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Exploring classroom strategies used by child development student-teachers working with children at risk for reactive attachment disorder

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Exploring classroom strategies used by child development student-teachers working with children at risk for reactive attachment disorder

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Content Copyright 2024 LaShawn L. Brinson
EXPLORING CLASSROOM STRATEGIES USED BY CHILD DEVELOPMENT
STUDENT-TEACHERS WORKING WITH CHILDREN AT RISK FOR
REACTIVE ATTACHMENT DISORDER
by
LaShawn L. Brinson
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULT OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2024

ii
Acknowledgements
This dissertation represents the culmination of a journey that would not have been
possible without the many remarkable individuals' love, support, and encouragement. To my
family, friends, and colleagues, your unwavering belief in me has been the foundation for this
work.
To my family, your love and patience have been my constant source of strength. Thank
you for understanding the many late nights and the moments when my focus was elsewhere. To
my friends, thank you for being my sounding boards, my cheerleaders, and my sources for selffamily-work-life balance. Your presence has made this journey a cherished experience. To my
colleagues, I am grateful for the intellectual and emotional support you have provided, which has
been invaluable in shaping this dissertation.
A loving and heartfelt thank you to my son. Your story has been the foundation of my
continual personal and professional growth that led me to the topic for this dissertation. Your
resilience and courage inspire me daily, and your willingness to share your experiences has not
only enriched this work but also made a profound impact on the lives of many. This dissertation
is dedicated to you, with immense love and pride.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………....ii
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………. v
List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………vi
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………..vii
Chapter One: Overview of the Study……………………………………………………….1
Background of the Problem………………………………………………... 5
Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………...7
Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………….. 11
Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………..12
Significance of the Study…………………………………………………...15
Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………17
Limitations and Delimitations………………………………………………18
Organization of the Study………………………………………………….. 19
Chapter Two: Literature Review…………………………………………………………... 21
Mental Health in Early Childhood………………………………………… 21
Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………. 25
Attachment Theory………………………………………………… 25
Social-Emotional Competence…………………………………….. 28
Reactive Attachment Disorder…………………………………………….. 29
Impact of RAD Treatment Research on Early Childhood Educators
in Non-Therapeutic Settings……………………………………………….. 41
Social-Emotional Learning…………………………………………………43
Social-Emotional Learning Strategies……………………………………... 47
Factors and Barriers that Influence Teacher-Child Interactions……………51
Summary of Literature Review……………………………………………. 52
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………. 55
Chapter Three: Methodology……………………………………………………………… 56
Overview…………………………………………………………………... 56
Research Design…………………………………………………………… 60
Population and Sample…………………………………………………….. 62
Instrumentation…………………………………………………………….. 65
IPPSEC Survey…………………………………………………….. 66
CLASS Observation Tool…………………………………………..66
Semi-Structured Interview Questions……………………………... 68
Data Collection…………………………………………………………….. 70
Data Analysis……………………………………………………………….74
Validity and Reliability……………………………………………………………. 80

iv
Ethical Considerations……………………………………………………………... 80
The Role of the Researcher…………………………………………………………80
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………. 81
Chapter Four: Data Analysis……………………………………………………………….82
Methodology………………………………………………………………..82
Results and Findings of Three Participants………………………………... 104
Summary of Findings……………………………………………………… 116
Implications for Supporting Children at Risk for RAD…………………… 116
Possible Reasons for Decreased Percentages of Emotional Expressiveness
and Emotional Regulation…………………………………………………. 117
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………. 119
Chapter Five: Conclusion, Implications, and Recommendations…………………………..120
Summary of Findings……………………………………………………….120
Integration of Findings……………………………………………………...120
Implications of the Study…………………………………………………...123
Limitations of the Study…………………………………………………….125
Recommendations for Future Research…………………………………….126
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………. 126
References…………………………………………………………………………………..128
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………….137
Appendix A: Letter of Invitation……………………………………………………137
Appendix B: Informed Consent…………………………………………………….138
Appendix C: IPPSEC Survey……………………………………………………….140
Appendix D: CLASS Observation Pre-K………………………………………….. 146
Appendix E: Interview Protocol…………………………………………………… 148
Appendix F: Codebook……………………………………………………………. 151
Appendix G: Figure 4 Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies
First Dimension Positive Climate………………………………………………….. 154
Appendix H: Figure 5 Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies
Second Dimension Negative Climate………………………………………………155
Appendix I: Figure 6 Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies
Third Dimension Teacher Sensitivity………………………………………………156
Appendix J: Figure 7 Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies
Fourth Dimension Regard for Student Perspectives………………………………..157
Appendix K: Class Observation Analysis…………………………………………. 158
Appendix L: Participant SEL Strategies Organized by Themes…………………....164
Appendix M: Data Analysis of Interview Aligned with Themes………………….. 174

v
List of Tables
Table 1: Overview of Methodology…………………………………………………………61
Table 2: Instrumentation…………………………………………………………………….70
Table 3: Overview of Data Analysis………………………………………………………..79
Table 4: Participant Demographics and Research Participation……………………………84
Table 5: Social Emotional Teaching Strategies Dimensions organized by SocialEmotional Development Categories……………………………………………….. 90
Table 6: Percentage of Participants who Consistently Implement SEL Strategies
Organized by Social-Emotional Development Categories………………………….92
Table 7: Participant Scores on CLASS Observation Emotional Support Domain
IPPSEC Items and Scales…………………………………………………………...95
Table 8: Percentage of Participants, Sheila, Sandra, and Helen’s Implementation of
SEL Strategies Organized by Social-Emotional Development Categories………...108

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Analysis Stage Diagram…………………………………………………………. 98
Figure 2: Word Cloud Diagram……………………………………………………………. 99
Figure 3: Thematic Diagram………………………………………………………………..100
Figure 4: Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies First Dimension
Positive Climate………………………………………………………….................154
Figure 5: Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies Second Dimension
Negative Climate……………………………………………………………………155
Figure 6: Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies Third Dimension
Teacher Sensitivity………………………………………………………………….156
Figure 7: Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies Fourth Dimension
Regard for Student Perspective …………………………………………………….157

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Abstract
This study investigates the social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies implemented by child
development student teachers working with preschool children at risk for Reactive Attachment
Disorder (RAD). Framed within Bowlby and Ainsworth's attachment theory and the theory of
social-emotional competence, it examines factors and barriers that influence or impede
interactions and relationships between student teachers and these children. The study sample
comprised adults enrolled in a Los Angeles County community college. Ten participants
completed phase one, the Inventory of Practices for Promoting Children's Social Emotional
Competence (IPPSEC) survey, reporting on SEL strategies used with children during their Child
Development (CD) practicum. Three participants proceeded to phases two and three, which
involved observation using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) to assess
emotional support in teacher-child interactions and interviews. CLASS scores were categorized
into high, mid, and low ranges, reflecting the emotional support provided by the student teachers
while engaged with children. The study identified specific SEL strategies, including building
self-esteem through positive reinforcement, using visual schedules for structure, encouraging
emotional expression through discussions, and implementing individualized support based on
children's needs. Data analysis revealed themes and strategies for effective SEL implementation,
emphasizing its protective role against early risk factors. This mixed-methods approach offered a
comprehensive of SEL practices novice preschool teachers may implement, contributing to early
childhood education and informing strategies to support children at risk for RAD. The study
underscores the need for ongoing professional development and tailored training programs to
enhance educators' social-emotional competence, ultimately benefiting the children they serve.

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Chapter One: Overview of the Study
In 2016, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) reported that mental, behavioral, and
developmental disorders begin in early childhood with 17.4% of children aged 7-8 years
diagnosed with a disorder (CDC, 2021). The most common disorders were behavioral problems,
anxiety, depression, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (CDC, 2021; Risholm,
2016). These mental health disorders impact how young children learn, respond to trauma and
stress, establish relationships, and regulate their behavior and emotions. Other mental health
disorders experienced by children as young as nine months are trauma-and stressor-related
mental health disorders such as Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD), Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD), and Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013).
Early childhood mental health disorders can change the way children learn, behave, and
manage their emotions during day-to-day experiences. Trauma and stressor-related disorders
such as Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) can change the way the brain responds to stressful
experiences impacting a child’s social-emotional development. RAD is defined as a severe
psychological disturbance of the relationship between a child and primary caregiver because of
pathogenic care, which is the consistent disregard of a child's emotional and physical needs that
leads to failed attachment or frequent attachment breaks (Shaw & Paez, 2007; Wimmer et al.,
2009). Pathogenic care can result from various risk factors, such as children who experience
abuse and neglect early in life, children of alcoholics and drug abusers, and mentally ill parents
(Hornor, 2008). Pathogenic care factors include children from biological mothers who have a
history of psychiatric problems, maternal depression, and maternal incarceration disrupting
parent-child relationships (Hornor, 2008). Pathogenic care can also result from frequent

2
attachment breaks and changes in primary caregivers, including preschool teachers and daycare
providers, which is a high-risk factor often less studied (Becknor, et al., 2008). RAD may
increase the struggle for how children learn and behave adding additional challenges with social
skills and relationships (Embury et al., 2020).
Empirical studies reveal that children with RAD score higher on assessments,
demonstrating social-emotional and behavioral problems, anxiety and depression, cognitive and
attention deficits, high aggression, and lack of empathy (Becknor et al., 2008). Additional
research has revealed a prevalence of RAD in the general population with many children who are
either undiagnosed, misdiagnosed, or diagnosed later in life, yet demonstrate the symptomology
associated with RAD as young as infancy (Hornor, 2008; Kocovska et al., 2012; Pritchett et al.,
2013; Wilson, 2001). Without prevention, early identification, and intervention strategies, these
young children can engage in lifelong challenges and adverse experiences resulting from the
trauma and stress that can be contributed to a lack of consistent and stable relationships that
impact their social-emotional development (Embury et al., 2020). When children experience
stable secure-attached relationships they may feel safe and develop a sense of trust which
contributes to their social-emotional development and decreases the risk for RAD (Svanberg,
et.al, 2010).
Social-emotional development (SED) and secure-attached relationships in early
childhood are crucial factors impacting children's cognitive, physical, social, and psychological
growth (Cooper et al., 2009). The National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP) reported that
preschool children face expulsion rates three times higher than children in kindergarten through
12th grade due to social and behavioral challenges (Cooper, Masi & Vick, 2009). In addition to
academic competency, children must become socially and emotionally competent by learning

3
emotional expression, emotional knowledge, emotional regulation, problem-solving, building
relationships, and empathy for others (McCabe & Altamura, 2011; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).
Prevention and intervention programs that emphasize secure and consistent attachment
relationships and social-emotional competence by implementing social-emotional learning (SEL)
strategies in early childhood can buffer the symptomology for trauma-and stressor-related mental
health disorders such as RAD in young children (Cooper et al., 2009; Isakson et al., 2009).
Many early childhood educators begin their first teaching experience in preschool
settings unprepared to work with children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD. When
assessing for RAD in the general population, the rates are low (.9%) in comparison to assessing
children in socioeconomically disadvantaged populations (1.4%), and where secure-attachment
experiences may have been interrupted such as foster care (19.4%) (Embury et al., 2010).
Additional research revealed that 45% of US children in foster care demonstrate symptoms of
RAD as well as 80% of abused and neglected children (Embury et al., 2010). Disadvantaged
children and foster children are not the only children to demonstrate symptoms of RAD. Many
children are not diagnosed or misdiagnosed.
Diagnosing and treating children diagnosed with RAD is problematic. The attachment
relationship children have with their parents during the first few years of life influences their
SED, the relationships they will have with others, including teachers, and their academic success
during the primary grades (Shaw & Paez, 2007). Recognizing symptoms and patterns of
behavior and mental health based on historical information about the family may be more
accessible to early childhood educators and caregivers than educators at higher grade levels.
Having a more comprehensive understanding of the family background can contribute to a more
responsive, nurturing, and understanding approach to children’s behavior. This approach may

4
also influence how well teachers respond to children and offer effective solutions based on the
child’s individual needs (Embury et al., 2010). Embury et al. (2010) found that students with a
history of significant attachment disruptions often become increasingly dependent on their
teachers as the school year advances.
For children with Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD), it is crucial to have a structured
classroom environment that serves as a safe space where they can form healthy relationships and
engage in activities that stimulate their cognitive development. Teachers must demonstrate the
ability to implement and model developmentally appropriate SEL strategies that represent
emotional expressiveness, emotional knowledge, and emotional regulation skills, especially for
children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD (McCabe & Altamura, 2011; Denham et al.;
Pianta et al., 2012). These children must feel capable of succeeding in their tasks and require
trusting relationships with caring individuals such as teachers, administrators, and other school
personnel. By creating safe, predictable, and structured classrooms, teachers can foster a sense of
security and safety. Security and trust can enhance students' social-emotional development and
facilitate the learning process within the classroom community as the year progresses (Embury et
al., 2010).
Social-emotional development (SED) and Social-Emotional competency (SEC) are two
developmental expectations for children in early childhood education programs. SED and SEC
embody the social-emotional skills, and knowledge children can demonstrate through their
communication, interactions with peers, relationships, problem-solving skills and learning
abilities. It is expected that early childhood educators implement social-emotional learning (SEL)
strategies that develop and promote SED and SEC in young children (Denham, 2006; Denham &
Burton, 1996). Although many preschool programs integrate SEL strategies into the curriculum

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and childcare practices, the critical factor is that the teachers' approach to implementing SEL
strategies is trauma-informed with an understanding that there can be children in their
classrooms at risk for RAD and other potential mental health disorders. The teacher's selfefficacy in social-emotional learning, capacity at building relationships with children who
demonstrate risk factors for RAD and understanding of factors and barriers that may influence
teacher-child interactions can influence their implementation of SEL strategies.
Background of the Problem
Relationships formed during a person's first few years of life can positively and
negatively impact their trajectory of social-emotional development, mental health, and academic
outcomes (Svanberg, et al., (2020). In addition to relationship and attachment factors, children
exposed to adverse experiences have even higher rates of susceptibility to mental health
disorders (Cooper et al., 2009; Isakson, et al., 2009). Risk factors such as low income,
pathogenic care, failed attachments, frequent attachment breaks, adoption, foster care, and
exposure to family members with mental health challenges are precursors to more severe mental
health disorders and comorbidity in a child's life. During early childhood, millions of children
experience traumatic adverse experiences annually and continue to be a high-risk group for
mental health disorders (De Young et al., 2011).
A variation of disorders commences during the preschool years. Nevertheless, many of
these disorders are overlooked and misdiagnosed due to the swift developmental changes
preschool children go through (Denham, 2006; Poulou, 2015; Pritchett et al., 2013; McCabe &
Altamura, 2011). Additional factors affecting diagnosis are limited knowledge and experience
some early childhood educators have with recognizing the varied risk factors, behavioral signs,
and attachment patterns expressed by the preschool children they work with (Carter, et al., 2004;

6
Denham, 2006; Poulou, 2015; Pritchett et al., 2013; McCabe & Altamura, 2011). Carter et al.,
(2004), support the claim that failure to identify and diagnose early emerging social-emotional
problems and disorders in young children leads to the exacerbation of behaviors and influences
the context of the student-teacher relationships.
The preschool years are the prime developmental period for children's psychopathology,
social-emotional competence, and academic success because of their attachment security and
successful negotiation of social-emotional developmental milestones (Denham, 1996; McCabe &
Altamura, 2011). Considering that 76% of children in the United States enroll in preschool, with
4-12% of those children having emotional and behavioral disorders; it is ideal for preschool
teachers to understand children's risk factors; focus on attachment and relationship-building;
implement effective social-emotional learning strategies; and develop quality learning
environments so all children benefit (Green et al., 2012; Hornor, 2008; Payton et al., 2000;
Poulou, 2015). These efforts may reduce risk factors and symptomology associated with RAD
(Green et al., 2012; Hornor, 2008; Payton et al., 2000; Poulou, 2015).
Many early childhood education and teacher training programs may not require students
to study early childhood mental health disorders and reflect on their perceptions of their work
with children who are at risk (Zinnser et al., 2015). Some preschool teachers may not
acknowledge the value of a SEL pedagogy during the early years in comparison to academic
learning and instead attribute children's social-emotional challenges and behaviors to their home
and community environment (Poulou, 2015). They may neglect the immense role they play as a
protective factor in the young child’s life.
Teacher-child relationships in preschool have an attachment component which allows the
teachers to serve as a secure base for shaping children's SEC and academic outcomes (Cooper et

7
al., 2009; Isakson et al., 2009; Pianta et al., 1997; Verschueren & Koomen, 2012). However,
despite this evidence, the descriptive mechanisms that begin to define the characteristics of the
teacher's role in establishing relationships with young children and facilitating the development
of SEC during preschool with children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD are still in need of
exploration (Denham et al., 2012; Pianta & Sabol, 2012). Working with novice teachers after
completing one semester of practicum in an early childhood setting with high-risk families may
present itself as the best opportunity to support a reflective assessment of their knowledge and
implementation of SEL strategies. It also provides a great opportunity to explore factors and
potential barriers influencing relationships, teacher-child interactions, and implementation of
SEL strategies.
Statement of the Problem
A growing number of preschool children in predominately high-risk environments face
social-emotional challenges and trauma-related disorders because of early trauma and
accumulation of environmental risk factors before age five (Barnett, 2005; Carter, BriggsGowan, & Davis, 2004; Poulou, 2013). In the U.S., one in six children have been diagnosed with
a mental health disorder between the ages of 2-8 (Center for Disease Control and Prevention
[CDC], 2021).
SED and relationships in early childhood are crucial to children's cognitive, physical, and
psychological growth (Cooper et al., 2009). Research consistently advocates that SED and secure
attachments during the early years lay the foundation for children's trajectory of school readiness,
prosocial behaviors, and healthy relationships (Cooper et al., 2009; Isakson et al., 2009).
Although there is a significant amount of research on the importance of secure-attachments,
social-emotional learning, and quality teacher-child interactions, there is still a prevalence of

8
children in predominately high-risk environments who struggle with self-regulation, emotional
expression, and establishing healthy relationships with peers and adults (Barnett, 2005; Carter et
al., 2004; Poulou, 2013). This study's problem is that the current literature lacks research that
examines how well-prepared novice preschool teacher are at implementing SEL strategies in
preschool settings for children at risk for RAD. The knowledge gap is how well prepared are
early childhood educators to work with children with adverse childhood experiences and what
SEL strategies are the novice teachers implementing in high-risk preschool settings? Attachment
theory, SED, and SEC frameworks established the criterion for identifying appropriate curricular
and teaching strategies that may be used by preschool teachers to address children's needs that
present the risk factors for RAD.
Recent studies acknowledge the benefits of SEL experiences and quality preschool
programs (Jones et al., 2015; Bierman & Motamedi, 2015); however, early childhood education
and teacher training programs do not align swiftly enough to produce quality early childhood
educators who understand this prevalent phenomenon (Gilliam, 2008). Early childhood
education and child development programs often do not require students to study emerging
challenging behaviors, early childhood mental health, and trauma-informed care thoroughly.
Subsequently, empirically based prevention and intervention programs, outside of the clinical
setting, specific to working with young children diagnosed with or at risk for Reactive
Attachment Disorder (RAD) in preschool settings are limited (Gleason et al., 2011).
Compounding the problem, RAD is often undiagnosed, co-existing with other disorders, or not
diagnosed until later in life (Zeanah & Gleason, 2015).
The challenges related to early diagnoses of children with RAD add risk factors and
impact the identification and implementation of appropriate preschool setting interventions

9
(Lieberman & Van Horn, 2008). In addition to limited empirical-based interventions specific to
children with RAD in preschool and the issues with diagnosing RAD, an added challenge is the
impacting factors and possible barriers that influence teachers' perspectives about children who
demonstrate challenging behaviors (Graziano et al., 2007). A teacher's perspective can positively
or negatively impact relationships with children (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Also, it needs to
be clarified what strategies preschool teachers use to work with these children and whether the
identified strategies are developmentally appropriate and effective (Hamre et al., 2012).
The ideal approach for treating children with RAD is to heal the parent-child/primary
caregiver-child relationship through clinical support. Examples of clinical support programs are
Attachment-based Therapy, Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT), and Therapeutic Parenting
Programs. Attachment-based therapies focus on strengthening the attachment bond between the
child and their caregiver (Becker-Weidman, 2006). PCIT is an evidence-based treatment that
emphasizes improving the quality of the parent-child relationship and interaction patterns. It
involves parents' receiving live coaching while interacting with their child, focusing on
increasing positive and decreasing negative behaviors (Timmer et al., 2006). More generalized
Therapeutic Parenting Programs provide caregivers with education and support to manage the
child's behaviors effectively and to respond to the child's emotional needs in a nurturing manner.
This approach aims to create a stable and supportive home environment that promotes the child's
sense of safety and security (Purvis et al., 2007). The problem with clinical treatment programs is
that once the child enters educational environments, the symptoms and risk factors for RAD
continue to exist and grow as children adapt to new adult-child/caregiver-child relationships and
behavioral expectations, which can become a very stressful experience for the child and teachers
alike.

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To provide preventive care and early intervention for children diagnosed with or at-risk
for RAD in preschool settings, identifying developmentally appropriate and effective strategies is
necessary. There is a lack of effective non-therapeutic or clinically based techniques described in
the literature. However, there are intervention strategies and guidelines to help children abused
or maltreated, in foster care, adopted, and have trauma-stressor-related disorders (Schwartz &
Davis, 2006; Shaw & Paez, 2007). Schwartz & Davis (2006) identified clinical interventions and
strategies that may best correlate with strategies that can be implemented in settings with
children who demonstrate behaviors symptomatic of RAD. These strategies are (a) nurture the
child; (b) understand behaviors before punishing; (c) interact with these children based on
emotional age; (d) be consistent, predictable, and repetitive; (e) model and teach appropriate
social behaviors; (f) listen, talk, and play with these children; (g) maintain realistic expectations;
(h) be patient with the child and yourself; (i) take care of yourself; and (j) use other resources
(Schwartz & Davis, 2006, p. 476). These strategies appear to be feasible and conducive to
implementation with all children as they describe the teacher’s role in promoting SED. However,
barriers and factors may influence how teachers implement preventive and intervention
strategies, such as these, which can impact teacher-child relationships and the development of
the child.
Working with novice early childhood educators entering the ECE workforce may
significantly impact the power of teacher-child relationships if addressed during their education
and workforce preparation. Student-teachers are positioned in early childhood teacher training
programs to explore, address, and consider the needs of children at-risk while also implementing
strategies to help children with indicators gone unnoticed. Student-teachers in preschool settings
are coachable, and they can support the need for and difficulty with early diagnosis. They can

11
also develop the knowledge and skills necessary for working with at-risk children during the
most critical window of opportunity to establish a secure base, develop resilience, selfregulation, empathy, and other behavioral adaptations.
Exploring the SEL strategies used by novice student teachers in preschool settings with
children at risk for RAD can be an antecedent to strengthening the prevention and intervention
opportunities for working with children with more urgent trauma-related, social-emotional, and
behavioral needs. This exploration can help identify the strengths and deficiencies of college
students exiting early childhood education/teacher training programs that impact their ability to
provide quality care and social-emotional support for children in all settings, especially high-risk
environments. Therefore, this study explores what specific SEL strategies student-teachers
implement when working with preschool children at-risk for RAD and how they describe the
factors and barriers that arise when implementing SEL strategies to support young children.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to explore classroom social-emotional Learning (SEL)
strategies, if any, used by child development student-teachers working with preschool children
who demonstrate risk factors for Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD). The study will also
examine factors and barriers that may influence the interactions and relationships between
student teachers and preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD. The following
research questions were used to guide this study:
• What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development student
teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD?

12
• What factors influence the interactions and relationships between child development
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool
classroom settings?
• What barriers may impede the interactions and relationships between child development
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool
classroom settings?
Theoretical Framework
Attachment Theory
Attachment theory originated with British Psychoanalyst John Bowlby and was expanded
upon by the studies conducted by Mary Ainsworth, American Psychologist (Shaver, 2012;
Wilson, 2001 & Wimmer, et al., 2009). Bowlby described attachment as the strong emotional
bond that develops between a child and their mother, which is essential for the child's
development, sense of security, and serves as a biological drive towards survival (Wilson, 2001).
Attachment is the organization of infants' behavior that seeks out closeness, comfort, support,
nurturance, and protection from a primary caregiver and introduces pathways to later
development (O'Connor et al., 2012 & Hornor, 2008). Bowlby's research explained the value of
infants' early relationships with caregivers as the foundation for their social and emotional
development (O'Connor et al., 2012).
The attachment process begins at birth and continues through phases within the first years
of life. The infant displays behaviors that signal closeness and attachment between the infant and
primary caregiver (Shaver, 2012; Wilson, 2001 & Wimmer et al., 2009). When a child receives
continuous response and care throughout the first year of life, the results can be healthy messages
that nurture their sense of trust, security, and the feelings of being loved and cared for, which are

13
essential to mental health (Hornor, 2008; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012; Wilson, 2001; Snyder,
2012). These behaviors allow for attachment to happen and a secure base, as defined by
Ainsworth, to develop (Wilson, 2001).
Ainsworth's research further emphasized the relationship between child and parent
through the secure-base construct (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012; Wilson, 2001). In response to
research on infant-mother attachment patterns, Ainsworth developed three types of attachment:
secure, anxious, and avoidant (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012). Children who are securely attached,
have an affectionate bond, feel safe exploring their environments, and finding comfort with their
primary caregiver when feeling distressed (Bowlby, 2007). Secure attachment allows children to
use their primary caregivers as a secure base to explore their environments and develop a sense
of self (Fish, 2004).
Maternal sensitivity is the most consistent feature of secure attachment and can influence
the infants' development of personality and developmental characteristics (Fish, 2004). Insecure,
anxious, and avoidant attachment types represent behaviors in children who do not or cannot
seek comfort and may appear to be confused about seeking comfort from the caregiver when in
their presence (Bowlby, 2007).
Social-Emotional Competence
Social-emotional competence (SEC) has been identified as a group of critical social and
emotional milestones for preschool children and contributes to their later academic performance.
These milestones include the emergence of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness,
relationship skills, and responsible decision-making (McCabe & Altamura, 2011; Osher et al.,
2016). Emotional understanding and perspective-taking are two additional components of
emotional competence, while getting along with peers and adults is at the heart of social

14
competence (McCabe & Altamura, 2011). Children can demonstrate behavioral problems, poor
emotional regulation, poor social skills, and problem-solving issues because of social-emotional
incompetence (McCabe & Altamura, 2011). The effects of low SEC are long-term. Children who
have challenges expressing emotions and understanding the perspectives of others will struggle
with relationships. Children who struggle with relationships will limit their opportunities to
engage with peers and adults. Children need increased opportunities to develop these milestones
into skills. The milestones for emotional competence are grouped into three categories:
emotional expressiveness, emotional knowledge, and emotional regulation.
Denham et al. (2007) examined the socialization processes involved in the development
of children's emotional competence. Denham and colleagues explore how children acquire
emotional understanding, expression, and regulation skills through interactions with parents,
caregivers, and peers (Denham et al., 2007). They defined the milestones of emotional
competence as follows:
Emotional Knowledge. Emotional knowledge refers to the understanding and awareness
of one's own emotions and the emotions of others, including the ability to identify, label,
and comprehend emotions in oneself and others.
Emotional Expressiveness. Emotional expressiveness refers to the outward display or
communication of emotions through verbal and non-verbal behaviors, such as facial
expressions, gestures, tone of voice, and body language.
Emotional Regulation. Emotional regulation involves the processes through which
individuals manage their emotional experiences, including the initiation, maintenance,
modulation, and inhibition of emotions to achieve desirable outcomes.

15
Denham et al. (2007) emphasize the importance of supportive environments that facilitate
the learning and practice of emotional skills, highlighting the role of parental responsiveness,
emotional scaffolding, and peer interactions in shaping children's emotional development. They
also discuss implications for intervention and education, suggesting strategies to promote healthy
emotional development in early childhood.
In summary, the attachment theory addresses the impact of a child's attachment with a
primary caregiver, close bonds, and a sense of security on their personality development and
close relationships. Social-emotional competence addresses the developmental tasks essential to
a child's successful social interactions, emotional understanding, experiences, and regulation. By
situating this study within these theoretical frameworks, we can better understand the
significance of SEL strategies and the role of secure attachment relationships in promoting
healthy development. This alignment strengthens the study's academic foundation and highlights
its practical relevance to the early childhood workforce for nurturing resilient, emotionally
healthy children.
Significance of the Study
Previous research reveals a deficit in the literature concerning effective teacher
intervention strategies for preschool children diagnosed with Reactive Attachment Disorder
(RAD). Despite the extensive research underscoring the importance of social-emotional learning
and secure attachment relationships, many preschool children continue to lack the necessary
interventions to mitigate adverse experiences (Cooper et al., 2009; Isakson et al., 2009). This
study's findings address this gap by providing practical strategies used by novice preschool
teachers in a socioeconomically disadvantaged community. The study's findings have several

16
implications for broader society including educational impact, professional development, social
emotional learning and mental health, and policy.
Educational Impact.
The insights gained can significantly benefit the institution where the research was
conducted. The collected data can inform the Child Development Program's curriculum
development and instructional practices. By integrating course objectives that emphasize early
childhood mental health and the risk factors associated trauma-related behaviors such as RAD,
educational institutions can better prepare future educators to address the complex needs of
preschool children.
Professional Development
The study highlights participating’s knowledge and implementation of SEL strategies.
This recognition can lead to improved professional development opportunities, enabling
educators to reflect on their teaching practices, receive constructive feedback, and align their
efforts with quality early childhood education standards. Specialized professional development
can enhance the overall quality of the early childhood workforce.
Social-Emotional Learning and Mental Health
By emphasizing SEL strategies in early childhood education, the study contributes to the
broader goal of promoting mental health and well-being among young children. Effective SEL
interventions can serve as protective factors against the adverse experiences that many children
face, fostering resilience and healthier developmental trajectories.
Policy Implications
The research underscores the need for policy initiatives that support implementing SEL
strategies in early childhood settings, particularly in socioeconomically disadvantaged

17
communities. The findings can be used to advocate for developmentally appropriate programs
that address social emotional learning to meet the mental health needs of all young children,
ensuring that they receive the prevention and intervention necessary for optimal development.
This study fills a critical gap in the existing literature and offers practical benefits for
educational institutions, and early childhood educators. By focusing on the implementation of
SEL strategies, the research contributes to a broader goal of nurturing the social emotional needs
of preschool children, particularly those at risk for RAD.
Definitions of Terms
Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD)
RAD is one of the traumas and stressor-related disorders identified by the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and caused by neglect during early childhood
(DSM, 2013). For this study, RAD is summarized as "…a rare but serious condition in which an
infant or young child does not establish healthy attachments with parents or caregivers (Mayo
Clinic, 2017). Reactive attachment disorder may develop if the child's basic needs for comfort,
affection and nurturing are not met and loving, caring, stable attachments with others are not
established" (Mayo Clinic, 2017).
Social-Emotional Competence (SEC)
McCabe & Altamura (2011) described SEC as developing self-awareness, emotional
knowledge, emotional regulation, self-concept, emotional expression, and successful negotiation
of relationships during early childhood, 3-5 years.
Social-Emotional Development (SED)
As defined in the California Preschool Learning Foundations (California Department of
Education (CDE), 2008), SED is divided into three strands (self, social-interactions, and

18
relationships) and indicates how preschool children acquire the social skills, self-awareness, and
personal qualities that are interconnected with learning in a classroom.
Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)
The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (Collaborative for
Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), 2018) defines SEL as "…the process
through which children and adults acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and
skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and
show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible
decisions."
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations
This study has several limitations that must be acknowledged. First, the sample size was
relatively small, and data collection was constrained by time. Participants were required to
complete one semester of student teaching and participate in the study within a six-week period
before commencing the next semester. These time constraints and participant availability posed
significant challenges for data collection. Consequently, the findings cannot be generalized to all
child development student teachers who have completed one semester of practicum.
Additionally, the participants exhibited varying levels of social-emotional competence, selfefficacy, teaching experience, and implementation of developmentally appropriate socialemotional learning (SEL) strategies for preschool children, influenced by their diverse
educational and personal backgrounds.
Delimitations

19
The study was delimited to college students who had recently completed their first
semester of practicum at an inner-city, socioeconomically disadvantaged community college in
Los Angeles County. Data collection was conducted over a six-week period, and only those
participants who were available during this timeframe were invited to participate in the study.
Some potential participants were excluded from the study due to their non-completion of the
initial survey. These delimitations were established to ensure the validity of the data collection
process. However, the study does not aim to generalize the experiences of all first-semester
practicum students/novice teachers or their SEL experiences and backgrounds. Instead, it
provides insights into a small sample of participant perspectives as they reflect on their
implementation of SEL strategies and interactions with young children.
Organization of the Study
Chapter One introduces the study, outlines the research questions, and provides an
overview of the problem being addressed. It sets the context for the research by highlighting the
significance of the study.
Chapter Two presents a comprehensive literature review, which examines the existing
research on attachment theory, social-emotional learning (SEL) in early childhood, and Reactive
Attachment Disorder (RAD). This chapter also explores the effects of early attachment
disruptions on mental health, relationships, and academic success.
Chapter Three details the research methodology, including the research design,
instruments used for data collection, the population and participant selection process, and the
data collection procedures. This chapter provides a clear explanation of how the study was
conducted to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.

20
Chapter Four presents the findings of the study, offering an analysis of the data collected
through surveys, observations, and interviews. This chapter answers the research questions by
highlighting key themes and patterns identified in the data.
Chapter Five provides a discussion of the results, linking the findings to the existing
literature reviewed in the literature. It discusses the implications of the findings for practice and
policy, acknowledges the limitations of the study, and offers recommendations for future
research.

21
Chapter Two: Literature Review
The literature review summarizes information related to mental health in early childhood,
attachment, and social-emotional competence theories. It also provides a comprehensive review
of concepts related to Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) and social-emotional learning (SEL)
in early childhood. The chapter concludes with factors that may influence teacher-child
interactions in the preschool classroom.
Mental Health in Early Childhood
The US Department of Health and Human Services (2017) defined mental health as our
emotional, psychological, and social well-being, affecting our thoughts, feelings, and actions.
According to The World Health Organization (2016), mental health is a state of well-being when
every individual realizes their potential, can cope with the everyday stresses of life, work
productively and fruitfully, and contribute to their community. Additionally, mental health helps
determine how we relate to others, and make choices at every stage of life, from childhood and
adolescence through adulthood (Department of Health and Human Services, 2017). Similarly,
Dickstein (2015) defined infant and early childhood mental health as the young child's capacity
to experience, regulate and express emotions; form close and secure interpersonal relationships;
explore and act on the environment, and learn within the context of the caregiving environment.
In contrast, mental health disorders and illnesses represent the challenges individuals
face, including young children, with maintaining positive mental health. The Center for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) (2013) defines mental illness as all diagnosable mental disorders
characterized by altered states of thinking, mood, and behavior associated with distress and
impaired functioning. Some common mental health problems for children are emotional
disorders (anxiety, fears, phobias, depression), behavioral disorders (attention deficit

22
hyperactivity disorder), oppositional defiance, and conduct disorders (Brauner & Stephens, 2006;
Pianta & Caldwell, 1990; Poulou, 2015). Poulou (2015) reviewed current studies on emotional
and behavioral problems focusing on children between the ages of three and six (preschool
years). The studies showed an increased prevalence of early-onset Emotional and Behavioral
Disorders (EBD). EBD refer to conditions where a child's behavioral or emotional responses
significantly deviate from the age-appropriate norms for their cultural or ethnic group, leading to
substantial difficulties in social relationships, self-care, educational progress, or classroom
behavior (Poulou, 2015). EBD encompasses two categories of behavioral problems: internalizing
problems (inner-directed, withdrawal, depression, and anxiety) and externalizing problems
(outer-directed involving acting out and defiant and noncompliant behaviors) often in response to
trauma (Poulou, 2015).
Early Trauma
Early traumatic experiences can manifest in a variety of ways throughout a person's life.
Traumatic experiences such as exposure to maltreatment, emotional abuse, neglect,
abandonment, sexual abuse, physical abuse, witnessing domestic violence, ethnic cleansing, and
war can remain planted in the memory of young children without direct meaning and or
understanding as to why the trauma occurred (Cook et al., 2017; Terr, 1988). Early traumatic
experiences can interfere with the development of a secure attachment in a caregiving system
and expose children to compound risks and cumulative physical, emotional, and psychological
impairments extending throughout adolescence and adulthood (Cook et al., 2017; Terr, 1988).
DeYoung, Kanardy, & Coghan (2011) states that empirical studies leading to a better
understanding of trauma and mental health in early childhood are lagging in child and adolescent
trauma and mental health studies. They go on to say that the possible reasons behind this

23
neglected area of study may be due to issues and challenges with diagnosing children at such a
young age, the resistance and stigma to the notion of early childhood mental health, and limited
sound assessment measures (DeYoung et al., 2011).
The child's age, the number of adverse childhood experiences, the frequency of traumatic
experiences, and the length of time the child experienced each trauma can influence the child's
ability to verbally recall the trauma to receive most effective support and experience healing
(Terr, 1988). Subsequently, many young children recall and communicate their traumatic
experiences through their behaviors (Poulou, 2015; Terr, 1988). These behaviors can be deemed
very challenging and lead to a layering of behaviors that makes it challenging to recognize the
child's reactions to the initial adverse childhood experience. Trauma left unattended in young
children can derail them from their typical trajectory of development and have severe adverse
effects throughout their life (DeYoung et al., 2011).
The original Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) Study, a collaboration between the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and Kaiser Permanente, examined the ACE
categories of childhood abuse, childhood physical and emotional neglect, witnessing domestic
violence, and living with a substance-abusing, mentally ill, or incarcerated household member as
a child. More contemporary ACE-related studies have broadened the construct of early adversity
to be even more comprehensive, including sibling and peer victimization, property crimes, and
parental death as a child. Irrespective of the forms of early adversity examined, researchers have
established the link between experiences in childhood and adolescence and subsequent adult
overall health and well-being (Metzler et al., 2017).
This neglected area of early childhood trauma and mental health studies can be a
significant factor contributing to the gap in understanding trauma across the lifespan (DeYoung

24
et al., 2011). This gap in understanding and knowledge further contributes to the minimal
number of children diagnosed early in life and the ongoing complex trauma-related problems
they experience as young as infancy. Young children can experience fear, anger, sadness, and
extreme inability to cope. These experiences can heighten depending on the age and
developmental stage of the child which supports the significant association between childhood
adversities and the onset of mental health disorders and physical health conditions in adulthood.
Research indicates that young, traumatized children may be particularly vulnerable to long-term
adverse mental health outcomes (DeYoung et al., 2011).
Shonkoff et al. (2012) reported that traumatic early experiences and environmental
influences can be toxic for brain development and may influence mental, behavioral, and
developmental disorders (MBDD) throughout adulthood. The authors suggest "…that many adult
diseases should be viewed as developmental disorders that begin early in life and that the
alleviation of toxic stress could reduce persistent health disparities associated with poverty,
discrimination, or maltreatment in childhood" (Shonkoff et al., 2012). We can significantly
reduce childhood stress, early infant/childhood trauma, and MBDDs if we decrease the number
of risk factors in a child's life and strengthen their protective factors and relationships (Rishoolm,
2016; Shonkoff et al., 2012). Infant and early childhood mental health principles and practices
are inherently systems-based and multigenerational, emphasizing working with and through
family relationships to optimize early mental health outcomes.
Family relationships are central to promoting positive early childhood mental health
beginning at birth. There should be a simultaneous focus on the characteristics of the infant, the
parent, and the developing attachment relationship, all within the family, community, and

25
cultural systems in which the young child and parents reside (Dickstein, 2015; Shonkoff et al.,
2012).
Theoretical Framework
Attachment Theory
Many theorists and psychologists have expounded upon the works of Bowlby and
Ainsworth. The expected outcomes of many empirical studies conclude that attachment theory
and types of early attachment contribute to the psychic development of children in later life
(Corbin, 2007; Shepley, 2001). From infancy, children interact with others in their environment
and make connections in the brain that influence how they function, react to others, and make
decisions. Children's bonding relationship with others is the driving force behind whether
children develop resiliency amid stress, trauma, or environmental experiences. Page (1999)
explains that secure human attachments depend on the partnerships between the infant and
caregiver, even if the caregiver is not the parent. These partnerships include the negotiation of
mutual needs, joint planning for the satisfaction of needs, and the appreciation of reciprocal
interactions (Page, 1999). Studies suggest a failure to engage in early partnerships may obstruct
appropriate bonding in future relationships, disrupt emotion regulation processes, and indirectly
contribute to later maladjustment and clinical disorders (Floyd et al., 2008; Milan et al., 2012).
Kidwell, Brown, and Barnett (2010) conducted a longitudinal study of 54 low-income
Appalachian preschool children to determine what associations between secure, insecure, and
high-risk insecure attachment patterns established by age 4, based on Ainsworth's Strange
Situation study and emotional functioning, concerning attachment patterns at age 12. Various
measures were used, including video recordings of the strange situation implementation,
interviews, questionnaires, and self-reports from children, families, and teachers. The

26
assessments focused on children's attachment style, receptive vocabulary, socioeconomic risks,
parental depression, global parental distress, mental health services, emotional competence, and
a checklist indicating significant family stressors. The study revealed that children's attachment
patterns, emotional regulation, and emotional understanding during the school-age years are
significantly related to their attachment patterns reported eight years earlier (Kidwell et al.,
2010). Children who used high-risk insecure attachment strategies because of early adverse
experiences focused on parent-child attachment relationships would continue to use high-risk
insecure attachment strategies during middle childhood and adolescence (Kidwell et al., 2010).
The study also revealed many consistent variables that described the relationship between
socioeconomic risk factors and adverse experiences. Combined variables of adverse risk factors
included parents who did not graduate high school, unemployed parents, family on public
assistance, single parent, and parent perception of frequent and intense financial stress (Kidwell
et al., 2010). Kidwell et al. (2010) described additional variables as physical, sexual, and
emotional abuse, physical and emotional neglect, domestic chaos, discord, violence, losses,
divorce, and frequent parental arguments. These adult-parent variables lead to stressors and
adverse experiences that may trigger early trauma, alter brain functioning, and promote high-risk
insecure attachment behaviors in young children.
Studies like Kidwell et al. (2010) have made significant connections between early
trauma, brain development, attachment, and relationships supporting attachment theorists’ claims
that the most important relationship is between an infant and his/her caregiver. The infant has an
innate neurological drive to seek and maintain relationships. Secure attachment relationships are
essential to a person's mental health, self-concept, and regulation of emotions and behaviors. The

27
attachment supports a sense of security, safety, and protection formed through the infantcaregiver bond (Hornor, 2008).
In secure attachment relationships, infants would feel safe to explore their environments
and expect to be comforted as needed as opposed to insecurely attached infants. The compassion
of the primary caregiver is the foundation of healthy attachment relationships. Infants learn and
adapt their behavior in response to the type of care they receive.
Without opportunities for an infant to experience soothing when distressed from a healthy
caregiver-child relationship, the child's brain tissue can be damaged and changed because of
early trauma and the complex events described earlier as ACEs (Post, 2013). Some children can
thrive despite these experiences because of protective factors and their resilience. Other children
may repress emotions, withdraw inwardly, and may even be labeled as the "good child" when all
along they are struggling to develop sound social emotional competence. Children may also
demonstrate outward angry and aggressive behaviors resulting in defiant, oppositional, and
disobedient labels.
Experiences that lead to these behaviors contribute to increased cortisol in the brain,
which is dangerous to the brain's tissue. These children's fears, abuse, neglect, stress responses,
and emotions have been ignored or disregarded by adults. Parents, caregivers, and teachers may
be unaware of the child's trauma and signals for help (Post, 2013). This oversight could be
associated with the stress and trauma that the parents, teachers, and other adults have
experienced in their lives as well. The parent's adverse experiences may contribute to difficulty
establishing healthy and securely attached relationships with their child.
Children who begin their lives with broken disrupted, and failed attachments, regardless
of the cause, are at significant risk for successive developmental difficulties, including low self-

28
esteem, lack of emotional regulation, difficulty with peer/social relationships, lack of empathy,
and behavioral difficulties (Pritchett et al., 2013). These difficulties can manifest into trauma-and
stressor-related disorders.
Social-Emotional Competence
Social-emotional competence categorizes social and emotional skills essential to
children's academic and social, and emotional development. The term emotional competence
includes emotional knowledge, emotional expression, emotional regulation, and empathy for
others. Social competence reflects self-awareness, social interactions with peers, problemsolving, and relationships. The terms are combined to reflect the direct relationship they have
with each other. In return, an emotionally competent child may have successful social
interactions and lifelong relationships (McBabe & Altamura, 2011; Garner, 2010). A child who
lacks social-emotional competence may be at risk for academic and behavioral challenges,
regulation difficulties, peer rejection, and poor social skills (McBabe & Altamura, 2011; Garner,
2010). This topic of study is emerging in various forms, empirically supporting connections and
relationships between SEC, and attachment, psychopathology, school readiness and success,
relationship with others, and overall healthy growth and development.
Children develop SEC through socialization experiences guided by interactions with their
caregivers. The key socializers for young children are parents and teachers since they provide
children with experiences that promote or deter social-emotional learning (Denham, Bassett, &
Kinsser, 2012). How parents, teachers, and primary caregivers label, model, and react to socialemotional behaviors becomes the foundation for how children learn to be socially and
emotionally competent human beings. The labels caregivers use and their reactions to behaviors
and social-emotional situations also provide the context for how children display their emotions,

29
understand the emotions of others, self-regulate, demonstrate empathy, and engage socially
(Zinsser et al., 2014). What children learn during early childhood experiences prepares them for
later academic and social-emotional successes throughout adulthood. Both parents and teachers
must provide intentional SEL experiences that create supportive social and emotional
environments for all children.
In summary, McCabe and Altamura (2011) claimed that children who lack secure
relationships during their early years might have a more challenging experience developing
social-emotional competence as a means to a solid emotional foundation, social successes, and
academic achievements. Additionally, the lack of secure attachment relationships and socialemotional competence can contribute to trauma-related disorders in early childhood such as
Reactive Attachment Disorder.
Reactive Attachment Disorder
Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) is a rare but serious mental health condition in
which an infant or young child does not establish healthy attachments with parents or caregivers.
Reactive attachment disorder may develop if at least one caregiver does not meet their basic
needs for comfort, affection, and nurturing in a caring and stable environment (Mayo Clinic,
2017). RAD is one of the possible outcomes of broken, disrupted, and failed attachments, child
abuse, and neglect in young children. RAD is the direct result of pathogenic care that is often
unreported and undetected.
Bowlby's and Ainsworth's premise that during the first year of life, one of infants’ most
basics needs are to form a strong bond with their mother or primary caregiver lays the foundation
for the discussion on RAD (Wimmer et al., 2009). Many researchers have identified attachment
as one of the primary experiences required for children to establish quality relationships in

30
childhood and adulthood. The detrimental effects of failed infant-caregiver attachment are
attributed to the cause of reactive attachment disorder and are marked by sociopathic behaviors
during early childhood (Wilson, 2001).
There are two types of RAD: the inhibited type and disinhibited type. Both types focus on
deficits in a child's ability to respond to and initiate developmentally appropriate relationships
(Floyd et al., 2008). Children will fail to form secure attachments (inhibited) due to a persistent
inability to engage or respond appropriately in social situations (Corbin, 2007; Floyd et al., 2008;
& Shaw & Paez, 2007). They will form attachments with anyone around them with little or no
discrimination given in selecting attachment figures (disinhibited) (Corbin, 2007; Floyd et al.,
2008; & Shaw & Paez, 2007). The inability discriminate relationships and relate to others is a
RAD indicator that may interrupt a child's overall growth and development, supporting the
relationship made between early attachment and later pathology (Corbin, 2007; Floyd et al.,
2008; Shaw & Paez, 2007).
Children that demonstrate inhibited and disinhibited attachment behaviors may
experience significant social-emotional, and behavioral difficulties in various contexts even after
regular and nonpathogenic care is established (Schwartz & Davis, 2006). Some behavior
indicators for children diagnosed and at-risk for RAD are control over others, punishing others,
violent behavior, poor self-regulation, lack of empathy, inability to learn from mistakes, need for
immediate gratification, and negative self-school image (Shaw & Paez, 2007 and Stryker,
2013). Recognizing early trauma and diagnosing disorders during early childhood is critical.
Diagnosing Reactive Attachment Disorder. Diagnosis can be difficult when assessing
children with similar pathogenic backgrounds and symptoms representing other clinical
disorders. The common indicators for RAD are pathogenic parenting and maltreatment, which

31
contribute to the child's inability and unwillingness to form reciprocal relationships with parents,
primary caregivers, teachers, and peers (Stryker, 2013). Researchers have discovered that RAD
behaviors may resemble more common behaviors for other disorders. Some of those disorders
are oppositional-defiant disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorder, or separation anxiety disorder (Cook et al., 2005; Van
der Kolk, 2005; Wilson, 2001; Wimmer et al., 2009).
Currently, there is no one generally accepted or specific tool used to assess, diagnose, and
inform treatment for children with RAD in caregiving and educational settings (Horner 2008;
O'Connor & Zeanah, 2003). Some tools used in empirical studies of RAD, such as the Randolph
Attachment Disorder Questionnaire (RADQ), the Relationship Problems Questionnaire (RPQ),
or the Single Photon Emission Computed (SPEC) tomography scans, may not have been well
validated or designed to address symptoms that may overlap with other disorders (Potter et al.,
2009; Horner, 2008; Minnis et al., 2009; Wilson, 2001). There may also be no reports or referrals
of children with attachment difficulties and emotional disorders, limiting the urgent attention
needed for treating children with or at-risk for RAD. The diagnosis must include a thorough
psychosocial assessment, direct observation of the child in relationship contexts, and family
history assessing for all possible risk factors, early trauma, and history of pathogenic care that
may be symptomatic of RAD behaviors (Horner 2008; Potter et al., 2009; O'Connor & Zeanah,
2003). There is also concern that the criteria used for diagnosing RAD focus primarily on issues
with social relationships more than maladaptive attachment patterns taking the focus off the
behaviors of the child when with attachment figures and focusing only on the reactive behaviors
of the disorder (Horner, 2008; O'Connor & Zeanah, 2003; Wilson, 2001). Wilson (2001)
addressed in her research the creation of a complete assessment model to broaden the scope of

32
descriptive attachment disorders and include observations of children in various attachment
contexts where the parent is not the secure base for attachment exploration.
Minnis et al. (2013) implemented a study to identify the prevalence of RAD in 1646
school-aged children ages 6-8 years old from 29 elementary schools within a UK sector where
there is a high rate of deprivation. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ),
Relationships Problem Questionnaire (RPQ), and the Development and Wellbeing Assessment
(DAWBA) tools were used to assess common child health problems, screen for RAD, and
diagnose common emotional, behavioral, and hyperactivity disorders. In addition to screenings
and assessments, researchers administered semi-structured interview and observational checklist
to children who scored a seven or higher on the RPQ, foster children, and a random sample of
children who scored in the normal RPQ ranges. There were three phases of the study, beginning
with 1227 out of 1646 children who completed the initial screenings and assessments and ending
with a 65.7 % parental response rate and 46% of the children in that population diagnosed with
RAD
The study results provided notable evidence suggesting that children diagnosed with
RAD exhibited distinct patterns in their attachment narratives compared to their peers without
the diagnosis (Minnis et al., 2009). Specifically, RAD-diagnosed children often presented
narratives that were less rational and lacked emotional depth, which corresponded with the
severity of their clinically reported RAD symptoms (Minnis et al., 2009). This correlation
between attachment narratives and RAD symptoms highlights the potential use of narrative
assessments in clinical settings for diagnosing RAD and assessing its severity in early school-age
children (Minnis et al., 2009). Moreover, the findings imply that understanding attachment

33
narratives could inform therapeutic interventions aimed at improving attachment relationships
and emotional expression in children diagnosed with RAD (Minnis et al., 2009).
In essence, Minnis et al. (2009) findings suggest that early understanding and
intervention based on attachment narratives can significantly impact the well-being and
developmental trajectories of preschool-aged children at risk for RAD. This highlights the
importance of integrating research insights from clinical practice and educational settings to
support optimal child development.
Risk factors for RAD. Factors that disrupt the consistency of and predictability of a
nurturing relationship between a young child and primary caregiver can result in pathogenic care,
which is the root cause of RAD. Pathogenic care can result from chaotic environments where
primary caregivers are emotionally and physically unavailable to attune to the child (Horner,
2008). Various research studies identified risk factors for RAD which were early childhood
trauma, abuse, and neglect; disrupted attachment relationships; multiple placements in foster care
or institutional settings, parental factors, and biological vulnerabilities.
Early childhood trauma. Abuse and neglect stand out as the most common contributors
to RAD susceptibility. Studies by Zeanah and Gleason (2015) and Minnis et al. (2009) highlight
those children exposed to severe neglect or maltreatment early in life often struggle to form
secure attachments, a common feature of RAD. These early adverse experiences significantly
heightened the risk of developing RAD symptoms later.
Disrupted attachment relationships. Disrupted relationships also play a critical role in
RAD development. According to Zeanah and Gleason (2015), inconsistent caregiving during
early childhood, where children lack stable and nurturing relationships with primary caregivers,
increases vulnerability to RAD. Smyke et al. (2012) further explained this connection,

34
emphasizing that the absence of reliable caregiver bonds can exacerbate attachment difficulties
characteristic of RAD.
Multiple placements. Multiple placements in foster care or institutional settings have
been identified as another significant risk factor for RAD. Research by Chisholm (1998) and
Zeanah and Gleason (2015) demonstrates that children raised in these types of environments,
marked by limited caregiver interaction and instability, are particularly vulnerable to developing
RAD-related attachment issues. The lack of consistent, nurturing relationships in institutional
settings heightens the risk of attachment disruptions.
Parental factors. Parental factors including untreated mental health disorders and
substance abuse, also contribute substantially to RAD risk. Zeanah and Gleason (2015) and
Zeanah et al. (2005) highlight that parental capacity to provide sensitive, consistent caregiving is
crucial for healthy attachment development in children. When parents struggle with mental
health challenges or substance use, children are more likely to experience disrupted attachment
patterns, increasing their vulnerability to RAD.
Genetic and biological factors. Genetic and biological vulnerabilities also warrant
consideration. O'Connor and Zeanah (2003) suggest that genetic predispositions and underlying
biological factors may influence children's ability to form attachments, thereby impacting RAD
susceptibility. Although less researched, these biological factors complicate understanding RAD
development.
Overall, the interrelationship of environmental, relational, and biological factors lays the
foundation for the multifaceted nature of RAD risk factors. All children with risk factors may not
ultimately exhibit RAD behaviors due to alternative caregiving and resiliency. Comprehensive
assessment, intervention approaches, and strategies are essential in clinical and caregiving

35
settings to mitigate risk factors and support healthy attachment relationships of all types in
children vulnerable to RAD. Children who have been diagnosed with RAD must receive efficient
interventions and caregiving to combat additional risks and comorbidity of disorders (Hornor,
2008).
Understanding RAD risk factors can equip early childhood educators for providing
prevention and early intervention support, possibly contributing to improved outcomes for
children susceptible to attachment disorders. Early childhood educators and caregivers play a key
role in observing and reporting behaviors that may indicate attachment difficulties in young
children (Zeanah & Gleason, 2015). With knowledge of RAD risk factors, educators can
implement targeted strategies to foster secure attachments through consistent, nurturing
interactions and understanding how past trauma or instability may affect a child's behavior and
learning (Smyke et al., 2012). They can collaborate with families and provide a holistic approach
to addressing attachment issues and promoting healthy socio-emotional development in young
children (Zeanah et al., 2005).
Awareness of RAD risk factors helps educators create trauma-informed environments
that are sensitive to the needs of children who have experienced early adversity. This approach
supports positive behavioral outcomes and fosters a safe, supportive atmosphere conducive to
learning (Chisholm, 1998). Educators benefit from training and professional development
focused on understanding RAD and its implications in educational settings. This knowledge
equips them in implementing evidence-based practices that enhance attachment security and
support children's overall well-being (Zeanah & Gleason, 2015).
Problems with Diagnosing RAD. Hornor (2008) identifies challenges in diagnosing
Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) as overlap with other disorders, reliance on observations

36
that may be subjective, and limited validated assessment tools that cover a breadth of diversity
and culturally relevant criteria.
Complexity of Diagnosis Criteria. One of the primary challenges in diagnosing RAD lies
in the complexity and the specific diagnostic criteria outlined in the DSM-5 (2013). The DSM-5
criteria require clinicians to assess both the presence of disturbed attachment behaviors and the
underlying pathogenic care that contributed to these behaviors (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013). This dual requirement requires thorough evaluation and consideration of a
child's developmental history since birth and caregiving environment, which can be challenging
to ascertain fully in clinical settings, especially from the caregivers who may be providing the
pathogenic care (Hornor, 2008).
Overlap with Other Disorders. RAD behaviors can overlap with symptoms of other
psychiatric and neurodiverse disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder, attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). This overlap requires careful differential diagnosis to distinguish
RAD from these co-occurring conditions, emphasizing the need for comprehensive assessment
tools and clinical expertise (Hornor, 2008). The overlap can lead to misdiagnosis or delayed
diagnosis, potentially delaying appropriate identification and educational interventions.
Reliance on Observer Reports. According to Hornor (2008), diagnosing RAD relies on
the critical role of observer reports of attachment-related behaviors, which can be subjective and
influenced by contextual factors related to the environment, knowledge, and perspectives of the
observer.
Limited Validated Assessment Tools. Hornor (2008) points out the need for validated

37
assessment tools specifically designed for diagnosing RAD. Tools like the RADQ and RPQ,
while used in empirical studies, may not capture the breadth of RAD symptoms or effectively
differentiate RAD from other disorders with similar symptoms.
These challenges highlight several vital issues that complicate early identification and
intervention in preschool settings, influencing how early childhood professionals work with
preschool children who are at risk for RAD. In preschool environments where multiple
caregivers with different backgrounds interact with children, differing observations can result in
inconsistencies in identifying RAD-related behaviors (Hornor, 2008). Early childhood educators
may struggle with effectively differentiating RAD symptoms from age-appropriate behaviors or
other developmental disorders common in young children (Hornor, 2008). Early intervention is
crucial for mitigating the long-term effects of RAD, such as difficulties in forming relationships
and emotional regulation (Zeanah & Gleason, 2015). However, due to diagnostic complexities
and overlaps with other disorders, there may be delays in identifying RAD in preschool-aged
children. Educators and caregivers face additional challenges in implementing tailored support
strategies when RAD symptoms are not differentiated from other developmental or behavioral
issues. This lack of clarity can affect the effectiveness of interventions to foster secure
attachments and promote socio-emotional development (Zeanah et al., 2005).
Given the reliance on subjective observations and the limitations of current assessment
tools, preschool educators require specialized training in recognizing and responding to RADrelated behaviors. Professional development focused on RAD diagnosis and intervention is
essential to enhance educators' capacity to support at-risk children effectively (Zeanah &
Gleason, 2015).

38
In summary, the challenges associated with diagnosing RAD due to the complexity of its
criteria, overlap with other disorders, reliance on subjective reports, limited validated assessment
tools, and potential diagnostic variability require ongoing research, clinical training, and the
development of reliable diagnostic instruments tailored to assessing attachment disorders in
children. The impact in preschool settings reinforces the need for enhanced training, improved
diagnostic tools, and greater awareness among early childhood educators. Addressing these
challenges is vital for ensuring early intervention and tailored support for preschool children at
risk for RAD, ultimately promoting their healthy socio-emotional development.
Treatment for RAD. The three modalities for working with children and their caregivers
diagnosed with RAD are (1) working with the caregiver, (2) working with the caregiver/child
dyad, and (3) working with the child alone (Hornor, 2008). The foundation for RAD treatment
should be based on the core principles of attachment theory: consistency and stability of the
caregiver and environment, sensitivity, patience, nurturing, and child safety (Hornor, 2008).
Treatments for children diagnosed with Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) have been the
subject of empirical research, and several therapeutic approaches that support children.
Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy (DDP). DDP focuses on building secure
attachments through the child and caregiver relationship. This therapy emphasizes emotional
connection and trust. Becker-Weidman (2006) discussed the core principles of DDP, including
the use of attunement, co-regulation, and the creation of narratives that help children make sense
of their past traumatic experiences. The research highlighted the structured therapeutic process of
DDP, which involved sessions with the child and caregiver to enhance attachment security and
address behavioral and emotional dysregulation. The empirical evidence presented in the study
supports the effectiveness of DDP in improving attachment behaviors and reducing symptoms

39
associated with trauma and attachment disorders. Becker-Weidman (2006) reported on various
outcome measures, demonstrating significant improvements in children's emotional and
behavioral functioning post-treatment.
Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). PCIT is designed to improve the parentchild relationship and change parent-child interaction patterns. Timmer et al. (2006) outlined the
PCIT approach. They evaluated the impact of PCIT on foster children who exhibit significant
behavioral challenges, often linked to their histories of trauma and disrupted attachments. These
components foster positive parent-child interactions, increase parental sensitivity, and provide
consistent discipline strategies. The study implemented a pre-and post-intervention design,
measuring behavior problems using standardized assessment tools. Results demonstrated
significant reductions in the frequency and severity of children's behavior problems following
the intervention. Additionally, foster caregivers reported improved parenting skills and greater
confidence in managing challenging behaviors.
Timmer et al. (2006) highlighted the importance of targeted interventions like PCIT for
foster children, who are at high risk for emotional and behavioral difficulties due to their adverse
early experiences. The findings deepen the potential of PCIT to enhance foster children's
emotional and behavioral adjustment.
Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT). TF-CBT addresses the
unique needs of children with post-traumatic stress and mood disorders related to trauma. In their
research, Dorsey et al. (2017) provided an evidence-based update on clinical treatments for
children and adolescents exposed to traumatic events. The study evaluated and synthesized
research on various therapeutic interventions to identify the most effective treatments for traumarelated symptoms in young populations. They categorized and assessed multiple psychosocial

40
treatments, including Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Trauma-Focused Cognitive
Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT), Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), and
other emerging therapies. They used specific criteria to evaluate each intervention, highlighting
those with the most substantial empirical support.
The review identified TF-CBT as having the most substantial evidence demonstrating
consistent effectiveness in reducing post-traumatic stress symptoms, anxiety, and depression in
children and adolescents. The authors also noted the promising results of EMDR and other
therapeutic approaches while calling for further research to strengthen the evidence for these
treatments. Dorsey et al. (2017) discussed the importance of tailoring interventions to the
developmental needs of children and adolescents, considering factors such as age, developmental
stage, and specific trauma experiences.
The review emphasizes the need for accessible, evidence-based treatments in various
settings, including schools, community centers, and healthcare facilities. This study also
heightens the need for ongoing research and dissemination of effective therapeutic practices to
support the mental health and well-being of children and adolescents who have experienced
trauma.
Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC). ABC is a parenting intervention to
enhance attachment security in children who have experienced early adversity. Bernard et al.
(2012) presented the findings of a randomized clinical trial aimed at enhancing attachment
organization in maltreated children. The study investigated the efficacy of the Attachment and
Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC) intervention, a program designed to increase caregiver sensitivity
and responsiveness, promoting children's ability to regulate stress and develop secure attachment
relationships. The trial involved a sample of maltreated children and their caregivers randomly

41
assigned to either the ABC intervention group or a control group receiving a different supportive
intervention. Results from the study indicated that children who participated in the ABC
intervention exhibited significantly higher rates of secure attachment and lower rates of
disorganized attachment compared to the control group.
Bernard et al. (2012) emphasized that enhancing caregiver behaviors can lead to
meaningful improvements in children's attachment organization. This research provides evidence
supporting the effectiveness of the ABC intervention in promoting attachment security in
maltreated children and the potential for targeted, relationship-based interventions to mitigate the
adverse effects of early maltreatment and improve developmental outcomes for vulnerable
children.
The results of these empirical studies support various therapeutic approaches for treating
children diagnosed with RAD. These treatments focus on improving attachment relationships,
addressing trauma, and enhancing the parent-child bond, ultimately promoting healthier socioemotional development.
Impact of RAD Treatment Research on Early Childhood Educators in Non-Therapeutic
Settings
Research by Becker-Weidman (2006) on Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy (DDP)
has valuable implications for early childhood educators, even in non-therapeutic settings. DDP's
focus on building secure attachments through emotional connection and trust between the child
and caregiver can inform educators about the importance of creating a nurturing and supportive
classroom environment. Early childhood educators can integrate the principles of attunement, coregulation, and narrative creation into their daily interactions with children. By fostering a sense
of safety and understanding, educators can help children feel more secure and supported, which

42
is particularly beneficial for those who may have experienced trauma or attachment disruptions.
Although educators in non-therapeutic settings may not conduct formal therapy sessions, the
core tenets of DDP can guide their approach to managing classroom behaviors and promoting
emotional well-being.
For educators in non-therapeutic settings, understanding PCIT principles can enhance
their ability to manage classroom behavior and support children's emotional regulation.
Educators can adopt PCIT techniques like positive reinforcement and clear, consistent
expectations to create a structured and supportive learning environment. By fostering positive
interactions and increasing their sensitivity to children's needs, educators can help mitigate
behavioral challenges and promote a sense of stability and security for all students. The findings
from Timmer et al. (2006) suggest that such approaches can significantly reduce behavioral
problems, which is essential for creating a positive learning climate.
The evidence-based update on Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT)
by Dorsey et al. (2017) emphasizes the importance of addressing trauma-related symptoms in
children. While TF-CBT is a specialized therapeutic intervention, early childhood educators can
benefit from understanding the impact of trauma on children's behavior and learning. By
recognizing signs of trauma and applying trauma-informed practices, such as creating a
predictable and safe classroom environment, educators can support the emotional needs of
children who have experienced trauma. The study reveals the need for accessible, evidencebased treatments in various settings, including schools, highlighting the critical role educators
play in providing support to children with trauma histories.
The randomized clinical trial by Bernard et al. (2012) on the Attachment and
Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC) intervention provides insights into promoting attachment security

43
in children who have experienced early adversity. For educators in non-therapeutic settings, the
principles of ABC can guide their interactions with children, particularly those who may have
faced maltreatment or instability. Educators can incorporate strategies to enhance caregiver
sensitivity and responsiveness within the classroom, such as being attuned to children's
emotional cues and providing consistent, nurturing responses. By promoting secure attachments
through everyday interactions, educators can help children develop better stress regulation and
emotional resilience. The research by Bernard et al. (2012) highlights the potential for targeted,
relationship-based interventions to improve developmental outcomes, suggesting that educators
can play a crucial role in supporting children's attachment and overall well-being.
The research studies on DDP, PCIT, TF-CBT, and ABC offer valuable insights for early
childhood educators in non-therapeutic settings. Educators can create supportive, nurturing
environments that promote secure attachments, emotional regulation, and positive behaviors by
integrating principles from these therapeutic approaches. These strategies are essential for
addressing the diverse needs of children, particularly those who have experienced trauma or
attachment disruptions, which are risk factors for RAD, ultimately fostering healthier socioemotional development and more effective learning outcomes.
Social-Emotional Learning
The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2018)
describes social-emotional learning (SEL) as a developmental process where children and adults
learn essential life skills. These include understanding and managing emotions, achieving
personal objectives, empathizing with others, fostering positive relationships, and making sound
decisions (CASEL, 2018). This holistic approach to education and personal development
highlights the comprehensive benefits of SEL in fostering emotional and social competence. SEL

44
is critical in enabling children and adults to handle the complexities of daily tasks and challenges
effectively.
Social-emotional competence (SEC) in early childhood is a foundational set of skills
children develop, particularly during the critical ages of 3 to 5 years. McCabe & Altamura
(2011) describe SEC as encompassing a broad range of emotional and social capabilities which
include the following:
Self-awareness
Self-awareness refers to a child's ability to recognize and understand how emotions
influence their behavior. At this stage, children identify and express their feelings, recognizing
differences between themselves and others.
Emotional knowledge
Emotional knowledge involves understanding the various emotions and their causes.
Children learn to label feelings correctly and understand the typical situations that might trigger
these emotions. This knowledge is crucial as it forms the basis for empathy by helping children
anticipate how others might feel in similar situations.
Emotional regulation
Emotional regulation is the ability to manage and control one's emotions and
appropriately respond to the emotional states of others. For preschoolers, developing emotional
regulation means learning techniques to cope with frustration, excitement, anger, and
disappointment in socially acceptable ways.
Self-concept

45
Self-concept is a child's developing sense of self or self-identity. It includes recognizing
personal attributes, abilities, and attitudes. A positive self-concept helps children feel confident
in learning new skills and interacting socially.
Emotional expression
Emotional expression involves effectively expressing one's emotions in a manner that is
appropriate to the situation and socially acceptable. Children learn to use words, facial
expressions, and body language to convey their feelings about situations or interactions.
Successful negotiation of relationships
Successful negation of relationships involves forming and maintaining healthy
relationships with adults and peers. It includes understanding social norms, taking turns, sharing,
and cooperating. Developing good relationship skills also means learning to resolve conflicts
constructively and understanding the basics of friendship dynamics.
Developing these competencies during the early years is crucial because they lay the
groundwork for more complex social interactions and emotional responses as children grow.
Enhancing these skills can improve social adjustment in school and other settings.
SEL programs and curricula designed to bolster social-emotional competence in
preschool children help in the immediate development of interpersonal and self-regulatory skills
and contribute to long-term educational and social success. Thus, integrating targeted strategies
and structured SEL programs in early childhood education settings can profoundly impact a
child's development. Durlak et al. (2011) highlight that SEL programs can significantly improve
children's social-emotional competence, promoting better academic performance, higher
emotional well-being, and fewer behavior problems.

46
Poulou (2015) asserts preschool is the most optimal time for social-emotional learning
(SEL). Developing children's competence in social and emotional concepts as early as possible is
crucial for counteracting environmental, biological, and cultural risk factors that predict
emotional and behavioral difficulties, as well as poor academic success in children (Carter et al.,
2004; Denham et al., 2012; Poulou, 2015; Sutherland et al., 2010). One study by Domitrovich et
al. (2007) found that early childhood programs integrating SEL into their curriculum can
significantly reduce aggressive behavior and improve social competence among preschoolers.
Domitrovich et al.'s (2007) findings are consistent with findings by Raver et al. (2008),
who demonstrated that preschoolers participating in SEL programs showed more significant
improvement in emotional knowledge and social problem-solving skills than preschoolers who
did not participate in SEL programs.
Taylor et al. (2017) reinforces the positive impact of SEL due to their comprehensive
meta-analysis, demonstrating that SEL equips individuals with crucial life skills and yields longterm benefits that transcend academic success. Their research indicates that participants in SEL
programs show lasting improvements in emotional regulation and awareness. The study also
found significant enhancements in social skills, such as empathy and cooperation, underscoring
the role of SEL in fostering interpersonal relationships and positive social interactions.
Moreover, Taylor et al. highlight that these skills contribute to better decision-making processes,
evidenced by reduced rates of negative behaviors like substance abuse and criminal activities
among former participants of SEL programs.
Additionally, Taylor et al. (2017) suggest that the goals set within SEL programs are
achievable and sustainable, leading to measurable improvements in both personal and
community well-being. These outcomes align with CASEL's emphasis on setting and achieving

47
positive goals as a core component of SEL, illustrating how such educational initiatives
contribute to the comprehensive development of individuals throughout their lives.
Integrating SEL into early childhood education is vital for promoting children's overall
development and well-being. Fostering social-emotional competence from a young age in three
main categories of social-emotional development: emotional knowledge, emotional
expressiveness, and emotional regulation, set the foundation for future success. Denham et al.
(2007) defines these three categories as follows:
Emotional Knowledge. Emotional knowledge refers to the understanding and awareness
of one's own emotions and the emotions of others, including the ability to identify, label, and
comprehend emotions in oneself and others.
Emotional Expressiveness. Emotional expressiveness refers to the outward display or
communication of emotions through verbal and non-verbal behaviors, such as facial expressions,
gestures, tone of voice, and body language.
Emotional Regulation. Emotional regulation involves the processes through which
individuals manage their emotional experiences, including the initiation, maintenance,
modulation, and inhibition of emotions to achieve desirable outcomes.
It is essential to ensure that the design of early childhood curricula and environments
supports and enhances social-emotional learning and that educators receive the necessary
training and resources to implement these programs effectively.
Social-Emotional Learning Strategies
Social Emotional Learning (SEL) is critical in early childhood education for fostering
social competence, emotional regulation, and academic success. The following strategies,
grounded in research by experts such as Pianta (2001), the Center on the Social and Emotional

48
Foundations for Early Learning (CSEFEL) (CSEFEL, n.d.), and CASEL (n.d.), represent the
most effective approaches to SEL in early childhood settings.
Strong Teacher-Child Relationships
Building warm, responsive, and nurturing relationships between teachers and children.
Strong teacher-child relationships are founded on consistent and meaningful interactions that
foster trust and security. Teachers should be attentive to children's cues and appropriately
respond to their emotional and developmental needs. Developing such relationships involves
active listening, showing empathy, and being physically and emotionally available. This
approach helps children feel valued and understood, encouraging them to engage more openly
and confidently in learning. Research by Pianta (2001) underscores that these positive
relationships can mitigate the effects of stress and adversity, promoting resilience and better
emotional outcomes in children.
Structured SEL Curricula
Implementing comprehensive SEL curricula that include explicit instruction in social
skills, emotional regulation, and problem-solving. Structured SEL curricula are designed to
provide systematic instruction and practice in critical social and emotional development areas.
These programs often include various activities, such as role-playing, storytelling, and
cooperative games, that are both engaging and educational. For example, the "Second Step"
program offers scripted lessons that guide teachers in consistently delivering SEL content. By
embedding SEL within daily routines and activities, children can practice these skills in real time
and across different contexts. Research supported by CSEFEL (n.d.) shows that children
participating in such structured programs significantly improve their ability to manage emotions,
build positive relationships, and effectively problem-solve.

49
Supportive Classroom Environments
Creating a classroom environment that promotes emotional safety, positive behavior, and
a sense of community. Clear expectations, consistent routines, and positive reinforcement
characterize a supportive classroom environment. Teachers play a critical role in modeling
respectful and caring behavior, setting the tone for how children interact. Positive behavior
support (PBS) and classroom management strategies can help maintain a calm and predictable
environment. Additionally, creating opportunities for collaborative activities helps children
develop a sense of belonging and community. Research (CSEFEL, n.d.) indicates that children in
such environments are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors, exhibit higher levels of
emotional well-being, and experience fewer behavioral issues.
Family Engagement
Educators engage families in the SEL process to reinforce skills at home and build a
consistent support network for children. Family engagement in SEL involves parents and
caregivers in the educational process, ensuring that children receive consistent messages and
support at school and home. Schools can facilitate this by providing resources, such as
informational workshops and take-home activities, that help families understand and implement
SEL strategies. Regular communication between teachers and parents through conferences,
newsletters, or digital platforms ensures that families are informed and involved in their child's
progress. Research shows that when families are actively engaged, children are more likely to
internalize and practice SEL skills, leading to better social and emotional outcomes. Family
involvement also strengthens the partnership between home and school, creating a unified
approach to child development.
Professional Development for Teachers

50
Providing ongoing professional development and support for teachers to implement SEL
strategies effectively. Effective SEL implementation requires teachers to deeply understand
social and emotional development and be skilled in SEL practices. Professional development and
training programs can provide novice teachers with the knowledge and tools to create supportive
learning environments and integrate SEL into their daily routines. This can include workshops,
coaching, and collaborative learning communities where teachers can share strategies and
insights. Continuous professional development ensures teachers stay updated on the latest
research and best practices. Pianta (2001) emphasizes that well-trained teachers are more
effective in fostering positive student outcomes, as they are better equipped to address their
students' diverse needs and implement SEL strategies with fidelity.
Integrating SEL with Academic Learning
Embedding SEL principles within academic instruction to create a holistic learning
experience. Integrating SEL with academic content involves teaching social and emotional skills
alongside subjects like math, literacy, and science. This approach helps children see the
relevance of SEL in various aspects of their lives. For example, teachers can use literature to
discuss emotions and relationships, incorporate cooperative learning projects that require
teamwork and communication, and use problem-solving tasks to teach perseverance and
resilience. The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) (n.d.)
advocates for this integrated approach, highlighting that it supports the development of SEL
competencies and enhances academic performance. By making SEL an integral part of the
curriculum, schools can provide children with a more comprehensive and engaging learning
experience.

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Integrating SEL Strategies with Clinical Treatments for RAD
Integrating SEL strategies with clinical treatments for RAD can enhance therapeutic and
education outcomes by reinforcing healthy attachment relationships, emotional regulation skills,
and resilience-building in children. Both approaches emphasize the importance of supportive
relationships, consistent caregiving, and tailored interventions to effectively meet developmental
and emotional needs.
Overall, implementing SEL strategies creates a nurturing and supportive environment
that addresses the socio-emotional needs of children at risk for RAD. By fostering emotional
resilience, enhancing social skills, and promoting positive relationships, the teacher's interactions
with children and implementing SEL strategies can support children's overall development and
well-being.
Factors and Barriers that Influence Teacher-Child Interactions
Children rely on attachment constructs to shape their relationships with teachers and
other caregivers (Verissimo et al., 2017). These relationships are foundational for children's
educational trajectories and crucial for social-emotional development (Verissimo et al., 2017).
Children's behavior and their ability to maintain relationships with peers and teachers
significantly impact teachers' attitudes, responses to behaviors, and overall teacher-child
interactions (Shillingford & Karlin, 2014).
The self-efficacy of teachers regarding early childhood adversities and factors associated
with Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD), as well as their mindsets about working with diverse
children, greatly influence their interest and ability to implement beneficial strategies for all
children, especially those at risk (Shillingford & Karlin, 2014). Teachers more confident in their

52
abilities and knowledgeable about SEL and RAD are better equipped to create supportive and
effective learning environments.
In a research study exploring burnout and teacher-child interactions, Sandilos, Goble, and
Schwartz (2020) noted that Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) teacher training often focuses on
student outcomes without adequately considering teachers' emotions and attitudes while
implementing interventions. This gap in SEL training can contribute to teacher burnout,
negatively impacting teacher-child interactions. Additional research is necessary to explore
teachers' affective responses to implementing SEL interventions and how these responses impact
the success of the intervention (Sandilos et al., 2020).
Moreover, the emotional well-being of teachers is critical for high-quality interactions.
Teacher stress can diminish the quality of teacher-child interactions, negatively affecting
children's academic success and social-emotional competence (Sandilos et al., 2020). Sandilos et
al. (2020) emphasized the need for more research on psychological and professional factors that
influence teacher-child interactions. Understanding these factors can help develop interventions
that support teachers and students, ensuring better educational and developmental outcomes.
In summary the interplay between teachers' self-efficacy, emotional well-being, and the
implementation of SEL strategies play a key role in influencing the quality of teacher-child
interactions. Addressing teachers' emotional and psychological needs and providing
comprehensive training on working with diverse and at-risk children can enhance the
effectiveness of educational interventions and promote better social-emotional development in
children.
Summary of Literature Review

53
This chapter has presented the related literature on attachment theory and socialemotional competence, important concepts about RAD, as well as including SEL strategies used
for preschool children. Strategies that reinforce the development of emotional expressiveness,
emotional knowledge, and emotional regulation are highlighted as being beneficial for preschool
children, including those at risk for RAD.
Mental Health
The chapter begins by defining mental health as essential to emotional, psychological,
and social well-being, influencing thoughts, feelings, and actions. Definitions from the US
Department of Health and Human Services and the World Health Organization highlight the
significance of mental health across all life stages. Dickstein (2015) extends this to early
childhood, emphasizing the young child's capacity to experience, regulate, and express emotions
and form secure relationships within caregiving environments. In contrast, mental health
disorders in children, such as emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD), disrupt these capacities,
with studies showing an increasing prevalence of early-onset EBD.
Early Trauma
Early traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and exposure to violence, can
severely impact a child's development. These traumas can hinder secure attachment formation
and lead to long-term emotional, psychological, and behavioral difficulties. DeYoung et al.
(2011) note the lag in understanding trauma and mental health in early childhood, attributing it to
diagnostic challenges and societal resistance. Traumatic memories often manifest through
behaviors rather than verbal recall in young children, complicating diagnosis and intervention.

54
Attachment Theory
Attachment theory, initially proposed by Bowlby and Ainsworth, underscores the
importance of secure infant-caregiver bonds for healthy psychological development. Secure
attachments foster resilience and emotional regulation, while insecure attachments can lead to
developmental and emotional difficulties. Longitudinal studies, such as those by Kidwell et al.
(2010), demonstrate the lasting impact of early attachment patterns on emotional and social
functioning into adolescence.
Social-Emotional Competence (SEC)
SEC is crucial for children's overall development, encompassing skills like emotional
knowledge, regulation, and social interactions. Lack of SEC can lead to academic and behavioral
challenges. Parents and teachers play a pivotal role in developing SEC through consistent,
supportive interactions and modeling appropriate behaviors.
Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD)
RAD is a serious condition where children fail to form healthy attachments due to severe
neglect or inconsistent caregiving. It is characterized by inhibited or disinhibited attachment
behaviors, leading to significant social and emotional difficulties. Diagnosing RAD is complex
due to overlapping symptoms with other disorders and a lack of specific, validated assessment
tools. Accurate diagnosis requires thorough psychosocial assessments and observations in
various contexts.
Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)
SEL programs aim to develop SEC by teaching children to understand and manage
emotions, build relationships, and make responsible decisions. Research indicates SEL programs
significantly improve children's social skills, emotional well-being, and academic performance.

55
Integrating SEL into early childhood education is essential for addressing risk factors and
promoting long-term success.
Factors Influencing Teacher-Child Interactions
Teacher-child interactions are influenced by teachers' self-efficacy, emotional well-being,
and training in SEL and RAD. Teachers who are confident in their abilities and knowledgeable
about RAD can create supportive learning environments. However, stress and burnout can
negatively impact these interactions. Comprehensive training and support for teachers are crucial
for effectively implementing SEL strategies and fostering positive teacher-child relationships.
Conclusion
The chapter concludes by emphasizing the importance of understanding mental health,
early trauma, attachment, SEC, and SEL in early childhood. It highlights the need for
comprehensive assessments, early interventions, and supportive teacher-child interactions to
promote healthy development and mitigate the effects of trauma and attachment disorders like
RAD. The researcher established the need for this study based on the gap in literature that
addresses the specific psychological and professional factors that influence novice teacher’s
interactions specific with young children at risk for RAD. This includes investigating how
different types of SEL training impact teacher emotions and attitudes, and how these in turn
affect the quality of interactions with students. Additionally, longitudinal studies could provide
deeper insights into the long-term effects of teacher burnout on educational outcomes specific to
student teachers working with children at risk for RAD and their use of SEL strategies during
their teacher training and education experience.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
Attachment theory provides the foundation for understanding the role of relationships in
social-emotional development for preschool children. The researcher designed this research
study to explore child development student teachers' experiences and perspectives as they
implement social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies while working with preschool children
between the ages of 2.5 – 5 years of age who may be at risk for Reactive Attachment Disorder
(RAD), at Sunny Side Community College. This chapter describes the purpose of the research,
explains the research design, participant selection, and the instruments used for data collection
and data analysis. Also, the researcher explains the validity of the instruments and ethical
considerations.
Overview
The research objectives were to explore classroom SEL strategies, if any, used by child
development student teachers working with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for
RAD. The secondary aim was to review factors and barriers influencing interactions and
relationships between student teachers and preschool children demonstrating risk factors for
RAD.
This study is significant because it addresses the prevalent issue of early trauma,
stressors, and mental health disorders in young children, particularly those in socioeconomically
disadvantaged and high-risk communities. It focuses on how novice teachers implement SEL
strategies with children at risk for RAD, a less explored area in existing research.
The researcher used a mixed-methods inquiry approach combining qualitative and
quantitative methods to provide a comprehensive approach at addressing the research questions.
A survey using the Inventory of Practices for Promoting Social-Emotional Competence

57
(IPPSEC) was used to collect quantitative data. The Classroom Assessment Scoring System
(CLASS) (Emotional Support Domain) and semi-structured interviews were used to gather
qualitative data and explore the alignment of the student teachers' beliefs and observed behaviors
working with preschool children at Sunny Side Community College (SSCC) Child Development
Lab School, in central Los Angeles. The instruments allowed for self-reflection, observations
and feedback, as well as opportunities for participants to share detailed perspectives on SEL
strategies they implement and factors that may impact the implementation.
The targeted population were Community College Child Development (CD) students
who completed a Practicum I/student-teacher course at a SSCC serving a diverse and
predominantly first-generation college student population. The study concluded with a sample of
ten participants who completed phase one of the research and a subsequent three participants
who completed phases two and three of the research study.
This study examines the implementation of SEL strategies by novice child development
teachers focusing on preschool children at risk for RAD. By combining quantitative surveys with
qualitative observations and interviews, the research aims to identify SEL practices, influencing
factors, and barriers in this context. The study is significant for addressing the needs of young
children experiencing early trauma and for informing educational practices in high-risk
communities.
Research Questions
The research questions were as follows:
1. What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development
student teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD?

58
2. What factors influence the interactions and relationships between child
development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?
3. What barriers may impede the interactions and relationships between child
development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?
Inquiry Approach
In this mixed-method study, the researcher facilitated qualitative and quantitative
approaches with a small sample group of participants who recently completed the Child
Development Student-Teaching/Practicum I course. Participants completed the Inventory of
Practices for Promoting Social-Emotional Competence (IPPSEC) survey. A subset of
participants was observed using the Emotional Support domain of the Classroom Assessment
Scoring System (CLASS) – Pre-K. They were subsequently interviewed to gather additional data
regarding SEL strategies used while working with preschool children at risk for RAD.
Qualitative research allows for exploring and discovering the meaning participants
attribute to a social or human problem in response to emerging questions and data analysis
(Creswell, 2014). The research questions were addressed through qualitative methods to broaden
the range of information from different aspects (Maxwell, 2013). Qualitative research methods
allow researchers to systematically and inductively serve as the primary instrument to investigate
a research topic or phenomenon (Merriam, 2009). Qualitative research also informs other
perspectives and focuses on understanding the phenomenon more. In this study, the researcher
collected and analyzed the data and served as the survey facilitator, the observer, and the
interviewer.

59
Surveys provide opportunities for the researcher to use instruments such as
questionnaires and interview questions to collect data from groups of people (Ary et al., 2018). It
is also an excellent method for participants to self-report on the topic of study. Student teachers
self-reported the SEL strategies they implemented with preschool children.
Observations allow the researcher to collect data about people, processes, and cultures in
a relevant context. While observing, the researcher can witness nonverbal responses,
interpretations, implementation of specific skills, and time spent in the topic. The observation
can validate the participant's survey and establish a context for the interview. During this study,
the observations helped describe the settings and events surrounding the social-emotional
learning strategies implemented. Observation is an ethnographic method that increases the
validity of a research study and helps the researcher better understand the phenomenon's context
(Maxwell, 2013).
Interviews often serve as the primary source of qualitative research. Quality interview
questions and protocol allow for authentic data collection, especially related to specific topics or
types of information (Merriam, 2009). With interviews, the researcher gathers firsthand
information directly related to the interviewees' perspectives and emotions at that moment. The
flexible qualitative research design and structured open-ended interviews can strengthen the data
collection using probing and follow-up questions. Although this approach can have limitations,
such as researcher or participant bias, the method is still unique and valuable to qualitative
research (Maxwell, 2013). In this study, the interviewees discussed factors and barriers to
implementing social-emotional learning strategies while working with preschool children at risk
for RAD. The interviews provided an opportunity to gather additional information that may go
unwitnessed during the observations or self-reported on the survey. The survey, observations,

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and interviews showcased the participants' perspectives and experiences utilizing socialemotional learning strategies with preschool children at risk for RAD.
Research Design
This study explores the social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies implemented by
novice child development teachers, as well as the factors and barriers influencing their
interactions with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for Reactive Attachment
Disorder (RAD). The study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative
surveys, qualitative observations, and interviews to gain a comprehensive understanding of these
dynamics.
Table 1 provides an overview of the methodology aligning data collection and
instrumentation with each research question. Research Question one focuses on identifying
specific SEL strategies used by student teachers. Data collection methods include the Inventory
of Practices for Promoting Social-Emotional Competence (IPPSEC) survey, targeting specific
SEL strategies; Observations Using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) to
assess the Emotional Support domain, including dimensions such as Positive Climate, Negative
Climate, Teacher Sensitivity, and Regard for Student Perspectives; and Semi-structured
interviews with participants who completed the survey and were observed, providing qualitative
insights into the strategies employed. Research Question two investigates the factors that
influence interactions and relationships between student teachers and at-risk children. This is
addressed through Semi-structured interview questions designed to elicit detailed responses
about the factors impacting these interactions. Research Question three examines the barriers that
may impede these interactions and relationships. The methodology includes Semi-structured
interview questions to identify and explore potential barriers.

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Table 1
Overview of Methodology
Research Questions Data
Collection
Method
Instrument Method of Analysis Sample
1. What specific socialemotional learning (SEL)
strategies are child
development student teachers
using with preschool children
who demonstrate risk factors
for RAD?
Survey Inventory of Practices for
Promoting SocialEmotional Competence
(IPPSEC)
Survey Item Numbers:
• Social-emotional
Teaching Strategies
(12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22, 23)
Calculate self-reported scores
for all completed indicators
with documented evidence.

12 respondents
from population of
15 child
development
students who
completed
practicum I.
Observation Classroom Assessment
Scoring System-Pre-K
(CLASS)
Emotional Support
Domain
Score observations based on
the CLASS assessment
guidelines for trained and
reliable CLASS observers.
CLASS scores were used to
identify effective interactions
represented by four domains
(Positive climate, Negative
climate, Teacher sensitivity,
and regard for student
perspectives) within the
emotional support dimension.
Three participants
who completed the
survey.
Interview Semi-structured
Interview Questions
Each interview was recorded
and transcribed by the
researcher.
Codes were be used to
identify emergent themes,
common practices, and
patterns.
Three participants
who were observed.
2. What factors influence the
interactions and relationships
between child development
student teachers and children
who demonstrate risk factors
for RAD in preschool
classroom settings?
Interview Semi-structured
Interview Questions
Each interview was recorded
and transcribed by the
researcher.
Three participants
who were observed.
3.What are the barriers that
may impede the interactions
and relationships between
child development student
teachers and children who
demonstrate risk factors for
RAD in preschool classroom
settings?
Interview Semi-structured
Interview Questions
Each interview was recorded
and transcribed by the
researcher.
Codes were used to identify
emergent themes, common
practices, and patterns.
Three participants
who were observed.

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Population and Sample
Population
This research occurred at a college within one of the largest community college districts
in Southern California. The researcher addressed the college of focus as Sunny Side Community
College (SSCC). Their mission is to meet the community's needs, including college transfer
services, occupational training, community services, general, transitional, and continuing
education. More than half of SSCC college students are first-generation students from a wide
service area, including Los Angeles and portions of Gardena, Hawthorne, and Inglewood.
Sunny Side Community College has a Child Development program and Child
Development Center (CDC) - Laboratory School that serves children, families, and adult learners
within the community. The children enrolled in the CDC represent the demographics of the adult
students and families enrolled at the college. At the time of the study, the total enrollment
number for students was 12,803, with 68.9% representing females, 31.1% males, and 71.9%
first-generation students. Forty-one percent of the students were African American and 49%
were Hispanic (CCC Chancellor’s Office, 2019). The student age ranges were 17.3% under age
20, 25.3% ages 20-24, 34.4% ages 25-39, and 23% were 40 or older. Almost half of the students
were enrolled full-time, completing 12 units per semester (CCC Chancellor’s Office, 2019). The
target population were students enrolled in the child development Practicum I course Fall
semester. This study's target population consists of child development students who completed
one semester of Practicum I and represented the community's demographics.
The practicum course coaches and supports student teachers in implementing early
childhood theory-based pedagogy. The ideal maximum enrollment for the practicum I course is
15 students. All enrolled students must meet minimum prerequisite criteria, including core child

63
development courses required for the Child Development degree and the associate teacher level
and above state-issued Child Development permits issued by the Commission on Teacher
Credentialing (CTC). The students must complete 108 hours of student teaching and attend two
hours of weekly seminars over a 15-week semester.
The population of child development student teachers at SSCC is ideal for this study due
to their diversity, practical training, representation of the local community, and alignment with
the study’s goals. Their experiences and backgrounds provide a rich context for exploring SEL
strategies, factors influencing teacher-child interactions, and barriers in preschool settings,
particularly for children at risk for Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD).
Participant Selection
The selected targeted population from SSCC is particularly well-suited to address the
study's research questions for several reasons including diverse demographics, first-generations
students, representation of SSCC community, socioeconomic factors, and similar foundational
training participants received at SSCC.
The diverse student population at SSCC has significant representation from African
American and Hispanic communities (41% and 49%, respectively). Studying this group ensures
that the findings are relevant and applicable to a wide range of cultural and socioeconomic
backgrounds representative of the children at the CDC. This alignment ensures that the study’s
findings are directly relevant to the community served by SSCC, making the research outcomes
particularly impactful for local educational practices.
A substantial portion of SSCC students (71.9%) are first-generation college students.
These students often bring unique perspectives and experiences that can enrich the understanding
of how social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies can be effectively implemented in diverse

64
settings. Their experiences may also highlight specific challenges and barriers faced by firstgeneration students in educational contexts. Many SSCC students also come from
socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds, which is a critical factor when studying early
trauma, stressors, and mental health disorders in young children. Understanding how SEL
strategies are implemented in high-risk communities can provide valuable insights into
overcoming barriers and enhancing support for at-risk children.
The target population have completed one semester of the Practicum I course. These
students have received foundational training in early childhood education and are equipped with
the necessary knowledge to engage with children. However, their comprehension, skills, and
adversities may vary. Their recent completion of the practicum at SSCC ensures that their
experiences and reflections are current and relevant to the study.
SSCC also offers a robust Child Development program and a Child Development Center
(CDC) – Laboratory School. This program provides hands-on experience and practical training
for student teachers, making it an ideal setting for observing the implementation of SEL
strategies. The lab school setting allows for controlled, yet realistic, observation of interactions
between adults and preschool children.
Research Sample
The population was 12 child development community college students who completed
first semester practicum at SSCC. All students were emailed and invited to participate in the
research study during the Winter intermission at the college. Participants responded to the email
and completed a demographic survey acknowledging their interest in participating. The students
could not be enrolled in any classes with the researcher. The students were informed of the three
phases to the study and were made aware that they could choose not to move forward at any

65
stage of the study. The first phase included completing an Inventory of Practices for Promoting
Social-Emotional Competence (IPPSEC) survey. The second phase of the study included being
observed at SSCC Child Development Center while working with preschool children. The third
phase required each participant to be interviewed individually.
The invitation resulted in an initial sample group of 10 participants. The sample group
received a follow-up email inviting them to sign the research study agreement and begin phase
one. After completion of phase one, the researcher invited the 10 participants to continue with
phases two and three. Participants had to be available during the remaining five weeks of
SSCC’s Winter intersession. Participants had to be available to return to the college and be
observed at the CDC for phase two and interviewed in a private location on campus for phase
three. The subsequent sample resulted in three participants.
Access/Entry
The Child Development Center (CDC) is a Lab School prepared to receive observers and
researchers studying children, child development teachers, early childhood curricular practices,
and family engagement. During the study, appropriate release forms were on file for every child
and teacher at the CDC. The researcher submitted a required written request 30 days before the
classroom observations. The researcher informed the director and all CDC teachers of the study's
purpose and exact dates the researcher scheduled to observe student teachers in their classrooms.
Instrumentation
The instruments used for this study include the Inventory of Practices for Promoting
Children’s Social-Emotional Competence (IPPSEC) survey, The Classroom Assessment Scoring
System (CLASS), and semi-structured interview questions aligned with CLASS indicators from
the Emotional Support domain.

66
IPPSEC Survey
The IPPSEC Survey is a published instrument developed by the Center on the Social and
Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (CSEFEL). CSEFEL (2003) is a national resource
center that focuses its research and educational resources on promoting the social-emotional
development and school readiness of young children from birth to age 5. CSEFEL is responsible
for disseminating research and evidence-based practices to early childhood programs across the
country (CSEFEL, 2003).
The survey is a self-reflection and reporting tool designed to encourage reflection and
discussion with participants. The participants in this study reflected on their implementation of
social-emotional learning strategies utilized while working with preschool children and their
observed outcomes. The tool has four general areas: positive building relationships, designing
supportive environments, social-emotional teaching strategies, and individual intensive
interventions. Each area has indicators aligned with specific skills. While using the survey, each
participant can identify what SEL skills may or may not be present in their teaching practice and
interaction with children. The implementation of the skills can be rated as (3) consistently, (2)
occasionally, and (2) seldom. The tool is grounded in evidence-based research that supports the
social-emotional development of infants and preschool children, including children with at-risk
behaviors.
The IPPSEC tool is directly linked to this study’s theoretical framework and research
question one: What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development
student teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD? Ten
participants completed the survey.
CLASS Observation Tool.

67
The CLASS Observation is a research-driven tool created because of evidenced-based
research focused on measuring teacher-child interactions in the classroom for all ages and
grades. This study incorporated the preschool version of the CLASS observation tool.
The two major national studies that contributed to the development of this tool are the
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Care (NICHD
SECCYD) and Youth Development and the National Center for Early Development and
Learning (NCEDL) (Teachstone, 2014). Combined, both studies observed over 1000 children
within at least 700 preschools in at least 11 states. The researchers focused on the quality of
interactions and the academic and social development experienced by the randomly selected
child participants (Teachstone, 2014).
The tool is organized by learning domains, developmental dimensions, indicators of
effective interactions, and behavioral markers (Teachstone, 2014). For this study, the domain of
focus was Emotional Support. Emotional Support dimensions and indicators were measured
through observations completed by the researcher and further elaborated on through researcher
and participant interviews. There are 10 dimensions organized into three domains and a range of
behavior indicators. The pre-k domains and dimensions are:
• Emotional Support – Positive Climate, Negative climate, Teacher Sensitivity, and
Regard for Student Perspective (Teachstone, 2014).
• Classroom Organization – Behavior Management, Productivity, Instructional
Learning Formats (Teachstone, 2014).
• Instructional Support – Concept Development, Quality of Feedback, and Language
Modeling (Teachstone, 2014).
The measurement ratings consist of Low (1, 2), mid (3, 4, 5), and high scores (6, 7).

68
This CLASS tool supported research questions: (1) What specific socialemotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development student teachers using with preschool
children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD? (2) What factors influence the interactions and
relationships between child development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk
factors for RAD in preschool classroom settings? and (3) What barriers may impede the
interactions and relationships between child development student teachers and children who
demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool classroom settings?
The CLASS observation tool measures the teacher-child interactions that represent
positive strategies for supporting children's social-emotional learning. Some indicators generated
discussions focused on influencing factors and possible barriers to implementing effective SEL
strategies with young children. The Negative Climate dimension is an example. For this
indicator, the researcher observed teaching behaviors that may have supported a negative social
environment instead of a positive one. Teachers are often unaware of how their body language,
tone of voice, behaviors, and actions may contribute to or model harmful social-emotional
practices with children.
The observation tool requires observers to be trained and reliably certified as CLASS
Observers. The researcher received CLASS training through the Teachstone Foundation.
However, the researcher is not a Certified Class Observer, so the researcher used all scores and
feedback to address research questions for this study only and not to validate the CDC
classrooms where the observations took place.
Semi-structured Interviews
The semi-structured interview questions were created utilizing the observation

69
markers from the CLASS observation tool. The interview was designed to encourage participants
to reflect and expand on their experiences interacting with children as related to the CLASS
behavior markers. Two – three interview questions were aligned to each of the social – emotional
indicators from the CLASS observation tools to address research question (1) What specific
social-emotional learning strategies are child development student teachers using with preschool
children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD? Additional interview questions were asked to
address research questions (2) What factors influence the interactions and relationships between
child development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings? and (3) What barriers may impede the interactions and
relationships between child development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk
factors for RAD in preschool classroom settings?
In summary, the survey focuses on social-emotional teaching strategies, the observation
uses the CLASS tool to assess emotional support dimensions, and the semi-structured interviews
provide qualitative insights related to all three research questions. Table 2 outlines the specific
instruments and related content used for collecting data in the study, matched to the research
questions they address, and the specific indicators and interview questions.

70
Table 2
Instrumentation
Data
Collection
Method
Data Collection
Instrument
Research
Question
Instrument
Content
Survey Inventory of Practices for
Promoting Children’s
Social-Emotional
Competence
RQ#1 Area: Social-emotional Teaching Strategies
Skill #s: 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, &
23
Observation Classroom Assessment
Scoring System
(CLASS)
Pre-K
RQ#1 CLASS Observation Tool for Pre-K
Domain: Emotional Support
Dimensions:
• Positive Climate
• Teacher Sensitivity
• Regard for Student Perspectives
• Negative Climate
RQ#2 CLASS Observation Tool for Pre-K
Domain: Emotional Support
Dimensions:
• Positive Climate
• Teacher Sensitivity
• Regard for Student Perspectives
• Negative Climate
RQ#3 CLASS Observation Tool for Pre-K
Domain: Emotional Support
Dimensions:
• Positive Climate
• Teacher Sensitivity
• Regard for Student Perspectives
• Negative Climate
Semistructured
Interview
Interview Questions RQ#1 Interview questions: 2, 2a, 2b, 3, 4a, 4b, 4c, 5, 5a,
5b, 8, 10, 12a, 12b, 13a, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21,
22, 23
RQ#2 Interview questions: 1, 2, 4
RQ#3 Interview questions: 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 9a, 10, 10a, 11
Data Collection
Data was collected sequentially, beginning with completing the Inventory of Practices for
Promoting Children's Social-Emotional Competence (IPPSEC), followed by observing survey
respondents measured by the CLASS Observation tool. Lastly, participants were interviewed
guided by questions aligned with the indicators of the CLASS Observation tool.

71
Out of the population of 12 students invited to participate in this study, 10 responded and
completed the demographic survey, indicating their willingness to participate. The 10
participants signed the research study agreement and completed the IPPSEC survey. The survey
participants were required to be available for observations and interviews during the remaining
five weeks of the Winter intersession to participate in phase two and three of the study.
Ultimately, three participants completed both the observation and interview phases.
The study results are based on a small sample size due to various reasons. SSCC only
offered one practicum course during the previous Fall semester, the population was reduced to
12 students instead of a potential 30. Scheduling constraints and the requirement to return to the
SSCC campus impacted the number of participants willing and able to continue. Participants
were informed they could opt out at any stage. This autonomy ensures ethical research practices
but can lead to a reduction in the number of participants progressing through all phases.
Additionally, the Winter intersession posed challenges for students, many of whom might have
other commitments or limited availability to participate in all three phases. These factors and
others likely contributed to the reduced sample size for phases two and three significantly.
While the sample size was reduced to three participants for the latter phases, the depth of
qualitative data obtained from observations and interviews provided rich, valuable insights.
Despite the smaller number, the detailed qualitative data from the final three participants still
offers significant value and depth to the study, contributing meaningful insights into the socialemotional learning strategies and interactions between child development student teachers and
preschool children at risk for Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD).
Survey

72
The IPPSEC helped participants describe skills and indicators reflective of practices that
promote SEL in young children. The inventory helped users self-reflect on their skills in four
specific areas: Building Positive Relationships, Designing Supportive Environments, SocialEmotional Teaching Strategies, and Individualized Intensive Interventions. When self-assessing,
the user also described how often they utilize the skills using three measures: consistently,
occasionally, or seldom. Each section has skills and specific behavior indicators that help the
user identify skills that adequately reflect each category. The tool asks for evidence/observations
to support the assessment score of 1, 2, or 3.
Participants completed one area of the IPPSEC, Social-emotional Teaching Strategies,
and self-reported behaviors on indicators #12-23 electronically. This area and indicators address
research question (1) What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child
development student teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for
RAD? Participants were offered recommendations for completing the sections promptly and
effectively. The indicators were not explained to the participants, which required them to have a
basic understanding of the SEL-related terminology.
Observations
The researcher invited respondents who completed the survey to participate in the
observation process. The researcher observed them using the Classroom Assessment Scoring
System (CLASS) tool, which measured the student teachers' quality of emotional support
provided while working with preschool children. The observations added variation in data
collection. The observation provided an unbiased, structured evaluation of how student teachers
implement social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies in real-time classroom settings. It served as
a verification tool for the self-reported survey IPPSEC data, ensuring that reported SEL

73
strategies were indeed practiced. The observation highlighted variations in student activities,
child experiences, and daily routines, offering context-specific insights into the dynamics of
teacher-child interactions.
The researcher observed participants within a 2–4-week period following completion of
the practicum I course. The observations were scheduled for two hours each, including four 20-
minute cycles of observation and four ten-minute cycles of coding as defined by the CLASS
observer training module.
The arrival and end times were different for each participant. Therefore, the student
activities, child experiences, and daily routines observed were different for each observation.
Following the CLASS observation, participants were invited to participate in semi-structured
interviews. The results of each observation informed the guided interview process with each
participant.
Semi-structured Interviews
The semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather detailed insights into the student
teachers' experiences, perceptions, and reflections on providing emotional support and
implementing SEL strategies. The interviews followed a structured protocol, ensuring
consistency across participants. Interviews were held in a familiar, private setting on the college
campus, encouraging candid responses. The interview protocol includes an introduction and
overview of the study. It allowed the participants to ask questions about the research and their
role in the process. The protocol covered the confidentiality guidelines and the respondent's
consent to participate. The interview questions encouraged each respondent to describe how they
saw themselves providing emotional support to children while implementing SEL strategies.

74
The interviews provided rich qualitative data regarding the specific challenges,
influencing factors, and barriers revealing factors and barriers faced by student teachers, which
might not be observable during classroom interactions. The interviews enabled the identification
of common themes and patterns related to SEL implementation, which informed a deeper
understanding of the strategies' impact and the contextual factors affecting their use.
In summary, the observation results added objective and contextual data on the
implementation of SEL strategies, validating self-reported survey data and providing a detailed
understanding of classroom dynamics. The interview results, on the other hand, offered in-depth
qualitative insights into the experiences, perceptions, and challenges faced by student teachers,
identifying key themes and barriers influencing SEL implementation. Together, these methods
provided a robust and comprehensive analysis of the research questions.
Data Analysis
The data analysis describes the relationship between the data collected and each research
question. As described in Table 3, the researcher organized the study's findings according to the
data collection tools: survey, observation, and interview. The Inventory of Practices for
Promoting Children's Social-Emotional Competence (IPPSEC) survey results, the Classroom
Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) observations, and the semi-structured interviews are
analyzed. The triangulation of these data sources provides a comprehensive understanding of the
social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies implemented by child development student teachers
with preschool children at risk for Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD).
IPPSEC Survey Analysis
The survey addresses research question (1) What specific social-emotional learning
(SEL) strategies are child development student teachers using with preschool children who

75
demonstrate risk factors for RAD? The analysis provides a score that tells the researcher how the
participants see themselves implementing SEL strategies. Participants self-assessed their skills in
Social-Emotional Teaching Strategies using a scale of 1 to 3, where one indicated seldom, two
indicated occasionally, and three indicated consistently.
The IPPSEC survey results were analyzed to identify the frequency and types of student teachers'
SEL strategies. The data were coded and categorized based on the participant's responses to
indicators #12-23 and categorized by the three components of social-emotional development.
Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the frequency of each response category.
Some key information collected from the survey was organized by all three categories of
social-emotional development: Emotional Knowledge, Emotional Expressiveness, and
Emotional Regulation.
Emotional Knowledge. Many participants reported consistently using strategies related
to emotional literacy and regulation, indicating a high awareness of SEL techniques.
Emotional Expressiveness. Some participants reported consistently using strategies to
build positive relationships with children, demonstrating a strong emphasis on establishing trust
and rapport. However, responses indicated a mix of occasional and consistent supportive
environment strategies, reflecting variability in implementing SEL strategies.
Emotional Regulation. There was a lower frequency of consistent use in individualized
intensive interventions reflective of less commonly implemented regulation strategies,
potentially due to the complexities and demands of such practices.
CLASS Observation Analysis
The observation measures were coded according to the four specific CLASS domains,
looking for SEL strategies to address research questions:

76
(1) What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development
student teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD?
(2) What factors influence the interactions and relationships between child development
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool classroom
settings?
(3) What barriers may impede the interactions and relationships between child
development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool
classroom settings?
Additional codes were used to identify emergent themes, standard practices, and patterns.
Researcher notes were used as evidence to support all ratings. Notes were reviewed more than
once to score and code data efficiently, acknowledge responses representing more than one
coded category, and align observation data with the four CLASS domains. The CLASS
observation data objectively assessed the quality of emotional support provided by student
teachers. Each participant was observed for two hours, broken into four 20-minute observation
cycles with corresponding coding cycles.
Some key information collected from the CLASS observation was organized by two of
the three categories of social-emotional development: Emotional Expressiveness and Emotional
Regulation.
Emotional Expressiveness. Participants displayed mid-level emotional support,
characterized by positive and negative climate indicators. The average scores in these
dimensions indicated a healthy ability to create emotionally supportive environments.
Emotional Regulation. Observations revealed average classroom organization strategies
based on teacher sensitivity and regard for student perspective scores. There was variability in

77
behavior management techniques that created a noticeable difference in the quality of
instructional support, with one participant demonstrating more effective use of language
modeling and feedback loops than others.
Semi-Structured Interviews Analysis
The interview responses were also coded according to the four specific CLASS domains
to address research questions:
(1) What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development
student teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD?
(2) What factors influence the interactions and relationships between child development
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool classroom
settings?
(3) What barriers may impede the interactions and relationships between child
development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool
classroom settings?
The interview and observation protocols were followed consistently with each participant to
reinforce the credibility and trustworthiness of the data collected. Although there were some
contextual variations for the observations and guided interviews, the focus remained on
exploring SEL strategies used by student teachers and the factors and barriers that may influence
the use of the strategies.
The semi-structured interviews were transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis.
This qualitative approach allowed for the identification of recurring themes and patterns related
to the implementation of SEL strategies and the challenges faced by student teachers.

78
Some key information gathered from the interviews revealed participants' strong belief in the
importance of SEL and described various strategies they used to support children's emotional
development. They shared common challenges, including time constraints, lack of resources, and
varying educational institution support levels. Participants also highlighted the difficulties in
balancing academic and emotional support needs. Student teachers noted that their training in
SEL provided a solid foundation but emphasized the need for ongoing professional development
and mentorship to refine their SEL implementation skills. The interviews also revealed that the
classroom environment, individual child needs, and external factors such as family dynamics
significantly influenced the effectiveness of SEL strategies.
Integration of Data Sources
Integrating the survey, observation, and interview data gave a holistic view of the SEL
strategies implemented by student teachers. Some consistency between self-reported data from
the IPPSEC survey and the objective measures from the CLASS observations reinforced the
validity of the findings. Additionally, the rich qualitative insights from the interviews provided
context to the quantitative data, offering a deeper understanding of the challenges, and
influencing factors in SEL implementation.
In summary, the analysis of the IPPSEC survey, CLASS observations, and semistructured interviews revealed that while student teachers consistently implemented various SEL
strategies, there were notable challenges and barriers to their effective implementation. The
triangulated data underscored the importance of ongoing training, support, and resources in
enhancing the SEL practices of child development student teachers working with preschool
children at risk for RAD. Despite the small sample size, the detailed qualitative data provided

79
valuable insights that contribute to early childhood education and understanding SEL strategies
in this context.
Table 3
Overview of Data Analysis
Data Collection Method and
Instrument
Research
Questions
Method of Analysis Sample
Survey
Inventory of Practices for
Promoting Social-emotional
Competence (IPPSEC)
Sections/Item Numbers:
• Social-emotional
Teaching Strategies (12,
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,
20, 21, 22, 23)
RQ1 Calculate self-reported scores for all
completed indicators with documented
evidence from all respondents.
Survey results will be reported according to
frequency (score 1, 2, or 3) for each
skill/indicator in Social-emotional Teaching
Strategies.
10
Respondents
from
population of
12 child
development
students who
completed the
practicum I
course.
Observation
Classroom Assessment
Scoring System-Pre-K
(CLASS)
Emotional Support Domain
RQ1 Score observations based on the CLASS
assessment guidelines for trained and
reliable CLASS observers.
CLASS scores will be used to identify
effective interactions represented by four
domains (Positive climate, Negative
climate, Teacher sensitivity, and regard for
student perspectives) within the emotional
support dimension.
CLASS scores will be used to analyze the
data by domains using the High (6, 7), Mid
(3, 4, 5), and Low (1, 2) ranges as defined
by the tool.
3 Participants
who completed
the IPPSEC
survey.
Interview
Semi-structured Interview
Questions
RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
Each interview was recorded and
transcribed by the researcher.
Codes were used to identify specific SEL
strategies, emergent themes, common
practices, and patterns.
3 Participants
who were
observed based
on the CLASS
assessment
tool.

80
Validity and Reliability
The data was triangulated to ensure the accuracy and validity of the results. The interview
and observation data were compared and analyzed according to the research questions (Merriam,
2009). The researcher collected data in an authentic student-teaching setting to record the most
credible results. The data collection process was implemented consistently with detailed
protocols for qualitative validity (Cresswell, 2014).
Ethical Considerations
Appropriate approvals were given to collect data within the Child Development Center
Lab School. The participants were students who recently completed the practicum I course;
therefore, the study was completed after students enrolled in the course and before the students
enrolled in practicum II and were not currently taking classes with the researcher. Participants
were invited to participate as volunteers with no penalty for choosing not to participate or
removing themselves from the study. Their participation in the study did not impact their ability
to enroll in practicum II or their final grade from practicum I. The participants’ identities and
personal information were protected. Data was analyzed based on themes and composite stories.
Pseudonyms were used to represent individual participant responses.
The Role of the Researcher
The researcher is a college instructor, which may yield a sense of authority over
participants. The researcher may also be aware and familiar with aspects of each participant's
background and personal experiences that may contribute to factors or barriers that influence
their interactions and relationships with children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD. The
researcher was consistent with interview and observation protocols to eliminate potential bias
and encourage authentic self-reporting from each participant.

81
The IPPSEC survey was completed by the participants electronically without the
researcher present. During the observation, the researcher adhered to CLASS training protocols,
which called for distance and no interaction with the participant during the observation. While
interviewing, the researcher practiced a reflective process to stay cognizant of personal
perspectives and reactions to data.
Conclusion
This chapter details the methodology, and procedures facilitated to collect data for
understanding the social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies used by novice child development
teachers working with preschool children at risk for Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD). The
sequential data collection process began with the completion of the Inventory of Practices for
Promoting Children's Social-Emotional Competence (IPPSEC) survey, followed by classroom
observations using the CLASS Observation tool, and culminated in semi-structured interviews.
The initial population consisted of 12 students, with 10 agreeing to participate by
completing the demographic survey and the IPPSEC survey. Despite the small sample size,
attributed to various logistical challenges and personal commitments during the Winter
intersession, three participants completed the full study. These participants provided
comprehensive data through observations and interviews, offering deep insights into their SEL
practices and the dynamics of their interactions with at-risk preschool children.
Overall, this chapter highlights the importance of continued support and professional
development for student teachers to enhance their SEL practices. Future research should consider
larger sample sizes and extended observation periods to build on these findings and further
explore the complexities of SEL implementation in early childhood settings.

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Chapter Four: Data Analysis
This chapter presents a comprehensive analysis of the data collected from this study. As
mentioned in the preceding chapters, the purpose of this study was to explore classroom SEL
strategies, if any, used by child development student teachers working with children who
demonstrate risk factors for RAD. The study focused on identifying the factors and barriers that
impede the interactions and relationships between child development student teachers and
children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool classroom settings. This chapter
analyzes the data collected in response to the following research questions:
1. What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development
student teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for
RAD?
2. What factors influence the interactions and relationships between child development
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool
classroom settings?
3. What barriers may impede the interactions and relationships between child
development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?
Methodology
Description of the Sample
The study took place during a six-week Winter term with students who had recently
concluded 15 weeks of practicum I/student-teaching, at Sunny Side Community College (SSCC)
Child Development Center Lab School in Los Angeles, California. All participants met the
minimum requirements for the course. However, some participants exceeded the minimum

83
requirements and have experience parenting and working with children in various education
settings. Some were also preparing to enroll in Practicum II. The name of the community college
and each participant was given a pseudonym to secure their identity and confidentiality.
The targeted population of 12 community college students were invited to participate in
the study. The participants who expressed interest in participating in the study completed a
demographic survey which provided the information described in Table 4. The first phase of the
data collection process invited students to participate in the study by completing the Inventory of
Practices for Promoting Social Emotional Competence (IPPSEC) survey where they selfreported their skills and indicators reflective of social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies. All
surveys were collected within a two-week timeframe. Ten out of the initial population of 12
completed the survey. During the second phase, 10 survey respondents were invited to
participate in the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) observation process. Three
participants, Sheila, Sandra, and Helen, agreed to be observed during week four of the data
collection period. Each participant was observed on a different day and for two hours each. The
last phase included interviewing the same three participants who agreed to complete all
components of the study. Interviews took place during weeks five and six of the data collection
period.

84
Table 4
Participant Demographics and Research Participation
Participants Age Ethnicity
Education Income Employment Children
at home
ACEs
Summarytrauma in
childhood
Research
participation
Sheila
30-
39
African
American
Some
college, no
degree
Less
than
$25,000
Employed 0 Several
experiences
of trauma
Survey
Observation
Interview
Sandra
30-
39
African
American
Some
college, no
degree
Less
than
$25,000
Unemployed 1 A few
traumatic
experiences
Survey
Observation
Interview
Helen
21-
29 White
Bachelor Less
than
$25,000
Employed
Working with
Children
0 At least
one
traumatic
experience
Survey
Observation
Interview
Jennifer
21-
29
African
American
Some
college, no
degree
Less
than
$25,000
Employed 1 Several
experiences
of trauma
Survey
Crystal
30-
39 White
Some
college, no
degree
$25,000-
$50,000
Employed
Working with
Children
1 At least
one
traumatic
experience
Survey
Cinthia
30-
39
Mexican
American
Some
college, no
degree
Less
than
$25,000
Unemployed 1 Several
Trauma
experiences
Survey
Tameka
21-
29
African
American
Some
college, no
degree
Less
than
$25,000
Employed
Working with
Children
1 Several
experiences
of trauma
Survey
Angela
21-
29
African
American
Some
college, no
degree
Less
than
$25,000
Employed
Working with
Children
0 A few
traumatic
experiences
Survey
Shawneece
21-
29
African
American
Some
college, no
degree
Less
than
$25,000
Employed
Working with
Children
0 A few
traumatic
experiences
Survey
Denise
18-
20
Mexican
American
Some
college, no
degree
Less
than
$25,000
Unemployed 0 A few
traumatic
experiences
Survey
Participants were females under the age of 40. One participant was between the ages of
18-20, five participants were between ages 21-29, and four were between ages 30-39. Six
participants were African American, two White, and two Mexican American. All, except one
participant, reported their income to be less than $25,000. Five out of seven employed
participants worked with young children. One participant had a bachelor’s degree from another

85
country. As a result of the Adverse Childhood Experience (ACEs) quiz, all participants had at
least one traumatic experience during childhood.
Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) refers to potentially traumatic events that occur in
childhood (0-17 years) (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.; Felitti et al., 1998).
These experiences can have significant, lasting effects on health and well-being. Common
examples of ACEs include physical abuse, such as hitting, beating, or causing physical harm;
emotional abuse, which involves insults, humiliation, or psychological harm; and sexual abuse,
encompassing inappropriate sexual behavior or exposure (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, n.d.). Neglect is another category of ACEs, which can be physical (lack of necessary
physical care, such as food, shelter, and medical care) or emotional (lack of emotional support,
love, and nurturing).
Household challenges are also considered ACEs and include living with someone who
has an alcohol or drug problem, living with someone who has a mental health condition,
witnessing or experiencing domestic violence, experiencing the separation or divorce of parents,
and having a family member who is in jail or prison (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, n.d.; Felitti et al., 1998). ACEs are linked to a range of negative outcomes in
adulthood, including chronic health conditions, mental illness, substance abuse, and lower life
expectancy. The more ACEs a child experiences, the higher the risk for these adverse outcomes
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.; Felitti et al., 1998).
The participants’ demographics reflect the SSCC community. During the time of the
study, the college profile reported a total of 7,787 students, 40.6% African American, 69.5%
female, 40.3% Hispanic, and 2% White. There were 25.4% of students under the age of 20,
43.2% between the ages of 21-29, and 16.2% between ages 35-39. Additionally, the college had

86
20% of students enrolled in special programs with eligibility related to socioeconomic status and
other special criteria. The adult student demographics reflect that of the children and their
families enrolled in the Community College’s Child Development Center Lab School.
Description of the Sample
Shiela, Sandra, and Helen were the three participants to complete all three phases of this
study including the IPPSEC Survey, CLASS Observation, and Semi-structured Interview. One
common characteristic for all three participants is that they each completed Practicum I, studentteaching, the core Child Development courses, and one college transfer level English course,
totaling 22 units of college credit. The self-reported demographic survey, including an Adverse
Childhood Experience (ACE) summary provides additional information on each of the
participants
Shelia. Shiela is an African American female between the ages of 30-39. At the time of
the study, she had yet to earn a college degree. She was employed but not in the field of early
childhood education/child development. Her earnings were $25,000 or less and she had no
children in her home. Her ACEs summary revealed several experiences of trauma during her
childhood. For this analysis, several represent a score of four or above out of 10.
Sandra. Sandra is an African American female between the ages of 30-39. At the time of
the study, she had yet to earn a college degree. She was unemployed with one child who has
special needs at home. Sandra’s income was less than $25,000. Her ACEs summary revealed she
had a few adverse childhood experiences. For this analysis, a few represent a score of 2-3 out of
10.
Helen. Helen identifies as a White American female between the ages of 21-29. At the
time of the research study, she had an earned bachelor’s degree from another country. She was

87
employed as an early childhood teacher assistant making less than $25,000 a year. Helen had no
children at home. Her ACEs summary revealed she had at least one traumatic experience during
early childhood.
Data Collection
A mixed method design methodology was used to facilitate this research study. The data
in this section comprises of quantitative and qualitative data analyzed and organized according to
the research questions and data collection tools used: IPPSEC survey, CLASS observation, and
interview. Quantitative data was collected using the survey to address research question 1.
Quantitative data was also collected from observations using the observation tool to respond to
research question one. Qualitative data was collected through interviews from participants who
completed the survey and observation. Some qualitative evidence was utilized from the
observations as well. The interview responses were coded and narrowed to 11 themes that
represented the objectives of this study. The interview responses addressed research questions
one, two, and three.
Survey. The IPPSEC allowed participants to describe skills and indicators reflective of
practices that promote social-emotional learning (SEL) in young children. The inventory
facilitated self-reflection on their skills in four specific areas: Building Positive Relationships,
Designing Supportive Environments, Social-Emotional Teaching Strategies, and Individualized
Intensive Interventions. Participants assessed their use of these skills by rating them as
consistent, occasional, or seldom. Each section included specific behavior indicators to help
users identify skills that correspond to each category, with evidence or observations required to
support assessment scores of 1, 2, or 3.

88
Participants completed the Social-Emotional Teaching Strategies section, self-reporting
behaviors on indicators #12-23 electronically. This section and its indicators addressed research
question (1): What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development
student teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD?
Participants were provided with recommendations for completing the sections promptly and
effectively. The indicators were not explained to the participants, which required them to have a
basic understanding of SEL-related terminology. The survey results were analyzed according to
the percentage of behavior indicators representing SEL strategies were implemented from each
of the four areas identified in the inventory.
Observations. Respondents who completed the survey were invited to participate in the
observation process. The researcher used the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS)
tool to observe the quality of emotional support provided by student teachers while working with
preschool children. These observations added variation to the data collection, providing an
unbiased, structured evaluation of the implementation of SEL strategies in real-time classroom
settings. The observations served as a verification tool for the self-reported IPPSEC survey data,
supporting whether SEL strategies were indeed practiced. They highlighted variations in student
activities, child experiences, and daily routines, offering context-specific insights into the
dynamics of teacher-child interactions.
The researcher observed participants within a 2–4-week period following the completion
of the Practicum I course. Each observation was scheduled for two hours, including four 20-
minute cycles of observation and four 10-minute cycles of coding, as defined by the CLASS
observer training module. Arrival and end times varied for each participant, resulting in different
observed activities, experiences, and routines.

89
Following the CLASS observation, participants were invited to participate in semistructured interviews. The results of each observation informed the guided interview process
uniquely with each participant.
Semi-structured Interviews. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather
detailed insights into the student teachers' experiences, perceptions, and reflections on providing
emotional support and implementing SEL strategies. The interviews followed a structured
protocol to ensure consistency across participants and were held in a familiar, private setting on
the college campus to encourage candid responses. The protocol included an introduction and
overview of the study, allowing participants to ask questions about the interview questions, the
research study, and their role in the process. Confidentiality guidelines and respondent consent
were also covered.
The interview questions encouraged respondents to describe how they provided
emotional support to children while implementing SEL strategies. These interviews provided
rich qualitative data on specific challenges, influencing factors, and barriers faced by student
teachers that might not be observable during classroom interactions. They enabled the
identification of common themes and patterns related to SEL implementation, offering a deeper
understanding of the strategies' impact and the contextual factors affecting their use.
Data Analysis
This data analysis focuses on examining the results from the Inventory of Practices for
Promoting Children's Social-Emotional Competence (IPPSEC) survey, the Classroom
Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) observations, and the semi-structured interviews. The
triangulation of these data sources provides a comprehensive understanding of the social-

90
emotional learning (SEL) strategies implemented by child development student teachers working
with preschool children at risk for Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD).
Phase one - IPPSEC Survey. The IPPSEC Survey was used to address Research
Question (1) What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development
student teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD?
Participants were requested to respond to item numbers 12 – 23 of the IPPSEC survey, focused
on social-emotional strategies, one of the twelve dimensions in the survey as reflected in table 5.
The measurement weight each behavior indicator carries differs based on the three measurement
scales of implementation, consistently (3), occasionally (2), or seldom (1), selected by each
participant. Table 5 aligns SEL teaching strategies 12-23 with the three main categories of
social-emotional development: emotional knowledge, emotional expressiveness, and emotional
regulation.
Table 5
Social-Emotional Teaching Strategies Dimensions organized by Social-Emotional Development
Categories
Emotional Knowledge Emotional Expressiveness Emotional Regulation
12. Interacts with children to
develop their self-esteem
13. Shows sensitivity to individual
children's needs
14. Encourages autonomy
16. Utilizes effective
environmental arrangements to
encourage social
interactions
15. Capitalizes on the presence of
typically developing peers
17. Uses prompting and reinforcement
of interactions effectively
18. Provides instruction to aid
in the development of social
skills
20. Explores the nature of feelings and
the appropriate ways they can be
expressed
21. Models appropriate expressions
and labeling of their own emotions and
self-regulation throughout the day
19. Promotes identification and
labeling of emotions in self and
others
21. Models appropriate expressions
and labeling of their own emotions and
self-regulation throughout the day
22. Creates a planned approach for
problem-solving processes within the
classroom
23. Promotes children's individualized
emotional regulation that will enhance
positive social interactions within the
classroom

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The SEL strategies associated with emotional knowledge support children’s ability to
label and understand emotions (19), build self-esteem (12), and enhance social interactions and
skills (16)(18). Emotional expressiveness is developed when children are encouraged to explore
their feelings (20) through interactions with their peers (13)(15) and through adult modeling (21)
and support. For emotional regulation, autonomy is encouraged (14). Children are supported
through prompting and modeling appropriate emotional labeling and expressions (17) (21) to
problem-solve (22) and co-regulate (23) with others. Aligning the survey SEL strategies with the
social-emotional categories helps identify how participants rate their skills and implementation
of strategies that support each of the categories based on the basic social-emotional development
content students were exposed to in the prerequisite core Child Development courses.
Table 6 provides a detailed analysis of the behavior indicators self-reported by the
participants that reflect SEL strategies they believe they implement consistently, occasionally,
and seldom. The table also reveals the percentage of SEL behavior indicators targeted for
training.

92
Table 6
Percentage of Participants who Consistently Implement SEL Strategies Organized by SocialEmotional Development Categories
Category of
Social
Emotional
Development
IPPSEC Social Emotional
Teaching Strategies
Consistently Occasionally Seldom
Target for
Training
Yes No
Emotional
Knowledge 12. Interacts with children
to develop their self-esteem
72% 22% 6% 10% 28%
16. Utilizes effective
environmental arrangements
to encourage social
interactions
55% 32% 13% 13% 27%
18. Provides instruction to
aid in the development of
social skills
46% 43% 11% 33% 10%
19. Promotes identification
and labeling of emotions in
self and others
65% 18% 17% 3% 26%
Average Percentage % 60% 21% 12% 15% 23%
Emotional
Expressiveness 13. Shows sensitivity to
individual children's needs
63% 27% 10% 20% 27%
15. Capitalizes on the
presence of typically
developing peers
58% 24% 18% 24% 16%
20. Explores the nature of
feelings and the appropriate
ways they can be expressed
63% 30% 7% 10% 30%
Average Percentage % 61% 27% 12% 18% 24%
Emotional
Regulation 14. Encourages autonomy 70% 20% 10% 27% 18%
17. Uses prompting and
reinforcement of
interactions effectively
60% 33% 7% 13% 23%
21. Models appropriate
expressions and labeling of
their 29%own emotions and
32%self-regulation
throughout the course of the
day
60% 20% 20% 25% 25%
22. Creates a planned
approach for problem
solving processes within the
classroom
61% 29% 10% 22% 20%
23. Promotes children's
individualized emotional
regulation that will enhance
positive social interactions
within the classroom
45% 32% 22% 28% 25%
Average Percentage (%) 59% 27% 14% 19% 22%

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In Table 6, the scale of measurement scores reveals that the teaching strategies supporting
Emotional Expressiveness have the highest average consistency at 61%, followed closely by
Emotional Knowledge at 60% and Emotional Regulation at 59%. Participants reporting
occasional implementation of SEL behavior indicators, both Emotional Regulation and
Emotional Expressiveness have an average of 27%, with Emotional Knowledge slightly lower at
21%. When it comes to seldom implemented strategies, Emotional Knowledge and Emotional
Expressiveness are tied with the lowest percentages at 12%, while Emotional Regulation is
slightly higher at 14%. Regarding the target for training, Emotional Knowledge has the lowest
average at 15%, with Emotional Regulation at 19% and Emotional Expressiveness at 18%.
The data suggests that while Emotional Knowledge and Emotional Expressiveness
strategies are more consistently implemented compared to Emotional Regulation. There are
notable gaps that could benefit from targeted training, particularly in areas of emotional
regulation and emotional expression. Seldom implementation is low across all categories,
indicating overall good self-report of implementing social-emotional teaching strategies.
Emotional Regulation shows the need for more consistent implementation and a focused
approach on individualized emotional support strategies.
Phase two - CLASS Observation. The CLASS observation was used to address research
questions:
(1) What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development
student teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for
RAD?

94
(2) What factors influence the interactions and relationships between child development
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool
classroom settings?
(3) What barriers may impede the interactions and relationships between child
development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?
The CLASS observation data added depth to the researcher’s understanding of the survey
results which were self-reported by the participants. The survey results reflect strategies the
participants claim to demonstrate consistently (3), occasionally (2), or seldom (1). The CLASS
observation results reflect behaviors and strategies the researcher observed that may or may not
have substantiated the participants IPPSEC survey report. The participants’ observation scores
are reflected in Table 7 and categorized according to Emotional Knowledge, Emotional
Expressiveness, and Emotional Regulation.

95
Table 7
Participant Scores on CLASS Observation Emotional Support Domain
Emotional Support Domain
Scores for Three Participants
Observation Scores
CLASS Dimensions and
Indicators
Low
(1,2)
Mid
(3,4,5)
High
(6,7)
Emotional
Knowledge
Emotional
Expressiveness
Positive Climate • Relationships
• Positive affect
• Positive communication
• Respect
0 participants 3 participants
Sheila
Sandra
Helen
0 participants
Negative Climate
(Low score for NC = minimal or no use
of behaviors that represent negative
indicators)
• Negative affect
• Punitive control
• Sarcasm/disrespect
• Severe negativity
3 participants
Sheila
Sandra
Helen
0 participants 0 participants
Emotional
Regulation
Teacher Sensitivity • Awareness
• Responsiveness
• Addresses problems
• Student comfort
0 participants 3 participants
Sheila
Sandra
Helen
0 participants
Regard for Student
Perspective • Flexibility and student focus
• Support for autonomy and
leadership
• Student expression
• Restriction of movement
1 participant
Sandra
2 participants
Sheila
Helen
0 participants
When looking at the observation data according to the three categories of social
emotional development, Positive Climate and Negative Climate both support Emotional
Expressiveness. Teacher Sensitivity and Regard for Student Perspective support Emotional
Regulation. It would be necessary for teachers to have a basic understanding and competency of

96
Emotional Knowledge to model emotional expressiveness and support emotional regulation
when working with young children in a preschool setting. Therefore, Emotional Knowledge is
not assessed in the CLASS observation. The emotional support teacher-child interactions are the
focus.
The key findings from the CLASS observation for the Emotional Support Domain
revealed participants displayed high levels of emotional support, characterized by positive
climate, teacher sensitivity, and regard for student perspectives. The average scores in these
dimensions indicated a strong ability to create emotionally supportive environments.
Observations also revealed effective classroom organization strategies, although there was
variability in behavior management techniques. Lastly there was a noticeable difference in the
quality of instructional support, with some participants demonstrating more effective use of
language modeling and feedback loops than others.
Phase three – Semi-structured Interviews. The interviews were designed to address
research questions:
(1) What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development
student teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for
RAD?
(2) What factors influence the interactions and relationships between child development
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool
classroom settings?
(3) What barriers may impede the interactions and relationships between child
development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?

97
The interview was designed to reveal how participants demonstrate what they know and
how they implement the SEL strategies for promoting SED in early childhood. The interview
questions did not emphasize the student-teacher’s self-efficacy of social emotional knowledge
but instead focused on their utilization of SEL strategies. Some common topics that resulted
from the interview were perceptions of SEL implementation, challenges and barriers, impact of
training, and contextual factors.
Perceptions of SEL Implementation. Participants expressed a strong belief in the
importance of SEL and described various strategies they used to support children's emotional
development.
Challenges and Barriers. Common challenges include time constraints, lack of
resources, and varying levels of support from the educational institution. Participants also
highlighted the difficulties in balancing academic and emotional support needs.
Impact of Training. Student teachers noted that their training in SEL provided a strong
foundation but emphasized the need for ongoing professional development and mentorship to
refine their skills.
Contextual Factors. The interviews revealed that the classroom environment, individual
child needs, and external factors such as family dynamics significantly influenced the
effectiveness of SEL strategies.
The analysis of the interview data was conducted using NVivo software; a qualitative
software analysis developed by QSR international. The analysis followed a 4-step process as
indicated in Figure 1 diagram below.

98
Figure 1: Analysis Stage Diagram
Stage 1: Reading and Interpretation of Text
A word cloud diagram was used to depict the most used words and phrases in the data.
This is mainly to ascertain if the most used words are in alignment with the research objectives.
The most used words by the respondents include children, teachers, child, and understand as
shown in the world cloud diagram, Figure 2.
Reading and
giving
Interpretation
to Text
Coding of Text
Theme
Classification
Result
Presentation

99
Figure 2: Word Cloud Diagram
Stage 2: Coding of text
In this phase, the qualitative data was carefully read, and meaning was ascribed to the
phrases in the form of codes using NVivo. The data was read and studied repeatedly. The initial
coding revealed the presence of over 70 codes as indicated in the appendix, this was later
reduced and codes that are irrelevant to the research objectives were removed.
Stage 3: Theme Classification
The codes were grouped concerning the existing relationship between them to form
themes as identified in Figure 3 and further explained in this chapter. The analysis reveals a total
of 11 themes. As earlier indicated, the coding was done with NVivo. The themes are further
highlighted in the mind maps, figures 4-7, in the appendix.

100
Figure 3: Thematic Diagram Themes
State of relationship with children
Communication strategy
Strategies for showing affection
Strategies for showing respect
Classroom anger management
Establishing Control
Helping the children during emotional problems
Level of flexibility
Strategies used for encouraging classroom conversations
Strategies used for acquiring children perspective
Factors that facilitate student engagement

101
Summary of Themes.
State of relationship with the children. All 3 participants highlighted that they have a close
and cordial relationship with the children under them, they highlighted that the children are
emotionally connected to them. The children feel comfortable around them, and the children know
they have the freedom to display their emotions or perspective on any activity or issue.
Furthermore, the teachers highlighted that the children have grown to understand the body
language and facial expressions of their teachers.
Participants highlighted that they understand the importance of communication in the
classroom, hence, they encourage the children to communicate, and they also pay attention
whenever a child is communicating with them. They give the children a sense of belonging and
they allow them to express themselves.
Communication strategy. The participants revealed that they use the following strategies
when communicating with the children:
• Attaching reasons to instructions. Participants explained that it is not enough to tell a child
to start or stop an act, the reason(s) behind such instruction must be explained to the child.
This has proven to be a highly effective communication tool.
• Body language and facial expression for excellent communication
• Eye contact: Maintaining eye contact with the children improves the quality of
communication.
• Reproving with calmness and love
• Highly energetic tones promote children's interest: The participant revealed that having a
high and energetic tone increases the interest of the children in classroom activities.

102
Strategies for showing affection. Participants revealed that they display physical
affection to the children through hugs, high fives, and sitting the children on their laps. One of
the participants highlighted that she is mindful of the level of physical affection because some of
the children have been exposed to abuse through such endeavors. Participants also show verbal
affection to the children; they do this by complimenting their appearance and contribution in the
classroom.
Strategies for showing respect. A participant expressed that they teach and show respect
to children by modeling characteristics of respect when communicating with their colleagues or
any of the children. The children learn from this example, and they show respect to their teachers
and peers in the classroom. Teachers also show respect to the children through non-dismissal of
the children’s feelings whenever they share them, by listening and paying attention to the
children, and by giving the children the freedom and opportunity to express themselves
Classroom Anger Management. Two of the participants revealed that they have not been
angered by any of the children, they stressed that children are innocent creatures that need
guidance; therefore, their attitudes should never lead teachers to anger. One of the participants
experienced one episode of anger, she dealt with it by excusing herself from the classroom until
the anger subsided.
A participant also believes that some of the children have anger issues where they display a
disproportionate level of violence towards their peers. The participant revealed that they manage
the children’s behavior by identifying the child’s anger trigger and preventing it from occurring
and showing children affection when they are angry.
Establishing Control. The participants highlighted that they established control in the
classroom through effective communication and by excluding children with non-social behaviors

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during fun activities. They believe that effective communication with the right tone, facial
expression, and body language is enough to establish control in the classroom.
Helping the children during emotional problems. Participants highlighted that the first
step they take to help children with an emotional problem is to understand the problem, and this
can be achieved through effective communication with the child. Afterward, they counsel the
child on the best approach to overcome the emotional distress and offer the child physical
affection such as hugging.
Level of Flexibility in the Classroom. The participants highlighted that they are highly
flexible. They expressed that the activities of the classroom are largely dependent on the interest
of the children. They explained forcing the children to participate in an activity will become a
challenge in most situations.
Strategies used for encouraging classroom conversations. Participants shared the most
effective tool that can be used to encourage communication amongst the children is storytelling,
they explained that giving the children the liberty to develop stories and characters will provoke
more communication. Furthermore, students will be advised to make eye contact during a
conversation with one another.
Strategies used for acquiring children’s perspective. Participants described behaviors that
help solicit children’s perspective as follows:
• Effective communication with children to understand their views.
• Complimenting the appearance and contribution of the children, this will give them the
confidence to share their views and emotions with the teacher.
• Allowing them to explore the materials of any activity.

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Factors that facilitate student engagement. Participants highlighted that making funny
faces, showing love for children, and providing motherly care are inherent attributes that they
possess that positively affect student engagement.
Stage 4: Presentation of the data
In addition to stages 1-3 of the NVivo qualitative analysis and Figures 4-7 mind maps
located in the appendix, the presentation of data begins with the IPPSEC survey results for the
three participants who completed all phases of the research study and continues with the CLASS
observation and interview results. Additionally, all findings are analyzed, compared, and aligned
with the research questions, the three categories of social-emotional development: Emotional
Knowledge, Emotional Expressiveness, and Emotional Regulations, and the 11 themes identified
during the study.
Results and Findings of Three Participants
The research findings are analyzed and organized by research questions, three phases of
the study, and by themes for each participant. Each participant’s data was compared to their
responses from each phase of the study for validity.
Alignment with Research Questions
Sheila.
Research Question 1. What specific SEL strategies are child development student
teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD?
Sheila employs structured routines and predictable interactions to help children
feel secure. She uses visual schedules and consistent positive reinforcement to manage
behaviors. Sheila also focuses on maintaining a calm and consistent demeanor in the classroom.
These strategies help children understand what to expect and reduce anxiety.

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Research Question 2. What factors influence the interactions and relationships between
child development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?
Sheila’s ability to maintain a calm and consistent demeanor significantly influences her
interactions. Children respond well to her predictable approach, which fosters a sense of security.
Research Question 3. What barriers impede the interactions and relationships between
child development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?
Sheila encounters barriers when dealing with emotional outbursts. While her calm demeanor
helps, she requires additional strategies to manage and de-escalate these situations effectively.
Sandra.
Research Question 1. What specific SEL strategies are child development student
teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD?
Sandra emphasizes one-on-one interactions and personalized attention to engage children. She
uses social stories tailored to individual children’s experiences and needs. Sandra creates a
supportive and understanding environment to help children feel safe, understood, and valued.
Research Question 2. What factors influence the interactions and relationships between
child development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?
The quality of Sandra’s one-on-one time with children is crucial. Her personalized engagement
helps children feel secure and more willing to interact.

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Research Question 3. What barriers impede the interactions and relationships between
child development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?
Sandra faces challenges with children’s anxiety in group settings. She needs to balance
individualized attention with integrating children into group activities without overwhelming
them.
Helen.
Research Question 1. What specific SEL strategies are child development student
teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD?
Helen’s strategies include active engagement, clear boundaries, immediate feedback, and
movement. These methods help children with impulsive behaviors stay focused and engaged.
Helen uses interactive activities and hands-on learning to keep children engaged.
Research Question 2. What factors influence the interactions and relationships between
child development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?
Helen’s dynamic and interactive teaching methods significantly influence her interactions. Her
approach helps channel children’s energy constructively and keeps them engaged.
Research Question 3. What barriers impede the interactions and relationships between
child development student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in
preschool classroom settings?
Helen’s main barrier is managing impulsivity and classroom disruptions. She needs effective
strategies to maintain a balance between active engagement and classroom order.

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The data demonstrates the importance of individualized strategies in SEL, highlighting
that each student-teacher’s approach must be tailored to the specific needs of the children they
work with. Additionally, the factors influencing interactions and the barriers encountered reveal
the need for specialized training and resources to address the diverse challenges associated with
children demonstrating risk factors for RAD.
IPPSEC Survey Analysis
The IPPSEC survey results were analyzed to identify the frequency and types of SEL
strategies utilized by student teachers working with preschool children at risk for RAD.
Participants self-assessed their skills using the behavior indicators for Social-Emotional
Teaching Strategies. They rated themselves according to the frequency of implementation
reflecting seldom, occasionally, and consistently as indicated in Table 8.

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Table 8
Percentage of Participants, Sheila, Sandra, and Helen’s Implementation of SEL Strategies
Organized by Social-Emotional Development Categories
Participant
Category of
Social
Emotional
Development
IPPSEC
Social
Emotional
Teaching
Strategies
Consistently Occasionally Seldom
Target for
Training
Yes No
Sheila Emotional
Knowledge
12. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
16. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
18. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
19. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Average Percentage % 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Emotional
Expressiveness
13. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
15. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
20. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Average Percentage % 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Emotional
Regulation
14. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
17. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
21. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
22. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
23. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Average Percentage % 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Participant
Category of
Social
Emotional
Development
IPPSEC
Social
Emotional
Teaching
Strategies
Consistently Occasionally Seldom
Target for
Training
Yes No
Sandra Emotional
Knowledge 12. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
16. 0% 50% 50% 0% 0%
18. 57% 43%% 0% 0% 0%
19. 50% 50% 0% 0% 0%
Average Percentage % 52% 36% 12% 0% 0%
Emotional
Expressiveness 13. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
15. 50% 25% 25% 0% 0%
20. 33% 67% 0% 0% 0%
Average Percentage % 61% 31% 8% 0% 0%
Emotional
Regulation
14. 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
17. 67% 33% 0% 0% 0%
21. 50% 50% 0% 0% 0%
22. 80% 20% 0% 0% 0%
23. 75% 25% 0% 0% 0%
Average Percentage (%) 74% 26% 0% 0% 0%

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Participant
Category of
Social
Emotional
Development
IPPSEC
Social
Emotional
Teaching
Strategies
Consistently Occasionally Seldom
Target for
Training
Yes No
Helen Emotional
Knowledge 12. 20% 60% 20% 20% 0%
16. 50% 25% 25% 0% 0%
18. 57% 14% 29% 14% 0%
19. 0% 50% 50% 25% 0%
Average Percentage % 32% 37% 31% 15% 0%
Emotional
Expressiveness
13. 33% 0% 67% 66% 0%
15. 0% 50% 50% 50% 0%
20. 0% 33% 67% 33% 0%
Average Percentage % 11% 28% 61% 50% 0%
Emotional
Regulation
14. 50% 25% 25% 25% 0%
17. 33% 67% 0% 0% 0%
21. 0% 0% 100% 100% 0%
22. 0% 60% 40% 40% 0%
23. 0% 50% 50% 25% 0%
Average Percentage (%) 17% 40% 43% 38% 0%

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The data was categorized according to Emotional Knowledge, Emotional Expressiveness,
and Emotional Regulation based on the participants’ responses to indicators #12-23. Descriptive
statistics were used to summarize the frequency of each response category for participants
Sheila, Sandra, and Helen.
Sheila. Sheila demonstrates consistent implementation of SES strategies across all
categories of social-emotional teaching strategies. She consistently implements strategies related
to Emotional Knowledge, Emotional Expressiveness, and Emotional Regulation, achieving a
100% consistency rate in all three areas. There is no occasional or seldom implementation in her
approach, and she does not require any targeted training. This indicates that Sheila believes she
is highly effective and proficient in her social-emotional teaching practices. Sheila did not
identify a need for targeted training.
Sandra. Sandra shows a mixed performance across the categories. In Emotional
Knowledge, she consistently implements 52% of the strategies, occasionally 36%, and seldom
12%. This suggests that while she frequently engages in effective practices, there is still room for
improvement. In Emotional Expressiveness, Sandra achieves a 61% consistency rate, with 31%
occasional and 8% seldom implementation, indicating a relatively strong performance with some
variability. Sandra excels in Emotional Regulation, with a 74% consistency rate and 26%
occasional implementation, showing she is effective in this area but can still benefit from further
development. Sandra does not identify targeted training in any category, suggesting that current
practices are adequate. However, her results indicate her skills can be enhanced for greater
consistency.

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Helen. Helen's performance indicates significant challenges in implementing socialemotional teaching strategies. In Emotional Knowledge, she consistently implements only 32%
of the strategies, occasionally 37%, and seldom 31%. This reflects considerable inconsistency
and a need for improvement. Emotional Expressiveness is her lowest scores, with only 11%
consistency, 28% occasional, and a high 61% seldom implementation rate. Helen identified the
need for substantial support and training in this area, with 50% targeted for training.
In Emotional Regulation, Helen consistently implements 17% of the strategies, occasionally
40%, and seldom 43%, indicating significant difficulties in this domain as well. With 38%
behavior indicators targeted for training, Helen’s self-report suggests she needs focused
professional development to enhance her effectiveness.
CLASS Observation Analysis
The CLASS observation data provided an objective assessment of the quality of
emotional support provided by student teachers. Each participant was observed for a total of two
hours, broken into four 20-minute observation cycles with corresponding coding cycles focusing
on four components of the observation tool: Positive Climate, Negative Climate, Teacher
Sensitivity and Regard for Student Perspective. Details of each participants’ observation results
with quotes can be reviewed in Appendix M.
Summary of Observation Scores.
Positive Climate. All three participants (Sheila, Sandra, Helen) scored in the midrange for Positive Climate, indicating a consistent application of positive relationship-building,
affect, communication, and respect.
Negative Climate. All three participants scored low for Negative Climate, showing
minimal or no use of negative behaviors.

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Teacher Sensitivity. All three participants scored in the mid-range for Teacher
Sensitivity, indicating awareness, responsiveness, problem-solving, and student comfort.
Regard for Student Perspective. Sheila and Helen scored in the mid-range for Regard for
Student Perspective, indicating strong flexibility, support for autonomy, and encouragement of
student expression. Sandra scored in the low range, indicating less emphasis on flexibility and
student focus compared to Sheila and Helen.
Semi-Structured Interview Analysis
The semi-structured interviews were transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis.
This qualitative approach allowed for the identification of recurring themes and patterns related
to the implementation of SEL strategies and the challenges faced by the participants. Listed
below are a summary of the strategies identified by each participant. Strategies with more details,
including quotes, can be reviewed in Appendix L.
Sheila. Sheila shared several social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies in the interview,
emphasizing the importance of emotional connections, positive communication, and respect for
cultural differences.
Sandra. Sandra shared several social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies during the
interview, focusing on emotional connections, communication, respect, and individualized
support for children.
Helen. Helen shared several social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies during her
interview, emphasizing emotional connections, communication, respect, and individualized
support for children.
Summary of Three Phases of Data Aligned with Themes
Sheila.

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Survey Results. Shiela reported consistent implementation of several SEL strategies.
She scored 70% on interacting with children to develop their self-esteem and promoting the
identification and labeling of emotions in self and others. Additionally, she scored 60% on
utilizing effective environmental arrangements to encourage social interactions and 50% on
providing instruction to aid in the development of social skills.
Observation Results. Shiela scored at the mid-level (3, 4, or 5) for both Positive Climate
and Teacher Sensitivity, indicating moderate competence in Emotional Expressiveness and
Emotional Regulation. Her score in Negative Climate was low (1 or 2), which is positive as it
indicates minimal or no use of behaviors that promote a negative climate. However, her score in
Regard for Student Perspective was mid-level, suggesting some ability to support children's
autonomy and leadership but room for improvement.
Interview Insights. Shiela highlighted the importance of understanding the children's
emotions and fostering a positive relationship. She mentioned, "I think we have a good
connection. They know like what my faces mean, I know what their faces mean. So, I think we
have a great connection."
Alignment with Themes.
State of Relationship with Children. Shiela's strong connection with the children aligns
with the first theme, emphasizing her ability to understand and respond to their emotions
effectively.
Communication Strategy. Her approach to explaining instructions and comforting upset
children demonstrates her use of effective communication strategies.
Strategies for Showing Respect. Shiela’s method of explaining instructions shows respect
for the children’s understanding.

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Helping Children During Emotional Problems. Her approach to comforting children
aligns with strategies for addressing children's emotional needs.
Sandra.
Survey Results. Sandra also reported consistent implementation of SEL strategies,
scoring 70% on developing children's self-esteem and labeling emotions. She scored 60% on
showing sensitivity to individual children's needs and exploring the nature of feelings. For
emotional regulation, she reported 60% confidence in encouraging autonomy and creating a
planned approach for problem-solving within the classroom.
Observation Results. Sandra scored mid-level (3, 4, or 5) for Positive Climate and
Teacher Sensitivity. Like Shiela, her Negative Climate score was low (1 or 2). However, Sandra
scored low (1 or 2) in Regard for Student Perspective, indicating a need for improvement in
supporting children's autonomy and expression.
Interview Insights. Sandra expressed a deep emotional connection with the children,
emphasizing her role beyond just a teacher. She stated, "I crossed that line between teacher and
mother. Every child that comes in here is my child until they go home."
Alignment with Themes.
State of Relationship with Children. Sandra’s emotional connection with the children
highlights the importance of building strong relationships.
Communication Strategy. Her detailed instructions and calm demeanor align with
effective communication strategies.
Strategies for Showing Respect. Sandra’s practice of explaining instructions to children
shows respect for their understanding.

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Classroom Anger Management. Her strategy to manage frustration by stepping outside
aligns with managing negative emotions in the classroom.
Helen.
Survey Results. Helen reported consistent implementation of SEL strategies, with a 70%
score on interacting with children to build self-esteem and promoting the labeling of emotions.
She scored 60% on utilizing effective environmental arrangements and modeling appropriate
expressions of emotions.
Observation Results. Helen scored mid-level (3, 4, or 5) for Positive Climate and
Teacher Sensitivity, reflecting her competence in Emotional Expressiveness and Emotional
Regulation. Her Negative Climate score was low (1 or 2), indicating minimal negative behaviors.
Helen scored mid-level for Regard for Student Perspective, similar to Shiela, showing moderate
support for children's autonomy and expression.
Interview Insights. Helen emphasized the importance of flexibility and following the
children's interests in the classroom. She shared, "I let the children lead the activities based on
their interests. It keeps them more engaged and willing to participate."
Alignment with Themes:
State of Relationship with Children. Helen’s flexibility in following children’s interests
demonstrates a strong relationship based on mutual respect.
Communication Strategy. Her clear and calm communication strategies align with
effective classroom interactions.
Strategies for Showing Respect. By praising the children’s efforts and listening to their
ideas, Helen shows respect for their contributions.

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Level of Flexibility in the Classroom. Helen’s flexible approach aligns with the theme of
adapting to children’s interests and needs.
Summary Of Findings
Each participant demonstrated specific strengths and areas for improvement in their
implementation of SEL strategies. Shiela consistently focused on building self-esteem and
labeling emotions, showing moderate to low competence in Emotional Expressiveness and
Emotional Regulation. Her strategies align with themes related to building relationships,
effective communication, and respect. Sandra emphasized emotional connections and autonomy
but needed improvement in supporting children's perspectives. Her insights align with themes
related to relationship building, communication, respect, and anger management. While Helen
highlighted the importance of flexibility and following children's interests, demonstrating
moderate competence in Emotional Expressiveness and Emotional Regulation. Her approaches
align with themes related to relationship building, communication, respect, and classroom
flexibility.
Implications for Supporting Children at Risk for RAD
The ability of participants to implement SEL strategies that best support working with
children at risk for RAD is crucial. Effective SEL strategies can help children with RAD develop
better emotional regulation, social skills, and secure attachments with caregivers and teachers.
Sheila
Shiela's focus on building self-esteem and labeling emotions provides a strong foundation for
emotional knowledge, which is essential for children with RAD to understand and express their
emotions appropriately.
Sandra

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Sandra's emphasis on emotional connections and autonomy helps children with RAD feel
valued and understood, fostering a secure environment where they can develop trust and
attachment.
Helen
Helen's flexibility and encouragement of children's interests promote a responsive and
adaptive learning environment, crucial for children with RAD who may struggle with rigid
routines and expectations.
The insights from their interviews reveal their commitment to fostering positive
relationships and supporting children's social-emotional development through various strategies.
Their individual scores and interview responses provide an understanding of their unique
approaches and challenges in implementing SEL strategies in the classroom. This information
highlights the importance of continuous training and reflection for educators working with
children at risk for RAD to enhance their confidence and competence in implementing effective
SEL strategies.
Possible Reasons for Decreased Percentages of Emotional Expressiveness and Emotional
Regulation
The specific demographics of Shiela, Sandra, and Helen may contribute to the decreased
confidence in addressing emotional expressiveness and emotional regulation. These
demographics include factors such as their educational background, income level, employment
status, and personal experiences with trauma.
Educational Background
Shiela and Sandra have "some college, no degree," which may indicate a lack of formal
training in advanced SEL strategies related to Emotional Expressiveness and Emotional

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Regulation. Helen has a bachelor's degree, but from another country, which might imply
differences in educational standards and training in SEL strategies (Darling-Hammond et al.,
2005). Limited education can affect teachers’ confidence in implementing complex emotional
regulation strategies.
Income Level
All three participants reported earning less than $25,000 annually. Financial stress can
impact teachers' mental health and emotional availability, making it more challenging to focus
on and implement emotional expressiveness and regulation strategies effectively (Jeon et al.,
2018). Low income may also limit access to professional development opportunities that
enhance SEL competencies.
Employment Status
Shiela and Helen are employed, while Sandra is unemployed. Employment status can
affect confidence and stress levels; employed teachers may have better access to resources and
support systems compared to unemployed peers. However, those working outside the early
childhood education field, like Shiela, may not practice SEL strategies regularly, affecting
confidence (Hamre & Pianta, 2004).
Experience with Trauma
All participants have experienced trauma in their childhood, as indicated by their ACE
scores. Trauma can affect emotional regulation and stress management in adults, impacting their
ability to teach these skills effectively to children (Anda et al., 2006). Teachers with high ACE
scores may have difficulty managing their own emotions, making it harder to model and teach
emotional regulation (Jennings, 2011). Sheila’s ACE score revealed several experiences of

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trauma during her childhood which could explain her need to remain calm in situations related to
children’s behavior.
Cultural Factors
Shiela and Sandra are African American, and Helen is White. Cultural differences can
influence how emotions are expressed and regulated. African American teachers might face
additional stressors related to racial discrimination and bias, which can impact their emotional
well-being and teaching practices (Mendenhall et al., 2013). Cultural norms around emotional
expression might also differ, affecting how teachers implement these strategies in the classroom
(Tsai, 2007).
Conclusion
The analysis of the IPPSEC survey, CLASS observations, and semi-structured interviews
revealed that while student teachers consistently implemented various SEL strategies, there were
notable challenges and barriers to their effective implementation. The triangulated data
underscored the importance of ongoing training, support, and resources in enhancing the SEL
practices of child development student teachers working with preschool children at risk for RAD.
Despite the small sample size, the detailed qualitative data provided a list of SEL strategies
implemented by student teachers working with children at risk for RAD and addressed the
frequency and level of quality of each skill utilized by the three participants. Valuable insights
that contribute significantly to the field of early childhood education and the understanding of
SEL strategies in this context were also shared.

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Chapter Five: Conclusion, Implications, and Recommendations
This chapter provides a discussion of the findings presented in Chapter Four,
contextualizing them within the broader literature on Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) and
social-emotional learning (SEL) in early childhood education. The implications of these findings,
limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research will also be addressed.
Summary of Findings
The study aimed to explore the SEL strategies used by student teachers working with
preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD, along with the factors and barriers
influencing their interactions. Key findings include the identification of specific SEL strategies
implemented, such as emotional expressiveness, emotional regulation techniques, and
relationship-building activities. Additionally, the study highlighted various factors that affect the
implementation of these strategies, including the teachers' understanding of RAD, their training,
and the classroom environment.
Interpretation of Findings
Research Question 1
What specific social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies are child development student
teachers using with preschool children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD?
The findings revealed that student teachers predominantly used strategies that promote
emotional knowledge and emotional expressiveness, such as guided emotional expression
activities and structured routines that provide a sense of security. These strategies align with the
theoretical framework of Attachment Theory, which emphasizes the importance of consistent
and responsive caregiving (Bowlby, 2007; Ainsworth, 1989). The emphasis on emotional
knowledge and expressiveness is consistent with previous research indicating that these are

121
critical components of social-emotional competence (McCabe & Altamura, 2011). However,
emotional regulation was the least supported component an is essential for children at risk for
RAD.
As discussed in the literature review, Denham (2006) emphasized the importance of
social-emotional competence (SEC) in early childhood, defining it as the ability to understand
and manage emotions, establish positive relationships, and make responsible decisions. This
study found that student teachers used strategies to enhance emotional knowledge,
expressiveness, and regulation, directly supporting Denham's framework (Denham, 2006).
Survey data from the IPPSEC revealed that strategies supporting Emotional
Expressiveness had the highest average consistency (61%), followed by Emotional Knowledge
(60%) and Emotional Regulation (59%). These findings suggest that student teachers are
generally confident in implementing strategies that enhance children's emotional expressiveness
and knowledge but less so in regulating emotions.
Research Question 2
What factors influence the interactions and relationships between child development
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool classroom
settings?
Several factors were found to influence these interactions, including the student teachers'
level of training, and understanding of more in-depth components of SEL, the support they
received from more experienced colleagues, and the overall classroom environment. Teachers
who had a stronger foundation in SEL and were better equipped to implement effective strategies
and foster positive relationships that would ultimately benefit children at risk for RAD (Denham
et al., 2012). Supportive and structured classroom environments also played a crucial role in

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facilitating successful interactions and were identified in the literature for attachment and
treatment for children diagnosed with RAD.
In the literature review, it was noted that children with RAD often struggle with forming
secure attachments due to early pathogenic care (Shaw & Paez, 2007; Wimmer et al., 2009). This
study supports the literature by demonstrating that student teachers who consistently implement
SEL strategies have the potential to create more supportive and effective learning environments
for all children, including children at risk for RAD (Hornor, 2008). If teachers are trained to
recognize symptoms of RAD and signs of early trauma, the impact will be beneficial to all
children in their care.
Observation data from the CLASS tool highlighted that participants displayed mid-levels
of emotional support, characterized by positive climate, teacher sensitivity, and regard for
student perspectives. These observations confirmed that creating emotionally supportive
environments is critical for fostering healthy interactions between teachers and children.
However, none of the participants demonstrated high level ratings in this area supporting the
need for specific training.
Research Question 3
What barriers may impede the interactions and relationships between child development
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD in preschool classroom
settings?
The study identified several barriers, including a lack of in-depth training on SEL and
specific training on RAD, high student-teacher ratios, the teacher’s ability to manage their own
emotions and reactions to particular types of behaviors, such as bullying, and insufficient time to
build individual relationships with each child. These barriers are consistent with existing

123
literature highlighting the challenges faced by early childhood educators in providing
individualized attention and support in crowded and resource-limited settings (Gilliam, 2008;
Hamre et al., 2012).
The literature review also highlighted that early childhood educators often lack the
necessary training to address the complex needs of children with RAD (Carter et al., 2004;
Denham, 2006). This study's findings reinforce the need for specialized training programs that
focus on recognizing and managing RAD in educational settings (Poulou, 2015). However, in
depth training on understanding the benefits of SEL for all children, significantly more so for
children with adverse childhood experiences, and consistently implementing SEL strategies can
be effective as well.
Semi-structured interviews revealed themes such as the importance of building
relationships, effective communication strategies, and managing classroom behaviors. However,
they also underscored challenges like dealing with emotional outbursts and balancing academic
and emotional support needs. In summary, the interplay between teachers’ self-efficacy,
emotional well-being, and the implementation of SEL strategies play a key role in influencing
the quality of teacher-child interaction. Addressing teacher’s emotional and psychological needs
and providing comprehensive training on working with diverse and at-risk children can enhance
the effectiveness of educational interventions and promote between social-emotional
development in children.
Implications of the Study
Theoretical Implications
The findings contribute to Attachment Theory by providing empirical evidence on the
effectiveness of SEL strategies in promoting secure attachment relationships in preschool

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settings. The study also expands the understanding of how SEL can be integrated into early
childhood education to support children at risk for RAD, emphasizing the importance of
emotional regulation and expressiveness in fostering social-emotional competence. If the SEL
strategies identified in this study are implemented consistently and trusting relationships are
established, children with or without a RAD diagnosis can benefit.
Zeanah et al., 2016, suggests ensuring young children with RAD have an emotionally
available attachment figure is crucial, with sensitive caregiving being key to fostering secure
attachments. Interventions should focus on therapeutic approaches that work through the
caregiver or involve the caregiver-child dyad, emphasizing positive interactions and addressing
caregiver stress (Zeanah et al., 2016). O'Connor, Collins, and Supplee (2012) examined the
impact of early maternal attachment and the trajectory of teacher-child relationships on behavior
problems in late childhood. They find that both early secure attachment with the mother and
positive, stable teacher-child relationships over time are associated with fewer behavior problems
in children as they grow older (O'Connor et al., 2012).Ellenwood (2020) emphasizes the
importance of teachers and caregivers building trusting relationships with children, helping them
recognize and manage their emotions, providing individualized support, avoiding power
struggles, and maintaining predictability, consistency, and repetition while modeling and
teaching prosocial behaviors. These strategies align with research suggesting that consistent and
sensitive caregiving is crucial for fostering secure attachment and reducing behavioral problems
in children, particularly those at risk for Reactive Attachment Disorder (Zeanah et al., 2016;
O'Connor et al., 2012).

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Practical Implications
For practitioners, the study underscores the need for comprehensive training programs
that equip early childhood educators with the knowledge and skills to address the needs of
children at risk for RAD. Implementing quality structured routines and activities that promote
emotional regulation can significantly enhance the classroom environment, making it more
conducive to learning and social-emotional development (Cooper et al., 2009).
The literature review discussed the importance of social-emotional development (SED)
and secure attachments for children's cognitive, physical, and psychological growth (Cooper et
al., 2009). This study's practical implications highlight the critical role of SEL strategies in
supporting SED and fostering secure attachments in early childhood education settings (McCabe
& Altamura, 2011; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).
Limitations of the Study
Several limitations must be acknowledged. The small sample size and the time
constraints of the study limit the generalizability of the findings reduced statistical power where
true effects are missed. Ensuring validity and reliability may present a challenge in this study, as
small samples may lead to increased risk of bias and subjectivity in qualitative components.
Integrating the qualitative and quantitative data effectively was more difficult. Acquiescence bias
may have impacted the results for one participant who’s IPPSEC Survey responses were all
100%. Additionally, the varying levels of social-emotional competence and understanding of
RAD among the participants may have influenced the results. Future research should aim to
include a larger and more diverse sample to enhance the generalizability of the findings.

126
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research should focus on expanding the sample size and diversity to improve the
generalizability of findings related to Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) and early childhood
mental health. Longitudinal studies are particularly needed to investigate the long-term effects of
SEL strategies on children at risk for Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD), examining their
impact on social-emotional development and academic achievement over time Additionally, it is
crucial to implement and evaluate targeted SEL and Early Childhood Mental Health (ECMH)
education and training programs for early childhood educators. Such initiatives should aim to
equip educators with the skills necessary to support children with adverse childhood experiences
effectively. Research should also continue to explore early childhood mental health disorders and
assess the effectiveness of intervention strategies within educational settings. Understanding
novice teachers’ self-efficacy regarding SEL and the practical implementation of SEL strategies
is another important area for investigation.
Ideas for Change
To enhance the effectiveness of SEL in early childhood education, several changes are
recommended. Firstly, the child development college curriculum should be updated to integrate
SEL principles comprehensively. New courses that include practical lab school experiences
should be developed to provide hands-on training in SEL. Additionally, a specialized SEL
training and coaching program for current preschool teachers would be beneficial in equipping
them with the necessary skills and knowledge.
Conclusion
This chapter has contextualized the findings from Chapter Four within the broader
literature on Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) and social-emotional learning (SEL) in early

127
childhood education. The study highlighted the SEL strategies employed by student teachers,
such as emotional expressiveness and regulation, and examined the factors influencing their
implementation. Findings reveal that while emotional expressiveness and knowledge were wellsupported, emotional regulation required further attention. Factors impacting teacher-student
interactions included the teachers' training, support systems, and classroom environments, with
barriers such as insufficient SEL training and high student-teacher ratios identified as significant
challenges. The implications of these findings underscore the importance of integrating SEL
strategies into early childhood education to support children at risk for RAD and foster secure
attachments. Theoretical and practical insights suggest that comprehensive training programs and
curriculum updates are essential to address these needs effectively. Despite the study's
limitations, including a small sample size and potential biases, it provides a foundation for future
research, emphasizing the need for larger, more diverse studies and targeted intervention
programs. Recommendations for enhancing SEL in early childhood settings include revising
curricula, developing new courses with practical components, and implementing specialized
training programs for educators.

128
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APPENDIX A
Letter of Invitation
Dear Invitee,
My name is LaShawn Brinson. I am kindly requesting your participation in a research study that
I am conducting titled: Exploring Classroom Strategies Used by Child Development Student
Teachers Working with Children at Risk for Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD). The intention
is to explore classroom Social-emotional Learning (SEL) strategies, if any, used by child
development student teachers working with children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD; and
examine factors and/or barriers that may influence the interactions and relationships between
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD. Initially, the study involves
completing a survey: Inventory of Practices for Promoting Children’s Social-Emotional
Competence (Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning, 2003). In
addition to the survey, you may be invited to participate in an observation process followed by a
guided interview utilizing the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) tool (Pianta, La
Paro, & Hambre, 2008).

Participation is completely voluntary, and you may withdraw from the study at any time. The
study is completely anonymous; therefore, it does not require you to provide your name or any
other identifying information.
Your participation in the research will be of great importance to assist informing socialemotional learning practices in early childhood curriculum and early childhood teacher
preparation programs. The survey, and observations combined with interviews will showcase
your perspectives, and experiences utilizing social-emotional learning strategies with preschool
children at risk for RAD
If you would like to participate in the study, please read the Informed Consent letter below.
Thank you for your time and participation.
Sincerely,
LaShawn Brinson

138
APPENDIX B
Informed Consent
Letter of Consent
You are invited to take part in a research study about the Classroom Strategies Used by Child
Development Student Teachers Working with Children at Risk for Reactive Attachment
Disorder (RAD). The researcher is inviting Child Development students over the age of 18 who
are enrolled in the student teaching – practicum I course at Los Angeles Southwest College. This
form is part of a process called “informed consent” to allow you to understand this study before
deciding whether to take part.
Background Information:
The purpose of this study is to: explore classroom SEL strategies, if any, used by child
development student teachers working with children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD; and
examine factors and/or barriers that may influence the interactions and relationships between
student teachers and children who demonstrate risk factors for RAD.
Procedures:
If you agree to be in this study:
• You will be asked to complete a survey (Inventory of Practices for Promoting Children’s
Social-Emotional Competence) that includes twelve questions about your use of socialemotional teaching strategies during your student teaching experience. The survey will
take approximately 20 minutes to complete.
• You may be asked to participate in a CLASS Observation process focusing on emotional
support provided to children during your student teaching experience. The observation
should last no more than two hours during your regularly scheduled student teaching at
the center.
• You may be asked to participate in an interview based on the results of the CLASS
observation. The interview includes 23 questions that will take approximately 45
minutes to complete.
Here are some sample questions:
• How would you describe the emotional connection between you and the children in the
group that you work with?
• How would you describe your communication strategies when working with children?
• How do you show respect to the children you work with?
• How do you acknowledge children’s emotions?
• Provide an example of how you resolve problems in the classroom.
Voluntary Nature of the Study:

139
This study is completely voluntary. Everyone will respect your decision of whether you choose
to be in the study. You will not be treated differently if you decide not to participate in the study.
Your class grade and evaluation of your student teaching experience is in no way connected to
this study. Additionally, this study is completely anonymous. If you decide to join the study
now, you can still change your mind later. You may stop at any time.
Risks and Benefits of Being in the Study:
Being in this type of study involves some risk of the minor discomforts that can be encountered
as a student participant, such as stress and concerns regarding the role of your instructor as the
researcher for this study. Being in this study would not pose risk to your safety or wellbeing.
The benefits of the study include you showcasing your perspectives, and experiences utilizing
social-emotional learning strategies with preschool children at risk for RAD. This study aims to
provide research in the classroom strategies and teacher preparation curriculum used in child
development programs that service children at-risk.
Payment:
This study is completely voluntary; there will be no reimbursement or payment for time.
Privacy:
Any information you provide will be kept anonymous. The researcher will not use your personal
information for any purposes outside of this research project. Also, the researcher will not
include your name or anything else that could identify you in the study reports. Data will be kept
secure by password protection and data encryption.
Contacts and Questions:
If you have questions now or later, you may contact the researcher, LaShawn Brinson, via
brinshawn@usc.edu. You can ask any questions you have before you begin the survey.
Statement of Consent
I have read the above information. I feel I understand the study well enough to decide about my
involvement. By signing below, I understand and agree to the terms described above.
_____________________________ ___________________________ ____________
Print name Signature Date

140
APPENDIX C
Survey

141

142

143

144

145

146
APPENDIX D
CLASS Observation Pre-K
Emotional Support

147

148
APPENDIX E
Interview Protocol
Domain: Positive Climate
Indicator: Relationships
• How would you describe the emotional connection between you and the children in
the group that you work with?
• How would you describe your relationship with children?
• What do you do to encourage physical proximity with children?
• What do you do to encourage social conversation with children?
Indicator: Positive affect
• How would you describe your demonstration of positive affect when working with
children?
Indicator: Positive communication
• How would you describe your communication strategies when working with
children?
• How do you demonstrate verbal affection with children? Give an example.
• How do you demonstrate physical affection with children? Give an example.
• How do you communicate positive expectations to children? Give an
example.
Indicator: Respect
• How do you show respect to the children you work with?
• How do you adjust with your body to communicate respect?
• How do you adjust your language to communicate respect?

149
Domain: Negative Climate
Indicator: Negative affect
• Can you describe experiences in your environment with the children that reflect
negative affect? Give an example.
• Do you ever find your self getting angry while in the classroom? Tell me more about
this experience.
• Do you ever notice the children getting angry in the classroom? Give an example.
• What do you do?
• Do children engage negatively with each other?
• How do you respond?
Indicator: Punitive control
• Give an example of your method for establishing control with the children?
• Do you yell, threaten, punish?
• Do you ever use sarcasm with children? Give an example.
Domain: Teacher Sensitivity
Indicator: Responsiveness
• How do you acknowledge children’s emotions?
• How do you provide comfort and assistance to children? Give an example.
• What’s an occasion when you provide individualized support to a child.
• What will you do?
Indicator: Address problem
• Provide an example of how you resolve problems in the classroom.

150
• Provide an example of how you help children resolve problems in the classroom.
Indicator: Student comfort
• Describe a situation when a child came to you for support and guidance? What did he
say? What did you do?
Domain: Regard for Student Perspectives
Indicator: Flexibility and student focus
• How would you describe your flexibility when working with children?
• Do you follow the child’s lead? Why/Why not? How often? Give an example?
• Do you incorporate their ideas?
Indicator: Support for autonomy and leadership
• How do you allow for child’s choice in the classroom?
• How do you encourage leadership with your children?
Indicator: Student expression
• How do you encourage student talk in the classroom?
• How do you elicit ideas and/or perspectives from children?
Additional Questions
• What factors influence your interactions and relationships with the children you work
with during your student-teaching experience?
• What barriers may impede your interactions and relationships with the children you
work with during your student-teaching experience?

151
APPENDIX F
Codebook.
Name References
State of relationship with children 0
Limited leniency to prevent manipulation 1
Setting up class rules 1
Provides communication as the best means to solve discord 1
Hugs 1
Smiling face 1
Paying attention and listening to the children 1
Demonstration of positive effect 0
Facial expression 1
Evaluating student’s response 0
Their reaction 1
Improved involvement is activities 1
Communication strategy 0
Attaching reasons to instructions 2
Body language and facial expression for excellent communication 1
Eye contact 1
Reproving calmness and love 1
Highly energetic tones promote children interest 1
Strategies for showing affection 0
Hugs 2
high fives 2
Lapping 1
Mindfulness of abuse 1
Complimenting appearances 1
Strategies for showing respect 0
Leading by example 2
No dismissal of the children’s feelings 1
Listening and paying attention to them 1
Giving the children the liberty to express themselves 1
Strategies for communicating with parents 0
Understanding cultural differences 2
Never been angry with the children 1
Classroom anger management 0
For the teacher 0
Separation 1

152
Never been upset with the students 1
For the children 0
Traumatized 1
Understanding individual child’s trigger and preventing them 1
Showing angry children affection 1
Children negative actions and how they are managed 0
Unwillingness to share 1
Give them liberty and time for adjustments 1
Establishing Control 0
Communication 2
Tone of words and facial expression 1
Removal from participating in some activities 1
Helping the children during emotional problems 0
Understanding the problem 2
Counselling and advice 1
Physical affection 0
Hugging and lapping 1
Level of flexibility 0
The children sometimes determine classroom activity 3
The ideas of the children are incorporated in the lesson plan 2
The interest of the children determines the direction of the class 1
Child choice in the classroom 0
Teamwork 1
Strategies used for encouraging classroom conversations 0
Story telling 2
Puppets 1
eye contacts 1
Clam and peaceful conversations 1
Strategies used for acquiring children perspective 0
Communication 1
Compliments 1
Allowing them to explore the materials of any activity 1
Factors that facilitate student engagement 0
Funny face 1
Love for children 1
Motherly care to every child 1
Communicating positive expectation 0
Encouraging them to achieve a goal 1
Current state of emotional relationship with children 0
The children understand the teacher’s facial expression and body language 1

153
The children feel free to display their emotions around the teacher 1
Leadership 0
Electing leaders in the classroom failed 1
Children do not understand leadership 1

154
APPENDIX G
Figure 4
Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies First Dimension Positive Climate

155
APPENDIX H
Figure 5
Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies Second Dimension Negative Climate

156
APPENDIX I
Figure 6
Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies Third Dimension Teacher Sensitivity

157
APPENDIX J
Figure 7
Mind Map of Social-Emotional Learning Strategies Fourth Dimension Regard for Student
Perspectives

158
APPENDIX K
Class Observation Analysis
Positive Climate
Relationships.
o Sheila: Builds strong relationships by understanding each child's background and
connecting personally.
• Quote: "I start with to know; who are they? Which language do they speak?
Their relationship with their parents..."
o Sandra: Establishes relationships through non-verbal communication and
understanding children's emotions.
• Quote: "They know like what my faces mean I know what their faces mean."
o Helen: Forms connections by engaging with children’s interests and making them
feel secure.
• Quote: "I take time to listen and not cut them off. When I'm asking them
questions about their interests and likes..."
Positive Affect.
o Sheila: Uses facial expressions and body language effectively.
 Quote: "I use my facial expressions a lot... 99% facial expressions."
o Sandra: Maintains a positive demeanor, smiling and laughing with children.
 Quote: "I'm always smiling or laughing."
o Helen: Keeps positive eye contact and smiles to create a welcoming atmosphere.
 Quote: "I always try to look a child in the eye with positive open eyes, I do smile
a lot."

159
Positive Communication.
o Sheila: Provides clear verbal explanations and solutions to address behaviors.
 Quote: "Please, can you stop DOIng this behavior because you're hurting your
friend’s feelings..."
o Sandra: Adjusts her tone and approach based on the situation.
 Quote: "If I need them to understand that I'm being serious the tone will change,
depending on the situation."
o Helen: Uses varied tones and energetic communication to maintain interest.
 Quote: "I like to keep my tone high energetic."
Respect.
o Sheila: Models respectful behavior with coworkers.
 Quote: "First of all, I believe that respect starts from coworkers because the
children are observing how we deal with each other."
o Sandra: Respects children's feelings and gives them choices.
 Quote: "I don't dismiss their feelings. I've noticed some of the teachers dismiss
their feelings."
o Helen: Respects children's space and allows them to express themselves.
 Quote: "Taking time to hear them out when they're speaking."
Negative Climate
Negative Affect.
o Sheila: Handles negative behaviors with empathy and guidance.
 Quote: "We don't scream, are you upset? 'Yes.' He changed his voice. 'Yes. Can
we walk?' Yes, we can walk."

160
o Sandra: Addresses negative behaviors with clear communication and empathy.
 Quote: "I said, 'Yes, I yelled at you because when I asked you to stop the first
time, you did not stop.'"
o Helen: Emphasizes understanding and avoiding intimidation.
 Quote: "Using different words besides no and don't. Trying to replace them with
the reason why you're redirecting them."
Punitive Control.
o Sheila: Sets limits and explains reasons behind rules.
 Quote: "It's very important to put limits and rules to the child because the children
are very smart..."
o Sandra: Believes in discipline through explanation rather than punishment.
 Quote: "Depending on the child again, because I know the children."
o Helen: Avoids aggressive redirection and uses positive modeling.
 Quote: "Redirecting the child physically, redirected him gently is okay."
Sarcasm/Disrespect.
o Sheila, Sandra, Helen: None of them use sarcasm or disrespectful language.
Teacher Sensitivity
Awareness.
o Sheila: Highly aware of children's backgrounds and emotional states.
 Quote: "I start with to know; who are they? Which language do they speak. Their
relationship with their parents..."
o Sandra: Keenly aware of children's emotions through non-verbal cues.
 Quote: "They know like what my faces mean I know what their faces mean."

161
o Helen: Sensitive to children's interests and emotional needs.
 Quote: "I take time to listen and not cut them off."
Responsiveness.
o Sheila: Responsive to children's needs and emotions.
 Quote: "If child talks about something, I will pick up from [that]."
o Sandra: Responds to children’s feelings and provides comfort.
 Quote: "I let them sit on me if they want to sit on my lap and talk about
 it."
o Helen: Provides individualized support and comfort to children in need.
 Quote: "Anytime I see a child being isolated, angry, or crying. That's shows when
I give isolated report or isolated attention."
Addresses Problems.
o Sheila: Solves problems by explaining and guiding.
 Quote: "We don't scream, are you upset? 'Yes.' He changed his voice."
o Sandra: Encourages children to use words to resolve conflicts.
 Quote: "I tell them to use their words, they had to use their words."
o Helen: Helps children resolve conflicts through discussion.
 Quote: "I try to de-escalate that situation and once the de-escalating the situation;
I like to find out why they were fighting."
Student Comfort.
o Sheila: Provides comfort through empathetic communication and physical affection.
 Quote: "Another thing, giving high fives. When your child upset, you can give
him your hand and walk, I'm here for you."

162
o Sandra: Allows children to express emotions physically and verbally.
 Quote: "I let them sit on me if they want to sit on my lap and talk about it."
o Helen: Ensures children feel included and supported.
 Quote: "I don't want any child to ever feel excluded from my activity."
Regard for Student Perspective.
Flexibility and Student Focus.
o Sheila: Follows children’s interests and adapts activities.
 Quote: "I have a problem following the plan. I go with the child..."
o Sandra: Flexible with activities based on children's interests.
 Quote: "If I see that they're getting bored, I asked some do they want to do
something else."
o Helen: Changes routines based on children’s interests.
 Quote: "Children are always the leader. I try to have a set routine. But sometimes
you get taken away from your set routine."
Support for Autonomy and Leadership.
o Sheila: Encourages teamwork and leadership in activities.
 Quote: "We enroll every day in my language, teamwork, we help each other."
o Sandra: Believes in giving children leadership roles and responsibilities.
 Quote: "I believe when they come back from that break, that some type of, even if
is make sure all the chairs are pushed in or some little type of leadership role."
o Helen: Provides choices and encourages children to lead activities.
 Quote: "I offer them more than one choice and when offering those choices, I
asked them; do they actually like that activity they're DOIng?"

163
Student Expression.
o Sheila: Encourages children to express their feelings and ideas.
 Quote: "She told me, 'I am sad teacher.' I asked her why? She told me,
‘Everybody has a dad, and I don't have a dad.'"
o Sandra: Allows children to express their emotions freely.
 Quote: "I let them sit on me if they want to sit on my lap and talk about it."
o Helen: Encourages children to share stories and listen to each other.
 Quote: "Usually, at breakfast time I tried to hold an open conversation about
everyone in the day and make them listen to everyone's story."
Restriction of Movement.
o Sheila and Helen: Show flexibility and do not restrict children's movement.
 Quote Sheila: "I go with the child... If a child talks about something, I will pick up
from [that]."
 Quote Helen: "I just change my regular routine."
o Sandra: Follows children’s lead but emphasizes structure.
 Quote: "If I see that they're getting bored, I asked some do they want to do
something else."

164
Appendix L
Participant SEL Strategies Organized by Themes
Sheila
(1) Building Relationships:
a. Sheila starts by understanding each child's background, which includes knowing
their language and home situation. This helps her build trust and connect with
them on a personal level.
i. "So, my group considered like too attached to me because I don't start with
everything academic. And I start with to know; who are they? Which
language do they speak? Their relationship with their parents because I
believe if I understand what's going on at home, I can pick from it and be
creative to build their skills and help them to maybe move from place to
place or learn."
(1) Setting Limits and Rules:
a. Sheila learned to set boundaries and explain the reasons behind them, helping
children understand and cooperate better.
i. "It's very important to put limits and rules on the child because the children
are very smart, they try to manipulate the teachers... I can set up my rules.
Okay, right now we are going to this experiment. So, if you're not gonna be
like cooperating, we can finish it, we're not gonna learn anything. Just
make it simple, simple words for the child to understand."
(2) Positive Affect and Body Language:

165
a. Sheila uses facial expressions and body language to communicate effectively with
children, as they are highly perceptive of non-verbal cues.
b. "I use my facial expressions a lot... 99% facial expressions. Body language is the
first language to break the glass with the children and communicate with them."
(3) Verbal and Physical Affection:
a. Sheila provides clear verbal explanations and solutions to address behaviors, rather
than just saying "stop."
b. "Please, can you stop DOIng this behavior because you're hurting your friend
feelings or if you are sad, let’s go walk, it's okay to be sad."
c. Sheila also uses appropriate physical affection, such as high-fives and hugs, while
maintaining boundaries.
d. "Another thing, giving high fives. When your child is upset, you can give him
your hand and walk, I'm here for you."
(4) Respectful Communication:
a. Sheila emphasizes respect in her interactions, modeling polite behavior with
coworkers and ensuring children observe these respectful interactions.
b. "First of all, I believe that respect starts from coworkers because the children are
observing how we deal with each other. My coworkers are like friends before we
start working, so we would rather call each other teacher."
(5) Cultural Sensitivity:
a. Sheila adapts her communication and interaction strategies to respect cultural
differences, ensuring effective communication with parents and children from
diverse backgrounds.

166
b. "We talked with the other families that they're accepting the way we talk and their
understanding what our concerns are. We took it into consideration because we,
we are from a different society, the world diverse, so we need to be aware how to
deal with others."
(6) Handling Negative Behavior:
a. Sheila addresses negative behaviors with empathy and guidance, helping children
understand the impact of their actions and encouraging better behavior.
b. "We don't scream, are you upset? 'Yes.' He changed his voice. 'Yes. Can we walk?'
Yes, we can walk. 'Can we talk about' Yes, we can talk. 'I'm smart.' You are
smart."
(7) Problem-Solving and Flexibility:
a. Sheila is flexible in her teaching, often following the children's lead and
incorporating their interests into activities.
b. "I have a problem following the plan. I go with the child... If a child talks about
something, I will pick up from [that]."
(8) Encouraging Leadership and Cooperation:
a. Sheila fosters a cooperative environment by involving children in group activities
and emphasizing teamwork.
b. "We enroll every day in my language, teamwork, we help each other. For
example, putting the papers on the table, setting up the beds, putting the beds
away, all of us because it didn't work."
(9) Promoting Empathy and Self-Regulation:

167
a. Sheila helps children develop empathy by discussing feelings and guiding them to
understand and respect others' emotions.
b. "She told me, 'I am sad teacher.' I asked her why? She told me, ‘Everybody has a
dad, and I don't have a dad.' I told her why you say this? She told me, ‘My dad is
not here with me.'"
Sandra
(1) Building Emotional Connections:
a. Sandra emphasizes non-verbal communication and understanding children's
emotions through facial expressions.
b. "They know like what my faces mean I know what their faces mean. So, I think
we have a great connection. Even with all the children, even though I'm practicing
they knew; if I gave you that look, okay, I'm DOIng something wrong. And then I
know if they gave me a look, they're hurting, or they're sad."
(2) Encouraging Physical Proximity and Social Conversations:
a. Sandra gets down to the children's eye level, asks about their feelings daily, and
encourages them to express their emotions and resolve conflicts.
b. "I get down to their eye level. I ask them how they're feeling every day."
c. "I give them hugs and they can get as close as they want. So, sometimes they get
too close, but it's okay."
(3) Communication Strategies:
a. Sandra adjusts her tone and approach based on the situation and individual child,
balancing seriousness with empathy.

168
b. "If I need them to understand that I'm being serious the tone will change,
depending on the situation."
c. "When she started crying, I got mushy for her, and I was like 'Imani give me a
hug. It's okay, I just need you not to hit your friends with the bike because you
can hurt them.”
(4) Respecting Children's Feelings:
a. Sandra does not dismiss children's feelings and believes in giving them choices
rather than forcing them to do something.
b. "I don't dismiss their feelings. I've noticed some of the teachers dismiss their
feelings. I don't dismiss their feelings. when they don't want to do something, I
don't force them to do something."
(5) Handling Negative Emotions:
a. Sandra addresses negative behaviors with clear communication, followed by
empathetic support.
b. "I said, 'Yes, I yelled at you because when I asked you to stop the first time, you
did not stop.' And then she was in her feelings, so I had to go back and get down
to her level again. This is why you can't throw water."
(6) Preventing Escalations:
a. Sandra knows the children well and intervenes before conflicts escalate,
understanding each child's triggers and reactions.
b. "Knowing the child, you know what's gonna happen if such and such doesn't do
such and such. So, if I see this such and such as not sharing, I'm like, Okay, let me

169
stop this situation before it escalates because I already know they're about to start
fighting over this toy."
(7) Comforting and Assisting Children:
a. Sandra provides comfort by allowing children to express their emotions
physically and verbally, offering support without forcing them to talk.
b. "I let them sit on me if they want to sit on my lap and talk about it. If they want to
hug me. If they want to cry on me, I allow them to do it."
(8) Providing Individualized Support:
a. Sandra addresses each child's needs individually, ensuring they receive the
attention and guidance necessary for their unique situations.
b. "I will individually put them to the side and just me and that child, but the
teachers doesn't like it because they consider it being favoritism."
(9) Problem-Solving and Encouraging Autonomy:
a. Sandra encourages children to use their words to resolve conflicts and provides
guidance based on their individual abilities.
b. "I tell them to use their words, they had to use their words."
c. "Depending on the child again, because I know the children."
(10) Flexibility and Following Children's Lead:
a. Sandra is flexible in her teaching approach, adapting activities based on the
children's interests and needs.
b. "If I see that they're getting bored, I asked some do they want to do something
else."
(11) Promoting Leadership and Responsibility:

170
a. Sandra believes in giving children leadership roles and responsibilities to prepare
them for future challenges.
b. "I believe when they come back from that break, that some type of, even if is
make sure all the chairs are pushed in or some little type of leadership role."
Helen
(1) Building Emotional Connections:
a. Helen focuses on making children feel secure and emotionally supported by
taking time to understand and engage with their interests.
b. "I take time to listen and not cut them off. When I'm asking them questions about
their interests and likes, I don't try to lead. I try to encourage them to talk more
freely about things they like."
c. "I feel I impacted the children very emotionally. Every child was very happy to
see me. They wanted to inform me about the new things they were DOIng."
(2) Encouraging Physical Proximity and Social Conversations:
a. Helen gets down to the children’s level and uses their interests as a bridge to
engage them socially.
b. "You have to give more energy and initiative to push them to be more social with
other kids."
c. "I try to give him.... certain children you have to give more energy and initiative
to push them to be more social with other kids."
(3) Demonstrating Positive Affect:
a. Helen uses eye contact, facial expressions, and a welcoming demeanor to create a
positive atmosphere.

171
b. "I always try to look a child in the eye with positive open eyes, I do smile a lot,
but main thing is open eyes with eye contact, giving them a welcoming eye
connection."
(4) Communication Strategies:
a. Helen employs energetic and varied tones to maintain children's interest and
effectively communicate.
b. "I like to keep my tone high energetic. It usually makes the child interested
because they're like changing your tones or exaggerating language is one way of
keeping the interest of a child."
(5) Verbal and Physical Affection:
a. Helen gives compliments and uses physical gestures like high fives and pats on
the back to show affection and boost self-esteem.
b. "Besides high fives I also always like to reward kids on their outfits, their clothes,
whatever they're DOIng I like to give them compliments."
c. "I do like to do high fives, pat on backs. I do a lot on the touch me. It's on the
child's comfortability."
(6) Communicating Positive Expectations:
a. Helen sets goals for children and encourages them to reach these goals without
giving negative feedback.
b. "Usually, I will try to set a goal and encourage them to reach it."
(7) Showing Respect:
a. Helen respects children's space and gives them time to express themselves,
ensuring fair treatment.

172
b. "Taking time to hear them out when they're speaking. Taking time to allow them
to complete their lessons. taking time to allow them to express themselves
emotionally, socially."
(8) Handling Negative Emotions and Behavior:
a. Helen emphasizes understanding and addressing the reasons behind children's
behaviors rather than using negative language or intimidation.
b. "Using different words besides no and don't. Trying to replace them with the
reason why you're redirecting them instead of just saying no or don't."
c. "I have gotten upset when I've seen a teacher act.... like grab a student it bothered
me. I think my anger comes from seeing children being mistreated or seeing
children being neglected and that's the only time I usually get angry."
(9) Providing Comfort and Assistance:
a. Helen offers individualized support to children who are isolated, angry, or upset,
ensuring they feel included and heard.
b. "Anytime I see a child being isolated, angry, or crying. That's shown when I give
isolated reports or isolated attention. I don't want any child to ever feel excluded
from my activity."
(10) Problem-Solving and Encouraging Autonomy:
a. Helen encourages children to solve their own problems by discussing the causes
and effects of their actions.
b. "I try to de-escalate that situation and once the de-escalating the situation; I like to
find out why they were fighting and how could they handle it in a different way."

173
c. "Children are always the leader. I try to have a set routine. But sometimes you get
taken away from your set routine."
(11) Flexibility and Following Children's Lead:
a. Helen adjusts her routines based on children's interests and allows them to take
the lead in activities.
b. "I followed their lead of interest. With things of interest, I don't try to take it away
from them. I'll let them enjoy more."
(12) Encouraging Leadership and Responsibility:
a. Helen offers children choices and encourages them to take leadership roles in
activities.
b. "I offer them more than one choice and when offering those choices, I asked
them; do they actually like that activity they're DOIng?"
(13) Promoting Peer Interaction:
a. Helen encourages children to share their stories and listen to each other, fostering
a sense of community.
b. "Usually, at breakfast time I tried to hold an open conversation about everyone in
the day and make them listen to everyone's story."

174
Appendix M
Data Analysis of Interviews Aligned with Themes
(1) State of relationship with children
a. Sheila: Emphasizes building strong, personal relationships by understanding
children's backgrounds and home situations. "I start with to know; who are they?
Which language do they speak? Their relationship with their parents..."
b. Sandra: Focuses on non-verbal communication to understand children's
emotions. "They know like what my faces mean I know what their faces mean."
c. Helen: Builds emotional connections by engaging with children's interests and
taking time to listen. "I take time to listen and not cut them off. When I'm asking
them questions about their interests and likes, I don't try to lead."
(2) Communication strategy
a. Sheila: Uses positive affect and body language extensively. "I use my facial
expressions a lot... 99% facial expressions."
b. Sandra: Adjusts tone and approach based on the situation. "If I need them to
understand that I'm being serious the tone will change, depending on the
situation."
c. Helen: Uses energetic and varied tones to maintain interest. "I like to keep my
tone high energetic. It usually makes the child interested because they like
changing your tones or exaggerating language."
(3) Strategies for showing affection

175
a. Sheila: Uses both verbal and physical affection while maintaining boundaries.
"Another thing, giving high fives. When your child upset, you can give him your
hand and walk, I'm here for you."
b. Sandra: Allows physical closeness and gives hugs. "I let them sit on me if they
want to sit on my lap and talk about it."
c. Helen: Gives compliments and uses physical gestures like high fives and pats on
the back. "I do like to do high fives, pat on backs."
(4) Strategies for showing respect
a. Sheila: Models respectful behavior with coworkers, ensuring children observe
this. "First of all, I believe that respect starts from coworkers because the children
are observing how we deal with each other."
b. Sandra: Does not dismiss children's feelings and respects their choices. "I don't
dismiss their feelings... I don't force them to do something."
c. Helen: Respects children's space and gives them time to express themselves.
"Taking time to hear them out when they're speaking."
(5) Classroom anger management
a. Sheila: Addresses negative behaviors with empathy and guidance. "We don't
scream, are you upset? 'Yes.' He changed his voice. 'Yes. Can we walk?'"
b. Sandra: Communicates clearly about why certain behaviors are unacceptable,
followed by empathetic support. "I said, 'Yes, I yelled at you because when I
asked you to stop the first time, you did not stop.'"
c. Helen: Emphasizes understanding the reasons behind behaviors and avoiding
negative language or intimidation. "Using different words besides no and don't."

176
(6) Establishing Control
a. Sheila: Sets limits and rules, explaining the reasons behind them. "It's very
important to put limits and rules to the child because the children are very smart,
they try to manipulate the teachers."
b. Sandra: Uses tone and words to establish control. "The way I talk to them, that's
how I get the control over them."
c. Helen: Uses redirection and modeling the desired behavior. "Redirecting
physically, redirected him gently is okay."
(7) Helping the children during emotional problems
a. Sheila: Provides empathetic support and helps children understand their emotions.
"If you are sad, let’s go walk, it's okay to be sad."
b. Sandra: Provides comfort by allowing children to express their emotions
physically and verbally. "If they want to hug me. If they want to cry on me, I
allow them to do it."
c. Helen: Offers individualized support to children who are isolated, angry, or upset.
"Anytime I see a child being isolated, angry, or crying. That's shows when I give
isolated report or isolated attention."
(8) Level of flexibility
a. Sheila: Flexible in teaching, often following the children's lead. "I have a problem
following the plan. I go with the child."
b. Sandra: Adapts activities based on children's interests and needs. "If I see that
they're getting bored, I asked some do they want to do something else."

177
c. Helen: Adjusts routines based on children's interests and allows them to lead
activities. "I followed their lead of interest. With things of interest, I don't try to
take it away from them."
(9) Strategies used for encouraging classroom conversations
a. Sheila: Encourages leadership and cooperation through group activities. "We
enroll every day in my language, teamwork, we help each other."
b. Sandra: Promotes discussions about feelings and experiences. "I ask them how
they're feeling every day."
c. Helen: Encourages children to share their stories and listen to each other.
"Usually, at breakfast time I tried to hold an open conversation about everyone in
the day."
(10) Strategies used for acquiring children's perspective
a. Sheila: Incorporates children's interests into activities. "If child talk about
something, I will pick up from [that]."
b. Sandra: Encourages children to use their words to resolve conflicts. "I tell them
to use their words, they had to use their words."
c. Helen: Offers choices and asks for children's feedback on activities. "I offer them
more than one choice and when offering those choices, I asked them; do they
actually like that activity they're DOIng?"
(11) Factors that facilitate student engagement
a. Sheila: Builds trust by understanding children's backgrounds and incorporating
their interests. "I believe if I understand what's going on at home, I can pick from
it and be creative to build their skills."

178
b. Sandra: Uses non-verbal communication and empathy to connect with children.
"They know like what my faces mean I know what their faces mean."
c. Helen: Engages children by relating to their interests and maintaining a highenergy communication style. "When I'm asking them questions about their
interests and likes, I don't try to lead. I try to encourage them to talk more freely
about things they like."

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study investigates the social-emotional learning (SEL) strategies implemented by child development student teachers working with preschool children at risk for Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD). Framed within Bowlby and Ainsworth's attachment theory and the theory of social-emotional competence, it examines factors and barriers that influence or impede interactions and relationships between student teachers and these children. The study sample comprised adults enrolled in a Los Angeles County community college. Ten participants completed phase one, the Inventory of Practices for Promoting Children's Social Emotional Competence (IPPSEC) survey, reporting on SEL strategies used with children during their Child Development (CD) practicum. Three participants proceeded to phases two and three, which involved observation using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) to assess emotional support in teacher-child interactions and interviews. CLASS scores were categorized into high, mid, and low ranges, reflecting the emotional support provided by the student teachers while engaged with children. The study identified specific SEL strategies, including building self-esteem through positive reinforcement, using visual schedules for structure, encouraging emotional expression through discussions, and implementing individualized support based on children's needs. Data analysis revealed themes and strategies for effective SEL implementation, emphasizing its protective role against early risk factors. This mixed-methods approach offered a comprehensive of SEL practices novice preschool teachers may implement, contributing to early childhood education and informing strategies to support children at risk for RAD. The study underscores the need for ongoing professional development and tailored training programs to enhance educators' social-emotional competence, ultimately benefiting the children they serve.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Brinson, LaShawn L. (author)

Core Title Exploring classroom strategies used by child development student-teachers working with children at risk for reactive attachment disorder

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 08/21/2024

Defense Date 08/20/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Preschool,RAD,reactive attachment disorder,SEL,social-emotional learning,student-teachers

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Green, Alan (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence (committee member), Wilson, Diedre (committee member)

Creator Email brinshawn@msn.com,lbrinson@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113999BRU

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