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The perspectives of community organizers on advocating for environmental justice related to transportation air-pollution

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The perspectives of community organizers on advocating for environmental justice related to transportation air-pollution

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Content The Perspectives of Community Organizers on Advocating for Environmental Justice
Related to Transportation Air-Pollution
By
Tamara Trina Newman
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
Doctor of Education
May 2024

@Copyright by Tamara Trina Newman, 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee of Tamara Trina Newman certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Eric A. Canny
Courtney Lynn Malloy
Kathy Stowe, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
Transportation systems, integral to economic and social connectivity, are paradoxically
significant contributors to environmental degradation through air pollution. This pollution
disproportionately impacts marginalized communities situated near major transportation arteries,
exacerbating health disparities with increased incidences of respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases. The purpose of this study is to investigate the opportunities and challenges of
community organizers in advocating for environmental justice related to transportation-induced
air pollution within marginalized communities. Utilizing Dr. Robert Bullard's Environmental
Justice Framework, the study provides a structured lens to evaluate the effectiveness of
community advocacy against systemic environmental inequalities. Employing purposeful
sampling, semi-structured virtual interviews were conducted with 11 community organizers
actively advocating for environmental justice across the United States. The interviews were
transcribed using ReadAI and analyzed with NVivo software to identify themes and patterns in
advocacy dynamics. To enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings, the study
incorporated peer reviews, conducted member checks, and maintained researcher reflexivity. The
findings revealed dual facets of advocacy: empowering opportunities and significant challenges.
Opportunities highlighted include the importance of culturally responsive communication and
environmental community education for empowering communities, strategic policy advocacy,
and building trust-based partnerships. Conversely, significant challenges include difficulties in
resource allocation, navigating complex policy environments, mobilizing diverse community
groups, and balancing diverse interests. Recommendations based on these findings include
strengthening public participation and information access through culturally responsive
communication and environmental community education, building collaborative partnerships

v
across sectors to enhance the impact and reach of advocacy efforts, and implementing adaptive
strategies to navigate the complexities of environmental justice advocacy effectively.
Keywords: Environmental Justice, Robert Bullard’s Environmental Justice Framework,
Transportation Air Pollution, Health Disparities, Marginalized Communities, Disadvantaged
Communities, Community Education, Community Organizing, Community Engagement,
Advocacy, Empowerment, Environmental Policy Impact, Qualitative Research.

vi
Dedication
To my father, Theus Young, who faced the challenges posed by Jim Crow laws and many
injustices. Your tireless efforts and profound sacrifices have provided a foundation for success
and changed the trajectory of our family. You have shown me the power of love, courage,
determination, and excellence, and I will be forever grateful. I love you, Dad!
To my darlings, Samara and Dior, together, we have grown and conquered, fueled by the
unwavering belief that with God, nothing is impossible. As you journey through life, always hold
close the words of Romans 8:28, knowing that your paths are divinely crafted, and your purposes
are uniquely designed. My love for you both is boundless and forever!
To my husband, Naeem, who came into my life during this doctoral journey—thank you for
lifting me up when I needed it most, for holding my heart with such care, and for carrying me
across the finish line. I love you, Honey!
To God, for His unending grace and the call to serve as shown in Proverbs 31:8-9—this
dissertation embodies my commitment to defend and uplift those who cannot do so for
themselves.
And in memory of my mother, Elisa Young, a true Proverbs 31 woman who always believed in
me and made me feel like I was the smartest person she knew. This dissertation serves as a
humble tribute to her enduring legacy and the impactful works she left behind, a testament to a
life dedicated to service and love. Her works do follow her.

vii
Acknowledgements
Reflecting on the 2019 National Science Foundation's Survey of Earned Doctorates,
which underscores the unique challenges and achievements for women like me, I am driven to
excel. As a Black and Samoan woman completing my EdD, this journey has not just been my
own but a shared triumph with my family and community, defying the odds. With women
earning 51% of doctoral degrees in the U.S., yet only 4.6% being Black women and 1.8%
women of mixed race, our family's legacy of educational excellence is profound. My sisters,
Tonya, Teresa, and Elisa, all holders of doctorates, exemplify this achievement. Our late mother,
Elisa Young, and father, Theus Young, provided the bedrock of resilience and kindness. Their
endless love and profound wisdom have deeply shaped my life and ignited a fierce passion
within me to pursue and achieve my dreams.
Philip, your passionate advocacy for environmental justice has significantly influenced
my academic path and understanding in this vital field, and for that, I am deeply grateful.
To my Honey, Naeem, your unwavering support and love have been my sanctuary.
Mandisa and Mommy Lauren, your uplifting words and prayers have been a tremendous source
of strength. Rhiane, Mya, and Deuce, I hope my achievements inspire you to chase your own
dreams. Thank you all for being the loving family I never knew I needed, enriching my life with
more love and belonging.
To Samara and Dior, thank you for your support as I pursued my MBA and doctorate.
Your sacrifices did not go unnoticed. Every goal I achieved was inspired by you, aiming to show
the value of perseverance and determination. Now that you are adults, I look forward to making
up for lost time with joy and laughter. May goodness and mercy always chase after you,
reminding you of your purpose and the depth of love that surrounds you.

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To my Samoan family, oute Fa’afetai ia Ieova mo outou uma, le Āiga pele o siō matou Tinā o
Elisa, ua fai i lagi lana folau. Fa’afetai Fa’afetai tele lava mo talosaga, meaalofa, ma mea uma ua
outou foaiina mo lenei Aso faapitoa. Ia faamanuia tele le Atua ia te outou uma, le Āiga pele o
Siofele, Tofā Lealali, Pastor Sato, uncles, aunties, and cousins. Ia alofa le Atua faaopoopo ni aso
e tele tatou te toe mafuta ai, ile suafa pele o lesu keriso, Amene.
I am deeply thankful to my committee for their invaluable mentorship and support. Dr.
Stowe, as my dissertation chair, your guidance has been instrumental in expanding my thinking
and enhancing my academic rigor, encouraging me to explore complex ideas confidently. In
class, Dr. Phillips, your lessons on identity, resilience, equity, and dealing with microaggressions
have better equipped me to navigate and respond to personal and academic challenges related to
racism and inequality. Dr. Malloy and Dr. Canny, your insights and encouragement have
significantly enriched my research journey.
My heartfelt thanks go to the eleven community organizers whose dedication to
environmental justice has deeply enriched this research. Your experiences, insights, and
unwavering passion for advocating for those most harmed by transportation air pollution have
profoundly inspired me. I am eager to continue our collaboration and further our shared goals.
Each individual mentioned has been essential to this journey. I am profoundly grateful for
your contributions and unwavering support, which have been pivotal in my academic
achievements and personal growth. Fa’afetai tele lava! Thank you very much!

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Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... ix
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xii
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice.................................................................... 1
Context and Background of the Problem ............................................................................ 3
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions .................................................................... 5
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 6
Overview of Theoretical and Methodology ........................................................................ 7
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 44
Definitions......................................................................................................................... 10
Overview of the Study ...................................................................................................... 11
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 13
Historical Policies and Practices of Environmental Justice .............................................. 13
Impact of Environmental Justice in Transportation Related Air Pollution....................... 29
Community Organizers Advocating for Environmental Justice ....................................... 39
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 43
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 46
Overview of Design .......................................................................................................... 46

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The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 47
Data Source ....................................................................................................................... 49
Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................................... 51
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 52
Credibility & Trustworthiness .......................................................................................... 53
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 54
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 57
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 57
Findings for Research Question 1 ..................................................................................... 61
Findings for Research Question 2 ..................................................................................... 74
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 85
Chapter 5: Discussion and Recommendations .............................................................................. 89
Discussion of Findings ...................................................................................................... 89
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................... 94
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 101
Recommendation for Future Research ............................................................................ 102
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 103
References ................................................................................................................................... 107
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 130
Appendix B: University of Southern California Information Sheet ........................................... 133
Appendix C: Participant Recruitment Letter .............................................................................. 134
Appendix D: Socia Media Post ................................................................................................... 135
Appendix E: Word of Mouth Script............................................................................................ 136

xi
List of Tables
Table 1: Dr. Robert Bullard’s Environmental Justice Framework ................................................. 9
Table 2: Participant Demographics and Testimonies ................................................................. 588
Table 3: Findings for Research Question #1............................................................................... 622
Table 4: Findings for Research Question #2............................................................................... 755
Table 5: Alignment of Recommendations with Bullard’s Environmental Justice Framework .. 955

xii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 45

xiii
List of Abbreviations
CAA Clean Air Act
CBPR Community-Based Participatory Research
CWA Clean Water Act
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EO Executive Order
GAO U.S. Government Accountability Office
HOLC Home Owners' Loan Corporation
NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide
NOx Nitrogen Oxides
PM Particulate Matter
PM2.5 Particulate Matter 2.5 micrometers or smaller
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Transportation systems play a critical role in economic development and societal
functioning but substantially impact environmental quality, particularly air pollution (Houston et
al., 2004; Tayarani & Rowangould, 2020). The emissions generated by transportation activities
have detrimental effects on air quality, resulting in significant risks to public health, with
marginalized and vulnerable communities bearing disproportionate impacts (Cushing et al.,
2023; Environmental Protection Agency, 2023; Perera & Nadeau, 2022). Research has
demonstrated that transportation emissions contribute to air pollution and are associated with
adverse health outcomes (Manisalidis et al., 2020), including respiratory problems (Hegseth et
al., 2019; Khreis et al., 2017; Mukherjee et al., 2020), cardiovascular diseases (Motairek et al.,
2023b; Zhang et al., 2023), and increased mortality rates (Payne-Sturges et al., 2019; Perera &
Nadeau, 2022). Chakraborty et al. (2016) emphasizes the disparities in exposure to
transportation-related air pollution, highlighting the vulnerability of marginalized communities
near major transportation corridors to higher pollutant levels emitted from vehicles. Similarly,
research elucidates the implications of this proximity, revealing the increased risks to respiratory
health faced by individuals residing near highways and industrial transportation routes due to
heightened exposure to vehicle-emitted pollutants (Zhang et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2023). The
problem of practice involves understanding advocacy opportunities and challenges to strengthen
community organizers' efforts to mitigate the disproportionate exposure to air pollution and
health risks faced by marginalized communities living near major transportation corridors
(Bullard & Johnson, 2000; Pellow, 2016; Zhang et al., 2021).
Environmental justice seeks to address these disparities by ensuring equitable and
inclusive treatment and active participation of individuals from diverse backgrounds in

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formulating, implementing, and enforcing environmental laws, regulations, and policies
(Hurlbert & Rayner, 2018). However, despite advancements in understanding the connections
between transportation, air quality, and environmental justice, researchers acknowledge the need
for a more comprehensive investigation into the opportunities and challenges presented by policy
interventions and strategies aimed at mitigating environmental justice concerns associated with
transportation emissions (Swope et al., 2022). Recent research provides compelling evidence of
the detrimental effects of transportation emissions on air quality, underscoring the significant
risks they pose to public health (Manisalidis et al., 2020; Ulibarri et al., 2022). Marginalized
communities bear disproportionate impacts, as studies by Pellow (2020) and Siddiqi et al. (2022)
demonstrate that these risks are not uniformly distributed. The uneven distribution of these
impacts arises from various factors, including the spatial disparities in transportation
infrastructure and the socioeconomic characteristics of affected communities (Bailey et al., 2012;
Pellow, 2016; Siddiqi et al., 2022; Ulibarri et al., 2022). Moreover, this research reveals the
cruciality of recognizing that the effects of transportation-related air pollution extend beyond
physical health, encompassing broader social, economic, and environmental dimensions. This
growing body of research highlights the urgent need for targeted policy interventions and
comprehensive strategies that address the unequal distribution of transportation-related air
pollution and its multidimensional impacts on marginalized communities (Kannoth et al., 2023;
Swope et al., 2022).
This study investigated the opportunities and challenges for community organizers in
advocating for environmental justice regarding transportation's impact on air quality. The study
explored critical opportunities for promoting environmental justice and addressing significant
challenges using qualitative research methods, including semi-structured interviews with

3
community organizers. The findings underscored the strategies and efforts of community
organizers in advocating for environmental justice, specifically highlighting their role in tackling
transportation-induced air pollution within marginalized communities.
Context and Background of the Problem
In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the urgent need to address
environmental justice concerns in the realm of transportation and air quality. Research
consistently demonstrates that marginalized communities are disproportionately affected by
transportation-related air pollution due to their proximity to highways, ports, and industrial
zones, significantly exacerbating the negative health impacts of those living within 200-500
meters of major roadways (Bullard, 2021; Cheng et al., 2020; Mukherjee et al., 2020). This
unequal exposure can be attributed to historical discriminatory housing policies and
socioeconomic factors that have led to the concentration of marginalized populations in these
areas (Cushing et al., 2023; Donaghy et al., 2023; Swope et al., 2022). Moreover, studies have
linked this unequal exposure to detrimental health effects, including respiratory diseases
(Hegseth et al., 2019; Khreis et al., 2017; Mukherjee et al., 2020) and cardiovascular problems
(Motairek et al., 2023b; Rajagopalan & Landrigan, 2021; Zhang et al., 2023). The findings
underscore the critical role of community organizers in advocating for and implementing
solutions to address environmental justice issues related to transportation air pollution, thereby
safeguarding the health and well-being of vulnerable communities.
The increased attention in environmental justice has prompted governmental authorities
to issue presidential executive orders, implement government policies, and launch initiatives to
promote clean transportation, improve air quality, and address disparities marginalized
communities face. For instance, the Biden administration's Executive Order No. 14,008 (2021)

4
on “Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad” emphasizes the importance of
environmental justice in all government actions. Section 223 of Executive Order No. 14,008
(2021) established the Justice40 Initiative (The White House, n.d.), which aims to deliver 40
percent of the overall benefits from federal investments in climate and clean energy to
disadvantaged communities, including those affected by transportation-related pollution. This
initiative underscores the White House's commitment to ensuring these communities receive a
significant share of federal support, directly addressing the impacts of environmental injustices
(Siddiqi et al., 2022).
In addition, the Environmental Protection Agency's Clean Air Act of 1970 provided a
regulatory framework to control and reduce air pollution from diverse sources, including the
transportation sector (Clean Air Act, 1970). The Clean Air Act has been amended multiple times,
with significant revisions in 1977 and 1990, to strengthen regulations, introduce market-based
mechanisms, and address evolving environmental challenges (Currie & Walker, 2019). In an
effort to tackle environmental justice challenges, the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA)
Environmental Justice 2020 Action Agenda focused on public health and environmental
disparities, particularly in transportation and air quality, within minority and low-income
communities, ensuring ongoing evaluations and collaborative improvements (Environmental
Protection Agency, 2016). Additionally, the Federal Transit Administration has implemented the
Low or No Emission (Low-No) Bus Program, an initiative aimed at promoting the adoption of
clean and electric buses, thereby improving air quality in transit-dependent communities (Federal
Transit Administration, 2023). This initiative is particularly beneficial for marginalized
communities heavily reliant on public transportation, as it can mitigate their exposure to harmful

5
pollutants, leading to enhanced respiratory health and overall well-being (Fitzgerald, 2022;
Panikkar et al., 2023).
Traditional environmental campaigning and policy have historically focused on
protecting the natural environment, often neglecting the impacts on people and their living and
working environments (Ulibarri et al., 2022). However, community organizers, serving as
environmental justice advocates, have played a crucial role in ensuring the inclusion of
historically disadvantaged communities in environmental policy (Siddiqi et al., 2022). Advocacy
efforts by organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People (NAACP) actively combat transportation-related air pollution in marginalized
communities by advocating for equitable policies, raising awareness of the systemic inequalities
in infrastructure planning, and mobilizing community-led initiatives to address these disparities
(NAACP, 2024). Through grassroots organizing and research initiatives, these organizations
have contributed to recognizing environmental justice as a critical issue in transportation and air
quality discourse (Pellow, 2020). Their work has shed light on the disparities experienced by
marginalized communities and has driven the promotion of policies that prioritize fairness and
equity in accessing clean transportation options (Siddiqi et al., 2022).
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
This study investigated community organizers' opportunities and challenges in
advocating for environmental justice related to the air pollution caused by transportation in
marginalized communities, utilizing Dr. Robert Bullard's Environmental Justice Framework
(Bullard, 1994) and conducting 11 semi-structured interviews with community organizers. The
study aimed to address the following research questions:

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1. What opportunities are available to community organizers to advocate for environmental
justice related to the air pollution caused by transportation in terms of public
participation, access to information, and collaboration and partnerships?
2. What challenges do community organizers face in advocating for environmental justice
related to the air pollution caused by transportation in terms of power imbalances, limited
resources, institutional barriers, and community engagement?
Community organizers are crucial in advancing environmental justice by advocating for
marginalized communities and addressing environmental inequalities (Lucero et al., 2018;
Pellow, 2020). This research proposes that community organizers can leverage grassroots
mobilization, community engagement, and coalition-building to change environmental policies
and practices positively. Moreover, community-based initiatives and participatory decisionmaking processes empower organizers to influence environmental planning and promote
sustainable development (Commodore et al., 2017; Cook, 2008; Tremblay et al., 2017).
However, organizers face challenges such as limited resource access, institutional barriers, and
power imbalances (Balazs & Morello-Frosch, 2013; Davis & Ramírez-Andreotta, 2021;
Williamson, 2022). Additionally, they confront industry opposition and risk co-optation or
marginalization by more powerful actors (Cook, 2008; Hoekstra et al., 2020). Understanding
these opportunities and challenges is essential for developing effective strategies to support
community organizers in their advocacy efforts towards environmental justice.
Importance of the Study
Transportation's impact on air quality and its implications for environmental justice has
emerged as a critical topic in recent literature (Donaghy et al., 2023; Environmental Protection
Agency, 2023; Motairek et al., 2023a; Panikkar et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023). Previous

7
research has highlighted the negative consequences of transportation emissions on air quality and
public health, particularly for marginalized and vulnerable communities (Cushing et al., 2023;
Mukherjee et al., 2020; Perera & Nadeau, 2022). However, a more comprehensive investigation
into the effectiveness of policy interventions and strategies is needed to address the
environmental justice concerns associated with transportation emissions.
The study aimed to contribute to the existing literature by examining the opportunities
and obstacles community organizers face in advocating for environmental justice, utilizing Dr.
Robert Bullard's Environmental Justice Framework (Bullard, 1994), and conducting semistructured interviews. By exploring these essential aspects, the research sheds light on the
effectiveness of policy interventions and strategies in mitigating the environmental justice
concerns related to transportation's impacts on air quality. The study provided valuable insights
into the multidimensional nature of transportation-related air pollution, encompassing physical
health, social dynamics, economic implications, and environmental aspects. Through qualitative
analysis, the findings contributed to the ongoing discourse on clean transportation, improved air
quality, and environmental justice within marginalized communities, providing evidence-based
guidance for developing more equitable and sustainable strategies regarding advocacy.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
This study investigated the perceptions of community organizers in the sustainability
field regarding environmental justice in transportation and air quality, utilizing interviews as the
primary methodology (Pellow, 2020). Guided by Dr. Robert Bullard's Environmental Justice
Framework (Bullard, 1994), the study explored the opportunities and challenges that community
organizers face in advocating for environmental justice related to transportation-induced air
pollution. This framework is a foundational model that tackles environmental justice issues,

8
particularly affecting marginalized communities. Environmental decision-making is situated at
the intersection of science, technology, economics, politics, special interests, and ethics,
reflecting the broader social context where discrimination is deeply rooted. Disparities in
environmental protection erode three fundamental forms of fairness: procedural, geographic, and
social equity. Procedural justice ensures fair application of rules, transparency, and public
involvement in environmental decisions. Geographic justice addresses unequal pollution burdens
and calls for fair environmental benefits across regions. Social justice advocates for equitable
resource distribution and rights protection for marginalized groups affected by environmental
hazards.
The framework integrates social justice with environmental concerns, highlighting the
disproportionate impact of environmental hazards through five fundamental principles outlined
in Table 1. These principles are designed to advance environmental justice by promoting
fairness, accountability, and equity in environmental decision-making. They ensure that all
individuals, especially those from marginalized communities, have access to a safe and healthy
environment. Bullard's Environmental Justice Framework also empowers advocates to demand
policies and practices that ensure equal environmental protection, hold polluters accountable, and
direct resources to address systemic inequities (Bullard, 1994). This framework serves as a
blueprint for sustainable and equitable environmental outcomes, emphasizing proactive
measures, transparency, and the strategic reallocation of support to enhance resilience and justice
in environmental governance.

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Table 1
Dr. Robert Bullard’s Environmental Justice Framework
Five Principles
The Right to Protection
Ensures every individual's right to environmental safety by
advocating for legislation akin to civil rights acts, guaranteeing
equal protection under environmental laws.
Prevention of Harm
Focuses on proactive measures to avert environmental damage
before its occurrence, highlighting the importance of foresight and
preventative strategies in policy formulation.
Shifting the Burden of
Proof to the Polluters
Requires polluters to demonstrate that their operations do not
cause harm, thus transferring responsibility from the victims to the
source of environmental degradation.
Obviating Proof of Intent
to Discriminate
Addresses environmental injustices based on actual outcomes
rather than the necessity to prove discriminatory intent,
acknowledging the influence of systemic inequalities on
vulnerable groups.
Targeting Resources to
Redress Inequities
Directs resources specifically towards communities most affected
by environmental hazards to ensure that those disproportionately
impacted receive necessary support and intervention.
In terms of methodology, a qualitative research approach (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) was
implemented for this study that included purposeful sampling enhanced by convenience and
snowball recruitment techniques to interview community organizers actively engaged in
environmental justice efforts related to transportation and air quality. The targeted sample
included organizers involved in advocacy, grassroots organizing, and decision-making processes.
The study conducted a thematic analysis (Nowell et al., 2017) to identify significant themes and
patterns related to the opportunities and challenges within the context of environmental justice
advocacy. This comprehensive analysis not only aligns with Bullard’s (Bullard, 1994) principles
but also advances the conversation on achieving environmental equity.

10
Definitions
Air Quality
The measure of the cleanliness and purity of the air, specifically referring to the
concentration of pollutants and their impact on human health and the environment (Manisalidis
et al., 2020; Qiu & Kaza, 2017).
Clean Transportation
Modes of transportation that are environmentally friendly, socially equitable, and
economically viable, aiming to minimize negative impacts on the environment and promote
long-term well-being (Saricks, 2002).
Community Organizers
Individuals or groups who mobilize and work within communities to address social,
economic, and environmental issues, often advocating for change and promoting community
engagement (Davis & Ramírez-Andreotta, 2021; Pellow, 2020).
Environmental Justice
The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of their race,
ethnicity, or socioeconomic status, in the development, implementation, and enforcement of
environmental laws, regulations, and policies (Bass, 1998; Bullard, 1994; Bullard, 2021; Ikeme,
2003; Pellow, 2020).
Equity
The principle of fairness and justice, ensuring that resources, opportunities, and benefits
are distributed in a manner that accounts for individual and societal differences and seeks to
address historical and systemic disparities (Fitzgerald, 2022; Ikeme, 2003; Zhang et al., 2021).

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Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
A reddish-brown gas characterized by a distinct, sharp, and pungent odor. It is frequently
encountered as a prevalent air pollutant, stemming primarily from the combustion of fossil fuels
in vehicles and power plants. As a substantial constituent of nitrogen oxides (NOx), NO2 has
been linked to adverse health effects, particularly respiratory and cardiovascular issues,
especially when its concentration in the atmosphere reaches elevated levels (Archer, 2021;
Peterson & Keswani, 2023; Swope et al., 2022).
Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5)
PM2.5, a fine particulate matter measuring 2.5 micrometers or smaller, originates from
various sources such as vehicle and industrial emissions. This substance poses health hazards by
entering the lungs and bloodstream, leading to respiratory issues and cardiovascular diseases
(Collins et al., 2022; Lane et al., 2022; Mukherjee et al., 2020; Rajagopalan & Landrigan, 2021).
Policy Interventions
Deliberate actions taken by governments or organizations to address specific issues or
achieve desired outcomes, often involving the implementation of rules, regulations, or programs
(Bullard & Johnson, 2000; Siddiqi et al., 2022).
Transportation Related Air Pollution
The complex mixture of gaseous and particulate pollutants present in tailpipe and nontailpipe emissions from vehicles (Sprague Martinez et al., 2020).
Overview of the Study
This dissertation consists of five chapters, each serving a specific role within the study. In
chapter one, the problem of practice is introduced, and the study's purpose and significance are
outlined, along with the provision of definitions for relevant terminology. Chapter two

12
encompasses the literature review, theoretical framework, and conceptual framework, all
grounded within the environmental justice framework. Additionally, a visual representation of
the conceptual framework, as it pertains to environmental justice, will be presented. Chapter
three details the methods employed to achieve the study's objectives, including research
questions, study design, data collection, and analysis procedures. Within environmental justice,
we give special attention to specific methods that maximize credibility and trustworthiness while
acknowledging the limitations, delimitations, and the researcher's positionality. Chapter four
analyzes the study's findings concerning the research questions and overall purpose, offering a
comprehensive discussion. Lastly, chapter five concludes the dissertation by providing
recommendations for future practice and research within environmental justice.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
This comprehensive literature review examines the historical context of transportationrelated air pollution and its impact on environmental justice, particularly the disproportionate
exposure of marginalized communities. It investigates the impacts experienced by these
communities, focusing on health outcomes and economic impacts. The review critically
evaluates regulatory implications of practice in community advocacy efforts for targeted
interventions. It establishes a theoretical foundation by incorporating Bullard's Environmental
Justice Framework (Bullard, 1994). This chapter provides a comprehensive exploration of the
evolution of environmental justice, encompassing community advocacy, health disparities, and
the theoretical framework.
Historical Policies and Practices of Environmental Justice
In this section, we explore the historical policies and practices that have shaped the
landscape of environmental justice in the United States. We will examine the diverse and
interconnected elements contributing to unequal environmental advantages and burdens in
marginalized communities. At the heart of this historical context lies the era of Jim Crow Laws,
which provides a foundational understanding of the systemic environmental injustices these
communities face. Moreover, we will examine the impacts of discriminatory policies like
redlining and transportation infrastructure decisions perpetuating inequalities, concentrating
pollution and resource deficits in marginalized neighborhoods. Notably, implementing the 1956
interstate highway act brought highways and industrial transportation through or near these
communities, further exacerbating their environmental burdens.
Additionally, we will explore the role of urban planning and green spaces in shaping
environmental justice outcomes. Furthermore, we will analyze the significance of presidential

14
executive orders on environmental justice as attempts to address past disparities and promote
equitable treatment for all communities. Finally, we will consider the creation of marginalized
communities, tracing their origins back to discriminatory policies and socioeconomic factors that
have confined minority and low-income populations to specific areas with limited resources. By
delving into these essential aspects, we aim to gain comprehensive insights into the historical
trajectory of environmental justice and recognize the challenges and opportunities community
organizers face in advocating for transformative change.
Historical Context
The environmental justice battle against air pollution caused by transportation can be
traced back to grassroots community struggles (Bullard, 2021). In 1979, Bean v. Southwestern
Waste Management Corporation challenged discriminatory practices and established the legal
groundwork for addressing environmental racism (Cole, 1994). Central to this case was Robert
Bullard's groundbreaking research, the first to systematically link race and pollution exposure,
which provided crucial evidence and shaped the framework of environmental justice litigation
(Funes, 2023). Thus, Environmental justice litigation was established in response to the rise of
environmental justice activism, drawing on legal traditions such as civil rights law and poverty
law. Despite these legal efforts, research demonstrates that environmental justice policies and
laws were ineffective at protecting marginalized communities (Konisky, 2009a; Konisky,
2009b).
Other significant events, such as the 1982 Warren County, North Carolina, protest against
a toxic waste landfill in an African American community (Rootes & Leonard, 2009), drew
national attention to environmental justice issues. In 1983, the U.S. Government Accountability
Office (GAO) released a report highlighting racial disparities in hazardous waste facility

15
locations to address concerns about potential environmental injustices and disparities in the siting
of hazardous waste facilities (Lazarus, 2000). The report aimed to shed light on the unequal
distribution of environmental hazards in communities based on race. Later, the First National
People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit was convened in 1991, resulting in the
Principles of Environmental Justice, which provided a comprehensive vision for the movement
(People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit, 1991/1992). During this summit, the term
“environmental racism” by Benjamin Chavis was introduced, marking a significant moment in
the environmental justice movement.
Then in 1994, Executive Order No. 12,898 (1994) was issued, mandating federal
agencies to address environmental justice issues in minority and low-income populations.
However, disparities and racial inequities in environmental impacts persisted, as evidenced by
the fact that minority and low-income areas were less likely to be added to the Superfund list
after the passage of Executive Order 12,898 (Moore, 2017). Konisky (2009b) examined the
effects of environmental justice policy on regulating outputs (specifically, the number of
inspections and punitive actions directed at facilities) and discovered that, in general, the federal
policy had a minimally positive effect on state regulatory enforcement of the Clean Air Act
(CAA), Clean Water Act (CWA), and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
pollution control laws. Furthermore, Konisky (2009a) found that state regulatory laws for CAA,
CWA, and RCRA are less strictly enforced in impoverished communities. Almost three decades
later, Executive Order No. 14,008 (2021) issued by the Biden administration reemphasized
environmental justice as a top priority, instituting initiatives such as the Justice40 initiative (The
White House, n.d.) to allocate investments to environmental justice communities (Siddiqi et al.,
2022). The executive order also strengthens regulatory enforcement and revisits environmental

16
justice-related risk assessments. Development opportunities include revising risk assessments to
account for environmental justice-specific stressors and capitalizing on advances in sensor
technologies and community partnerships (Gee & Payne-Sturges, 2004). Nevertheless,
environmental disparities and racial inequalities continue to exist despite this progress.
The historical context of environmental justice and transportation-related air pollution
reveals a pattern of systemic inequality and the disproportionate burden of marginalized
communities (Bullard, 2021). Slavery and the era of Jim Crow laws contributed to the
marginalization of racial and ethnic minorities, low-income populations, and indigenous peoples
by laying the groundwork for systemic racism and socioeconomic disparities (Jackson, 2019;
Tallaksen, 2019). Studies reveal that these discriminatory practices and policies confined
marginalized communities to areas with limited resources and opportunities while concentrating
pollution sources in their districts (Racz & Rish, 2022). Inadequate access to clean transportation
options, compounded by racial and socioeconomic segregation, makes them more susceptible to
air pollution from transportation (Bullard, 2021; Cushing et al., 2023; Davis & RamírezAndreotta, 2021). This research highlights the impact of political exclusion that results in the
lack of representation and access to vital information, thereby perpetuating the cycle of
environmental injustice. Recognizing this historical context is crucial for pursuing
comprehensive solutions and attaining environmental justice for disadvantaged communities
(Donaghy et al., 2023; Gulliver et al., 2022; McCauley & Heffron, 2018; Pellow, 2020).
Jim Crow Laws
The implementation of Jim Crow laws in the late 19th century intensified racial
segregation and discrimination, subjecting newly emancipated slaves to legal segregation, racial
violence, and political disenfranchisement (Ard, 2015; Racz & Rish, 2022). The 1896 Plessy v.

17
Ferguson decision established the legal precedent for "separate but equal" facilities (Ware,
2021). These laws solidified spatial divisions, confining marginalized groups to areas with
limited resources and opportunities, and were enforced by racial segregation and discrimination.
The development of transportation infrastructure had a disproportionately negative effect on
these marginalized communities (Chakraborty et al., 2016; Panikkar et al., 2023). These studies
demonstrate that racial segregation in transportation systems resulted in separate and unequal
infrastructure, thereby limiting the mobility and economic prospects of disadvantaged
communities. As a consequence, marginalized communities faced significant barriers to
accessing resources and opportunities, which exacerbated the inequality caused by the
implementation of harsh punishments (Ware, 2021).
Due to their proximity to highways, ports, and industrial zones, marginalized
communities are disproportionately affected by transportation-related air pollution, significantly
exacerbating the negative health effects of those living within 200-500 meters of major roadways
(Bullard, 2021; Cheng et al., 2020; Mukherjee et al., 2020). The nation's highway system has
significantly contributed to the intensification of racial segregation, the concentration of
racialized poverty, and the establishment of permanent physical, psychological, and economic
barriers (Archer, 2021). This emphasis on development and expansion through highway politics
has prioritized the construction of roads to predominantly white suburbs over Black communities
while routing busy highways through the heart of marginalized neighborhoods. Inadequate
infrastructure investments in Black communities also resulted in poorly maintained roads,
bridges, and public transportation systems (Bailey et al., 2012; Pellow, 2018; Siddiqi et al.,
2022). Furthermore, discriminatory practices contributed to the placement of polluting industries
near Black neighborhoods, thereby exposing these communities to higher levels of air pollution

18
and associated health risks (Chakraborty, 2022; Grabowski et al., 2023). These discriminatory
practices prevented marginalized communities from addressing environmental injustices and
advocating for change (Bullard, 2021; Cushing et al., 2023; Davis & Ramírez-Andreotta, 2021).
While the civil rights movement challenged and dismantled the formal legal framework
of Jim Crow laws, the legacy of segregation and discrimination still impacts environmental
justice today (Cushing et al., 2023; Swope et al., 2022). More research is needed to understand
the historical context and effects of Jim Crow laws on transportation related air pollution and its
impact on environmental justice.
Redlining
Redlining, a discriminatory practice supported by the federal government, profoundly
impacted housing markets and communities during the same era as Jim Crow and contributed to
segregation, disinvestment, and racial inequities in homeownership and wealth accumulation,
perpetuating lasting effects on marginalized communities (Nowak et al., 2022; Swope et al.,
2022). This research demonstrates how the Jim Crow laws were implemented to uphold racial
segregation, whereas redlining, which was executed by private entities like the Home Owners'
Loan Corporation (HOLC), played a role in perpetuating housing discrimination by developing
color-coded "residential security" maps. The redlining maps, which labeled neighborhoods
occupied by marginalized communities as hazardous or credit unworthy, had an enduring effect
on housing disparities and community development by restricting access to financial services and
fair mortgage terms (Grabowski et al., 2023; Nardone et al., 2021). By serving as a tool to
enforce discriminatory practices, the redlining maps left a lasting legacy on housing disparities
and community development.

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Research demonstrates a clear correlation between redlining and subsequent trends of
lower employment, education, and income, highlighting the place-based disadvantages and
intergenerational consequences faced by residents of redlined neighborhoods (Hrycyna et al.,
2022; Levy & Bowleg, 2023). These studies highlight the discriminatory practices that
systemically confine marginalized individuals to high-risk or undesirable neighborhoods, thereby
perpetuating a cycle of concentrated poverty, limited access to resources, and limited mobility
for these communities. The disproportionate impacts of redlining, exacerbated by the Federal
Housing Administration's refusal to insure mortgages in low-income urban communities,
discriminatory practices by real estate agents and lenders, and zoning and public housing
policies, are well-documented (Fishback et al., 2022). Overall, the research casts light on the
significant impact of redlining on employment, education, and income disparities, illuminating
the lasting repercussions faced by those who lived in redlined communities.
Lane et al. (2022) found that neighborhoods with lower grades by the Home Owners'
Loan Corporation (HOLC) in the 1930s had higher levels of particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen
oxide (NO2) pollution in 2010, indicating a consistent association between HOLC grades and
pollution levels (Motairek et al., 2023a). These findings suggest that HOLC grading maps have
contributed to environmental disparities in marginalized communities, particularly concerning
NO2 concentrations. PM2.5, a fine particulate matter of 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter from
sources like vehicle and industrial emissions, infiltrates the lungs and bloodstream, causing
respiratory problems and cardiovascular diseases (Lane et al., 2022; Mukherjee et al., 2020;
Rajagopalan & Landrigan, 2021). Meanwhile, NO2, primarily emitted by automobiles, power
plants, and industrial processes, contributes to respiratory issues and the generation of other air
pollutants such as ozone, a secondary pollutant formed in the atmosphere (Hrycyna et al., 2022;

20
Tayarani & Rowangould, 2020). More recently, Collins et al., 2022 found that areas with higher
PM2.5 levels are characterized by a greater proportion of Hispanic, Black, and Asian and Pacific
Islander residents, while residents in segregated White neighborhoods experience lower levels of
PM2.5, illustrating environmental disparities based on racial segregation. These studies highlight
the enduring legacy of structural racism and the link between redlined areas and contemporary
environmental racism, emphasizing the lasting impact of residential segregation on social and
environmental inequality, with current disparities in urban pollution levels reflecting decisions
made over eighty years ago regarding federal policies, investment flows, and land use.
1956 Interstate Highway Act
Transportation infrastructure and urban planning are fundamental elements of urban
development that substantially influence environmental justice and the equitable distribution of
transportation-related air pollution as integral components of urban development (Archer, 2021;
Patterson & Harley, 2019). This research suggests that the proximity of transportation
infrastructure, such as highways, can disproportionately impact low-income and minority
communities, resulting in environmental inequity and disparities in exposure to air pollution.
According to Lu (2023), construction, design, and administration of transportation systems, as
well as the planning of urban spaces, are interrelated disciplines that can exacerbate
environmental inequalities by contributing to the concentration of air pollution in certain areas.
Nonetheless, the evolution of transportation infrastructure and urban planning has contributed to
disparities in community environmental health and air pollution exposure.
The 1956 Highway Act has perpetuated systemic racism and environmental disparities
with highways being constructed through black and brown communities, resulting in the
devastation of thriving communities and the escalation of racial divisions (Mohl, 2004; Mohl,

21
2008). This research reveals that while the act intended to improve transportation and stimulate
economic growth, it had unintended consequences, such as the displacement of thousands of
people annually and the dismantling of urban neighborhoods, highlighting the legislation's
complex effects on communities and the built environment. The perpetuation of existing power
imbalances, socioeconomic disparities, and racial inequities is facilitated by infrastructure
decisions that disregard the perspectives and needs of marginalized communities (Chu &
Cannon, 2021; Klinsky et al., 2017). This research underscores how marginalized communities,
lacking substantial political and economic sway, face heightened vulnerability to infrastructure
projects that predominantly favor privileged groups. By overlooking equity in trade-off analyses,
these projects perpetuate the sacrifice of the most vulnerable and marginalized voices to cater to
the interests of a select few.
Highway construction in urban areas has disproportionately impacted marginalized
communities, leading to the displacement of residents, destruction of neighborhoods, and
increased pollution in already vulnerable areas (Mohl, 2008; Patterson & Harley, 2019), which
has underscored this unequal impact. For instance, in St. Paul, the construction of Interstate 94
(I-94) displaced families and businesses in the close-knit black neighborhood of Rondo
(Mahajan, 2023). Similarly, Interstate 95's construction through Overtown in Miami resulted in
the physical destruction of homes and businesses, economic hardship, and loss of cultural
heritage, significantly affecting the historically black and economically vibrant community there
(Mahajan, 2023). Interstate 81 in Syracuse physically divided the urban center, disrupted social
and economic ties, contributed to racial segregation and underdevelopment of Black
communities, exacerbated health disparities due to increased pollution, and widened economic
gaps between neighborhoods (Archer, 2021). Even Boston's Chinatown, impacted by Interstate

22
93 (I-93) and the Massachusetts Turnpike (I-90) construction in the late 1950s and early 1960s,
exemplifies how highway projects disproportionately harm marginalized communities through
demolition, displacement, ongoing congestion, and historical struggles with gentrification and
environmental justice (Sprague Martinez et al., 2020). These examples vividly illustrate the
pervasive nature of highway construction's adverse effects, reinforcing segregation, isolating
communities, and perpetuating harm against marginalized populations across the United States.
Urban Planning & Green Spaces
The provision of green spaces, such as parks and gardens, is crucial for enhancing the
standard of living for urban residents near transportation corridors, mitigating noise impacts, and
promoting health and wellness (Breen, 2022; Grabowski et al., 2023; Nardone et al., 2021) This
research uncovers that neighborhood areas with low HOLC grades are associated with reduced
present-day green space, reflecting the historic systemic inequities and discriminatory practices
that have limited access to green spaces in marginalized communities. According to Nowak et al.
(2022), redlining policies in the United States intentionally excluded communities of color from
neighborhoods with adequate access to green spaces. It is important to note that green spaces can
positively and negatively affect disadvantaged communities concerning transportation-related air
pollution (Lee et al., 2018; Nowak et al., 2022). On the one hand, trees and vegetation can absorb
harmful gases and particulate matter, providing benefits to communities, especially those near
industrial sites or main roadways with high pollution levels (Checker, 2011; Mahajan, 2023;
Nowak et al., 2022). However, Lee et al. (2018) reveals that although green spaces alongside
transportation corridors offer benefits such as aesthetic value and noise reduction, they can also
lead to the accumulation of vehicle emissions. This study shows that the plant leaves within

23
vegetation barriers can promote the collection and concentration of particulate pollutants,
requiring cautious design and placement to minimize potential adverse effects.
Air pollution and its disproportionately negative effects on marginalized populations are
caused by emissions from transportation systems, including infrastructure and vehicle emissions
(Lu, 2023; Mukherjee et al., 2020). These studies indicate that marginalized people are
disproportionately affected by infrastructure and vehicle emissions since they are frequently
situated close to transportation infrastructure and busy areas, which increases their exposure to
air pollution from both sources. Due to their proximity to transportation infrastructure and hightraffic areas, marginalized communities are frequently exposed to elevated levels of PM2.5 and
NO2 (Cheng et al., 2020; Collins et al., 2022; Mukherjee et al., 2020). Researchers have shown
that low-income neighborhoods and communities of color are more exposed to these pollutants,
resulting in increased health hazards such as respiratory problems and cardiovascular diseases
(Hegseth et al., 2019; Manisalidis et al., 2020; Mohai & Saha, 2006; Motairek et al., 2023a;
Mukherjee et al., 2020; Rajagopalan & Landrigan, 2021; Zhang et al., 2023). These disparities in
exposure to air pollution can exacerbate existing health disparities and perpetuate a cycle of
disadvantage and environmental social inequity.
Presidential Executive Orders on Environmental Justice
The progression of presidential executive orders over the past three decades highlights an
increasing focus on environmental justice, particularly concerning the effects of transportationrelated air pollution. Starting with President Bill Clinton's establishment of the President's
Council on Sustainable Development in 1993, initiatives to integrate environmental health with
social equity have progressively evolved. Various administrations have adopted differing
strategies. President George W. Bush prioritized energy efficiency and emission reductions but

24
did not address the disproportionate impacts on vulnerable communities, a gap more fully
addressed by President Barack Obama. Obama's executive orders laid a foundation for
sustainable transportation policies to reduce emissions and benefit marginalized populations.
However, during the Trump administration, several of Obama's environmental regulations were
rolled back, potentially exacerbating environmental burdens on these communities. With
President Joseph R. Biden, Jr., a renewed emphasis on environmental justice emerged, with
initiatives like Justice40 (The White House, n.d.) which seeks to ensure that federal
environmental efforts specifically benefit disadvantaged communities. The impact of these
executive orders on environmental justice largely depends on effective implementation and
sustained agency commitment, underscoring the need for ongoing presidential leadership to drive
meaningful change (Kennedy, 2015).
President Bill Clinton
In 1993, President Bill Clinton issued Executive Order No. 12,852 (1993), establishing
the President's Council on Sustainable Development (PCSD) to promote sustainable
development by integrating environmental, social, and economic objectives into U.S. policy. The
PCSD, which remained active until 1999, was tasked with advising the President and developing
holistic strategies for sustainable growth. It fostered collaboration across government, business,
and non-governmental sectors, emphasizing the inclusion of vulnerable populations in its
initiatives.
Later in 1994, further advancing these principles, Executive Order No. 12,898 (1994)
focused on environmental justice, aiming to prevent minority and low-income communities from
being disproportionately affected by environmental hazards. This order mandated federal
agencies to enhance enforcement of existing laws, such as Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of

25
1964 and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, to ensure equitable environmental
protection. It also influenced aspects of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1970, addressing
highway funding, safety, mass transit, and environmental assessments for highway projects. This
approach highlighted the intersection of environmental health and social equity and sought to
integrate these considerations into broader decision-making processes.
President George W. Bush
During his presidency, George W. Bush issued Executive Order No. 13,423 (2007)
entitled "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management." This
order mandated federal agencies to enhance their energy efficiency, reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, and improve transportation management by encouraging the use of alternative fuels
and hybrid vehicles. Although these directives aimed to reduce transportation-related air
pollution and promote sustainable practices, the order did not specifically address environmental
justice concerns. It lacked explicit provisions for engaging communities or addressing the
environmental disparities affecting marginalized populations. This executive order was later
revoked by President Obama's Executive Order No. 13,693 (2015) because it was determined
that the new order would achieve equal or better environmental or energy efficiency results.
President Barack Obama
During his first year in office, President Obama signed Executive Order No. 13,514
(2009), which promoted sustainable transportation and reduced emissions within federal
operations, significantly benefiting communities affected by transportation-related air pollution.
This order laid a crucial groundwork for addressing environmental justice by lessening the
pollution burden on vulnerable populations. Subsequently, Executive Order No. 13,653 (2013)
built on this foundation, explicitly emphasizing the need for enhanced climate resilience in

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sensitive sectors like transportation. It integrated environmental justice considerations into
transportation infrastructure planning, aiming to mitigate the dual impacts of climate change and
air pollution on these communities.
Executive Order No. 13,693 (2015), "Planning for Federal Sustainability in the Next
Decade," furthered these efforts by aiming to reduce federal greenhouse gas emissions and
enhance sustainability. While not directly addressing environmental justice concerning
transportation air pollution, its initiatives on sustainability and emissions indirectly improve air
quality, aiding disproportionately impacted communities. Moreover, although Executive Order
No. 13,693 (2015) revoked the earlier Executive Order No. 13,514 (2009), it continued and
expanded upon the previous order's sustainability and emissions reduction goals, thereby
supporting ongoing federal sustainability without altering the directives of Executive Order No.
13,653 (2013). In 2018, President Trump revoked Executive Order No. 13,693 (2015) with
Executive Order No. 13,834 (2018) which was described as strategic move by the administration
to streamline federal sustainability efforts and enhance efficiency in federal operations related to
energy and environmental performance.
President Donald J. Trump
Clayton et al. (2019) suggested that the Trump administration's policies, including
regulatory rollbacks, have impacted environmental regulations and enforcement efforts,
particularly at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This article highlights how the
administration's actions, such as scaling back Obama-era regulations at the EPA, have led to
higher levels of smog and air pollution in African American communities. For example,
Executive Order No. 13,834 (2018) directed federal agencies to prioritize efficiency
improvements that have the most significant potential returns on investment, streamline data

27
reporting requirements, and reduce regulatory burdens. While the order did not specifically
address environmental justice or the reduction of environmental impacts on vulnerable
communities, it was positioned as a measure to enhance the overall efficiency and effectiveness
of federal environmental and energy management.
President Joseph R. Biden, Jr.
President Biden's Executive Order No. 13,990 (2021) marks a pivotal shift in
environmental policy by revoking President Trump's previous directives, such as Executive
Order No. 13,783 (2017), Executive Order No. 13,834 (2018), and Executive Order No. 13,868
(2019), which prioritized economic growth over environmental health. This recalibration has
strengthened efforts to combat transportation-related air pollution and has placed a greater
emphasis on enforcing regulations that protect public health, particularly in marginalized
communities. The order establishes a foundational approach to addressing environmental
injustices exacerbated by transportation emissions by focusing on reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and holding polluters accountable.
Expanding on this foundation, Executive Order No. 14,008 (2021) introduces the
Justice40 Initiative, (The White House, n.d.) a clear demonstration of the administration's
commitment to environmental justice. This initiative ensures that 40% of the benefits from
federal environmental investments are directed toward disadvantaged communities. It
specifically targets disparities in pollution exposure and health outcomes, underlining the need
for equitable distribution of clean energy resources and pollution control measures. Additionally,
Executive Order No. 14,069 (2023) reinforces this commitment by mandating federal agencies to
assess and mitigate the disproportionate environmental and health impacts of their actions,
including those related to transportation. Together, these orders form a comprehensive strategy to

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enhance air quality and ensure environmental justice for communities historically burdened by
pollution.
Creation of Marginalized Communities
Throughout history, marginalized communities have been shaped by significant events,
beginning with the arrival of enslaved Africans in 1619 (Pair, 2021) and the subsequent era of
Jim Crow laws from 1877-1964 that played a pivotal role in shaping marginalized communities
throughout history (Jackson, 2019; Tallaksen, 2019). Slaves endured inhumane conditions,
denial of their fundamental rights, and generations of oppression (Pair, 2021). These discussions
demonstrate that these historical periods paved the way for the creation of marginalized
communities through systemic racism, economic exploitation, and social exclusion.
The transatlantic slave trade and its subsequent consequences, such as segregation, have
left lasting imprints on physical landmarks and the establishment of social hierarchies in the
United States and across the Americas (Jackson, 2019). This article refers to social place
(Jackson, 2019) as the social and cultural structures, practices, and norms that have been built
and maintained in American society, shaped by the transatlantic slave trade and its aftermath,
including segregation. During the era of Jim Crow, policymakers and social actors deliberately
designed legal policies and social practices to exclude, discourage, and deter non-white
individuals from accessing public facilities and institutions, resulting in the denial of their full
citizenship rights (Ard, 2015; Jackson, 2019). Race has been utilized to produce social
hierarchies and inequities and has affected social and cultural behaviors that have shaped the
ongoing environmental vulnerabilities experienced by marginalized communities (Bullard, 2021;
Donaghy et al., 2023; Pellow, 2020).

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Marginalized communities consist of vulnerable groups, such as racial and ethnic
minorities, low-income populations, indigenous peoples, and undocumented immigrants
(Bullard, 2021; Erwin et al., 2021; Jampel, 2018). Discriminatory practices like redlining and
zoning exacerbate the effects of air pollution (Greiner & McKane, 2022), compounding the
vulnerability of marginalized communities to environmental hazards (Fishback et al., 2022;
Nowak et al., 2022). Consequently, the individuals living in these communities encountered
challenges in their efforts to relocate to areas with lower pollution levels or access cleaner modes
of transportation, primarily due to discriminatory practices, resource scarcity and financial
limitations (Banzhaf et al., 2019). The lack of political power and representation further hinders
their ability to address environmental injustices effectively (Greiner & McKane, 2022; Gulliver
et al., 2022). Thus, marginalized communities were created by compounding discriminatory
factors that continue to contribute to the inequitable distribution of transportation-related air
pollution and the historical narrative demonstrates a recurring cycle of systematic discrimination
and persistent social, economic, and political marginalization experienced by marginalized
communities.
Impact of Environmental Justice in Transportation Related Air Pollution
In this section, we will examine the impact of environmental justice on transportationrelated air pollution, beginning with the political exclusion marginalized communities face in
transportation decision-making processes. Following that, we will discuss the health outcomes of
this issue, including health disparities, respiratory problems, and cardiovascular diseases. Finally,
we will examine the economic impacts of transportation-related air pollution. By understanding
these interconnected aspects, we can gain insight into the disproportionate effects of air pollution
on marginalized communities and the urgent need for equitable solutions. This section will shed

30
light on the complex relationship between environmental justice, transportation, and the health
and well-being of vulnerable populations, highlighting the importance of addressing these issues
for a more just and sustainable future.
Political Exclusion
The practice of political exclusion has significantly impacted marginalized communities
concerning environmental justice and transportation-related air pollution (Greiner & McKane,
2022; Zhang et al., 2021) particularly through limited representation and restricted access to
crucial information and resources (Manisalidis et al., 2020). Political exclusion is the systematic
marginalization and exclusion of certain groups from decision-making processes and
representation in matters affecting their lives directly (Greiner & McKane, 2022; Pellow, 2018).
These exclusions perpetuate the vulnerability of marginalized communities relating to
transportation-related air pollution.
The lack of representation in historically marginalized communities often results from
political exclusion, which reduces their ability to influence transportation and planning policies
(Chakraborty, 2020; Pair, 2021). Jorgenson et al. (2021) examines the correlation between
income inequality and the segregation of lower-income communities in regions characterized by
elevated levels of emissions resulting from industrial and transportation activities. Consequently,
this dearth of representation hinders their ability to advocate for measures that reduce air
pollution caused by transportation and safeguard their health and their concerns are frequently
disregarded, thereby perpetuating a cycle of environmental injustice (Hegseth et al., 2019;
Siddiqi et al., 2022; Swope et al., 2022).
Furthermore, political exclusion restricts marginalized communities' access to vital
information and resources (Chu & Cannon, 2021; Klinsky et al., 2017). These references

31
highlight the importance of recognizing and valuing the knowledge, experiences, and
perspectives of individuals and communities who have been historically marginalized or
excluded from mainstream decision-making processes in policy discussions, advocating for
reparations to address past injustices, and recognizing the varying capacities influenced by
factors such as gender, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, and physical ability. Furthermore, the
lack of information and resources perpetuates the vulnerability of marginalized communities to
pollution and impedes their access to vital environmental information and solutions
(Chakraborty, 2020; Chu & Cannon, 2021). As a result, these communities struggle to protect
themselves from the adverse impacts of this pollution.
Political exclusion perpetuates the lack of investment in marginalized communities,
resulting in inadequate infrastructure planning (Bullard, 2021) and limited green space
availability (Grabowski et al., 2023). As cities prioritize investment in green urban planning
infrastructure, they must address ingrained equity issues entrenched in the legacies of prior
planning efforts and structured inequalities within American society (Matsler et al., 2021). These
inequalities are inextricably linked to the settler colonial and capitalist history of the United
States (Bullard, 2021) which exacerbate unequal distributions of environmental hazards and
limited access to amenities, thereby reinforcing systemic disparities (Breen, 2022). Thus,
selective and fragmented investments in greening initiatives have contributed to gentrification,
leading to resistance to local efforts and exacerbating housing displacement and hazardous living
conditions for marginalized communities (Pearsall & Anguelovski, 2016). Many cities are
employing an equity lens to encourage the installation of green infrastructure in marginalized
communities (Checker, 2011; Grabowski, et al., 2023).

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Health Outcomes
This section investigates the complex relationship between health disparities, respiratory
problems, and cardiovascular diseases in marginalized communities exposed to transportationrelated air pollution. Historically impacted by discriminatory practices such as redlining, these
communities encounter numerous obstacles, including restricted access to healthcare services
and resources. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter (PM) contribute to developing
respiratory conditions, whereas inhaled pollutants increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
However, socioeconomic factors and limited access to healthcare exacerbate these health
disparities, preventing marginalized populations from receiving adequate care and aggravating
the disparities. Along with concerted efforts to reduce air pollution, recognizing and addressing
these systemic inequities is essential for improving the health outcomes of marginalized
populations. In this endeavor, learning from community organizers and their experiences can
provide invaluable insights and perspectives, thereby facilitating the creation of interventions
that prioritize the needs and voices of marginalized communities.
Healthcare Inequities
Health inequities in marginalized communities on the frontlines of transportation-related
air pollution are shaped by historical injustices, socioeconomic factors, and limited access to
healthcare resources, resulting in disparate health outcomes and exacerbating the adverse effects
of air pollution on these populations (Bryant-Stephens, 2009; Stephens et al., 2022). This
research discusses that socioeconomic factors, such as poverty and limited access to healthy food
options, can exacerbate health disparities, and limited access to healthcare resources, such as
preventive care and treatment for pollution-related illnesses, presents another layer of obstacles
for marginalized communities attempting to mitigate the adverse health effects of air pollution.

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According to Mahajan (2023) and Lane et al. (2022), socioeconomic factors, such as poverty and
lack of transportation access, further contribute to the unequal distribution of air pollution and
the limited opportunities for marginalized populations to flee high-pollution areas. The limited
access to healthcare resources, such as lack of health insurance and inadequate availability of
healthcare facilities, exacerbates health disparities in marginalized communities, particularly
among racial minority populations who experience more significant healthcare disparities as a
result of obstacles such as inadequate healthcare access and disproportionate exposure to ambient
air pollutants (Manisalidis et al., 2020; Peterson & Keswani, 2023). These intersecting factors
create a vicious cycle of health disparities, leaving marginalized populations disproportionately
burdened by transportation-related air pollution's harmful effects.
Discriminatory practices such as redlining have resulted in the disproportionate
placement of industrial facilities and sources of pollution in marginalized communities,
amplifying their exposure to transportation-related air pollution and contributing to a greater
prevalence of respiratory problems and cardiovascular diseases compared to more affluent
communities (Motairek et al., 2023b; Swope et al., 2022). These studies highlight the historical
injustices, such as redlining, that have resulted in the concentration of marginalized communities
in areas with higher pollution levels, perpetuating environmental racism and exposing
communities of color disproportionately to environmental hazards. According to Hrycyna et al.
(2022) and Mahajan (2023), the construction of highways in marginalized communities has
resulted in prolonged exposure to harmful environmental agents such as NO2 and
PM2.5 associated with vehicle emissions and subsequent adverse health effects. For example, the
construction of freeways in Los Angeles, such as the Santa Monica Freeway and the I-710
freeway, has disproportionately affected low-income and minority communities, resulting in

34
their displacement, inadequate compensation, and prolonged exposure to high levels of air
pollution from vehicle emissions, leading to increased rates of respiratory diseases, asthma, and
other health problems (Lu, 2023). These findings highlight the urgent need to address systemic
inequities that have perpetuated environmental racism and disproportionately exposed
marginalized communities to transportation-related air pollution, as well as the importance of
policies and interventions that prioritize the health and well-being of marginalized communities
to reduce health disparities and promote environmental justice for all.
Respiratory Problems
Research consistently demonstrates a strong correlation between transportation-related air
pollution and a high prevalence of asthma in marginalized communities. High rates of asthma
incidence and severity are associated with living near main roadways or in areas with heavy
traffic (Hegseth et al., 2019; Johannessen et al., 2014; Mukherjee et al., 2020; van Vliet et al.,
1997). Individuals living within 300 meters of major roads are especially susceptible to adverse
health effects, such as increased asthma and decreased lung function (Mukherjee et al., 2020).
Furthermore, children living within 75 meters of a freeway have a significantly higher
prevalence of chronic respiratory symptoms, including asthma (Hegseth et al., 2019; van Vliet et
al., 1997). The findings from a study conducted by Johannessen et al. (2014) on a large general
population further emphasize the significant association between traffic-related air pollution and
respiratory symptoms, such as wheezing, chest tightness, productive cough, and chronic cough in
people who never smoked. These consistent findings highlight the adverse impacts of trafficrelated air pollution on the respiratory health of marginalized communities.
Transportation-related air pollution poses a significant risk to the respiratory health of
marginalized communities, contributing to the onset and progression of chronic obstructive

35
pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic bronchitis, and emphysema (Bryant-Stephens, 2009;
Glencross et al., 2020). This study, corroborated by Lu (2023), proposes a significant association
between long-term exposure to pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter
(PM) from vehicle emissions and an increase in the prevalence of respiratory conditions. Air
pollution contributes to the development and progression of COPD, characterized by symptoms
such as persistent wheezing, shortness of breath, and diminished lung function (Lu, 2023). In
addition, To et al. (2016) demonstrated that chronic exposure to air pollution compromises
pulmonary immune defense mechanisms and results in various adverse health effects, such as
minor respiratory irritation and the morbidity of chronic respiratory diseases. To make matters
worse, historically marginalized communities have faced a geographical disadvantage that has
led to healthcare disparities, as their proximity to transportation hubs or heavily trafficked areas
has limited their access to the comprehensive healthcare services required to treat respiratory
diseases exacerbated by transportation-related air pollution (Bryant-Stephens, 2009). Targeted
interventions are urgently needed to address the environmental injustices encountered by
marginalized communities that experience disproportionate impacts from transportation-related
air pollution.
Particulate matter (PM) air pollution, which consists of tiny particles and liquid droplets
suspended in the air, presents significant health hazards when inhaled, as these particles can
penetrate deeply into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream, causing a variety of health issues
(He & Gao, 2021; Lu, 2023). Cancer is the second leading cause of mortality among these health
issues, highlighting the severity of its impact on public health (Xu et al., 2022). Air pollution,
including particulate matter and other hazardous substances such as nitrogen oxides, has been
linked to cancer development over time via mechanisms including inflammation, oxidative

36
stress, and DNA damage (Scungio et al., 2018). According to Beelen et al. (2014), the
International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization has classified
airborne particles in air pollution as carcinogenic to humans, highlighting the substantial
association between air pollution and cancer. There is still much to discover to develop effective
lung cancer prevention and mitigation strategies (Scungio et al., 2018). Therefore, additional
research is required to elucidate the specific mechanisms by which air pollution causes lung
cancer.
Economic Impacts
Environmental injustices impose a significant economic burden on affected communities
through increased healthcare expenses due to pollutant exposure and decreased property values,
leading to reduced tax revenues for local governments (Aaronson et al., 2021; Knobel et al.,
2023; Tessum et al., 2021). This research suggests that exposure to air pollution leads to a rise in
adverse health effects, higher healthcare costs for affected communities, and creates conditions
that decrease housing demand due to perceived health risks, resulting in declining property
values. The economic burden of environmental injustices is often not distributed equally among
all affected communities, with marginalized groups, such as low-income populations and
communities of color, bearing a disproportionate share, exacerbating existing social disparities
(Archer, 2021; Brender et al., 2011). Moreover, persistent exposure to pollutants and the
resulting economic stress can perpetuate the challenges these marginalized communities face by
perpetuating cycles of poverty and limited upward mobility (Aaronson et al., 2021; Salazar et al.,
2019).
Environmental justice initiatives necessitate striking a balance between potential job
losses in traditional industries and the economic opportunities presented by attracting

37
investments in sustainable sectors (Menton et al., 2020; Wiedmann et al., 2020). These studies
emphasize the need to shift to more sustainable and equitable economic systems prioritizing
social and environmental well-being over profit and growth by addressing the unequal
distribution of environmental damages and benefits and the underlying power dynamics
perpetuating these disparities. Bennett et al. (2019) and McCauley and Heffron (2018) emphasize
that supportive policies and strategies will highlight the need for a transition towards
environmental justice, ensuring that the shift to sustainability does not unjustly burden workers
and communities dependent on traditional industries. Moreover, promoting investment in
sustainable technologies and practices can foster economic growth and employment creation in
renewable energy and environmentally friendly sectors, thereby contributing to a more
sustainable and equitable economy (Aaronson et al., 2021). This research concludes that
promoting investment in sustainable sectors promotes upward mobility by creating jobs in
renewable energy and environmentally friendly industries, reducing healthcare expenses,
lowering energy costs, and fostering innovation and entrepreneurship for sustained economic
growth.
The economic costs of environmental restoration, cleanup efforts, and infrastructure
vulnerabilities in marginalized communities amplify the challenges during recovery and
rebuilding from environmental disasters (Ryder, 2017; Sotolongo et al., 2021). These findings
emphasize that marginalized communities encounter challenges due to limited access to
resources such as transportation and healthcare, residing in polluted areas, and possessing lower
political power, contributing to their vulnerability. The suppression of regulatory activity in the
aftermath of environmental disasters can have significant economic effects on disadvantaged
communities, resulting in increased financial burdens, decreased property values, and widened

38
economic disparities. In addition, weakened regulations can prolong economic disruptions and
impede polluter accountability, exacerbating the difficulties marginalized communities face
during recovery (Madrigano et al., 2018; Rosner, 2015). These findings emphasize the increased
difficulties marginalized communities face during environmental disaster recovery, highlighting
the economic burdens and vulnerabilities they endure.
Through deteriorating air quality, transportation-related air pollution has a negative
impact on the tourism and hospitality industry (Aaronson et al., 2021; Brender et al., 2011),
which can deter visitors and reduce revenue and employment (Aaronson et al., 2021; Stephens et
al., 2022). The studies indicate that the depletion of natural resources and landscapes negatively
affects the tourism and hospitality industry, decreasing revenue and employment opportunities.
In addition, air pollution has adverse health effects that disproportionately impact marginalized
communities, disrupting their livelihoods, businesses, and access to resources, further reducing
the available workforce and efficiency. The decline in revenue and employment opportunities in
the tourism and hospitality sector can jeopardize the long-term viability of businesses in the
affected regions, particularly smaller establishments that may experience financial strain and
difficulties recovering from a decline in tourist numbers (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2020). The adverse
health effects of air pollution on travelers and residents may increase government spending on
healthcare and welfare programs, putting a strain on public resources and possibly impeding
economic development efforts (Breen, 2022).
Research emphasizes the significance of conducting additional cost-benefit analyses to
determine the economic benefits of preventive measures in environmental justice (Knobel et al.,
2023; Salazar et al., 2019). These findings challenge policymakers to carefully evaluate the
economic implications of policies, balancing the costs of proactive measures against the potential

39
costs of inaction, all while promoting sustainability and social equity. Bennett et al. (2019)
emphasizes the significance of analyzing the distribution of costs and benefits in environmental
and sustainability initiatives, as it substantially impacts their public support and legitimacy.
Examining the distribution of costs and benefits in environmental and sustainability initiatives
through equity indicators and intergenerational cost-benefit analysis, including discounting, can
provide valuable insights; however, determining a fair distribution remains challenging due to
the underlying philosophies and equity criteria that influence decision-making.
Community Organizers Advocating for Environmental Justice
This section explores the opportunities and challenges community organizers face in
pursuing environmental justice. It emphasizes the potential of community-based participatory
research (CBPR) and mobilization to enhance political participation and empower vulnerable
communities in policymaking. Organizers seek strategies to actively engage with policymakers
and strategic alliances to advocate for cleaner transportation, equitable urban planning, and
stricter environmental standards. Nonetheless, this section also acknowledges the hurdles
presented by disparities in resources and funding, knowledge gaps within communities, political
opposition, and bureaucratic obstacles. In conclusion, a comprehensive understanding of these
opportunities and challenges is essential for community organizers to navigate the path toward
environmental justice.
Opportunities for Community Organizers
Community-based participatory research (CBPR) and mobilization provides a unique
chance to increase political participation and amplify the perspectives of vulnerable communities
in policymaking (Levy & Bowleg, 2023; Schomburg, 2022). Through CBPR, community
members actively engage in the research process, gaining a direct say in endeavors that directly

40
impact their communities (Davis & Ramírez-Andreotta, 2021; Ortiz-Wythe et al., 2022). This
inclusive approach not only empowers communities by giving them a direct say in research
endeavors that impact them but also fosters trust between community advocates and their
constituents, laying the groundwork for stronger partnerships to address pressing environmental
justice issues (English et al., 2018; Sprague Martinez et al., 2020). By actively collaborating with
policymakers and government agencies, community organizers can effectively influence
legislation and regulations, advocating for cleaner transportation options, equitable urban
planning, and stricter environmental standards through public consultations and evidence-based
recommendations (Pitt & Bassett, 2014; Ron et al., 2021; Sprague Martinez et al., 2020).
In pursuing environmental justice objectives, analyzing successful case studies for
common themes and developing a framework to guide researchers and communities can lead to
more efficient and scalable strategies (English et al., 2018). Building strategic partnerships and
alliances with advocacy groups, environmental organizations, and stakeholders further enhances
the impact of environmental justice efforts, pooling resources and expertise to effect positive
change (Ron et al., 2021). Embracing digital tools and technology becomes crucial for
community organizers to collect data, disseminate information, mobilize support, and engage
policymakers, broadening the scope and reach of their environmental justice initiatives
(Williamson, 2022). Moreover, community organizers' active involvement in grassroots lobbying
and coalition-building enables them to advocate for environmental policy changes at various
levels, expanding their influence and driving meaningful transformations (English et al., 2018;
Staples, 2012). While further understanding of their optimal utilization is needed, the
combination of community-based participatory research, collaboration, strategic partnerships,

41
digital mobilization, and grassroots advocacy presents opportunities for community organizers to
address environmental justice issues and foster lasting policy changes.
Challenges for Community Organizers
Disparities in resources, decision-making authority, and funding significantly impact
community-based participatory research (CBPR) and community mobilization efforts, leading to
challenges in inclusivity, democratic processes, and the potential for sustainable and impactful
outcomes (Chu, 2018; English et al., 2018; Gram et al., 2019). These studies reveal that these
disparities not only hinder the inclusivity and democratic nature of such initiatives but also
undermine the potential for generating sustainable and impactful outcomes. Moreover, the
reliance on limited and variable funding further exacerbates the situation by hindering the
continuity and scalability of CBPR and community mobilization efforts, consequently affecting
their capacity to effectively address complex environmental justice issues (English et al., 2018).
The challenges posed by fluctuating financial support highlight the importance of finding
innovative and stable funding mechanisms to ensure the longevity and success of community-led
endeavors.
Effective community participation in environmental justice initiatives depends on
addressing varying knowledge and skills within communities through strategic investment in
capacity-building efforts (Sprague Martinez et al., 2020; Staples, 2012). Addressing this
knowledge gap is vital to empower community members and enable their meaningful
engagement in decision-making processes concerning their environment and well-being.
Additionally, community organizers from outside the community may face difficulties
understanding the cultural context and history, making it challenging to navigate local power
dynamics and build trust during grassroots change efforts (Levy & Bowleg, 2023; Sprague

42
Martinez et al., 2020). This research emphasizes that establishing genuine connections and
partnerships with local stakeholders becomes crucial in fostering collaboration and sustaining
long-term positive change.
Environmental justice advocates encounter formidable challenges due to political
influence and opposition from influential stakeholders, requiring strategic approaches to
counteract resistance and promote equitable policy changes (Archer, 2021; Davis & RamírezAndreotta, 2021). These studies highlight that the political landscape can be hostile to
environmental justice initiatives, necessitating strategic approaches to navigate and counteract
resistance from vested interests. Additionally, community organizers may face obstacles in
effectively communicating complex environmental information to decision-makers lacking
technical expertise or lived experiences (Levy & Bowleg, 2023). There is a need to bridge this
communication gap, as it is essential to ensure that evidence-based information informs policy
decisions, leading to more equitable environmental policies and actions.
Achieving a significant impact on environmental justice initiatives necessitates long-term
efforts and prioritization despite limited funding (English et al., 2018; Sprague Martinez et al.,
2020). These studies suggest that investing in sustainable and persistent approaches prioritizing
long-term impact and steadfast commitment becomes crucial in driving meaningful change and
mitigating the detrimental effects of funding constraints. Furthermore, community organizers
frequently encounter bureaucratic hurdles and resistance from vested interests in policy and
advocacy efforts (Ortiz-Wythe et al., 2022; Sprague Martinez et al., 2020). This research
uncovers the time-consuming administrative processes and barriers to implementing policies or
gaining decision-makers' approval while facing opposition from corporations, industries, or
influential individuals who may resist policy changes threatening their profits or influence.

43
Overcoming these challenges necessitates persistence, collaboration, and strategic advocacy to
effectively address environmental injustices and promote equitable outcomes for affected
communities.
Summary
This literature review examines the historical context of environmental justice concerning
transportation-related air pollution and sheds light on the shaping and legacy of marginalized
communities. The review highlights the intersectionality of the issue and how political exclusion
has contributed to the disproportionate impact on these communities. Discriminatory policies
such as Jim Crow laws and redlining have played a significant role, as they have led to the
location of marginalized communities near transportation hubs and pollutant-emitting industries,
exacerbating environmental disparities. Moreover, transportation infrastructure and urban
planning decisions have further contributed to the problem, perpetuating the exposure of these
communities to harmful pollutants.
The impact of environmental justice in transportation-related air pollution is explored,
mainly focusing on health outcomes and economic consequences. Marginalized communities
bear the brunt of healthcare inequities, experiencing higher rates of respiratory problems and
cardiovascular diseases due to prolonged exposure to transportation-related pollutants.
Additionally, these communities face economic hardships as their property values decrease due
to their proximity to polluted areas, deepening existing economic disparities. As the review
examines the opportunities and challenges for community organizers, it highlights the role of
community-based participatory research and mobilization in raising awareness and empowering
affected communities. However, community organizers must navigate complex political systems
and advocate for policy changes that address transportation-related air pollution adequately. By

44
examining the problem of practice from these angles, the review underscores the pressing need
for collaborative efforts to address environmental justice concerns and strive for a more equitable
future.
Conceptual Framework
This study's conceptual framework, as illustrated in Figure 1, is grounded in Bullard's
(1994) Environmental Justice Framework and focuses on the intersection of environmental
justice and transportation air pollution. The framework is structured into two principal
components: Opportunities and Challenges. The Opportunities component highlights proactive
advocacy efforts, emphasizing the role of public participation, access to information, and
collaborative partnerships. These efforts are crucial for enacting and enforcing legislation that
ensures environmental safety and prevents harm, reflecting Bullard's (1994) principles of the
right to protection and the prevention of harm. Additionally, this component actively embodies
the principle of targeting resources to redress inequities by advocating for strategically allocating
resources to the communities most affected by transportation-related air pollution, thus
enhancing their capacity for engagement and change (Bullard, 1994). The Challenges component
addresses obstacles such as power imbalances, resource constraints, institutional barriers, and
complexities in community engagement. These challenges reflect the need to shift the burden of
proof to polluters and to obviate the proof of intent to discriminate, according to Bullard's (1994)
principles. Furthermore, addressing these challenges supports the principle of targeting resources
to redress inequities by advocating for legislative changes and ensuring that resources are
strategically directed toward overcoming barriers in communities disproportionately affected by
environmental hazards (Bullard, 1994). By systematically examining these issues, the framework
provides a roadmap for community organizers and illustrates the multifaceted nature of their

45
advocacy efforts. This conceptual framework offers a solid foundation for informing
environmental policies and supporting targeted community actions.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

46
Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter emphasizes the necessity of advocating for environmental justice
specifically as it relates to air pollution from transportation. The opportunities and challenges
faced by community organizers in achieving environmental justice in marginalized communities
were explored through qualitative analysis of a study. The chapter restates the research
questions, provides an overview of the methodological design, describes the researcher's
background, discusses the data sources and analysis, and addresses credibility, ethics, and
limitations. The findings of this study aimed to enhance our understanding of the distinct
opportunities and challenges encountered by community organizers in their pursuit of
environmental justice in marginalized communities, providing valuable insights that can guide
policy reforms, practice improvements, and the development of strategies to foster greater equity
and justice in these communities.
Research Questions
1. What opportunities are available to community organizers to advocate for environmental
justice related to the air pollution caused by transportation in terms of public
participation, access to information, and collaboration and partnerships?
2. What challenges do community organizers face in advocating for environmental justice
related to the air pollution caused by transportation in terms of power imbalances, limited
resources, institutional barriers, and community engagement?
Overview of Design
This study adopted a qualitative research approach to comprehensively investigate
community organizers involved in environmental justice efforts, with a specific focus on
addressing transportation air pollution (Creswell et al., 2007). The qualitative nature of this study

47
is highly appropriate for study of this nature as it enables a comprehensive exploration of the
subject matter by examining the lived experiences, perceptions, and beliefs of community
organizers actively involved in environmental justice efforts. This approach allowed for a
nuanced and context-specific understanding of how these organizers address transportationrelated air pollution in marginalized communities, providing valuable insights into their
strategies, challenges, and opportunities.
The study conducted 11 semi-structured interviews with community organizers to
comprehensively explore their experiences, strategies, opportunities, and obstacles in addressing
transportation-related air pollution in marginalized communities. Semi-structured interviews
allow for a dynamic and interactive approach to data collection, posing open-ended questions
flexibly and conversationally to participants (Creswell et al., 2007). These interviews were
particularly well-suited for this study as they enabled an in-depth exploration and capture of rich,
detailed data about the experiences, perspectives, and beliefs of community organizers involved
in environmental justice work. The flexibility of this approach allowed for comprehensive
insights into their strategies, opportunities, and obstacles, while exploring the contextual nuances
of the subject matter while fostering a comfortable and supportive environment for participants
to express themselves authentically and contribute valuable data. This approach enhanced the
research process and strengthened the validity of the findings on environmental justice in the
context of transportation air pollution, providing firsthand accounts and unique insights.
The Researcher
Research in qualitative methods has consistently pointed to potential biases arising from
the dual roles of the researcher as both data collector and analyst (Birt et al., 2016; Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Aware of these inherent challenges, I engage in

48
narrative reflexivity to scrutinize how my unique background as a Black and Samoan woman
influences the outcomes of my research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
My upbringing in a middle-class neighborhood, under the guidance of parents who actively
fought against inequalities within predominantly Black schools and communities, deeply informs
my commitment to environmental justice. This commitment is further fueled by personal health
battles with asthma exacerbated by pollution and the health struggles of my family, including a
young adult with asthma in New York City and a spouse dedicated to improving cancer
outcomes in Black communities.
In my advocacy work with the Justice40 initiative (The White House, n.d.), alongside
People of Color in Green Spaces and the Department of Energy and Clean Cities Coalition in
Seattle, Washington, I am positioned at the forefront of efforts to ensure that federal investments
in climate and clean energy initiatives benefit those most burdened by environmental injustices.
My approach to mitigating biases in my research includes rigorous reflexivity, where I document
and reflect on my emotional responses and the intersection of my experiences with those of my
participants. Additionally, I incorporate peer reviews and member checking to provide a
multiplicity of perspectives and verify my findings' accuracy, thereby enhancing my research's
objectivity and validity (Birt et al., 2016; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
As a minority researcher in America, my work is propelled by a profound mission to
dismantle the systemic injustices that plague communities like my own, which are
disproportionately affected by transportation air pollution. My dedication to this cause is not
merely academic; it is a passionate endeavor to foster equitable solutions that advance social and
environmental justice. By embracing the challenges and rigorously addressing biases, my

49
research aims to make impactful contributions that extend beyond scholarly discourse to enact
real-world change.
Data Source
As part of this study, the data sources investigated the opportunities and challenges
community organizers face in achieving environmental justice related to transportation air
pollution in marginalized communities. Utilizing Bullard's Environmental Justice Framework
(Bullard, 1994) and employing a qualitative research approach, the study primarily relied on
community organizers who actively advocate for environmental justice and have experience
addressing air quality and pollution concerns related to transportation as key data sources. The
research aimed to gather insights from a heterogeneous group of 10 community organizers
through a purposeful sampling approach (Suri, 2011). The primary data collection method
involved individual semi-structured interviews, providing an adaptable yet organized approach to
comprehensively understand the experiences and perspectives of ten participants, making it a
central data source for this investigation.
Interviews
This study's primary data collection method was interviews, which is consistent with the
qualitative research paradigm. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggest that interviews can be defined
as interactive exchanges between myself and participants, wherein the primary objective is to
address research inquiries. The research relied exclusively on interviews as the primary data
source for investigating environmental justice issues in transportation-related air pollution and
the obstacles community organizers encounter in marginalized communities. To
comprehensively understand the subject matter, I conducted individual, semi-structured
interviews with participants through Zoom, a video conferencing platform that enables users to

50
hold virtual meetings and collaborate online. Additionally, I utilized ReadAI, a software
application designed for audio and video capture during interviews and for transcription
purposes. During the interviews, ReadAi was used to capture audio and I developed a set of 13
semi-structured questions in the interview design to investigate the experiences of community
organizers actively promoting environmental justice in transportation.
Participants
The research study employed a purposeful sampling approach, combining convenience
and snowball sampling methods, to investigate the opportunities and challenges community
organizers encounter to achieve environmental justice in marginalized communities (Suri, 2011).
The individuals who participated in this study were community organizers with a minimum of
three years experience in advocating for environmental justice related to transportation air
pollution in marginalized communities. The recruitment process commenced with outreach
communication to known experts in the field currently working with community organizers,
along with an online search utilizing the LinkedIn platform, followed by sending invitation
emails that define the specific criteria of the study. Individuals who indicated their interest were
required to fill out a recruitment questionnaire that encompassed demographic information. The
study employed a purposeful sampling approach to gather a heterogeneous group of 11
community organizers who possess valuable insights.
Instrumentation
This study utilized a semi-structured interview protocol to examine the opportunities and
challenges encountered by community organizers in their pursuit of environmental justice in
relation to air pollution resulting from transportation activities (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
justification for opting for a semi-structured approach was its adaptable yet organized

51
characteristics, which enable fluidity in the conversation while guaranteeing uniform data
gathering from all individuals involved (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interview questions
outlined in the protocol predominantly consisted of open-ended inquiries, which included ideal
position questions, devil's advocate questions, and interpretive questions. The objective of these
questions was to effectively gather participants' experiences, opinions, and knowledge (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016).
The research questions and theoretical framework shaped the interview protocol, drawing
upon the existing literature (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), expertise in clean transportation,
environmental justice, and personal experience. This study investigated the opportunities and
challenges community organizers encounter in their efforts to attain environmental justice
concerning transportation-caused air pollution. The study further explored the significance of
data collection, financial limitations, cultural and social influences, public consciousness and
education, and sustainability initiatives implemented by community organizers. The semistructured interview protocol aligned with the study's objectives and research inquiries, offering
an appropriate structure for data acquisition. Open-ended questions facilitated a thorough
examination while integrating diverse question formats, allowing for a comprehensive
understanding of community organizers' opportunities and obstacles in achieving environmental
justice regarding transportation-related air pollution (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interview
protocol can be found in Appendix A, supported by the literature review, expertise in
environmental justice, and personal experience.
Data Collection Procedures
The data collection procedures for this study involved conducting 60-minute individual
interviews with participants using either Zoom, Zoom, a video conferencing platform that

52
enables users to hold virtual meetings and collaborate online. Informed consent was obtained
from participants, outlining the study's purpose, their rights, and confidentiality measures. The
interviews were semi-structured, guided by 13 carefully designed questions to explore
opportunities and challenges in achieving environmental justice. To establish credibility and
trustworthiness, the interviewer maintained professionalism, actively listened, and provided a
safe space for participants to share their perspectives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Technical considerations were communicated to participants for Zoom interviews,
ensuring they had a stable internet connection and suitable devices. To minimize technical
issues, the researcher offered test sessions and observed visual cues, such as non-verbal and body
language, to enhance communication. Verbal communication skills, such as active listening and
clear articulation, were emphasized to capture participants' responses accurately.
Confidentiality measures were actively implemented throughout the process of data
collection (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). The process entailed anonymizing the data and its secure
storage, with restricted access exclusively granted only to me. Upon the conclusion of the study,
all the data was carefully eradicated. Through the implementation of stringent protocols, the
research endeavored to establish reliability, dependability, impartiality, and privacy safeguards to
acquire extensive and invaluable insights into the endeavors of community organizers as they
advocate for environmental justice.
Data Analysis
This study aimed to utilize data analysis procedures to understand the opportunities and
challenges community organizers encounter in pursuing environmental justice within
marginalized communities affected by transportation-related air pollution. To achieve this, I
gathered data from 11 semi-structured interviews with community organizers actively involved

53
in environmental justice initiatives concerning transportation-related air pollution. The analysis
of the interview data followed a qualitative approach, incorporating inductive coding to initially
identify patterns, themes, and concepts directly from the interviews (Creswell et al., 2007;
Strauss & Corbin, 1998). I utilized the data analysis software QST NVivo® for thematic analysis
(Creswell & Creswelll, 2018). This inductive coding process allowed for an open exploration of
the data, enabling fresh insights and categories to emerge without preconceived notions.
After inductive coding was completed, the analysis progressed to analytic coding,
systematically exploring the identified categories' relationships and connections (Creswell et al.,
2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This approach involved the application of open coding, which
involved the thorough examination and labeling of data segments with descriptive codes, while
axial coding will facilitate the reassembling of data by connecting categories and subcategories,
creating a more structured framework. Subsequently, the research engaged in selective coding to
identify a core category that integrated and explained the other categories within the analysis,
forming a comprehensive theoretical understanding of the experiences of community organizers
in environmental justice efforts related to transportation air pollution. Moreover, throughout the
data analysis, I adopted a reflexive position (Birt et al., 2016; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) to
critically self-reflect on any personal biases and assumptions that may influence the analysis,
ensuring a transparent and rigorous examination of the data, and further enhancing the validity
and credibility of the study's findings.
Credibility & Trustworthiness
This study aimed to investigate the opportunities and obstacles community organizers
face in pursuing environmental justice in marginalized communities impacted by transportationrelated air pollution and demonstrate credibility and trustworthiness through a combination of

54
key components (Nowell et al., 2017). The study demonstrated transparency and thoroughness
by describing the research design, data collection methods, and analysis procedures in detail,
allowing readers to evaluate its validity and reproducibility (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In
addition, external validation through peer review and subject matter experts helped to identify
errors or biases, thereby enhancing the overall rigor and reliability of the study (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). In addition, the researchers acknowledged their biases through reflexivity,
fostering objectivity and dependability in data interpretation. Following ethical standards and
obtaining informed consent from participants not only promoted open communication and
respected their rights but also upheld the integrity of the research, ultimately enhancing its
credibility.
Additionally, the research employed credible sources and a comprehensive literature
review, relying on established guidelines and credible sources to strengthen the study's
background and theoretical framework (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). During the research
process, I engaged in peer debriefing and solicited input from other specialists. This
collaborative approach enhanced the trustworthiness of the research design and analysis, thereby
bolstering the credibility of the study's findings. By integrating these key components, the study
sought to provide valuable and nuanced insights into the obstacles and opportunities community
organizers face in pursuing environmental justice in marginalized communities impacted by
transportation-related air pollution.
Ethics
Throughout this study, it was imperative that ethical considerations, such as the
acquisition of informed consent and the preservation of confidentiality, were rigorously upheld.
The findings from this research contributed to a deeper understanding of environmental justice

55
issues related to transportation air pollution, informing advocacy efforts and policy interventions
in support of marginalized communities. This study was underpinned by ethical considerations
informed by the principles defined by Creswell (2014) and Merriam and Tisdell (2016). In order
to adhere to ethical standards, the study sought approval from the institutional review board
(IRB) prior to its commencement. The participant selection process adhered to predetermined
criteria, ensuring both voluntary participation and the option to withdraw from the study at any
given point. Confidentiality was upheld through the implementation of pseudonyms, the
elimination or substitution of identifying details, and the acquisition of explicit consent for audio
or video recording through Zoom and ReadAi. Upon completion of the study, all recordings were
subjected to destruction in accordance with the established protocol. Furthermore, data collection
or interviews only occurred after obtaining approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB).
By adhering to these ethical guidelines, the study guaranteed participants' safeguarding and
welfare, upheld the research process's integrity, and preserved transparency and credibility in the
dissemination and publication of findings.
In conducting research, was imperative to acknowledge and address a range of ethical
considerations (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Several considerations were considered when
conducting research. These considerations encompassed the selection of a site that is impartial
and unbiased in relation to the anticipated results of the study, adherence to cultural norms and
charters of indigenous societies, guaranteeing equitable treatment of all participants, refraining
from any form of deception, and acknowledging power imbalances and the potential for
exploitation. In data analysis and reporting, it was imperative to incorporate diverse viewpoints,
contradictory discoveries, and employ pseudonyms or aliases to safeguard privacy and
anonymity. Effective communication, appropriate storage, and responsible data sharing were

56
imperative, alongside accurate reporting and adherence to the guidelines the American
Psychological Association (APA) set forth.

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Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to explore the opportunities and challenges faced by 11
community organizers actively advocating for environmental justice concerning transportationinduced air pollution. In this qualitative analysis, purposeful sampling was employed to select
participants who could provide in-depth insights into the complexities of environmental
advocacy. The following research questions were developed to guide the study:
1. What opportunities are available to community organizers to advocate for environmental
justice related to the air pollution caused by transportation in terms of public
participation, access to information, and collaboration and partnerships?
2. What challenges do community organizers face in advocating for environmental justice
related to the air pollution caused by transportation in terms of power imbalances, limited
resources, institutional barriers, and community engagement?
In this qualitative study, the findings are systematically organized according to each
research question, exploring the opportunities and challenges community organizers encounter in
advocating for environmental justice, with a focus on transportation-induced air pollution. Using
Braun and Clarke's (2006) thematic analysis procedure, direct quotations from participants
provide rich, contextual evidence that underscores the complexities of environmental advocacy,
revealing the themes and subthemes that emerged from the analysis. This thorough examination
enhances the study’s confirmability, offering an in-depth understanding of the specific dynamics
involved in environmental justice advocacy related to transportation air pollution.
Participating Stakeholders
This study employed purposeful sampling to select 11 participants from diverse
backgrounds across the United States, actively engaged in environmental justice advocacy within

58
marginalized communities. Table 2 provides a condensed overview of these participants,
showcasing pseudonyms for confidentiality, and includes their genders, roles, ethnicities, years
of experience in advocacy, and statements about their involvement in the environmental justice
movement. The individuals featured in the study occupy a variety of leadership and functional
roles, demonstrating a broad spectrum of skills and influence. Specifically, the group includes
three Chief Executive Officers, one Founder and President, one Vice President, one
Analyst/Special Projects, one Neighborhood Liaison, one Professor, one Climate Community
Organizer, one Senior Director, and one Co-founder and Managing Partner. This range of
positions underscores the diverse professional expertise within the cohort. Ethnically, the group
is composed of six Black Americans, three Whites, one Middle Eastern, and one Afro-Latino,
showcasing a rich mosaic of cultural backgrounds and perspectives. In terms of experience, the
participants span various career phases, with three having three to five years, three with six to ten
years, and five boasting over ten years of experience, demonstrating a blend of emerging and
seasoned professionals in the field. This diversity illustrates a broad spectrum of perspectives and
environmental and transportation advocacy expertise. Their collective testimonies emphasize a
deep-rooted commitment to environmental justice and transportation equity, reflecting the
diverse experiences and roles they contribute to environmental advocacy related to transportation
air pollution.
Table 2
Participant Demographics and Testimonies on Environmental Justice Advocacy
Name Gender Role Ethnicity Experience Advocacy Testimonies
Sarah Female Founder &
President
Middle
Eastern
3-5 years At the beginning of the year,
I started my company with
the main focus on
transportation equity.

59
Table 2 Continued
Name Gender Role Ethnicity Experience Advocacy Testimonies
Rebecca Female Chief
Executive
Officer
AfroLatino
6-10 years If there's no representation in
the media or people to do inlanguage interviews, then
how is the rest of the
community going to know?
So that's what sort of led me
to have that aha moment
…that there's a lack of
representation from Blacks
and Latinos or other
indigenous communities in
these areas.
Hannah Female Analyst/
Special
Projects
White 10+ years It always stuck with me that
if I ever had the power of the
resources, I was going to
create a transportation
program.
David Male Chief
Executive
Officer
Black
American
10+ years Our office recently launched
an Advisory Board …which
would look at transportation
and other sectors as it relates
to environmental justice.
Joshua Male Vice President White 10+ years We deploy strategic
communications and help
our clients identify decision
makers to reach in order to
make that change in the
world, the changes they want
to see.
Miriam Female Neighborhood
Liaison
Black
American
3-5 years I started volunteering and
then started getting paid. It
was to the point where
something had to be done
about it (air pollution),
knowing the (marginalized)
neighborhood I was living in.

60
Table 2 Continued
Name Gender Role Ethnicity Experience Advocacy Testimonies
Deborah Female Professor White 10+ years So, I am attempting to really
look at populations that are
disadvantaged by lack of
access to affordable and
convenient and reliable
transportation.
Esther Female Climate
Community
Organizer
Black
American
3-5 years So, what I try to do is work
on education and outreach to
the community and also
making them aware of
different events or providing
events to be able to just bring
that advocacy work to the
community and then them
also being able to learn how
to empower what they can do
for the next measures of the
issue.
Daniel Male Chief
Executive
Officer
Black
American
6-10 years The communities that we
want to focus on are
communities that are not
served in the way that they
should be in terms of
whether it's pollution,
energy, all of those areas.
Caleb Male Senior
Director
Black
American
3-5 years We've had a focus on the
particularly on the heavy
duty and light duty vehicle
emissions, and the role those
play in poisoning the air for
BIPOC (Black, Indigenous,
and People of Color)
communities, particularly
those who are living near
ports, transit areas, etc, and
ways to accelerate the
transition to zero emission
vehicles.

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Table 2 Continued
Name Gender Role Ethnicity Experience Advocacy Testimonies
Ruth Female Co-founder &
Managing
Partner
Black
American
10+ years One of the areas that we
focus on within that space is
making sure that
underrepresented voices are
present at the table.
The summary of Table 2 indicates certain limitations in representation across various
demographic categories. Regarding gender diversity, the table predominantly features female and
male participants, with no explicit inclusion of non-binary, transgender, or other gender
identities. This omission suggests a narrower representation of gender diversity. The lack of
representation from Asian, Native American, and Pacific Islander groups in the study highlights
limited ethnic diversity, suggesting a need for more comprehensive demographic inclusion to
capture a broader spectrum of perspectives in environmental and transportation equity. In terms
of seniority and role diversity, the study largely presents individuals in leadership or high-impact
positions, such as CEOs, Founders, and Professors, with less visibility of entry-level, mid-level,
or intern roles. This pattern suggests a concentration on more senior professional roles, which
may reflect the specific focus of the study or the sectors represented in the table.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Queston 1 explored, “What opportunities are available to community organizers
to advocate for environmental justice related to the air pollution caused by transportation in
terms of public participation, access to information, and collaboration and partnerships?” The
two themes identified to answer the first research question as advocacy opportunities were: (1)
Empowering Communities for Environmental Justice in Transportation and (2) Collaborative
Strategies for Environmental Justice Advocacy. The first theme, Empowering Communities for
Environmental Justice in Transportation, underscores the importance of culturally responsive

62
communication strategies and environmental community education to engage diverse community
members and equip them with the necessary knowledge and skills for effective advocacy. These
efforts directly address the research question's emphasis on empowering community organizers
and enhancing public participation. The second theme, Collaborative Strategies for
Environmental Justice Advocacy, highlights the significance of strategic policy advocacy and
trust-based partnerships in driving systemic change and addressing environmental injustices.
These collaborative approaches align with the research question's focus on collaboration and
partnerships to advocate for environmental justice. Table 3 presents the findings for this research
question, detailing the themes and subthemes that emerged as opportunities for community
organizers in environmental justice advocacy related to transportation air pollution, focusing on
empowering communities and collaborative strategies.
Table 3
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 Themes Subthemes
What opportunities are
available to community
organizers to advocate for
environmental justice
related to the air pollution
caused by transportation in
terms of public
participation, access to
information, and
collaboration and
partnerships?
Empowering Communities for
Environmental Justice in
Transportation
Culturally Responsive
Communication
Environmental
Community Education
Collaborative Strategies for
Environmental Justice
Advocacy
Strategic Policy Advocacy
Building Trust-Based
Partnerships
Theme 1: Empowering Communities for Environmental Justice in Transportation
The unanimous consensus among the 11 participants identified empowering communities
through culturally responsive communication and environmental community education as a

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crucial opportunity for advocating environmental justice related to transportation-induced air
pollution. The participants highlighted culturally responsive communication as essential for
engaging and empowering communities, noting that a range of approaches in communication
enriches environmental education by addressing the varied needs and perspectives of different
communities. Environmental community education was also emphasized as a valuable method
for raising awareness and fostering empowerment among communities affected by
transportation-related air pollution. These insights lead to a detailed exploration of the
subthemes, Culturally Responsive Communication and Environmental Community Education,
each illustrating the effective methods participants use to address environmental justice
regarding transportation air pollution.
Culturally Responsive Communication
The contributions of all 11 participants revealed varied approaches to empowering
communities through culturally responsive communication, targeting environmental justice
issues related to transportation air pollution. The study revealed that culturally responsive
communication emphasizes the importance of considering cultural backgrounds, values, and
perspectives when engaging with different communities. This approach acknowledges the
diversity within communities and seeks to empower them by bridging communication gaps and
considering cultural nuances and preferences in communication styles. Sarah, for example, used
virtual reality to make eco-friendly transportation concepts clear, noting a moment when a
youngster said, "There was this kid...he was able to explain to his grandparent the difference
between a car share and ride share program and what is an electric car." This innovative
approach contrasted with Daniel's focus on engaging youth through music and influencers, as he
stated, "You have to bring excitement to the younger people and put on a whole show for them to

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grab their attention." Despite their differing methods, participants stressed the importance of
captivating the audience's attention and ensuring accessible and engaging information.
Miriam emphasized the importance of respectful language in communication, expressing
her discomfort with negative labels by saying, "Calling my community marginalized, it just does
something to me. So, we just got rid of calling people just that." In contrast, Rebecca focused on
the significance of linguistic accessibility, underscoring the importance of communicating in
native languages and ensuring accessibility for people with disabilities, as she asserted, "In
language (communicating in the community's native tongue) is just as important as ensuring
accessibility for people with disabilities." Despite their different emphases, participants
highlighted the critical need for language that respects and includes diverse communities, thus
underscoring the participants' collective commitment to culturally responsive communication
practices.
Joshua provided valuable insights into knowledge gaps across different communities,
stressing the need to tailor communication strategies based on each community's specific
knowledge and awareness levels. He illustrated this need by sharing,
We found that air pollution tends to be the highest in under-resourced areas, and people
who live there (already) knew that. So, then we learned that the information gaps were
actually in educating people from middle-income or high-resource areas about the
impacts of gas and diesel pollution on communities.
This observation highlights the critical importance of addressing informational disparities to
enhance environmental education efforts and foster culturally responsive communication,
contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of environmental challenges like air
pollution within communities.

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Caleb emphasized the effectiveness of simplicity in communication, noting the
advantages of clear and direct language: "Utilizing our listserv and sending messages that are
tailored to them in out in plain language." Ruth, focusing on the importance of aligning with
community preferences, advised on the careful selection of the messenger and message saying,
"Make sure that the messenger and what the messenger is saying is in respect to the community,
and they are shared in a way that the community will respond to them." While the participants
approached communication from different perspectives, they underscore the critical need for
clarity, respect, and a community-focused approach in messaging, reinforcing the significance of
building trust-based partnerships in their advocacy work.
The consensus among all 11 participants underscored the crucial role of culturally
responsive communication in tackling transportation-induced air pollution and empowering
communities. The participants’ discussions focused on respectful language, linguistic
accessibility, tailored messaging, and engaging content. The subsequent exploration will analyze
the second subtheme of environmental community education, highlighting the critical role of
culturally responsive communication in promoting environmental awareness and advocacy.
Environmental Community Education
The significance of environmental community education initiatives in raising awareness
about transportation-related air pollution and its impact was emphasized by all 11 participants.
The study revealed the value of environmental community education in helping to raise
awareness, build knowledge, and foster critical thinking skills among community members,
enabling them to better understand and address environmental challenges in their neighborhoods.
Empowerment, in this context, refers to the process of equipping communities with the tools,
skills, and support needed to advocate for themselves, participate in decision-making processes,

66
and drive positive change in their environments. For example, in Deborah's statement, "For
communities that have struggled for a long time to tell them they can't want to have what the rest
of us (higher-resourced communities) have is a tough message," reframes challenges as
opportunities within environmental community education. It highlights the potential for creating
awareness about the burdens faced by communities most impacted by transportation-related air
pollution and emphasizes the transformative empowerment that can result. Conversely, Joshua
shared,
We had the time to conduct education (in higher-resourced communities) on air pollution
and the impact of diesel and gas vehicles, traffic congestion, freeway construction, and
cars. They were taught what that (transportation-related air pollution) does to poor
neighborhoods that tend to be more communities of color, and we saw an understanding
shift among those (community) leaders.
This insight from Joshua speaks to the importance of addressing education gaps and expanding
outreach efforts to include groups that may unknowingly impact marginalized communities. This
complexity underscores the critical need for sensitive and nuanced approaches in environmental
community education to effectively engage and empower communities, leveraging these
opportunities for meaningful dialogue, advocacy, and sustainable solutions.
Daniel stresses the need for dialogues, resource sharing, and showing measurable impacts
to address transportation-related air pollution, stating,
Unless you're actually having a conversation with communities to say how do we put
together strategies, how do we pull our resources, how do we go out to different places
and talk about it, and then show why it's important. A lot of times, people in the
community will not understand how it (air pollution) impacts them. You (community

67
organizers) must show the numbers (impact statistics) and get community members to see
how this impacts their lives and their children's and grandchildren's lives. Then we can
help them look at it from a generational impact.
Daniel’s emphasizes strategic communication and actionable insights. Conversely, Esther
focuses on the power of knowledge and understanding, noting, "We are working on having
reoccurring info sessions about having access to the information and helping participants
understand the power in their voice with the right information." While Daniel's approach
involves actively demonstrating impacts and strategies, Esther's method centers on educating and
empowering through information. Both strategies, however, underline the significance of
engaging with the community meaningfully to achieve long-lasting environmental advocacy
outcomes.
Hannah described her approach to empowerment through environmental community
education by emphasizing the need to address economic disparities sharing, "Some people did
not have bank accounts and never had a debit card before, so we helped 572 people in our
workshop get checking accounts." Ruth echoed this holistic view, focusing on creating
opportunities for youth: "Through education outreach, we were able to create a pipeline for
young people to have career opportunities in this space." This evidence reveals a demonstrated
approach of how environmental community education can serve as a powerful tool for
community empowerment, addressing not only environmental issues but also broader economic
and career development challenges, thereby contributing to building trust-based partnerships.
In contrast, Caleb provided a way for environmental community education to reach
homes and digital platforms, as evident in his quote about the educational video and its online
accessibility, stating, "In the educational video we released information about the negative

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adverse health impacts caused from transportation." This approach shows versatility and the
ability to engage audiences through digital media, making educational content accessible beyond
traditional settings. On the other hand, Sarah's approach involved creating in-person events for
the entire family to be engaged, as seen in her quote, "I realized that many people live together...
area of conversation and that helps," highlighting her focus on fostering direct interactions and
community connections in environmental advocacy efforts. These strategies showcase the
different methods used in environmental community education, ranging from digital outreach to
interactive in-person engagements, each contributing to a diverse and inclusive approach for the
whole family to address environmental issues and foster community empowerment.
The collective findings from all 11 participants underscore the critical role of
environmental community education in addressing transportation-related air pollution and
empowering communities. Their insights highlight the opportunities for nuanced approaches,
holistic strategies, economic empowerment, and versatile outreach methods. The subsequent
exploration will discuss the collaborative strategies for environmental justice advocacy,
emphasizing additional opportunities for diverse approaches to influence policy.
Theme 2: Collaborative Strategies for Environmental Justice Advocacy
The theme of collaborative strategies for environmental justice advocacy encompasses
Strategic Policy Advocacy and Building Trust-Based Partnerships, which are aligned with
opportunities for stakeholders to advocate for policy changes while emphasizing public
participation, access to information, and collaboration. Strategic Policy Advocacy involves
influencing systemic changes in environmental policies through strategic lobbying efforts,
advocating for sustainable transportation initiatives, and promoting public involvement in the
policy-making process. Additionally, it underscores collaboration with governmental entities to

69
drive systemic change and enhance environmental justice. Building Trust-Based Partnerships
emphasizes stakeholder collaboration and trust-building, fostering inclusive engagement and
facilitating effective collaborative action. Through these partnerships, stakeholders enhance
public participation, ensure access to information, and promote transparency in policy
discussions, advocating for policy changes that address environmental injustices and promote
effective public engagement in environmental justice efforts.
Strategic Policy Advocacy
Nine of the eleven participants indicated a strong commitment to strategic policy
advocacy, each employing distinct methods to influence change and engage with various
stakeholders. Sarah's journey from offering grant-writing assistance to nonprofits to becoming "a
bridge between the community and government" illustrates the evolution of individual initiative
in advocacy. This contrasts with Hannah's more assertive strategy where she expressed, "I started
inserting myself into the conversation, screaming and yelling about the environmental justice
issues in black and brown communities. So, they created a subcommittee for that purpose and
made me the chair." These participants illustrate the spectrum of initiative-taking in advocacy,
from building relationships and trust over time to more direct actions that challenge and reshape
existing power structures. The impact of these efforts on advocacy is significant, as they both
lead to influential positions that bridge community needs with governmental capabilities, albeit
through different paths.
In the context of strategic policy advocacy, collaboration and engagement emerge as
pivotal elements as opportunities. These practices are not just about working together but are
strategic acts that build alliances, influence policy decisions, and mobilize community action.
Through these focused interactions, advocates can more effectively navigate the complexities of

70
policy environments, leveraging collective expertise and resources to drive change. For instance,
David's relentless pursuit in advocacy, "This happened with constant engagement and driving
them crazy and harassing them," exemplifies the intensity and persistence required in such
efforts. Joshua's strategic presence and planning are captured in his words, "Our mantra is
nothing about us without us, no decisions about us without us being involved at the table. So,
you have to show up with a plan for that," highlighting the importance of being proactive and
prepared in policy discussions. Caleb shared his grassroots approach by explaining, "We have
campaigners working side by side with local community organizations to talk about issues and
legislation related to clean transportation," demonstrates the significance of community-level
engagement and cooperation. Together, these examples underscore different yet effective
methods of engaging stakeholders in advocacy efforts, illustrating the dynamic nature of
advocacy where persistence, strategic planning, and community involvement are crucial to
driving change and ensuring effective policy implementation.
Furthermore, Deborah's analysis highlights the critical nature of understanding and
intervening within systemic structures, saying, “Understanding how all of the structural systems
are designed to create barriers and improvements are needed at all levels.” This insight into
systemic barriers underscores the need for strategic interventions. Esther's approach is
community-focused, as she aims “to go to each or as many community council meetings that I
can attend,” demonstrating the value of local engagement. Meanwhile, Ruth's strategy involves
direct feedback mechanisms, with her team having “provided feedback to the Environmental
Protection Agency.” Each example underscores different aspects of systemic intervention, from
analytical understanding to community engagement and direct feedback to regulatory bodies.
These perspectives showcase the importance of deeply understanding systemic barriers and

71
strategically identifying intervention points to effect change. These actions impact advocacy,
enabling targeted and informed efforts that challenge and modify the structural impediments to
equity and justice in policy-making processes.
The findings on strategic policy advocacy reveal opportunities for various approaches to
navigating and influencing policy landscapes. These range from individual initiatives and
grassroots efforts to systemic interventions aimed at fostering change and engaging with diverse
stakeholders. Strategic acts like building alliances, influencing decisions, and mobilizing
community action are pivotal in navigating the complexities of policy environments. This
exploration highlights the necessity of a multifaceted, strategic approach to advocacy, which is
essential for effective policy implementation and change. The subsequent exploration will
explore the second subtheme of establishing trust-based partnerships, highlighting the
importance of trust in facilitating effective environmental policy advocacy.
Building Trust-based Partnerships
Building trust-based partnerships was indicated as essential for environmental justice
advocacy by ten of the 11 participants. Sarah highlighted the power of involving community
members directly, saying, "We found that communities did not trust government surveys. So, I
trained high school students on how to complete our surveys and paid them to reach out to 750
people in their communities." This approach garnered trust and empowered the youth,
illustrating the significant impact of grassroots involvement on advocacy efforts. Similarly,
Caleb shared, "We organized online summits that featured environmental justice speakers,
influencers, and frontline organizations," emphasizing the importance of giving a voice to
community leaders and fostering genuine connections.

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Rebecca's work on a toolkit for environmental climate adaptation showcased the value of
integrating multiple perspectives, as she explained, "We were developing a toolkit about
environmental climate adaptation, and when we brought in multiple perspectives from the utility,
local governments, the US forest, etc. We created roundtables with those multiple perspectives."
Echoing this sentiment, David shared his collaboration with a Latino-focused organization,
stating, "They gave us advice, and we invited them to be on a number of our panels, community
forums, and listening sessions. Now, they are growing and doing even more to provide education
and outreach into Latino communities." These examples emphasize the critical role of diverse
viewpoints in strengthening advocacy efforts and forming a solid foundation for building trustbased relationships.
Hannah stressed the importance of personal engagement for building trust, detailing her
method of developing relationships with community members and influencers and even sharing
her personal contact information to deepen these connections. She explained, "Develop
relationships with the people being served and those who have influence in that community.
Learn about them and genuinely ask questions to understand their needs and experiences. I even
gave out my cell phone number!" Similarly, Joshua addressed the challenge of skepticism due to
historical neglect, emphasizing the need to understand and navigate the mistrust within
community organizations. He stated,
It is important to understand that there's often a healthy degree of skepticism among
community organizations because they are coming from years, often coming from years
of historical neglect under investments and or they are coming from years of not
meaningful input inclusion cursory input and illusion, or just being ignored entirely by

73
utilities, by policymakers, by transportation boards. So, when you stroll in, you often
have to address that skepticism and build trust.
These narratives highlight the critical role of personal connections and trust-building in
enhancing the effectiveness of environmental justice advocacy.
Deborah shared her experience with a community engagement project, illustrating the
power of collaboration and long-term commitment sharing, "Through a newly formed
corporation, we collaborated on a community engagement project...strengthening our ties with
the community and paving the way for subsequent studies on health and wellness." Esther then
highlighted the value of transparency in communication, explaining how simplicity and
understanding play a crucial role in effective advocacy saying, "Speaking plain and simple about
complex topics like environmental justice, being flexible, and taking the time to understand how
individualism plays a role in respecting people to get that information out is super important." In
alignment with these views, Ruth discussed the foundational nature of trust in relationships,
noting, "Relationships are built at the speed of trust. Every partnership should be mutually
beneficial." Similarly, Daniel emphasized the importance of dialogue in advocacy, stating, "I do
not see enough conversation. Advocacy groups should be brought into this conversation to help
explain why it is important." These perspectives collectively highlight the essential elements of
building trust-based partnerships, including clear communication, mutual respect, and the
strategic collaboration necessary for sustained environmental justice advocacy.
In summary, the insights of 10 of 11 participants illuminated the essential role of trustbased partnerships in environmental justice advocacy. Their experiences revealed significant
opportunities for direct community engagement, diversity, personal connections, and strategic
collaboration. These findings lay a robust foundation for addressing environmental injustices

74
related to transportation-related air pollution. The exploration will continue in the following
section, where the second research question unfolds, breaking down the challenges community
organizers face into two distinct themes.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 explored, “What are the challenges faced by community organizers
in advocating for environmental justice related to the air pollution caused by transportation in
terms of power imbalances, limited resources, institutional barriers, and community
engagement?” The study’s qualitative data analysis unveiled two key themes representing
community organizers' challenges when advocating for environmental justice concerning
transportation-induced air pollution. The first theme, Navigating Complex Systems, encompasses
the subthemes of Resource Acquisition and Policy along with Bureaucratic Navigation,
highlighting community organizers' struggles in obtaining resources and navigating through
complex policy environments. This theme aligns with the research question's focus on power
imbalances and institutional barriers, shedding light on the tactical and strategic challenges in
advocacy efforts. The second theme, Community Dynamics and Mobilization, centers on
Community Mobilization and Awareness along with Balancing Diverse Interests, underscoring
the vital role of engaging communities and raising awareness to foster active participation in
environmental justice initiatives. This theme echoes the research question's emphasis on
community engagement, illustrating the importance of cohesive and inclusive efforts in
addressing air pollution from transportation. Table 4 presents the findings for this research
question, detailing the themes and subthemes that emerged as challenges for community
organizers in environmental justice advocacy related to transportation air pollution, focusing on
navigating complex systems and managing community dynamics.

75
Table 4
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 Themes Subthemes
What are the challenges faced
by community organizers in
advocating for environmental
justice related to the air
pollution caused by
transportation in terms of
power imbalances, limited
resources, institutional
barriers, and community
engagement?
Navigating Complex Systems
for Environmental Justice
Advocacy
Resource Acquisition &
Allocation
Policy and Bureaucratic
Navigation
Community Dynamics and
Mobilization in
Environmental Justice
Advocacy
Community Mobilization
and Awareness
Balancing Diverse
Interests
Theme 1: Navigating Complex Systems for Environmental Justice Advocacy
Navigating Complex Systems entails a comprehensive exploration of the intricate
dynamics surrounding environmental justice advocacy. Within this overarching theme, two
distinct subthemes shed light on community organizers' challenges. The first subtheme, Resource
Acquisition and Allocation, focuses on securing essential resources such as funding, information,
human capital, and materials. This lays the groundwork for understanding the logistical and
strategic hurdles involved in ensuring these resources are both accessible and utilized effectively
to support environmental justice initiatives. In parallel, the second subtheme, Policy and
Bureaucratic Navigation, examines the landscape of policy environments and bureaucratic
structures highlighting the complexities of influencing legislative changes, navigating
governmental procedures, and engaging policymakers to effectuate institutional reforms. This
theme presents findings that directly address the research question, offering insights into the
specific challenges and dynamics encountered in environmental justice advocacy. In subsequent
sections, we will carefully analyze direct quotations from participants to explore into each

76
subtheme, unveiling the intricate dynamics of navigating resource procurement and distribution,
as well as policy and bureaucratic landscapes.
Resource Acquisition & Allocation Challenges
Significant challenges in resource acquisition and allocation were indicated by eight of
the 11 participants, who emphasized the intricacies of navigating complex systems to support
environmental justice initiatives. For example, two participants provided insight on the logistical
hurdles of ensuring adequate access and utilization of funds. Rebecca noted,
The Justice40 initiative that requires 40% of funding to go to environmentally impacted
communities is great. The challenge is ensuring that communities and cities have access
to those funds and determining how they utilize their funds. How are they applying those
funds?
Similarly, Caleb highlighted the gap in resource identification and allocation sharing,
"Addressing limited resources requires identifying and directing federal funding to local
communities most impacted by transportation-related air pollution, as these communities often
lack the capacity to secure funds without external assistance." These insights underscore the
complexities of funding processes, affecting advocacy efforts by necessitating extensive
navigation through bureaucratic systems to ensure that resources reach the intended recipients
and are used effectively.
Participants observed the contrast between non-profit and for-profit entities in securing
resources. Sarah shared an observation that, "Sometimes there are advantages working with forprofit companies, because they often get more funding and resources than non-profit
companies." Conversely, Ruth pointed out the ethical implications and tangible impact, stating,

77
We get tired of seeing organizations come in who have internal systems in place to do a
proposal, and gain access to funds to do work in disadvantaged communities, but do not
have any real intent to make an impact.
These experiences reveal a disparity in resource acquisition capabilities and intentions,
significantly impacting advocacy by influencing the type and effectiveness of interventions that
can be implemented in environmental justice communities.
In the context of resource acquisition and allocation challenges, the discussions with
participants brought to light the strategic aspects of resource management in environmental
justice initiatives. For example, David highlighted the challenge of strategically acquiring
resources, given the myriad opportunities and existing constraints like time and human capital by
pointing out, "There is so much opportunity right now to do something, but we just have so much
limited time and human capital." Additionally, Daniel emphasized the importance of
sustainability in resource allocation, stressing that effective advocacy requires long-term efforts
sharing, "This is not a short-term problem. It has to be long-term. This issue is not just a one-off,
but you have to establish a machine in action to make these things happen." Their insights reveal
how strategic planning and sustainability are crucial in overcoming the inherent challenges of
resource acquisition and allocation, ensuring that initiatives can secure and utilize resources
effectively to support communities over the long term.
The collective insights of eight out of 11 participants reveal the significant challenges and
complexities involved in resource acquisition and allocation for environmental justice initiatives.
Their experiences and observations underscore the necessity of navigating intricate systems to
secure and effectively utilize resources, highlighting disparities between different types of
organizations and the need for strategic, long-term planning in advocacy work. The subsequent

78
exploration will explore the second subtheme of policy and bureaucratic navigation, giving
insight to the challenges and strategies involved in maneuvering through the intricate networks
of policies and regulations that further define the landscape of environmental advocacy and
justice.
Policy and Bureaucratic Navigation
Navigating policy and bureaucratic structures was cited as a significant challenge in their
advocacy efforts by nine out of 11 participants. For instance, Rebecca's call to action, "We need
to make sure that we're not just advocating, but voting for the right people that are going to try to
ensure that our priorities don't get left behind," underscores the necessity of engaging in political
processes to enact change. In parallel, David's experience illustrates the importance of persistent
advocacy in drawing attention and response from policymakers by pointing out,
When you want to get things done, eventually people will pay attention if you keep
writing those letters and commenting online and having press releases and rallies and
demonstrations on things. They may try to ignore you, but you stay diligent. They will
listen one way or the other.
These findings showcase a common belief in the power of sustained, multifaceted advocacy
efforts to influence policy and bureaucratic systems. The impact on advocacy efforts is nuanced
because different strategies can yield varying results depending on the political context, the
responsiveness of policymakers, and the specific issues at stake.
The complexity of navigating policy and bureaucratic systems was further explored by
contrasting experiences from participants suggesting that effective advocacy may require
acknowledging the often-performative nature of political engagement and the strategic
navigation of bureaucratic systems. For instance, Miriam's expression of disappointment with the

79
transient nature of political engagement highlights this challenge, as she noted, "City Hall, City
Hall, City Hall! They act like they care, but after the voting season, you never see them again. In
contrast, Caleb recognizes the intricacies of bureaucracy as an integral aspect of advocacy,
advocating for strategic partnerships by explaining, "Bureaucracy is just the name of the game.
Having a strategy where you connect local champions, who are passionate about the issue but
may not understand the policy, with policy experts in DC or other national organizations is
crucial." Understanding these dynamics is crucial for advocates, enabling them to strategize their
approach effectively, whether expressing skepticism towards superficial political gestures or
crafting collaborative strategies to tackle bureaucratic challenges.
Furthermore, Ruth emphasizes the importance of recognizing and acknowledging
historical injustices for effective policy and bureaucratic navigation, stating,
Policies and systems created by historical injustices have led to transportation gaps and
deserts. Our investment over the past three and a half years aims to dismantle institutional
racism and policy that have persisted for over a century. However, it's important to
recognize that this effort won't solve all transportation issues overnight.
This perspective underscores the need for systemic change and persistent advocacy to address
entrenched inequalities. Ruth's advocacy for a holistic approach, emphasizes the need for
sustained advocacy and comprehensive reforms to rectify past wrongs and drive systemic
change.
This study’s evidence revealed that nine of 11 participants had challenging experiences
navigating policy and bureaucratic structures in advocacy, emphasizing the need for both
strategic political engagement and persistent grassroots efforts. In summary, the narrative
illustrates the complex landscape of policy and bureaucratic navigation, revealing a spectrum of

80
advocacy strategies that range from electoral engagement and persistent activism to strategic
partnerships and systemic change efforts. The following section will explore the next theme of
community dynamics and mobilization that emerged for this research question.
Theme 2: Community Dynamics and Mobilization in Environmental Justice Advocacy
The theme of Community Dynamics and Mobilization explores the intricate challenges of
engaging and uniting diverse community members in environmental and social endeavors
through insights from all 11 participants. This overarching theme and it’s two distinct subthemes
shed light on community organizers' challenges in fostering awareness, overcoming apathy, and
ensuring inclusive participation. The first subtheme, Community Mobilization and Awareness,
underscores the importance of understanding community needs, addressing real-life challenges,
and fostering a sense of ownership and active participation in environmental justice efforts. The
second subtheme, Balancing Diverse Interests and Perspectives, reflects the need for a deep
commitment to inclusive representation, active listening, and a willingness to find common
ground amidst conflicting interests. Participants highlighted the difficulties in navigating power
structures and engaging diverse communities with varying environmental awareness and socioeconomic backgrounds, recognizing it as a crucial aspect of effective advocacy. This topic
explores discoveries that directly address the research question, providing insights into the
specific challenges and dynamics encountered in environmental justice advocacy. In subsequent
sections, we will carefully analyze direct quotations from participants to examine each subtheme,
unveiling the complex dynamics of community mobilization and awareness along with balancing
diverse interests.

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Community Mobilization and Awareness
Collectively, all 11 participants provided insights that unveiled the intricate dynamics of
community mobilization and awareness, illustrating the real-world complexities of engaging
diverse groups in environmental advocacy and action. One participant, Sarah, demonstrated
innovative community engagement by explaining, "We once built this cube-shaped wall in the
middle of a neighborhood with a chalkboard. We asked a simple question: What change do you
want to see? Everyone, including homeless individuals, participated." This experience was
further contextualized by Rebecca, who highlighted the systemic issues as she observed,
In our community, people are exhausted by the lack of engagement from local
government and the absence of equity. Despite our advocacy efforts, it's disheartening to
see big companies coming in, implementing solutions, and overlooking our community
members for job opportunities. This neglect creates a sense of disconnect and questions
the purpose of our efforts.
These experiences paint a picture of a landscape fraught with challenges, where efforts to engage
are often stifled by racial systemic barriers, thereby stressing the need for engagement strategies
that also tackle issues of neglect and inequity.
Moreover, this finding emphasized the importance of direct engagement and
communication with community members. This aspect is highlighted by David, who emphasized
listening as a key tactic and stresses the significance of hands-on interaction saying, "Go to them,
talk to them, feed them, and most importantly, listen to them." Similarly, Miriam expressed the
value of intentional engagement by sharing, "I make sure to keep everyone informed by actively
engaging with them. I don't just pass by. I talk to them, update them on our initiatives, and share
more information to gauge their interest." These strategies underscore the critical role of

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consistent, respectful dialogue in community mobilization efforts, emphasizing the need for
advocacy to be rooted in ongoing communication that acknowledges and addresses community
concerns.
Participants also shared frustrations with systemic corruption and unresponsiveness
which hinder effective community engagement and awareness efforts. Joshua articulated the
community's disillusionment, noting that, "Because some people have lived in the neighborhood
for decades and little has changed, they think the process is corrupt." While Deborah also shared
the same concern, she also expressed the value of advocating for empowerment solutions saying,
"The main issue isn’t apathy, but the community's repeated, unheard requests and lack of
support. I’ve shifted from advocating for them to empowering them as their own advocates,
despite the challenges this approach presents." This dichotomy between the perceived systemic
failures and the endeavor for self-advocacy underscores the struggle in community mobilization,
suggesting that effective advocacy must confront existing structural issues and empower
community members to assert their needs and rights.
Insights from participants underscore the critical elements of awareness and
empowerment as elements of community mobilization and awareness. For example, Daniel
underlines the necessity for making environmental issues relevant to people's everyday lives,
stating, "Sometimes people just don't get why it's (environmental justice) so crucial. If it doesn't
hit close to home, they think, why bother? But here's the thing - it really does affect us in the
long run." This statement highlights the importance of raising awareness that resonates
personally with community members, fostering a sense of urgency and responsibility. In parallel,
Ruth's approach to empowerment complements this by ensuring that communities are actively
involved in shaping the initiatives that impact them, sharing that "By advocating for a seat at the

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table, it's about empowering communities to take the lead." These shared experiences and
observations demonstrate the challenge in effectively mobilizing a community requires making
them aware of the issues and actively involving them in the solution process.
These varied insights and experiences of all 11 participants collectively emphasize the
necessity of a multi-faceted approach to community mobilization and awareness for
environmental justice. They illustrate the delicate balance between understanding and engaging
with diverse community perspectives, overcoming apathy and mistrust, and fostering an
environment where honest, culturally responsive communication leads to empowered and selfsustaining community participation. The subsequent findings will explore balancing diverse
interests and perspectives that forge solutions that are equitable and just and resonant with the
communities impacted the most by transportation-related air pollution.
Balancing Diverse Interests
The experiences and viewpoints of all 11 participants encapsulate the complexities of
reconciling personal hardships, systemic inequalities, and practical barriers, reflecting the
nuanced subtheme of Balancing Diverse Interests and Perspectives in community advocacy.
Miriam’s perspective underscored the importance of recognizing and addressing systemic
inequalities noting, "The government intentionally placed us—Black, White, and Mexican—in
this low-income area since as far back as 1935 to keep us down," highlighting long-standing
structural challenges. Furthermore, Hannah added a layer of accountability, stating, "White
people caused this, and white people need to frickin solve it," emphasizing the need for proactive
change by those who historically perpetuated these inequalities. These statements illustrate the
critical need for advocacy efforts to acknowledge historical contexts and actively work towards

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dismantling systemic barriers, thus shaping the approach towards more equitable community
engagement.
Engagement and representation in community advocacy were found to be crucial, with
insights showing that personal challenges can overshadow broader concerns. Sarah remarked, "If
someone is worried about paying rent or dealing with personal issues like divorce or family
problems, it is hard for them to focus on topics like clean mobility and environmental justice."
Building on this idea, Deborah's experience underscores the strength of diversity in advocacy
stating, "As a professor, I see the power in having a diverse network of students working on
various aspects of transportation." These perspectives emphasize the importance of advocacy
being relatable to individual experiences and representative of the community's collective
diversity, fostering inclusive and effective participation.
The practical challenges of time and accessibility in community engagement come to the
forefront through shared experiences. Joshua highlighted the logistical difficulties, stating, "Lack
of time is definitely a challenge. Many individuals juggle multiple jobs and lack access to
translation services, so expecting them to spend hours in a library attending a hearing becomes
unrealistic." Additionally, Esther complemented this viewpoint by discussing the post-COVID
connection challenges, "Trying to connect with the community nowadays is like navigating a
maze. Everything is turned upside down from in-person to virtual to hybrid approaches." These
viewpoints underline the logistical barriers that hinder effective community engagement,
illustrating the necessity for advocacy efforts to adapt and become more accessible and flexible.
Furthermore, the importance of finding common ground and enhancing advocacy through
strategic inclusivity and choice is evident in the shared experiences. Rebecca underscored the

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importance of acknowledging and integrating diverse perspectives to foster cooperation in
community meetings by highlighting the value of incorporating opposing views. She explained,
In our community meetings, I often bring in people with opposing views. We tend to
overlook them, but sometimes, it's about finding a middle ground. Even if we do not
agree entirely, if there is a 40% alignment on an issue, let's focus on that rather than
nothing at all.
Moreover, Ruth emphasized the value of a diverse strategy in advocacy, stating, "Our approach
is multimodal - we offer a variety of choices and help people understand what is available so
they can find what works best." These insights from the discussion reflect the effectiveness of
advocacy when it not only embraces a variety of perspectives but also provides a range of
options, facilitating a more inclusive and participatory approach to community issues.
These experiences and observations from all 11 participants illustrate the complex
challenge of reconciling various community needs and perspectives within advocacy. They
underscore the significance of employing a strategic and compassionate approach that
thoughtfully considers the multitude of challenges and contributions to advance environmental
and social justice effectively. By weaving together the diverse strands of individual experiences,
systemic barriers, and practical concerns, these insights highlight the critical need for an
inclusive and responsive advocacy framework. The following section will summarize these
findings, drawing together the key themes and lessons gleaned from the participants' narratives.
Summary
This chapter presents the findings that emerged from a comprehensive analysis of the
experiences and strategies of community organizers who currently advocate for environmental
justice in the context of transportation-induced air pollution. Utilizing qualitative methods, the

86
study engaged 11 participants from diverse professional and ethnic backgrounds across the
United States, exploring the complexities of environmental advocacy within marginalized
communities. The chapter systematically addresses two primary research questions, revealing
opportunities in empowering communities and fostering collaborative strategies, as well as
challenges related to navigating complex systems and the dynamics involved with mobilizing
communities. The opportunities highlight the importance of culturally responsive
communication, environmental community education, strategic policy advocacy, and building
trust-based partnerships. Conversely, the challenges underscore the difficulties in resource
allocation, navigating complex policy environments, mobilizing diverse community groups, and
balancing diverse interests.
The synthesis of the findings underscores the dual facets of advocacy work concerning
the potential for community empowerment and collaborative progress against the backdrop of
significant systemic and operational obstacles. The discussion reflects on the intricate balance
between enhancing public participation, access to information, and collaborative partnerships
against the backdrop of power imbalances, limited resources, institutional barriers, and
community engagement. By analyzing the participants' nuanced experiences and strategic
approaches, the chapter illuminates the broader landscape of environmental justice advocacy,
emphasizing the need for a holistic and inclusive approach to addressing transportation-induced
air pollution. The following section will summarize these findings, drawing together the key
themes and lessons gleaned from the participants' narratives.
Opportunities
The research identifies opportunities for community organizers advocating for
environmental justice related to transportation air pollution, revealing two overarching themes

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and their corresponding subthemes. Under the first theme, participants discussed strategies for
empowering communities and addressing environmental justice issues linked to transportationinduced air pollution. In "Empowering Communities through Culturally Responsive
Communication," all 11 participants emphasized employing inclusive and accessible
communication methods to effectively convey information about transportation-related air
pollution to all community members. This subtheme underscores the need for enhanced
information access outlined in the research question. In " Environmental Community Education,"
all 11 participants recognized the significance of raising awareness about transportation-related
air pollution and empowering community members through knowledge dissemination and
capacity-building activities, aligning with the research question's focus on empowering
community organizers.
Under the second theme, "Collaborative Strategies for Environmental Justice Advocacy,"
participants discussed approaches to advocating for environmental justice in the context of
transportation-related air pollution. In "Strategic Policy Advocacy," 9 out of 11 participants
highlighted the importance of advocating for policy changes to mitigate transportation-related air
pollution and promote environmental justice, aligning with the research question's focus on
collaborative action and policy advocacy. In "Building Trust-Based Partnerships," 10 out of 11
participants emphasized fostering genuine relationships and mutual understanding among
stakeholders to facilitate collaborative action for environmental justice. This subtheme
underscores the significance of collaboration and partnership-building outlined in the research
question. These findings highlight the diverse opportunities available to community organizers in
advocating for environmental justice concerning transportation-induced air pollution. The

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following section will discuss the findings related to the challenges in advocating for
environmental justice related to transportation.
Challenges
The research reveals significant challenges community organizers face advocating for
environmental justice concerning transportation-related air pollution, uncovering two
overarching themes and their corresponding subthemes. Under the first theme, participants
discussed "Resource Acquisition and Allocation" and "Policy and Bureaucratic Navigation." In
"Resource Acquisition and Allocation," 8 out of 11 participants highlighted struggles associated
with securing funding, information, and human capital. Challenges included difficulties in
identifying funding sources and effectively allocating limited resources. Meanwhile, "Policy and
Bureaucratic Navigation," discussed by 9 out of 11 participants, explored the complexities of
influencing policy environments and bureaucratic structures, such as dealing with governmental
red tape and navigating slow institutional change processes. Within the second theme,
"Community Dynamics and Mobilization," all 11 participants contributed to discussions
surrounding "Community Mobilization and Awareness" and "Balancing Diverse Interests and
Perspectives." These subthemes underscored challenges in engaging diverse community
members, fostering awareness, and reconciling conflicting viewpoints to develop equitable and
resonant solutions reflective of the community's varied fabric. The next chapter will expand on
this one by summarizing the research's implications, limitations, future study suggestions, and its
broader impact on environmental justice and transportation-induced air pollution.

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Chapter 5: Discussion and Recommendations
The purpose of this study was to investigate community organizers' opportunities and
challenges in advocating for environmental justice related to the air pollution caused by
transportation in marginalized communities. Research consistently underscores that marginalized
communities bear a disproportionate share of the adverse health effects linked to transportationrelated air pollution, primarily due to their close proximity to highways, ports, and industrial
zones. This exposure is detrimental to health and quality of life, especially for individuals
residing within 200-500 meters of major roadways (Bullard, 2021; Cheng et al., 2020;
Mukherjee et al., 2020). However, by advocating for marginalized communities and addressing
environmental disparities, community organizers, who are at the forefront of this fight, play a
pivotal and irreplaceable role in promoting environmental justice (Lucero et al., 2018; Pellow,
2020; Siddiqi et al., 2022). Eleven semi-structured interviews shed light on the opportunities and
challenges of advocating for environmental justice regarding transportation air pollution,
aligning with Bullard's (1994) environmental justice framework. This chapter represents the
study's findings within the context of current literature, three recommendations for improved
advocacy, limitations and delimitations of the study design, and suggestions for future research. I
conclude with the significance of the study's findings for the field of environmental justice
related to transportation air pollution.
Discussion of Findings
The study's findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the complexities of
environmental justice advocacy related to transportation air pollution, illustrating the
opportunities for empowering and engaging communities as well as the significant challenges
that must be navigated to promote change from 11 semi-structured interviews with community

90
organizers. These findings align with the five principles of Bullard's (1994) environmental
justice framework, illustrating a dynamic narrative of struggle, collaboration, and empowerment
in combating transportation-induced air pollution. Building on these core insights, this discussion
explores the study's specific findings related to the opportunities and challenges in environmental
justice and offers recommendations to enhance advocacy efforts to address transportation-related
air pollution.
Advocacy Opportunities Available to Community Organizers
The study highlighted key opportunities to enhance public involvement, improve access
to information, and develop trust-based partnerships—crucial elements for addressing these
environmental justice issues effectively. One notable finding was the transformative role of trust
in enhancing strategic policy advocacy, a point supported by literature that views trust as critical
for successful environmental justice initiatives (Rickenbacker et al., 2019). This research
underscores the importance of empowering communities, especially those historically
marginalized, to actively shape policies that protect their environments, aligning with Bullard's
(1994) right-to-protection principle. The establishment of trust, despite historical challenges and
limited understanding of community backgrounds, encourages stronger cooperation and shared
decision-making (Yuen et al., 2015). Such collaboration not only demands transparency but also
shifts the burden of proof to polluters, ensuring they demonstrate their practices are harmless,
thus reflecting Bullard's principles and protecting vulnerable communities from environmental
injustices.
The findings underscore the value and challenges of culturally responsive communication
and environmental community education in empowering communities, particularly by enhancing
engagement and providing resources to marginalized groups. Literature supports the significance

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of intersectional organizing and building solidarity across diverse backgrounds (Davis &
Ramírez-Andreotta, 2021; Ortiz-Wythe et al., 2022). The diversity of the study's participants,
representing various ethnicities, career stages, and roles in the community, illustrated the
complexities of mobilizing across socio-economic and cultural divides. Additionally, the study
emphasized the necessity of tailoring communication to diverse languages, age groups, and
ability levels to boost participation and empowerment in environmental justice efforts. Ensuring
that information dissemination is inclusive, considering cultural relevance and accessibility, is
crucial (English et al., 2018), as is addressing the specific needs of people with disabilities
(Lochotzki et al., 2022). This multifaceted approach aligns with Bullard's (1994) prevention of
harm principle by ensuring that all community members are well-informed about environmental
risks and actively create preventive measures. It increases awareness and capacity and ensures
that information is equitably distributed, specifically targeting the most vulnerable and directly
addressing environmental health inequities (Levy & Bowleg, 2023; Zhang et al., 2021).
Furthermore, this strategy acknowledges the importance of considering cultural norms, values,
language, and ability levels in effectively conveying messages and promoting understanding
among community members.
Findings also revealed that innovative engagement methods like virtual reality and
entertainment have proven effective in capturing the interest of diverse demographic groups,
especially youths. These techniques bridge knowledge gaps and foster sustained advocacy by
encouraging creative dialogue on urban design (Foth et al., 2009) and inspiring critical thinking
through entertainment (Wallenberg, 2023). These methods illustrate the real-world impacts of
environmental injustices, exemplifying Bullard's (1994) principle of addressing measurable
outcomes over discriminatory intents. This approach transforms complex environmental issues

92
into tangible, engaging experiences that appeal to a wide range of audiences, fostering a broadbased commitment to advocacy for systemic change (Chowkwanyun, 2023; Mohai et al., 2009).
Advocacy Challenges Community Organizers Face
The study underscored substantial challenges in advocating for environmental justice that
are centered on resource disparities, policy complexities, and the intricacies of community
mobilization. One considerable challenge was limited or lack of resources, including funding,
information, human capital, and materials, underscoring the urgent need for targeted strategies to
redress inequities, a central principle in Bullard's framework (1994). The study participants
underscored the challenges of identifying funding sources, navigating grant applications, and
effectively distributing resources to vulnerable communities, which exemplify the disparities in
resource allocation. This inequity significantly impedes community-based participatory research
and mobilization efforts, ultimately hindering inclusivity and sustainable outcomes (English et
al., 2018). Additionally, these disparities limit economic opportunities and access to essential
services for affected communities increasing their exposure to vehicle-related air pollution and,
consequently, heightening health risks (Donaghy et al., 2023). By strategically directing
resources toward communities most affected by environmental hazards, organizers have been
more effective in combating pollution and advocating for community rights (Gram et al., 2019).
Engaging with these communities and empowering them to advocate for equitable resource
allocation and sustainable transportation solutions are crucial steps towards mitigating the
adverse impacts of environmental disparities on public health, particularly in Black communities
and other marginalized populations. This targeted approach addresses immediate needs and
fosters long-term sustainability in environmental justice efforts, highlighting the importance of

93
careful resource allocation and robust community engagement to ensure that advocacy efforts are
impactful and enduring.
Secondly, the findings highlight the complexities of navigating policy environments and
engaging policymakers, emphasizing the need for strategic partnerships to influence policy and
advocate for proactive measures to prevent environmental damage. Such advocacy plays a
crucial role in ensuring that environmental justice considerations are effectively integrated into
policy-making processes from the beginning (Zhang et al., 2021). Moreover, Davis and RamírezAndreotta (2021) underscore the critical role of empowering community organizers to drive
these policy changes, facilitating active engagement in decision-making processes, policy
advocacy, and project evaluation. This article highlights that this type of strategy fosters
sustainable environmental health outcomes and promotes equity in environmental decisionmaking, aligning with Bullard's (1994) principles of shifting the burden of proof to polluters and
prioritizing harm prevention. Chowkwanyun (2023) further explores the intricacies of
environmental justice efforts, highlighting the challenges of balancing the scope of initiatives,
navigating policy compromises, and emphasizing the essential roles of coalition-building and
litigation for effective outcomes. Additionally, Mohai et al. (2009) note that, despite some
progress, achieving measurable outcomes at federal and local levels often remains challenging
due to societal reluctance to address inequality and racial injustice fully. These findings
underscore the critical interplay between community organizers and policymakers and reinforce
the importance of strategic advocacy, suggesting that merging legal actions with coalitionbuilding efforts can significantly amplify the impact of environmental campaigns.
The study findings emphasize the importance of inclusive representation, active listening,
and finding common ground among varying interests when dealing with the challenges of

94
balancing diverse perspectives and community mobilization. Effective community mobilization
requires understanding and engaging with diverse community perspectives, overcoming apathy,
and fostering environments where honest, culturally responsive communication leads to
empowered and self-sustaining participation (Archer, 2021). Balancing diverse interests involves
recognizing and addressing personal hardships and systemic inequalities, ensuring advocacy is
relatable and representative of community diversity, and fostering cooperation by incorporating a
range of perspectives (Davis & Ramírez-Andreotta, 2021). Emphasizing the importance of
intersectional organizing and building solidarity across diverse backgrounds is crucial in
community mobilization and balancing diverse perspectives (English et al., 2018; Mahajan,
2023). Aligning with Bullard's (1994) principle of targeting resources to redress inequities, the
approach focuses on directing resources specifically towards communities most affected by
environmental hazards. By doing so, it ensures that those disproportionately impacted receive the
necessary support and intervention while considering the unique experiences of different groups,
this strategy fosters inclusive advocacy efforts and creates unified initiatives toward common
goals.
Recommendations for Practice
The following section outlines recommendations for practice based on the study's key
findings, which are drawn from the experiences and insights of the 11 participants. These
recommendations address the opportunities and challenges of advocating for environmental
justice in the context of transportation-induced air pollution. This study presents three
interconnected recommendations aimed at advancing environmental justice through enhanced
community engagement, strategic resource allocation, and proactive policy advocacy. Firstly, it
promotes structured community engagement to foster transparency and continuous dialogue.

95
Secondly, it advocates for targeted resource allocation to ensure that vulnerable communities
receive necessary support. Thirdly, it calls for strategic policy advocacy to integrate
environmental justice into legislative frameworks, effectively shifting the burden of proof to
polluters. As shown in Table 5, these recommendations collectively embody Bullard’s five
principles by advocating for the right to protection through equal environmental laws, focusing
on preventative measures to avert harm, shifting the burden of proof to ensure polluters are
accountable for their actions, addressing injustices based on actual outcomes rather than intent,
and directing resources to rectify inequities faced by affected communities (Bullard, 1994). By
implementing these recommendations, community organizers can enhance their advocacy
efforts, ensuring that their actions are both effective and aligned with recognized best practices,
thereby empowering communities and addressing environmental injustices related to
transportation air pollution.
Table 5
Alignment of Recommendations with Bullard’s Environmental Justice Framework
Bullard’s Environmental
Justice Framework
Principles
Recommendations
1
Strengthening Community
Engagement for Enhanced
Trust and Partnerships
2
Resource Allocation
Targeting Vulnerable
Communities
3
Strategic Policy
Advocacy
The Right to Protection
 
Prevention of Harm
 
Shifting the Burden of
Proof to the Polluters

Obviating Proof of Intent
to Discriminate

Targeting Resources to
Redress Inequities 

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Recommendation 1: Strengthening Community Engagement for Enhanced Trust and
Partnerships
All 11 participants in the study emphasized the fundamental role of community trust in
strengthening strategic policy advocacy for environmental justice, particularly in the context of
transportation-induced air pollution. The participants demonstrated that it is paramount to
empower community organizers through culturally responsive communication strategies and
collaborative partnerships. The study revealed that environmental justice initiatives could be
significantly more effective by fostering trust and cooperation through structured community
engagement. This effectiveness is particularly relevant considering the participants' emphasis on
the necessity of transparent processes and regular interactions, which are foundational for
building and sustaining trust. Therefore, the recommendation is to implement structured
community engagement processes that ensure transparency and continuous dialogue between
stakeholders and the community.
To enhance community engagement and foster trust in environmental justice initiatives,
organizations should take proactive steps to develop culturally sensitive communication
strategies, facilitate inclusive decision-making processes, and promote accessibility and
empowerment within communities. According to Bullard and Johnson (2000), organizations can
ensure clarity and understanding across different cultural groups by adapting communication to
diverse linguistic backgrounds, providing translation services, and utilizing plain language.
Additional actions include engaging community members in decision-making, creating safe
spaces for open dialogue, and offering diverse communication channels to enhance inclusivity.
These steps empower individuals to participate in discussions and decision-making processes
actively, promoting accessibility and empowerment within environmental justice initiatives

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(Levy & Bowleg, 2023; Ron et al., 2021). Collectively, these actions contribute to building trust,
strengthening partnerships, and promoting meaningful engagement in environmental justice
efforts.
This recommendation aligns with the principles of the right to protection and prevention
of harm by facilitating the sharing of crucial information and building a secure environment for
voicing concerns (Bullard, 1994). Community members play an essential role in identifying
research priorities, shaping study design, and informing the research direction based on their
lived experiences and knowledge of the community's needs and concerns. This approach ensures
that the research is relevant, responsive, and reflective of the community's perspectives,
promoting transparency, trust, and continuous dialogue between stakeholders and the community
(Chowkwanyun, 2023; Yuen et al., 2015). Moreover, trust acts as a cornerstone, enabling
community members to feel safe while contributing to discussions that lead to protective
measures and preemptive actions against environmental hazards (Pellow, 2016).
Recommendation 2: Resource Allocation Targeting Vulnerable Communities
The study's findings by eight out of 11 participants revealed that most vulnerable
communities lack sufficient resources to effectively combat environmental hazards, underscoring
the crucial need for strategic resource allocation to enhance environmental safety and justice.
The participants underscored the need to address systemic inequalities, promote environmental
equity, and empower communities to advocate for their right to a healthy and sustainable
environment. The study's findings suggested that by providing the necessary resources, support,
and capacity-building opportunities, researchers, policymakers, and community partners can
work collaboratively to mitigate environmental risks, improve public health outcomes, and
promote sustainable solutions that benefit all community members, especially those most

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impacted by environmental disparities (Donaghy et al., 2023). The recommendation is to
implement a structured resource allocation program targeting vulnerable communities, ensuring
they receive the necessary support to effectively address and mitigate environmental hazards.
To operationalize this recommendation and ensure impactful and sustainable resource
allocation, several clear action steps must be implemented to enhance the health and
environmental safety of the most vulnerable populations. First, environmental justice activists
can collaborate with academic researchers to conduct community-based participatory research,
which is crucial for identifying specific environmental health risks and advocating for tailored
interventions based on these findings (Chowkwanyun, 2023). Second, as Bullard and Johnson
(2000) underscore, it is critical to direct resources such as grants, funding opportunities, technical
assistance, training, and networking opportunities specifically to communities facing the most
significant environmental and health challenges, especially those with disproportionate impacts.
This strategic focus is vital for effectively addressing disparities and promoting environmental
justice. Finally, Gram et al. (2019) discuss the importance of providing tangible rewards like
stipends, financial training, microcredit loans, literacy classes, free food, and reimbursement of
travel costs as incentives to promote participation in community mobilization interventions.
These interventions are aimed at addressing local health issues and empowering communities.
Collectively, these steps address immediate threats and promote long-term environmental justice
by ensuring that resources are used effectively and equitably.
This recommendation aligns with the principles of the right to protection and the need to
redress existing inequities, as it focuses on providing equal protection under environmental laws
and strategically addresses disparities in resource allocation (Bullard, 1994). According to Gram
et al. (2019), targeted resource distribution has proven effective in significantly improving the

99
ability of impacted communities to manage environmental challenges. This article highlights that
targeted resource distribution can contribute to building resilience and promoting environmental
justice within impacted communities by addressing disparities in funding and resource access.
Similarly, English et al. (2018) highlight that equitable resource allocation is essential for
addressing environmental disparities and ensuring all communities have access to a safe and
healthy environment. Thus, the literature supports the need for targeted interventions that
prioritize the most vulnerable populations, thereby not only addressing current disparities but
also preventing further exacerbation of these inequalities.
Recommendation 3: Strategic Policy Advocacy
In this study, nine out of 11 participants highlighted the essential role of strategic policy
advocacy in integrating environmental justice within broader legislative frameworks, particularly
in addressing the impacts of industrial pollution on marginalized communities. It stresses the
importance of empowering community organizers to engage in policy environments and actively
establish strategic partnerships. This advocacy is critical for embedding environmental justice
into legislative processes, preemptively protecting communities by advocating for policies that
shift the burden of proof to polluters and eliminate the need for marginalized communities to
prove discriminatory intent. The recommendation is to adopt policy advocacy as a fundamental
strategy in environmental justice initiatives, ensuring their effectiveness in achieving sustainable
and equitable outcomes.
To implement this recommendation, it is important to equip community organizers with
the necessary tools and knowledge to navigate and influence policy environments. Davis and
Ramírez-Andreotta (2021) suggest developing a comprehensive training program on
environmental law, policy advocacy, and negotiation skills. This initiative should include regular

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training sessions and workshops to build advocacy competencies. Zhang et al. (2021) also
recommend building coalitions with environmental NGOs, academic institutions, and other
relevant organizations and organizing strategy sessions to align efforts. Engaging in lobbying
activities, facilitating dialogue between community members and policymakers, and aligning
with community-defined needs are essential for integrating environmental justice considerations
into legislative processes (Rickenbacker et al., 2019). These concerted actions are crucial for
ensuring that environmental justice is effectively recognized and incorporated into law and
policy, empowering communities to proactively shape the policies that impact their
environments and prevent potential injustices before they occur. The following section will
discuss the limitations and delimitations of this study.
This recommendation aligns with Bullard's (1994) framework, emphasizing the
prevention of harm through proactive environmental policies, the necessity for polluters to verify
the safety of their operations, and the focus on the impacts of environmental activities to address
systemic inequalities. According to Davis and Ramírez-Andreotta (2021), strategic policy
advocacy enables communities to shape robust environmental protections, preempt potential
harms, and enforce policies that ensure polluter accountability, safeguarding vulnerable
populations. Sprague Martinez et al. (2020) also highlight the critical role of strategic
partnerships and an informed understanding of political history in addressing traffic-related air
pollution and its impact on marginalized communities. These efforts are crucial for embedding
meaningful changes into policy that promote environmental protections and enhance community
health and well-being.

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Limitations and Delimitations
This study was subjected to several limitations that may affect the validity and
applicability of its findings. Limitations pertain to elements of the study that the researcher
cannot control, which could influence the credibility of the outcomes (Theofanidis & Fountouki,
2019). Among these limitations are the issues of generalizability, the influence of researcher
bias, and the constraints imposed by a small sample size and time restrictions (Creswell, 2007).
As a novice qualitative researcher, my experience may impact the depth and breadth of data
interpretation. This research, focused on 11 community organizers across the United States
involved in environmental justice for marginalized communities affected by transportationrelated air pollution, is inherently limited in its generalizability. Furthermore, relying on
participant recollections introduces the potential for recall bias and social desirability bias, which
could affect the honesty and accuracy of the data provided (Robinson & Leonard, 2019).
Regarding delimitations, this study deliberately narrowed its focus to community organizers
actively advocating within marginalized communities, thereby excluding other relevant
stakeholders such as policymakers and industry representatives. This exclusion allowed for a
concentrated exploration of the experiences of community organizers but limited the scope of
understanding broader environmental justice dynamics (Theofanidis & Fountouki, 2019). The
use of qualitative methods enriches the depth of individual experiences but restricts the wider
applicability of the results (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Employing semi-structured interviews as
the sole methodological approach, combined with purposive and snowball sampling strategies,
was necessary due to time constraints and the study's specific geographic and cultural context.
This geographic focus and the use of a single interview methodology potentially limit the
generalizability of findings beyond the studied locales. Additionally, the decision to limit

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interviews to sixty minutes might have curtailed the depth of responses but was essential to
respect the time limitations of both participants and the researcher. Cultural and linguistic
differences also pose significant delimitations, as they can affect communication clarity and
participant willingness to engage fully, necessitating careful consideration and sensitivity in the
research process to maintain data integrity and trustworthiness (Theofanidis & Fountouki, 2019).
The next section will explore recommendations for future research.
Recommendation for Future Research
There is a notable gap in the literature specifically addressing the adverse health impacts
on individuals residing within 200-500 meters of major roadways despite the well-documented
disproportionate burden of transportation-related air pollution on these populations. This
proximity often correlates with increased respiratory problems, cardiovascular disease, and other
health issues. While extensive research exists on broader environmental justice issues, disparities
in pollution exposure, and the history of environmental racism and injustice, there is a critical
need for focused studies on these specific impacts. Future research recommendations include
integrating quantitative methods to complement and expand upon the qualitative insights
provided by this study, such as statistical modeling to uncover patterns of impact across different
populations. Investigating the potential of technology and innovative advocacy tools, like realtime air quality monitoring and community reporting apps, could also advance this field.
This study utilized qualitative methods, providing deep insights but limiting the
generalization of findings. Integrating quantitative methods enhances the robustness of results,
addresses small sample size limitations, determines theme prevalence and statistical significance,
and provides a more comprehensive understanding of advocacy impacts, thereby broadening
research conclusions' applicability. The initial study was limited by focusing primarily on 11

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community organizers from the United States, which may not reflect broader environmental
justice dynamics. Broadening the participant research scope to include policymakers and
industry representatives could enhance environmental justice strategies' inclusivity and
effectiveness by providing a more comprehensive view of the advocacy landscape and
addressing generalizability limitations. This approach addresses the study’s delimitation of
excluding these groups and directly responds to the limitation of generalizability by aiming to
capture a broader spectrum of experiences and opinions across different demographics and
professional backgrounds. Finally, participants in the study employed diverse innovative
communication strategies that were notably effective in engaging communities. By
systematically researching these tools, future studies can explore the specific elements that make
these methods successful, such as which technologies are most effective in different contexts and
why. These recommendations are designed to build upon the strengths and address the
weaknesses of the initial study, thereby enhancing the depth, breadth, and applicability of future
research in environmental justice advocacy. The subsequent section will conclude this
dissertation by synthesizing the findings and emphasizing the imperative for continued advocacy
and research in environmental justice.
Researcher’s Reflection
Growing up, my parents, a dedicated teacher and a passionate preacher, exemplified the
essence of community service, embodying the biblical call of Proverbs 31:8-9 to "speak up for
those who cannot speak for themselves, for the rights of all who are destitute." This scripture has
become my mantra, guiding my advocacy for the most vulnerable, ensuring justice and equitable
treatment. As a child, I assisted them in their efforts to be a voice for the voiceless, standing up
against injustices, and working towards creating a more just and compassionate society, which

104
instilled in me a profound appreciation for the impact of grassroots activism. This upbringing
laid the foundation for my research into the environmental justice issues surrounding
transportation-related air pollution—a topic that resonates deeply with communities of color and
those with ancestries like mine.
During my undergraduate studies at a historically black college and university (HBCU),
the motto 'Enter to Learn, Depart to Serve' inspired me. This guiding principle has deeply
influenced my research approach in this study, particularly my focus on the dual role of
transportation in society—its ability to connect and divide communities. Transportation is
essential for economic and social connectivity, yet it disproportionately burdens marginalized
communities through adverse health impacts from air pollution. My personal battle with asthma
has made me acutely aware of the critical importance of air quality. Living with this condition
has heightened my understanding of how environmental factors can drastically affect everyday
health and quality of life, reinforcing the urgency of my research.
The dedication and passion for advocacy shown by the participants in this study were
truly inspirational. Witnessing their commitment and learning from the patterns of success within
their efforts has been incredibly motivating. It has also highlighted where change is still
desperately needed. This study helped me to appreciate the importance of cultural competence,
inclusive strategies, and navigating complex policies. This research has underscored the
dichotomy of trust between those most harmed by environmental injustices and those in power,
illuminating the pathways through which my continued advocacy can drive meaningful change.
As I move forward, inspired by the tenets of my education, and guided by my personal mantra, I
am more committed than ever to ensuring that environmental justice translates from academic
discourse to actionable reality, bringing tangible benefits to those most in need.

105
Conclusion
In a world where marginalized communities bear the disproportionate burden of
transportation-related air pollution, the role of community organizers is not just crucial but
transformative. These unsung heroes stand on the front lines, advocating for environmental
justice and equity in neighborhoods where clean air is a luxury, not a given. The necessity and
timeliness of this study are highlighted by the environmental challenges exacerbated by
transportation-related air pollution underscoring the urgent need for community-driven solutions
to address the disproportionate burden of pollution on marginalized communities and to promote
environmental justice and public health. It is the resilience and determination of community
organizers that shine as a beacon of hope for a future where every individual, regardless of their
zip code, can enjoy the basic human right to a safe and healthy environment. Community
organizers, armed with knowledge, empathy, and strategic approaches, are the catalysts for
change in these spaces of adversity. As urban development continues to accelerate and
environmental policies evolve, a comprehensive understanding of how transportation affects air
quality and public health is critical. This study advances the existing knowledge base and
identifies the effectiveness of advocacy efforts and strategies to mitigate these impacts.
By employing Bullard's Environmental Justice Framework and conducting semistructured interviews with community organizers, this study explores the critical and timely issue
of transportation-related air pollution impacting marginalized communities. The direct insights
from these organizers are invaluable, offering a raw, frontline perspective that is often absent in
the broader environmental policy discourse. These community leaders not only highlight
effective mobilization and empowerment strategies but also elucidate the real-time challenges
they face, including systemic barriers that hinder progress. Their firsthand experiences make a

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compelling case for the urgent need to heed the voices of those most affected by environmental
injustices, ensuring that solutions are theoretically sound and practically effective. This approach
enriches this study with lived realities, making the case for community-driven strategies more
compelling and underscoring the necessity for immediate, informed action to address
environmental disparities.
This study serves as a clarion call to community organizers, researchers, and
policymakers to intensify their efforts in dismantling systemic inequities that perpetuate
environmental and social disparities. Effectively tackling critical challenges such as resource
acquisition and allocation in vulnerable communities, navigating complex policy and
bureaucratic landscapes, mobilizing communities, and harmonizing diverse interests is essential
for driving meaningful advancements in environmental justice. Focusing on policy intervention
effectiveness also empowers advocacy groups to critically evaluate, support, or challenge
specific legislative or regulatory changes, ensuring they advocate for proven policies or
necessary amendments. This ongoing commitment is required to effectively advocate for
systemic changes that ensure a more equitable and healthy world. The passion and dedication
encapsulated in this research reflects a commitment to justice and sustainability, urging all
stakeholders to persist in their efforts to transform environmental policies and practices for the
betterment of society at large.

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Introduction
Hello, (Title & Name). I would like to express my gratitude for your willingness to participate in
my field study. My name is Tamara Newman, and I am a student at the University of Southern
California. Currently, I am conducting a study that explores the opportunities and challenges that
community organizers face in achieving environmental justice concerning air pollution caused
by transportation. Your insights and experiences are vital to our research.
Specifically, I aim to address two key research questions:
1. What opportunities are available to community organizers to advocate for environmental
justice related to the air pollution caused by transportation in terms of public
participation, access to information, and collaboration and partnerships?
2. What challenges do community organizers face in advocating for environmental justice
related to the air pollution caused by transportation in terms of power imbalances, limited
resources, institutional barriers, and community engagement?
Please feel free to share your thoughts openly, providing specific examples whenever possible.
In order to ensure an accurate representation of our discussion, I would like to request your
permission to record our session. This will enable me to capture the information you provide and
refer back to it later. Do I have your permission to record the session?
Before proceeding with the interview, I sent you an email containing an information sheet for
exempt studies. It emphasizes that your participation in this study is entirely voluntary, and you
have the right to decline answering any questions or terminate the interview at any point.
I want to assure you that this interview will remain confidential. Any information you share with
me today, including your name, will not be disclosed to anyone. To maintain anonymity, I will
assign a pseudonym to your name following the interview. With your consent, I intend to utilize
Zoom's record and transcript features for transcription purposes. The interview recordings and
transcripts will be securely stored on an encrypted external drive, and once my study is defended
and published (estimated for December 2023), they will be permanently deleted.
Thank you once again for your participation. Your insights will contribute significantly to the
success of this study.
Before we begin do you have any questions?
Again, please feel free to share your thoughts openly, providing specific examples whenever
possible.

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Questions
Background Questions
1. Can you provide some background information about your organization, including its
mission, objectives, and the specific role it plays in advocating for environmental justice
in the context of transportation-related air pollution? (Background)
2. What initially motivated you to become a community organizer and engage in
environmental justice advocacy, particularly concerning transportation air pollution? Can
you share personal experiences or events, if any, that influenced your commitment to this
cause? (Background)
Interview Questions
1. To what extent, if any, have you observed opportunities for enhancing public
participation in decision-making, policy development, or activities aimed at addressing
transportation-related air pollution and achieving environmental justice? (R1)
2. Can you provide examples of successful approaches or initiatives that encouraged
individuals from the broader community or the public to actively provide input, opinions,
and feedback on environmental justice concerning transportation air pollution? (R1)
3. From your perspective as a community organizer, to what extent, if any, have successful
strategies or approaches been used to ensure that community members have access to
relevant information when addressing transportation air pollution? (R1)
4. Can you provide specific examples, if any, of instances where access to information
played a significant role in advancing your advocacy efforts? (R1)
5. In your view as a community organizer, what key elements, if any, contribute to a
successful collaboration or partnership when working towards environmental justice in
the context of transportation air pollution? (R1)
6. Can you provide specific instances, if available, where these key elements that
contributed to a successful collaboration or partnership have been presented and have
positively influenced your efforts? (R1)
7. Can you share specific stories or examples, if any, of how your advocacy efforts have
directly impacted individuals or communities affected by transportation-related air
pollution? What changes or improvements have you witnessed as a result of your work,
and how have these changes affected the lives of community members? (R1, R2)
8. In your role as a community organizer, to what extent, if any, have you encountered
challenges related to community engagement when addressing environmental justice
issues tied to transportation air pollution? (R2)
9. From your perspective, can you describe to what extent power imbalances have affected
your ability to build relationships, collaborations, and partnerships within the particular
community to foster engagement and address environmental justice concerns related to
transportation air pollution? (R2)

132
10. From your experience, what strategies or creative solutions, if any, have you employed to
overcome the challenges posed by limited resources when striving for environmental
justice in the context of transportation-related air pollution? (R2)
11. From your perspective, what approaches or advocacy strategies, if any, have been
effective in challenging or overcoming institutional barriers, such as bureaucratic
processes, regulations, or policies, when working to achieve environmental justice in the
context of transportation-related air pollution? (R2)
12. What are your long-term goals and vision as a community organizer concerning
transportation-related air pollution in marginalized communities, and what motivates
your commitment to these objectives? (R1, R2)
13. Drawing from your experiences, what recommendations or advice would you offer to
emerging community organizers who are just starting their journey in environmental
justice advocacy, especially in relation to transportation air pollution? (R1, R2)

133
Appendix B: University of Southern California Information Sheet
My name is Tamara Newman, and I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern
California.
I am conducting a research study to investigate the challenges and opportunities faced by
community organizers working to address transportation-induced air pollution in marginalized
communities, aiming to improve environmental justice. The name of this research study is
“Perspectives of Community Organizers on Achieving Environmental Justice.” I am seeking
your participation in this study.
Your participation is completely voluntary, and I will address your questions or concerns at any
point before or during the study.
You may be eligible to participate in this study if you meet the following criteria:
1. You are a Community Organizer actively engaged in supporting marginalized
communities.
2. You have been working in environmental justice efforts related to transportation-induced
air pollution in the United States for a minimum of three years.
3. You are over 18 years old.
If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to do the following activities:
1. Participate in a 1:1 online interview over a platform like Zoom for 45-60 minutes.
2. Review your interview transcript via email for 10-15 minutes.
I will publish the results in my dissertation. Participants will not be identified in the results. I will
take reasonable measures to protect the security of all your personal information. All data will be
de-identified prior to any publication or presentations. I may share your data, de-identified with
other researchers in the future.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact me: ttyoung@usc.edu or 954-205-
8850. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
hrpp@usc.edu.

134
Appendix C: Participant Recruitment Letter
Hello [Name],
My name is Tamara Newman, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Organizational Change and
Leadership program at the University of Southern California’s (USC) Rossier School of
Education. I am conducting a qualitative research study as part of my dissertation examining the
opportunities and challenges that community organizers encounter in their efforts to advocate for
environmental justice regarding transportation-induced air pollution in marginalized
communities.
This email is an invitation to participate in this research study. Your participation is voluntary,
confidential, and involves a 45-60 minute, one-on-one interview. The requirements to participate
are listed below:
 A Community Organizer supporting marginalized communities.
 Currently, working in environmental justice efforts concerning transportation related air
pollution in the United States for a minimum of three years.
 Be over 18 years of age.
The interviews will be conducted either through Zoom or telephone, and only with your consent
will they be recorded for transcription purposes. You have the right to decline the recording of
your interview. Rest assured that your name and the name of your institution will be completely
removed from all data and will not be utilized in the study. Following the interview, you will be
given the opportunity to review the transcription and make any necessary changes or additions.
Once the recordings are no longer needed for this study, they will be securely destroyed.
To ensure transparency, I have attached the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB) Information
Sheet for Exempt Research and the USC IRB approval for this research study. I kindly request
you to reply to this email and let me know if you are willing to participate in an interview. If you
are not interested in participating, I would greatly appreciate it if you could recommend or refer
me to someone who meets the criteria outlined above and would be interested in taking part in
the study.
I appreciate your consideration. If you have questions or concerns, please contact me at 954-205-
8850 or ttyoung@usc.edu.
Best Regards,
Tamara Newman
OCL Doctoral Candidate
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

135
Appendix D: Socia Media Post
Join Our Environmental Justice Research Study!
Hello everyone! I am Tamara Newman, a University of Southern California doctoral student.
I'm embarking on a mission to shed light on community organizers' challenges and opportunities
in the fight for environmental justice, particularly in marginalized communities impacted by
transportation-induced air pollution.
I am recruiting individuals who meet these criteria:
1. You are a Community Organizer actively engaged in supporting marginalized
communities.
2. You have been working in environmental justice efforts related to transportation-induced
air pollution in the United States for at least three years.
3. You are over 18 years old.
By sharing your experiences and insights, you can help us better understand how to address this
critical issue and overcome obstacles.
Here's what participation involves:
1. A 45-60 minute one-on-one online interview.
2. A quick 10-15 minute review of your interview transcript via email.
We'll dive into topics like your organization's mission, personal motivations, opportunities for
change, and the challenges you face as a community organizer.
Your voice matters!
If you meet the criteria and want to make a difference, please contact me at ttyoung@usc.edu or
call me at 954-205-8850.
#EnvironmentalJustice #CommunityOrganizers

136
Appendix E: Word of Mouth Script
Hi! I am Tamara Newman, a University of Southern California doctoral student. I'm embarking
on a mission to shed light on community organizers' challenges and opportunities in the fight for
environmental justice, particularly in marginalized communities impacted by transportationinduced air pollution.
Please let me know if you or someone you know meets these criteria:
1. You are a dedicated Community Organizer actively supporting marginalized
communities.
2. You have been committed to environmental justice efforts related to transportationinduced air pollution in the United States for at least three years.
3. You're over 18 years old.
Here's what participating entails:
1. An in-person, one-on-one interview will take about 45-60 minutes. We can schedule it to
suit your convenience.
2. A brief 10-15 minute review of your interview transcript via email.
The interview will focus on topics such as your organization's mission, your personal
motivations, opportunities for change, and the challenges you've encountered as a community
organizer.
By participating, you'll contribute to meaningful research that can uncover unique strategies for
advocating for environmental justice.
If you're interested or know someone who fits the criteria, please let me know, and I will email
you more information. I really appreciate your help.

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Newman, Tamara (author)

Core Title The perspectives of community organizers on advocating for environmental justice related to transportation air-pollution

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 05/28/2024

Defense Date 05/03/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag advocacy,Community education,community engagement,community organizing,disadvantaged communities,empowerment,environmental justice,environmental policy impact,health disparities,marginalized communities,OAI-PMH Harvest,qualitative research,Robert Bullard’s Environmental Justice Framework,transportation air pollution

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Canny, Eric (committee member), Malloy, Courtney (committee member)

Creator Email hello@tamarathinks.com,ttyoung@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113968217

Unique identifier UC113968217

Identifier etd-NewmanTama-13039.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-NewmanTama-13039

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Newman, Tamara

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240529-usctheses-batch-1163 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu