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(Mis)representations of Chinese culture and filmic influences

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(Mis)representations of Chinese culture and filmic influences

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Content (MIS)REPRESENTATIONS OF CHINESE CULTURE AND FILMIC INFLUENCES
IN WESTERN FASHION AND ART EXHIBITIONS
by
Chenyang Nie
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSKI SCHOOL OF ART AND DESIGN
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
(CURATORIAL PRACTICES AND THE PUBLIC SPHERE)
May 2024

ii
Table of Contents
List of Figures ..........................................................................................................................iii
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................iv
Chapter 1: Introduction ..............................................................................................................1
Misrepresentations of Chinese Culture in Exhibitions .......................................................1
Orientalism in Western Appropriation of Chinese Fashion ................................................4
Chapter 2: “China: Through the Looking Glass” Orientalism and Cinematic Influences.........9
From Orientalism to Chinoiserise.......................................................................................9
Film’s Role in “China: Through the Looking Glass” .......................................................12
Farewell, My Concubine: The popularity of opera costume elements .............................12
Chapter 3: Chinese Cultural Appropriation in Western Luxury Fashion Design.....................21
Dior: Culturally Appropriating Centuries-Old Chinese Skirt ...........................................21
The Crash of Dolce & Gabbana in China .........................................................................27
Chapter 4: Implications and Conclusion .................................................................................31
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................34

iii
List of Figures
1. “New Blue and White” exhibition: Glazed Stoneware by Harumi Nakashima
....................................................................................................................................................3
2. “Quiproquo” cocktail dress by Christian Dior in 1951........................................................ 11
3. A dress by Li Xiaofeng is displayed as part of “China Through the Looking Glass
Orientalism” ............................................................................................................................12
4. Robe of the last Emperor of China, Pu Yi, worn at his coronation in 1908
..................................................................................................................................................13
5. “The Red Detachment of Women" in Gallery 132..............................................................14
6. Scene from Chungking Express (1994) ...............................................................................15
7. Maggie Cheung dressed in cheongsam................................................................................17
8. A product shot from Dior’s website, where the item is no longer available for sale
..................................................................................................................................................21
9. Qing Dynasty Horse Face Skirt ...........................................................................................24
10. Dior Classic silhouettes: A new look .................................................................................25
11. D&G Advertisement ..........................................................................................................28

iv
Abstract
This thesis scrutinizes the appropriation and portrayal of Chinese design in Western
exhibitions. By providing an extensive social and historical background, it critically examines
the misrepresentation of Chinese fashion in Western contexts and explores the broader
implications for cross-cultural understanding. The concept of the misrepresentation of Chinese
culture is introduced through the example of the “New Blue and White” exhibition curated by
Emily Zilber in 2013. The primary analysis focuses on the Orientalist elements prevalent in the
“China: Through the Looking Glass” fashion exhibition, highlighting the enduring influence
of Orientalism and its implications for cultural narratives.
The exploration is deepened by analyzing costume design in Wong Kar-wai’s films, which
serves as an entry point to examine the dynamic interplay between Chinese self-perception and
Western interpretation. The thesis underscores the cultural appropriation and Orientalist
stereotypes embedded in Western representations of China, advocating for a more nuanced and
authentic integration of Chinese designers and cinematic costumes to avoid perpetuating
stereotypes.
Furthermore, the study investigates the phenomenon of Chinese cultural appropriation in
the Western luxury fashion industry through two critical case studies: Dior’s controversial
“Horse Face Skirt” and Dolce & Gabbana’s “Eating With Chopsticks” advertisements. These
discussions delve into the historical context of cultural exchanges between China and the West,
the evolution of traditional Chinese attire, and the ramifications of cultural appropriation in
contemporary fashion. While cultural inspiration is a common practice in design the lack of
cultural understanding and respect often leads to adverse outcomes. The increasing

v
incorporation of Chinese elements in Western design, motivated by economic incentives and a
pursuit of novelty, frequently results in a distorted portrayal of Chinese culture. This thesis calls
for Chinese designers to deeply explore and incorporate their rich cultural heritage into
contemporary design, thereby establishing a Chinese-centric evaluative standard to counteract
cultural appropriation and elevate global recognition of genuine Chinese cultural expressions.

1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Representation of Chinese culture in Western European and North American fashion and
exhibitions has been a topic of controversy and debate for many years. Western exhibitions of
Chinese culture can promote intercultural understanding, but may also reinforce prejudices by
misusing symbols and oversimplifying China’s rich and varied heritage. Recent museum
exhibitions and fashion advertising have overlooked social aspects, such as the significant
involvement of Chinese garment workers in the global fashion industry.
1
Curators of
exhibitions related to Chinese culture would also do well to acknowledge the extensive
promotion and use of luxury goods in mainland China, as argued by scholars such as Jenny Lin
and Anne Anlin Cheng.
2
This thesis analyzes appropriation and the inaccurate portrayal of
Chinese design, especially fashion in Western exhibitions, focusing on historical and
sociopolitical backgrounds, problematic aspects, reactions to particular fashion campaigns and
exhibitions, and the wider implications for cross-cultural comprehension.
Misrepresentations of Chinese Culture in Exhibitions
The “New Blue and White”exhibition, held in 2013, featured contemporary porcelain.
Emily Zilber, the curator of contemporary decorative art, curated the exhibition at the Boston
Museum of Fine Arts.3 The museum’s website for the exhibition described how contemporary
artists, working in diverse media such as ceramics, fiber, furniture, and glass, have engaged
1
Jenny Lin, Above Sea: Contemporary Art, Urban Culture and the Fashioning of Global Shanghai (Manchester: Manchester
University Press, 2019).
2
See Lin, Above Sea and Anne Anlin Cheng, Ornamentalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019).
3
“New Blue and White,” Museum of Fine Arts Boston, accessed February 27, 2024, https://www.mfa.org/exhibitions/newblue-and-white.

2
with traditional blue and white material culture. The Museum of Fine Arts’exhibition of
“Blue and White”drew a varied group of visitors, including a substantial number of
individuals of Asian heritage.“New Blue and White”presented a modern recreation of
classical Asian art by converting old, meticulously painted plates and vases into new, abstractly
adorned items without a defined purpose.
While the exhibition aimed to address how contemporary artists have appropriated and
creatively responded to blue and white porcelain, the curator did not sufficiently provide an
understanding of the long history of porcelain production, including China’s primary historical
role. Among the 40 exhibiting artists, over 30 of them are from the US and European countries.
All the 70 objects selected were made over the course of the past 15 years,
4 which indicates
historical objects were excluded from the exhibition. The exhibition focuses on contemporary
art without considering the deep, long history of Chinese porcelain production. The exhibition
lacks any substantial references to the long history of the development of porcelain in ancient
China.
The image below displays a poster advertising the exhibition, which showcases a glazed
stoneware sculpture crafted in 2008 by Japanese artist Harumi Nakashima. It is possible that
Nakashima’s work was inspired by the polka dot-patterned artworks of Yayoi Kusama, a wellknown contemporary Japanese artist who was greatly impacted by her residency in the United
States during the period from the 1950s to the 1970s. Nakashima’s artwork showcases a
consistent visual juxtaposition resulting from asymmetrical form and gradual fading of blue
and white dots.
4 “New Blue and White / Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,” Ceramic Now, accessed March 17, 2024,
https://www.ceramicsnow.org/archive/new-blue-and-white-museum-of-fine-arts-boston/.

3
Figure 1. “New Blue and White” exhibition: Glazed Stoneware by Harumi Nakashima5
The organizers of the art exhibition explain that the slogan “Blue and White” refers to
cobalt pigment on white clay. Celadon has been one of the most well-known ceramic
production methods globally for thousands of years.
6
Nevertheless, several crucial displays
neglected to accurately acknowledge the origins of “Blue and White” porcelain. The exhibition
showcased artworks by artists from various countries, such as Thailand, the United States,
Canada, Iran, and the United Kingdom, effectively illustrating the worldwide influence of
porcelain culture.
7
However, the exhibition failed to acknowledge the distinctive cultural
importance of China as the origin of porcelain culture. This oversight resulted in reduced
comprehension and appreciation of the cultural significance of porcelain. The exhibition
mostly showcased exhibits crafted by European designers, which may perpetuate biases and
misconceptions rooted in European colonialism, thereby impeding the acknowledgment of
China’s distinctive contribution to the advancement of blue and white porcelain. The ceramics
5
“Preview the Exhibition,” Museum of Fine Arts Boston, accessed February 27, 2024,
https://www.mfa.org/media/slideshow/9022.
6
Youngsook Pak and Roderick Whitfield, Earthenware and Celadon (London: Laurence King Publishing, 2003), section 1, 7,
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA63863934.
7
Jiye Ha, “MFA Exhibit Forges Connections to Past through Porcelain,” last modified February 26, 2013,
https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2013/2/26/MFA_blue_and_white_exhibit/.

4
produced by Asian designers, who were greatly inspired by Chinese culture, constituted a
minimalist combination of blue specks and the fundamental color scheme of white porcelain.
Ultimately, the exhibition did not capture the true essence of porcelain’s beauty in the
traditional sense. Historically, the manufacture of blue and white porcelain became mature
during the Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty. And religious component was involved in this
development: the Mongols counted as their mythical ancestors the ‘hazy blue’ wolf and the
‘white’ fallow doe.8
Ultimately, the New Blue and White exhibition overlooked China’s important position
within the history of porcelain production. There have subsequently been a number of
exhibitions that aim to represent historical Chinese cultural inspirations, though as this thesis
will show, such exhibitions often fall into the traps of Orientalism.
Orientalism in Western Appropriation of Chinese Fashion
The display of the collection evokes Orientalism, a concept derived from the connotations
of the word “Orient” as applied to countries of the Middle East.
9
“Orientalism” is a concept
introduced by Edward Said in 1978 to expose the Eurocentric perspective and discriminatory
beliefs of the Western world toward the Eastern world. Orientalism, as often seen in literature,
art, and popular culture, consistently objectifies, essentializes, and stereotypes many aspects of
social life in nations located east of the Mediterranean. The incorporation of loosely connected
elements of Chinese culture into the show may be seen as an act of cultural appropriation, while
8 “Blue notes: A guide to Chinese blue-and-white porcelain,” Christie’s, accessed April 1, 2024,
https://www.christies.com/en/stories/shades-of-blue-subtle-differences-in-chinese-blue-and-white-porcelain.
9 Edward Said, “LATENT AND MANIFEST ORIENTALISM,” In Orientalism: A Reader (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press,
2000), 112, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctvxcrbwv.20.

5
the exhibition itself has the potential to reinforce existing Western perceptions of China. Said’s
study revealed that the Western world simplified and molded the civilizations of non-Western
countries as unchanging and undeveloped, thereby constructing an inaccurate perception of
Oriental cultures that could be examined, shown, and replicated to benefit European imperialist
expansion.10 Orientalism sought to alienate and marginalize the East by positioning it as the
opposite of the West, therefore categorizing the East as “other.” This construct of the Western
imagination envisioned the East as a fantastical realm. It was used to accentuated the
dominance of Western culture and repurposed the exotic for Europeans’ own sense of superior
cultural identity. Own Jones published The Grammar of Chinese Ornament in 1866, and he
commented on his own book The Grammar of Ornament which he wrote back in 1856:“I was
led, from my then knowledge, to express the opinion that the Chinese had not the power of
dealing with conventional ornamental form: but it now appears that there has been a period in
which a School of Art existed in China of a very important kind.”
11 The portrayal of the Eastern
world in these stereotypes served a political justification of Western imperialism and
colonialism while reinforcing the belief in the superiority of Western civilization and the
inferiority of Eastern culture. Despite the historical biases, the fashion industry contains
outstanding complex interplays of misunderstanding that the West has interpreted Chinese
culture.
The Western fashion industry has seen cultural variances in expressions and
misconceptions of Chinese culture and aesthetics for millennia. These variations have occurred
10 Ibn Warraq, “Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said’s Orientalism,” Choice Reviews 45.9 (2008): 45–51,
https://www.jstor.org/stable/23063581.
11 Hunter Dukes, “Owen Jones’ Examples of Chinese Ornament (1867)”, The public domain review, accessed April 5, 2024,
https://publicdomainreview.org/collection/examples-of-chinese-ornament-1867/.

6
alongside innovations and collisions in classical and contemporary art.12
China’s economic
liberalization during the 1990s has attracted more attention and investment from Western
fashion designers, fashion photographers, and art curators. Criticism have charged Western
fashion designers, particularly those from Western Europe and North America, with
incorporating Chinese-inspired designs, leading to criticism.13
When discussing the development of a “Chinese style” in Western Europe and North
America, it is important to consider the international dissemination of Chinese silk.
14
The
cultivation of mulberry, the rearing of silkworms, the process of silk spinning, and the art of
silk weaving are remarkable innovations attributed to Chinese civilization. Silk, a distinctive
Chinese fabric, has a highly esteemed global status. Chinese culture has gained a lasting
worldwide reputation for its export and dissemination of silk. Chinese silk began to be
transported down the Silk Road to the Roman Empire as far back as the Western Han Dynasty
(206 BC - 24 AD).
15 Subsequently, Chinese silk was transported to the Western regions via the
Silk Road, significantly enhancing the cultural diversity of Western attire.
Silk was mentioned by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle.
16 The Greeks were well
informed of the presence of a land in the Far East that produced silk, which they referred to as
“Seres,” derived from the term for “silk” or “qi.”17 The Romans, like the Greeks, used
12 Adam Geczy, Fashion and Orientalism: Dress, Textiles and Culture from the 17th to the 21st Century (Oxford: Berg, 2003),
17, https://www-bloomsburyfashioncentral-com.libproxy2.usc.edu.
13 Peilin Chen, “When Cultural Appreciation Becomes Appropriation: Lei Ping on Chinese Imagery in Western Fashion,” USChina Today, December 19, 2019, https://uschinatoday.org/qa/2019/12/19/when-cultural-appreciation-becomesappropriation-lei-ping-on-chinese-imagery-in-western-fashion/.
14 Mariachiara Gasparini, Transcending Patterns: Silk Road Cultural and Artistic Interactions through Central Asian Textile
Images (Hawaii: University of Hawai’i Press, 2020), 24, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvgs08r0.
15 Valerie Hansen, The Silk Road: A New History (Oxford University Press, 2016), chap.2, https://alkindi.ideocairo.org/manifestation/205306.
16 Gisela M. A. Richter, “Silk in Greece.” American Journal of Archaeology 33, no.1(Jan.- Mar.,1929): 31,
https://www.jstor.org/stable/497644.
17 David Graf, “The Silk Road between Syria and China,” in Trade, Commerce, and the State in the Roman World (Oxford
Academic, 2017), https://academic.oup.com/book/9102/.

7
the term “seres” to denote China. During the time of ancient Rome, cotton was not available;
instead, people relied on wool and hemp as their primary choices for garment materials. The
Romans quickly developed a strong preference for the delicate and smooth Chinese silk
transported to Rome. In ancient Rome, silk was worn as a prestige item, with people eagerly
vying to purchase it as a representation of affluence and authority. Ancient Western civilizations
had a deep reverence for Chinese silk, considering it a sacred attire symbolizing their devotion
to the divine. Both the wine priestess sculptures in the Museum of Naples collection and the
goddess statue in the Parthenon were adorned with silk garments.
18
Not only did China manufacture silk, but it was also the Chinese-made loom that had a
profound impact on Western culture. Joseph Needham, a British historian, recognized the
“jacquard loom” as a significant Chinese contribution to the field of science and technology
in his work, History of Science and Technology in China.
19
Chinese jacquard looms and
jacquard silk weaving skills reached a high level of sophistication throughout the Spring and
Autumn era (770 to 476 BC).
20 In antiquity, the Western vertical machine technique was unable
to produce textiles with elaborate and intricate designs. During the sixth and seventh centuries
AD, Europe adopted jacquard machine and flower book construction methods from China. This
led to a shift from vertical to horizontal weaving and allowed for the creation of intricate
patterns in jacquard fabrics. This invention further proves the significant role of China in the
development of the textile industry and demonstrates the western’s adoption of Orientalism
18 Ercole G. Massi and Musei Vaticani, Compendious Description of the Museums of Ancient Sculpture, Greek and Roman, in
the Vatican Palace: With the Addition of the Etruscan and Egyptian Museums of the Tapestries by Raphael and the
Chorographical Maps of Italy (Michigan: University of Michigan, 1889), http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA15465431.
19 Joseph Anderson Shih, “Science and Technology in China,” Asian Survey 12, no.8 (August 1972): 662–675.
20 Yeh-Chien Wang and Lillian M. Li, “China’s Silk Trade. Traditional Industry in the Modern World, 1842-1937,” Pacific
Affairs 57, no.3 (1984): 489.

8
since ancient times.
The following sections will focus on the phenomenon of Orientalism and its ability to
thrive. It will further explore why, despite living in a modern society with advanced information,
the fashion world continues to embrace various aspects of Orientalism. The following sections
will focus on analyzing the disparity between the Orientalist elements utilized in the “China:
Through the Looking Glass” fashion exhibition and traditional Chinese culture. Analyzing
the exhibition, I delve into the reasons and origins of this distorted fantasy.

9
Chapter 2: “China: Through the Looking Glass” Orientalism and
Cinematic Influences
On May 4, 2015, the Metropolitan Museum of Art (the Met) in New York City held their
annual gala to showcase the Costume Institute’s exhibition “China: Through the Looking Glass,”
which drew inspiration from Chinese motifs.
21 The exhibition focused on over 140 garments
created by notable designers, as well as Chinese antiquities from the East Asian collection of
the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Andrew Bolton, the exhibition’s curator, explicitly said that
his primary emphasis was not on China itself, but rather on the “collective fantasy of China”
and how it is portrayed in Western fashion and culture.22 Renowned filmmaker Wong Kar-wai,
who served as creative director of the exhibition, curated a collection of films that showcased
Chinese cultural themes to be shown in the galleries alongside the exhibition.
From Orientalism to Chinoiserise
The exhibition “China: Through the Looking Glass” had 16 thematic galleries, which were
categorized into two primary divisions according to the origin of inspiration for the designs.
The first segment, titled “Emperor to citizen,” presented the influence of court attire,
cheongsam, and zhongshan clothes derived from the Qing Dynasty, the Republic of China, and
the New China, respectively. The second segment, titled “Empire of Signs,” presented the
progression of Chinese imagery in fashion from the eighteenth century to the current day. This
section derived its name directly from a book of the same title authored by French semiotician
21
“Exhibition Overview,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed April 12, 2023,
https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2015/china-through-the-looking-glass.
22 Andrew Rossi, The First Monday in May, Produced by Fabiola Beracasa Beckman, et al, Distributed by Magnolia Pictures,
(2016).

10
Roland Barthes. Items such as pottery, bronzes, crafts, Buddhist statues, calligraphy, paintings,
blue and white porcelain, carved wood, and furniture, were taken out of their natural context
and scattered as remnants of culture. The exhibition’s featured designers, primarily Westerners,
derived inspiration from a variety of Chinese symbols, iconography, and components, leading
to haute couture styles arguably reinforcing a western notion of Chinoiserie.
Chinoiserie refers to the European fascination with, and material manifestation of, Chinese
silk, porcelain, and other art pieces throughout the eighteenth century.
23 In Europe, these Asian
objects were met with fascination and were often remade to suit the values of western viewers:
ceramic pots were mounted in ormolu, lacquerware was used to create French storage chests.
And western artists also conjured their own images of China for expressive purposes. The
exhibition included a dedicated gallery that reflected on Chinoiserie. In a manner reminiscent
of eighteenth-century collecting practices, the fashion industry assimilated Chinese ideas and
artifacts by selectively incorporating iconic Chinese iconography into fashion design, often
without any meaningful connection. An instance of this is a 1951 party dress created by
Christian Dior in a silk fabric that was printed with a pattern of Chinese calligraphy. This text
the“Pain in the Belly Post” artwork24 by Zhang Xu, a renowned calligrapher, coupled with a
stone representation of the original inscription (Figure 2), Zhang Xu’s original text is concise,
consisting of just 30 lines. It recounts the poet’s unexpected stomachache, which elicits laughter.
However, for Westerners, the significance of calligraphy has been diminished, and the so-called
“artistic fonts”have become mere superficial adornments, without substance. In a less
23 Heike Jenss and Viola Hofmann, Fashion and Materiality: Cultural Practices in Global Contexts (Bloomsbury: Bloomsbury
Publishing, 2019), eBook.
24 “Letter about a Stomachache (Du Tong Tie),” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed December 10, 2023,
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/64046.

11
Orientalist example, the exhibition displayed Chinese designer and artist Li Xiaofeng’s dress,
which disassembled and reassembled porcelain components into a corset (Figure 3). The
exhibition’s curator should have included more examples like these by Chinese designers to
create more balanced and less exoticizing displays.
Figure 2. “Quiproquo” cocktail dress by Christian Dior in 195125
25 “Quiproquo,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed December 10, 2023,
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/83264.

12
Figure 3. A dress by Li Xiaofeng is displayed as part of “China Through the Looking Glass”
26
Film’s Role in “China: Through the Looking Glass”: Taking Wong Kar-wai
as Example
The exhibition focused on the significant impact that film has played in shaping Western
perceptions of China and how it serves as a source of inspiration for Western designers
encountering Chinese imagery for the first time. Artistic director Wong Kar-wai personally
curated the Chinese visuals on screen, featuring various high-definition film clips with
captivating music, showcasing different eras of Chinese history and illustrating the influence
of popular culture on the Chinese imagination. 27
Simultaneously, featuring the works of
China’s fifth-generation directors illustrates China’s self-perception. The Dragon Robe Room
26
“A dress by Li Xiaofeng is displayed as part of China Through the Looking Glass at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New
York,” The Guardian, accessed January 5, 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2015/aug/19/china-through-thelooking-glass-show-breaks-metropolitan-museum-record.
27
“Advance Details about Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Costume Institute Spring Exhibition, China: Through the Looking
Glass, Announced at the Palace Museum in China,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed February 27, 2024,
https://www.metmuseum.org/press/news/2015/costume-institute-china-exhibition-details.

13
featured a large screen displaying Bernardo Bertolucci’s 1987 film The Last Emperor, along
with exhibits showcasing the Qianlong Emperor’s robe, borrowed from China’s Palace
Museum, and a notable piece from the exhibition: Tom Ford’s dragon-patterned evening gown
inspired by the robe in the film (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Robe of the last Emperor of China, Pu Yi, worn at his coronation in 1908
The Cheongsam Hall was named in honor of the 1920s Chinese film star Hu Die.
28 The
exhibit featured cheongsam gowns worn by notable figures in the Republic of China (1912–
1949), including Soong Mei-ling, the wife of Chiang Kai-shek. Familiar cheongsam-clad
women are depicted in films including The Goddess (1943), In the Mood for Love (2000), Lust,
Caution (2007), and The World of Suzie Wong (1960). The exhibition honored Anna May Wong,
the pioneering Chinese actress in Hollywood, including items such as her iconic dragon
embroidery cheongsam evening gown and fashion pieces influenced by her style.
29 The modern
portion of the exhibition showcased China’s communist history and culture of the Mao era
28 Leslie Camhi, “‘China: Through the Looking Glass’: A First Look at the Dresses in the Met’s Costume Exhibition.” Vogue，
April 23, 2015, https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/2015-met-costume-exhibit-china-through-the-looking-glass-dresses.
29 Rebecca Johnson, “Need Some Met Gala Inspiration? Look No Further Than Anna May Wong,” Vogue, May 1, 2015,
https://www.vogue.com/article/met-gala-fashion-inspiration-anna-may-wong.

14
(1949-1976) by displaying Maoist clothing, plus fashions made by foreign fashion masters,
paired with Andy Warhol’s Mao Zedong works and film clips from movies such as The Red
Detachment of Women (1961). The appropriateness, objectivity, and representativeness of
using this eclectic mix of fashion to represent the culture of an era is open to question. As
curator Andrew Bolton explained in his curatorial notes: “The exhibition is not intended to
place the objects in the context of Chinese history, nor do the fine embroidery, silk satin, and
high fashion dresses bear the complexity of politics, humanities, or East–West trade, but rather
‘to give a sense of fantasy.’”30
Figure 5. “The Red Detachment of Women” in Gallery 13231
Costume design in Wong Kar-wai’s films plays a crucial role in character development,
serving as a significant ideological tool with a strong visual appeal and profound artistic
meaning. In Wong Kar-wai’s saturated palette, the costume is especially vibrant and colorful.
Wong Kar-wai’s films align costumes with his artistic philosophy, making costume design a
30 Andrew Bolton, “Toward an aesthetic of surfaces,” in China: Through the Looking Glass (New York: Metropolitan Museum
of Art, 2015), 77-78.
31 “Exhibition Galleries,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed July 1, 2023,
https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2015/china-through-the-looking-glass/exhibition-galleries.

15
standout feature, even a character in the movie. Various characters have distinct clothes that
mirror their qualities and align with their personalities. In Wong Kar-wai’s 1994 film Chunking
Express, the vibrant colors of the clothes set the scene of social expectations in Hong Kong in
the 1960s, drawing the audience into the movie setting. Wong Kar-wai crafted a narrative with
highly defined artistic principles, creating richly detailed images: rain falls, lights reflect, colors
clash and blend, creating a vibrant and splendid environment with a calming pace. The cast
includes a young woman wearing a vivid green skirt, a woman in black high heels, and a
solitary waitress donning a blue, heart-shaped T-shirt. 32
The director’s outfit selection
effectively captures the characters’ identities, status, personalities, and states of mind using
simple clothing of various hues. The clothing and characters in the story are complementary,
showcasing both the characters’ exterior grandeur in an urban setting and their loneliness amid
the city’s hustle and bustle through vibrant colors.33
Figure 6. Scene from Chungking Express (1994)
Wong Kar-wai’s movies are primarily set in Hong Kong, China, and the characters’
32 Luo Li, Jiayin Wu, and Jiatian Zhang, “Aesthetic Analysis of Wong Kar-wais Films and Reasons for Western Popularity: A
Case Study of Chungking Express,” Communications in Humanities Research 14, no.1 (2023): 307.
33 Simren Jaswani, “Curating the Mood for Love: How Fashion Is Storytelling in Wong Kar-Wai Films,” Style Circle, September
12, 2022, https://stylecircle.org/2022/09/curating-the-mood-for-love-how-fashion-is-storytelling-in-wong-kar-wai-films/.

16
costumes reflect the qualities of the era. Clothing design in Wong Kar-wai’s films is crucial for
both the aesthetic and cultural aspects of the movie. Costume design compensates for the
absence of dialogue by creating a visual representation that enhances the cultural portrayal in
the film. Wong Kar-wai employed distinctive artistic expression to depict the culture of Hong
Kong, China, in specific eras. In the movie Chungking Express, the female protagonist wears
a broad floral T-shirt or blouse and a clean, short hairdo, representing the typical style of a girl
in the 1990s. Costume design in Wong Kar-wai’s films is not merely a fixed symbol but a
dynamic element that serves an ideological purpose, intricately connected to the plot and
historical context. The director uses characters’ garments to convey metaphorical expression,
emphasizing its language function and imbuing it with a specific meaning.
Wong Kar-wai’s movie costumes deliberately conjure the era and culture, enhancing the
storyline.34 His 2000 film, In the Mood for Love is considered one of his most successful works
in this respect. The female lead, played by Hong Kong movie star Maggie Cheung, wears over
20 elegant cheongsams, adorned with vibrant kaleidoscopic flowers, stripes, and plaid patterns,
reflecting the characters’ bright inner world. These aesthetic choices evoke the look of the
1960s, especially in Technicolor movies of the period. Color, however, spotlights the intensity
of the main character’s feelings that are largely suppressed. Maggie Cheung’s stunning
cheongsams appear to emotionally mirror her character, with each dress symbolizing a different
mood of the heroine.35
The female protagonist’s attire in the movie In the Mood for Love
consists of an intricate cheongsam and a well-styled haircut, symbolizing the fashions and
34 Olivia Khoo, “Wong Kawaii: Pop Culture China and the Films of Wong Kar-wai”, The Journal of Popular Culture 47, no.4:
727–41.
35 Janelle Okwodu, “20 Years on, In the Mood for Love Remains the Ultimate Fashion Romance.” Vogue, May 20, 2020,
https://www.vogue.com/article/in-the-mood-for-love-20th-anniversary-fashion.

17
social setting of 1960s Hong Kong. During that era, the cheongsam was a popular attire among
middle- and upper-class women. The cheongsam robe is form-fitting and accentuates the
slender waist with a tapered hemline and a high collar, giving it an elegant and graceful
appearance when worn. The cheongsam restricts the heroine’s freedom of movement,
symbolizing her self-control and forbearance. The cheongsam portrays the character’s
emotions of sadness and joy. She lives in a small apartment with her cheating husband. The
contrasting colors and patterns on the clothing indicate the character’s internal conflict and lack
of certainty. The cheongsam serves as a strict measure of morality applied on the heroine’s
body. She is always cautious in her speech and manner, walking smoothly, and adhering to the
social regulations.
Figure 7. Maggie Cheung dressed in cheongsam
Other directors also use the cheongsam to evoke a character and a historical moment.
Zhang Yongcheng’s cheongsam in the movie The Grandmaster (2013) was elegant and
dignified, reflecting the aesthetics of ordinary women in the 1930s. Gong Er’s cheongsam, on
the other hand, was tough and capable, adorned with a few white flowers on black plain clothes,
embodying a unique charm and implying a noble and arrogant martial arts style typical of the

18
1940s.
Additionally, traditional culture exerts an influence on Wong Kar-wai’s costume design.
By incorporating elements of national culture into the costumes, Wong Kar-wai gives the film
a distinctive flavor, enhancing the image of the primary character, and enriching the film’s
aesthetic qualities. Wong Kar-wai has deftly integrated traditional hues into his films,
employing costume colors as a means to communicate his distinctive vantage point on
philosophically charged traditional culture. On-screen, his magnum opuses Chungking Express
and In the Mood for Love exemplify this manner of integrating authentic Chinese culture and
the most recent urban color trend. Wong Kar-wai would have done well to integrate even more
of his own films, and even the costumes themselves, into the exhibition.
Regrettably, Wong Kar-wai, the artistic director of “China: Through the Looking Glass,”
introduced stereotypical images from film, his preferred medium, into the display. The gallery
is illuminated with edited clips from classic films including The Last Emperor (1987), Farewell
My Concubine (1992), In the Heat of the Sun (1994), Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000).
Despite these films’ depictions of China in their content, they are nonetheless biased and onesided; many of them they imply the existence of the “Orient” as exotic, failing to faithfully
represent actual historical contexts and characteristics. Wong Kar-wai’s cinematic style often
emphasizes the meticulous arrangement of characters' dialogues and metaphors, with the
authentic expression of emotions serving as the central theme in his films. Through the
relocation of a film such as In the Mood for Love which requires a serene atmosphere for
optimal viewing, to an exhibition hall, the audience will inevitably overlook the metaphors
embedded in the film’s dialogue and plot, making it exceedingly difficult for them to fully

19
appreciate the work as a whole. Instead, they can only perceive the female protagonist and the
cheongsam dresses featured in the film as mere visual spectacles.
Farewell, My Concubine: The popularity of opera costume elements
Prior to the 1990s, Chinese films had not gained international exposure and had no global
impact, allowing Western films to create and define the perception of China. Following the
1990s, Chinese films began exerting international influence. 36 Chinese fifth-generation
directors have consistently received honors at international cinema festivals since the mid-tolate 1990s, garnering global notice and sparking interest in China. The exhibition showcased
several traditional Chinese aspects, such as Chinese opera, martial arts, clothes, and
architecture, which started to be comprehended by Westerners. These films are viewed as “dirty
laundry” once they undergo ideological and aesthetic modifications to align with Western
norms.37
The Chinese folk rituals, scenes, symbols, and components portrayed in them are
presented in a comical and exaggerated manner. Zhang Yimou’s Raise the Red Lantern (1991)
and Chen Kaige's Farewell My Concubine (1992) along with other films featured in the
exhibition, depict various elements such as the landscape of the yellow land, grand mansion
doors, pavilions, water pavilions, folk art, wedding and funeral scenes, portrayals of the Red
Guards’ rebellion, and group images showing strong-willed women, patient men, and
authoritative elders. The outcome is a system of symbols that is identifiable, forming a version
of China that is unrelated to our current experience of China but which aligns with Western
perceptions. Chinese films on their journey to the global stage reinforce Westerners’ Oriental
36 Xuesong Shao and Sheldon Lu, “Transnational Chinese Cinemas,” Chinese Studies (November 2020),
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199920082/obo-9780199920082-0183.xml.
37 Gina Mrchetti, “Chinese film criticism,” Jump Cut, accessed March 15, 2024,
https://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/jc46.2003/marchetti.dai/text.html.

20
perception through self-otherization.
The exhibition “China: Through the Looking Glass” presents two primary ways in which
China is portrayed: cultural appropriation and orientalist stereotypes. These representations
reflect the Western world’s lack of understanding and misinterpretation of other cultures.
Appropriation is a prevalent occurrence in the history of art. It typically involves taking a text,
image or idea, either in its entirety or in part, from its original context and relocating it to an
entirely different context. Cultural appropriation is distinct from cultural infiltration or cultural
assimilation since it is mostly seen in colonial settings. According to critics, cultural
appropriation refers to the dominant culture appropriating components from subcultures for
their own gain. Holland Cotter, an art critic for The New York Times, wrote a scathing essay
criticizing the show. In his critique, he lamented the persistence of stereotypes and the
relegation of genuine art to the mere position of a prop in a fashion photo shoot.
38 The op-ed
in The Washington Post highlighted that the exhibit was not meant to be analyzed within the
framework of Chinese history, lacked any political, economic, or international implications,
and did not delve into cultural appropriation in a substantial manner. I’ve argued throughout
this section that such critiques could have been avoided through the insertion of more Chinese
designers, and an approach to the filmic curation that integrated the nuanced aspects and actual
costume’s of Wong Kar-wai’s films.
38 Holland Cotter, “Review: In ‘China: Through the Looking Glass,’ Eastern Culture Meets Western Fashion.” The New York
Times, May 8, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/08/arts/design/review-in-china-through-the-looking-glasseastern-culture-meets-western-fashion.html.

21
Chapter 3: Chinese Cultural Appropriation in Western Luxury
Fashion Design
Dior: Culturally Appropriating Centuries-Old Chinese Skirt
Figure 8. A product shot from Dior’s website, where the item is no longer available for sale.
With the global dissemination of Chinese culture, Western fashion design has increasingly
included Chinese aspects as a source of inspiration. One of the black skirts shown in the Dior
Early Fall 2022 Ready-to-Wear collection was a mid-length bustier skirt. The appearance is
identical to traditional Chinese garment known as the “Horse Face Skirt” but was launched as
the classic Dior silhouette.
39 Soon after the seasonal launch, some Chinese netizens started a
hashtag “cultural appropriation” on Weibo, discussing the skirt’s long structure and open side
plackets closely resemble the traditional Chinese garment known as the “Horse Face Skirt.”
The occurrence sparked a sequence of disputes both domestically and internationally and was
39 Ryan General, “Dior Sparks Appropriation Backlash in China for Skirt That Resembles Ancient Wraparound Garment,”
NextShark, July 19, 2022, https://nextshark.com/dior-sparks-backlash-in-china-for-skirt-design.

22
dubbed the “Horse Face Skirt” incident by its detractors. The dispute revolved around the
following assertion: that the garment with the unique characteristic of a “Horse Face Skirt” is
a recently introduced fashion item that has included the well-known Dior shape, specifically
an innovative version of the Dior silhouette. Along this line, the Dior silhouette embodies the
original style rather than being a mere imitation of a different cultural fashion trend. An
emerging Chinese Designer Zhang Yan said in a video on Chinese social platform: “By calling
it their hallmark design, Dior is misleading their customers around the world.”
40 He criticized
Dior as a luxury brand failed to credit Chinese culture as inspiration and called this incident a
“more serious offense than plagiarism.”
41 Furthermore, the company unveiled the exhibition
venue at Ewha Women’s University in Seoul, South Korea, in order to emphasize the
significance of the South Korean market above China’s luxury sector.
42
This action further
heightened the cultural tensions between China and South Korea. Following the “Horse Face
Skirt” incident, Dior promptly removed the dress from the Chinese official Dior website and
disabled comments. However, they did not issue a positive response to the incident, further
exacerbating the contradiction in their handling of the “borrowed but not recognized”
situation. According to People’s Daily, which is a Chinese-run media platform, the analysis of
the “Horse Face Skirt” incident should not be oversimplified as mere “cultural
appropriation” or “borrowing” in order to accurately capture the intricate and many aspects
of this event.43
40 Yan Zhang, https://weibo.com/u/1919048641.
41 Rachel Cheung, “$3,800 Dior Skirt Accused of Appropriating Chinese Culture,” Vice, July 18, 2022,
https://www.vice.com/en/article/wxndqn/dior-skirt-china-cultural-appropriation
42 Laure Guilbault, “Dior’s Big Bet on Trendsetting South Korea as China Stutters.” Vogue Business, May 2, 2022,
https://www.voguebusiness.com/fashion/diors-big-bet-on-trendsetting-south-korea-as-china-stutters.
43 Changyue Zhang, “More Chinese students overseas join protest against Dior's 'cultural appropriation' of traditional
Chinese design”, People’s Daily Online, July 26, 2022, http://en.people.cn/n3/2022/0726/c90000-10127700.html.

23
From the late seventeenth century to the late eighteenth century, there was a significant
exchange and communication between the East and the West, which sparked a trend of
“Chinese style” in Europe. 44 Louis XIV had a preference for wearing Chinese-style clothing,
and this fashion quickly spread throughout society, influencing various aspects of people’s lives.
Early in seventeenth century, Louis XIV began wearing Chinese-style ball attire and even
ordered the construction of the Trianon de Porcelaine on the Palace of Versailles grounds.
45
The Jesuit Joachim Bouvet had been sent to China by Louis XIV in 1687, where he worked at
the royal palace and was very close to the current emperor of the Qing dynasty, Kangxi.46 This
trend continued until the late nineteenth century before gradually fading away. In traditional
Chinese attire, the “skirt” has a central position, as mentioned in the proverb “Emperor Yao
and Shun put on clothes and the world is ruled, cover the Qiankun,”
47 where “clothes” refers
specifically to the “skirt.” The horse-face skirt has been a prominent skirt style for Chinese
women since Song Dynasty (960-1279).
48 It is a type of Hanfu and was first mentioned in the
History of the Ming Palace. The spinning skirt with a placket structure, which appeared during
the Song Dynasty, served as the prototype for the horse-face skirt, designed to facilitate riding.
During the Ming Dynasty, the Horse Face Skirt incorporated elements of Hu clothing and
integrated them into the existing clothing system of the previous dynasty, resulting in the
establishment of a more streamlined clothing system. The Qing Dynasty’s exceptional
44 Rachel Silberstein, “Part III - Many Worlds of Fashion,” in The Cambridge Global History of Fashion (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2023), 534.
45 Valentin Goux, “The History of Chinoiseries in France,” The Institute of Classical Architecture & Art, accessed April 2,
2024, https://www.classicist.org/articles/the-history-of-chinoiseries-in-france/.
46 Isabelle Landry-Deron, “Portraits croisés Kangxi et Louis XIV’”, in Kangxi, Empereur de Chine: 1662-1722: La Cité interdite
à Versailles (Paris: Réunion des musées nationaux, 2004), 59.
47 Thorstein Veblen, “The Economic Theory of Woman’s Dress.” Journal of Economic Sociology 23, no.5: 37–44.
48 Dorothy Ko, “The Body as Attire: The Shifting Meanings of Footbinding in Seventeenth-Century China,” Journal of
Women’s History 8, no.4(1997): 8–27. https://history.osu.edu/sites/history.osu.edu/files/The-Body-as-Attire.

24
craftsmanship, including intricate weaving, dyeing, and embroidery skills, along with the
incorporation of spiritual culture, resulted in the emergence of new variations of horse skirts,
such as pleated skirts, dry skirts, and wind-tailed skirts.
Figure 9. Qing Dynasty Horse Face Skirt49
Since its founding in 1947, the Dior brand has been known for its iconic “New Look”
apparel style, which revolutionized fashion by emphasizing the feminine hourglass shape.
50
The dress style adheres to traditional European court fashion for women, characterized by a
combination of a small upper body and a larger lower body in a square triangle shape. The skirt
reaches the length of the calf and has precise and uniform pleating (Figure 10).
49 Valery Garrett, Chinese Dress: From the Qing Dynasty to the Present (Rutland:Tuttle Publishing, 2008), 124, eBook.
50 Krasimira Radieva, “AN INVESTIGATION OF THE SILHOUETTES OF CHRISTIAN DIOR,” Technologies and Education 7, no. 3:
167–78.

25
Figure 10. Dior Classic silhouettes: A new look51
The traditional Chinese horse face garment embodies both practicality and beauty,
representing a style of clothing that has evolved and been passed down through several
dynasties throughout China’s history. Although Dior’s iconic dress design emerged at a later
time, it was in the aftermath of World War II that ladies who had previously worn military
uniforms yearned for a fresh fashion that would showcase the inherent shape and elegance of
women.
52
Dior’s new aesthetic included garments with enhanced fluidity, well suited to
empower women in their pursuit of confidence, independence, and elegance. The distinction
lies in two main factors. First, the origin of the two skirts differs: one is derived from
functionality, while the other is driven by aesthetic preferences. Second, the historical
development of the two skirts varies. The Horse Face Skirt has undergone a longer period of
historical evolution, having been influenced by various cultures over thousands of years.
51 Laird Borrelli-Persson, “Tracing Christian Dior’s Changing Silhouettes in Vogue.” Vogue, September 30,
https://www.vogue.com/article/christian-dior-archival-looks.
52 Martha L. Hall, “Analysis and Characterization of ‘Gowns by Adrian’: The Costume Design Aesthetic and Philosophy of
Gilbert Adrian, 1928-1941,” (MA diss., University of Delaware, 2013), 98.

26
However, as horseback riding ceased to be the primary mode of transportation in society, the
Horse Face Skirt lost its original context. Dior’s clothing series embodies the defining features
of the modern age for women. Since 1946, it has evolved from a basic classic shape to include
expanded variations, such as the X, H, and A silhouettes.
53 The overall style is characterized
by elegance and simplicity. Ultimately, the Horse Face Skirt represents a combination of
classical and vibrant aesthetics, while the latter celebrated ultra-femininity and opulence in
women's fashion.
54
Structurally, it has an overlapping horse face section, which allows for
convenient walking and gives it a contemporary aesthetic.
The accusations of cultural appropriation sparked by the“Horse Face Skirt”were
impacted by the fact that the launch event took place in South Korea. Several western fashion
bloggers mistakenly believed that the dress was inspired by traditional Korean attire due to a
combination of ignorance regarding traditional Chinese culture and a lack of knowledge about
ancient East Asian culture. The presence of women’s clothing shown in the paintings found in
the tombs of the early Goguryeo dynasty in Korea indicates that the area was affected by the
nomadic tribes of northern China.55 Conversely, the Ming Dynasty used the act of “giving
clothes” as a political strategy to assert their imperial control. This included routinely
presenting clothing as a gesture of conciliation to the subordinate state of Korea. In order to
strengthen the legitimacy of the regime and ensure stability in the Joseon Dynasty, the Joseon
Dynasty willingly adopted the attire and symbols of the Great Ming Dynasty while prohibiting
53 Jan Tomes, “How Christian Dior Revolutionized Fashion 70 Years Ago.” Dw.Com, February 12, 2017,
https://www.dw.com/en/the-new-look-how-christian-dior-revolutionized-fashion-70-years-ago/a-37491236.
54 Valerie D. Mendes, Fashion Since 1900 (London: Thames & Hudson, 2021), 122.
55 Un-Young Lee, Heejung Jung, and Inseong Lee, “A Study on the Characteristics of Women’s Dress Design Revealed in
Goguryo Tomb Mural Paintings - by Focusing on Pyeongyang and Its Adjacent Area,” The Research Journal of the Costume
Culture 15, no.3: 541–49.

27
the use of Hu uniforms.
56
The Crash of Dolce & Gabbana in China
Cultural appropriation does not simply manifest itself in the appropriation of content and
style; in fact, a deeper level of appropriation and harm stems from the appropriation of cultural
themes and inappropriate and cheap tastes. On November 18, 2018, the Italian brand Dolce &
Gabbana (D&G) released three advertisements referred to as “Eating With Chopsticks” on
social media to market its upcoming fashion show in Shanghai, China, as reported by BBC
News.57 Following the release of these advertisements, some Chinese individuals expressed
dissatisfaction, claiming that the advertisements were discriminatory. The voiceover’s use of
“Chinese pronunciation,” a condescending tone, and Asian models’ unconventional usage of
chopsticks to eat pizza and Italian sweet rolls caused a stir on Chinese social media.
Furthermore, a person shared a snapshot of a conversation with Stefano Gabbana, a designer
for D&G, on Instagram. The text of the interaction reveals Gabbana’s offensive and insulting
comments towards China. Furthermore, rather than recognizing the words and actions, Stefano
Gabbana asserted that the screenshots surfaced because his social media account was
compromised. Later, he acknowledged a misunderstanding regarding Chinese culture and
issued a public apology.
56 Simeng Hua, “Through Their Neighbors’ Eyes: Interactions and Relations between Korea, Japan and China during the
Ming-Qing Transition,”(MA diss., University of Oregon, 2017), 30.
57 “‘Racist’ D&G Ad: Chinese Model Says Campaign Almost Ruined Career,” BBC News, January 23, 2019,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-46968750.

28
Figure 11. D&G Advertisement
D&G, as a global luxury brand, operates in multiple nations and distinct cultures. D&G
has created a marketing strategy targeted at entering the Chinese market.58 Lack of cultural
awareness and understanding about Chinese culture has led to brand positioning failure and
negative impacts, affecting Chinese consumers’ impressions of D&G. In the “Eating With
Chopsticks” advertisement, D&G attempted to express its brand identity through humor, but
the result was culturally insensitive.
Most Chinese consumers felt offended by the advertisement portraying the use of
chopsticks in a negative light, which they perceived as disrespectful to their cultural traditions
and eating habits. Fashion blogs criticizing D&G went viral on Chinese social media Weibo,
not only the netizens, but also Chinese celebrities reacted to the scandal quickly. Nearly all of
Chinese actors and models who were to walk the D&G runway had withdrawn. D&G's Chinese
brand ambassador, boy band star Wang Junkai, terminated his deal with D&G. 59
The
advertisement’s narrative had inappropriate humor that made consumers feel disrespected
58 “Dolce & Gabbana Is Still Struggling to Regain Popularity in China,” Daxue Consulting, July 27, 2023,
https://daxueconsulting.com/dolce-gabbana-china/.
59 Yuhan Xu, “Dolce & Gabbana Ad (With Chopsticks) Provokes Public Outrage in China,” National Public Radio, December 1,
2018, https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/12/01/671891818/dolce-gabbana-ad-with-chopsticks-provokespublic-outrage-in-china.

29
about chopstick culture, using phrases like “two little-sticks utensils” and “whoever can eat
spaghetti will achieve a high score.” To accomplish effective brand positioning, a brand must
grasp the culture of the target market and adapt decisions accordingly to align with market
trends. Cultural misunderstandings can impact customer perceptions of a brand, leading to
unfavorable reactions from consumers and the market, which can affect brand image. The
effects of this issue had persisted for over 15 months, and the company has still not recovered.
The brand’s ongoing struggle with cultural misunderstanding stems from its consistent use of
a third-person perspective to assess culture. D&G frequently incorporates humor in its
advertising; however, this approach poses a high-risk strategy in brand marketing. Each
individual has their own subjective interpretation of comedy, making it difficult to universally
define what is appropriate for everyone.
Should the use of Chinese components in fashion labels such as Dior’s revival of the
thousand-year-old traditional “Horse Face Skirt” be considered as cultural appropriation? The
concept of cultural appropriation was initially formulated by historians.
60
It refers to the
process of borrowing, blending, and merging non-Western elements by historians during their
fieldwork after World War II. In the realm of art, cultural appropriation can be categorized into
five distinct categories. Appropriation was also a forceful means of critique in Postmodernist
art of the 1980s. The wholesale remaking works of art called into question the very notion of
creativity and originality and its mythic status in the art market. The many forms of cultural
appropriation in art include object appropriation, content appropriation, style appropriation,
motif appropriation, topic appropriation, and sound appropriation. The Dior Horse Face Skirt
60 “Cultural Appropriation,” The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature (3), accessed April 15, 2024,
https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.

30
episode and the D&G campaign inadvertently criticizing China both contribute to the
reinforcement and embodiment of the appropriation of the moral dimension. Moral
appropriation refers to the act of strong cultures appropriating weak cultures, often resulting in
a form of hegemony or the dominance of cultural pluralism by strong cultures. Furthermore,
certain aspects of weak cultures, if misused, can become ensnared in a Western-centric
discourse and consequently lose their ability to be defended.
Appropriation is frequently observed in art and design field, where designers often
incorporate artworks and visual phenomena from different cultures as design elements in their
creations as a creative act. Using an “inspired by” design approach in clothing design involves
translating abstract sensations into visual graphics, shapes, and cuts. This process involves
continuously stimulating inspirations and employing “cut and paste” techniques to alter, distort,
dismantle, and rearrange the appropriated objects in order to achieve the desired design
outcome. Is this an act of “appropriation?” In the dynamic realm of fashion, a multitude of
clothing designs are generated every season, necessitating a continuous supply of garment
components. However, designers sometimes lack the ability to fully comprehend the profound
cultural significance associated with each aspect.

31
Chapter 4: Implications And Conclusion
In recent years, Orientalism has once again become a common problem, sometimes
intricately tied to art and design, including cultural contrasts and exchanges. This thesis has
explored various examples of cross-cultural exchanges, particularly between Western Europe
and China, drawing from Said’s theory of Orientalism, and exploring various examples of
transnational art and fashion collaborations in the twenty-first century. The exhibition entitled
“China: Through the Looking Glass” tried to reassess the notion of Orientalism from the
standpoint of cultural appreciation. However, the exhibition still promoted stereotypes and
uneven power relations while exhibiting very few modern Chinese designers. The controversy
surrounding Christian Dior’s adoption of the Horse Face Skirt style and the culturally
insensitive marketing employed by D&G, demonstrate how misunderstandings can lead to
controversy, anger, and renewed nationalism.
References to Chinese culture are becoming increasingly prominent in Western design,
particularly as brands strive to lure customers in one of the world’s most economically strong
nations. Another motive for adopting Chinese features is to offer cultural variety and freshness
to Western designs. Often, this concentration on novelty and freshness may give birth to a
“Chinese design” that connects with Western customers but strays from the original meaning
of Chinese culture and local context.
From the misuse of Chinese elements in the“China: Through the Looking Glass”
exhibition to the incident involving the Dior Horse Face Skirt, there are numerous instances
that prompt a need for deeper and more balanced reflections on Chinese culture. Effectively
communicating the accurate principles of Chinese culture to the Western world is important.

32
Skillfully narrating compelling stories about Chinese culture can help bridge cultural gaps.
Currently, there is a growing awareness of China’s national culture in and outside of the
country. As“Chinese elements” gain prominence in Western design, there is a need to
emphasize strong and accurate cultural understanding. Chinese fashion design pioneers,
meanwhile, have endeavored to promote Chinese indigenous design, although there remains a
disparity between the overall aesthetic quality of design and manufacturing standards in
comparison to the West. As cultural practitioner, I believe it is crucial to acknowledge these
disparities without feeling inferior. It is certainly erroneous and harmful to abandon the
wonderful aspects of our culture and instead adapt to popular tastes to promote Chinese culture.
Furthermore, it is necessary to establish a repository of design elements and set criteria for
evaluating quality. There is an urgent need to organize and promote the extensive designs,
materials, and foundations of traditional Chinese culture. Additionally, it is necessary to
develop assessment criteria that can properly and evaluate the richness and authenticity of
Chinese designs. Prior to Dior’s“Horse Face Skirt” controversy, the precise shape and style
of the horse face skirt, long a predominant form of Chinese dress, were not well understood.
For centuries, Chinese fashion has been influenced by Western styles, creating a distance from
traditions with mere nostalgic remembrances of the past. It is essential to dedicate time to
thoroughly examining the clothing culture of China’s historic dynasties to unravel the aesthetic
and philosophical concepts embedded therein and search for ways to apply fundamental
traditional principles to contemporary design. To address the current situation, wherein western
European and North American designers dominate the “global” fashion industry, it is important
for Chinese designers to study China’s rich cultural heritage. This involves effectively

33
extracting design elements, acquiring a deep understanding of traditional Chinese culture, and
making strategic use of the vast knowledge and resources available within the Chinese nation.
By doing so, a Chinese-centric design evaluation standard can be established to counteract
instances of cultural appropriation that may appear acceptable.
Finally, while numerous renowned celebrities worldwide are drawn to Chinese culture and
attire, it is crucial to consider whether there is inadequate backing and instruction for Chinese
designers and cultural practitioners in China itself. Specifically, it is important to assess
whether Chinese designers are adequately equipped with resources and opportunities to
articulate and convey the true essence of Chinese culture using their own perspectives, rather
than relying on the support of Western cultural institutions to gain international recognition.

34
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract This thesis analyzes appropriation and the inaccurate portrayal of Chinese design, especially fashion in Western exhibitions, focusing on historical and sociopolitical backgrounds, problematic aspects, reactions to particular fashion campaigns and exhibitions, and the wider implications for cross-cultural comprehension.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Nie, Chenyang (author)

Core Title (Mis)representations of Chinese culture and filmic influences

School Roski School of Art and Design

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Curatorial Practices and the Public Sphere

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 06/03/2024

Defense Date 05/30/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag fashion exhibitions,filmic influences,OAI-PMH Harvest,representation of Chinese culture

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Lin, Jenny (committee chair), Jones, Amelia (committee member), Ogata, Amy (committee member)

Creator Email niec@usc.edu,niec889@newschool.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113984848

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Legacy Identifier etd-NieChenyan-13049

Document Type Thesis

Format theses (aat)

Rights Nie, Chenyang

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Source 20240603-usctheses-batch-1164 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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