased enrollment of veterans that served in
combat, the institutions of higher education need to provide different, more intrusive types of
trauma management more fitting to the student experiences. Educational institutions must
become versed in the ways extreme violence affects the students and prepared to manage war-
like trauma in the classroom. This problem is especially important to address in higher education
institutions like those in the poorest regions of California, also known for the highest crime rates
in the state.
Context and Background of the Problem
Trauma can be defined as an emotional response to any event or occurrence that causes
temporary or lasting damage to the physical, psychological, or emotional stability of a person
experiencing it. The scope of the event or occurrence does not determine whether someone will
experience trauma or not, as the response to hardship is individual: it varies and depends on
one’s support network, maturity, and the level of awareness. The American Psychiatric
Association (APA, 2022) defines trauma as inability to function as a resulting reaction to the
events in which there is actual or threatened “death, serious injury, or violence” (p. 271).
Inability to cope with terrifying situations, such as natural or human-made disasters, impacts
both children and adults, but children lack the perspective to process their emotions and move on
after traumatic events. The effects of trauma relate to “resulting thoughts, feelings, behaviors, or
changes in relationships” (APA, 2022, p. 271). Constant fear that these sudden, catastrophic
events could reoccur creates a sense of doom and a loss of control, where survivors constantly
feel endangered and unsafe. Some examples of traumatic events include early loss of parents or
loved ones, domestic violence, abuse, rape, or war.

3

The effects of traumatic stress are permeating and can even be measured on babies.
Although the effects on children could seem harder to assess, because of the inability of a child
to speak or verbalize their traumatic experience, Terr (1988, p.31) contends that the “visual
memory” of a traumatic event can precede child’s ability to speak, while Gaensbauer (1982)
suggests that stress response in infants as young as three months can be measured based on their
direct response to the encountered stress. Scheeringa et al. (1995) claim that the effects on
children, such as depression and anxiety, are almost identical to the stress responses in adults.
Not every exposure to trauma leads to damage, according to Substance Abuse and Mental
Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2022), nor does every trauma result in a
development of the post-traumatic stress disorder, as the “duration and perceived severity of
trauma in conjunction with protective factors” makes a big difference in whether an individual
develops PTSD or not (para. 3). However, every individual experiencing trauma is at the risk of
developing PTSD as an immediate consequence or in future, regardless of whether trauma
occurred once or was repeated over time. The symptoms of PTSD include intrusive and upsetting
thoughts and feelings, such as suspicion, insecurity, and paranoia. Failing to adequately treat
PTSD leads to lowered quality of life for the victim, prevented socialization, meaningful
relationships or even employment. PTSD can be diagnosed after either civilian or combat
trauma.
Civilian trauma can be defined as a physical or mental injury inflicted by the exposure to
ACE. Using the seven categories to describe traumatic experiences (psychological, physical, or
sexual abuse; violence against mother; or living with household members who were substance
abusers, mentally ill or suicidal, or ever imprisoned), Felitti et al. (1998) administered a survey to
13, 494 adults, of which number 70% responded, confirming that a number of trauma survivors

4

is overwhelming. Over half of respondents reported at least one, a quarter more than two, and a
tenth over four such experiences. In contrast, Turner and Lloyd (1995), define 20 types of life
traumas, and show that the exposure to multiple traumas is very common, and that there is a
strong link between the “cumulative adversity,” or exposure to multiple traumas during lifetime,
and poor mental health as an outcome (p. 361). Turner and Lloyd contend that “failure to take
account of such events has resulted in the systematic underestimation of the role of stress
exposure in accounting for variations in emotional distress and disorder” carrying distress into
adulthood (Turner & Lloyd, 1995, p. 361). Numerous studies have delineated the relationship
between adverse childhood experiences and post-traumatic stress and pointed out the
consequences of such experiences to adults. Based on the data gathered from Kaiser Hospital and
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Felitti et al. (1998) demonstrate that
survivors of adverse childhood experiences suffered from severe risk to physical health in
adulthood, such as triple the risk of the cancer and heart disease, twelve times more risk of a
suicide, and at least 20 years shortened lifespan.
Combat trauma can be defined as a physical or mental injury inflicted by the exposure to
events where death seems imminent: survival or observation of murder, serious injury or
dismemberment, torture, or severe destruction of a safe space. Lives are clearly and distinctly
threatened, and survival seems unlikely. According to the CDC (2020), firearms are “the leading
cause of death among American children and teens,” with one out of ten deaths relating to
children under the age of 19 (para. 2). In 2019, 3,371 children and teens were killed with guns—
one every 2 hours and 36 minutes. According to Lee et al. (2022), since 2017, firearm injury
accounts as the leading cause of death of minor children, with the average of 12 children killed
and 32 injured each day. Database of on-campus shootings compiled by The Washington Post

5

shows that, since the Columbine tragedy in 1999, more than 310,000 children have experienced
mass shootings on their campus (Cox et al., 2018). Deb and Gangaram (2023) analyzed a
database compiled by the Center for Homeland Defense between 1994 to 2005, to assess the
impact of combat-like experiences, following the exposed students into adulthood. Using the
Behavioral Risk Factors Surveillance System survey data from 2003-2012, Deb and Gangram
demonstrate that “relative to their unexposed peers, students exposed to school shootings
experience declines in health and well-being, engage in more risky behaviors, and have worse
education and labor market outcomes” (Deb & Gangram, 2023, p. 1).
It is fairly easy to identify civilian or combat-related violence. However, there are
situations when the two overlap. Community violence is an example of such an occurrence.
When combat-like events transpire in a civilian setting, with intentional acts of violence
committed in public against an individual or a group not related to the perpetrators, triaging
resulting trauma requires reliance on methods used with both civilian and combat-related trauma
management. Examples of community violence include mobbing, hazing, gang conflicts, mass
shooting in public areas, and terrorist attacks, usually unexpectedly and randomly and without
any justification or explanation. The sudden onset of community violence and the surprise factor
leaves deep emotional consequences in the community for decades, according to The National
Child Trauma and Stress Network (NCTSN, 2022), children that live in such communities
“experience the world as unsafe and terrifying” (para. 5). According to the CDC (2023),
adolescents (ages 10-34) in racially segregated communities are four times more likely to
experience community violence. Its research indicates that 25,000 deaths, as well as 1.4 million
injuries result from community violence, with resulting side effects of increased risk for PTSD
and chronic illnesses in survivors, as well as economic devastation, as community violence

6

“limits business growth and prosperity, strains education, justice, and medical systems; and
slows community progress” (CDC, 2023, para. 3). Given the importance of trauma management
in survivor’s lives, its presence in higher education is significant (in terms of its impact on
students) but understudied. Therefore, this study seeks to examine the resources that are in place
to support students and their impact on academic performance to bring awareness on the
survivors’ plight in higher education.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this project is to gather data about the effect of childhood traumatic
experiences of California public universities’ alumni using in-depth interviews, in order to
understand the impact of the civilian trauma or the ACE, community violence trauma, and the
combat-related trauma on former students. This project collected data about the symptoms and
behaviors that alumni experienced as students, including data about trauma inspired care
provided on campus such as professional support and training in use of self-help strategies. It
also identified obstacles to learning of trauma-impacted students, and the learning methods and
strategies that were used during academic careers, as these factors are crucial to motivation,
engagement, and subsequent retention of trauma survivors.
The purpose of this project is also to support California public universities, in order to
boost the enrollment and improve student retention. Since its faculty and staff work directly with
the entering freshman, training must be provided to implement these innovative trauma-
management strategies to help this group of contingent faculty deal with our most vulnerable
students, especially first-generation and ESL students.
Finally, this study intends to provide college students a voice in a recent discussion of
trauma management in the classrooms, add an important analysis to the growing body of

7

research on the successful teaching methods and trauma care, and make recommendations for
further research on the alternative educational methods that can be used with college-age trauma
survivors.
The following research questions guide this study:
RQ1: What was the nature of trauma impact that recent graduates of a California
public university have experienced and what role did it play in their academic
performance?
RQ2: What factors were in place to support the participants?
RQ3: What can be learned from their experiences?
Importance of the Study
Advances in human development science across a number of fields have shown that life
prospects of children will be affected profoundly by the early childhood experiences, as they
leave a lasting impact on the emerging brain development and the life-long health prospects.
Adverse childhood experiences invariably leave a permanent detrimental impact on children’s
learning, persistence, and motivation to succeed. Higher education institutions cannot simply
depend on the K-12 system to recognize and triage the trauma that students experience but
should instead recognize that higher education is the last gateway between a student and the “real
world,” and should integrate trauma inspired care into all classrooms, to help students secure
“educational achievement, economic productivity, responsible citizenship, and lifelong health”
(Shonkoff, 2011, p. 254). As future pillars of any community, college students directly impact the
social and economic fabric of society. Investment into their well-being is a direct investment in
the community.

8

Since trauma disproportionately affects non-traditional students, consideration of the
impact of trauma in the classroom is an equity issue: the affected students tend to drop out of
academia, the professional careers, and the workplace, in general, perpetuating the cycle of
poverty and social disadvantage. To maintain equitable outcomes, such students need alternative
outreach, education, and motivational practices.

Figure 1
Student Enrollment per Campus, California Public Universities

Note. Enrollment data between 2016 and 2022. From “Student Enrollment and Demographics,”
2023, California Department of Education. https://www.cde.ca.gov/ds/. In the public domain.

9

The average drop-out rates in California public universities are alarming: on average,
only 53% of students graduate, with numbers even lower for the minority students. If trauma
survivors are to succeed in an academic setting, educators must understand the effects of trauma
on learning and offer techniques that can improve students’ well-being and psychological
stability, before being able to teach content. The ability to triage trauma and assist students in
fitting in with traditional students would benefit everyone. It would improve retention, which
would benefit the institution financially. It would reduce the faculty’s workload, increasing job
satisfaction and performance. It would improve student relationships in the classroom, creating a
more cohesive community predisposed to easier adopting of the material. It would benefit the
local employers, as students that are better adjusted would make more productive and happier
employees. Finally, it would benefit the entire communities, and the economy of the entire state
of California.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
This study is based on the human development theoretical framework, to describe the
physical, mental and emotional stages of human development. Particularly, this study will rely on
the findings of Vygotsky who proposed that human development is a result of social interaction
within culture, and that More Knowledgeable Other plays a crucial role guiding the learner
toward growth and development. Also, it will rely on Piaget’s postulates that human
development happens when the student modifies already present knowledge by new observations
or adaptation of the existing information, mainly in interaction with peers. A special focus will be
on the impact of trauma on the learning process and motivation during the developmental years.
Learning and motivation are integral parts of human development and naturally exist in
all human beings. However, trauma interrupts both processes, and endangers students’ cognitive

10

development. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2010) research shows that
when children experience severe, prolonged episodes of adversity, the architecture of the brain
itself becomes impacted, reducing capability for learning and adapting to stress in later life. As
scientific research shows, the human brain controls response to stress by a complex set of brain
circuits and hormone systems, that triggers the production of chemicals and stress hormones
when perceiving threat, preparing the body for the fight or flight response. McEwen (2008)
explains that “the sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system produces adrenaline in the
central part of the adrenal gland, and the hypothalamic pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system
produces cortisol in the outer shell of the adrenal gland” (p. 178). While some stress is necessary
for protection from danger and survival in adverse circumstances and can even create a positive
outcome as it motivates success, chronic stress is toxic.
Toxic stress, during the early childhood damages the brain circuits and hormonal systems
by making them too reactive or too slow to activate, resulting in perceiving threat where there is
none, or failing to perceive threat altogether. If activated for too long or too frequently, research
shows, this regulatory system becomes poorly controlled, and leads to a number of possible
physical and mental disorders, such as diabetes, stroke, anxiety, depression, addiction, and other
risky behaviors. Failure to turn off cortisol production, according to Sapolsky et al. (2000), can
lead to “suppression of immune function, other types of memory, and contributions to metabolic
syndrome, bone mineral loss, and muscle atrophy” (p. 78). Lupien et al. (1998) establish the
connection between the stress and “change [in] the architecture of regions in the brain that are
essential for learning and memory” (p. 70). Wiswede et al. (2014) report that cortisol turns on
and off “glucocorticoid receptor gene, which affects the long-term responsiveness of the brain to
stress-induced cortisol release, neurotrophic receptor genes that help to alter neuronal

11

architecture, and the myelin basic protein gene, which is involved in regulating the development
of the “insulation on a nerve that increases the efficiency of signal transmission” (p. 56). Overuse
of the regulatory system rewires the expression of the genes that manage stress, leading to
“impairments in learning, memory, and the ability to regulate certain stress responses” (National
Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2010, para. 2). Such extensive biological reactions
require extensive care and management, because if left untreated, the students are predisposed to
academic failure.
The study will inductively collect data on the impact of trauma-informed approaches on
promoting motivation and academic performance from students at California public universities
through qualitative methods such as interviews. Data will be cataloged according to the student
evaluations of their academic experiences in relationship with trauma management techniques
they used and the type of support system they report. A unified report will be generated and used
to inform participants about the results of the study. The analysis will be distributed to trauma
management programs for better understanding of student needs and reimagination of the student
retention programs. Finally, this study will be used to serve as a basis for lobbying legislative
bodies in an attempt to create awareness of trauma management needs through new policies and
legislation, and to support future research in this field.
Definition of Terms
The following definitions will provide clarity and a reference point for this study:
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) refers to trauma caused by psychological,
physical, or sexual abuse; violence against mother; or living with household members
who were substance abusers, mentally ill or suicidal, or ever imprisoned.
Civilian trauma refers to trauma related to one of the ACE.

12

Combat-related trauma refers to trauma related to one of the violent acts of war (i.e.,
murder, torture, dismemberment, displacement).
Community Violence Trauma refers to trauma related to experiencing war-like trauma
in a non-combat environment in public setting (i.e., mass shooting, gang violence,
terrorist attacks).
Refugee is a displaced student that had to leave native country due to political turmoil
or war.
Trauma management refers to teaching or coaching that is seeking to relieve
symptoms of trauma in students.
Trauma-informed approach refers to awareness of trauma impact, research and
management techniques.
Trauma-informed pedagogy refers to pedagogy or coaching aware of trauma impact
in students.
Organization of the Study
The dissertation follows a traditional five-chapter model. Chapter One discusses the
problem of practice, the importance of study, theoretical framework, and the chosen
methodology. Chapter Two provides a classification of the types of traumas and points out gaps
in the existing practices while dealing with learners that have experienced trauma. It also
highlights the relevant literature on alternative teaching methodologies used with the student war
victims and the conceptual framework for the study. Chapter Three details the research
methodology for identifying, observing, and analyzing data to provide insight into student
experiences of trauma-informed approach in classrooms. Chapter Four provides the results and

13

findings. Chapter Five details the proposed recommendations for trauma management at
California public universities and for current educators of future incoming college students.

14

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This chapter intends to provide an extensive literature review to define the concept of
trauma and describe its variations. It discusses the effects that trauma can leave behind when
experienced in childhood, especially in regard to learning and motivation, which makes it very
difficult for trauma survivor children to maintain the same pace of academic advancement as
their peers. This chapter also reviews the role of the educator in managing trauma and discusses
strategies that have been used successfully in the past, including outside of U.S. borders.
This literature review also discussed existing approaches used to measure the success of the
trauma-informed methodologies and their shortcomings. An example of an educational leader
whose systematic trauma-informed initiative has been universally successful has been discussed,
as well as shortcomings in the existing research in measurement of trauma-management success
in educational institutions, including a framework of how this study attempts to measure the
shortcomings in the educational institution it focusses on, if any exist.
Early Definition of Trauma
In 1998, Fellitti et al. published results of the three-yearlong study on patients of Kaiser
Permanente San Diego Medical Appraisal Clinic, a large hospital system that assists over 45,000
patients. While reviewing medical histories of patients suffering from a number of life-
threatening illnesses, scholars noted that there was a common thread in their medical histories: a
high incidence of reported adverse experiences in childhood. The survey was designed to inquire
about four categories of adverse experiences: physical abuse, psychological abuse, sexual abuse
and household dysfunction, where household members were involved with substance abuse,
exhibited criminal behavior, mental illness or domestic violence. Based on the results of the
13,494 received survey responses, Fellitti et al. (1998) realized that there is a strong correlation

15

with childhood experiences and ill health: simply put, they claimed that “the childhood exposure
to abuse and other potentially damaging childhood experiences should be recognized as the basic
causes of morbidity and mortality in adult life” (p. 246). This seminal study led to the
establishment of the classification system for the types of experiences that cause physical,
psychological and emotional damage to children, or the adverse childhood experiences (ACE),
setting the primer for the study of the long-term effects and consequences of such experiences.
Characteristics of the Affected Population
Population that this study addresses is adult learners (age 18-34) in California public
universities that have been exposed to severe trauma akin to combat-related experiences, or
community violence in their childhood, have at some point exhibited signs of trauma, which,
according to SAMHSA, are the following: Elementary School Children:
become anxious or fearful
feel guilt or shame
have a hard time concentrating
have difficulty sleeping

Middle and High School Children:
feel depressed or alone
develop eating disorders or self-harming behaviors
begin abusing alcohol or drugs
participate in risky sexual behavior (SAMHSA, 2022).

16
Childhood trauma causes a range of physical and psychological issues, which is
especially alarming as, according to the CDC (2020), the second leading cause of death in youth
ages 10 to 24 is suicide. Even though the results of this study will be applicable to the general
population, three demographic groups have been identified where the results of this study will
make a more resounding impact: African American and Native American communities, refugees,
and veterans. The study proposes that educators need to support adolescents affected by race-
related trauma through “building race-conscious pathways,” utilizing the established trauma
triage techniques (CDC, 2020, p. 34).
The CDC (2020) shows that African American children have the highest gun death rate,
being four times more likely to die by a gunshot than their white peers. In December 2019, the
Congressional Black Caucus’s Emergency Task Force on Black Youth Suicide and Mental Health
published a report that found that “Black youth under 13 are twice as likely to die by suicide than
their white counterparts and the suicide death rate for Black youth is increasing faster than any
other racial or ethnic group” (p. 12). The suicide rate for Native American youth is four times
higher than their white counterparts.
Besides the exposure to trauma through violence against and within these communities
and disproportionate exposure to ACE, these communities are also chronically exposed to social
adversity and discrimination to such levels, that the health professionals have identified a so-
called “weathering effect” on this population (Ronald et al., 2021). Sullivan and Simonson
(2016) researched the relationship between the race-related stressors and accelerated biological
aging and found that African American communities age faster due to exposure to trauma, with
“elevated rates of illness, disability and mortality seen … as a psychological response to the
structural barriers, material hardships, and identity threats” (p. 63). Similar parallels can be

17
drawn with Native American communities. Alvarez (2020) notes that there is lack of systematic
review on trauma caused by racism on African American children in U.S. schools, or race-
conscious scholarship on trauma in educational context. Alvarez suggests that “a structurally
racist and White supremacist system can shape students’ experiences with trauma and the
dominant explanatory frames for discussing and addressing trauma” (Alvarez, 2020, p. 583).
Another community that will benefit from this study is refugees and asylees from war-
torn countries. Per the Homeland Security (n.d.) definition, “A refugee is a person outside his or
her country of nationality who is unable or unwilling to return to his or her country of nationality
because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion,
nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion” (p. 1). According to the
Migration Policy Institute (2022), over 70,000 refugees annually enter the United States, fleeing
the horrors left behind. According to UNHCR (2010), “47% of persons of interest and 44% of
refugees are younger than 18 years of age, with approximately 39% of new refugees in the
United States being children and youth” (para. 7). Being displaced from home and the
community, refugee children are also at risk of being separated from parents or caretakers, which
further exacerbates the impact of trauma due to a lack of support and safety, and “frequently
exposes them to exploitation, trafficking, and abuse (United Nations Children's Fund, 2012, para.
8). Barrett and Berger (2021) report challenges that teachers face attempting to assist trauma
survivor students of refugee backgrounds, particularly when it comes to “limited sharing of
relevant background information, uncertainty about presenting classroom lessons sensitively,
when to refer students for specialized intervention, and how best to support refugee students
when external factors create continued challenges” (p. 12). Barrett and Berger report that there is

18
much to be desired in the use of existing practices and recommend further study, as do d’Abreu
et al. (2020).
The final demographic group that would benefit from this study are veterans, a
significantly present group of learners in universities across the United States. According to Doe
and Langstraat (2014), “Institutions of higher education are experiencing the largest influx of
enrolled veterans since World War II, and these student veterans are transforming post-secondary
classroom dynamics” (p. 29). It is necessary, argues Artime et al. (2018), to act on this trend and
provide adequate mental health services and other accommodations to veteran students affected
by combat-related trauma.
Based on Diab and Shultz (2021) qualitative study that used ecological-transactional
theory, there is a strong correlation between the student academic underachievement in unstable,
combat-like environments, and the lack of a support system. Diab and Shultz interviewed 12
students that have underperformed academically, all exhibiting Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD), all “lacking the social support system through lack of care, safety, or stability at home,”
in addition to surviving multiple war trauma experiences affecting their mental stability (Diab &
Shultz, 2021, p. 51). Due to lack of support at home or in school, these students suffered weak
cognitive function, exhibited poor student habits, and disinterest in learning. As they were not
offered any alternative teaching methodology, students were unable to adopt the content or move
through the educational system, resulting in a deep sense of failing and guilt. This study will
demonstrate that such tragedies can be averted with a better understanding of trauma in the
classroom, and better educator preparation.
Ellis et al. (2013) point out a common characteristic of trauma-impacted students face:
poverty. Although Project SHIFA, a multi-tiered program that includes using “prevention and

19
community resilience building for the community at large, school-based early intervention
groups for at-risk students, and direct intervention using an established trauma model (trauma
systems therapy)” (p. 56). Ellis et al. showed great signs of success due to high level of
engagement of the Somali refugee youths, due to poverty and the lack of resources, the program
still had negligible success, as “resource hardships were significantly associated with symptoms
of post-traumatic stress disorder over time” (Ellis et al., 2013, p. 131). Only after the stabilization
of resource hardships, there was an improvement in the symptoms of depression and post-
traumatic stress disorder of participants. In many settings, where poverty is widespread, both in
the United States and globally, poverty is a number one destabilizer of the trauma-impacted
population, as it introduces secondary stress and impacts the time and effort that participants can
dedicate to recovery.
Figure 2
Crime Rates in California Counties, 2021

Note. Chart shows California’s 15 largest counties, sorted by population size. From Public Policy
Institute of California, 2023.

20

For example, Central Valley has the highest crime rate in California. According to Public
Policy Institute of California (2023), San Joaquin Valley region, which includes Central Valley,
had 640 violent incidents per 100,000 residents in 2021, and the highest poverty rate in
California (Fresno metro area reports 33%, and Fresno county reports 20% households are below
poverty level). This study predicts that a large percentage of study participants would have
experienced the effects of crime, poverty, or community violence, and are survivors of trauma.
California public universities also serve international students from war-torn countries of
Eastern Europe, Middle East, and Central Africa. Some students come from economically
devastated environments or are climate refugees, while the others escaped oppressive systems of
government, having escaped torture, prison camps or morality police. Many of the students have
difficulties in resolving post-traumatic stress disorder, and some are disabled as a result of their
experiences.
Figure 3
Distribution of International Students in California Public Universities

21
Note. Chart shows origin countries of enrolled international students between 2018 and 2022.
From Data & Statistics, 2023, California Department of Education.
https://www.cde.ca.gov/ds/. In the public domain.

Human Development Theory
Understanding of the learning process has developed in the last century, as numerous
theories of leaning have been developed to understand the process. On its basic level, learning
has been defined as acquisition of new knowledge, skills, values, and behaviors, in some sort of
interaction between the learner and the environment. There are three main theoretical
frameworks theorizing how such an exchange happens: behaviorism, constructivism, and
cognitivism. Within many learning theories have been developed, each describe the interaction
between the learner and the environment with a different perspective.
Behaviorism assumes that a stimulus causes a certain behavior, and that the learner needs
to be provided information on what that behavior needs to be. As Pavlov demonstrated with the
infamous salivating dog experiment, behaviorism assumes that the learner is a blank slate that
needs to be filled with the information and rewarded upon mastering the desired behavior.
Constructivism assumes that new ideas are constructed based on previously adopted knowledge
and experiences, and the learning process is individual and unique to each learner. Vygotsky
proposed that a parent or an educator needs to guide the student toward the next zone of
development. In contrast, cognitivism assumes that the learner needs to process the information
and reflect on it, taking an active role and agency in the learning process. An extension of
cognitivism is a social learning theory, where students learn by observing others and construct
their interpretation of the observed information. According to Bandura (2011), human individuals

22
are self-developing, self-regulating, self-reflecting and proactive. They function in three modes:
individual, proxy and collective, with intentionality, forethought, self-reaction and self-reflection.
Therefore, students are in charge of their own growth, if stirred in the right direction.
Motivation and learning are closely related, as without one there is no other. Current
theories define motivation in education by expectancy-value theory and task-value theory.
Expectancy-value theory, according to Wigfield and Eccles (2000), suggests that motivation
arises out of a student's belief in success, and a student’s belief in the ability to accomplish a
task. Basically, the more a student believes in the current ability to perform and the future
success, the more motivated the student is to complete the task. Task value theory, on the other
hand, suggests that motivation depends on the perceived value of the result of a task. Wigfield
and Eccles (1992) state that there are four possible types of value: intrinsic value, attainment
value, utility value, and cost. Intrinsic value relates to the pure enjoyment while engaging in a
task, where motivation is internal and personal. Attainment value relates to motivation by
achieving an important personal goal that a student has personally become invested in. Utility
value refers to motivation by seeing a potential future value in accomplishing a goal. Cost refers
to the proverbial price that a student has to pay in order to achieve a goal, and the threshold at
which the cost would become too great to remain motivated.
As this literature review demonstrates, trauma leaves a significant impact on learners, and
their motivation to succeed. Through evaluating and analyzing teaching methods and
instructional techniques used with the survivors of trauma, this study seeks to point out the
individual and organizational factors that are impacting the motivation, engagement, and
subsequent retention of trauma survivors.

23
Numerous researchers firmly establish teachers at the core of trauma-impacted students’
rehabilitation and reintegration into the classroom. Willis and Nagel (2014) rely on social
psychological and neurobiological models of child development to convey that it is crucial that
teachers take an active approach in treating trauma, in order to promote learning. Using
quantitative study and interviews of stakeholders in the elementary school in Northern Uganda,
Willis and Nagel demonstrate that it is the educators who can unify the body of knowledge and
fulfill gaps left after fragmentation caused by trauma, drawing on conclusions of Annan et al.
(2006), who suggest that “education has been identified as a protective factor for reducing the
likelihood of high emotional stress” (p. 65) and Strauss and Corbin (2008), who suggest that
supportive environments can create a safety net and offset the impact of the trauma, suggesting
that this study is a primer for treating trauma-impacted students elsewhere in the world.
This is also the main premise of Barrett and Berger (2021), who use a quasi-randomized
controlled study, implementing teacher-delivered intervention to control groups of middle school
students, measuring signs of mental distress after educator intervention. After teachers in Sderot,
Israel, delivered focused intervention to 154-seventh and eighth grade students, deeply impacted
by combat trauma due to daily shelling from the Gaza region, Barrett and Berger (2021) noted a
significant reduction in posttraumatic stress-related symptoms. The intervention included 16
sessions of “skill-oriented and present-focused” program called Extended Enhancing Resilience
Amongst Students Experiencing Stress, or ERASE-Stress intervention, followed by the
assessment of its impact in regard to the “somatic complaints, functional impairment, and
anxiety” (Barrett & Berger, 2021, p. 62). The presence of PTSD was found to decrease from the
baseline of 43.5% students exhibiting PTSD to 28% after a month-long program. Barrett and
Berger propose that such interventions need to be integrated into community mental health

24
policies, especially in communities prone to combat-like violence. Such conclusions have been
promoted by a number of studies of educational institutions in Israel, such as Abel and Friedman
(2009), Bar-On (2000), Karayanni (1996), and many others.
Similar studies have been completed on Palestinian side of the conflict. El-Khodary and
Samara (2020) evaluated a similar strategy in use in the Gaza Strip area of Palestine, a hotly
contested region where combat-like environment is a daily occurrence. Under the guidance of the
counseling department of the Ministry of Education, an intervention program was implemented
on a large scale, encompassing all students in order to reduce the impact of combat-like trauma.
The sample of the study included 572 students under the age of 18, including both male and
female. El-Khodary and Samara (2020) utilized War-Traumatic Events Checklist (W-TECh) to
enable self-reporting of the traumatic events, assessing the impact by using Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder Symptoms Scale (PTSDSS), Anxiety Symptoms Scale, and Child Depression
Inventory (p. 62). Baseline showed that 57.5% of students exhibited PTSD before the start of the
intervention process. Two months later, as El-Khodary and Samara (2020) report, the prevalence
of PTSD reduced by 12%, demonstrating a success of utilizing school-based programs to deal
with war trauma. The other Gaza Strip-based studies show similar results (Shamia, 2015; Samara
et al., 2020).
Such understanding has led to the implementation of trauma-informed pedagogy in
global communities where violence has frequently left a mark on history. In Australia, where
indigenous and nonindigenous community members have historically lived in conflict,
developing such a pedagogy served as a community organization principle. As a result of a three-
year long study, Harrison et al. (2020) found that using trauma-informed pedagogy allowed a
deeper understanding of history and conflicts that affected multitude of victims, when

25
“accompanied by management process that will mitigate the potential detrimental emotional
impacts on such learning” (p. 62), what Lawson et al. (2019) name “trauma literacy” (p. 439).
Therefore, due to the immediate impact that educators have on students, the need to close the
gaps in knowledge caused by trauma exposure, the improved ability to understand trauma
through history, it is important to develop a systematic approach to the effects of trauma in the
classroom, emphasizing training and professional development in this area for all stakeholders.
Existing Strategies for Trauma Management in High-Risk Communities
As discussed above, the Ministries of Education in Israel and Palestine have focused on
short-term intervention programs that can be deployed quickly and efficiently, which is
understandable given the hostilities they exchange in dispute over the hotbed Gaza Strip region.
Where there are conditions for that, however, a more consistent and involved process would be
preferable. Integrating a long term, comprehensive program on an ongoing basis would lead to
more reliable results, have a better impact on students, and reduce the burnout of teachers and
counselors, giving them time to fully implement the techniques that they use with their students.
Besides the short-term interventions used in the conflict zones, many other techniques of varying
length have been attempted to deal with trauma-impacted students with more or less success. It is
important to evaluate their efficacy next to each other and compare their results.
Most of the techniques discussed here rely on some type of psychotherapy, which,
according to American Psychology Association (APA, 2022), is a use of learning and
motivational strategies designated to help participants with a wide range of mental illnesses and
emotional difficulties. Through the coaching process, psychotherapy can guide participants
towards better functioning, socialization, and well-being. Psychotherapy can be conducted with
individuals, families, or groups, in timely increments from 30 to 90 minutes a week, with a

26
therapist committed to understanding the client above all, developing a sense of trust,
collaboration and reliability. Most of the clients that receive psychotherapy report positive
outcomes, with better management of emotions and behaviors. Even more encouragingly, in
numerous studies, brain imaging techniques have shown physiological changes in neural
pathways as a result (Wiswede et al., 2014). The types of psychotherapy depend on the needs and
circumstances of the patient and are often combined for better results.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is one of the most common types of psychotherapy.
It involves tasking patients with identifying and changing thinking and behavioral patterns,
replacing them with more accurate thoughts and behaviors. This is a fairly common strategy used
in trauma-informed schools, where school psychologists or counselors work with children one on
one, or in small groups, teaching them to identify the thoughts and feelings that trigger trauma
and the ways they can replace such thoughts with more positive ones. Akinsulure-Smith (2009)
uses group psychoeducational therapy as a trauma intervention strategy, relying on groups to
provide internal support during the treatment. Akinsulure-Smith’s study adds another layer to
understanding of trauma, because the sample of population for the study is the refugees and
asylees that survived war, displacement, and human rights abuses, only to survive 9/11 attacks,
becoming re-traumatized in the process. Akinsulure-Smith suggests that secondary trauma has
even more impact than primary trauma, since the stress coping system has already been impacted
by the first experience. Through trauma education, the participants are introduced to stress
management techniques, working in peer groups to process the learned material and learn self-
regulation. By adding the thematic approach to group issues and challenges, Akinsulure-Smith’s
study seeks to transform the individual learner into a community participant, using comradery
and group-created identity to offset the impact of re-traumatization. Another type of

27
psychotherapy, according to APA, is interpersonal therapy, a method that teaches participants
how to communicate about their unresolved conflicts and feelings, and how to express the
emotions in a healthy way. It is commonly used to treat grief and depression.
Layne et al. (2001) uses trauma/grief focused group therapy in the treatment of combat-
related trauma, focusing on the “5 therapeutic foci: traumatic experiences, trauma and loss
reminders, postwar adversities, bereavement and the interplay of trauma and grief, and
developmental impact” (p. 280). Layne et al.’s study involved fifty-five Bosnian war-exposed
middle school students, utilizing pre-group and post-group self-reporting to assess reduction in
stress, depression, and grief. The use of grief management techniques to “create positive
associations between distress reduction and psychosocial adaptation” were found to lead to the
increase in group socialization and satisfaction (Layne et al., 2001, p. 280).
Dialectical behavior therapy helps regulate emotions by emphasizing the idea of personal
responsibility for changing disruptive thoughts and unhealthy behavior. In their work with
clients, Kilic et al. (2016) promote post-traumatic growth (PTG), or individual gain. Instead of
focusing on the loss caused by trauma, Kilic et al. focus on the positive skills acquired due to
trauma. Kessler et al.’s study was based on a sample of 203 Iraqi students living in Turkey who
had experienced severe war-related traumatic events. Kilic et al. assessed participants in group
sessions, using a self-report survey that included the Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory and War
Trauma Questionnaire. They categorized war experiences into three types of traumas: “trauma to
self, trauma to loved ones, and adversity,” measuring the growth by the Post-Traumatic Growth
Inventory (Kilic et al., 2016, p. 54). The results showed that “collective trauma such as war,
disaster, or loss, resulted in more PTG, while personal trauma such as personal assault or

28
accident has less success,” with females having more positive measurement of PTG than males
(Kilic et al., 2016, p. 55).
Psychodynamic therapy is based on the idea that unconscious repetition of thoughts or
feelings about childhood experiences behavior needs to be interrupted in order to improve mental
health by improving awareness about self, and actively changing old thought patterns, also
termed “resilience building.” Panter-Brick and Leckman (2013) suggest that building resilience
of the trauma survivors should be the primary methodology used to offset combat-related trauma.
Using a “quasi-experimental, cluster randomized design employing intervention and wait-list
control groups,” Panter-Brick and Leckman implemented short-term resilience building
intervention with elementary students in four schools in Israel after the Second Lebanon War, in
order to minimize PTSD after exposure to rocket shelling (Panter-Brick & Leckman, 2013, p.
334). For the purpose of the study, resilience is defined as a shift of focus from the position of
weakness to the position of strength, by deemphasizing vulnerability to wellbeing. Panter-Brick
and Leckman refuse to consider war survivors victims that need to be rescued, empowering
instead their clients to identify sources of strength in their lives, to reshape their perspective.
They report “a significantly (p < 0.001) greater decrease of post-traumatic symptoms and anxiety
levels among the students whose teachers participated in the intervention group as compared to
students whose teachers were in the wait-list control group,” and argue for the effective training
of teachers for school-based interventions (Panter-Brick & Leckman, 2013, p. 334).
Psychoanalysis is an intensive form of psychotherapy conducted in multiple sessions over
the course of a week. Jackson and Seeman (2008) conduct such sessions at the counseling office
for referred students that have experienced war and political trauma. Through the use of
vignettes, Jackson and Seeman report on individual psychoanalysis sessions with students from

29
the regions of the world affected by wars or violence. At the initial appointment, the
psychotherapist maintains a neutral position, letting the student narrate the traumatic experience,
but rather serving as a listener without adding or engaging in the conversation. Psychotherapists
encourage clients to “tell their stories without being judged or pushed into revealing more than
they can tolerate” taking the role of a “witness to the suffering of their clients” (Jackson &
Seeman, 2008, pp. 87-88). If there is a language barrier, with client not knowing the words in
English, Jackson and Seeman encourage use of the native language to fill in the missing
concepts, even if therapists cannot understand the language, since the grief might be better
expressed in the native language, showing interest and awareness of the larger world and
cultures, in what they call “empathic witnessing”, to affirm client’s worldview and instill a
notion of the suspension of judgment (Jackson & Seeman, 2008, p. 56). As the clients come to
terms with trauma, psychotherapists advise on the ways that trauma-inspired emotions should be
processed and replaced with a more positive worldview.
Supportive therapy uses encouragement to help patients develop “self-esteem, reduce
anxiety, strengthen coping mechanisms, and improve social and community functioning” (APA,
2022, para. 4). Matos et al. (2021) conducted a qualitative cross-sectional study utilizing semi-
structured cognitive interview of 39 Syrian refugee adult students, allowing students to reflect on
the integrated meaning making model. While interviewing, Matos et al. encouraged the students
to search for meaning through reflection on the sense of self and community, focusing on
“appraisals of the war, and reappraisals of shattered beliefs, life goals, and sense of purpose, both
during wartime and in resettlement” (Matos et al., 2021, p. 16). The experiment resulted in
restoration of the self-efficacy of students through the “positive meaning reappraisals, including
progressive restoration of worldviews, new opportunities for self-realization, and newly found

30
purpose, leading to perceived psychological benefits and growth” (Matos et al., 2021, p. 79).
Reestablishing the shattered sense of purpose in participants’ lives signify, according to Matos et
al. (2021) that trauma recovery is a dynamic process, where there is a strong possibility of return
to pre-trauma self through “adaptive meaning-making and meaning-informed psychosocial
interventions” intended to restore participants’ ideas about “safety, predictability, trust, and
belonging,” and that such restoration would be beneficial to the psychological stability of a
trauma survivor (p. 80).
Additional therapies sometimes used in combination with psychotherapy include animal-
assisted therapy, play therapy, and creative arts therapy using art, dance, drama, music and
poetry. A number of studies relied on the use of creative expression intervention to treat trauma-
impacted students, from few hours of intervention over three days to 90-minute a week over
three months (Kalantari et al., 2012; Rousseau et al., 2005). Upon having students complete the
surveys on grief, Kalantari et al. (2012) directed 15-minute writing sessions where students could
discuss their feelings, learning lessons and advice they could offer. Post-session surveys showed
a decrease in the measure of traumas described. Rousseau et al. (2005) utilized both individual
writing and drawing time, teaching students about internalization and externalization of trauma,
with both students and teachers reporting “decreases in students' internalizing symptoms and
increased self-esteem” (p. 182). Vukich (2015) reframes refugee care through the therapeutic use
of music. In her dissertation, she suggests that the music therapist can use music to “widen the
lens to understand the refugee beyond the ‘traumatic’ to the multi-dimensional experiences in
micro and macro contexts,” helping in the healing and therapeutic process (Vukich, 2015, p. 13).
Besides psychiatry, other disciplines, such as anthropology, education, medicine,
meditation, can assist with methodologies to deal with the impact of trauma on survivors.

31
Cave and Sloan (2014) recommend using anthropology-informed oral histories to work through
the effects of trauma, arguing that some traumas are too personal and deep to be treated
effectively in traditional ways (p. 82). They insist that due to the complexity of some trauma
experiences, “Oral history, with its focus on listening and collaborative creation with
participants, has emerged as a forceful approach to exploring the human experience of crisis”
(Cave & Sloan, 2014, p. 82). Collecting the stories of 12 survivors of traumatic situations, such
as war, incarceration, witnessing murder, or experiencing torture and climate-related disaster
suggest that oral history methodology does not only serve to record and document what has
happened during crisis, but also “making sense and finding meaning in what has happened”
(Cave & Sloan, 2014, 82). In a sense, oral histories allow for the reintegration of a survivor into
society, creating “a gateway between the traumatized victim and the larger society” (Cave &
Sloan, 2014, p. 83). Cave and Sloan remind of the large scale that this methodology has, being
useful in any type of disaster, from natural to human made (Cave & Sloan, 2014, p. 84).
Vue (2021) focuses on creating critical refugee discourse in the classroom through
encouraging remembrances of war within a second-generation Hmong American refugee
community. Students use cultural productions in order to make connections between the violence
that traumatized the Hmong community and the experience of the refugees in the United States.
The objective of the intervention is to create inter-generational understanding and nurturing
between the first and second generation and create a venue for discourse about the experience of
war. Using a critical remembering framework, Vue encourages students to address war, race, and
class in the classroom, “disrupt[ing] silence around historical trauma and racial oppression in the
United States,” transforming the experience of war survivors and the larger community (Vue,
2021, p. 16). Same approach is used by Kwan (2019), who also believes that suppressing the

32
negative feelings and hurt related to war suffering is counterproductive and encourages the Asian
American community to engage their trauma in a discourse within and outside of their
community.
Van der Hart et al. (2013) focuses on medical procedures including eye movement
desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) psychotherapy to treat trauma-related disorders, as the
participants go through treatment phases (p. 15). Basically, a clinician asks a patient to recall
traumatic events while following a finger or an object, disassociating the memory from its neural
pathway as the brain attempts to process two unlikely events at the same time. A new memory is
created, and an old pathway forgotten, “overcoming the phobia of traumatic memories and their
subsequent integration” (Van der Hart et al., 2013, p. 15).
Bandy et al. (2020) focuses on utilizing Transcendental Meditation Practice to offset the
symptoms of PTSD. Meditation techniques were taught to a group of South African University
students diagnosed with PTSD through the training in meditation, with the assessment of the
reduction in PTSD symptoms upon practicing meditation twice a day. Bandy et al. compare the
results with a control group, denoting a reduction in both depression and anxiety, and notice that
the effect increases the longer the meditation is practiced, and the more regular treatment
becomes. Bandy et al.’s study is comparable to other studies that include practice of
transcendental meditation by prisoners, active-duty service personnel, veterans, deaf community
members, and rape victims, with the reduction of stress, anxiety and depression across the board.
Not every intervention or treatment method is created equal. Many do not work well, or do not
work for the populations to which they are administered. Sullivan and Simonson (2016) provide
a comprehensive survey of the existing school-based emotional interventions for combat-related
trauma survivors. All 13 intervention programs that they analyzed and evaluated utilized one of

33
the three types of treatment with a variety of experimental and quasi-experimental designs:
cognitive behavioral therapy, creative expression, and multitiered or multimodal models. As they
report, some of the programs were successful, but many had zero or even negative effects.
Sullivan and Simonson assess that the creative expression interventions, such as writing, drawing
or dramatic performance were most commonly used with the least consistent results, especially
the music therapy, perhaps due to the lack of the trained therapists conducting the interventions,
a problem also present with multi-modal interventions. The most success and consistency were
generated through cognitive behavior therapy, implemented by the school psychologists trained
in all aspects of the approach, which Sullivan and Simonson suggest could be taught to teachers
and staff, and replicated in schools which do not have budget for experts.
Based on the work of the National Child Traumatic Stress Center, it is important to
provide all affected students with the opportunity to learn to manage trauma effects that the
trauma survivors tend to carry with them their whole lives. According to the statistics collected
by the Offices of Institutional Effectiveness at California public universities, the average
retention rate of the freshman class is 53%, with 47% of students not graduating (California
Department of Education, 2023). While for White students the numbers are a bit more positive,
with the average graduation rate of 63%, when it comes to minority students, the problem is
alarming. Statistics show an average graduation rate of 54% for Hispanic students, and 55% for
nonresident alien students. The numbers are much worse for others: 46% for Asian students, 41%
for African American students, and only 25% for Native American students. Scholarship shows
that minority students have often suffered two or more ACEs and continue to experience
traumatic events in their youth and adolescence through exposure to poverty, community
violence and discrimination. Lack of adequate support is also an equity issue as this problem

34
impacts minority students in more profound ways. Dropping out due to the impact of trauma
keeps them and their families stuck in the poverty cycle for generations, exposed to community
violence and discrimination. Therefore, the problem of dropping out due to poor trauma
management is multifaceted: it affects the university, the students, and community in general,
besides being a huge financial loss; annually, 47% of potential tuition revenue is lost due to
retention.
Challenges in the Context of Trauma Management
Some of the challenges that exist in creating trauma-informed classrooms are ethical in
nature. According to Ford (2009), issues such as “patient safety, confidentiality, patient rights,
informed consent for diagnosis and treatment, adequate qualifications for therapists (e.g.
certification, licensing), treatment consistent with the best practice standards, conflict of interest
issues, maintaining professional boundaries and respectful and collegial relationships all need to
be considered, in order for the educational institution not to cause more harm than it helps
resolve, especially in protected underage population (p. 77). This is especially important because,
according to Brom and Pat-Horenczyk (2012), therapists are under pressure to not get
emotionally involved and remain neutral in situations that are morally clear and unambiguous in
terms of right and wrong. Some of the related experiences might create a strong emotional
reaction and cause the therapist to develop a savior effect. Some of the clients’ ethical standards
or worldviews might be different from therapists, which could create pressure. Added difficulty
for educators is a lack of use of centralized and systematic glossary for describing differing types
of traumas, classification of the methodologies used to deal with them, as well as a distinction
between the civilian and combat-related trauma, each of which carries a different set of
psychological consequences and limits learning and motivation in the classroom.

35
Lawson et al. (2019) point out that besides trauma impacting students, there is also a
residual effect on the educators as a “secondary traumatic stress (STS),” or emotional overflow
after dealing with students’ trauma in schools (p. 439). Secondary traumatic stress, according to
Lawson et al., is demonstrated through educators’ professional disengagement and declining
performance,” and could induce stress in personal lives or lead to a change in their career
directions, indicating the need for early diagnosis and prevention, and treatment (Lawson et al.,
(2019, p. 439). Thus, they advocate for a “dual framework,” where educators are simultaneously
trained in trauma-informed literacy and self-care and call on the expanded trauma management
school models (Lawson et al., 2019, p. 430).
Pessimistic Approaches to Trauma-inspired Care
Intrigued by the growing research on trauma in the later part of 2020s, Maynard et al.
(2019) conducted and published a systematic review of the results reported by studies on trauma-
informed intervention programs in U.S. schools. Using Purtle and Lewis’s (2017) study that
mapped out all the efforts on all levels of government to integrate trauma-informed approach into
the system, Maynard et al. (2019), report that “approximately 49 bills introduced between 1973
and 2015 that explicitly mentioned trauma-informed practice, with more than half introduced in
2015 alone,” with 17 states implementing at least some aspect of trauma intervention at “school,
district, and even state-wide levels” incredulously observes that “no randomized controlled trials
or quasi-experimental studies of trauma-informed schools had been published as of September
2017” (p. 10). Overstreet and Chafouleas (2016) argue that the trauma-informed practices in
schools remain largely unexplored (p. 64). Sullivan and Simonson (2016) express shock at how
limited the scholarship is in this field and urge further studies: “In this vein, studying
interventions applied with refugee populations is a necessary step to establishing their

36
applicability and social validity in context even when we might assume the applicability of
strategies given similarities between groups of traumatized youth,” emphasizing that extreme
need to improve mental health of the affected students in order to improve functioning of the
society as a whole (p. 107). With that in mind, Maynard et al. (2019) attempted to “identify,
describe and synthesize the evidence of effects of trauma-informed approaches in schools to
provide guidance for policymakers and educators and to identify important gaps in the evidence
base” (p. 10). Using the predefined standards for a valid and reliable study, Maynard et al. looked
at 9102 references, identifying 67 studies, and dismissing every single one for not meeting the
following criteria:
1. A randomized or quasi-experimental study design with multiple groups receives
alternative or no treatment.
2. It is conducted solely in a school setting serving PreK-12 (or equivalent) students.
3. It must have internally evaluated the approach using three criteria: workforce
development, trauma-focused services, and organizational environment and practices
per Hanson & Lang (2016).
4. It must have measured a student-level outcome related to trauma symptoms/mental
health, academic performance, behavior, or socioemotional functioning (Maynard et
al., 2019, p. 10).
Based on their criteria of the successful trauma intervention, Maynard et al. dismissed all of the
studies as unreliable, reporting zero studies that affirm the usefulness of the systematic
integration of trauma-informed approach in the educational system. Although their study is
aware of the disadvantages faced by the trauma-impacted students, the challenges faced by
educators, the cost to the educational system and society in general, of untreated trauma,

37
Maynard et al. do not see adoption of trauma-informed approach as possible, feasible, or even
desirable:
While the intent of creating trauma-informed approaches in schools is a noble one,
relatively little is known about the benefits, costs, and how trauma-informed approaches are
being defined and evaluated (Berliner & Kolko, 2016). Adopting a trauma-informed approach in
a complex system such as a school building or district is a time consuming and potentially costly
endeavor, and there is potential for harm; therefore, it is important to assess the effects of this
approach to inform policy and practice (Maynard et al., 2019, p. 15).
However, this approach to measurement is flawed and pessimistic. First, the United
States lags behind in the awareness about trauma-informed approach, as evidenced with most of
the research dated within the last ten years. Other countries are ahead, due to the exposure to
political turmoil, wars, and the proximity to combat or unstable regions. Second, it is unethical to
use a placebo control group when it comes to trauma intervention, as such an approach could
cause further mental harm and anguish. Third, the examination of the results of trauma-informed
approach should not be limited to only K-12 students, but open to any educational setting,
including college, adult school or specialized training, where students impacted by trauma can be
found. Fourth, not using specific assessment criteria that Maynard et al. (2019) use, does not
mean that the study itself is invalid, but that it doesn’t meet the specificity that they desire to see
in analysis. On the contrary, there are examples of successful systematically implemented
trauma-informed approaches (Figure 4).

38
Figure 4
NOLA Framework

Note. Framework shows activities that NOLA Safe Schools program engages in. From About the
Project, Safe Schools Nola, 2023. https://safeschoolsnola.tulane.edu/about-the-project/

In the deadliest city in the United States, National Institute of Justice has funded Safe
Schools NOLA project, a systematic body that successfully develops, organizes, trains and
evaluates trauma-informed approaches at six New Orleans schools. Safe Schools NOLA’s goal is
to determine whether a multicomponent implementation strategy including professional
development in trauma-informed care, on-site consultation in the use of trauma-informed

39
strategies, and technical assistance for system-wide adoption of trauma-informed approaches
improves school safety by aligning staff attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with a trauma-informed
approach (Safe Schools Nola, 2023, para. 3).
Their system uses four components, with professional development of its staff:
training and skill building for educators
partnership with the administration
experimental strategies and peer support
specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timely goals each year.
Safe Schools NOLA intervention program shows that the key stakeholders are teachers
and community leaders (Figure 5). First, Safe School NOLA coordinators work with teachers,
providing support and expertise that can be used in the classroom. Second, Safe School NOLA
coordinators work with leaders on analysis of data, in order to develop programs and procedures
that can lead to trauma-informed action plan on a regional level.

40
Figure 5
NOLA’ s K-12 Intervention Programs

Note. Chart shows components of the Safe Schools NOLA action plan. From About the Project,
Safe School NOLA, 2023. https://safeschoolsnola.tulane.edu/about-the-project/

Conceptual Framework
Conceptual framework helps evaluate the research question against the existing theories
in order to evalate where the organization is, where it should be, and what measures are
necessary to close the gap between the present and the desired future state. This study focuses on
four elements to assess the influence of trauma on college students: trauma type, trauma effects,
environmental and social relationships and the institutional support for the survivors. This type

41
of examination is the best way to assess current performance of the educational institutions in
regard to services offered to the learners affected by trauma, and to identify the difference
between the current outcomes and the outcomes that would benefit this problem of practice.

Figure 6
Conceptual Framework

-Emotional Stress and Dysregulation

Trauma Effects
Low productivity
Low self-esteem
Substance abuse
Sleep disturbance
Detachment and
disassociation
Hypervigilance/fear
Environment and social
relationships

Multiple levels of engagement
Socialization and friendships
Sense of community and
belonging
Social identity
Cultural identity
Institutional support

Student skills management
Trust
Nurturing resilience
Developing self-confidence
Personal identity development

42
Implications of Learning and Motivational Theory
Bandura (2011) argues that as students are “self-developing, self-regulating, self-
reflecting and proactive,” they can master their own growth, if stirred in the right direction by a
knowledgeable guide (p. 242). Using Wigfield and Eccles’s (2000) study, students could be
motivated by the expectancy-value theory, where a student's belief in success will provide
intrinsic motivation. Basically, if a student believes in the ability to accomplish a task, he/she
will succeed. Utilizing all four types of values (intrinsic value, attainment value, utility value,
and cost), trauma survivors could be motivated to overcome the trauma-related thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors. As participants demonstrated, all had a goal that was deeply personal
and motivational but lacked the awareness of how much enjoyment they will experience when
achieving that goal, as well as potential future value of that achievement (i.e. graduation).
Conclusion
This literature review has established the concept of trauma and distinguished between
the combat and civilian trauma definitions. It has described the effects that trauma has on young
children and youth, especially when it comes to learning and motivation. A role that educators
play in assuaging trauma symptoms has been discussed, in order to show the urgent need for the
enabling of educators to carry out this task in their classrooms. Existing strategies have been
described, with a special attention to psychotherapy, with case studies demonstrating different
types of psychotherapy used in the classrooms around the world, including the failed attempts or
methods that have been identified. A conceptual framework for the study has been proposed.
Finally, a visual representation of this study and the goal of this project has been presented,
showcasing how this study intends to achieve its goals.

43
Chapter Three: Methodology
Considering the sensitivity of the research topic of this study and the subjective
experiences of the research participants, using qualitative research methods to data gathering and
analysis seemed the most appropriate approach, as “qualitative researchers stress the socially
constructed nature of reality...they seek answers to questions that stress how social experience is
created and given meaning” (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 8). In contrast to quantitative research
method, Charmaz et al. (2007) state that a qualitative inquiry allows for the study of the “how-
and sometimes why-participants construct meanings and actions in specific situations” (p. 130),
allowing researchers to maintain open mind as the data represents “a fair amount of ambiguity”
(Stauss & Corbin, 2006, p. 5). Sustaining a “beginner’s mind, a mind that is willing to see
everything as if for the first time,” qualitative research method allows examination of
underreported and underrepresented social experiences, such as the one described in my study
(Stauss & Corbin, 2006, p. 5).
A method chosen for this qualitative inquiry was conducting consensual qualitative
research as it is the best way to research topics that are somewhat obscure (The CQR method;
Hill, et al., 1997; Hill et al., 2005). Hill et al. (2005) argue that this is especially applicable for
research that “requires rich descriptions of inner experiences, attitudes, and convictions” (p. ix),
as it is characterized by “open-ended interview questions, small samples, a reliance on words
over numbers, the importance of context, an integration of multiple viewpoints, and consensus of
the research team” (p. 21). The CQR method was used during development of the research
questions, with the intention of capturing the participant experiences during their academic
careers. First, the questions were formulated and deployed as open-ended questions in a semi-
structured interview, to allow for in-depth reflection on the participant experiences, and

44
collection void of researcher bias. Core ideas that occurred during the interviews were further
developed into categories to interpret participant responses as accurately to their context as
possible.
Research Questions
The interview questions were developed to discuss the trauma that participants
experienced, as well as the impact of it on their studies, and trauma management techniques used
during their academic career. Qualitative methods were used to analyze gathered data about the
types of traumatic experiences, reported symptoms, and the impact on college life.
The following three questions (RQ1-3) were used as a guiding framework of the study, based on
its conceptual framework with its elements of trauma effects, environment and social
relationships, and institutional support.
The research questions of this study are:
RQ1: What was the nature of trauma impact that recent graduates of a California
public university have experienced and what role did it play in their academic
performance?
RQ2: What factors were in place to support the participants?
RQ3: What can be learned from their experiences?
The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2005/2014) studies firmly
established that trauma interrupts the learning processes and endangers student’s cognitive
development. These studies indicate that severe, prolonged episodes of adversity cause reduced
capability for learning and adapting to stress in later life, as well as dysfunction of self-
motivating systems due to reduced sensation of pleasure upon successful completion of the task,
and overwhelming sense of failure, self-doubt, and anxiety. Overuse of the regulatory system

45
rewires the expression of the genes that manage stress, leading to “impairments in learning,
memory, and the ability to regulate certain stress responses” (National Scientific Council on the
Developing Child, 2010, para. 2). Multiple studies show that in trauma survivors, the production
of stress-regulating chemicals and stress hormones is impaired due to overuse and inability to
recognize real from imagined threats (APA, 2022, p. 271; SAMHSA, 2022; NCTSN, 2022). A
poor control of the stress regulatory system, according to Lupien et al. (1998), can “change [in]
the architecture of regions in the brain that are essential for learning and memory” (p. 70).
Thus, to gather input on participants’ learning experience, the RQ1 was formulated as:
“What was the nature of trauma impact that recent graduates of a California public university
have experienced and what role did it play in their academic performance?” The participants
were asked to reflect on their academic performance, such as degrees they received, time it took
to reach their educational milestones and graduate, and ability to meet deadlines and their
assessment of the grades they received. Next, they were asked about their motivation and
resilience, specifically, where their motivation comes from and what gives them strength to stay
driven and focused. They were asked to reflect on handling their obligations and responsibilities,
and how they define and understand those concepts. Then, participants were asked about whether
they have goals, both academic and personal, and to reflect on who had helped them set up those
goals, how they had measured them, and what impact did reaching the goals have on the
participants. Finally, participants were asked what kind of obstacles they had encountered as
students because of their experience, and how they negotiated those obstacles, paying attention
to particular skills they used to overcome. They were also asked to reflect if these barriers
impacted their ability to be a successful student, or graduate from college, and if they knew
anyone who failed to graduate because of the lack of skills to negotiate the same barriers.

46
The tolerance for risk is another area addressed by RQ1, as there is a strong causal
relationship established by Fellitti et al.’s (1998) seminary study between trauma and risky
behaviors. Using the Behavioral Risk Factors Surveillance System survey data from 2003-2012,
Deb and Gangram (2023) demonstrate that in comparison, trauma survivors “experience declines
in health and well-being, engage in more risky behaviors, and have worse education and labor
market outcomes” (p. 1). As risky behaviors usually lead to decreased academic performance,
participants were asked to reflect on addictions, use of intoxicating substances, fighting,
partying, or unprotected sex. They were further asked about how they think those behaviors
impacted them academically, and what strategies they used to succeed despite tendencies to risky
behavior.
Research Question Two (RQ2) asks “What factors were in place to support the
participants?”. RQ2 asked participants to discuss what kind of strategy they use for trauma
management, including whether they talked about the trauma experience within their family or
with friends. As per American Psychology Association (2017), one important aspect of trauma
management is being able to verbalize and share the thoughts and feelings with the loved ones.
Chapter Two of this study enumerated many treatments used to help trauma survivors
deal with their experiences. From the short-term intervention programs implemented quickly and
efficiently in the conflict zones to offset the effects of the combat trauma, to long term,
comprehensive programs implemented in the vulnerable communities where community
violence is common, Chapter Two provides an overview of the possible trauma-inspired
approaches that educational institutions could adopt and deploy to triage their students.
According to the American Psychology Association (2022), any form of psychotherapy, or a
coaching process that relies on teaching learning and motivational strategies to guide participants

47
towards better functioning, socialization, and well-being, can help students manage their
emotions and behaviors, and colleges often have a mental health center with dedicated personnel.
However, a targeted use of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), where school psychologists or
counselors teach students to identify triggering thoughts and feelings and replace them with more
positive ones might make the most impact in the college setting. Another type of therapy that can
be of use in college setting is psychodynamic therapy or resilience building, which relates to
interrupting the stream of unconscious repetition of thoughts or feelings about childhood
experiences to actively changing old thought patterns (Panter-Brick & Leckman, 2013). Shifting
of focus from weakness to strength by deemphasizing vulnerability to emphasize wellbeing,
resilience building empowers survivors to consider their trauma a source of strength.
Thus, RQ2 was geared to analyze the techniques, if any, that participants use to negotiate
their thoughts and behaviors. It investigated what participants know about trauma and how aware
they are of the existing management tools that can be used in any setting. The assumptions are
that awareness and utilization of such techniques improve academic performance. Based on the
APA (2017) studies on trauma management techniques, RQ2 invited participants to describe the
ways they deal with their trauma, if they were familiar with any therapy methodology and how
they socialize, particularly focusing on the relationships with family, friends, and peers, as well
as functioning within college networks.
Another aspect of trauma management that RQ2 addressed is discussing the impact of
trauma at school. This aspect measured the ability to socialize in the college setting and engage
peers and faculty members in discussion relating to the effects and consequences of the survived
experience. Finally, the last area that RQ2 inquired into is the ability to create supportive college
networks necessary for academic success and career after college. It asked if peers, community

48
supporters, or other members of one’s college network helped the participant overcome the
impact of trauma, as failing to create a support network leads to isolation, and isolation leads to
alienation.
RQ3 relied on the conceptual model used for this study, which was a transformative
framework as discussed by Creswell and Plano Clark (2011), as it is the framework most
conducive to social change. Simply, it allows for the “feminist, racial, class, or other perspectives
and they flow through different parts of a mixed methods study” (p. 103). The transformative
framework accounts for cultural responsiveness in the design of the study, recognizing diversity
that exists among the targeted population. It allows expression of students’ own voice and input,
reducing the power difference in between the researcher and the subject of research in order to
build a relationship of trust, and reduce injustice and inequality of the research design, and is best
suited for advocating on behalf of the marginalized groups, which have been “Othered” in the
past (Said, 1978).
Martens (2010) defined transformative framework as a framework that allows for the
intertwining of the “research inquiry … with the political change agenda to confront social
oppression at whatever level it occurs” (p. 56). According to Creswell and Plano Clark (2011),
transformative framework identifies and centers on specific social issues such as “empowerment,
inequality, oppression, domination, suppression, and alienation,” in attempt to reform the society
and change the lives of all included in the research process: the researcher, the participants and
the institutions in question (p. 39). Soliciting the help of the participants to “design questions,
collect data, analyze information, or reap the rewards of the research” makes this paradigm of
inquiry transformative, as it provides a voice for the participants and an opportunity to change
their lives and conditions (p. 39). Thus, relying on this conceptual framework allowed

49
participants to develop their own voice regarding trauma surviving with which they can confront
marginalization and challenge social suppression in search of healing and equality.
Thus, Research Question Three (RQ3) was formulated as “What can be learned from
their experiences?” with the intent of empowering participants to seek change that they would
like to see implemented on the institutional level. By asking about the ways that the educational
institutions have reacted to participants’ trauma experience, and about the accommodations that
have been made to integrate survivors, this study is allowing for the concept of equality and
inequality in the classroom to be explored, as trauma survivors do not react to traditional
methods of learning and motivation as their unaffected peers. Another aspect that RQ3 addresses
is the other auxiliary services offered to survivors, such as health services, services for students
with disabilities, graduate success services, etc., to investigate whether this population has been
alienated and suppressed through inability to utilize the services offered to other students.
Finally, RQ3 engaged participants in design of the questions, collecting data and
analyzing information, when it asked participants to reflect on what else, in their opinion, would
have made more difference in regard to motivation and building resilience, and what kind of
services would have made a difference to offset the trauma. Inquiring into the ways that colleges
help students overcome barriers, RQ3 made this paradigm of inquiry transformative, as it
provided a voice for the participants and an opportunity to change their lives and conditions
(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011, p. 39).
Overview of Design
Since this is a painful topic that could possibly be triggering for some participants, this
study used the guidance of the IRB committee to formulate and delimit the interview questions,

50
introduce the study properly, and create a content disclaimer in the title, using the most advanced
advance warning strategies for triggers of trauma.
First, the proposal for the human subject study was submitted to the IRB committee for a
review of the study design and approval as an exempt study. The original proposal included
questions about the nature of trauma that participants survived, as well as questions related to the
impact that their experience had on their health. This proposal was rejected as an exempt study,
as the principal investigator has an educational background and lacks professional experience in
work with the intended population. Finding the interview questions sensitive and potentially
triggering, the IRB committee requested that the following changes were requested: removing
any mention of traumatic experience in any of the main or leading questions from the study
protocol. In addition, the recruitment materials (email and flyer) had to clearly disclose that
questions about the traumatic experience itself will not be asked and remind the participants not
to disclose any information about it (see Appendices A and B). Finally, the informed consent had
to provide 24-hour help line numbers for the mental health support and counseling services, in
case that participants become triggered (see Appendix C). Upon submitting a revised version of
the interview questions, this study was approved as an exempt study (see Appendix D).
Research suggests that for a qualitative study, a sample of 8-15 interview participants are
recruited, if only one interview is to be conducted per participant or if the participant group is not
homogenous (Hill et al., 1997; Hill et al., 2005). Since trauma survivors were expected to have
diverse experiences, this number of participants became the recruitment target.
The Researcher
Villaverde’s (2008) definition of positionality suggests that a researcher's positionality
includes all aspects of one’s existence: age, gender, race, ethnicity, experience, and knowledge. I

51
am a female of white European origin, with a complicated southern Slav ethnicity, of Balkan
Muslim culture, speaking Bosnian language. For the purpose of this exploration, I relied on my
personal experience of trauma I lived through in 1990s during the genocide in Bosnia. As a
survivor of the above-named genocide, I occupy a central role in relationship to the topic. Not
only have I personally lived and survived the traumatic event, but so have the close members of
my family and my friends. This communal experience is a bond that provides a shared sense of
grief and loss, and sometimes even survivor’s guilt.
My proximity to the genocide has led me to consider the impact of such an event on the
survivors and their future success in the realm of academia or workplace. Remembrance that the
massacre that took out 250,000 of my compatriots follows me daily, even 30 years later. This has
led me to realize that other survivors of trauma carry similar burdens while being expected to
perform to the same standard as the non-affected population. In order to accomplish the same
success and achieve equity, survivors need to be supported by additional services, such as
excessive and intrusive outreach, alternative instructional models, and effective motivational
practices. My biases implied that such services were readily available already to those that seek
it, as I have had access to them while dealing with trauma of war displacement and forced
emigration. Looking back, this access could have been a result of my positionality as a white
European middle-class woman. I had to overcome my biases by recognizing that not all
survivors were taught that these resources exist or trained to find the motivation to seek them
out, as well as understand that these might not be readily available to groups of other ethnic
origins, survivors not categorized as women, or survivors in a different socioeconomic class.
As a member of the trauma survivor community, I believe that my perspective on trauma led me
to design the study and ask questions in meaningful, non-harmful ways that are adequate in

52
scope and focus. Because the results are far reaching as trauma enters the mainstream, I will
attempt to disseminate the results to institutions and government agencies that can bring about
changes in society. According to Tuck and Yang (2012), “A theory of change refers to a belief or
perspective about how a situation can be adjusted, corrected, or improved” (p. 10). The term
signifies humankind’s hope for a better tomorrow: a set of different, more positive, beneficial
results and consequences, gained by a modification of structural forces, an adjustment of the
individual actions, or a mix of both. Since the institutions and government agencies in our
society are so powerful, the focus of the dissemination of this inquiry will be changes that can be
made to help survivors of trauma succeed in academia and beyond. The results of the qualitative
analysis could be used to direct future research, policy development and orientation to the
institutions just starting the trauma-informed programs.
Recruitment
Upon passing my dissertation proposal defense and securing an IRB approval, an
invitation for a 45-60-minute interviews was posted to social media and listservs gathering
California public university alumni, as well as the personal LinkedIn profile of the researcher
(Appendix D). Additionally, personal email messages were sent to alumni offices, mental health
centers on campuses, professional colleagues and personal connections propagating the
recruitment material. This study solicited the interviewees who, according to Palinkas et al.
(2015), could be described as “information-rich cases related to the phenomenon of interest” (p.
534).
The recruitment message explained the purpose of this study and its final goals: to help
bring awareness to the academic struggles of trauma survivors, and to research their needs in
order to help raise awareness about the necessary infrastructure for their well-being and

53
academic success. The sought-after qualifications were that: the alumni graduated within the last
15 years; and, that they survived one or more of severe traumatic experiences, defined as war,
community violence, severe poverty, physical abuse, or rape (traumatic experience that per
Felliti et al. (1998) definition were not necessarily ACE that are common to more than half of
American population, but rather severe types of trauma more comparable to combat trauma:
experiences that threatened bare existence of the victim so severe that they could have easily
ended with death). No limitations were placed on the type of degree, educational level
(undergraduate or graduate), or location. While alumni described as traditional students were
expected to be the most represented participants in the study, alumni that were non-traditional
students were most welcome (i.e. returning students, adult students, veterans, retired service
members, etc.). The invitation was extended to all alumni who have experienced severe
childhood trauma, regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity. There is no way to know how many
people saw the recruitment message, but the personal estimate is over 1,000.
Participants
Initially, 18 potential interviewees responded. One participant changed her mind, and one
withdrew her response based on the work obligations. Personal email was used to establish the
initial contact with the participants, introduce the researcher and the study, and share the consent
form. Participants were provided the 24-hour help line numbers and information on how to reach
out in case that the interview triggers uncontrollable emotions or any side effects. Once they
confirmed their continued interest, the interview times were set through the Zoom application
(see Appendix C). The online setting is preferable due to the ease of scheduling and recording
interviews. Three respondents did not show up at the interview time.

54
Participants were drawn from three solicitation channels. One group responded to a
recruitment message shared on a listserv for alumni with interest in professional writing and
publishing. Another group responded to a recruitment message posted on a LinkedIn group for
war survivors. The name of these groups is not included to protect the confidentiality of the
participants. The last group of respondents had a professional connection with the researcher.
Participant Characteristics
Demographically, this study includes a diverse gender representation. Out of thirteen
participants, five are males, six are females, one is actively transitioning from female to male,
and one is non-binary and queer. In terms of age, study participants are between 25 and 47 years
old, with the average age being 40 years old. In terms of family, four are the only children in the
family, nine are married, and eleven have one or more children. In terms of social class, my
participants fall anywhere between lower middle class to upper middle class.
Racially, there is a representation from the white, Asian American, Hispanic American,
and recent immigrant communities, with eight Caucasian, four Hispanic, and one Asian
participant (see Table 1). Ethnically, the participant sample includes two participants identifying
as Mexican, one as San Salvadoran, one Korean participant, three Southern Europeans, and six
American participants. In terms of proximity to immigration, there are four first-generation
immigrants, two second-generation immigrants, two third-generation immigrants, and five are
unknown. Out of thirteen, five are first-generation students. Five have been impacted by overseas
wars, lost close family members, and became refugees.
Academically, participants reflect a somewhat homogenous group with similar
characteristics and interests. First, all of participants have three or more higher education
degrees, representing less than 0.1% of the American public. Second, participants’ graduate

55
degrees are all art and language-related, which made it easier for the participants to communicate
and express themselves, but also gave them insight into many traumatic experiences as they read
or listened about them in the writing workshops. Third, participants have all graduated
successfully from a graduate program, which excluded the participants that could not complete
the program successfully, limiting the study through the absence of perspective of those that
could not navigate the system or get help. Professionally, nine out of thirteen are educators, two
administrators in educational institutions, one is a photojournalist, and one is a factory worker.
Their careers span from one year on the job to thirty years.

Table 1
Participant Demographic, Ethnicity and Degree Summary
Name Gender Ethnicity* Degree*** Grad. Year
Participant 1 Non-Binary Asian/Hmong MFA, BA, AA, 2019
Participant 2 Trans- male Hispanic MFA, BA 2020
Participant 3 Male European MS, BS 2009
Participant 4 Male Hispanic** MFA, BA, TC 2019
Participant 5 Female White MFA, BA, TC 2023
Participant 6 Female White MFA, BA, TC 2016
Participant 7 Male Hispanic MFA, BA, TC 2023
Participant 8 Female European BA, BA 2009
Participant 9 Male White PhD, MFA, BA 2014
Participant 10 Female Hispanic MFA, BA, TC 2016

56
Participant 11 Male White MFA, BA 2009
Participant 12 Female Hispanic MFA, MA, BA 2014
Participant 13 Female European MFA, MA, BA 2022
Note. From data based on participants’ responses.
*Ethnic types consolidated into categories listed
**One participant identified herself as Hispanic/Bi-Racial
***TC: Teaching Credential

Gender Total

Male 5

Female: 6

Transgender: 1

Non-Binary: 1

Ethnicity
Total

Asian: 1

Hispanic: 5

European: 3

White American: 4

Degree Completion Total

BA/BS: 13

57

MA/MS: 12

Terminal degree (MFA, PhD, EdD):
12

Three+ degrees: 9

Two degrees: 4

Single degree: 0

Graduated

Within 1-5: 5

Within 6-10: 5

Within 10-15: 3

For the purpose of this study, academic performance was defined as successful
graduating from a program, without regard to GPA or individual grades received, awards, or
other academic accolades. Since all 13 of the participants graduated from their respective
programs, they are considered academically successful. Moreover, five participants received two
degrees, four received three graduate degrees, while four received four graduate degrees.
Considering the strong ability to perform graduate work might not demonstrate accurately the
difficulties that participants experienced as a result of their trauma experience. A more accurate
measure might be the length of the attendance, as five participants report that they needed more
than ten years to graduate what are traditionally six-year programs, due to leaving university as a
result of depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, imposter syndrome, and general insecurity in their
academic performance. Due to considerations for the participants’ well-being and ethical

58
concerns related to asking the participants about their traumatic experience in a non-medical
setting, this study did not investigate trauma types of alumni and had advised participants not to
disclose it during the interview.
Instrumentation
Per IRB committee request, the interview questions had to stay away from discussing
traumatic experience. Thus, the conceptual framework disregards the individuality of traumatic
experience, and instead investigates the effects of trauma on academic performance, institutional
support that participants received and environmental and social relationships that participants
formed during their college years. These factors provide context in which decisions that
participants made can be better understood. Per the CDC (2023) study, common trauma effects
include “low productivity, low self-esteem, substance abuse, sleep disturbance, detachment and
dissociation, hypervigilance/fear,” all of which have an impact on health, positive engagement
with peers, classmates, and faculty, as well as adoption of productive student skills (para. 2).
Without socialization, the student cannot become a part of a learning community or feel a sense
of belonging. Thus, it was important for this study to investigate social relationships that
participants nurtured to understand students’ support systems. It was also important to analyze
the institutional support received, if any. As studies overwhelmingly show, institutions can play a
crucial role in trauma management when they teach resilience, trauma management skills and
self-confidence.
According to Hill et al. (2005), an interview protocol should consist of eight to ten
questions with probes to fit within one hour, and with at least two pilot interviews to test the
questions. The initial interview protocol for this study was developed in a graduate course on
qualitative interviewing in Inquiry II course at USC Rosier School of Education. As a part of the

59
course, two pilot interviews were conducted, transcribed, and analyzed. The interview questions
were then examined during the proposal for this study by the primary researcher and two
members of her doctoral committee. This set of interview questions included fifteen questions
with a number of probes. After IRB approval, an interview protocol of ten questions was used in
the first interview, as some questions related to the participant, and some were answered within
other questions (see Appendix E for final interview protocol). Based on the first interview
experience, the protocol was modified and cut down to ten essential questions which were used
for the other interviews.
Interview
The interviews began with review of the consent form and review of the 24-hour help
lines. It followed with background questions in an attempt to establish a rapport between the
participant and researcher, which Hill et al. (1997) recommend to help relax the situation and
make both participant and researcher more comfortable, while gathering demographic
information. A conversation regarding the participant’s academic background, home-life, and
interests was conducted, followed by the interview questions, shown on the desktop of the Zoom
application.
The virtual interviews took place over a two-week period in April 2023. Due to
sensitivity of the topic, online rather than face-to-face interviews were deemed more appropriate.
Even so, some participants became emotional and needed time to gather their thoughts. All
interviews were audio-taped, after obtaining an informed consent for the interview and audio-
taping before the interview began. A semi-structured interview approach was used to limit
researcher’s bias and provide the distance from the subjects and enable participants to answer
truthfully. All interview questions addressed different aspects of the theoretical and conceptual

60
framework. They allowed gathering data about participants’ understanding of the relationship of
trauma and learning or motivation, and their knowledge of trauma management techniques. The
research questions also asked for input on what kind of resources would be helpful to students,
and what the participants felt was their most and least successful trauma management strategy
they would like to share.
I am aware that my own personal experience of the war could affect my positionality,
causing bias when it comes to listening and interpreting other experiences. Thus, to mitigate the
possibility of being under the influence of bias, I remained as uninvolved with the responses as
possible, asking them by formally reading them to interviewees, and keeping quiet during their
responses. I also wanted to limit the influence of power of the authority figure. Finally, I guarded
myself against making any assumptions based on my experience, by connecting to my
conceptual framework rather than memories or feelings. Interviews varied in length between 40
and 60 minutes.
Data Collection Procedures
My data collection procedure included a timeline of two months. The interviews were
recorded interviews using my Zoom cloud and converted into transcripts automatically. Once the
interview process was completed, the recordings were compared with the transcripts and
manually corrected as needed. The transcripts were formatted to show a pseudonym instead of
real name of the participant. They were then shared with the participants via email, to confirm
that the transcripts contained correct information. The recordings were stored on a personal
computer under the password, and deleted from the Zoom cloud as soon as they were
downloaded for protecting the privacy of the participants. Once the analysis was completed, the
audio recordings were deleted for additional privacy.

61

Data Analysis
After the interviews were transcribed, the initial domains for the data were identified.
Upon completion of two revisions of initial domains, the final three domains were named:
trauma effects, institutional support, and environmental and social relationships. Over a course of
the four weeks, the interviews were coded, and interview data were labeled according to one of
the domains and possible core ideas for the domains. The researcher then read through each
domain and applied core ideas to the data. Next, a table was created, and all interviews were
examined for domains and core ideas, categorizing common threads of experiences across the
interviews. Participant responses were reviewed for each idea to describe the extent of awareness
of trauma and the relationship between the factors that impact mental wellbeing of college
students and analyze the responses. The final analysis resulted in 3 domains, 12 core ideas, and
24 categories (please see Table 1 for results).

Table 2
Domains, Core ideas, Categories
Domain Core Idea Category
Trauma Effects

A

Manifestations of trauma
1
2
3
Thoughts
Feelings
Behaviors

B
Goals
1
2
Established
Not established

62

C
Obstacles and barriers
1
2
Can overcome
Cannot overcome
Environmental and social
relationships

A

Family
1
2
Supportive
Not supportive

B

Friends
1
2
Supportive
Not supportive

C

Therapists
1
2
Familiar
Not familiar

D College network
1
2
Supportive
Not supportive
Institutional Support

A Trauma Management
Techniques
1

2
Familiar

Not familiar

B Services on campus

1

2
Familiar

Not familiar

C
Motivation and learning
1

2
Familiar

Not familiar

D Survivor Community
Space
1

2
Familiar

Not familiar

63

Validity and Reliability
First, the recruitment material provided study information to all audiences without any
discrimination or pre-selection. Because my questions were research driven and based on my
literature review, they had the reliability and content validity that is needed for a meaningful
study. A number of strategies can be used to make sure that a qualitative study has validity, and
that the researcher correctly gathered and interpreted the material through meaningful analysis.
For example, Merriam and Tisdell (2016) name “balance, bracketing, confirmability, auditability,
negative case analysis, prolonged engagement, peer debriefing, interviewer corroboration, and
member check,” as some of the leading strategies to check the validity of any research (p. 33).
I personally used member checking and structural coherence for the interview at hand.
Member checking involved going over the recording with interviewees to make sure that I
understood what they meant, sharing my analysis with them and getting input about data I
gathered, as assessing the sensibility of data reduces misrepresentation chances. Finally, I used
structural coherence, where I checked if there were any gaps in the collected experiences, and if
any data seems to not structurally fit with the rest of the collected data.
Ethics
Ethical considerations were crucial to this project, given that the participants in my
research are a protected population in terms of the IRB process. The research process started by
sharing with the participants my thinking about how my research problem would benefit
participants and disclosing the purpose of the study, respecting the consent, confidentiality, and
cultural norms and boundaries. I attempted to build trust, during and after conducting a needs
assessment or informal conversation with participants about their needs. I avoided leading

64
questions, and withheld sharing personal impressions or sensitive information, and offered as an
incentive an opportunity to build a system that would support the future trauma survivors,
involving participants as my collaborators. When encountering differing points of view or
perspectives, I restrained myself from coercion, and any power dynamic that would side with
participants, be dishonest or create a conflict of interest. I reported the results in clear and
unbiased language, making sure that identifying information is not published, harming the study
participants. I was aware of biases throughout the research process and used all measures to
support the validity of the data.
Conclusion
This chapter delineated research questions and methods that were used to complete this study. It
discussed the overview of the design, including methodology, participants and research setting.
This chapter discussed the researcher positionality and background that has made the researcher
aware of this problem of practice. It also discussed how validity and reliability were examined,
with attention to the ethical implications. The final description of the data and research findings
will be explored in the next chapter.

65
Chapter Four: Findings
This qualitative study addressed the following three major research questions and several
sub-questions as follows. The first research question seeks to understand the impact of trauma on
learners. The second research question invites participants to assess their student experience, and
the third research question invites reflection of participants on the types of institutional support
that they find beneficial and supportive. The findings were used to make recommendations in
Chapter 5.
The research questions of this study are:
RQ1: What was the nature of trauma impact that recent graduates of a California
public university have experienced and what role did it play in their academic
performance?
How did trauma manifest itself during academic career, and how did participants
build resilience towards such manifestations? What thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
related to trauma did they experience?
What goals did participants set for themselves and how did they motivate themselves
to meet their goals? Which strategies did they use to motivate themselves?
What obstacles and barriers did participants encounter and how did they overcome
them? What does such a process entail? How did they deal with risk management?
RQ2: What factors were in place to support the participants?
Were they introduced to trauma management techniques and by whom? Were they
introduced to motivational techniques and learning skills relevant to trauma
management?

66
How did they use existing student services on campus? Who introduced them to such
services? How did they access the college network (faculty, staff, and
administrators)?
What type of social support did they have? What kind of family and friend support
net did they have? What kind of relationship did they build with peers or community
supporters (recruiters, employers, promoters)?
RQ3: What can be learned from their experiences?
The analysis of these research questions produced three domains, twelve core ideas and
twenty categories, which were used to organize the findings. Data is presented by domain first,
followed by more specific core ideas, explored in a number of categories that represent elements
found within participant experiences. Participant responses are represented with quotes, edited
for grammatical clarity.
Trauma Effects
This core idea labeled trauma effects relates to participant responses by focusing on the
manifestations of trauma in a sense of impacting areas of academic performance, such as
learning, motivation and the ability to manage stress, by gaging the effects of trauma on
“resulting thoughts, feelings, behaviors, or changes in relationships” (APA, 2022, p. 271). Thus,
RQ1 invited participants to reflect on their academic experience and describe the way they
“thought, felt or behaved” while being a student, and the resulting data was collected in those
categories. Although an effort has been made to clearly identify and separate these three
categories, sometimes it was impossible or impractical due to their causal relationship.
Resulting Thoughts

67
The first category that emerged from the study was that interview participants reported a
lack of ability to critically think about themselves as students, in a sense of assessing their
academic performance in the class or setting academic goals for themselves. This created
insecurity in one’s abilities and self-doubt, resulting in an obsessive urge to overdeliver in one
group, or dropping out in another. Participant #11 remembered:
I saw kids not make it. Okay, you know. I don't know why they didn't make it. It was just
they were there one day, and then the next day they weren't there, and you'd sort of miss
them for a little bit. Then you'd start asking what happened to what happened to Scottie.
Oh, he failed out of school, you know. But I never knew why.
Due to acutely perceiving themselves as “different” from others based on trauma they had
experienced, regardless of whether or not the classmates also experienced trauma, almost all
participants expressed that they do not feel comfortable in comparing themselves to their peers,
lacking any meaningful assessment of their academic standing or performance. Participant #13
reported constant anxiety and racing thoughts about the class work, and insecurity in how it
measures up with the classmates’ work. Even receiving straight A’s in her classes were not
comforting and reassuring, to the point that she approached a professor and questioned his
reasoning behind the grades she received. The constant doubt in her knowledge and skills led her
to believe that the grades were not accurate and that they might be based on professor’s pity due
to her background. She recalled finding a stack of her essays, all receiving top marks in classes
“in a pile of junk in the trunk of [her] car, dirty and crumpled,” indicating deep mistrust of
positive assessment due to extremely low confidence in academic performance.
Research proposes that trauma survivors react to severe self-doubt and insecurity by
attempting to obsessively control the environment they are in, or become paralyzed with fear and

68
self-doubt, completely letting go of any semblance of control over their circumstances. This is
exactly what emerged from the participant responses, as they universally expressed insecurity in
their learning process and described various responses to the lost sense of control, low self-
confidence, and imposter syndrome.
To offset perceptions of inadequate performance, two types of responses were described
by the participants. One group of participants expressed that a sense of doom and a lack of
control led them to put in less effort into academic endeavors, leading to bad grades, incomplete
work, failing grades or even dropping out of college for extensive time periods. Participant #4
described bouts of crying in class, feeling overwhelmed, and unable to complete or even read
completed work to class. Participant #5 reported choosing to stay with friends rather than attend
class due to inability to cope with his trauma: “Receiving bad grades led to more procrastination
which led to more bad grades, eventually resulting in dropping out of college.” Participant #6
described having a short attention span in classes, disassociating herself from the classroom. She
felt a sense of guilt and fear of “getting in trouble due to incomplete work, afraid of bad grade,”
yet, unable to complete the required work. Participant #12 reported receiving No Credit for the
same class twice, unable to direct her efforts to complete the assignments:
Researcher: Would you say that the manifestations of trauma increased or decreased
during your college years? Participant #12: It fluctuated. Sometimes I would be feeling
great and successful and happy with everything. But then other times like, for example.
Actually, thinking about just my MFA. Right now. There was a time in the beginning like
around 2,020, where I did have a lot of that manifestation like just depression, and things
like that that did affect me. And it did, it did actually affect my studies it. It was kind of a
struggle to finish certain classes I had to take a class for like. and then complete because I

69
knew I wasn't gonna get a good grade. Not an incomplete sorry, no credit for no credit,
because it was credit, no credit. And then I had to take another incomplete. I've taken an
incomplete twice because of my troubles with like just trying to stay afloat like I get a lot
of depression sometimes. Yeah. But that has affected me. Definitely. But this is also a
much more difficult program, you know.
The other group of participants described obsessive compulsive behavior in the
classroom in an attempt to gain control over their academic endeavor. Participant #10 described
being fully invested into “reading every word in every paragraph, writing essays twice as long as
required, raising hand to every question asked,” trying to offset the low self-confidence and
defeat the impostor syndrome: feeling that they do not belong to the classroom community. A
few participants describe going above and beyond classroom activities and engaging in the extra-
curricular activities in extremes: participants #6, #11 and 13 and leading every organization
within a department and participating in every activity, and participants #1 and #3 involving
themselves with extreme exercising. Participant #6 reflected that “[her] coping technique is to be
too busy to think about the past, creating the goals for myself: future over past.” She explained:
Trauma management for me was being a perfectionist and and a in like in control of
everything. So I like. I took control of everything I absolutely possibly could. I was like
the president of every association I could be involved in. I was the like editor of
everything I to be all in, and I was like, I’m not. I'm gonna make sure this is done the
right way. So I didn't really have a lot of coping skills, except for just to make things so
that I was in control. And then I learned that that was, you know, a trauma response.
Consequently, five participants report the urge to exercise obsessive control over their
academic performance, investing an inordinate amount of time in their studies to master all

70
aspects of the assigned material, while three participants report that they felt no control over their
progress, losing motivation to even attempt to catch up with the class work. Participant #2 broke
out in tears while describing how he “had to learn to forgive himself and treat himself more
kindly … the way [he] would treat others,” in order to loosen up the grip of compulsiveness and
excel in his studies. Simply put, obsessively participating in academic activities allowed a
renewed sense of control over their academic performance: control that they felt was taken away
from them as a result of traumatic experience.
Resulting Feelings
All thirteen participants reported severe depression and anxiety, as one of the obstacles
they encountered as students. As depression manifests in reduced interest in everyday tasks,
participants reported a lack of ability to perform academic tasks they were assigned in their
classes, as well as performing registration tasks or seeking out academic advisors to determine
the course of their academic career. Thus, two participants reported that they took courses
randomly without the adviser's direction. One participant even reported registering a wrong
major and completing a degree she didn’t really want, being unaware that she really sought a
different major (English literature vs. comparative literature). Participant #6 reported being
chronically confused – “not as a student but rather in terms of what to do,” and doing the best she
could on her own. Participant #5 reflected that even “leaving the dorm to do tasks” like parking
registration was difficult, and sometimes impossible.
Participants overwhelmingly reported feeling “nauseatingly anxious over the assigned
coursework” due to perceiving themselves as incapable of completing it, describing at the same
time assignments as “not overly challenging.” Participant #1 and participant #12 reported

71
“negative self-talk” and “overthinking,” lacking control to stop these thoughts and perform as
expected. Participant #12 reflected:
I used to feel really bad about it, like I would beat myself up over it. I said, oh, maybe I
don't actually belong here. Maybe i'm not as good as like the other, like a good as student
as the other students. But then I've been kind of what I used to do, especially when I had
zoom class. I was like, write myself notes right just to encourage myself and say. No, I do
belong here. I can get things done because I've done it in the past. I've shown myself that
I can do it. I just have to remind myself. I've done things at all the things I've done so
like. There's so many things that I have accomplished. I can do this, too.
Participant #2 shared similar sentiments:
Yeah, so I think the the most significant part of that traumatic event I experienced in high
school was that it? It's it's sort somewhat amplified the existing issues that I had
specifically dealing with social anxiety and depression. and it's like I I mentioned that
social anxiety kind of affected the way I interacted with new students, and but the
depression was really the obstacle that affected my academic standing. The most I I
would be very reluctant, you know there'd be some days where I just. I couldn't go to
school because my body wouldn't allow me to do anything. you know, or I wasn't in the
right mental state. I you know I need more time on assignments, or you know I wouldn't
feel prepared for tests just because I was already struggling with You know this mental
illness that was keeping me from doing the things that I wanted. And I don't. I don't
believe the typical student I mean I don't know I don't know the statistics, and I can't
assume everybody's situation, but at least to me it was the aggravated social anxiety and
depression more more so the depression that affected my academic career.

72
Participant #9 stated that learning “never felt about me, I was an institutional object, not a
human being, always expected to act as a professional, to leave the icky human stuff out of the
classroom. I had no support, they just wanted me to produce outcomes.” The inability to
consciously stop these overwhelming emotions and the actions that resulted from them led the
participants to perceive their environment as threatening and out of their control.
Three participants named financial obligations for tuition as another factor that caused
depression and anxiety. Participant #9 reflected on multiple pressures of being a recent
immigrant from a war-torn country, a new mom and a new student, without transportation. She
recalled how she “had to learn how to leave the shell,” in order to use public bus and “sprint
across campus to class in order to not be late,” feeling very “isolated” as a result of competing
pressures. Participants #11 and #12 reflected on full-time employment they had to maintain in
order to pay tuition, as a result of losing stipend once withdrawn from one of their classes.
Resulting Behaviors
While for the majority of participants depression seemed to subside while being students
and engaging others in an academic setting, for some, depression was a constant obstacle that
only decreases or increases in its intensity. For those participants, especially if they were not in a
dedicated therapeutic treatment, procrastination is a common approach to schoolwork. Such
participants reported inability to meet deadlines for the simple fact of being unable to start or
perform the assigned tasks. They reported that they miss deadlines for assignments, or even
became so overcome with depression that they fail to complete work at all. This further
aggravated the low self-confidence and anxiety in such students, propagating depression further.
Participants described two strategies that they use in such situations. In the first scenario,
participants assessed the faculty member as approachable and discuss the issues they are having,

73
with faculty supporting the student in one-on-one effort to help the student complete the work
after deadline or even after the semester ends through assigning of the Incomplete. In the second
scenario, participants assessed the faculty member as unapproachable or uninterested, and
withheld the crucial information about their circumstances, choosing to face the consequences.
They understood and accepted a failing and the possibility of academic probation, financial
charges for retaking the class, or lowered GPA. These participants reported that it took them
extended time to graduate from college due to retaking courses or taking a pause to work and be
able to pay for their education again. Three out of thirteen participants reported that it took on
average ten years for a Baccalaureate degree, and one reported a 15-year academic pause.
Participant #2 reported feeling of “shame” after repeated requests for extensions, and
“social anxiety” due to always needing more time to be prepared, leading to “reluctance to go to
school,” and nagging feeling of being a bad student. Participant #3 reported that while professors
were willing to work with the student, they often felt stumped and unaware how to help,
expressing that they “never met a student like [the participant],” making Participant #3 acutely
aware of the lack of resources. Participant #9 described his academic career as a “disciplinary
process,” rather than educational experience, as the professors he met were “never supportive,
never [giving] a clear idea about expectations.”
Another type of behavior that was investigated is the tolerance for risk, as there is a
strong causal relationship established by Fellitti et al.’s (1998) seminary study between trauma
and risky behaviors (p. 4). As risky behaviors usually lead to decreased academic performance,
participants were asked to reflect on addictions, use of intoxicating substances, fighting,
partying, or unprotected sex, that they felt impacted their academic performance. While roughly

74
half of the participants expressed extremely low tolerance toward risky behavior, the other half
described their experience with highly risky behaviors.
The first group was completely averse to risk taking, and described themselves as unable
to handle any surprise, unexpected situation, or outcome well. For example, one of the
participants revealed that he is unable to participate in any university or department event where
there was any possibility of being exposed to intoxicants, and that he would rather miss out all of
the professional or networking opportunities rather than suffer the presence of alcohol, due to the
nature of his traumatic experience and its relationship to intoxicants. He stated that:
I stayed away from parties, and these things made me feel socially kind of ostracized. But
academically it probably helps me stay more focused. The true obstacle was a social one
of feeling like I wasn't connected to my classmates, and I could never be because I didn't
like to be around alcohol, and it's very difficult to make friends when you know when
you don't go out for a drink or go to parties.
For this group, any possibility of repeated trauma or being negatively affected and
misdirected from their path to academic success represented a danger and an obstacle that had to
be avoided at all costs, as well as a potential to go back to the life in which they experienced
trauma, and never escape the cycle of violence. Participant #4 reported being paralyzed after
“any exposure to alcohol,” impaired by even the smell of it, but feeling voiceless as he “didn’t
know how to talk about alcohol or that this reaction is a result of the childhood traumatic
experience. Participant #5 reflected that going to any university sponsored event like “school
events or readings…was difficult, as [she] couldn’t handle crowds well, as noise is affecting
[her], triggering anxiety,” indicating a very low risk tolerance.

75
The second group of participants, however, expressed that they engaged in risky
behaviors in order to offset the effects of trauma. Five out of six participants in this group
reported self-medicating through drinking, use of marijuana or prescription medication in heavy
quantities, without being aware that the acceptance and reliance on risky behaviors is a part of
their trauma management. One participant reported consuming alcohol on a daily basis, and
often, blacking out at the end of the night. One participant reported the need to drop out of
college to sober up, as the abuse of drugs has led the participant to completely disregard the
academic career. He did come back after a long pause and finish this degree, but it remains to be
understood how many students find themselves in the same predicament: unable to stop self-
medicating for their untreated trauma experience, resulting in dropping out of college and
inability to escape poverty, violence, or proximity to abusers. He shared:
I needed validation and because of that. maybe I put myself out there more than I needed
to. but I was also more willing to let myself be distracted by my classmates and my
cohort. and because of that my studies faltered. I could have done better the first time I
went to college. But I yeah really caught up with the art community, and that led to my
dropping out.
Participant #1 described an unhealthy relationship with food and exercise, and constant struggle
to achieve balance and not overdo one or the other. Participants #3 and #9 contemplated suicide.
Participant #11 reflected on self-medicating through drinking. Participant #7 describes the
struggle with addiction to many highly risky behaviors that originated in the “need for
validation.” He suggests that he “let [him]self be distracted by classmates, abandoned classes,
ended up being on probation as a 35-year-old student, dropped out. He lost his job and his
marriage fell apart. Upon hurting himself at a high-risk workplace, Participant #7 became aware

76
of the effects of trauma on his choices and re-enrolled as a student. All participants that engaged
in high-risk behaviors understand that those behaviors impacted them academically and use
different strategies to succeed despite tendencies to risky behavior. Participant #7 stated:
Risk management is something that I don't do well. because I am really willing and ready
to take risks. That's something that I've got me into trouble, and is partly why I didn't do
so Well, in school. Because I was just taking risky choices, and you know, ultimately
sacrifice school because I was making choices that were really really risky. And yeah,
that was bad. If I would have understood what it was that I was doing and what it's,
because I still do it. But now I understand what I’m doing, and why, right? So I can. I
can. you know, make those choices better.
Goals
The SAMHSA studies (2022) indicate that when asked about academic and personal
goals, most of the participants demonstrated that traumatic experience impairs goal management.
This academic paralysis could be seen as one aspect of APA’s definition of trauma as the inability
to function after a threatening event. Participant #1 revealed inability to set realistic goals, and
reflected on the factory job she performs as evidence of this phenomenon. Five participants
indicated that their goal is to share their stories in order to help others overcome the same
circumstances through publications or one-on-one work with students. Three participants
reflected on a goal of creating a better life for their families, while two participants defined their
goal as financial stability. Only three participants discussed wellness goals for themselves, with
minimal attention to emotional or mental health wellbeing goals. Only one of the participants
discussed using lists as a goal management strategy and measuring the progress towards the goal.

77
None of the participants showed awareness of short term and long-term goals, goal planning or
milestone monitoring.
Obstacles and Barriers
Participants were also asked to reflect if these barriers impacted their ability to be
successful students or graduate from college. While Participant #9 reflected that “trauma is
superpower” because it instills the fear of failure in the survivors, other participants report a lack
of internal motivation, and the need to be motivated externally to remain strong and to stay
driven and focused. Participant #9 shared:
It's a double-sided coin, because it is debilitating right. There's been days and weeks and
months and years where I feel like I can barely function, but as far as it gives you. It does
give you some quite a deal of internal motivation, or at least it did to me. I felt like my
option was either get through all this or not survive right? I looked at my family, I looked
at how poverty affected them. and what happened to them, and that was a strong, strong
motivation to keep going. I saw Academia as a way out of my original social class. And it
that doesn't work out for a lot of people, but it did work out for me. You know I was able
to transition from, you know, largely, being in poverty to not as much, not really being in
poverty. So that was huge for me. And that's, I think, what largely kept me going, despite
all the negative right? So that is resilient thinking.
Participant #1 also agreed with this assessment:
Most of my trauma experience pushed me to be successful, because if I didn't, then I’m
not worth it. You know anyone's time. I'm not worth you know anyone or I'm less of a
human. Basically, I’m less deserving of love. If I don't succeed it Doesn't matter how

78
hard I try, I just have to get to the goal. If I don't get to the goal, then. like what's really
what's the point of anything?
Participant #3 reported that his athletic activities positively impacted his motivation, as
his athletic coaches instilled a drive and a sense that “dropping out is not an option.” Four
participants reflected upon their upbringing, citing a positive role model in their childhood (a
parent or a grandparent). Four participants reported positive motivation by family members,
mainly spouse or a child, or a desire to take off burden from the supporting parent. Two
participants reported negative motivation, where they were threatened by failure or adverse
consequences if they fail. Two participants name poverty as a strong motivator to succeed and
graduate.
Environmental and Social Relationships
The first two categories that emerged from the findings related to the RQ2 is that support
of family and/or friends is crucial to successful academic performance. Every participant
expressed a significant level of support from either or both family and friends. Nine participants
shared that they have very supportive families or family members. Two participants disclosed
that they discuss traumatic experiences openly with their entire families, while seven engage
with a particular family member, such as parents, mother, grandfather, sister, or wife.
Specifically, when asked if they have supportive families or family members, two
participants disclosed that they discuss traumatic experiences openly with their entire families.
Participant #6 and Participant #7 disclose having “open conversations with family,” and “create
an open dialogue with family. where they attempt to understand trauma and talk through” the
feelings. In these two families, it is “normal to share, deal with it, acknowledge what happened.”

79
This might be due to trauma being understood less as an individual and more as a communal
problem that requires almost tribal support for the victim.
Other participants report that they gather support from a particular family member.
Participant #12 shares that she has support from both parents, although mother sometimes
wonders why the participant can simply “move on.” Participant #5 gathers support from mother,
even though they do not have a fully open communication about what happened. Participant #9
gathers support from the grandfather, who is a role model by his virtue of working hard and
making a name for himself in dire circumstances. Participant #10 gathers support from a sister
that has also been affected by the same family trauma and understands the context well.
Participant #3 gathers support from his wife who has been a steadfast partner throughout the
participant's life, unlike his parents who avoid any mention of trauma.
Four participants describe lack of communication with their families. Participant #9 and
participant #13 have completely severed ties with the parents due to traumatic experiences
involving parents. Participant #9 explained that:
Because I was first generation, because no one I was speaking to was, you know, as
educated as me. It became a huge gap. and it became harder and harder to relate to my
family my immediate family, and that created a serious wedge. And the further along I
went, especially because they were, you know, the cause of a lot of my early trauma -
those relationships just I didn't feel supported at all. They didn't understand why I didn't
want to keep why I wanted to keep going to school forever. They just felt like I was never
going to be out of school, never going to have a job, I mean. All of them were just
working right out of high school, so they didn't understand what I was doing. What
academia was my speech patterns changed. I remember that distinctly, like I started using

80
a much more standardized form of English than my sort of rural working class discourse,
and that freaked them out so it's like I became. Several of them were just like it's like
you're becoming a different person. I remember these comments. and that just continued.
You know I learned after years and years to kind of code switch, I think a little bit and
relate to them better. But it never that that original rift never really healed. And eventually
it just kind of, you know. We just kind of all went our separate ways.
Although Participant #1 and Participant #2 maintain a resemblance of relationship with
parents, traumatic experience is not discussed or shared, partially because there is an existing
conflict regarding participants’ sexual orientation which is culturally not acceptable by the
nuclear family unit, and partly due to embarrassment or consideration of the topic to be taboo.
Three participants stated that they confide in one great lifelong friend, while Participant #9
confides in a multitude of friends. Participants #2 and #8 formed strong bonds with peers who
have gone through the same traumatic experience as a result of community violence. When these
peers enrolled in the same college, a strong communal bond survived, to the exclusion of other
peers.
Exposure to Therapy
The next category that emerged from the RQ2 inquiry is that participants have had
varying experiences using therapy as a way to overcome consequences of traumatic experiences.
Only Participants #2 and #4 report early access to professional help while still in high school:
Participant #2, after being referred to a therapist as a result of a group experience, and Participant
#4 due to an assertive teacher that noticed severe weight loss of the student and bouts of
unexplained crying in the classroom.

81
Participant #2 reported seeing psychologists in high school along with other peers that
have survived the same experience, after being hospitalized for a mental breakdown. To offset
severe mood swings, anxiety and depression, Participant #2 participated in group psychodynamic
therapy, which was primarily directed at interrupting the thoughts of guilt and self-blame and
accepting that trauma is a shaping force that has made the participant who he is. He shared:
Now, I can step out of my head and look into the situation from the outside. and kind of
we collect my thoughts, and, you know, stop being so hard and myself that was
something I really struggled with when I, you know, was younger. I would, and still a
little now, but I would constantly blame myself for things that happened to me that
weren't my fault. because I didn't necessarily know the reason why, like that lost I
experienced in high school. I didn't know what I had done, or you know what I had done
to deserve this. So, if I had, you know, been the one to cause it. But you know I've come
to learn over time that you know that's not fair to myself to blame myself for something
that was out of my control, and it wasn't my fault.
Upon graduating from high school and enrolling in college, Participant #2 tried working
with an on-campus therapist but found that limitations in time and availability were a detractor,
so he ended up attending private therapy sessions off campus. Participant #4 also reported seeing
therapists in high school in individual cognitive-behavioral therapy sessions, focused on
techniques of relaxation, positive self-talk and breathing exercises to relieve severe anxiety. Both
Participants #2 and Participant #4 used writing workshops in their programs to communicate
these feelings and wrote extensively, sharing their experience with peers and faculty. Participant
#4 reported crying in workshops, triggered with his own and with his peers’ texts. Although

82
professors were generally supportive, they did not have professional knowledge of reacting to the
text in any way other than academic evaluation of the writer’s craft.
Two participants sought therapy upon entering college. Participant #5 and Participant #12
reflect on seeing fliers on campus advertising mental health services and visiting a mental health
center. As a result, Participant #5 attended once a week individual sessions every three weeks
and would have used more frequent meetings if there was an opportunity. In the sessions, she
was taught to use self-care, meditation and journaling as methods of overcoming repeating
thoughts and memories of the traumatic event. As a result, feelings of being overwhelmed
subsided, and Participant #5 learned how to cope, deal with stress, and complete work without
completely collapsing. Participant #12 attended a few sessions with the therapist on campus, but
found that she needed more help, and thus switched to a private therapist off campus. Through
cognitive behavioral therapy, she learned how to deal with depression and mood swings that
caused her to get two No Credit grades prior to seeing a therapist. Participant #6 also sought out
a private therapist off campus, learning that obsessive attempts to control situations in her life
and her relationships were not normal, like she believed, but a trauma response. Through
cognitive behavioral therapy, she learned to replace the attempts to control with journaling,
meditation and high-impact physical exercise. Participant #9 discloses that, as an only child in a
dysfunctional family, he had no one to talk to about his trauma until arriving at college. He
purposely sought out therapists in the mental health centers of every institution he attended and
used their services to the fullest extent. Through a number of therapeutic approaches, he dealt
with being suicidal as a consequence of conglomerate traumatic experiences and chronic PTSD,
learning about journaling, mindfulness, and positive self-talk. Participant #10 was not aware of
the impact of trauma until an excessive number of units and increased anxiety and stress became

83
unbearable and led her to check into a clinic. The remaining participants report brief and
accidental encounters with therapists late in college, if any at all.
Only seven of thirteen participants report encounters with professional help during
student years, while remaining participants managed trauma independently. Participant #3 report
relying on techniques shared with his athletic coach and Disabled Student Services to deal with
his bouts of insomnia and depression. Participants #8 and #13 report reliance on self-help
articles, books, videos, or other materials commonly circulated on the internet in later years of
their lives, disclosing that they have never properly dealt with their trauma in a professional
setting. Participant #1 uses group activities such as gaming, hiking and exercising with cousins to
interrupt negative self-talk and deal with depression. Of particular concern is a delay: participant
#7 and participant #11 learned about therapy as employees, long after they survived academia, as
they “unraveled after college.” Participant #7 shared that:
Because I've become more aware of what was happening, and why I was responding the
way I was, I have been able to focus on how to get through those situations. It's led me to
a greater understanding of why I respond to the way I do. Why, I approach education the
way I do. And with that my desire to succeed has grown. and my willingness to focus
more and work harder at my academic has also grown. They lament that they only
became aware of therapy upon leaving the academic setting and finding employment
where such services were advertised to employees, or where they became educators
professionally trained to approach students and advise them on the existence of
therapeutic services.
Professional Networks in College Environment

84
Availability of college networks is another important aspect that RQ2 investigated, as
demonstrated by peer and faculty support. Seven participants disclosed that they preferred not to
discuss their trauma with their classmates, even within their sororities or fraternities. Participant
#8 felt triggered by peers asking about any aspects close to trauma, such as a weird accent,
strange name, and national origin, so she refused to engage in any “superficial” discussion about
her experience, especially since her parents were still in danger. The only exceptions were found
in two cases: sharing with peers with the exact same background and sharing in the writing
workshops. Two participants that experienced community trauma felt close and intimate to the
bond with other survivors, in a similar way that war survivors or army combatants connect on an
emotional level unique to their group. In terms of creative writing workshops, eight participants
felt safe and protected to share their experiences through fiction, nonfiction and poetry. They felt
empathy toward other writers and their experiences, and felt included in a community, presenting
their autoethnographies as either fictional biographies or as literature. Participant #9 states that
he enjoyed sharing his texts with classmates: “as a writer, sharing writing in the classroom,
sharing with other trauma survivors, bonding over common ground, allowing oneself to be
vulnerable” was a healing experience. Participant #9 believes that “creative writing is a safe
place, as the authorial voice provided a way to safely talk about trauma,” until he stopped talking
about it because he felt discouraged to see himself as a trauma survivor “due to being a white
male.”
This phenomenon closely corresponds to research, as multiple therapy models utilize the
skills taught in the writing workshop. As a part of interpersonal therapy, participants learn how to
communicate about their unresolved conflicts and feelings, and how to express the emotions in a
healthy way, working through their grief and depression, similar to communication performed by

85
the writers and readers in the workshops. Layne et al. (2001) implemented this type of group
therapy using trauma/grief focus: “traumatic experiences, trauma and loss reminders, postwar
adversities, bereavement and the interplay of trauma and grief, and developmental impact,” to
move participants from grief to self-healing and acceptance, in the similar way that creative
writing moves in an arc of a fictional story or in the expository text, creating positive
associations with the psychological adaptation and personal growth (p. 280). In the same way,
dialectical behavior therapy and creative writing workshops both emphasize attention to taking
personal responsibility for changing negative and disruptive thoughts and behaviors and focusing
on personal growth instead of focusing on emphasizing loss and destruction. Similarly to peers
supporting each other in the course of the workshop, supportive therapy uses encouragement to
help survivors with meaning making about self and the community, in order to develop “self-
esteem, reduce anxiety, strengthen coping mechanisms, and improve social and community
functioning” (APA, 2022, para. 8). Both result in self-efficacy of students through the “positive
meaning reappraisals, including progressive restoration of worldviews, new opportunities for
self-realization, and newly-found purpose, leading to perceived psychological benefits and
growth,” through the reestablished sense of purpose in participants’ lives, and restored ideas
about “safety, predictability, trust, and belonging” of a trauma survivor (Matos et al., 2021, p.
16). Finally, some of the therapy methods firmly cross into the creative arts, like Cave and
Sloan’s (2014), anthropology-informed oral history approach, where listening and collaborative
creation with participants are used to make sense of the stories of “war, incarceration, witnessing
murder, or experiencing torture and climate-related disaster” (p. 82). Cave and Sloan suggest that
oral history methodology does not only serve to record and document what has happened during
the crisis, but also helps “making sense and finding meaning in what has happened,”

86
reintegrating the survivor into society (Cave & Sloan, 2014, p. 82). Vue (2019) uses cultural
productions to create a discourse between the survivors and the larger community, encouraging
vibrant remembrance and vivid discourse of traumatic events.
Besides connecting to peers, participants were asked about connecting to faculty. The
responses varied for each participant and each faculty member they reflect on. While the
majority of the faculty members were supportive, some faculty members refused to assist. A
small number of faculty took proactive measures of calling or emailing a student after class to
follow up on the disclosed information, or to work in one-on-one modality.
The other participants in the college environment also exhibited empathy and
understanding, per reflection of the majority of participants. Therapists employed in student or
employee assistance programs showed sensitivity and care when working with participants.
Financial aid officers showed a lot of empathy and understanding in dealing with the
participants, finding ways to help with situations that could potentially be triggering, as well as
the registrars when participants needed to withdraw from classes.
Institutional Support
The first category that emerged under RQ3 was participants’ regret regarding not using
the therapy as early as possible, and definitely before becoming a college student. In their
reflection on campus therapy services provided through the mental health office, participants
delineate three types of reactions: the first group did not know that they needed help regarding
mental health. The second group did not know that mental health services on campus existed. he
third group did not place confidence in the existing services, finding them not valuable, not
feasible timewise, or not readily accessible in the needed amount.

87
Participant #1 had not experienced any institutional support, nor been advised to seek it,
and suggested that a “hangout” would have been very helpful to learn from peers about possible
ways to manage trauma. Participant #7 related:
There must have been an office, someone you could have gone to talk to right. There's a
clinic on campus, and I’m sure there was someone there. I could have talked to you if I
thought that it was necessary, but it felt so normal. It felt like it was just some like it's just
my life right. It's not negatively affecting me in any way that that I understood was
detrimental. It was me making decisions to go and have a really good time, and then not
taking as much responsibility as I needed to. So no, that. as far as I know, there might
have been something available to me. but I definitely wasn't looking for it.
Per their reflection, four out of thirteen participants believed that their reactions, feelings,
and behaviors were the norm, and had nothing to do with the experience they survived. They did
not find the mental health services because “they were not looking,” under the impression that
they were emotionally stable, even while suffering privately. Participant #4 revealed that:
I did not believe in panic attacks. I I literally thought, I mean this is it's embarrassing it
wasn't that long ago, but I used to literally think, oh, it's just something that women.
They're just dramatic. They're just being dramatic that doesn't exist. I was one of those
people. Then I experienced one. That kind of happened out of nowhere. That was, there
was nothing causing it. It just happened. and then I became a believer, and I started
recognizing that I had neglected a lot of things that I wasn't talking about. It wasn't
dealing with and pushing things in. and I developed a massive sleep issue panic disorders
just out of nowhere. Just kind of Covid, you know. Kind of affected us all differently. And
so then I became aware and started researching my own and talking to my doctor, talking

88
to my therapist, getting a psych psychiatrist and having them all telling me. Oh,
congratulations! You've had trauma your entire life, and I’m like that were a trauma or
anxiety, or that kind of thing as a kid and as a teenager, I would say that doesn't really no,
that doesn't really exist. It's just people just being dramatic or people. But then, when
people, when my Psyche would ask me, Well, how many times have you done this as a
result of seeing this? And I’m like all my life, and they're like that's trauma. That's a
trauma response, and I’m like oh. that's what that is, you know. So as soon as you kind of
become aware, it's all it's a lot easier to confront for sure. but I would say it was yeah, I
was toward the end of my master's career as a graduate.
Three participants were unaware of the on-campus therapy and support they could have
used to help themselves. Overwhelmingly, participants in both groups relate that they would
definitely use the services, were they aware at the time. Participant #4 never reached out to
administration during his tenure as a student. Due to inability to attend university events such as
mixers, new faculty interviews, or readings in places like breweries or receptions in bars,
Participant #4 felt like an outcast. He feels that he missed his chance to create college networks,
left with less friends than others without such a predicament, and predicts that in terms of finding
a job, he would be a less popular candidate. Participant #4 feels that many people feel alone, and
if there was a safe structure to talk about experiences, it would make the college world less
alienating. He didn’t know that others had issues too, and reflected that if he had seen a flier
about people like him, it would have been very beneficial:
But I think if maybe there was a meeting on campus. That was, you know I was handed a
flyer. That said, hey, do you feel comfortable with alcohol? Join this meeting around
people who feel the same way, you know. I never have seen anything like that. So that's

89
definitely something. I mean, if it If it was advertised aggressively. Then then yeah, I
think it would be really beneficial, but it would. It would take kind of. I know, from being
a teacher as well that as a student people need emails. They need flyers. They need
announcements. They need word of mouth. They need everything because there's so
much that slips through the cracks for a lot of us, because we're not paying attention, you
know.
He urges administration to outreach aggressively to help survivors connect, especially to
male adults who do not tend to share their feelings. Participant #6 states that she “didn’t know
what [she] needed, as [she] didn’t know what [she] didn’t know. She reflected:
At first I was reading. I was kind of wondering why things were off in my personal
relationships. It was really difficult for me to have personal relationships, and I wasn't
really sure why. And so I was thinking. Well, at first I blamed everybody else, and then I
was like. Well, what if it's me? And so I just started reading a lot of books to a lot of like
personal development classes. And then I was in a lot of therapy and kind of learned
about how childhood trauma affected like a multiple aspects of my life. Yeah, but I didn't
really to get any of that at school I was really I didn't. I always was thinking that my
trauma wasn't significant enough, or that I wasn't. Actually, I thought I was fine, so I
didn't I reach out for any help. I didn't think I needed help you know. from the outside,
looking, you know, from the outside, looking in.
Not being conscious of her trauma at the time, she sees value in building awareness, and
feels optimistic that new generations will have that skill. Participant #7 reflected on not knowing
that he had options. He also reflected on his ability to make art from trauma, worrying that he

90
might cause secondary trauma to the audience that partakes, as he never learned how to
harmlessly talk to others about his experiences.
Participant #8 also reflected on not knowing that she had options and suggests that
administrations should spend time to “get to know you, in order to personalize services,”
marketing what is available to students. She met successful people by chance, and followed what
they have done in life to succeed—coaching students for success should be organized and
provided to provide everyone the same opportunity. Participant #10 repeats the mantra that
students do not know what they do not know. She found help on her own, and now, as a
superintendent, she does everything that she can to assist her own students. Participant #10
suggests that information about existing services should be included in faculty’s academic policy,
and flyers distributed in student unions, social media, library, activity sign ups, parking. Students
should be “flooded with info”:
I think that if there had been something like in the syllabus of the professors, you know,
like where all the disclaimers are about like academic dishonesty and the academic
policy. If there was something in there, if there were a flyer, you know, this was back
before the so much social media. There would be some flyers up around campus and the
common areas, maybe like in the student union. Now, maybe even like you know, the
with email and social media pushing out, you know, like the numbers that you have on
here signs up in the different offices on campus that students may go into in in the library
all those different places while you're waiting in line to by your parking ticket which you
probably don't have to do anymore. But all those different places just having almost like
flooding you with that information so that you know what's there.

91
Participant #10 learned about these services from the sorority and Participant #12 learned
about them as a student employee of the Graduate Success Office. Participant #2 explains that he
only learned about the Services for Students with Disabilities in 3rd semester, after being on the
verge of another hospitalization, from the older sibling that had heard about it from friends.
Participant #2 related:
I had reached out to services for students with disabilities which offered a lot of support
for me, because I also deal with. I deal with anxiety, depression, and ADHD so a lot of
those things in aggravation to the experience I had in high school. You know we're
affecting my performance in school, and I didn't even know about services with students
with disabilities until my older sister had recommended them to me. I think it was in to
my second semester in school. So that was a really valuable resource.
Out of the seven participants that did use existing services, only two were informed by
direct advertising on campus. All participants agree that there needs to be more information
advertising services that the mental health center offers, and advice on who could benefit from
them, as not all survivors are aware of their needs. Therefore, a consensus of the participants is
that there needs to be orientation to mental health support services at the beginning of every
school year, with a strong advertising component directed towards new or transfer students.
Participant #2 suggests that more services need to be available to students, and marketed so that
they know when they enroll what their options are. He urges that the administration must
“emphasize at orientation that services are available, and stress to check them out,” as it is
important to confront issues early on. Participant #2 also suggests that staff needs to introduce
the idea to students that they might need the services in case that students are not aware of their
needs, as “trauma does not always look the same.” Because adolescence is hard as it is, it will

92
take effort to “teach students to open themselves up to sources, people and new experiences.”
Participant #2 also emphasizes that professors need to be willing to work with students, and offer
more of themselves to students. Participant #3 also confirms that institutions need to provide
“more staff, more services,” train students on how to cope with trauma, and provide “leads on
where to seek help.” Participant #10 stated that:
Therapy was a very positive experience, and I wish that I would have had it known that
that resource was available, like from when I started college, and it was a positive
experience, because I didn't realize that things like that or out there. because in my
family. You don't talk about your problems or your hardships or experiences with anyone,
especially not someone outside of family. So, being able to talk to someone who was
neutral and could provide me with some perspective and just some tips. It was very
helpful, and made me feel like I wasn't alone, and just kind of gave me like a sense of
security.
On the other hand, two participants knew about the services but decided to use private
therapists as they considered the existing services to be inconvenient and low-quality service,
due to using graduate students as therapists. Participant #4 stated that: I wouldn't say that I
thought that the therapy on campus was high quality, because people would say, oh, they're just
students. They don't really know what they're doing, and they're training, and so I think I was
very aware that they offered therapy, but I think I chose outside therapy, thinking that it was
probably higher quality than the services provided at school. Participant #9 expressed that he had
to use an on-campus therapist due to poverty and a lack of medical insurance, as he “had no
choice,” but that he would have made a different choice had he had the opportunity.

93
Teaching Stress Reduction
The second category that came out of RQ3 is that there is a strong need for biannual
events that focus on stress reduction, anxiety and depression management for all students. In
order to build resilient communities, research shows that group therapy can be very efficient.
Considering that there are very stressful periods on college campuses such as midterms and
finals, it would be beneficial, according to participants’ reflections, to provide group sessions to
help all students survive these stressful periods of instruction. Participant #5 stated that:
Events for like helping with stress or anxiety would be a good thing for the campus to do
more of okay, especially during the exam seasons, I definitely think. The stress can
overwhelm you completely drag you under. and they have never organized that that you
know. I believe they've done it once or twice, but I would say it would be more helpful if
they did like an annual thing. Well, not annual, but like every semester during the exam
seasons.
These biannual events could be perfect avenue for applying Akinsulure-Smith (2009)
group psychoeducational therapy as a trauma intervention strategy, as this study relies on work in
groups to provide internal support and encouragement during the sessions, creating a sense of
community and comradery. Through trauma education, “the participants are introduced to stress
management techniques, working in peer groups to process the learned material and learn self-
regulation” (p. 138). As learning is a social act in the first place, this study capitalizes on the
notion of modeling behavior as it works to transform the individual trauma survivor into a group
participant with a shared identity and resilient behavior to prevent re-traumatization. Participant
#12 implored:

94
And I want to be able to. just to be able to like. have the tools to call myself when I do get
anxious. So, like one of my goals is to learn mindfulness, and that's really hard for me,
because. like my mind tends to like. become my worst enemy, like I'll start overthinking
things, or i'll start like snowballing, thinking things. and then usually like spirals. It's like
negative thoughts. But then my one of my goals is just to be very present in a moment.
Due to not managing stress, Participant #5 feels impacted due to inability to create
college networks: she feels “stunted” in her professional growth. She suggests organizing “events
for stress and anxiety….do it every semester during finals, because they are rare.” Participant #5
would also like to see training on conflict management, relationships between students, and
workshops on how to interact with other people, on top of securing the dorms so that trauma
survivors feel safer.
Participant #9 navigated college as a needy, oversharing, overreaching student. Because
he did not meet many like him—low-income white male from a rural small town of loosely
populated state, Participant #9 tried extra hard to find the way to success. He shared an
observation:
And yeah, I've seen a lot of people from the working class who have had crappy
childhoods. They make it part of the way through. but a lot of them, I mean. I've seen
people get tons and tons of credits, and they just never graduate. They just disappear, and
that that is, that is all too common in academia.
Although some shut him down, he made many connections that were useful in academic
advancement and a career as a professor. Participant #9 advised training, with mental health
awareness weeks for students, as well as faculty. He suggested that training and motivating
faculty to “engage, personalize contact, create culture of care, coordinate response, be student

95
centered, care about student success, and mentor students,” is the only way to truly make an
impact. “Do not let students be on their own,” concludes Participant #9.
Need for a Survivor Community
The final category that emerged from RQ3 is that trauma survivors need access to safe
spaces in order to congregate with other survivors. Besides the classroom and the mental health
center there is no space on campuses that can be a gathering point for those that cannot handle
loud noise, crowd, or risky behavior, other than the library where certain decorum is required.
The majority of participants reported that they would have liked a dedicated space in which they
can experiment with activities that have been found to make an impact on the life quality of
trauma survivors in a group setting. In such space, many types of alternative therapy can be
provided, such as Vukich’s (2015) music therapy, Vue’s (2019) cultural productions, or Bandy’s
(2020) transcendental meditation practices. Depending on the configuration of such space,
students could also experience animal-assisted therapy.
Other resources have been named as lacking. Participant #11 worries that a “lack of
access to course planning, and access to counselors” causes additional stress to students as they
do not see a path forward. As an administrator on college campus, Participant #11 suspects that
there is “no psychiatrist on campus, and that existing therapists are not trained with trauma
management.” Participants #12 and #13, both senior educators on college campuses, simply state
that “more resources, more outreach and awareness,” is necessary to level the field between the
students like them and the students who were spared of trauma.
Thus, categories that come out of RQ3 can be summarized as:
orientation to mental health support services with strong advertising component
biannual events that focus on stress reduction, anxiety, and depression management

96
safe spaces to congregate with other survivors.
These categories indicate that despite advancement in student services, there are still needs that
have not been satisfied on the institutional level, and they will be further addressed in the
recommendations in Chapter 5.
Summary of Research Findings
The purpose of this study is to understand the impact of childhood traumatic experiences
of California public university alumni using in-depth interviews, in order to analyze adequacy of
existing services and make recommendation for the systematic improvements that can be made
to help students improve their academic performance, improve retention, and provide tools that
trauma survivors can use beyond their academic careers. This study collected data about the
academic performance of alumni trauma survivors, including the impact of trauma-provoked
symptoms and behaviors on learning and motivation, as well as data about trauma-inspired care
provided on campus such as professional support and training in use of self-help strategies. It
identified obstacles to learning of trauma-impacted students, and the learning methods and
strategies that were used during their academic career, as these factors are crucial to motivation,
engagement, and subsequent retention of trauma survivors. Also, this study provided trauma
survivors a voice in a recent discussion of trauma management in the classroom, while adding an
important analysis to the growing body of research on the successful teaching methods and
trauma care.
Hill et al. (2005) recommend using frequency to present the study results. In this study of
13 participants, categories that occurred for 90% of participants were labeled “always,”
categories that occurred for 50-89% of participants were labeled “various,” and those below 50%
were labeled “occasional.” The findings are represented in Table 3.

97

Table 3
Summary of Results
Domain Core Idea Category n Frequency
Trauma Effects

A

Manifestations
of trauma
1
2
3
Thoughts
Feelings
Behaviors
13
13
13
Always
Always
Always

B Goals
1
2
Established
Not
established
12
1
Always

C
Obstacles and
barriers
1
2
Manageable
Not
manageable
13
0
Always
Environmental and social
relationships

A
Family
1
2
Supportive
Not
supportive
9
4
Various

B
Friends
1
2
Supportive
Not
supportive
6
7
Various

C
Therapists
1
2
Engaged
Not
engaged
7
6
Various

98

D College
network
1
2
Supportive
Not
supportive
7
6
Various
Institutional Support

A Services on
campus

1

2
Familiar

Not
familiar
7

6
Various

B
Motivation and
learning
1

2
Familiar

Not
familiar
6

7
Various

C Survivor
Community
Space
1

2
Familiar

Not
familiar
11

2
Always

In Chapter 5, these findings are used to propose methods and services that can be used
with college-age trauma survivors.

99
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendation
The purpose of this qualitative grounded theory study was to identify what are higher
education institutions doing to help trauma survivors and what they could be doing in addition to
promote better management of mental health in order to better preform as a student. This chapter
includes a discussion of major findings as related to the literature on trauma management, human
development theoretical model, learning and motivation, and what implications may be valuable
for use by legislators, government organizations, and students who intend to enroll in college.
Also included are recommendations for activities that interview participants identified as absent,
helpful, and necessary. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the limitations of the study,
areas for future research, and a brief summary.
This chapter contains discussion, recommendation, and future research possibilities to
help answer the research questions:
RQ1: What was the nature of trauma impact that recent graduates of a California
public university have experienced and what role did it play in their academic
performance?
RQ2: What factors were in place to support the participants?
RQ3: What can be learned from their experiences?
The findings that resulted from this study can be described by the following themes: (a)
trauma-induced thoughts, feelings, and behaviors directly impact the academic performance of
trauma survivors; (b) family and friends are important part of as a social support network; (c)
exposure to therapy is central to trauma survivors’ success; (d) creation of professional networks
in college is difficult for trauma survivors, and needs to be nurtured; and, (e) it is crucial to raise
awareness of existing resources on campus, teaching stress reduction, and promote creation of a

100
survivor community. Some factors relate primarily to the individual, some to the institution, and
some are a combination of the successful relationship of both. All of these factors help
contribute to an environment where trauma survivors are safe, academically challenged, and can
continuously grow.
Discussion
This study clearly demonstrated that trauma survivors alike to those in this study have
needs that the traditional educational system does not address or acknowledge. From difficulties
managing bodily functions through adequate nutrition, sleep or exercise, to difficulties with
learning and motivation, trauma survivors reported facing obstacles that make the classroom
uneven. Management of the symptoms, such as depression, anxiety, distrust, fear, and
uncommunicativeness, all played a role in managing the classwork. Combined with difficulties
in terms of motivation to complete tasks, trauma survivors often postponed their assignments and
procrastinated. Although participants report faculty members as generally willing to offer
extended deadlines, incompletes or retroactive withdrawals from their classes, faculty did not
provide further support or demonstrate trauma-inspired care, as they are generally not trained in
doing more for the student. While they have been reported to be good listeners and empaths,
participants did not report any experience where a faculty member assertively inquired into a
student's difficulties, proactively advised a sustainable course of action, or advocated for a
professional assistance.
Overwhelmingly, these students were left to find their path out on their own, and vaguely
directed to the mental health center. In cases where students could metacognitively evaluate and
assess their own thoughts and behaviors, they decided on their own that they needed help, and
negotiated campus and scarce counseling sessions to find help. More often than not, students

101
educated themselves on wellness and retrained their own neural pathways to interrupt recurring
thoughts on their own. They were left to their own devices to change unhealthy behaviors and to
evaluate themselves in terms of how they are progressing or if they are succeeding in such
drastic changes.
Results of Research Question One (RQ1)
Almost every interviewed participant expressed an inability to assess how he/she was
doing academically in comparison to the classmates, to set realistic goals, or have a sense of
control over one’s circumstances, which based on SAMHSA (2022) studies, are widely reported
symptoms in trauma survivors. Most participants also reported constant anxiety and periods of
debilitating depression, a common side effect of trauma (APA, 2022; SAMHSA, 2022; NCTSN,
2022). Further, when asked what kind of obstacles they encountered as students because of their
trauma experience, participants reported inability to meet deadlines, failing to complete the
assigned work and proclivity to risky behaviors. Finally, while discussing how they negotiated
those obstacles, participants reflected on the types of motivation they used to overcome these
difficulties.
Results of Research Question Two (RQ2)
For the purpose of this study, the ability of a participant to manage trauma was defined by
the ability to seek and find the support of loved ones, learn and apply trauma management
techniques, and forge professional support networks on campus. As Substance Abuse and Mental
Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2022) points out, trauma response largely depends
on the supportive system of the survivors: the more supportive system that a survivor has
available, the easier, faster, and fuller the recovery. Thus, human connections are instrumental for
trauma management. RQ2 asked participants to describe their support network and reflect on the

102
communication practices with the network. Also, RQ2 investigated participants’ awareness of
trauma management techniques. When asked if they are aware of common trauma management
techniques, such as:
engaging in positive distracting activities (sports, hobbies, reading)
getting adequate rest and eating healthy meals
keeping a journal
participating in a support group
scheduling pleasant activities
taking breaks
talking to another person for support or spending time with others
trying to maintain a normal schedule
using relaxation methods (breathing exercises, meditation, calming self-talk, soothing
music).
Participants recalled some of them from their general knowledge or reading about
wellness. More than half of participants could not specify who taught these techniques to them or
in what setting or discuss in what way these techniques build resilience. Participants who have
developed awareness of these techniques reported subsiding of the manifestations of trauma in
college.
Results of Research Question Three (RQ3)
The RQ3 asked participants to reflect on their experience and provide an evaluation and
assessment of the instructional support they received, with the attention on what support services
they would have liked to have seen during their academic career. The responses indicated a lack
of awareness of existing mental health support services, desire for regular wellness events that

103
focus on stress reduction, anxiety, and depression management, as well as desire for safe spaces
to congregate with other survivors.
Themes
Out of the analysis of the research findings, the following themes emerged: trauma-
induced thoughts, feelings, and behaviors directly impact the academic performance of trauma
survivors; family and friend support is an invaluable resource for managing trauma; exposure to
therapy is central to trauma survivors’ success; creation of professional networks in college is
difficult for trauma survivors, and needs to be nurtured; and, it is crucial to raise awareness of
existing resources on campus, teaching stress reduction, and promote creation of a survivor
community.
Trauma-Induced Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviors
This study’s conclusion that the recurring thoughts, feelings, and behaviors experienced
by trauma survivors impact their academic performance agrees with the historical literature that
indicates that there is a significant damage left by the exposure to toxic stress during the early
developmental years that makes hormonal systems overreactive or underactive reducing
capability for learning and adapting to stress in later life (National Scientific Council on the
Developing Child, 2010). A constant self-doubt and performance anxiety that participants
resulted in perceiving threat where there is none (threat of failing or receiving a bad grade
despite the invested efforts), or failing to perceive threat altogether (real threat of receiving a bad
grade when procrastinating or not submitting the work altogether). Inability to regulate these
thoughts and feelings, as Sapolsky et al. (2000) indicate, leads to a number of disorders, such as
anxiety, and depression, as well as to addiction and other risky behaviors, all of which were
demonstrated by the study participants. Reports of difficulty to focus, memorize and learn new

104
material, confirm studies that demonstrates the connection between the stress and change in the
regions of the brain that are essential for learning and memory (Lupien et al., 1998; National
Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2010). Inability to stop negative thoughts and
feelings reportedly led to risky behaviors incompatible with satisfactory academic performance
and put trauma survivors on a direct trajectory to failure in their studies.
Family and Friends Are an Important Part of a Social Support Network
It is assumed that students have supportive networks of their own, whether in terms of
family or friends, and that further support is not needed. That is often not the case. While all
participants have families, not all families are aware of the student’s experience or
knowledgeable about trauma, or even internally functional in a measure that they can support the
student. Specifically, the results of this study included three sentiments: supportive families that
understand student’s individual needs; unsupportive families that add stress for student; and,
absent families that do not have meaningful contact with the student. Underlying all of the
sentiments was an inference that traumatic experiences change family relationships and causes
additional burden. The emphasis on the familial bonds and close relationships in this study is
consistent with what is in the literature regarding the studies of the role of the family to
overcome trauma. Based on United Nations Children's Fund (2012) studies that follow refugee
children displaced from their parents or caretakers indicate that trauma is exacerbated due to a
lack of support and safety. Diab and Shultz (2021) also correlated the student academic
underachievement and “lacking the social support system through lack of care, safety, or stability
at home,” claim that such students “suffered weak cognitive function, exhibited poor student
habits, and disinterest in learning,” and became “unable to learn or advance through the
educational system, exhibiting feelings of shame and guilt” (p. 51). Friends can also serve as a

105
support system replacing absent family members, as participants reported in a couple of
interviews. In any case, this study’s conclusion emphasizes the importance for close, familial
bonds with sympathetic partners, both the trauma survivors to communicate their individual
needs to a supportive ally and for the supportive ally to understand that needs are unique to the
individual and provide support. Understanding the individual’s needs, too, is in line with the
literature that motivation varies according to each individual.
Exposure to Therapy is Central to Trauma Survivors’ Success
Even though mental health is as important as physical health, many insurance plans do
not cover counseling or therapy, making it inaccessible to many trauma survivors. If we were to
imagine that, instead depression and anxiety, the students suffered from cancer or some other
invasive physical disease, we would understand how inhumane it is to assume that survivors will
cure themselves, graduating successfully and on time from college at the same time. Probability
is that most of the trauma survivors drop out of college or never apply and that participants of
this study are rare exceptions to the rule.
Previous studies emphasized the importance of including mental health services and
providing therapy within educational settings, particularly when working with survivors of
community violence (Akinsulure-Smith et al., 2009; Layne et al., 2001; Kilic, 2016; Panter-Brick
& Leckman, 2013). However, in contrast to previous literature, this study evaluated the
utilization of the trauma management strategies implemented in classrooms found in war-thorn
regions, and proposed that there are valuable approaches in use that would also be helpful in the
classrooms not affected by war. For example, Ellis et al. (2013) reports success in community
resilience building through early intervention using school-based trauma systems therapy with a
group of Somali youths groups—an approach that could very well be used with the survivors of

106
compounded and complex trauma, community violence or hate crimes, akin to stress reduction
therapy implemented in Israel, which Barrett and Berger (2021) propose to integrate into
community mental health policies, especially in environments prone to community violence.
Creation of Professional Networks in College
Historically, large professional networks led to more success for students but also recent
graduates and job seekers. Thus, the inability of engaging with members of professional
community on campus (faculty, staff, administrators) are detrimental to the professional success
of trauma survivors. This study concludes that the interviewed participants are aware of
disadvantages of not creating professional networks while being a student. However, as
participants report, the efforts to establish these networks are hindered by a lack of confidence,
isolation and feelings of incompetence. Furthermore, such relationships are marred by the
requests for deferred deadlines, incompletes or withdrawals from classes that trauma survivors
are often forced to utilize due to struggles with depression and anxiety. This study concludes that
trauma survivors need to be taught and encouraged in how to establish these professional
connections, overcoming fear and doubt, and how to establish relationships despite their
struggles.
It is Crucial to Raise Awareness
It is important for organizations to focus on the intrinsic motivators that they can help
shape, rather than just the extrinsic motivators that they can institute (Furnham et al., 2009).
Thus, promoting the resources that have already been established to incoming students is a first
step in motivating students to seek help so that they can succeed in college. Majority of
participants report being unaware about the services on campus until accidentally informed by an
unaffiliated member, such as a friend or an older sibling. There were some examples in this study

107
where participants cited peer groups, sorority members, or department-specific mentoring
programs as being helpful to them. While peer groups and programs cited by participants in this
study certainly helped inform the participants about the existing services, they were not often
helpful to participants to move towards enrolling in such programs or even convincing them that
they should take advantage of them. Simply, they were not instrumental in establishment of the
participants’ career goals or their enrollment: it is usually dedicated academic personnel that was
generally cited as that key sponsor in helping participants reach their goals.
Literature shows that the impact of secondary stress on students has farther reaching
consequences than the initial stress caused by the originary trauma. For example, Akinsulure-
Smith (2009) suggests that secondary trauma has even more impact than primary trauma, since
the stress coping system has already been impacted by the first experience. It is important for
institutions to reduce secondary stress by teaching students how to handle their thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors, as well as understand their students as individuals, to be able to
understand what triggers them (Jackson & Seeman, 2008). The literature suggests that this
training process could be established using behaviorism, where the students are provided
information on what their behavior needs to be like in the times of extreme stress or
constructivism, where new ideas about the experienced trauma are based on previously adopted
knowledge and experiences, and where each learner individually determines the significance of
the experience unique to each learner. Such training would allow for the establishment of the
community, as communities promote developing trust relationships between members with
similar experiences, and develop competence, confidence, and resilience.

108
Recommendations
With this in mind, this study will attempt to offer a set of recommendations in the attempt
to improve the situation on the ground. The recommendations for this study were formulated by
understanding the problem, assessing the current situation, and suggesting a course of action that
is necessary to resolve the problem. As discussed previously, more than half of all U.S. children
have experienced one or more traumatic events in their childhood (CDC, 2023; SAMHSA,
2022), with “46% of the nation’s youth aged 17 and under report experiencing at least one
trauma” (National Survey of Children’s Health, 2016, para. 8). Considering Koslouski and
Stark’s (2021) study that shows that K-12 routinely do not have time or skills to deal with trauma
survivors adequately, chances are that half of adolescents incoming into college institutions do
not have the skills needed to manage their trauma and succeed.
Recommendation 1: Provide Necessary Services for Trauma Management
Based on the preliminary research for this study, as well as the interview of Dr. Stacy
Overstreet from Tulane University, one of the current members of the New Orleans Trauma-
Informed Schools Learning Collaborative and its project Safe Schools NOLA, and a prolific
researcher and author on trauma management in K-12 school setting, it has come to light that in
the discussion of trauma-inspired management, the voices of trauma survivors themselves are a
missing piece, as the field of trauma-inspired care is relatively new and still remains to be
developed. The project Safe Schools NOLA was funded in 2016 by the National Institute of
Justice, and it still struggles to make a permanent impact on the educational system, due to
constant loss of teachers and administrators. In the attempt to contribute to the field, this study
used RQ3 to allow the voices of trauma survivors to be heard: to share their stories of

109
tribulations as students, and to help understand their academic performance in the light of
existing supportive networks on their campuses.
Echoing the reflections of the participants, the third recommendation of this study is to
provide services that will help trauma survivors manage and succeed in college, as majority
completed their degree requirements without any kind of institutional support. The target for the
graduation timeframe should be equivalent to the peers who are not trauma survivors, as well as
retention rates, which can be achieved by taking the following steps.
First, it has been demonstrated that the survivors often do not see themselves as different from
the norm, and need to be educated about the symptoms that they are experiencing. The reflection
that was repeated in the interviews is that the survivors often do not know what they do not
know. Participant #2 shared this advice for such students:
It's important that students. You know there's a lot of students who you know, don't want
to deal with it. They just kind of want to push it. Push it down, you know. I've been
ignoring it all this time. I've been doing fine. It kind of getting through. but it only gets
harder the longer you know. To hold back in. To keep it in. I feel like it's very important
to kind of confront those issues that you had, and it's not easy for everyone, you know
Some people may not. that they have issues that they haven't dealt with.
Also, they are often unaware of the existing services that they could use, or how and
where to sign up for them. Thus, it is crucial to organize highly advertised workshops on the
topic of the relationship between the trauma effects and academic performance, including but not
limited to learning, motivation, and goal setting. These workshops should be organized at the
beginning of every semester and should provide opportunities for students to sign up during such
events. All of the available methods should be used for advertising: email, social media, fliers on

110
advertising boards around campus, and counters of offices that students are most likely to visit
during the early days of the semester: orientation booths, registration office, financial aid office,
parking, advising, etc. It would be optimal to also mail the invitations to the workshops along
with the information about registration or enrollment materials.
After the initial workshops focused on recognizing the need for trauma management and
introducing services such as therapy, disability accommodation, tutoring and peer support, this
study recommends regular community events that should be focused on teaching wellness in a
group setting. These events should be held monthly and should train trauma survivors in skills
needed to adjust and acclimate in the classroom. Learning about managing depression and
anxiety will help students recognize these disorders and know who to talk to in order to get help,
but also helpful techniques on self-managing them. Learning about how to organize as a student
will help prevent procrastination and manage tasks better before they become daunting, as well
as learning about studying skills while managing negative self-talk and doubt of one’s success.
Learning about communication despite deep feelings of shame and inadequacy will help trauma
survivors establish contact with faculty and peers and create supportive networks while breaking
out of self-isolation. Also, communication skills will be helpful with preventing and managing
conflicts, as trauma survivors often lack any sense of personal boundaries, and do not know how
to reject untoward advances or unfair situations. By teaching self-help techniques, the institutions
will empower students to seek ways to fit in and become a part of the thriving college
community.
Another reflection that was voiced by the study participants is that institutions need to
create and nurture support groups of trauma survivors and their allies. These groups should be
able to gather in safe spaces and engage in resilience building activities. Support groups are

111
especially important to the students that lack family support or have distanced themselves from
their families due to relentless abuse or justification of the same. As Participant #9 shared, being
an only child in abusive family can have even more impact, because when there are siblings,
“The trauma can kind of be displaced at least a little bit, but it was just all sunk into me. and I
wasn't even really allowed to have friends growing up. So it was just me and my abusers just
over and over again.” For such students, having the ability to create bonds with other students
that have gone through similar ordeals, or empathize with the survivors is a an extremely
beneficial trauma management method. Literature confirms this need for a safe space in which a
group can gather to communally work through the consequences of trauma supporting each other
in the process. Akinsulure-Smith (2009) recommends use of group psychoeducational therapy as
a trauma intervention strategy in such cases, relying on groups to provide internal support during
the treatment. A make-shift family constructed through professional guidance and support can
often recreate the familial bonds between trauma survivors and provide the love, care and
nurturing that is sorely needed, and reduce a sense of loneliness and isolation.
It is crucial for such groups to gather in safe spaces, where survivors cannot be triggered
with violent content, alcohol, as we have seen with Participant #4 who became impaired with
even smell of alcohol in the air, or by loud sounds like fireworks, which was a trigger for
participants #3, #8 and #13. Participant #4 proposed that having a safe space is crucial:
Yeah, it's like I said before. I mean without being able to be around alcohol because it's
It's hard. I mean it's to struggle with it. A lot more of since dealt with it. But you know I
would break down in tears, just being around some someone who is drinking just because
it was so triggering. So, without that I would feel a lot more shy reserve kind of feel like
an outcast, and so I definitely would reach out to people less because I was always afraid

112
that they would say, Well. let's go get a drink here, and then talk about it, or, you know,
even in our English writing program we would meet. We would have either the Mixers or
the introduction meetings to a new professor would always be at some kind of brewery.
so it was really difficult to force myself to be around something I wasn't comfortable
with, just to feel like. Oh, i'm a part of this community. So I I definitely think that I left
with we much less friends than I had seen others leave with, you know, because I kind of
just kept to myself a lot.
This safe space can be within a designated trauma center space from recommendation
two, or can be any other dedicated space where students can peacefully engage, similar to
classroom space used for the writing workshops. Types of alternative therapies that have been
found to be helpful include animal-assisted therapy, play therapy, and creative arts therapy using
art, dance, drama, music, and poetry (Kalantari et al., 2012; Rousseau et al., 2005). This center
could serve as a hub for grief writing workshops of students not enrolled in the creative writing
programs, or alumni of such programs, offering short writing sessions with the trained staff
where students could discuss their feelings, learning lessons and advice they could offer. It could
also offer drawing workshops to process the emotions and learn to externalize traumatic
experiences in harmless ways. Vukich’s (2015) study with treatment of refugees points to the
possibility of using music to help process trauma, helping in the healing and therapeutic process.
Such a center could organize therapeutic music sessions for groups of students, as well as
cultural presentations and performances of oral history. Out of thirteen participants, five
expressed hope that such a center could become reality for the benefit of all stakeholders:
students, alumni, faculty, and staff. Two participants expressed doubts that such a dedicated

113
space could be paid for due to budget constraints and the lack of institutional interest and
support.
Recommendation 2: Educate Faculty, Staff, and Administrators
Data, collected through the consulted literature study as well as the findings of the
qualitative study, reveals that there is a significant and measurable relationship between trauma
and academic performance. It is imperative to make educators working with trauma survivors
aware of this relationship so that they can recognize, assess, and triage trauma in the classroom.
Systematic training of educators on trauma care should take place alongside other professional
development and should be of continuous character. As Felitti et al. (1998) have clearly
demonstrated almost three decades ago, a whopping 67% of the total U.S. population has
suffered at least one adverse childhood experience (ACE) and 12.6% have experienced more
than four such experiences (para. 3). Thus, this problem is of such a scope that it cannot be
ignored. Reflections of the interview participants confirm this grim reality: the writing
workshops that they engaged in as a part of their Master of Fine Arts degree in Creative Writing
revealed stories of domestic or community violence, child or substance abuse, death or
incarceration in alarming numbers.
While California public universities’ students report that they were lucky to have faculty
members that were invested in student success, and were great and empathetic listeners,
educators are in general not trained in responding to mental health issues and trauma care.
Participant #12 reflected that the faculty:
didn't really direct me for like to like all the resources or anything. I guess they were just
good at listening at, and being kind of compassionate with my situation without like

114
asking any like more questions. I think. Okay. they just accept what I like tell them. But
they don't really go further than that.
Moreover, Participant #9, who attended other universities outside of California reported a
lack of interest and disengagement of faculty members, projecting the notion of academia being
completely dehumanizing. The pressure on the student to get his affairs in order felt triggering in
itself, and the pressure to conform was overwhelming. Perceiving his role in the classroom, as he
puts it, as an “institutional object,” he understood that his role is just to perform and not connect
to a mentor, or create a meaningful bond with an educator, which is crucial, as the research on
learning shows, for a student to remain motivated and open to learning new concepts. He
reflected:
I would go there, it was all free, so I would say that was a form of support like I was the
first generation to college, so I couldn't afford therapy. But you know again, no one
encouraged me. I remember telling professors that I was feeling suicidal, and they were
like oh, that's unfortunate! Sorry to hear that, but none of them encouraged me to go to
therapy. Not one. I think back on that. And it's shocking to me right If a student told me
now. hey? I'm feeling suicidal. The first thing I would say. I mean, I just had a student
recently, without going into details that suffered a major life problem. And I said, hey, we
have a counseling center. You should consider going. No one ever told me that right. Not
a single person ever told me that in academia I just decided to go. I was so miserable I
didn't know what else to do. I had heard of therapy. Someone actually in my extended
family. I should say, yeah, I mean, I have a cousin who is a psychologist. So I think that
plant of the seed is. He was always a really smart guy, but it was all me. Yeah, no one
ever encouraged me to do it right.

115
Participant #4 shared the same experience:
For the most part Professors weren't really connected to us in the sense that they didn't
really ask us how we were doing, or you know, I would say, the majority, the vast
majority of professors I had just kind of said, Here's the work you turn it in, and there's
not really a relationship until I had a few in my credential program as a as a teacher and
training.
This lack of understanding how to help trauma survivors is extremely common, even with
empathetic and kind educators that offer assignment extensions and defer test deadlines.
Koslouski and Stark (2021) warn us that despite large numbers of trauma survivors in the
classroom, explain that despite such grim statistics that many national agencies are reporting in
terms of the numbers of ACE-affected students, “teachers are not routinely taught trauma-
informed practices” (p. 430). Simply, teachers are not taught to observe behavior of the students
through the prism of trauma, or to offer any techniques to students when being angry due to
being triggered, or when withdrawn from the class discussion due to being depressed, or when
completely disregarding the task at hand due to being anxious. Inability to repair faulty neural
networks where student interprets any kind of feedback as negative and indicative of student’s
unworthiness or incapability to succeed, can lead to full immersion into negative-self talk of a
student, preventing any possibility of further learning or socializing with others.
Numerous researchers firmly establish teachers at the core of trauma-impacted students’
rehabilitation and reintegration into the classroom. Willis and Nagel (2014) rely on social
psychological and neurobiological models of child development to convey that it is crucial that
teachers take an active approach in treating trauma, in order to promote learning. Therefore, due
to immediate impact that educators have on students, the need to close the gaps in knowledge

116
caused by trauma exposure, the improved ability to understand trauma through history, it is
important to develop a systematic approach to the effects of trauma in the classroom,
emphasizing training and professional development in this area for all stakeholders.
The results of educator training are significant, as Panter-Brick and Leckman’s (2013),
study proves beyond doubt, when they report “a significantly (p < 0.001) greater decrease of
post-traumatic symptoms and anxiety levels among the students whose teachers participated in
the intervention group as compared to students whose teachers were in the wait-list control
group” and argue for the effective training of teachers for school-based interventions (p. 334). As
a result of their study, they are advocates of immersive educator training by mental health
professionals. Such training should include practical hands-on exercises, case scenarios, and
feedback to mitigate the knowledge gap. Recommendation of this study is that such training
should be conducted and administered through Zoom once a year as a professional development,
spanning over a week, and covering the elemental material such as what is traumatic experience,
how is it created, why it affects students, when and how to intervene or react, and why it is
important to do so. This training should include not only educators, but also staff and
administrators, in order to create campus support networks.
To train faculty and measure impact of training, this study recommends the New World
Kirkpatrick Model to plan, implement, and evaluate crisis response of the university to create a
training program that employs all four levels, in order to optimize achieving the SMART goals
and fulfil the needs of the stakeholders. It is to be expected that there will be some resistance on
the part of faculty to utilize this framework, as is tradition. However, once the benefits of the
integrated implementation and evaluation become obvious, namely ability to see how immediate
feedback through evaluation can guide a revision and improved application of the

117
implementation, the framework will be widely accepted, especially when the return in the shape
of increased student graduation and retention rates demonstrates the value of intervention
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016, p. 121).
Considering a wave of community violence in the United States and in the world, with
mass and school shootings happening very frequently, and causing combat-like trauma, the
recommendation of this study is to adopt trauma management protocol specifically geared to
treat community violence trauma in campus population. According to the CDC (2023), over
25,000 deaths, as well as 1.4 million injuries, result from community violence, with resulting
PTSD and chronic illnesses in survivors, with adolescents (ages 10-34) in racially segregated
communities four times more likely to experience community violence. It is a widespread
phenomenon that needs our attention. Barrett and Berger (2021) propose that interventions
similar to those used in war-torn regions need to be integrated into community mental health
policies, especially in communities prone to combat-like violence. Such conclusions have been
promoted by a number of studies of educational institution in Israel, such as Abel and Friedman
(2009), Bar-On (2000), Karayanni (1996), and many others. As this is the least addressed trauma
type in educational institutions, it would behoove administrations to organize it on a global level,
including all stakeholders on campus. College mental health centers should approach the
administration and seek funding to study trauma care models used in higher learning institutions
in the combat zones and modify them to be used on U.S. campuses. The training addressing
trauma care should be developed in cooperation with national organizations that develop policies
regarding mental health.
Also, educator training and professional development will help educators to implement
self-healing in order to prevent secondary trauma. Since the residual effect on the educators as a

118
“secondary traumatic stress (STS),” or emotional overflow after dealing with students’ trauma,
demonstrated through educators’ professional disengagement and declining performance, is well
established, additional module should be added to training programs that prevents or treats STS
(Lawson et al., 2019, p. 424). Thus, educators need to be simultaneously trained in trauma-
management and robust self-care to remedy the problem of secondary trauma. The training
should be integrated in monthly wellness programs on campus and offered in multiple modalities
and included in the professional development opportunities. Further, this study recommends that
there is a connection on every campus to dedicated on-call personnel to offer support for
educators in the form of a crisis line, to assist educators with STS on per-need basis.
Finally, every class offered to students should provide a hybrid and an online modality, in
case that students need to utilize it instead of coming to campus during their crisis. Online
collaboration can be used to reduce feelings of isolation, uncertainty, and fear. For example,
many studies show the ways that online technology has been utilized to assist college student
population successfully. As Danforth states in Alexander Kafka’s editorial for Student Wellbeing
section of Chronicle of Higher Education, “technology will be a defining aspect of the mental-
health challenge…A life behind blue screens can already be isolating, …., and we’re in danger of
succumbing further to that. But teletherapy options are more sophisticated and plentiful than
ever, and if Covid-19 leads to greater use and acceptance of them,…that is “a win for everybody”
(Kafka & Brown, 2020, para. 4). Thus, utilizing online technologies to connect and collaborate
should be practiced more and integrated as much as possible in all aspects of student life to
create a robust sense of community to offset the effects of depression and anxiety.

119
Recommendation 3: Assess and Plan Institutional Support for Trauma Survivors
Besides training educators, administrators, and staff, institutions need to create an
institutional approach to this issue. Integrating a long term, comprehensive program on ongoing
basis would lead to more reliable results, have a better impact on students, and reduce the
burnout of teachers and counselors, giving them time to fully implement the techniques that they
use with their students.
At the moment of writing this recommendation, there are multiple offices on college
campuses that provide some type of trauma-inspired care to students. Per reflection of the
interview participants, many offices provided some type of assistance: mental health care centers
provided limited therapy through low-cost sessions with graduate students, Services for Students
with Disabilities provided some counseling and advising on the ways to motivate oneself and
overcome barriers, and, Graduate Success Office shared some tips on managing stress and
anxiety through workshops that it offered. There is usually also an employee wellness program,
and employee mental health program. However, because these diverse offices are not unified
under a common goal or space, their efforts are disjointed and dispersed.
This study recommends creation of a unified trauma center on each campus that would
assess and catalogue existing programs and services, and cooperate with those offices, expanding
at the same time variety and accessibility of services that are not offered on campus yet. A
dedicated, stand-alone trauma center building would house space for counseling and therapy of
stakeholders on campus, and perform research and network with the affiliated organizations and
bodies. It would attempt to not only help current California public university students, but also
reach out to future students through K-12 outreach and training programs.

120
Considering that on average 47% of California public university students need help to not
drop out, my study assumes that about 12,000 students need help per campus, with an estimated
50% of students or 6000 students registering for the service. If each student receives 60 minutes
a month of trauma-informed care through cognitive behavior therapy in one year, there is a need
of 6000 treatment hours. This analysis assumes that a comparable number of hours would be
spent on K-12 outreach, for the total of 12000 work hours. Hiring six full time staff members
would contribute around 1000 work hours a month, or 12000 work hours annually. This analysis
disregards the factors, such as working with students in small groups, needing to spend more
than 60 minutes on a student, work hours of undergraduate and graduate research assistants, or
the possibility of more than 50% of the population at risk wanting to participate in the services of
a trauma center.
As it is historically difficult to get pilot programs approved for distributions from
California public universities budget, this analysis considered a second solution, or amendment
of the existing mental health services, provided by the Student Health and Counseling Center.
This solution relies on repurposing half of the working hours of the existing staff in order to
provide trauma-informed care as an additional service of the center. Reorganizing the staff so
that there is a budget of 80 hours a month for four staff members leads to 320 hours a month, or
around 3800 work hours annually, which could help 2500 students, reducing the dropout rate by
a roughly 10%, with a remaining fund of 1300 training hours to provide training to K-12
community, through either online seminars or onsite workshops. Although this is a more cost
effective option, as California public universities continue to grow, and as a number of trauma-
effected students continues to climb in the future years, affected by the climate crisis, school
shootings, LGBTQ+ harassment, cyber bullying, political unrest, homelessness, and more

121
profound poverty, we can safely assume that the need for assistance will increase and outpace
what a reorganized student health and counseling center can provide, with only part time staff to
respond to such crisis. Taking all of these macroeconomic factors and risks into consideration, it
would not be prudent to maintain status quo.
Besides a financial loss of potential revenues close to 75 million dollars, there is a human
cost to dropping out of college that cannot be disregarded. Not only does dropping out impact
one’s income and social class for the rest of one’s life, but it also impacts the future generations
in that family. And, even if students still decide to dropout after being treated for trauma,
research shows that there are still benefits that make this project beneficial to society. As stated
before, according to the CDC (2020), the second leading cause of death in youth ages 10 to 24 is
suicide, and a connection between trauma and depression, anxiety, and mental instability
necessary for a suicide is undisputed. Therefore, implementation of trauma-informed care at
California public universities would not just save revenues, but also save lives. The anticipated
benefit from either of these two proposals makes either a better choice than the status quo. The
benefits of the trauma center will ultimately increase student retention, optimize the student
experience, and reduce recruitment efforts, which will, in turn, drive revenue and reduce
expenses for California public universities.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations that were encountered during this study include inability to access California
public universities database due to FERPA protection. Another limitation included the inability to
observe trauma management sessions or have direct contact with the studied population due to
COVID restrictions. Finally, due to IRB requirements, the participants were limited to alumni
rather than current students. Some of participants had difficulties in securing a private space to

122
share their confidential information, which resulted in two interviews conducted in a vehicle, and
two in a park, which stretched the limits of the technology and the ability to be heard clearly.
Delimitations are related to narrowing the scope of the study to the impacts or influences
of previous trauma, rather than exploring the nature of the trauma, also due to IRB requirements.
Initially, there were some confusing or loaded questions, where questions contained too much
information to be understood at once, so these questions were discarded from the interviews after
the pilot interview, and the study was narrowed down in this manner.
Recommendations for Future Research
Due to the limitation on types of participants placed by the IRB, this study could only
collect data from the alumni—students who have ended their relationship with a university and
do not have student standing any more. Also, due to recruitment difficulties, this study could
only be advertised through alumni channels to the alumni that successfully graduated and
received their degrees. It does not address the students who left their studies and never completed
them, as there is no publicly available data on how to reach them. Based on the researched
literature as well as the reflections of participants, this population is expected to be much larger
than the one that is reachable, more affected and unaware of their learning difficulties. Future
studies need to reach out to those that dropped out as they could not bear the pressure of their
untreated mental health issues and the pressures of being a student. It is the unaddressed needs of
this population that will really make this study have a purpose.
Also, future research should address the academic success of survivors with more than
four ACEs or severe trauma. There is very little research regarding this population with complex
conglomerate trauma, and although it is only a fraction of the affected population or 18%

123
according to Fellitti et al. (1998), it is perhaps this population that depends on studies like these
to break out of the cycle of poverty and abuse the most.
Conclusion
This study investigated the extent to which California public universities’ alumni feel
supported by their respective alma mater using the available evidence. The study found that there
is room for improvement in the areas of capacity of provided services, climate towards trauma
survivors, and resources availability and visibility. Specifically, leadership needs to be more
encouraging and enthusiastic when it comes to building capacity by expanding existing services
in terms of therapy, counseling and advising to develop better communication. Leadership also
needs to improve climate, where faculty, administrators and staff learn more about the effects of
trauma on learning, and become trauma-care literate, sharing the information widely with the
external network of stakeholders across the campus. Finally, resources need to be directed
towards gathering, understanding, and analyzing data, to study feasibility of a unified and
reorganized trauma center on campus.
This problem is important to address because as we have seen recently, catastrophic
events such as mass and school shootings, pandemics, and devastating climate change events are
only exacerbating the emotional strain and stress on college students. A large body of research
predicts that these events will only get bigger and more common, and it is in the best interest of
the students and faculty to find a way to deal with the ever-increasing numbers of trauma
survivors. By making sure that learning continues despite the students’ ACE experiences, faculty
will participate in building of a resilient and robust educational system that will continue to
create future scholars, leaders, and scientists, and a more equitable and just society with
opportunities for advancement and growth.

124
The global disruption that the world has experienced with COVID-19 has been
unprecedented and will leave its impact on our world for generations to come. Understanding the
emotional toll that the pandemic is taking on the vulnerable college student population is
important, especially if such understanding can abate some of the effects, mitigate the
consequences, or open up new avenues of associating that can ease anxiety and depression.
Previously discussed studies showed an increase in number of suicides within college student
population due to increased anxiety and depression. The consequences of not dealing with these
emotional and mental difficulties are direct loss of life, as well as loss of educational continuum,
community, and growth. As Bao et al. (2020) advise, addressing mental health care can lead to
empowerment and create resolve in vulnerable populations.
Considering the reflections of the participants of this study, higher education institutions
have to step up their game in order to help such a student population, and reduce dropout rates,
especially institutions that are designated as the minority serving institution.

125
References
Abel, R. M., & Friedman, H. A. (2009). Israeli school and community response to war trauma: A
review of selected literature. School Psychology International, 30(3), 265–281.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034309106493
Akinsulure-Smith, A. M. (2009). Brief psychoeducational group treatment with re-traumatized
refugees and asylum seekers. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 34(2), 137-150.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01933920902798007
Alvarez, A. (2020). Seeing race in the research on youth trauma and education: A critical review.
Review of Educational Research, 90(5), 583–626.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320938131
American Psychological Association. (2022, March 16). Understanding psychotherapy and how
it works. https://www.apa.org/topics/psychotherapy/understanding
Annan, J., Blattman, C., & Horton, R. (2006). The state of youth and youth protection in
Northern Uganda: Findings from the survey for war affected youth. A Report for
UNICEF Uganda.
https://chrisblattman.com/documents/policy/sway/SWAY.Phase1.FinalReport.pdf
Artime, T., Buchholz, K., & Jakupcak, M. (2018). Mental health symptoms and treatment
utilization among trauma-exposed college students. Psychological Trauma: Theory,
Research, Practice, and Policy, 11. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000376
Bandura, A. (2011). The social and policy impact of social cognitive theory. In M. Mark, S.
Donaldson, & B. Campbell (Eds.), Social Psychology and Evaluation (pp. 33-70).
Guilford Press.

126
Bandy, C. L., Dillbeck, M. C., Sezibera, V ., Taljaard, L., Wilks, M., Shapiro, D., de Reuck, J., &
Peycke, R. (2020). Reduction of PTSD in South African University students using
transcendental meditation practice. Psychological Reports, 123(3), 725–740.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294119828036
Bao, Y ., Sun, Y ., Meng. S., Shi, J., & Lu, L. (2020). 2019-nCoV epidemic: Address mental health
care to empower society. Lancet, 395(10224), e37-e8. DOI: 10.1016/s0140-
6736(20)30309-3
Bar-On, D. (2000). Cultural identity and demonization of the relevant other. In International
handbook of human response to trauma (pp. 115-125). Springer.
Barrett, N., & Berger, E. P. (2021). Teachers’ experiences and recommendations to support
refugee students exposed to trauma. Social Psychology of Education, 24(5), 1-22.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09657-4
Berger, R., Gelkopf, M., & Heineberg, Y . (2012). A teacher-delivered intervention for
adolescents exposed to ongoing and intense traumatic war-related stress: A quasi-
randomized controlled study. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of
the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 51(5), 453–461.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.02.011
Brom, D., & Pat-Horenczyk, R. (2012). Ethical considerations in the treatment of post-traumatic
distress. In E. Vermetten, R. J. Kleber, & O. van der Hart (Eds.), Handbook of post-
traumatic stress disorders (pp. 737-752). Utrecht: De Tijdstroom (in Dutch).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281842617_Ethical_considerations_in_the_trea
tment_of_post-traumatic_distress
California Department of Education. (2023). Data & statistics. https://www.cde.ca.gov/ds/

127
Cave, M., & Sloan, S. (2014). Listening on the edge: Oral history in the aftermath of crisis (1st
ed.). Oxford University Press.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Underlying cause of death, 1999-2019.
https://wonder.cdc.gov/mortsql.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023). Adverse childhood experiences.
https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/aces/index.html
Charmaz, K. (2007). The Sage handbook of grounded theory. Sage Publications.
Coalition for Compassionate Schools. (2023). Safe Schools NOLA. https://cforcs.org/safe-
schools-nola/
Congressional Black Caucus. (2019). Emergency task force on Black youth suicide and mental
health. https://watsoncoleman.house.gov/suicidetaskforce/
Cox, J. W., Rich, S., Chiu, A., Thacker, H., Chong, L., Muyskens, J., & Ulmanu, M. (2018).
Washington Post's database of school shootings.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/local/school-shootings-database/
Creswell, J. W. & Plano Clark, V . L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research.
(2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
d’Abreu, A., Castro-Olivo, S. M., Ura, S. K., & Furrer, J. M. (2020). Hope for the future: A
qualitative analysis of the resettlement experience of Syrian refugee adolescents and
parents. School Psychology International, 42, 132-156.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0143034320983595
Deb, P., & Gangaram, A. (2023). Effects of school shootings on risky behavior, health and human
capital. SSRN. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3975567

128
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y . S. (1998). Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials. Sage
Publications.
Diab, S. Y ., & Schultz, J. H. (2021). Factors contributing to student academic underachievement
in war and conflict: A multilevel qualitative study. Teaching and Teacher Education, 97.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0742051X20314025
Doe, S., & Langstraat, L. (Eds.). (2014). Generation vet: Composition, student veterans, and the
post-9/11 university. University Press of Colorado. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qhkpg
Educational Fund to Stop Gun Violence and Coalition to Stop Gun Violence. (2021). A public
health crisis decades in the making: A review of 2019 CDC gun mortality data.
http://efsgv.org/2019CDCdata
El-Khodary, B., & Samara, M. (2020). Effectiveness of a school-based intervention on the
students' mental health after exposure to war-related trauma. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10,
1031. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.01031
Ellis, B. H., Miller, A. B., Abdi, S., Barrett, C., Blood, E. A., & Betancourt, T. S. (2013). Multi-
tier mental health program for refugee youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 81(1), 129–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029844
Felitti, V . J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V ., Koss, M.
P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to
many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE)
study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8
Ford, J. D. (2009). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Science and professional dimensions.
Academic Press.

129
Friedman-Peleg, K., & Bilu, Y . (2011). From PTSD to "national trauma": The case of the Israel
Trauma Center for Victims of Terror and War. Transcultural Psychiatry, 48(4), 416–436.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461511410239
Furnham, A. & Eracleous, A., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2009). Personality, motivation and job
satisfaction: Hertzberg meets the Big Five. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 24. 765-
779. 10.1108/02683940910996789.
Gaensbauer, T. J. (1982). The differentiation of discrete effects: A case report. The
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 37, 29-66.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.1982.11823357
Harrison, N., Burke J., & Clarke, I. (2020). Risky teaching: Developing a trauma-informed
pedagogy for higher education. Teaching in Higher Education.
https:/doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2020.1786046
Hill, C. E., Williams, E. N., & Thompson, B. G. (1997). A guide to conducting consensual
qualitative research. Counseling Psychologist, 25, 517-572.
Hill, C. E., Knox, S., Thompson, B., Williams, E., Hess, S., Ladany, N. (2005). Consensual
qualitative research: An update. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 196-205.
Jackson, K., & Seeman, D. (2008). Psychotherapy with college student survivors of war and
political trauma, Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 23(1), 40-49.
https:/doi.org/10.1080/87568220802375241
Kafka, A., & Brown, S. (2020). Covid-19 has worsened the student mental-health crisis: Can
resilience training fix it? The Chronicle of Higher Education.
https://www.chronicle.com/article/covid-19-has-worsened-the-student-mental-health-
crisis-can-resilience-training-fix-it/

130
Kalantari, M., Yule, W., Dyregrov, A., Neshatdoost, H., & Ahmadi, S. J. (2012). Efficacy of
writing for recovery on traumatic grief symptoms of Afghani refugee bereaved
adolescents: A randomized control trial. OMEGA, 65, 139-150.
https:/doi.org/10.2190/OM.65.2.d
Karayanni, M. (1996). The emergence of school counseling and guidance in Israel. Journal of
Counseling & Development, 74(6), 582-587. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-
6676.1996.tb02296.x
Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli,Kılıç, C., Magruder, K. M., & Koryürek, M. M. (2016). Does trauma
type relate to posttraumatic growth after war? A pilot study of young Iraqi war survivors
living in Turkey. Transcultural Psychiatry, 53(1), 110–123.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461515612963
Kirkpatrick, D. L., & Kirkpatrick, J. D. (2016). Evaluating training programs: The four levels
(3rd ed.). Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.
Koslouski, J. B., & Stark, K. (2021). Promoting learning for students experiencing adversity and
trauma: The everyday, yet profound, actions of teachers. Elementary School Journal,
121(3), 430–53. https://doi.org/10.1086/712606
Kwan, Y . Y . (2019). Providing asset ‐based support for Asian American refugees: Interrogating
transgenerational trauma, resistance, and affective capital. New Directions for Higher
Education. https://doi.org/10.1002/he.20322
Lawson, H. A., Caringi, J. C., Gottfried, R., Bride, B., & Hydon, S. P. (2019). Educators'
secondary traumatic stress, children's trauma, and the need for trauma literacy. Harvard
Educational Review, 89 (3), 421–447. https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-89.3.421

131
Layne, C. M., Pynoos, R. S., Saltzman, W. R., Arslanagić, B., Black, M., Savjak, N., Popović, T.,
Duraković, E., Mušić, M., Ćampara, N., Djapo, N., & Houston, R. (2001). Trauma/grief-
focused group psychotherapy: School-based postwar intervention with traumatized
Bosnian adolescents. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 5(4), 277–290.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2699.5.4.277
Lee, L. K., Douglas, K., & Hemenway, D. (2022). Crossing lines - A change in the leading cause
of death among U.S. children. The New England Journal of Medicine, 386(16), 1485–
1487. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2200169
Lupien, S. J., de Leon, M. J., de Santi, S., Convit, A., Tarshish, C., Nair, N. P. V ., … & Meaney,
M. J. (1998). Cortisol levels during human aging predict hippocampal atrophy and
memory deficits. Nature Neuroscience, 1(1), 69-73. https:/doi.org/10.1038/271
Matos, L., Costa, P. A., Park, C. L., Indart, M. J., & Leal, I. (2021). “The war made me a better
person”: Syrian refugees' meaning-making trajectories in the aftermath of collective
trauma. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16),
8481. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168481
Maynard, B. R., Farina, A., Dell, N. A., & Kelly, M. S. (2019). Effects of trauma-informed
approaches in schools: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 15(1–2),
e1018. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1018M
McEwen, B. S. (2008). Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: Understanding
the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. European Journal of
Pharmacology, 583(2-3), 174-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.071
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). Jossey Bass, LLC.

132
Migration Policy Institute. (2022). Analysis of WRAPS data from the State Department Bureau of
Population, Refugees, and Migration. www.wrapsnet.org/admissions-and-arrivals/
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). A national trauma care
system: Integrating military and civilian trauma systems to achieve zero preventable
deaths after injury. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/23511
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. (2015). WISQARS™ leading causes of death
reports: 10 leading causes of death, 2014, United States, all races, both sexes.
http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/leadcaus10_us.html
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. (2016). Web-based injury statistics query and
reporting system (WISQARS). https://wonder.cdc.gov/mortsql.html
National Child Trauma and Stress Network. (2022). Trauma Informed Care.
https://www.nctsn.org/
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2005/2014). Excessive stress disrupts the
architecture of the developing brain: Working paper No. 3.
https://developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2005/05/Stress_Disrupts_Architecture_Developing_Brain-1.pdf
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2010). Early experiences can alter gene
expression and affect long-term development: Working paper 10.
https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/early-experiences-can-alter-gene-
expression-and-affect-long-term-development/
National Survey of Children’s Health. (2016). Codebooks. ttps://www.childhealthdata.org/learn-
about-the-nsch/nsch-codebooks

133
Overstreet, S., & Chafouleas, S. M. (2016). Trauma-informed schools: Introduction to the special
issue. School Mental Health: A Multidisciplinary Research and Practice Journal, 8(1), 1–
6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9184-1
Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015).
Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method
implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 42(5), 533–544.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y
Panter-Brick, C., & Leckman, J. F. (2013). Editorial commentary: Resilience in child
development–interconnected pathways to wellbeing. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 54 (4), 333-336. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12057
Public Policy Institute of California. (2023, October). Crime trends in California.
https://www.ppic.org/publication/crime-trends-in-california/
Purtle, J., & Lewis, M. (2017). Mapping “trauma-informed” legislative proposals in US
Congress. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services
Research, 44, 867–876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-017-0799-9
Ronald, L. S., Lei, M. K., Klopack, E., Beach, S. R. H., Gibbons, F. X., & Philibert, R. A.
(2021). The effects of social adversity, discrimination, and health risk behaviors on the
accelerated aging of African Americans: Further support for the weathering hypothesis.
Social Science and Medicine, 282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113169
Rousseau, C., Drapeau, A., Lacroix, L., Bagilishya, D., & Heusch, N. (2005). Evaluation of a
classroom program of creative expression workshops for refugee and immigrant children.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 180-185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-
7610.2004.00344.x

134
Samara, M., Hammuda, S., V ostanis, P., El-Khodary, B., & Al-Dewik, N. (2020). Children's
prolonged exposure to the toxic stress of war trauma in the Middle East. BMJ (Clinical
Research Edition), 371, m3155. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m3155
Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. (2000). How do glucocorticoids influence stress
responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions.
Endocrine Reviews, 21(1), 55-89. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv.21.1.0389
Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., Drell, M. J., & Larrieu, J. A. (1995). Two approaches to the
diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder in infancy and early childhood. Journal of
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(2), 191-200.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199502000-00014
Shamia, N. A., Thabet, A. A., & V ostanis, P. (2015). Exposure to war traumatic experiences,
post-traumatic stress disorder, and post-traumatic growth among nurses in Gaza. Journal
of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 22(10), 749–755.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jpm.12264
Shonkoff, J., & Garner, A. (2011). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic
stress. Pediatrics, 129, e232-46. https:/doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2663
Strauss, A. C., & Corbin, J. (2006). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures
for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2022). Trauma and violence.
https://www.samhsa.gov/trauma-violence
Sullivan, A. L., & Simonson, G. R. (2016). A systematic review of school-based social-emotional
interventions for refugee and war-traumatized youth. Review of Educational Research,
86(2), 503–530. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315609419

135
Terr, L. (1988). What happens to early memories of trauma? A study of twenty children under
age five at the time of documented traumatic events. Journal of American Academy of
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(1), 96-104. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-
198801000-00015
Tuck, E., & Yang, K. W. (2012). Decolonization is not a metaphor. Decolonization: Indigeneity,
Education and Society, 1(1), 140.
https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/des/article/view/18630
Turner, R. J., & Lloyd, D. A. (1995). Lifetime traumas and mental health: The significance of
cumulative adversity. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(4), 360–376.
United Nations Children's Fund. (2012). The state of the world's children 2012: Children in an
urban world.
https://www.unicef.org/media/89226/file/The%20State%20of%20the%20World's%20Chi
ldren%202012.pdf
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2010). Statistical yearbook 2010, 10th ed.:
Trends in displacement, protection, and solutions.
https://www.unhcr.org/statistics/country/4ef9cc9c9/unhcr-statistical-yearbook-2010-10th-
edition.html
U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (n.d.). Refugees and Asylees. Accessed 6/30/2022.
https://www.dhs.gov/immigration-statistics/refugees-asylees
van der Hart, O., Groenendijk, M., González, A., Mosquera, D., & Solomon, R. M. (2013).
Dissociation of the personality and EMDR therapy in complex trauma-related disorders:
Applications in the stabilization phase. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 7, 81-
94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1933-3196.8.1.33

136
Villaverde, L. (2008). Feminist theories and education primer. Peter Lang, LLC.
Vue, R. (2019). Trauma and resilience in the lives and education of Hmong American students:
Forging pedagogies of remembrance with critical refugee discourse. Race, Ethnicity and
Education, 24, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2019.1599347
Vukich, E. M. (2015). Reframing refugee care in music therapy: Exploring context through
intersectionality and ecological theory. [Master’s thesis, The University of East London].
Academia. https://uel.academia.edu/evavukich
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. (1992). The development of achievement task values: A theoretical
analysis. Developmental Review, 12, 265-310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0273-
2297(92)90011-P
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy—Value theory of achievement motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68-81.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015
Wiswede, D., Taubner, S., Buchheim, A., Münte, T. F., Stasch, M., Cierpka, M., Kächele, H.,
Roth, G., Erhard, P., & Kessler, H. (2014). Tracking functional brain changes in patients
with depression under Psychodynamic Psychotherapy using individualized stimuli. PLOS
ONE. http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0109037
Willis, A., & Nagel, M. (2014). The role that teachers play in overcoming the effects of stress
and trauma on children’s social psychological development: Evidence from Northern
Uganda. Social Psychology of Education, 18, 37-54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-014-
9282-6

137
Appendix A: Recruitment Flyer

138

139
Appendix B: Recruitment Email
Dear colleagues,
my name is Lejla Tricic and I had the pleasure of meeting some of you in the program as a
student, TA or lecturer. During my time in the MFA program, I learned that many of you have
lived and written about adverse childhood experiences, which is the focus of my EdD
dissertation.

I am working on understanding trauma management in the California public university system,
in order to help improve retention of our students that come from communities where trauma is
common in formative years. I use Felitti's definition of early trauma as any "adverse childhood
event" (ie. any kind of abuse, family member drug use, violent death or incarceration, food
insecurity, community violence, etc.).

In order to complete my study, I need to interview 6-8 alumni that have had such experience. The
interview is confidential, and will take 45-60 minutes. It will focus on your academic experience,
and will not inquire into any aspect of the trauma itself. All interviewees will receive a $25
Starbucks card as a token of appreciation.

Thanks in advance,
Lejla Tricic

Dear Participant,
thank you so much for helping me with this project. I am finishing up an EdD in Organizational

140
Change and Leadership, which I plan to use to help higher ed institutions pivot toward trauma-
inspired care, which is right now very sparsely represented on campuses around California. In
my dissertation, I am working on understanding trauma management in California public
university system, in order to help improve retention of our students that come from
communities where trauma is common in formative years.
I use Felitti's definition of early trauma as any severe "adverse childhood event" (ie. traumatic
injury, any kind of abuse, family member drug use, death or incarceration, food insecurity,
community violence, etc.).

An Interview with you will help me map out the resources that were present and offered during
your studies at CSUF. The interview is confidential, and will take 45-60 minutes. It will focus
on your academic experience, and will not inquire into any aspect of the
trauma itself. I am attaching an informed consent, so you get a better feel of my direction. Along
with my thanks, you will receive a $25 Starbucks card as a token of appreciation.
My Zoom link is https://fresnostate.zoom.us/j/8021040720. See you at 12PM today.
Lejla Tricic

141
Appendix C: Consent Form
Information Sheet for Exempt Research

STUDY TITLE: Trauma Management in College
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Lejla Tricic
FACULTY ADVISOR: Dr. Robert Fillback
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is find out whether there is inadequate trauma management in higher
education institutions. We are trying to determine what infrastructure exist and what needs to be
created to help students. We hope to learn if a lack of trauma management is resulting with
students unable to adjust, adapt, and succeed in college. You are invited as a possible participant
because you are an alumnus of a California public university system, and you have experienced
severe trauma in your early formative years.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
We are asking you for up to 1 hour interview where you will be asked questions regarding your
college experience in light of your background. The interview will be conducted over Zoom and
audio recorded for gathering data. Participants cannot decline to be recorded. No video will be
recorded during interview.

142

If you decide to take part, you will be asked to select interview time that fits your schedule and
participate by answering questions for up to 60 minutes.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive $25 Amazon gift card for your time. You do not have to answer all of the
questions in order to receive the card. The link to card will be emailed to you after you review
transcript of your interview and confirm the authenticity.

CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

No identifying information such as name, contact information or any other identifying
information will be collected.

The data may be kept indefinitely, but the audio recording will be destroyed within 3 months of
the study publication.

143
Since audio recordings will take place, you have a right to review or edit the audio recordings or
transcripts. Only the principal investigator and the members of the committee will have access to
the transcript. Transcript will be saved using encrypted password.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Lejla Tricic at Tricic@USC.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu

24-hour help
For the Suicide Prevention Lifeline, call 800-273-8255 or text 838255
For the Domestic Violence Hotline, 800-799-7233 or click Chat Now
Call 911 if you or the person you are helping is in immediate danger.
Disaster Distress Helpline: Call or text 800-985-5990 for 24/7 support.
Crisis Text Line: Text HOME to 741741 for 24/7 crisis support.
California Suicide & Crisis Hotlines PDF: Find phone numbers and links to all the suicide and
crisis hotlines by county in California.
California Warm Peer Line: Call 855-845-7415 for 24/7 for non-emergency support to talk to a
peer counselor with lived experience.
National Sexual Assault Hotline: 1-800-656-HOPE (4673) or Online Chat

144

145
Appendix D: IRB Letter

146

147

148
Appendix E: Interview Protocol
Interview Questions Potential Probes
RQ
Add
r.
Key Concept
Addressed
1. I’d like to learn a little bit about your
background before we kick off our
interview.
Can you tell me a little bit
about yourself as it relates
to your college identity
(years spent in college,
major, first generation)?
1 Trauma Effects
2. Have you ever been taught any of
these trauma management techniques:
Talking to another person for support or
spending time with others
Engaging in positive distracting activities
(sports, hobbies, reading)
Getting adequate rest and eating healthy
meals
Trying to maintain a normal schedule
Scheduling pleasant activities
Taking breaks
Who taught them to you?
Have these techniques been
helpful to you in regards to
motivation and building
resilience?
Give me an example of that.
2

Institutional
Support

149
Using relaxation methods (breathing
exercises, meditation, calming self-talk,
soothing music)
Participating in a support group
Keeping a journal
3. Have the manifestations of trauma
subsided or increased during college
years?
Without telling me about the
details of the trauma, give
me an example of that. 1 Trauma Effects
4. Without telling me about a specific
experience, please tell me how you
talked about the trauma experience
within your family or with friends? What
kind of strategy did you use for trauma
management?

Tell me more about that. 2
Environmental
and social
relationships
5. Without telling me about a specific
experience, please tell me how you
talked about the trauma experience at
school? How did you socialize and
engage others at school? In what ways
How did that make you
feel? 2
Environmental
and social
relationships

150
did school react to your trauma
experience? What kind of
accommodations have been made to
offset the trauma?
6. Without telling me about your specific
experience, please tell me what kind of
obstacles you encountered as a student
because of your experience? How did
you negotiate those obstacles? How did
these barriers impact your ability to be a
successful student?
How did these barriers
impact your ability to
graduate from college?
Give me an example of that. 1 Trauma Effects
7. Describe the health services that were
provided to you on campus as a result of
your trauma experience? Tell me more about that. 3
Institutional
Support
8. What else, in your opinion, would
have made more difference for you in
regard to motivation and building
resilience? What kind of services would
have made a difference to offset the
trauma? Give me an example of that. 3
Institutional
Support

151
9. Without telling me about a specific
experience, please tell me what do you
believe are the skills that helped you
overcome these barriers? How did you
manage your obligations and
responsibilities?
How did you acquire these
skills? Give me an example
of that.
1 Trauma Effects
10. Without telling me about a specific
experience, please walk me though how
you’d resolved trauma effects on your
college campus. Where did you go? Who
did you talk to?
How did you know where to
go and who to talk to?
3 Institutional
Support
11. Without telling me about a specific
experience, please tell me what were they
key differences between you and your
peers who were not struggling with the
effects of trauma
How did your upbringing
contribute to these
differences?
How did your familiarity
with trauma management
contribute to these
differences?
1
2
Trauma Effects
12. Without telling me about a specific
experience, please tell me about the
impact of having goals. When you think
of the goals you had as a college student,
Besides college graduation,
what other goals did you
have as a college student?
How did keeping this goal
1 Trauma Effects

152
how did having these goals help you
overcome trauma effects, if at all?
in mind help you overcome
trauma effects?
13. How have your peers, community
supporters, or other members of your
college network help you overcome
trauma effects, if at all?
How did you develop your
network? Who were key
members in your network?
2 Environmental
and social
relationships
14. What kind of trauma effects did other
students face on your campus that may
have prevented them from graduating?
How did students experience these
barriers differently, if at all?
Compared to others who
experience trauma effects
on campus and were unable
to resolve those issues, what
were your social advantages
compared to them?

1
Trauma Effects
15. How can colleges help students
overcome barriers? Are there examples
of ways your college helps students like
you overcome barriers?
If so, can you provide an
example?

3
Institutional
support

Asset Metadata

Creator Tricic, Lejla (author)

Core Title Exploring the role of early trauma on academic performance: qualitative study

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-08

Publication Date 08/23/2023

Defense Date 08/21/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag adverse childhood experiences,California public universities and colleges,Higher Education,OAI-PMH Harvest,PTSD in college students,trauma,trauma inspired care,trauma management,trauma survivors

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Advisor Filback, Robert (committee chair), Gitima, Sharma (committee member), Kim, Esther (committee member)

Creator Email ltricic@csufresno.edu,tricic@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113302213

Unique identifier UC113302213

Identifier etd-TricicLejl-12274.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-TricicLejl-12274

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Tricic, Lejla

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230823-usctheses-batch-1087 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email uscdl@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study addresses the macro problem of inadequate resources and support for trauma survivors in higher educational institutions, resulting in students with prior trauma experiences being less able to adjust, adapt, and succeed in college. Trauma management is defined as the development of coping skills necessary to deal with traumatic experiences. Triaging and managing trauma is a complex endeavor, particularly because not all traumatic experiences leave lasting damage, and some leave more than the others. This study investigates whether colleges and universities need to do more to provide a more robust development of skills that will help manage all types of traumas that students experience, as it is of utmost importance to study every potential avenue that can be used to help trauma survivors adjust to the classroom, overcome the effects of the trauma and remain committed to learning and growth. Numerous studies have delineated the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and post-traumatic stress and pointed out the consequences of such experiences to adults. Thus, not examining the effect of trauma on children and young adults, particularly in the classroom, will not only be detrimental to the impacted population, but to future generations and the entire society, as the effects are carried into adulthood.