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Impact of positive student–staff relationships and the social–emotional outcomes of Black high school students classified with an emotional disability

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Impact of positive student–staff relationships and the social–emotional outcomes of Black high school students classified with an emotional disability

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Content 1
Impact of Positive Student–Staff Relationships and the Social–Emotional Outcomes of
Black High School Students Classified with an Emotional Disability
Regina Miller Nadir, LICSW, LCSW–C, LCSW
Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work, University of Southern California
Preparatory Scholarship for Capstone
SOWK 725C Section 67721D
Dr. Loc H. Nguyen
May 2024

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Table of Contents
I. Acknowledgments
II. Abstract
III. Positionality Statement
IV. Problem of Practice and Literature Review
V. Conceptual Theoretical Framework
VI. Project Description
VII. Methodology
VIII. Implementation Plan
IX. Conclusions and Implications

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I. Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to all those who have played a part in the
design of Pieces 2 a Rose (P2R). Its mere inception was based on the lived experiences of myself
and every stakeholder I have interfaced with throughout my career.
First, I would like to acknowledge each of my professors at the University of Southern
California (USC) for believing in me, providing me with sound advice, encouraging me to think
outside the box, and exposing me to alternative perspectives. I especially want to highlight Dr.
Melissa Singh and Dr. Loc Nguyen, USC professors who challenged me to think critically and
share my knowledge in written form. This belief gave me the courage to apply for the Go
Grander Scholarship, which led to P2R being awarded in the category of Achieving Equal
Opportunity and Justice, focusing on education.
I would also like to thank my network leads, my mentor Dr. Teasley, and fellow
awardees of the Grand Challenges of Social Work, and my external design partner, Dr. Ivy
Hilton (Mama Ivy), and faculty advisor Dr. Pamela Brown-White. Their insight catapulted me to
continue to refine this project and to think beyond the Doctorate of Social Work program at
USC.
Furthermore, I would like to thank my classmates for engaging in robust discussion,
providing constructive feedback, and provoking me to develop P2R for the masses upon its
completion.
Finally, I would like to express my appreciation to my family and friends for their
unfaltering faith and support throughout this project. Their lived experiences and beliefs
buttressed my motivation and inspiration as I refined P2R. Once again, I extend my earnest
thanks to those who contributed to this project.

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II. Abstract
Pieces to a Rose (P2R) addressed the impact of staff–student relationships on the mental health
of Black high school students who are classified with an emotional disability, and who attend
Ballou High School in the District of Columbia Public Schools located in Washington, DC.
Positive relationships are critical to the academic performance and the social–emotional progress
of those identified with an emotional disability. P2R focused on approximately 65 youths in
Grades 9 to 12 by introducing staff to tools and strategies via an online platform and monitoring
student outcomes based on staff use of learned skills. P2R is rooted in the tenets of the Grand
Challenge of Achieving Equal Opportunity and Justice, which provokes us to address racialized
systems by fostering opportunities for equitable resources. P2R addressed the deficit mindsets of
staff members who hold onto inequitable and racist practices that influence unfair/negative staff
responses toward the behaviors demonstrated by this population of students. P2R included
restorative justice practices and incorporated elements that promote a safe, welcoming, and
positive learning environment. The use of best practices and evidence-based exemplars fostered
positive relationships between staff and students. Theoretical frameworks that underscore
educator practices, stakeholders, and existing solutions were also examined to thwart practices
that have harmed this population of students in the past. Last, P2R improved staff–student
relationships in a bid to increase academic performance, while ultimately reducing the negative
behaviors evidenced in Ballou High School students labeled with an emotional disability.

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III. Positionality Statement
I have been a social worker for 20 years, but I have supported children, youth, and their
families in various capacities since 1997. I gravitated toward this field because there is such a
need to help individuals and families of color, particularly Black individuals, and families, to
grow spiritually, emotionally, socially, and mentally. Serving others allowed me to understand
the needs of others better while challenging the inequities that individuals and families must
overcome daily. Working in multiple capacities within the field of social work pushed me to
work toward multiple licenses and certifications. Because of these opportunities, I have gained
extensive knowledge in the following areas: leading clinical, behavior, and other types of
academic teams, using behavior modification modalities to foster behavior change, being an
expert in the field of special education, public/non-public education, and private academic
environments, conducting functional behavior assessments and social histories, interpreting other
evaluations germane to special education and mental health needs for goal and treatment
development, individual and group therapy, consultation, use of evidence-based treatment
practices, foster care and adoption practices, etc. I am a licensed clinical social worker in the
District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia, a registered clinical social work supervisor in the
state of Maryland, certified as a school social worker and school administrator in the District of
Columbia, certified as a trauma specialist, and have extensive knowledge of restorative practices
and their use. I serve as a housing commissioner, work full-time as a school social worker, work
contractually as a clinical social worker in a private practice setting, and am a doctoral social
work candidate at USC.
My specific school-based experiences, working with Black students with an emotional
disability was the catalyst that spawned Pieces to a Rose (P2R). As I thought about the brilliance

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and resilience of these young people, Tupac Shakur’s (2009) poem, “A Rose That Grew From
Concrete” came to mind. This body of work perfectly describes the lived experiences of these
young people while acknowledging their strength and ability to navigate obstacles. P2R is an
online platform that helps education staff increase their abilities and skills to foster healthier and
more positive relationships with Black students identified with an emotional disability. As a
Black woman who is often misunderstood as dictated by my own lived experience, I must be
open to the needs of others without my own bias clouding reality. Accepting this helps me to
assist others in growing beyond their imagination by using clinical skills and other tools to
encourage mindset shifts in others and recognize their areas of strength and resilience despite
their experiences. I champion diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging practices and further
foster, promote, and develop antiracist workspaces. I hope to continue to be in a learning space
and create opportunities to improve the social–emotional outcomes for all stakeholders.
IV. Problem of Practice and Literature Review
P2R promoted equity within special education programming at Ballou High School of the
District of Columbia Public Schools by introducing staff to skills and tools to increase positive
relationships between them and Black high school students identified with an emotional
disability. The desire was to reduce the presentation of maladaptive behaviors in the academic
environment, to increase attendance, and to foster a safe and welcoming environment for the
targeted population. Research about staff–student relationships undergird the importance of
mental health, particularly that of Black students. It emphasizes that their needs are gravely
impacted by bias, microaggressions, racism, discrimination, and stereotypes, and it explains what
can be done to subvert this impact.

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Students who are Black, classified with an emotional disability, and diagnosed with
behavioral disorders experience a multitude of negative outcomes (McKenna, 2013). Black
students represent 17% of public school students in the United States and makeup 27.3% of the
student population classified with an emotional disability (McKenna 2013). Zhang et al. (2012)
suggested that almost 2,731,000 6-to-21-year-old students who received services under IDEA
were minorities.
The District of Columbia serves the highest percentage of minority students in the United
States receiving special education services: 91.4% of 3-to-5-year-olds and 96.2% of 6-to-21-
year-olds (Lambert et al., 2021). During the 2022–2023 school year, 7,732 students received
special education services according to the Annie E. Casey Foundation (n.d.). The Office of the
State Superintendent of Education, which is the governing arm of the District of Columbia
Public School system, recorded Ballou High School’s enrollment count as 740 students during
the 2021–2022 school year.
Some 24.6% of students received special education support, 84.3% were considered at
risk, in-seat attendance of students with disabilities was 50.4%, and 96.6% of students with
disabilities were considered chronically absent (Office of the State Superintendent of Education,
n.d.). Students with disabilities display a multitude of behaviors, particularly those classified
with an emotional disability.
Forness et al. (2011) reported that research into this wicked problem elucidates several
causes of Black students being overrepresented in special education, with the highest number of
students classified with an emotional disability. The rising prevalence of negative behaviors
amongst Black students in special education continues to need examining, as these young people

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should get the support they need in the least restrictive environment so that they can fare well
both academically and socially–emotionally.
Oppositionality, antisocial behavior, heightened emotionality, impulsivity, etc., are
symptoms that underscore truant behaviors, dropping out of school, being excluded, and
experiencing continuing poor academic achievement, unemployment, and criminality (Roslyne
Wilkinson & Jones Bartoli, 2021). Profiles of students highlighted in the data uplift inequitable
practices that have existed since the establishment of the education system in the United States
and show why Black students with an emotional disability classification are not meeting with
success (Adjei, 2018).
Baker (2005) reported that Black students do not fare as well as other students in the
education environment. In addition, the apparent disparities in education and the increased
negative behaviors amongst Black students who are participating in special education
programming have yet to be addressed. “The cost of services such as special education,
healthcare, and juvenile justice in the United States provided to students with mental disorders is
estimated at $247 billion annually” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d. p. 2009).
Johnson-Reid et al. (2004) shared in 2001 that from the school year 1999–2000,
approximately 600,000 preschool-aged children to age 5, and 700,000 youth aged 6 to 21 were
served under the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA) of 1997. In addition,
Zhang et al. (2014) noted that states reported almost 322,000 minority students from ages 3
through 5 received special education services under IDEA, compared to almost 414,000 White
children. Zhang et al. further stated that almost 2,731,000 6-to-21-year-old minority students
received services under IDEA compared with about 3,000,000 White students.

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Even more alarming is the number of students the District of Columbia serves, as it is the
municipality with the highest percentages of minority students in special education in the United
States including 91.4% of 3-to-5-year-olds and 96.2% of 6-to-21-year-olds (Lambert et al.,
2021). This is a populace that should undergo review, as the number of Black students in special
education is startling. P2R highlighted a problem area that perpetuates the pervasive mindset of
staff toward students identified with an emotional disability.
Aron and Loprest (2012) suggested that special education students in high school
environments perform worse academically than their typically developing peers. They are often
viewed as less than others, are not allowed to take or be exposed to the entire high school
curriculum, and are more likely not to obtain a high school diploma. In a position paper,
Codrington and Fairchild (2012) expounded on the idea that Black youth in special education are
most often banished to environments with less academic rigor, as the focus is on managing
negative behaviors rather than on academic excellence.
Analytical and critical thinking skills are often overlooked in special education programs
as the academic environment fails to implement appropriate and effective pedagogy with fidelity
and underestimate the abilities of these students (Codrington & Fairchild, 2012). Poorly trained
teachers contribute to the lack of academic success among Black students. In schools with high
populations of Black students, nearly 30% of teachers have limited teaching experience in the
subject areas they teach let alone the skills to nurture relationships, as compared to 21% of
teachers in schools with predominantly White students (Ford, 2014).
No viable and long-term solutions for this problem area have been implemented with
fidelity, and nor have attempts been sustainable (Han & Weiss, 2005). However, the deficit
mindset of staff members in the academic environment persists. Forness et al. (2011) suggested

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that deficit mindsets ultimately affect the educational outcomes of Black high school students in
special education, as they are more susceptible to poor academic and social–emotional
functioning.
Black students are underperforming in academic environments, as educational
programming promotes inequalities within its policies and practices (Baker, 2005). Elenwo et al.
(2022) elucidated that a potential driver for poor academic outcomes among Black youth is the
lack of respected and noted Black educators to whom they can relate, which results in lower
academic self-efficacy. Inequitable practices in education exist because educators have been
conditioned to believe inequity is normal (UnboundED, 2019). The malignant impact of racism
requires progressive changes to the social and legal structures that handicap the normal
socioemotional development of Black youth (Elenwo et al., 2022).
Black youth in special education who exhibit oppositionality, anti-social behavior,
heightened emotionality, impulsivity, etc. are more likely to exhibit truant behaviors, drop out of
school, be excluded, and experience continuing poor academic achievement, unemployment, and
criminality (Roslyne Wilkinson & Jones Bartoli, 2021). An area to question is whether Black
students are disproportionately classified with emotional and/or behavioral disturbances as
compared to their White counterparts (see Appendix A on page 37). Or are their behaviors in
response to the biases and cultural incompetence of the educators and other academic
professionals who often harbor negative stereotypes about them (Cokley et al., 2014)?
To that end, if we were to narrow down the effective solutions to address the identified
problem of increased negative behaviors amongst the Black student population identified with an
emotional disability, they would include evidence-based training opportunities, hiring staff who
have experience with and acknowledgment of cultural competency, and improving teacher–

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student relationships. Identified solutions should focus on some if not all these areas to ensure
the social emotional and academic progress of Black students. These practices have been
implemented in multiple school districts, but not with fidelity or with the mechanisms to sustain
important practices (Rosylne Wilkinson & Jones Bartoli, 2021).
According to Codrington and Fairchild (2012), the following factors should be
considered when addressing the academic and social-emotional outcomes of Black students in
special education, as the goal is to ensure all students have equitable services:
• Systemic factors
o Institutional racism
o Ecological context
• Teachers
o Teacher training
o Cultural insensitivity
o Teacher bias (Deficit thinking)
• School psychologists
• Student and family factors
• School social workers.
Creating opportunities to include evidence-based training opportunities in education may help to
reduce the harmful impact of bias towards Black students and to address the generations of
harmful discriminatory practices (Elenwo et al., 2022).
Teacher–student conflict can cause Black students with perceived behavior problems to
have difficulty progressing in the academic environment (Roslyne Wilkinson & Jones Bartoli,
2021). When educators fail to examine their responses toward Black students, criminalizing this

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student population for exhibiting behaviors that are essentially symptoms of psychological
distress is inevitable (Cokley et al., 2014). Staff–student strife may ensure that Black students
with perceived behavior problems have difficulty making progress in the academic environment
(Rosylne Wilkinson & Jones Bartoli, 2021).
Teacher biases toward Black students (recognized or unrecognized) and their responses
to students’ conduct contribute to increased maladaptive behaviors in the academic environment.
Coleman and Stevenson (2013) suggested that collective thinking and assumptions made by the
privileged group keep people of color and their experiences second to perceived competing
priorities in the learning environment. The intersectionality of race, low socioeconomic status,
and culture make it difficult for educators to detect mental health issues among Black students
(Cokley et al., 2014). Deficit thinking is likely a practice that speaks to how educators,
school/district leaders, and lawmakers perceive Black students (McKenna, 2013), and their
ability to meet with academic success, leading to higher referrals for special education
consideration, which ultimately increases maladaptive behaviors.
Limitations in training for staff result in individuals being ill-equipped to address the
mental wellness of Black students. Stakeholders neglect to examine the role programming for
improved staff–student relationships in schools plays in meeting the needs of Black high school
students; moreover, the impact on the social–emotional needs of those identified with an
emotional disability is often overlooked (Lambert et al., 2021). Embedded within P2R are tools
for staff that can promote a safe, welcoming environment by nurturing positive relationships
between staff and students, thus decreasing negative behaviors that result in underperforming.
The other stakeholders and/or voices to consider would be federal legislators and highlevel district leaders as illuminated by the National Center for Learning Disabilities (2022).

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These individuals are often policy and decision-makers who do not understand student needs or
who cannot give voices to the voiceless. Disparities exist because staff fail to address linguistic,
socioeconomic, racial, and gender inequity in the identification and treatment of diverse learners
identified with an emotional disability. This has been a longstanding issue among scholars,
practitioners, and policymakers, with many still confused as to why the disparities exist (Sullivan
et al., 2015).
In summary, factors such as race, socioeconomic conditions, and culture influence and
exacerbate the existing mental health needs of Black high school students (Williams, 2022).
Ultimately, Black students with disabilities are more at risk for continued exposure to harmful
practices than others (Jonson-Reid et al., 2004). Several theories can explain Black students
being classified with an emotional disability and having continuing behavior issues despite
placement in programming that is supposedly designed to support their needs; however, the
relevance of staff–student relationships is the subject of this project.
V. Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
Educator bias against Black students (recognized or unrecognized) and educator
responses to behaviors increase maladaptive behaviors amongst that group of students (Coleman
& Stevenson, 2013). Cokley et al. (2014) indicated multiple intersectionalities that make it
difficult for educators to detect mental health issues in Black students. Black students who
respond to negative external stimuli are more likely to be misunderstood by educators, which
increases emotional instability in those who receive special education services (McKenna, 2013).
Theories that emphasize the increase of malignant behaviors among Black students classified as
emotionally disabled despite placement in academic environments designed to address these
issues include education social stratification theory and critical race theory.

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Education social stratification theory refers to the categorization of people rooted in
socioeconomic tiers because of their status in wealth, income, race, education, and power (Lucas,
2009). Distribution of funds to public schools based on race, socioeconomics, culture, etc.,
(Higgins, 2019), is an example of this theory. For instance, in the District of Columbia, funding
allocation is based on enrollment. Schools with lower enrollment numbers are housed in
impoverished wards of the district resulting in students who present with more behavioral needs
based on their adverse childhood experiences. To that end, educators have difficulty recognizing
how race, culture, and ethnicity impact student needs.
Environmental factors and other types of harmful effects impede students’ ability to
function in an academic setting. Colorblindness has a significant influence on how individuals
support Black high school students with an emotional disability. Colorblindness implies passivity
and dismisses the impact racial implications have on the academic environment (Annamma et
al., 2016). Educators who believe that they do not see color are one of several issues raised in
critical race theory. It cripples many, as they have difficulty recognizing the needs of Black
students in their care, causing a lack of safety and making it too difficult to foster positive
student–teacher relationships.
P2R challenged the practices and mindsets of educators who serve students at Ballou
High School in the District of Columbia, which have helped to produce negative and unfair
outcomes for students with an emotional disability. P2R prepared staff to address student needs
by utilizing additional relationship-building skills to support student needs. Timelines were
monitored to safeguard desired outcomes effectively. Staff were introduced to restorative
practice concepts, delved into the intricacies of the nervous system, and examined what happens
when the nervous system is dysregulated and how behaviors are manifested. The ultimate aim

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was to know, identify, and define the key determinants and pillars of regulating the nervous
system. Knowing this and having a better understanding of the inner workings of the nervous
system resulting in more positive student–staff relationships and encouraging social–emotional
empowerment, and student success. Thoughts, emotions, coping strategies, internal working
models, and overall self-concept are the principles that underscore P2R.
Staff were introduced to the theory, history, and impact of incorporating restorative
practices into the academic environment, explored and examined alternative approaches to
discipline and language, encouraged a learning environment that promotes a safe space, and
mindfulness, and learned how to infuse these practices into lessons. P2R improved student–
teacher relationships and reduced the emphasis on behaviors of Black high school students who
are placed in programs that cater to the needs of those with an emotional disability at Ballou
High School (see Appendix B on page 38).
P2R should be viewed and welcomed as an additional tool for staff, school, and district
leaders that will foster and promote a welcoming environment for students resulting in more
positive student–staff relationships and reduced negative student behaviors. The exploration,
preparation, implementation, and sustainment (EPIS) framework was used as a guide for P2R
(see Appendix C on page 39). The inner context refers to Ballou High School
deans/administrators, social workers, and special education staff while the outer context refers to
organizational characteristics such as funding, partnerships, and collaboration.
As the design process of P2R continued to evolve, the facilitator’s ability to adhere to the
prescribed weekly sessions given competing school priorities at Ballou High School such as
crises, being at assigned duty posts, and responding to external needs was surveilled. Further, the
sustainability of P2R was predicated on leadership priorities, staffing, additional resources, and

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funding (material, stipends for identified trainers, etc.). As Ballou High School leaders and
relevant stakeholders bought into the stated outcomes, students and staff experienced symbiotic
and/or interdependent relationships that will eventually yield an increase in students’ overall selfconcept and academic success.
P2R helped to examine processes and practices currently in place at Ballou High School
that hinder the social–emotional success of the targeted 65 emotionally disabled students. P2R
encouraged efficacy and student achievement via strategies, interventions, accommodations, and
progress monitoring measures. Staff buy-in, parent, and other stakeholder participation were
required while ensuring evidence-based practices are occurring throughout the learning
environment. The skills taught were reviewed periodically by using the logic model and the EPIS
framework as a guide and a way to assess the needs of the students served (see Appendices B
and C on pages 38 and 39).
VI. Project Description
Prioritizing the mental health needs of students while fostering staff–student relationships
will promote positive outcomes and ultimately foster a safe school environment for Black high
school students who are identified with an emotional disability (Bagley, 2022). Effective
implementation of P2R will meet the goal of decreasing negative behaviors of emotionally
disabled Black students at Ballou High School in Washington, DC. The purpose of this project
was to create an environment in which students can thrive emotionally, socially, and
behaviorally with high expectations and support.
According to the Annie E. Casey Foundation (2015), if researchers and practitioners
engage stakeholders early on, they are more likely to increase actionable steps to develop equity
in the academic environment. Prioritizing the mental health needs of students while fostering

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staff–student relationships will promote positive outcomes and ultimately foster a safe school
environment for Black high school students who are identified with an emotional disability
(Bagley, 2022).
To offer a practical yet effective solution to address the increased negative behaviors
amongst Black high school students classified with an emotional disability is of utmost
importance if this population is to succeed. Programming should incorporate evidence-based
training opportunities, hiring staff who have experience with cultural competency, and
improving teacher–student relationships. P2R can incorporate the above-mentioned components
while recognizing the intersectionality that exists. It is safe to say that each cannot exist without
the other to ensure the social emotional and academic progress of Black students.
Research must begin to combine theoretical frameworks and implementation to maximize
learning opportunities for students while decreasing instances of microaggressions, bias, and
discriminatory practices in the special education environment. There is an opportunity to reframe
existing policy and limit disproportionality while capitalizing on the untapped potential within
special education (Coker, 2020).
Developed interventions that focus on narrowly defined problems or practices may be
necessary, but they may not be sufficient to deter disparate systems because it is difficult to
change a system (e.g., inequities in education funding, personnel quality, enrichment programs)
embedded with an infrastructure with racist undertones that continues to hinder the academic
opportunities of minority communities (Sullivan et al., 2015). Before IDEA, parents of students
with disabilities had little to no involvement in special education other than participating in
individualized education program meetings annually.

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There is a push to foster the idea that school personnel and families are partners in
educating and shaping youth in special education. The goal is to foster and promote positive
relationships among the missing stakeholders in the hopes it will lead to higher-quality schools
and improved academic success for students. The impact of school personnel and how parents of
students with special education needs collaborate is understudied (Woods et al., 2017).
P2R can improve staff–student relationships, incorporate evidence-based practices, and
vet staff who have a genuine desire to improve the relationships between staff and students at
Ballou High School. Wilkinson and Bartoli (2021) reported that positive relationships between
students and teachers are crucial, as increased maladaptive behaviors among Black students in
the special education environment are evidenced by what is lacking or withheld. To that end,
results from focus groups, interviews, surveys, and observations that were designed to find a
viable solution for this wicked problem showed that the targeted population would thrive in an
environment where positive staff–student relationship is an area of focus.
P2R can address the root cause of student behaviors while embodying a community that
supports inclusionary practices that consider all stakeholders’ needs in the school environment.
The elements of an affirmative school climate are positive behavioral and academic outcomes
that reduce the rate of maladaptive behavior and increase feelings of school connectedness,
motivation, and overall success (Huang & Anyon, 2020). P2R was useful as an additional tool
and assisted staff in creating an affirming school climate and culture at Ballou High School.
P2R’s program creator and developer is a school social worker who works for the DC
public schools central service unit, was an administrator at Ballou High School, continues to
have relationships with Ballou High School principals and assistant principals, has access to 65
emotionally disturbed students and staff, and is believed to be met with minimal reluctance.

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Academic School Year 2023–2024 was the research and development year, which included
observation of student and staff interactions with 65 targeted students, conducting gallery walks
to discuss the data from referrals, using prior school year panorama survey results as a baseline,
conducting staff and student interviews, and conducting focus groups comprised of staff and
students to continue to assess programmatic needs.
P2R was successful by aligning safe school key elements, which are as follows: program,
buy-in, training, leadership, student engagement, enforcement, data, and family/community
engagement (School Safety, n.d.). To meet these metrics, the project addressed accountability
practices, school connectedness, and engagement, physical surroundings, classroom
environment, school and classroom expectations, student recognition, and social–emotional
learning activities/engagement. P2R was measured against other initiatives that addressed the
impact of staff–student relationships at two other high schools with high populations of
emotionally disabled students in the District of Columbia.
P2R was measured against another novel school-based intervention entitled Playing2gether, which focuses on addressing difficult behaviors by improving student–teacher
relationships and has shown great promise in reducing negative behaviors (Wilkinson & Bartoli,
2021). P2R explained how best to support teachers to help educators gain a better understanding
of the emotion-related characteristics of Black students.
Ballou High School, with a previous iteration of leadership, successfully implemented
restorative practices to increase positive school culture and climate. P2R expounded those tenets
by intentionally including skills to increase positive staff–student interactions in special
education. Academic School Year 2024–2025 will be an implementation year (see Appendix D
on page 40). Special education staff will be introduced to elements of P2R at the beginning of the

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year (BOY), middle of the year (MOY), and end of the year (EOY). Students will be introduced
to restorative language and practices at the MOY and EOY.
Restorative language and response will be incorporated during training sessions and
modeled during stakeholder meetings. This may be challenging if monitoring and incorporating
best practices into the academic environment are not consistent. Identified stakeholders (e.g.,
external design partners, identified Ballou leaders, youth leaders, etc.) will meet weekly from
August through October during the 2024–2025 school year to ensure program goals are managed
effectively. Meetings will then be adjusted to biweekly until the end of the school year. Meetings
will always include a review of the established climate plan, attendance, behavior, and of course
performance data of targeted students. Data dives including referral data, surveys, observations,
and focus groups will inform best practices and next steps to foster positive staff and student
relationships.
Identified team members will provide technical support to staff through ongoing training
and providing feedback throughout the 2024–2025 school year as identified in the logic model
(see Appendix B on page 39). The objective is to challenge the way others think and behave per
targeted student behaviors. The mindset of staff will be shifted to encourage them to be open to
mindfulness and to develop a different way of supporting student needs. P2R will encourage
Ballou staff to understand the behaviors of students, and their causes, respond accordingly, and
not resort to punitive or negative responses. The desire is to incorporate practices that will
establish trust between staff and students.
A key measurement of the successful implementation of P2R in Ballou High School is
inclusivity and buy-in amongst special education staff, school leaders, and facilitators. Perhaps
the most significant component of P2R is the focus on creating a space that empowers students to

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become more involved in their education lives in a safe, welcoming, and nurturing environment.
The following measurable goals will be sought after the first implementation year of P2R:
¨ By the end of SY 2024–2025, 100% of special education staff members will have
been introduced to restorative practices and established mastery of the approaches
evidenced by pre- and post-exam results after each session.
¨ By the end of SY 2024–2025, there will be a 35% increase in the use of prosocial
behavior of referred students evidenced using 3–4 strategies given the use of progress
monitoring tools (A–B–C observation form, scatterplot observation form, strengths
and difficulties questionnaire).
¨ By the end of SY 2024–2025, there will be increased positive staff–student
engagement by 40% evidenced by comparing the results of the end-of-the-year
panoramic student survey from SY 2023–2024.
VII. Methodology
P2R examines the impact student–teacher relationships have on Black high school
students who are placed in special education programs. The goal of P2R is to create an additional
pathway for staff, school, and district leaders to follow or use that will foster a welcoming
environment for the targeted population while decreasing negative behaviors. This innovation
may cause education staff to look beyond processes and practices that are already in place. The
hope is for P2R to be implemented enthusiastically, particularly in special education
environments to include strategies, interventions, accommodations, and program monitoring
measures at various points throughout the year. Tools to assess diversity, equity, and inclusive
practices implemented throughout the school day are included and are non-negotiable for
programming. The data collected and reviewed determined the next steps such as timeline shifts,

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the development of additional tools and strategies, and the opportunity to expand the online
platform.
The 2023–2024 academic year was the planning year for P2R. The initial approaches to
design the outline of P2R were as follows: searches of databases, libraries, blogs, white/grey
papers, formal and informal interviews, semi-formal/structured focus groups and interviews, and
observations. Alternative data-gathering methods such as observations are great ways to collect
information to address sociological problems (Becker & Geer 1958). Staff buy-in, parent
support, and other stakeholder support are a must to ensure learned skills are used throughout the
learning environment. The climate and culture at Ballou High School was and will be assessed to
evaluate the needs of staff and students alike. A needs assessment will be conducted at least three
times throughout the 2024–2025 school year for sustainability and plausibility. This will include
funding and staffing needs, along with needed resources to maintain P2R.
The planning timeline began at the end of September 2023, as it allowed the school social
workers, deans, director of strategies and logistics, and principal to collect baseline data about
the targeted population before the proposed meeting times. The targeted population was 65
students classified with an emotional disability from Grades 9 through 12. The wide range of
participants and research tools allowed for diverse perspectives and theories regarding the stated
problem, which is the increase in maladaptive behavior among Black students who are classified
with an emotional disturbance when placed in an academic environment where staff–student
relationships are not positive.
Interviews, observations, and focus groups (see Appendix E on page 41) lasted no more
than an hour at a time. A series of questions was asked, but participants were allowed to share
more regarding their experiences on the subject. Providing a choice to gather information when

23
conducting research is a way to cultivate more participation, and it is more intimate (Heath et al.,
2018). There was a shared agreement that there is no one way to address this need and that
school leaders should be open to considering alternative ways to address the needs of the target
population and those poised to support them.
Further exploration and discussion with the external design partner led to identifying key
determinants or pillars of regulating the nervous system required for positive student–staff
relationships that will result in social-emotional empowerment and student success. Thoughts,
emotions, coping strategies, internal working models, and individual perspectives are pivotal
components to include as P2R evolves.
Several observations were conducted with students who are in special education
environments at various times during the school day. Interactions between staff and students
were observed and assessed. Eight observations were conducted and behaviors (e.g.,
externalizing, distracting, emotional dysregulation, etc.) of groups of students were assessed in 2-
minute increments for a total of 120 minutes. This allowed the developer of P2R to determine the
causes and triggers of student behavior, observe staff-student interactions, and observe
breakdowns in engagement that resulted in negative interactions.
The P2R creator connected with 20 staff members and five stakeholders during the 2023–
2024 school year who have worked or have supported Ballou within the last 3 years to gauge
their understanding of building positive relationships to increase student participation in the
academic environment and to reduce maladaptive behaviors. Focus groups were conducted on
October 5, 2023, December 13, 2023, December 20, 2023, and January 24, 2024, with 35 staff at
Ballou High School.
These staff comprised school leaders, special education teachers, and related service

24
providers. A series of questions about their beliefs about the staff-student relationships, bias
about students who are classified with an emotional disability, elements needed to create a
positive staff-student relationship, and what impacts the mental health of students with an
emotional disability were asked. Discussions each lasted approximately an hour and a half. This
was a deviation from the original next steps, as the creator felt it important to get as much
foundational information to develop a solid online program.
The outcome of the focus groups and other data points was that P2R is a much-needed
resource. The audience was asked a series of questions to gauge the authentic perspectives of
those participating and to identify plausible solutions based on the experiences of those who
worked in academic settings. To ensure positive relationships are developed between the target
population of students and staff, an understanding of student needs and obstacles is important:
having a trauma-informed lens or foundation and recognizing resilience and what that means is
critical. Last, the greatest takeaway was intentionality. Each participant must be intentional about
the approach to foster and promote positive outcomes.
Focus group participants were introduced to the P2R platform and the outline that was
created. As participants reviewed the content, the P2R creator kept in mind the identified key
determinants or pillars of regulating the nervous system required and the indicators that will
assess positive student–staff relationships resulting in social-emotional empowerment and
student success. Feedback from participants was as follows:
¨ Ensure the material is not so dense that the audience loses focus or sight of the intent.
¨ Create modules that are more interactive, fun, and user-friendly.
¨ Keep all the skillsets of all users and their capacity to navigate the platform in mind.
¨ Ensure the platform will be allowed for professional development credit or CEUs.

25
¨ Add more modules that uplift alternative ways to reach hard-to-engage students.
¨ Isolate a control group.
¨ Compare student-teacher relationship engagement with educators who engaged in the
P2R platform versus those who have not.
¨ Partner with local school districts and researchers to conduct a deeper data dive.
¨ Consider using QR codes to track outcomes from participating educators and
students.
The next iteration of the design process for P2R is to build out the platform to include
suggestions and consider other data collection methods, engage more participants during the
planning phase for testing to anticipate needs, and consider developing research on the subject
matter. Kutash et al. (2011) highlighted that in a literature review of over 2,000 articles, only 64
reported rigorous empirical designs that embedded evaluation procedures for interventions.
While Kutash et al. uplifted the treatment availability in their review, which was aimed at
increasing social competencies and reducing hostile and problem behaviors, only 24 of the 64
studies emphasized a small increase in academic achievement. Moreover, only 15 of the
interventions were planned to support the behavioral and academic needs of students. P2R can
support social–emotional competence and a sense of belonging that will result in academic
achievement and overall empowerment.
VIII. Implementation Plan
P2R will be rolled out using multiple tools and measures. Staff will be trained during the
summer of the school year 2024–2025 and during the pre-service week of that same school year.
There will be ongoing training during the BOY, MOY, and EOY for staff and targeted students
and monthly chat and chews with parents to gauge buy-in.

26
Funding for P2R will be cost-effective as staff members who are employed with DCPS
will facilitate training and monitor progress. Materials for training, stipends, and incentives for
participation will be the focus of funds. Funding sources will include Donors Choose, Teachers
Pay Teachers, SAMSHA, local and district-level funding, and the Office of the State
Superintendent. Participation in data dive/gallery walks will be used to ascertain exemplary
practices and the next steps (see Appendix F on page 43). Consistent collaboration with
appropriate stakeholders throughout the implementation and rollout process will occur quarterly
to examine best practices, determine the need, and/or design a shift in programming.
To spread the word about P2R, a P2R campaign will uplift the voices of children who do
not have a voice in education. This campaign will promote the relevance of focusing on staff–
student relationships in special education programming. It will specifically highlight that Black
students with an emotional disability and negative relationships with staff have lower academic
success and higher maladaptive behaviors than others. Although there is a plethora of research
that highlights the inequities and racist practices within education, there is limited research that
specifically highlights solutions to the inequities within special education programming and the
impact on minority students should the implementation of identified solutions be carried out with
fidelity. Pitre (2014) reported a need to delve deeper into the disparities in education, as the most
impacted groups are Black students followed by other minority populations.
The P2R campaign will highlight the disparities in education, and it will be a call to
action for all stakeholders. It will be a celebration of Black voices while infusing other youths of
color who have been impacted by inequities in education. This campaign will elicit compassion
from others so they can recognize the importance of ensuring that all students receive quality
education. Short clips or videos of Black high school students who have graduated from schools

27
will discuss their experiences both in schools and after they have left the education campus. The
goal is to highlight both the negative and positive experiences while exposing the impact
inequity in education has on Black students classified with an emotional disability. This
campaign will even expose how Black students have been unfairly treated by staff members
because of reported misinformation about this student population. The goal is to elicit
compassion and a call to action to reform practices to ensure equity in education programming
and resources.
The P2R campaign will appeal to the heart of influencers, and celebrated professionals in
the field of education will be used to promote the campaign. The P2R campaign will take a risk
and focus specifically on Black students and the impact inequities in education have while
promoting P2R as an additional tool to support those with an emotional disability.
The P2R campaign will target Ballou High School leaders, educators, the school board,
unions, Black high school students with emotional disability, and parents. It will use social
media: Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, blogs, and streaming platforms such as YouTube to
spread the message. This campaign will run weekly beginning June 21, 2024, through August 23,
2024. The targeted audience will be exposed throughout the summer, during professional
development week, and at the beginning of the school year. The P2R campaign will tap into the
heartstrings of stakeholders and hopefully lead them to understand why P2R is important and its
intentional use as an additional resource (see Appendix G on page 44).
To support the needs of Black students effectively requires a level of intentionality to
incorporate views from an unbiased cultural lens (Williams, 2022). If we fail to examine these
ideals, Black students will continue to experience challenging interactions with others that

28
impact their mental health. To that end, the requirement of exploring potential barriers and
obstacles will provide the developer of P2R opportunities to adjust along the way.
P2R will help educators to work with students with emotional disability at Ballou High
School in a more meaningful way. A deeper dive into traditional approaches to school leadership
and professional development should be considered when thinking about addressing the impact
racism has on the academic environment, resulting in negative behaviors of Black students
(Brooks & Watson, 2018).
As the design process continues, it will be necessary to identify characteristics and
practices that can result in an equitable education environment. It should also include interviews
with White school leaders and White students classified with an emotional disability to explore
their approach to building positive staff–student interactions, to gauge their experiences albeit
positive or negative, and to determine how these interactions influenced their academic success.
Purposeful and meaningful discussion will help us to gain a better understanding of student,
educator, and school leader needs along with their varying perspectives when working with
youth. Further, this will help stakeholders to understand what is necessary to improve the
academic and social–emotional outcomes of Black high school students identified with an
emotional disability.
Organizational consultants, another missing voice, can contribute to creating equitable
practices by assisting in devising and implementing comprehensive, coherent systemic change
models (Sullivan et al., 2015). In addition, there are varying collaborative roles that different
stakeholders should and can take while creating a space for partnerships/partners to communicate
more effectively (Woods et al., 2017). An environmental perspective often suggests that there are

29
problems in the interactions or transactions between students and identified stakeholders
(Kauffman & Badar, 2013).
Kauffman and Badar (2013) suggested that special education has been “mugged,”
stretching the truth and embracing distortions that have been promoted or pushed as truths and
have been used to argue that special education is an evil enterprise that hurts children and wastes
money. Unfortunately, some of these poor views and outright misinformation about special
education for the emotionally disabled have been published by special educators. This means we
must do a better job of understanding how all stakeholders impact the academic outcomes of
Black students while appealing to relevancy.
IX. Conclusions and Implications
While there is research on the importance of positive student–staff relationships and the
outcomes of student performance, the implementation of programs that address that need has not
been sustained (Wilkinson & Bartoli, 2021). The mental health of Black youth suffers because of
the negative experiences they are exposed to in the academic setting (National Center for
Learning Disabilities, 2021). In a study conducted by Harper et al. (2016), participants noted that
perceived barriers included limited resources to address the mental well-being of students and
higher prioritization of academic achievement.
Solutions that will address the impact of staff–student relationships and the social–
emotional outcomes of Black students with an emotional disability continue to be an underaddressed area. The focus should be on educator bias, staff mindsets, and preconceived notions
about Black students with emotional disability. Some 20% of America’s youth qualified for an
emotional disability in 2006, and $8.6 billion was spent to address the disorders associated with
the classification (Blau et al., 2010). Educational campuses have been identified as spaces that

30
can support these young people (Kutash et al., 2011). Discrimination is inherent in the academic
environment, which has significant implications for Black students, as there is a direct impact on
their mental health. Schools are a microcosm in which the lived experience of Black high school
students is constant microaggressions (Williams, 2022).
P2R (see Appendix H on page 45) will ultimately lead to increased school attendance,
reduced dropout rates, high student satisfaction, safety, positive academic outcomes, the ability
to compete globally, lower attrition, and more productive lives. P2R will be rolled out using
multiple tools and measures. Data collection began during the 2023–2024 school year (focus
groups with both staff and students, observations, and surveys). Staff will be trained during the
summer before the school year 2024–2025 and during the pre-service week of that same school
year. There will be ongoing training for staff and targeted students at the BOY, MOY, and EOY,
and monthly chats and chews with staff and parents to gauge buy-in, as well as to ascertain
efficacy.
In summary, the development of programs such as P2R has the potential to meet both the
academic and the social–emotional achievement of Black high school students identified with an
emotional disability (Kutash et al., 2011). It is an innovation that will ameliorate the stated
problem and close the gap between already established methods that have not improved and
sustained solutions to ensure positive academic and social–emotional outcomes for Black high
school students identified as emotionally disabled.

31
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37
Appendix A

38
Appendix B: Implementation Research Logic Model
DETERMINANTS IMPLEMENTATION
STRATEGIES MECHANISMS OUTCOMES
CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE INTERVENTION:
Barriers-
• Cost/funding
• Training
Facilitators-
• Ballou High School
dean/special education
leader
• School social workers
• External partners
Ø Multifaceted
Ø Plan
Ø Educate
Ø Finance
Ø Restructure
Ø Quality
management
Develop best practices
to support students
who are having
behavior challenges.
Push into classrooms
to build positive
relationships with staff
Develop systems to
foster positive school
culture and climate
Facilitate youth court
Increase positive
parent engagement.
Practices throughout
the Ballou High School
education district
cluster
Promote shift from
exclusionary discipline
to a high-quality
restorative practice for
education district
students
Increase awareness
about restorative
culture change among
institutions,
communities, and
families for targeted
students
Identify model schools
and practices for
replication.
Reduce punitive
disciplinary actions
(suspensions and
referrals to lawenforcement) for lowlevel school-based
offenses
Increase pro-social
behavior and student
engagement and
performance
Reduce
suspensions by
10%
Increase student
attendance by
10% per grade
level
Expose 100% of
special education
staff to
restorative
practices
Some 35% of
referred students
showed increased
pro-social
behavior
All parents/
students engaged
as parent/student
champions
Increase positive
staff–student
engagement by
40%
INNER CONTEXT:
Barriers-
• Competing priorities
• Logistical barriers
Facilitators-
• Ballou High School
dean/special education
leader
• School social workers
• External partners
OUTER CONTEXT:
Barriers-
• Funding
• Technical assistance
Facilitators-
• School/district leaders
(Department of
Specialized
Instruction)
• School social
worker/dean/ special
education leader
• External partners

39
Appendix C: EPIS Framework
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INTERVENTION
BARRIERS FACILITATORS
• Cost/funding
• Training
• Ballou High School dean/special education leader
• School social workers
INNER CONTEXT
BARRIERS FACILITATORS
• Competing priorities
• Logistical barriers
• Ballou High School dean/special education leader
• School social workers
OUTER CONTEXT
BARRIERS FACILITATORS
• Funding
• Technical assistance
• School/district leaders (Department of Specialized Instruction)
• School social worker/dean/special education team

40
Appendix D: Solutions Landscape Analysis
Design Criteria
Features
Training disability
identification including
linguistic and cultural
differences
(Pilot group of staff and
students July 2024)
Ongoing throughout the
2024–2025 school year)
Audits of
discipline
practices, special
education
policies, and
practices
(August 2023–
May 2024 BOY,
MOY, EOY)
Restorative justice, culturally
responsive teaching, positive
behavior of interventions and
supports, multi-tiered systems
of support, and universal
design for learning
(Start of the 2024–2025 school
year)
Diversify the school staff
including school leaders, and
direct line team members,
and incentivize the use of
culturally responsive
approaches
(End of the 2023–2024
school year through the start
of the 2024–2025 school
year)
Traumainformed
X X X
Welcoming and
safe space
X X X
Student voice
Student needs X X X
Sustainability X
Staff retention X X X
Staff voice X X X
Program
success metrics
X

41
Diversity, equity, and inclusion
practices
X
X
X
X

42
Appendix E: Interview/Focus Group Questions
Describe your role in the academic environment.
What do you do to ensure the academic/classroom environment is a safe one?
What components are needed to foster emotional safety for students?
Have you considered what biases you bring into the academic environment? What are they?
How would you define equitable practices in education?
How would you define equality in education?
Describe an ideal teacher–student relationship?
What is the impact of a positive teacher–student relationship?
Have you experienced a breakdown in the relationship between teacher and student? What was
the impact?
Describe your experience working with Black high school students classified as emotionally
disturbed?
Have Black high school students classified as emotionally disturbed met with success in your
experience? What factors or interventions were applied to ensure their success?
How does the teacher–student relationship impact mental health outcomes for Black high
school students classified with an emotional disturbance?

43
Appendix F: Line-Item Budget
Pieces to a Rose
Volunteer hours: 3 Academic Staff (0.2 FTE
@$63hr each week)
Materials: Prints, curriculum software
$ 2500
$15,000
Other expenses: Stipends, incentives/rewards,
campaign costs
$7,500

44
Appendix G
Target audience Funders
Social media outlets,
television and streaming
outlets
Meetings with Ballou High
School leaders, staff, parents,
students, and comunity
partners officials to to develop
a sustainable strategy
P2R online curriculum

45
Appendix H: Pieces to a Rose Link
https://regina-miller-nadir-s-school.teachable.com/p/pieces-2-a-rose-module-one-co-regulationand-your-nervous-system

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Asset Metadata

Creator Nadir, Regina Miller (author)

Core Title Impact of positive student–staff relationships and the social–emotional outcomes of Black high school students classified with an emotional disability

School Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work

Degree Doctor of Social Work

Degree Program Social Work

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 05/24/2024

Defense Date 04/04/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,emotional disability,mental health,OAI-PMH Harvest,social-emotional outcomes,Special Education,staff-student relationships

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Nguyen, Loc (committee chair), Brown-White, Pam (committee member), Hylton, Ivy (committee member)

Creator Email reginamnadir@gmail.com,rnadir@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113956484

Unique identifier UC113956484

Identifier etd-NadirRegin-13023.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-NadirRegin-13023

Document Type Capstone project

Format theses (aat)

Rights Nadir, Regina Miller

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240524-usctheses-batch-1161 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu