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Networking in the age of virtual work: women’s experiences and strategies for success

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Networking in the age of virtual work: women’s experiences and strategies for success

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Content Networking in the Age of Virtual Work: Women’s Experiences and Strategies for Success
Dayna Provitt
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2024

© Copyright by Dayna Provitt 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Dayna Provitt certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Corinne Hyde
Nicole Marie-Gerardi MacCalla
Patricia Tobey, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
The shift from in-person to virtual work during the 2020 COVID–19 pandemic has impacted
women’s opportunities to access leaders and connect informally, creating barriers to effective
networking. Women have traditionally used these informal, in-person moments to build
relationships with leaders and co-workers, gain access to information, and advance their careers.
This study posits that losing in-person connection impacts women’s career advancement by
studying the virtual networking experiences of women in mid-level management, using social
cognitive theory (SCT) to frame an analysis. Research questions that examine women’s virtual
experiences are framed by the three pillars of SCT (environmental, behavioral, and personal
factors). Through qualitative analysis, the networking experiences of 13 mid-level managers who
identify as women are examined, resulting in four broad themes: quality connections, leadership
access, intentionality, and leadership support. A model for successful virtual networking is
proposed (virtual networking success ring, or VNSR) that combines intentional leadership
support with four factors connected to virtual networking effectiveness: camera-on culture,
access to leaders, funding for in-person opportunities, and quality mentorship. Five
recommendations are also provided for organizations: create a virtual communication strategy,
encourage an on-camera culture, fund opportunities for in-person connection, normalize informal
moments of connection, and establish virtual mentorship programs. Organizations implementing
these recommendations will contribute to the virtual networking effectiveness and future success
of women mid-level managers. In addition, women reading this dissertation will walk away with
practical knowledge to empower their behavior and efficacy to influence virtual networking
success for their organization.

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Keywords: virtual, networking, women, remote, informal, intentional, camera on,
strategy, social capital, mentorship, career advancement

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Dedication
To my dad, Thomas Lee Williamson. Papa, you left us too soon, but it feels like you’ve been
with me every step of my doctorate journey. I felt your pride when I was accepted into the
program, heard you laughing when I used ridiculously big words, and saw you smile each time I
reached a milestone. I think you always knew I would continue learning. You equipped me with
curiosity and drive, always moving forward despite how hard it might be. I value it all and am so
grateful. Thank you.

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Acknowledgments
First to my husband Marc, and my children, Addison and Nat. The three of you are my
everything and I love you all so much! Thank you for having my back every step of this journey.
To my chair, Dr. Tobey, and my committee, Dr. Maccalla, and Dr. Hyde. Thank you for
your support, encouragement, and counsel. It’s been a pleasure to learn from you!
To my mentor, Alyson Daichendt. Thank you for your constant encouragement and
advice.
To my study group, Waleed Bississo, Michele Blake, Jamie Ceman, Chris Flynn, and
Henry Garcia. I’m so glad you let me join your little brain trust! Thank you for convincing me
that joining a team is better than doing it all on my own.
And lastly, to my friends and support group, Lance Aja, Taylor Mizuno-Moore, Jennifer
Potter, Louis Schenk, and Tripti Thakur. Thank you for making class fun!

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Table of Contents
Abstract...........................................................................................................................................iv
Dedication.......................................................................................................................................vi
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................ vii
List of Tables...................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures.................................................................................................................................xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study ..............................................................................................1
Background of the Problem.................................................................................................2
Problem of Practice .............................................................................................................3
Purpose of the Study............................................................................................................5
Research Questions..............................................................................................................6
Significance of the Study.....................................................................................................6
Overview of Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................7
Definition of Terms.............................................................................................................8
Organization of the Study..................................................................................................10
Chapter Two: Literature Review ...................................................................................................12
Environmental Dimension: What Women Face................................................................12
Behavioral Dimension: Networking..................................................................................26
Personal Dimension: Networking......................................................................................43
Networking Connection to Women’s Career Advancement .............................................51
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework............................................................................57
Conclusion.........................................................................................................................60
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................62
Research Questions............................................................................................................62
Overview of Design...........................................................................................................62

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Research Setting ................................................................................................................63
The Researcher ..................................................................................................................63
Data Source: Qualitative Interviews..................................................................................65
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................67
Ethics.................................................................................................................................68
Limitations and Delimitations...........................................................................................69
Chapter Four: Findings..................................................................................................................71
Demographics....................................................................................................................72
Qualitative Findings Overview..........................................................................................73
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................104
Chapter Five: Discussion And Recommendations......................................................................107
Summary of Findings ......................................................................................................108
Recommendations for Practice........................................................................................110
Recommendations for Future Research...........................................................................124
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................125
References ...................................................................................................................................128
Appendix A: Interview Protocol..................................................................................................156
Respondent type ..............................................................................................................156
Introduction to the Interview ...........................................................................................156
Conclusion to the Interview.............................................................................................160
Appendix B: Coding Worksheet..................................................................................................161

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List of Tables
Table 1: Research Questions and Data Source………………………………………………..60
Table 2: Participant Demographics…………………………………………………………....73
Table 3: Themes, Sorted by Research Question……………………………………………....75
Table 4: RQ 1 Themes: Networking Experiences…………………………………………….76
Table 5: Extrovert Versus Introvert, n = 13...……….……………………………….….…….80
Table 6: RQ 2 Themes: Effective Virtual Networking With Leaders………………………...86
Table 7: RQ 3 Themes: Virtual Networking Connection to Women’s Career Advancement..95
Table 8: Four Broad Themes Summarized…………………………………………………..109
Table A1: Interview Protocol……….……….……….……….……….……….……….……...157
Appendix B: Coding Worksheet..................................................................................................161

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Map ……………………………………..74
Figure 2: Kotter’s 8-step Change Model …….……………………………………………...111
Figure 3: Virtual Networking Success Ring ………………………………………………...123

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Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Women are underrepresented in corporate leadership positions, as evidenced by research
studying leadership gender gaps (Acker, 2009; Kanter, 1989, 1984; Kmec & Skaggs, 2014;
Milhomem, 2020; Taylor et al., 2019). Research also postulates that women’s access to leaders
positively impacts their career advancement (Blickle, 2009; Eby et al., 2003; Kuvaas et al.,
2012), with methods such as networking, mentorship, and sponsorship aligned with increased
promotional opportunities (Barkhuizen & Sluis, 2022; Forret & Dougherty, 2004). Of these
methods, women commonly use networking to gain access to leaders and establish mentorship
and sponsorship opportunities important for their career advancement (Gottlieb & Travis, 2018;
Hewlett, 2013). This study posits that the shift from in-person to virtual networking may harm
women’s career advancement by creating barriers to effective workplace networking
opportunities, further exacerbating the under-representation of women in leadership.
This study explored the networking experiences of women in mid-level management
roles (i.e., manager, senior manager, director, senior director) who work virtually, with the
broader goal of understanding the potential impact of virtual work on women’s career
advancement and what can combat barriers to women’s success. There is an urgent imperative
for organizations to study this problem, as leadership development cycles involve a long-term
timeline. Mid-level managers can take a decade or longer to rise to executive ranks (Dillard &
Lipschitz, 2014), so potential gender disparities at top leadership levels may take years to
manifest. To prevent further decline in gender equity at top leadership levels, organizations must
identify and mitigate potential negative impacts virtual networking has on women mid-level
managers’ career advancement.

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Background of the Problem
Scholars suggest multiple causes for gender disparity in leadership levels: institutional
sexism (Hideg & Shen, 2019; Lyness & Grotto, 2018), gendered social norms (Spence &
Helmreich, 1978), inequitable access to resources (Brass, 1985), inequitable domestic
responsibilities (Linehan & Scullion, 2008; Offerman et al., 2020), lack of mentorship (Cross et
al., 2019), lack of sponsorship opportunities (Hewlett, 2013), and lack of networking
opportunities (Eby et al., 2003). The COVID–19 pandemic’s impact on workplace
communication compounds this underrepresentation by creating barriers to career advancement,
disproportionally hurting women’s promotional opportunities (Milliken et al., 2020).
In the spring of 2020, the COVID–19 pandemic resulted in sudden and unexpected office
closures, forcing employees to work from home (Helsel, 2020; Pedersen, 2020; VanderHart,
2020). With most or all employees working from home, workplace internal organizational norms
and communication methods suddenly changed (Deloitte, 2021; Levin & Kurtzberg, 2020;
United Nations, 2020), resulting in fewer in-person networking opportunities. The stay home
orders significantly impacted women; many experienced increased stress, additional childcare
responsibilities, domestic inequity, and higher levels of job loss compared to men (Dunatchik et
al., 2021; Lyttelton et al., 2022; Milliken et al., 2020).
When virtual work became the norm, environments that previously supported informal
networking with peers and leaders in person went to virtual-only communication, requiring all
workplace and social contact through email, instant message, voice call, or video call. The
informality of seeing someone in person in the hallway, lunchroom, elevator, or at the proverbial
“water cooler” was replaced by a worker needing to take the initiative to send an instant message
or set up a virtual call (Kashive et al., 2022). The question, “Camera on or off?” became

3
common as norms around virtual calls developed (Sedereviciute-Paciauskiene et al., 2022).
When cameras were off, workers reported that meetings often felt artificial and impersonal
(Levin & Kurtzberg, 2020). Informal moments that previously supported networking and social
connectivity replaced the occasional opportunity to chat before everyone had arrived at a Zoom
meeting, and these moments were rarely private. Since the onset of the COVID–19 pandemic in
2020, women have been navigating an inadequately explored networking reality.
Problem of Practice
The networking experiences of women in mid-level management roles who work
virtually require additional research, as does the impact of virtual networking on women’s career
advancement. The increase in virtual work during the COVID–19 pandemic of 2020 caused
reduced in-person workplace moments for many women, reducing their access to leaders, ability
to connect informally with co-workers, and opportunities to establish effective networking
relationships meaningful for career growth. It is important to study and understand the potential
consequences of reduced networking effectiveness immediately so that organizations, academia,
and impacted women can identify the root causes and work towards solutions.
Prior organizational leadership research exists in the broad areas of women’s studies and
networking, with past research focused on gender disparity between men’s and women’s
networking opportunities (Brass, 1985; Yakes & Skinner, 2021) and how networking specifically
benefits women seeking promotion (Burt & Ronchi, 2007; Coleman, 2020; Forret & Dougherty,
2004). While recent data on virtual communication does exist (Nguyen et al., 2022; Weidlich et
al., 2022), these studies predominantly focus on communication effectiveness for the general
workplace population (Cakula & Pratt, 2021), virtual teams (Degbey & Einola, 2020; Kashive,
2022), and online learning (Qiao et al., 2021; Rode et al., 2022). In addition, available research

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tends to focus on specific industries (e.g., academia and healthcare) (de Janasz & Sullivan, 2001;
Santhosh, 2021; Spurk et al., 2015). Recent research also exists regarding the COVID–19
pandemic’s overall impact on working women (Gualano et al., 2023), with most being conducted
on a global level (Herten-Crabb & Wenham, 2022; Jasrotia & Meena, 2021; Tripathi et al., 2023)
or focused on stress impacts (Jakubowski et al., 2023; Martinez-Pajuelo et al., 2022; Olson et al.,
2023).
Significant research gaps exist relative to this study’s stated research problem. The
research gaps fall into four categories: recency of research, geographic location of studies,
industries of participants included in the studies, and the management level of women. The first
gap is recency. Given that the COVID–19 pandemic began only four years before the publishing
of this dissertation, not enough time has passed for sufficient research on virtual work’s impact
on women’s career advancement to be conducted and published. Few studies exist that focus on
networking practices while working virtually post-pandemic or that connect pandemicinfluenced virtual work with networking effectiveness. Second is the location of where the
research has been conducted. Research exists outside of the United States regarding the practices
of women, but few studies have been focused on U.S.-based women. Third is the lack of industry
diversity regarding networking research before and after the onset of the COVID–19 pandemic.
Few studies have been published within the past decade examining women’s networking
practices outside academia or the healthcare industry. Lastly, most published research regarding
networking appears to focus on women moving directly into an executive level, with limited
attention to women in the pipeline below a director level. A research gap exists regarding how
networking impacts women’s experiences in mid-level management categories such as manager,
senior manager, director, or senior director.

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This study holds two critical underlying assumptions. The first is that, given the gender
imbalance in leadership levels (Acker, 2006, 2009; Kanter, 1989; Kmec & Skaggs, 2014;
Timberlake, 2005), women do not possess the same levels of access to leaders in the workplace
as men. The second is that women have historically developed creative, in-person methods to
gain access to leaders in the workplace (Durbin, 2011; Ellinas et al., 2019; Mickey, 2022), such
as finding informal moments in the office to talk to a leader and make an impression. The sudden
increase in virtual work during the COVID–19 pandemic of 2020 reduced in-person workplace
moments for many women. For women working virtually, there are no longer physical hallways
where they can informally converse with leaders or conference rooms where women can
physically sit next to a leader and talk while waiting for the meeting to begin. Women report
certain benefits from a flexible work environment, such as spending more time with their family
due to not commuting to the office (Tsipursky, 2023); this study does not question additional
work/life balance opportunities that virtual work provides some women. Instead, it addresses
questions not yet fully queried in organizational leadership research regarding the challenges of
virtual networking and how these challenges may impact women’s career advancement.
Purpose of the Study
This study aims to understand the networking experiences of women in mid-level
management roles who work virtually, including the impact on their career advancement. In
order to discover the connection between virtual networking experiences and career
advancement, research queries focused on capturing women’s experiences before and after the
onset of the 2020 COVID–19 pandemic related to workplace communication, networking
behavior, perceptions of networking effectiveness, access to leaders, and institutional sexism.
Social presence theory framed inquiry regarding communication and virtual work, social

6
cognitive theory framed inquiry regarding networking behavior and networking effectiveness,
and feminist theory framed inquiry regarding institutional sexism.
Research Questions
Three research questions guided this study:
1. What are the networking experiences of U.S. women in mid-level management roles
who work virtually?
2. To what extent do U.S. women in mid-level management believe virtual work has
made it challenging, if at all, to network with leaders effectively?
3. What do U.S. women report about the connection between virtual networking and
their career advancement opportunities?
Significance of the Study
As modern workplace communication norms change to include virtual connectivity,
networking experiences of women working virtually in mid-level management roles also change.
This study is a step towards improving women’s networking experiences in a post-pandemic
virtual workplace and bringing awareness to potential career risks women face when losing inperson connectivity. During this study’s qualitative research, specific focus was placed on
women’s experiences and opinions, providing insight into how women network while working
virtually, what barriers they experience, and how they believe these barriers may impact their
careers, if at all. By bringing awareness to the connection between women’s virtual networking
experiences and the potential impact on their career advancement, this study provides
opportunities for leaders to identify and dismantle barriers to women’s virtual networking
effectiveness. It also brings knowledge and empowerment to mid-level management women who
desire to overcome present networking barriers to career advancement.

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This study benefits two primary audiences: women in the workplace and organizations
that employ them. As the study’s design captures the experiences of mid-level management
women, it is expected women in this category will reap the primary benefit of knowledge of
improved virtual networking tactics. However, women of all levels in the workforce will find
helpful applications in the study’s findings. Organizations that employ women will also benefit
from insight into improved virtual networking tactics, as research evidence supports the
organizational benefits of more women at higher leadership levels (Hoobler et al., 2018;
Moreno-Gómez et al., 2018).
Overview of Theoretical Framework
The guiding theoretical framework for this study is Albert Bandura’s social cognitive
theory (SCT), providing a lens to examine the triadic reciprocity relationship between
environment, person, and behavior (Bandura, 1986; Bandura, 2001). Bandura writes that people
do not live their lives autonomously; much of what people seek is based on alliances and
achievable only through social interdependency (Bandura, 2002). To this end, SCT ties directly
to the impact of networking and this study’s problem of practice, supporting an examination of
women’s environment and how it connects with personal characteristics and behavior, and how
personal characteristics and behavior connect.
Framing this qualitative study by examining environmental, behavioral, and personal
lenses allows a primary focus on the woman (personal) without ignoring the broader
(environmental) and behavioral causality. Within the environmental lens, SCT supports
examining how the COVID–19 pandemic influenced the problem, including the impact of virtual
work and social presence theory. It also supports the inclusion of an equity perspective,
reviewing the historical influence of institutional sexism and feminist theory. Within the

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behavioral lens, SCT supports examining the various behavioral patterns that effectively reach
desired outcomes (Bandura, 2002). Within the personal lens, SCT supports examining the
personal characteristics of women, including how people play a part in their self-development to
adapt to changing times (Bandura, 2005).
Definition of Terms
This section defines the keywords used in this study.
Executive refers to, for this study, a top leader in an organization, usually reporting to an
SVP, CEO, or President of the company. Executives have vital organizational roles with broad
strategic, resource, and financial scopes.
Extraversion refers to a personality characteristic where a person is talkative, assertive,
and active in social situations (Forret & Dougherty, 2001; Tulin et al., 2018).
Gender refers to a societal construct associated with the norms, behaviors, and roles that
society attaches to being a girl, woman, boy, or man (World Health Organization, 2023).
Inequality regimes refer to loosely interrelated practices, processes, actions, and
meanings that result in and maintain class, gender, and racial inequalities within particular
organizations (Acker, 2006, 2009).
Institutional sexism refers to gender inequity entrenched into the fabric of an
organization, where prejudice, ignorance, and stereotyping (Riley et al., 2006) create barriers to
equality and include practices or policies that, despite intent, have a disparate impact on women
(Simon et al., 2022).
Medium to large organization refers to an organization with 500 or more employees.
Mid-level manager refers to a people leader in the middle of hierarchical layers who
“builds relationships with those at the top (from a position of followership and lower power) and

9
with the people at the bottom (from a position of leadership and higher power)” (Jaser, 2021,
para. 3). In this study, a mid-level manager is defined as a people leader who has hiring,
discipline, promotional, and budgeting authority over employees. Mid-level managers typically
have the title of manager, senior manager, director, or senior director.
Networking refers to the proactive process, either formal or informal, taken by individuals
to develop and maintain relationships with those who have the potential to assist them in their
work or career (Forret & Dougherty, 2001; Kuijpers & Scheerens, 2006; Singh et al., 2006).
Networking has also been defined as “goal-directed behavior which occurs both inside and
outside of an organization, focused on creating, cultivating, and utilizing interpersonal
relationships” (Gibson et al., 2014, p. 147).
Network theory refers to “the mechanisms and processes that interact with network
structures to yield certain outcomes for individuals and groups” (Borgatti & Halgin, 2011, p.
1168). It includes structural and interactional dimensions such as an individual’s number,
frequency, and diversity of connections (Neergaard et al., 2005).
Self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief in the ability to produce desired results by their
actions (Davidson & Davidson, 2003) or the belief that one has the ability to do what is
necessary to accomplish personal goals (Young et al., 2020).
Social capital refers to the structure of a person’s contact networks, representing
important resources that can be used to provide advantages, such as wealth, knowledge, or social
support (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; Coleman, 1988; Tulin et al., 2018). Coleman’s 1988 research
described social capital as “not a single entity, but a variety of different entities having two
characteristics in common: they all consist of some aspect of social structures, and they facilitate

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certain actions of actors whether persons or corporate actors within the structure” (Coleman,
1988, p. 98).
Triadic reciprocity is a term utilized by psychologist Albert Bandura to describe when
behavior, personal factors, and environmental events interact and influence each other
bidirectionally (Wood & Bandura, 1989). It is also referred to as reciprocal determinism or
triadic reciprocal causation (Davidson & Davidson, 2003).
Virtual work, for this study, refers to work performed physically away from co-workers
and an office setting. Typically, virtual work is conducted from home. Other terms associated
with virtual work in this dissertation include remote work, telework, digital work, hybrid work,
computer-mediated communication groups, global teams, and distributed teams.
Weak ties refer to connections “diffused” through indirect links, often between people
from different social circles, communities, or cultures (Granovetter, 1983). They typically
involve relationships that lack depth. The weak ties theory is based on the premise that if the tie
between two people is strong, it is more likely that their social worlds will overlap and that they
will have ties with the same third parties (Borgatti & Halgin, 2011).
Woman, for the purpose of this study, refers to a person who identifies as female
regardless of the gender assigned at birth, although I acknowledge gender extends beyond the
binary.
Organization of the Study
This study includes five chapters. Chapter One provides a high-level summary of the
problem of practice, including the context and background of why networking is essential for
women in the workplace. Chapter One also provides the purpose and significance of the study,
an overview of the theoretical framework, and definitions of important terms used throughout the

11
study. Chapter Two reviews literature relevant to the problem of practice and summarizes the
available research salient to the experiences of women working virtually in the workplace.
Chapter Three restates the research questions and describes the qualitative methodologies used in
the study, including the research design and setting. This chapter also reviews the researcher’s
positionality, data sources, ethical considerations, strategies to ensure trustworthiness and
credibility, and limitations and delimitations. Chapter Four provides an overview of the findings
and data results. Chapter Five presents an analysis of the findings from Chapter Four,
recommendations for practical application, and implications for future research.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
This chapter summarizes academic literature relevant to the networking experiences of
mid-level managers identifying as women in a virtual workplace and how those experiences
impact their career advancement. The literature review begins with an examination of the
problem’s environmental impacts, including virtual communication, the COVID–19 pandemic,
and institutional sexism. The literature review continues with examining networking behavior,
including research-based evidence for the benefits of networking, networking supports, and
networking barriers. The literature review then examines personal aspects of the networking
experience, including characteristics that support effective networking and characteristics shown
to be a barrier to networking effectiveness. Lastly, this chapter reviews research supporting how
networking adds value to women’s career advancement.
Environmental Dimension: What Women Face
To understand the impact of virtual work on women’s experiences, it is essential to
understand three primary environmental impacts: virtual communication, the COVID–19
pandemic, and institutional sexism. The following section begins with a review of research
regarding the evolution of virtual communication before the COVID–19 pandemic and how the
COVID–19 pandemic impacted virtual communication. The section then reviews social presence
theory, virtual intelligence, and terms relevant to virtual communication in the workplace. The
section concludes with an overview of institutional sexism, including early feminist theory, postmodern feminist theory, and how sexism in the workplace impacts modern women today.

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Virtual Communication
Virtual communication has evolved significantly over the past three decades due to
technological advances and the increased availability of virtual resources. Almost 30 years ago,
Charles Handy wrote, “If there is an office in the future, it will be more like a clubhouse: a place
for meeting, eating, and greeting, with rooms reserved for activities, not for particular people”
(Handy, 1995, p. 42). Handy’s quote correctly prophesizes many post-pandemic work
environments as gathering places without established offices, where workers can reserve space
as needed. Advances in technology support this type of work environment. The following section
reviews this evolution of virtual work, from email to virtual teams, providing insight into how
technological advances helped shape the modern virtual workspace.
Timeline of Virtual Work: 1990–2020
Conducting work away from a central company office existed before the COVID–19
pandemic 2020. Over the past 3-plus decades, scholars have written about virtual work, often
focusing on virtual communication challenges (American Association of Cost Engineers, 1994;
Bailey et al., 2012). In 1995, Charles Handy wrote, “Like it or not, the mixture of economics and
technology means that more and more of us will be spending time in virtual space: out of sight, if
not out of touch” (Handy, 1995, p. 42). The following section reviews key technological
advances over the past 50 years that have contributed to virtual work’s advancement.
Evolution of Technology
According to Loubere (2011), significant technological innovations contributed to the
evolution of virtual work, including the first email (1971), personal computers (1974), optical
fiber (1970), fiber optic cables (1977), and TCP/IP internet protocol (1983). Between 1990 and
2010, technological achievements such as the release of Microsoft Office (1990), cellular phones

14
with texting capability (1991), accessibility of the internet (1992), web browsers (1993), iPhone
FaceTime (2010), the first video conferencing product (1994), the first video telesurgery (2001),
Skype (2003), “smartphones” with internet connectivity and touchscreens (2007), MS Teams
(2017), and 5G phones (2018) set the foundation for computer-based work performed away from
a centralized office (Loubere, 2011; Meiners & Baker, 1995).
Early Virtual Work
While some early research described virtual work as temporary (Jarvenpaa & Leidner,
1999; Snow et al., 1999), later research described virtual work as commonplace and worldwide
(Golden et al., 2008), setting the stage for greater acceptance and scholarly interest. As virtual
work grew in popularity, scholars raised concerns. In the 2000s, researchers suggested that
virtual work may leave workers feeling “out of the loop” during office interactions (Golden et
al., 2008), leading to professional isolation (Baruch & Nicholson, 1997; Vega & Brennan, 2000).
Bailey et al. (2012) suggested, “With continued innovation in digital technologies, the possibility
of working virtually is moving from the realm of science fiction to the everyday reality of the
workplace” (p. 1485).
Virtual Teams
By the early 2010s, virtual work was typically divided into three types: virtual teams,
remotely controlled operations, and simulation technologies (Bailey et al., 2012). Of these three,
virtual teams connect most directly to modern virtual work. Approximately three decades of prepandemic research exists that highlight the evolution of concerns with virtual team dynamics,
including issues of trust (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999; Kanawattanachai & Yoo, 2002), data
access (Levina & Vaast, 2008; Metiu, 2006) and time zones (Hinds & Bailey, 2003; Maznevski

15
& Chudoba, 2000). Of these, trust is particularly aligned with this dissertation’s problem of
practice.
Early establishment of trust positively impacts virtual team dynamics. Jarvenpaa and
Leidner’s (1999) research supports this claim. Using a case studies method, Jarvenpaa and
Leidner reviewed email and questionnaires from 350 graduate students over six weeks,
examining which communication behaviors facilitate trust in global teams. The researchers used
two 5-point scale measures: one developed by Mayer et al. (1995) and another developed by
Pearce et al. (1992). Communication behaviors shown to facilitate trust in global teams early on
include frequent and early exchanges (e.g., email messages) that were social in nature and not
necessarily related to the project and messages that conveyed enthusiasm about the project.
Communication behaviors shown to maintain trust include predictable exchanges with a regular
pattern and timely team member responses (Jarvanpaa & Leidner, 1999). Kanawattanachai and
Yoo’s (2002) research aligned with these findings. They conducted three surveys of 36 fourperson teams at the beginning, middle, and end of an eight-week virtual project, finding that
teams developed a higher level of cognition-based than affect-based trust across the project’s
duration. In this study, cognition-based trust refers to rational characteristics such as reliability,
integrity, competence, and responsibility (Mayer et al., 1995; McAllister, 1995), and affect-based
trust connects with trustees’ emotions, such as concern for another person’s welfare (McAllister,
1995).
Social Presence Theory
Social presence theory (SPT) helps frame the challenges of virtual work, highlighting the
impact of change in proximity between communicators. SPT has roots in early studies of
“computer-mediated communication,” or CMT. While technological advances are beyond CMT-

16
informed SPT’s limitations, the theory remains a foundation for modern virtual communication
and deserves attention in this literature review.
As a theory, social presence describes the degree of salience of the other person in a
communication (Short et al., 1976, p. 65). Two key concepts in SPT are intimacy (Argyle &
Dean, 1965) and immediacy (Short et al., 1976), both of which can be assessed by SPT factors
such as level of eye contact, physical distance, smiling, and level of personal conversation
(Gunawardena, 1995). Also related to SPT is the examination of proximity, with research
showing that the physical distance between coworkers impacts their ability to receive support.
Kossek et al. (2006) conducted a quantitative study of 245 employees at two large information
and financial services organizations, finding that a worker’s inability to informally obtain help
from a co-worker or supervisor who was physically nearby, combined with the loss of
opportunities to receive feedback due to proximity, represents a loss of support for workers.
In the mid–1990s, scholars discuss SPT relative to “computer-mediated communication,”
or CMT. Hiltz et al. (1993) wrote that the lack of nonverbal cues in virtual-based CMC may limit
information to those communicating, hindering the perception needed to regulate social
interaction. Early research also mentioned the translation of emotions into text. Johansen et al.
(1988) wrote about the early use of emojis before this term was coined, describing emojis as
relational icons of sideways faces made with punctuation characters from a keyboard.
Gunawardena (1995) published a review of literature that analyzed the communication,
collaborative learning, and social context of CMC. At the time of this research, CMT was mainly
discussed in the context of computer conferences. Study participants were assessed on their
feelings about CMT relative to online computer conferences, using ratings such as “dull” to

17
“stimulating” and “humanizing” to “dehumanizing.” In this way, an assessment was made
regarding the type of “social presence” that CMT provided participants (Gunawardena, 1995).
The idea of social proximity as a driver for networking effectiveness has been studied
recently by Satake et al., Wenger, and Frick and Frick. Satake et al.’s 2024 study found that
study participants perceive face-to-face communication better for building friendships. This
quantitative study assessed perspectives on virtual networking events, using a 5-point Likert
scale to collect data from 98 psychiatrists. One of the research questions asked, “Which do you
think is better, an online or face-to-face networking event?” with 90% (77 of 98) of respondents
responding that face-to-face is better (Satake et al., 2024). Wenger’s 2023 qualitative study on
perceived networking effectiveness showed that in-person conversation has value in building
relationships. Wegner conducted a qualitative study with 21 participants, assessing their
perceptions about the value virtual conferences have towards networking success. The study
found networking success factors relating to networking efficacy, specifically the importance of
sharing meals and drinks, having special autonomy, and being able to target people for follow-up
conversations (Wegner, 2023). One participant said, “Many aspects of communication cannot be
reproduced by a video. How a person moves, how enthusiastic a person seems about a certain
topic, whether someone is already tired in a conversation … or having the feeling of now is just
the right moment” (Wenger, 2023, p. 6). In addition, Frick and Frick conducted a mixed-methods
study with 70 participants to assess the attitudes toward internet-based technology, virtual
networking, and the development of social capital (Frick & Frick, 2023). The study found a
preference for hybrid networking that included both face-to-face connection and conversations
using virtual technology (Frick & Frick, 2023).
Virtual Intelligence

18
In 2017, Makarius and Larson reviewed the literature on critical success factors in virtual
work, suggesting that building virtual intelligence is necessary for individuals to succeed in a
virtual work environment. It includes a summary of critical success factors in virtual work that
result from the ability of a virtual worker to adapt to different environments by recognizing,
directing, and maintaining cognitive resources (Makarius & Larson, 2017). Their findings were
informed by research showing key behavioral skills associated with success while working
virtually, such as developing trust (Crisp & Jarvenpaa, 2013; Yakovleva et al., 2010) and
skillfully using available technology (Staples et al., 1999; Qureshi et al., 2006).
Research shows that trust is a critical success factor in developing virtual intelligence.
Crisp and Jarvenpaa’s (2013) qualitative research on “swift trust” suggests that the early
establishment of trust in virtual teams positively impacts overall team performance. Their quasiexperimental research of 280 university students studied the effectiveness of four virtual,
temporary teams as they completed a business plan assignment, with research focusing on early
trusting beliefs, late trusting beliefs, and team performance (Crisp & Jarvenpaa, 2013).
Yakovleva et al.’s (2010) quantitative research studied trust levels in 74 dyads (pairs) of virtual
coworkers, asking participants to assess trust levels in themselves and their coworkers. They
found that a person’s predisposition to trusting others (Mayer et al., 1995), also referred to as the
propensity to trust, positively impacts trust between coworkers (Yakovleva et al., 2010).
Yakovleva et al.’s data provide insight into reciprocal interdependencies of trust when members
of a dyad are not previously connected (e.g., husband and wife or parent and child), providing an
important connection to virtual relationships of coworkers (Kenny et al., 2006; Yakovleva et al.,
2010).

19
Research also showed that skillful use of technology is a critical success factor in
developing virtual intelligence. Makarius and Larson (2017) posited that a skilled virtual worker
strategically selects virtual technology to improve communication and work relationships.
Researchers also provided evidence that strategic virtual choices improve (Staples et al., 1999)
and support self-efficiency by matching technology choices to the needs of the task (Qureshi et
al., 2006). Staples et al. (1999) conducted quantitative research involving 376 virtual employees
in 18 different organizations, assessing the extent to which employee self-efficacy plays a role in
influencing remote work effectiveness, perceived productivity, job satisfaction, and ability to
cope. The study suggested that the ability to strategically and effectively use technology
associated with virtual work is an important precursor to a worker’s ability to perform effectively
in a remote environment (Staples et al., 1999). Qureshi et al.’s (2006) analysis of distributed
teams defined virtual work as “electronic work environments” (Qureshi et al., 2006, p. 55), and
the authors posited that technologies supporting collaboration are essential for creating shared
understanding and effectively supporting distributed projects. Qureshi et al. also conducted
qualitative research by studying 21 distributed virtual teams in Hong Kong and the Netherlands,
using an open coding method to examine and categorize team interactions. They found that when
effective use of virtual technology results in shared understanding, members experience more
open communication, improved knowledge sharing, and increased volume of ideas (Qureshi et
al., 2006).
COVID–19 Pandemic
In April 2020, at the beginning of the COVID–19 pandemic, the United Nations
published a policy brief positing that the pandemic would deepen preexisting inequalities for
women due to compounded economic impacts, reallocation of health-related monetary support,

20
and the increase of unpaid domestic care work (United Nations, 2020). The report encouraged
response plans and recovery packages to address the pandemic’s impact on women. While
presently it is too soon for scholars to have conducted and published a significant volume of
work that covers the full impact that the pandemic had on the workforce, the following section
covers two themes that have emerged from recent post-pandemic research: family-related
demands impact virtual work and the gendered inequality exists for domestic responsibilities.
Family Related Demands Impact Virtual Work
While working from home, people of all genders are subject to interruptions to deal with
family demands. Delanoeije et al. (2019) conducted a quantitative study using diary data for 81
participants, finding that those working part-time from home encounter more work-to-family
transitions (i.e., stopping work to deal with family demands during work hours) on work-fromhome days. Wang et al.’s (2021) mixed methods study also supported this finding. Wang et al.
interviewed 39 and surveyed 522 virtual employees in China, finding that interruptions with
family during the workday disrupt virtual workers’ perceived productivity. This finding is
evident in the qualitative and quantitative pieces of the mixed methods study. In the qualitative
piece, 26 of the 39 participants stated that family disruptions impact their work performance; in
the quantitative piece, data showed that work-to-home interference significantly affects worker
performance (Wang et al., 2021).
Gendered Inequality for Domestic Responsibilities
Research provides evidence that the pandemic further exacerbates the existing inequity of
domestic roles. Abromaviciute & Carian’s (2022) qualitative study included interviews with 62
matched different-sex, dual-career spouses raising young children, finding that the burden of
household labor remained disproportionally on women during the pandemic (Abromaviciute &

21
Carian, 2022; Barroso, 2021). Dunatchik et al.’s (2021) quantitative research involving 2,200
U.S. adults found that when only the mother worked from home, they were likelier to take on a
more significant share of domestic work than when only the father worked from home. In
addition, researchers used data from the U.S. Current Population Survey to examine changes in
mothers’ and fathers’ work hours from February through April 2020, showing that in households
with two incomes, women assumed an increased burden of household labor as compared to their
spouse (Collins et al., 2021). This is consistent with the American Time Use Survey findings,
assessing how parents spend their time during the day using data from the monthly U.S. Current
Population Survey. This study found that in the early months of the pandemic, mothers sacrificed
more work time than fathers to take care of family responsibilities (Villarreal & Yu, 2022;
Lyttelton et al., 2023).
Institutional Sexism
Sexism has been embedded in our environment, including our workplaces, for
generations, twisted into the fabric of decisions and culture (Kanter, 1989). This section will first
discuss the roots of institutional sexism, including cultural norms, occupational sexism, hostile
sexism, and benevolent sexism. Then, an overview of feminist theory will be provided, including
early feminist and post-modern feminist theories. Lastly, a summary of inequality regimes will
offer insight into how institutional sexism impacts women today and introduce the concept of
women leaders as change agents.
Roots of Institutional Sexism
Institutional sexism can be described as gender inequity entrenched into the fabric of an
organization, where prejudice, ignorance, and stereotyping (Riley et al., 2006) create barriers to
equality and include practices or policies that, despite intent, have a disparate impact on women

22
(Simon et al., 2022). The complex foundation of institutional sexism in the workplace has roots
in both cultural norms and occupational sexism. Author bell hooks identified society’s
institutional sexist cultural roots when she wrote, “It helps us remember that all of us, female and
male, have been socialized from birth to accept sexist thought and action. The solution is to
replace it with feminist thought and action” (hooks 2000, pp. 8-9). Occupational segregation, or
the concentration of certain workers (e.g., women) in job types that are lower paid or less
prestigious, also contributes to institutional sexism (Gauchat et al., 2012). Gauchat et al.’s
quantitative research studied the earnings of 271 men and women in the United States,
concluding that occupational segregation is the leading determinant of gender earnings inequality
(Gauchat et al., 2012). Other types of sexism, such as hostile or benevolent sexism, are also
experienced in society, homes, and communities, contributing to institutional sexist work
environments. Glick and Fiske (1996) studied the differences between hostile and benevolent
sexism, defining the latter as “a set of interrelated attitudes toward women that are sexist in terms
of viewing women stereotypically and in restricted roles but that is subjectively positive in
feeling tone (for the perceiver)” (Glick & Fiske, 1996, p. 491).
Feminist Thought
Feminism is a widely used term to describe the study of oppression faced by women
(hooks, 1984), yet there is no single, universally agreed-upon feminist theory (Hesse-Biber,
2013). Multiple definitions exist, with decades of feminist researchers adding to the field
according to their positionality, epistemology, and conceptual literacy (Hesse-Biber, 2013;
Hughes, 2002; Secules et al., 2021). Two fundamental theories defining feminist thought are
early feminist theory and post-modern feminist theory.
Early Feminist Theory

23
Feminist thought provides a framework for understanding institutional sexism and how it
hurts women. Scholars typically recognize three waves of feminism. The first wave took place
during the late 1800s through suffrage (Kezar & Lester, 2009). The second wave occurred during
the social movements of the 1960s and 1970s (Kezar & Lester, 2009). The third wave occurred
between the 1980s and the present day (hooks, 2000). Second-wave feminism became prominent
as women began earning money outside of the home and demanding rights such as equal pay,
better employment options, and increased safety for women and children (Keegan, 2018).
However, this wave did not include an intersectional view and scholars such as bell hooks
questioned the centering of White women in feminist discourse (Biana, 2020; hooks, 1984).
While second-wave feminists such as Betty Friedan wrote about the perils of women being
limited to housewifery, scholars such as hooks challenged this view as ignoring the experiences
of black women and mothers who chose this path (Biana, 2020).
Post-Modern Feminist Theory
Authors such as bell hooks became a strong voice during third-wave feminism,
introducing a more diverse, intersectional approach (hooks, 1984, 2000; Kostikova, 2013) that
“embraces all sources of oppression” (Burgess-Proctor, 2006, p. 43). Also referred to as postmodern feminism, third-wave feminism has been defined as “postcolonial and postmodernist
feminist practices which empower the entirety of the woman” (Keegan, 2018, p. 1). The
introduction of post-modern, intersectional feminist theory by hooks and her contemporaries
expanded the conversation beyond privileged White voices but still faced criticism by scholars
who recognized that hooks held another privilege, that of a Western feminist who is not subject
to the complexities of imperialism (Biana, 2020). Still, post-modern feminist theory moved the

24
discourse towards a more complete picture of what women in the United States face in the
modern workplace.
Inequality Regimes
Global inequality of women is acknowledged internationally. The Global Gender Gap
Report (World Economic Forum, 2022) benchmarked gender metrics of 146 countries,
measuring scores on a 0–100 scale. The report identified gender bias, stereotypes, and unequal
access to opportunities as barriers to women’s growth in leadership. This is not a new finding.
Acker (2006) has extensively researched gender-based inequality, describing gender as a social
construction synonymous with “class” in many organizations. In patriarchal societies, critical
workplace decisions, such as wage-setting or advancement, can be shaped by gendered attitudes
(Acker, 2006). Acker has also studied inequality regimes, describing them as loosely interrelated
practices, processes, actions, and meanings that result in and maintain class, gender, and racial
inequalities within particular organizations (Acker, 2006, 2009).
Inequality regimes are part of a reciprocal cycle with institutional sexism, each feeding
into the other. Acker (2009) theorized that organizations are part of the cycle of institutional
sexism, not merely products of it, as organizations reflect and reproduce the male advantage via
“rules, procedures, and hierarchies” and “reflect longstanding distinctions between men and
women, masculinity and femininity, and power and domination in ways that aid in the
reproduction and maintenance of gender inequality” (Stainback et al., 2016, p. 110). Stainback et
al.’s quantitative research analyzed a multi-level data set of 5,679 workplaces, reviewing gender,
organizational power, and hierarchy, finding that gender segregation in the workplace results in
fewer women in leadership positions (Stainback et al., 2016).

25
However, Stainback et al.’s research suggested that women leaders contribute to
disrupting the inequality regime cycle. Their research supports the claim that non-leadership
positions are less segregated when an organization employs women in leadership roles.
Stainback et al. found that women in leadership roles act as agents of change, with each measure
of women’s representation in leadership negatively associated with nonmanagerial gender
segregation. This supports the claim that women’s increased representation in leadership is
significantly associated with less gender segregation in the organization overall (Stainback et al.,
2016). Huffman et al.’s (2010) study also supported the suggestion of women leaders as change
agents. This study examined longitudinal data from the 1975–2005 U.S. Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission that contained data from private-sector employers with more than 100
employees and federal contractors with more than 50 employees and contracts exceeding
$50,000. Their research supports the claim that increased gender integration results from change
within existing workplaces rather than being a product of new, relatively integrated workplaces
entering the population (Huffman et al., 2010).
Research shows that gender inequality in the workplace has made marginal
improvements since 2017 but continues to be biased. McKinsey & Company conducted a mixedmethod analysis study to survey over 400,000 employees about workplace experiences and
interview women of diverse identities. They found that overall, women still need to be better
represented in leadership ranks compared to men, and this underrepresentation becomes
progressively worse as one moves up the ranks in an organization (Thomas et al., 2022). The
survey also found that only 87 White women were promoted for every 100 men promoted, and
the promotion rate is even lower for women who are not White (Thomas et al., 2022).

26
Summary
In conclusion, three primary environmental factors impact this dissertation’s problem of
practice: virtual communication, the COVID–19 pandemic, and institutional sexism. As the first
of SCT’s three pillars (environment, behavior, and personal), the environmental dimension has a
reciprocal relationship to behavior factors and personal characteristics. The following section
introduces behavior as the second dimension.
Behavioral Dimension: Networking
Networking in the workplace is an essential organizational behavior, both for an
individual worker (Ansmann et al., 2014; Bartol & Zhang, 2007; Blickle et al., 2009; Eby et al.,
2003; Forret & Dougherty, 2004; Hall, 1996) and for the success of an organization (Burt &
Ronchi, 2007; Cullen-Lester et al., 2016). The following section presents research on networking
behaviors, including behavioral patterns that describe how networking is performed. The review
begins with an overview of networking basics: what networking is and the theory behind
organizational networking. The review continues with evidence from the literature about the
benefits of organizational networking from a behavioral perspective. The review then provides
an overview of what behaviors support effective networking and concludes with an overview of
barriers to effective networking.
Networking Basics
Networking can be defined in multiple ways (Gibson et al., 2014; Ibarra, 1993; Moser &
Wolf, 2009). The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) acknowledges that
networking has significantly evolved over the past two decades and describes networking as
engaging people interested in cultivating a mutually beneficial relationship, exchanging ideas,
and sharing best-practice knowledge (Klahre, 2023). The following section reviews the basics of

27
networking, including definitions used in the context of this research study, and provides a
review of networking theory.
What Is Networking?
Networking is “goal-directed behavior which occurs both inside and outside of an
organization, focused on creating, cultivating, and utilizing interpersonal relationships” (Gibson
et al., 2014, p. 147). Networking is a behavior (Moser & Wolff, 2009) that can become a
competency (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). However, as networking can be formal or informal,
variation exists within networking applications. Formal networking tends to be easier to identify
and centered around business; informal networking can revolve around business or social
activities, can be more challenging to identify, and is often broader than formal networks
(Durbin, 2011; Ibarra, 1993). Ibarra defines formal networking as “a set of formally specified
relationships between superiors and subordinates and among representatives of functionally
differentiated groups who must interact to accomplish an organizationally defined task” (Ibarra,
1993, p. 58). In contrast, informal networking consists of discretionary interaction related to
work, personal, or a combination of both (Ibarra, 1993). Informal relationships in the workplace
have long been recognized as a valuable strategy for building vital connections (Burt, 1992;
Krackhardt & Hanson, 1993) and are powerful; they can be used to cut through barriers, support
collaboration, and influence decisions (Krackhardt & Hanson, 1993). When absent or unequal,
however, informal networks can act as a significant barrier to career success, mobility, and
satisfaction (Acker, 2006; Brass, 1985; Durbin, 2011; Horak & Suseno, 2022; Ibarra, 1993,
2013; Socratous, 2018).
Networking Theory

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Network theory is defined as “the mechanisms and processes that interact with network
structures to yield certain outcomes for individuals and groups.” (Borgatti & Halgin, 2011, p.
1168). Network theory includes structural and interactional dimensions such as an individual’s
number, frequency, and diversity of connections (Neergaard et al., 2005). Scholars such as Burt,
Ibarra, and Ganovetter leveraged network theory to research various networking aspects, such as
personal networks, weak ties, and structural holes (Burt, 1992; Granovetter, 1983; Ibarra, 1993).
As a concept, networking theory connects to weak ties and structural holes theories.
Borgatti and Halgin’s (2011) paper about network theory identifies commonalities in the
theoretical frameworks of the strength of weak ties theory (Granovetter, 1983) and the structural
holes theory of social capital (Burt, 1992), which they label as the network flow model (Borgatti
and Halgin, 2011). The strength of weak ties theory is based on the premise that if the tie
between two people is strong, it is more likely that their social worlds will overlap and that they
will have ties with the same third parties (Borgatti & Halgin, 2011). This results in transitivity,
where the initial connections bridge ties between the other connections, resulting in novel or
unique information. It is the weak tie that is valuable for building effective bridges (Borgatti &
Halgin, 2011). The structural holes theory is a more strategic view based on the premise that ties
bridge together by proximal causation (Borgatti & Halgin, 2011; Burt, 1992). The network flow
model connects these ideas and is based on the premise that things, ideas, and information flow
through a network based on specific rules. Some transfer entirely from actor to actor; others
leave a copy behind (Borgatti & Halgin, 2011).
Benefits of Networking
Scholars describe networking as the “knowing whom competency” (Eby et al., 2003, p.
24). Research establishes that those who network gain significant advantages, be it personal

29
(Bartol & Zhang, 2007; Blickle et al., 2009; Eby et al., 2003; Forret & Dougherty, 2004) or
organizational (Burt & Ronchi, 2007; Cullen-Lester et al., 2016). The following section reviews
relevant literature providing evidence that networking enhances career advancement, work
performance, social capital, and salary.
Supports Career Advancement
Literature supports the claim that networking serves to advance one’s career (Blackford,
2018; Brass, 1985; Luthans et al., 1988). Some research, such as Brass’ (1985) quantitative
research, was conducted over three decades ago but provides an important perspective regarding
gender’s influence on networking in the 1980s. Brass studied the interaction patterns of 76 men
and 64 women in an organization, exploring how these patterns impact perceptions of influence
and the likelihood of promotions. Results show that having more male contacts in one’s
professional networking circle is associated with higher perceived career success, as men tend to
provide more influential networking opportunities due to their higher status (Brass, 1985). In
1988, the book Real Managers postulated that a manager’s ability to network is the strongest
predictor of managerial career growth when describing networking as interacting with outsiders
and socializing or politicking (Luthans et al., 1988). The authors state that successful managers
employ a disproportionate use of networking activities compared to managers not considered
successful (Luthans et al., 1988). Scholars in the early 1990s, such as Krackhardt and Hansen,
studied the value of informal networks, concluding that informal networks add value to business
processes by advancing stalled initiatives. They also stress the power that navigating informal
relationships in a workplace has on a career (Krackhardt & Hansen, 1993). In addition to
validating the value of informal networks, scholars also postulate that networks predict career

30
success when career success is described as perceived career satisfaction, internal marketability,
and external marketability (Eby et al., 2003).
Research regarding the networking experiences of college students also supports the
connection between networking and career success. Forret and Dougherty (2004) conducted a
quantitative study that explored the relationship between networking and career outcomes for
418 respondents, 73% male and 27% female. Results show a positive correlation between four of
the five networking behaviors identified (maintaining contacts, engaging in professional
activities, participating in community activities, and increasing internal visibility) and the
number of promotions for recent U.S. business school graduates (Forret & Dougherty, 2004).
They also found that when considering gender, only one behavior significantly relates to career
success for women: increasing internal visibility (Forret & Dougherty, 2004). Forret and
Dougherty postulate that one explanation could be that the internal work projects available for
women are less prestigious than those available to men, thus less impactful on promotional
opportunities, hinting at the glass ceiling impact. In addition, Blackford’s (2018) review of past
research concludes that students who make social connections through networking gain career
and job advantages over their academic counterparts. Blackford also asserts that academic,
personal, community, online, professional, and transient networks are all powerful tools for
graduating PhD students in their attempt to grow their careers (Blackford, 2018).
Jauhar and Lau’s (2018) research focused on women, directly studying the glass ceiling
impact by conducting qualitative research with 140 Malaysian women. They examined the
connection between women’s career advancement and networking, finding that networking
within an organization has a significant, positive impact on women’s career advancement (Jauhar
& Lau, 2018). Bodalina and Mestry’s (2022) qualitative research into the experiences of 19

31
South African women in leadership positions expands the conversation, finding that increasing
involvement in professional learning communities, mentoring, and coaching provides women the
tools and encouragement to apply for career-building promotions, despite patriarchal systems
that create barriers to women’s desire to apply for higher-level leadership roles (Bodalina &
Mestry, 2022).
A critical distinction in the literature relates to the types of networking groups women
access and how these groups impact women’s career success. Evidence exists that women-only
networks consistently lead to career success for women. Research conducted in 2006 by Singh et
al. studied women-only networks, confirming that networking is an important part of women’s
career success, providing women with opportunities to share career development experiences and
learn from each other (Singh et al., 2006). Singh et al. conducted qualitative interviews with
organizers of 12 women’s networking groups and quantitative survey research with 164
participants. This finding was repeated in 2021 by Woodwark et al., who conducted qualitative
interviews to study the experiences of 12 women founders of technology-based ventures in
Canada, demonstrating the positive impact of women-only networks on business success
(Woodwark et al., 2021).
Supports Work Performance
Research suggests that networking serves to improve work performance. Blickle et al.’s
(2012) quantitative research supports this claim by studying connections between networking,
job performance, and political skills for 263 employees in a German firm. The researchers found
that individuals with high levels of political skills also possess social competencies that advance
work goals by increasing their understanding and influence of others in the workplace, resulting
in increased numbers of effective network relationships. Additionally, their research discovered

32
that the networking ability dimension of political skill correlates to increased sales volume
(Blickle et al., 2012). Kuvaas et al.’s (2012) research into leader-member exchange relationships
supports this claim by studying 552 followers and 78 leaders, examining the relationships
between networking with leaders, organizational citizenship behavior, and work performance.
This study emphasizes socio-emotional aspects of leader-member exchanges, such as the giveand-take of a networking relationship, and results suggest a connection between networking
activity to positive work performance results (Kuvaas et al., 2012).
Impacts Social Capital
Networking builds important social capital (Bartol & Zhang, 2007). Social capital is the
structure of a person’s contact networks, representing important resources used to provide
advantages, such as wealth, knowledge, or social support (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; Coleman,
1988; Tulin et al., 2018). Social capital connects tightly to networking through the relationships
networking builds (Brass, 2012) and provides resources to help people achieve goals they could
not have otherwise achieved (Coleman, 1988). Burt (1998) expands on this description, writing
that managers with more social capital develop personally advantageous opportunities.
Research supports the positive connection between networking and social capital. Cross
and Sproull’s (2004) qualitative research studied 40 managers from 12 offices in a Big Five
accounting firm throughout the United States, showing that proximal networking benefits result
when social capital is exchanged through interpersonal interactions. The study also found that
employees gain social capital during social exchanges by providing solutions, referring to
additional sources of information, helping others reformulate a problem, or validating an idea
(Cross & Sproull, 2004). Bartol and Zhang’s (2007) paper on the linkage between networking,
social capital growth, and leadership development posits that networking is an effective strategy

33
for managers to use when seeking leadership and social capital growth. Their literature analysis
shows that managers can convert networking capital into social capital through the choices they
make when establishing their networking strategy and technology used (Bartol & Zhang, 2007).
In 2023, Frick and Frick conducted a mixed-methods study with 70 participants to assess the
attitudes toward internet-based technology, virtual networking, and the development of social
capital (Frick & Frick, 2023). The study found a significant relationship between the perceptions
of internet technology, virtual networking, and the development of social capital. While the
results do not imply causation, they do suggest that virtual networking supports social capital
development (Frick & Frick, 2023).
Scholars studying how networking builds social capital for women connected social
capital to the challenges women face due to gender. In 1998, Burt described women seeking
social capital through networking as illegitimate members, insinuating that women were not yet
accepted as legitimate by other powerful networking members. He posited that borrowing the
networking of a strategic partner is one strategy women could use to acquire legitimacy and
build social capital (Burt, 1998). Timberlake’s 2005 literature review provided a more
encouraging picture for women, showing that women who network cumulatively increased social
capital with continued social interaction, and as positive interactions that create social capital
build, so do the positive elements of trust and networking (Timberlake, 2005). However,
Timberlake’s review also claimed that a reciprocal relationship existed between networking and
social capital. Timberlake found that the lack of access to social capital contributes to women’s
lag in career advancement, pay, and status, which contributes to inequitable access to careerbuilding networks (Timberlake, 2005).
Relates to Increased Salary

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Research across all genders shows that networking is positively related to pay. Gould and
Penley (1984) conducted quantitative research by studying the career strategies of 414
employees of a large municipality. They utilized a Career Strategies Inventory to identify
networking as a pivotal career advancement strategy highly correlated to salary advancement
(Gould & Penley, 1984). Over two decades later, Wolff and Moser (2009) contributed to this
finding by conducting a quantitative study of 279 people in Germany, across industries, showing
networking is related to a growth rate of salary over time. Their research identified four specific
networking scales that specifically impacted salary growth: building internal contacts,
maintaining internal contacts, building external contacts, and maintaining external contacts
(Wolff & Moser, 2009).
Research also supports the claim that networking correlates with higher salaries for
women. De Vos et al. (2009) conducted a quantitative longitudinal study over three years with
143 recent female networking graduates and found a correlation between networking and salary
rate 1-year post-graduation. In addition, Offerman et al. (2020) published a 28-year quantitative
longitudinal study on 101 college women leaders, showing that networking benefits across a
career lifespan include higher salary, career progress, and career satisfaction. This study found
that women who self-report increased use of networking are significantly more likely to selfreport as more successful, more satisfied, and better paid than women who report lower levels of
networking (Offerman et al., 2020).
Behavioral Supports for Networking Effectiveness
Scholars have researched the effectiveness of networking tactics used in the workplace.
The following section reviews research into what supports effective networking. Key themes in

35
the literature include professional networks, women-only networks, weak ties, mentorship, and
sponsorship.
Professional Network Participation
Research provides evidence that networking’s effectiveness is impacted by how
networking is performed. Eby et al.’s research with 458 U.S. university graduates found that
including external professional groups within a networking circle increases networking
effectiveness (Eby et al., 2003). Ansmann et al.’s (2014) literature review supports this finding,
providing evidence that networking early in one’s career enhances overall networking
effectiveness. Forret and Dougherty’s (2004) research showed that engaging in professional
activities, such as accepting speaking engagements and attending conferences or trade shows,
supports effective networking and results in positive career outcomes (Forret & Dougherty,
2004).
Participating in Women-Only Networks
Research that studies explicitly the networking practices of women supports the claim
that participation in women-only networking groups positively impacts networking effectiveness.
Villesèche and Josserand’s 2015 article reviewing the literature on formal and informal womenonly network groups concluded that women-only business networks created value for both an
organization and individual members by supporting goal-oriented instrumental ties, providing
emotional support, and improving women’s access to important internal information (Villesèche
& Joserand, 2015). Lin et al.’s (2019) qualitative study centered on women physicians’
participation in women-only professional organizations. Researchers conducted interviews with
17 women, finding that active participation enhances networking effectiveness and career
advancement by creating networking and promotion opportunities and strengthening

36
relationships (Lin et al., 2019). Fisher and Read (2020) conducted 39 qualitative interviews with
women. They found that in addition to participating in women-only professional organizations,
women who act strategically when networking experience positive networking results (Fisher &
Read, 2020).
Weak Ties
Granovetter (1983) wrote that having more social connections may cause difficulty
maintaining these ties, so they are “weak.” These weak ties are interconnected through indirect
links and have a paradoxical effect of diffused connections across groups. About these groups,
Bandura (2001) wrote, “One is more apt to learn about new ideas and practices from brief
contacts with casual acquaintances than from intensive contact in the same circle of close
associates” (Bandura, 2001, p. 291). Granovetter (1983) also wrote that there is a structural
tendency for weak ties to have better access to job information that a job seeker may not already
have. Granovetter cited three research studies that support this claim, all showing the power of
weak ties in job attainment: a 1977 study in the Quebec provincial government, a 1980 study in
Philadelphia, and a 1981 study in New York (Granovetter, 1983). Bauer et al.’s 2023 research
confirmed this claim, finding that weak ties are extremely important for job networking in the
digital age. Bauer et al. conducted a quantitative study to assess how different aspects of social
identity correlated with online networking and job search success, finding that 94% of the 355
respondents reported finding their jobs via a digital networking site (Bauer et al., 2023). Ibarra et
al.’s later research also supports the claim that weak networking ties positively connect to
network effectiveness, writing that despite the word “weak” being used, weak ties have strength
in connecting individuals to ideas, influences, or information and have proven efficiencies for
instrumental networking regardless of proximity (Ibarra et al., 1993).

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Connection to Mentorship Ties
Evidence exists in the literature that mentoring activities add value to networking
activities. Scholars describe mentorship as a career-supportive workplace relationship that
focuses on employee development, where protegees benefit from a mentor’s reflected power and
mentors provide career guidance and psychological support (Gottlieb & Travis, 2018; Noe, 1988;
Quinlan, 1999). Blickle et al.’s (2009) quantitative research examined the connections between
networking, job performance, and political skills for 263 employees in a German firm,
connecting mentoring and networking with the same group of participants. Their research
assessed mentoring, then studied networking success after two years, and finally examined the
participants’ career advancement, concluding a connection between mentoring, networking, and
career success (Blickle et al., 2009). DeJanasz and Sullivan (2004) reviewed literature about
mentoring in academe. They concluded that signaling, or conveying information, is an important
part of growing a network, and those with more skills in interpreting signals experience more
success in finding mentorship matches (DeJanasz & Sullivan, 2004).
The connection between women’s mentorship and networking can be viewed in both the
positive (how mentorship supports networking effectiveness) and negative (how lack of
mentorship restricts networking effectiveness) perspectives. Regarding how mentorship supports
women’s networking effectiveness, Flippin’s (2017) quantitative study that focused on the
advancement of Generation X women collected data from 240 women. The study found that
women reported mentors as an important part of a networking circle, leading the researcher to
recommend a multi-pronged approach for women that consisted of mentorship, coaching,
networking, and career planning. Dean and Parrett (2020) added to the research by conducting
qualitative interviews with 20 public sector trade unions in the United Kingdom and Australia.

38
Their study examined how mentoring strategies help women overcome leadership barriers and
how the interaction of formal and informal support networks within U.K. and Australian labor
union organizations impacts women’s leadership. They concluded that formal mentoring
relationships are an essential part of women’s support networks and resulted in creating
structural change in labor union organizations to provide a more gender-balanced environment
for women (Dean & Parrett, 2020). Scholars suggest that multiple mentors are more effective
than a single mentor, as knowledge and skill diversity benefit changing environments. De Janasz
et al. wrote, “Having multiple mentors facilitates the building of knowledge in the people who
then become the primary assets and sources of competitive advantage to the firm” (De Janasz et
al., 2003, p. 79).
Research also posited that a lack of mentorship restricts women’s networking
effectiveness (Barkhuizen et al, 2022; Bodalina & Mestry, 2022; Mcilongo & Strydom, 2021).
Barkhuizen et al. (2020) conducted qualitative interviews with nine women, researching career
advancement barriers for women seeking leadership roles. They found four networking-related
areas constrain career progression: lack of mentoring, lack of coaching, lack of perceived role
models, and lack of access to top management (Barkhuizen et al., 2022). Their research supports
the connection between mentorship and networking, adding evidence to the claim that lack of
mentorship prevents women from gaining access to effective workplace networks. One
participant said:
I have been stuck at the same level for the past 7 years, and the reality is that it ultimately
boils down to being known by the guys at the top, but access to them is a challenge
sometimes, even with mentors. For an opportunity at the top, you have to be known by
the big bosses (Barkhuizen & Sluis, 2022, p. 9).

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In addition, a literature review by Cross et al. (2019) examined the consequences of
inadequate mentoring, showing that lack of mentoring results in stalled career development for
women. The review also suggests that organizational barriers to mentoring include finding senior
women available to serve as mentors, which connects to networking as a mentorship recruiting
tool (Cross et al., 2019). Lastly, Bishop and Mitchell’s 2023 qualitative research assessed the
enablers and coping mechanisms for senior-level women’s career advancement in the United
Kingdom. This study included ten women leaders in the National Health Service, finding that
women’s intentional support of those more junior to them and strategic succession planning
support women’s career advancement (Bishop & Mitchell, 2023).
Connection to Sponsorship Ties
Research suggests sponsorship is a tactical way to leverage networking contacts to gain
more power and social capital from networking relationships (Kanter, 1989; Timberlake, 2005).
Hewlett described a sponsor as a person of power who can work to further the career of the
sponsored person (Hewlett, 2013). Gottlieb and Travis described sponsorship as an intentional
workplace relationship where a higher-powered person uses their organizational influence to
advocate for the sponsored person (Gottlieb & Travis, 2018). Gottlieb and Travis also write that
while an effective sponsor should support leadership opportunities, the sponsorship success is
anchored on the sponsor’s knowledge and awareness of opportunities (Gottlieb & Travis, 2018).
Evidence that a positive connection exists for women between sponsorship and
networking has been established in the literature, linking them as related tactics for career
success. Linehan and Scullion (2008) conducted qualitative research to support this claim. They
interviewed 50 female leaders, finding that female managers can miss out on job opportunities

40
when they lack mentors, role models, sponsorship, or access to appropriate networks (Linehan
and Scullion, 2008).
Previously established as a favorable outcome of effective networking, social capital
connects to sponsorship. Timberlake writes that sponsorship is a way women can achieve vital
social capital in the workplace (Timberlake, 2005). Scholars posit that women often sit outside
the workplace power structure (Acker, 2006; Hewlett, 2013) and that social capital can advance
workplace power (Bartol & Zhang, 2007; Coleman, 1988). Scholars also posit that sponsorship
supports the borrowing of social capital to balance this power dynamic and assist women’s
workplace legitimacy (Burt, 1998).
Behavioral Barriers to Networking Effectiveness
Scholars have conducted research examining behavioral barriers to networking in the
workplace. While research exists related to behavioral-based networking barriers for all genders,
a preponderance of literature focuses on barriers women face. Research supports the claim that
women face behavioral-based networking barriers, with some of the research spanning decades
(Brass, 1985; Ely, 1994).
Lack of Access to Leaders
Decades of evidence uphold that lack of access is a significant barrier to women’s
networking effectiveness. Brass’ (1985) study suggested that women lack access to valuable
organizational resources such as workplace information or knowledge. The study focused on
network interaction patterns, showing that women’s lack of integration into men’s workplace
networks correlates with women’s lack of workplace influence. The study also established a
literature foundation showing men’s dominance in high-level, hierarchical positions contributes
to women being less likely than men to participate in informal, high-level interactions (Brass,

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1985). Less than a decade later, Ibarra wrote extensively about networking (Ibarra, 1992, 1993,
1995, 2013), supporting Brass’ claims. While Ibarra’s research mainly focused on barriers
women face when networking, such as women’s lack of access, her writings overlapped with
networking barriers faced by other marginalized groups. Ibarra (1993) wrote:
One of the most frequently reported problems faced by women and racial minorities in
organizational settings is limited access to or exclusion from informal interaction
networks. Limited network access, therefore, produces multiple disadvantages, including
restricted knowledge of what is going on in their organizations and difficulty in forming
alliances, which, in turn, are associated with limited mobility and “glass ceiling” effects
(Ibarra, 1993, p. 56).
Scholars posit that exclusion still impacts women’s participation in networking. Durbin
(2011) reviewed literature about networking and concluded that women managers have limited
access to and are often excluded from desired informal networks in the workplace. Research
shows that non-inclusive professional networks act as a barrier to women’s effective networking.
Datta and Siegal’s (2021) review of the literature also supported this claim, describing an
inclusive network as one with diverse professional networks. They also stated that exclusive
professional networks increase gender bias and inhibit career advancement.
Sexism
Additionally, scholars posit that institutional sexism is an underlying cause of networking
exclusion for women. Sexist beliefs about women’s role in society, desired place in the
workforce, or ability to lead contribute to women’s exclusion from networking opportunities
(Acker, 2006; Ely, 1994; Gamba & Kleiner, 2001; Socratous, 2018). Brass’s (1985) previously
mentioned quantitative study found evidence to support the assertion that men wish to maintain

42
their existing social structure dominance by intentionally excluding women from networking
events. Two decades later, Acker (2006) wrote that using social or informal networks when
recruiting carries the risk of perpetuating institutional sexism, as women are not fully included in
the ‘old boys’ networks of high-status social structures that support gendered power relations
(Acker, 2006). However, Gamba and Kleiner wrote that networking is one way to combat the old
boy’s network for women in the workplace (Gamba & Kleiner, 2001).
While institutional sexism may appear subtly, women face direct sexist networking
barriers in cultures where patriarchal beliefs are the norm. Results of a qualitative research study
of 29 accountants and academics in Cyprus showed that cultural norms are a clear barrier to
women’s successful professional networking. Study participants spoke bluntly regarding
women’s exclusion from social events, with male survey participants stating that “it is easier to
talk to other men” and that women are “too cold” (Socratous, 2018, p. 185). Sexist cultural
norms also impacted women in this study, as women reported a desire to stay away from maledominated networking opportunities out of fear that their presence would be misconstrued, and
assumptions made about an inappropriate relationship with a male co-worker (Socratous, 2018).
According to Ely’s 1994 research into social identity, women-to-women relationships are also
challenged in sexist environments. Ely conducted a mixed methods study with 30 women,
finding that when there are few women at the top of an organization, women in lower positions
are less likely to consider women leaders as options for support (Ely, 1994).
Hesitancy to Self-Promote
The negative image of networking also contributes to weak networking practices,
according to Ely et al. (2014). Their quantitative research of 6,250 MBA, DBA, and PhD
graduates suggests that some view networking as an action that “uses people to get ahead”,

43
causing women to feel uncomfortable networking (Ely et al., 2014). This view may contribute to
women’s hesitancy to self-promote, which is also a factor that weakens networking effectiveness
for women. Research shows that a lack of self-promotion is a barrier to establishing an effective
network. Ellinas et al. (2019) surveyed 491 faculty members, asking open-ended questions about
networking barriers. Their research found that more women than men report needing to focus on
self-promotion to receive acknowledgment of their work and leadership support to avoid feeling
“forgotten” by leadership (Ellinas et al., 2019, p. 399). Decades earlier, Gould and Penley
identified self-promotion as an important factor in networking, finding that both networking and
“self-nomination” (directly telling superiors about accomplishments) are the two career
advancement strategies most correlated to salary advancement (Gould & Penley, 1984, p. 245).
Summary
In conclusion, the literature shows that behavioral-based networking barriers exist.
Barriers such as lack of access to leaders, sexism, and hesitancy to self-promote all contribute to
behavioral challenges faced by women while they attempt to network effectively. The following
section will now focus on literature that reviews research regarding personal characteristics that
impact networking.
Personal Dimension: Networking
The following section reviews research from the lens of personal factors. This section
differs from the preceding behavioral-based literature review by focusing on research that
provides insight into a networker’s characteristics or traits of networking activity. First, the
personal characteristics of the literature to support networking effectiveness will be reviewed:
acculturation, extraversion, self-esteem, political skills, and ambition. Next, the review will

44
examine personal characteristics shown in the literature as barriers to networking effectiveness:
introversion, low self-esteem/confidence, culture, religion, and family responsibilities.
Personal Supports for Networking Effectiveness
Research supports the claim that personal characteristics strengthen networking
effectiveness. The strongest literature-based evidence exists for the trait of extraversion, but
evidence also exists for acculturation, self-esteem, political skills, and ambition. While some of
the literature supporting acculturation, self-esteem, and political skills includes research focused
on college students, the literature regarding extraversion and ambition focuses on career-aged
participants.
Acculturation
Evidence exists that connects acculturation with networking engagement. Nadermann and
Eissenstat (2018) conducted quantitative research with 172 Korean college students (117 women,
54 men) on three aspects of networking: comfort, intensity, and proactiveness. They found that
students who scored higher on acculturation reported higher levels of comfort, competence, and
engagement with career networking. Popadiuk and Arther’s (2014) research also supports the
importance of cross-cultural connections for international students outside of their home country.
This qualitative study examined international students’ transition from academic to career life by
interviewing 18 international students over four years, beginning in their last year of university
studies. The study found that networking relationships provided career opportunities for
international students, helping them remain hopeful about future career success and supporting
career goals (Popadiuk & Arthur, 2014).
Extraversion

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Extensive evidence supports the claim that networking behavior is positively associated
with extraversion. Wanberg et al. (2020) conducted field experiment research into the quality of
networking by providing intervention training for 491 job seekers, finding that higher
extraversion is associated with higher networking comfort, or “networking intensity” (Wanberg
et al., 2020, p. 571). Tulin et al. (2018) conducted three rounds of quantitative research with
between 800 to 1,069 participants in each wave. Survey results found that those with higher
extraversion traits were more comfortable networking and had more skills in personal
interactions. In addition, Forret and Dougherty (2001) studied the relationship between personal
and job characteristics and networking involvement. They conducted a quantitative study with
418 participants, identifying five types of networking behavior: maintaining contacts,
socializing, engaging in professional activities, participating in community activities, and
increasing internal visibility. Results showed that personal characteristics, such as gender,
socioeconomic background, self-esteem, and extraversion, predict networking behaviors, with
self-esteem and extraversion aligned most closely with networking. Their research also showed
that increased extraversion predicted active networking behaviors, as those who are reserved find
networking to take extreme effort (Forret & Dougherty, 2001).
High Self-Esteem
Research shows that self-esteem predicts networking behaviors, including maintaining
contacts, engaging in professional activities, and increasing internal visibility. The Forret and
Dougherty (2001) study described above found that people with low self-esteem might believe
they have less to contribute and decline networking opportunities. In contrast, those with higher
self-esteem are more confident, believe they have more resources to offer and are willing to
initiate networking connections (Dougherty & Forret, 2001). Badoer et al.’s (2021) qualitative

46
research also connected self-esteem to confidence. They studied 63 college students a school
year, focusing on students’ use of social and professional networking sites, attitudes towards
professional networking, and confidence in using LinkedIn. Their study found that teaching
students how to use professional social networking sites in class improved their use of, and
confidence in, online networking (Badoer et al., 2021). Scholars also posit a reciprocal
relationship between high self-esteem and networking. Thoits explored this reciprocity, writing
that “everyday emotional, informational, and instrumental” actions support positive self-esteem
and physiological well-being (Thoits, 2011, p. 150).
Political Skills
Ferris et al. identified networking as a critical dimension of political skill and wrote,
“Individuals with strong political skill are adept at developing and using diverse networks of
people” (Ferris et al., 2005, p. 129). Their quantitative research included 226 college students,
correlating networking ability with upward influence, one of the measures of political skill
(Ferris et al., 2005). Building on Ferris’s Political Skills Inventory, Chiesa et al.’s 2020 research
investigated political skill in relation to career planning and job-seeking behavior by surveying
2,561 job-seeking college graduates. Results show that networking skills related to job-seeking
appear stronger for those with greater political skills, as assessed by the Political Skills Inventory
(Chisea et al., 2020).
High Ambition
Kuijpers and Scheerens (2006) studied the relationship between career competencies and
personal variables, such as gender, age, and career ambition. Their quantitative survey of 1,579
Dutch employees found that ambition for personal development is linked positively to
networking, particularly for employees in professional and management roles (Kuijpers &

47
Scheerens, 2006). In addition, a quantitative study by Wolff et al. (2018) surveyed 529
participants to explore why people network, asking questions about networking motives and
behaviors. Results showed that a motive to achieve is an important driver of networking behavior
and that people network to achieve more in their careers. Wolff et al. stated that a motive to
network is to “self-manage” one’s career (Wolff et al., 2018).
Personal Barriers to Networking Effectiveness
Research established that barriers to network effectiveness exist based on workers’
personal characteristics. This section reviews the literature connecting personal characteristics to
networking barriers, such as introversion, low self-esteem, culture, religion, and family
responsibilities. Of these characteristics, introversion appears to have the strongest connection to
networking barriers in the literature. This section differs from the preceding behavioral-based
literature review by focusing on research that provides insight into characteristics or traits that a
networker brings to the networking activity that contributes to networking challenges.
Introversion
Research supports the claim that introversion as an individual characteristic presents a
challenge for people when networking. Since introverts report not enjoying social activities
where it is required to meet and converse with multiple people, this finding is not a surprise.
Forret and Dougherty (2004) conducted a quantitative study that explored the relationship
between networking and career outcomes for 418 respondents, 73% male and 27%, concluding
that introverts find required networking tasks intimidating. Wanberg et al. (2020) conducted field
experiment research into the quality of networking done by unemployed workers by providing
intervention training to 491 job seekers, finding evidence that introverted job seekers do not
maintain network connections as frequently as do extroverted job seekers (Wanberg et al., 2020).

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Wanberg et al.’s research also shows that when their identity is known online, introverts may
interact less frequently than extroverts. Turban et al.’s (2017) quantitative study surveyed 492
business school students between 4 to 13 years after they graduated, finding that introverts were
less likely to seek mentoring relationships after graduation. Blau and Barak’s (2012) mixedmethod research regarding the impact of personality traits on online group interactions analyzed
408 internet users in Israel, examining their degree of participation in online group discussions.
Their study found that introverts participated less than extroverts in moderated online discussions
of a sensitive nature, such as discussions about gender relations (Blau & Barak, 2012).
Low Self-Esteem and Confidence
Scholars posit that low self-esteem and low confidence can become barriers to effective
networking in the workplace. In a 2010 study about confidence, The Institute of Leadership and
Management (ILM) conducted a survey of European ILM members regarding ambition and
gender at work (Institute of Leadership and Management, 2010). Of the 2,960 survey
participants, 49% were men and 51% were women, with an average age of 43. The survey found
that men report high levels of self-confidence related to career aspirations 70% of the time, and
women report high levels of self-confidence 50% of the time and have lower expectations of
reaching a leadership role (Institute of Leadership and Management, 2010). Forret and
Dougherty’s (2001) previously mentioned quantitative research study concluded that individuals
with low self-esteem might withdraw from networking activities after feeling they have nothing
to offer the networking partner. In addition, Groves (2021) posits that a lack of self-confidence
can result in low risk-taking, which can be a barrier when applying for higher-level roles in the
workplace.
Culture and Religion

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Women in environments where organizational norms conflict with their culture or
religion face unique networking barriers. Abalkail and Allan (2015) conducted qualitative
research interviews with 44 women regarding mentoring and networking perceptions. Findings
show that women in Saudi Arabia perceived mentoring and networking as something done
within their family structure and that women in the United Kingdom perceived networking as a
workplace activity (Abalkail & Allan, 2015). This study highlights the importance of cultural
context when applying findings about network impact and influence over women’s careers, as
women in non-Western cultures may approach networking from a different understanding than
those in Western cultures. In addition, religious beliefs also present as a networking barrier.
Arifeen (2018) conducted qualitative interviews with 37 British Muslim women and explored
their interaction with workplace happy hours as a form of networking. They found that while
Muslim women acknowledged the importance of happy hour participation for their career
advancement, they experienced significant emotional effort attempting to participate in an
activity centered around alcohol. Similarly, Maheshwari and Nayak’s (2022) study of
Vietnamese women found that although many women drink in Vietnam, drinking during social
networking events appears to be a barrier for some women. Maheshwari and Nayak conducted
qualitative interviews with 19 women in a Vietnamese university, finding that social drinking in
the evenings with coworkers causes women to feel isolated and uncomfortable. One participant
said, “Men, they can hang out at night, but as a woman, I do not want to go to these events”
(Maheshwari & Nayak, 2022, p. 766). Another said, “During the important events where VIP
guests from the ministry are coming, I have to be there, but I hate those parties and drinking”
(Maheshwari & Nayak, 2022, p. 766). Maheshwari and Nayak connect these opinions to

50
Vietnamese Confucianism culture, as some Vietnamese women feel guilty if they are engaged in
too many work activities away from home (Maheshwari & Nayak, 2022).
Family Responsibilities
Women with children or caregiving responsibilities reported additional barriers when
networking. Sullivan and Lewis’s (2001) semi-structured qualitative research involved
interviews with 28 teleworkers and their domestic partners, finding that women who work either
inside or outside the home assume more domestic responsibilities than their male counterparts
(Sullivan & Lewis, 2001). Additional responsibilities in the home restrict access to participate in
after-hours networking events and may restrict their ability to pursue a desired career path
(Gallhofer et al., 2011; Jogulu & Wood, 2011). Linehan and Scullion (2008) conducted a global
study on the role of networking and mentoring, finding that women reported having less time to
network due to childcare responsibilities. This study included qualitative interviews with 50
global women leaders and found that women experience significant pressure and stress when
working to balance the needs of family responsibilities with additional work demands such as
networking (Linehan & Scullion, 2008). Offerman et al. (2020) conducted a 28-year quantitative
longitudinal study with 101 college women leaders across their career lifetimes. Their research
showed that networking barriers included family responsibilities and that women reported
networking activities as one of the first things abandoned when struggling to balance work and
home responsibilities (Offerman et al., 2020).
Summary
When reviewed through a personal lens, networking provides insight into characteristics
that a networker brings to the networking activity, as opposed to the networker’s environment or
behavioral factors around her. The preceding section proves that personal traits such as

51
extraversion and ambition strengthen a person’s networking effectiveness. In addition, literature
evidence was presented to show that low self-esteem could be a networking barrier for women,
as can family responsibilities, culture, and religion. The following section reviews literature that
connects networking to women’s career advancement, looking at the evidence through a
behavioral and personal lens.
Networking Connection to Women’s Career Advancement
There is a connection in the literature between effective networking and career
advancement. The following section provides an overview of research supporting how
networking significantly benefits women’s career advancement. The section begins with a
literature review of evidence from a behavioral lens and concludes with evidence from a personal
lens.
Behavioral Lens
Reviewing career advancement through SCT’s behavioral lens (Bandura, 2005) provides
research-based insight into specific behavioral patterns (Bandura, 2002) that lead to career
advancement. While strong reciprocity exists between behavioral and personal characteristics,
this section focuses on the former. The following section reviews literature covering three
behaviors associated with networking and career advancement: planning for a career, applying
for promotions, and receiving promotions.
Planning for a Career
Evidence exists in the literature that networking supports career planning and career
advancement. Chiesa et al. (2020) wrote that career planning involves proactively preparing for
career goals, giving an individual the perception of control in an uncertain labor market. The
study’s quantitative research involved 2,561 college graduates looking for a job, studying the

52
extent to which networking while job-seeking explains the positive association between career
planning and self-perceived employability. Researchers concluded that career planning is a
“cognitive mechanism” where people practice career behaviors and is deeply connected to jobseeking networking (Chiesa et al., 2020, p. 396).
Research also correlates mentorship, a behavior related to networking, with career
planning and career advancement. The previously mentioned quantitative study by Flippin
(2017), which collected career advancement data from 240 women, examined how mentoring
strengthens women’s career planning. The study found that over three times as many women
than men report career planning as an important factor for career advancement and that
networking-related development activities to strengthen career planning, including mentorship,
are effective ways to advance women’s careers (Flippin, 2017).
Applying for Promotion
Women face gender-based barriers to promotion before even being considered (Linehan
& Scullion, 2008), including their willingness to apply for higher-level roles. The term “glass
cliff” describes the phenomenon where riskier leadership roles are recommended women, along
with fewer resources or less support (Bruckmuller et al., 2014, p. 202). Ellemers (2004) wrote
that women are more hesitant to desire promotion when they suspect a glass cliff situation. A
glass cliff, fear of poor work-family balance, lack of confidence, and lack of resources to be
successful are all reasons women used to explain their choice not to pursue promotional
opportunities (Ellemers, 2004; Sanderson & Whitehead, 2016). Sanderson and Whitehead’s
(2016) qualitative research regarding promotional barriers supports this claim. They interviewed
11 women working in an international school in South Korea, concluding that women commonly

53
reported gender stereotyping and self-confidence as reasons they chose not to apply to higherlevel opportunities.
However, evidence exists that networking can encourage women to apply for higher-level
job opportunities. Bodalina and Mestry’s (2022) qualitative research into the experiences of 19
South African women in leadership positions found that while stereotypes and institutional
sexism create barriers to women’s desire to apply for higher-level leadership roles, increased
involvement in professional learning communities, mentoring and coaching provided the tools
and encouragement to apply for career-building promotions. Maheshwari and Nayak’s (2022)
qualitative research included interviews with 19 women and two men in Vietnamese higher
education institutions, examining barriers and supports for women’s career advancement in
Vietnam. The study found that 60% of the participating women stated mentor support as a reason
for their career progression and directly contributed to their decision to seek higher-level roles
(Maheshwari & Nakak, 2022).
Receiving a Promotion
Evidence exists that networking supports promotional opportunities. In 2004, research by
Forret and Dougherty showed that four of the five networking behaviors studied (maintaining
contacts, engaging in professional activities, participating in community activities, and
increasing internal visibility) positively related to the number of promotions for recent United
States business school graduates in their study. Considering it from a different perspective,
Barkhuizen et al.’s (2022) research into career advancement barriers for women seeking
leadership roles reveals four networking-related areas that constrain career progression: lack of
mentoring, lack of coaching, lack of perceived role models, and lack of access to top
management. Their qualitative research includes interviews with nine women, showing the

54
connection between mentorship and networking, supporting the claim that lack of mentorship, a
behavior related to networking, prevents women from gaining access to effective workplace
networks (Barkhuizen et al., 2022). Also related to mentoring, Gardiner et al.’s (2007)
longitudinal study examined a long-term mentoring program at an Australian university,
following 22 women over six years. Results show that inclusion in the program made women
more likely to stay in the university, be promoted, and have better perceptions of themselves as
academics compared with non-mentored women. Of the 22 mentees, 68% had been promoted at
least once by 2004; in the control group, only 43% of the women had received at least one
promotion (Gardiner et al., 2007).
Personal Lens
The connection between networking and career advancement extends beyond
promotions, advanced titles, or higher salaries. Reviewing career advancement through a social
cognitive theory (SCT) lens (Bandura, 2005) provides research-based insight into how women
play a significant part in their self-development. SCT also supports a framework to posit the
connection between networking, self-efficacy, and a sense of belonging.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in the ability to produce desired results by their actions
(Davidson & Davidson, 2003) or the belief that one can do what is necessary to accomplish
personal goals (Young et al., 2020). Self-efficacy impacts whether people decide to engage in
networking behavior, how much effort they exert, and how they handle networking barriers
(Kanar, 2023). Evidence in the literature exists connecting networking and self-efficacy. Kanar
writes “Networking self-efficacy is important because it determines the choice to engage in

55
networking behaviors, the level of effort exerted while networking, and persistence in the face of
obstacles and setbacks to networking” (Kanar, 2023, p. 149).
Self-Efficacy Impacts
Positive impacts of self-efficacy extend from quantitative (e.g., pay) to qualitative (e.g.,
self-confidence). Biron and Hanuka (2018) conducted a quantitative study with 250 employees
working in traditionally male jobs, finding that self-efficacy is positively related to pay among
women but unrelated to men. Pelfrey et al. (2022) studied the under-representation of women at
academic medical centers by conducting quantitative research on 127 women who completed a
specific training program offered. They found that a women-focused academic leadership
program led to multiple benefits, including improved self-efficacy, self-confidence, and
networking (Pelfrey et al., 2022). Kanar (2023) conducted two quantitative studies, one with 90
participants and another with 72, assessing the connection between informational interviewing
and networking self-efficacy. The results suggested that informational interviewing can
effectively increase networking self-efficacy among university students (Kanar, 2023).
Self-Efficacy Connection to Mentorship
Self-efficacy’s connection to networking also extends to mentoring. While mentoring is
not the same as networking, research establishes that these two activities are similar in function
and outcomes (Linehan & Scullion, 2008). Liao et al. conducted a 6-month longitudinal
quantitative study of 1,005 technicians in China, finding that the reciprocal relationship between
mentors and mentees can improve self-efficacy (Liao et al., 2010). Dennehy and Dasgupta
(2017) conducted a quantitative longitudinal field experiment to study the effect of peer
mentoring on retention for 150 women in the engineering field during the transition after college,
finding that female mentors supported women’s sense of belonging, self-efficacy, motivation,

56
and post-college engineering aspirations. Specifically, women without mentors showed steep
declines in self-efficacy in the first year after college, while women with same-gender mentors
maintained consistently positive self-efficacy (Dennehy & Dasgupta, 2017).
Sense of Belonging
Research found that networking is positively related to an increased sense of belonging.
In the workplace context, belonging is a feeling of community that reduces professional isolation
and aloneness (Lin et al., 2019; Gamba & Kleiner, 2000). Lin et al.’s 2019 qualitative study
centered on 17 women physicians’ participation in women-only professional organizations. The
study found that networking increased women’s confidence and sense of belonging, encouraging
them to self-promote and take advantage of opportunities to advance their careers (Lin et al.,
2019). One participant in Lin et al.’s study said that the women-only program gave her a “great
network of other women whom I can now turn to and say, ‘How did you do this, how did you
navigate this difficult thing in your career?’” (Lin et al., 2019, p. 307). Another participant said:
There were many, many years where many of us felt isolated, and needed a place just like
this, and there was really no place to turn unless you just knew people. We basically
knew each other, and we formed our own little groups, but of course that didn’t really
address the greater, much broader needs of all women in emergency medicine. We were
just so excited to learn that [the organization] would be supported and are thrilled with
how it’s really developed into what it is today. (Lin et al., 2019, p. 307)
The previously mentioned study by Dennehy and Dasgupta (2017) also examined the
impact of peer mentoring. Results showed that female mentors supported women engineers’
career goals by enhancing their sense of belonging and confidence. This effect does not occur
when the mentors are male, supporting the claim that same gender mentoring for women

57
positively impacted women’s success (Dennehy & Dasgupta, 2017). A connection can also be
made between women’s reports of exclusion from networking and their sense of belonging.
Williams and Nida’s (2011) quantitative research into ostracism included a survey of over 5,000
people, concluding that four psychological needs-self-reports of belonging, self-esteem, control,
and sense of meaningful existence-consistently showed the negative impact of ostracism, also
referred to as social exclusion (Williams & Nida, 2011).
Summary
Networking and women’s career advancement are strongly connected in the literature. By
reviewing women’s career advancement through SCT’s behavioral lens (Bandura, 2005),
behavioral patterns show that effective networking results in career planning, applying for
promotions, and receiving promotions. In addition, the connection also exists beyond the
behavioral lens. Reviewing the connection between networking and women’s career
advancement through SCT’s lens (Bandura, 2005) provides research-based insight into how
women play a significant part in their self-development, impacting women’s self-efficacy and
sense of belonging.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Bandura’s SCT guides this qualitative study, providing a lens to examine the triadic
reciprocity relationship between environment, person, and behavior (Bandura, 1986; Bandura,
2001). Within the environmental factor lives the social network system (Chiu et al., 2006), which
connects directly to the impact of networking and this study’s problem of practice. Framing this
study with SCT supports examining women’s environments, how the environment connects with
personal characteristics and behavior, and how personal characteristics and behavior interact.

58
Humanity adapts to changing environments, altering behavior and personal
characteristics to survive. Prior to Bandura’s SCT, theories focused on unidirectional
explanations for human behavior, suggesting that behavior was driven by unconscious bias (e.g.,
Fraud’s psychodynamic theory) or claiming the environment is the sole driver of behavior (e.g.,
Skinner’s behaviorist theory; Davidson & Davidson, 2003). The SCT framework introduces the
concept of triadic reciprocity, suggesting that adaptation to change results from an interplay of
behavioral, personal, and environmental influences (Bandura, 2001; 2002). Bandura posits that
people are producers and products of their environment (Davidson & Davidson, 2003) and that
cognitive processes are not disembodied from neural events (Bandura, 2005). Triadic reciprocal
causation accounts for the reality that personal factors, behavioral patterns, and environmental
events interact and influence each other. This element of human development impacts change
and social systems (Bandura, 1986, 2001).
Using SCT to frame this study focuses on the woman (personal) without ignoring the
broader (environmental) and behavioral causality. Within the environmental lens, SCT supports
examining how the COVID–19 pandemic influences the problem, including how the
environmental impacts of the COVID–19 pandemic and the increased availability of virtual
technology contribute to the reality of virtual work. The environmental impact of institutional
sexism also contributes to the virtual working woman’s experience; the concept of triadic
reciprocity comes into play when examining sexism in relation to behavioral factors (e.g.,
exclusion from male-dominated networking events) and personal factors (e.g., inequitable family
responsibilities) rooted in sexist beliefs. The reciprocity between behavioral and personal factors
related to virtual networking supports and barriers is especially clear when examining selfefficacy, as a woman’s inherent judgment of her ability to network drives her networking

59
behavior, or lack thereof (Chiu et al., 2006). Likewise, the behavioral factors that contribute to
networking effectiveness, such as participating in professional networking groups and seeking
professional mentorship relationships, connect strongly with personal factors such as
extraversion and ambition, as having these qualities eases participation in social events.
Conceptually, three additional theories will be woven into the theoretical framework to
support the environmental, behavioral, and personal lenses: social presence theory, feminist
theory, and networking theory. Social presence theory and feminist theory directly inform the
study’s environmental dimensions; networking theory connects directly with behavioral and
personal dimensions. Social presence theory helps frame the challenges of virtual work,
highlighting the impact of change in proximity between communicators and the concepts of
saliency, intimacy, and immediacy in virtual exchanges. Feminist theory provides an important
perspective on the foundational sexism impacting women’s environments and a lens to examine
how institutional sexism and inequality regimes form barriers to equality. Networking theory
includes structural and interactional dimensions, providing a lens to examine how weak ties and
structural holes interact with existing networking concepts. Reviewed holistically with SCT,
these three theories provide a rich picture of this study’s problem of practice. Figure 1 shows the
theoretical framework and conceptual map.

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Figure 1
Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Map
Conclusion
This chapter reviewed academic literature relevant to the networking experiences of midlevel managers identifying as women in a virtual workplace. Strong literature support was
provided regarding how networking adds value to women’s career advancement, framed by
social cognitive theory’s environmental, behavioral, and personal dimensions. SCT’s dimensions
apply an integrated approach to examining women’s networking experiences, their perceived
ability to network, their virtual networking effectiveness, and virtual networking’s connection to
career advancement. This chapter also reviewed key theories guiding the conceptual map: social
presence theory, feminist theory, and networking theory. The following chapters will further
explore the questions via original qualitative research, draw recommendations suggested through

61
the literature review and original research, and suggest how future research can continue to
explore the research topic.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
This study aims to examine the virtual networking experiences of women mid-level
managers. It begins with the three research questions guiding the data collection captured these
experiences. The chapter then presents an overview of the study’s design and data source details
before outlining the research setting, researcher’s positionality, credibility, ethics, limitations,
and delimitations.
Research Questions
1. What are the networking experiences of U.S. women in mid-level management roles
who work virtually?
2. To what extent do U.S. women in mid-level management believe virtual work has
made it challenging, if at all, to network with leaders effectively?
3. What do U.S. women report about the connection between virtual networking and
their career advancement opportunities?
Overview of Design
The research study was conducted using qualitative inquiry, focusing on examining
women’s experiences before and after the onset of virtual work. Individual semi-structured
interviews were held with 13 women who fit the desired demographic, work setting, and work
experience criteria. The interview questions were designed to capture women’s networking
experiences, with questions related to their perceived ability to network, the perceived
effectiveness of virtual networking, and the resulting impact on career advancement. Table 1 lists
the three research questions.

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Table 1
Research Questions and Data Source
Research questions Qualitative interview
RQ 1: What are the networking experiences of U.S. women in
mid-level management roles who work virtually?
X
RQ 2: To what extent do U.S. women in mid-level management
believe virtual work has made it challenging, if at all, to
network with leaders effectively?
X
RQ 3: What do U.S. women report about the connection
between virtual networking and their career advancement
opportunities?
X
Research Setting
The research study occurred in the United States, and interviews were conducted virtually
over Zoom. Participants were women working in the United States for at least 5 years in-person
in a medium to large-size organization, at a level described as “mid-level management,” who are
currently working remotely at least 3 days a week. For this study, “woman” is defined as a
person who identifies as a woman, regardless of sex assigned at birth. “Medium to large size
organization” is defined as an organization with at least 500 employees. While recruiting study
participants, the researcher sent a link to a pre-screen questionnaire to establish basic qualifying
criteria. During the interview, the researcher asked qualifying questions to confirm that there had
been no changes to the information supplied in the pre-screen questionnaire.
The Researcher
Qualitative research is a matter of interpretation through the eyes of participants and
respondents (Gibbs, 2018). As a researcher, examining my positionality involves interrogating

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my own motivations, worldviews, and beliefs (Secules et al., 2021), and my lived experience
helps unpack different aspects of my identity (Maher & Tetrauelt, 1994). My positionality is that
of a person who identifies and presents as a White woman, who has experienced sexism in the
workplace over my 30–year career in the corporate world, and who has leveraged networking
relationships to navigate access to spaces traditionally available to men. I used that experience to
better identify with my interview subjects throughout the research process.
While leveraging my own experiences, I also continually examined my Eurocentric
biases and assumptions, especially when interviewing women who did not identify as White and
who did not grow up in the United States. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explained that to avoid
biased research results, the researcher must continually examine unconscious biases relative to
the positionality they bring to the research. As a White, able-bodied, feminine-presenting,
English-speaking woman who grew up in the United States, a thoughtful and continual
unconscious bias examination was particularly important when examining issues of institutional
sexism in the workplace, as my interview questions did not directly cover intersectionality or
other aspects of marginalization experienced by women in the workplace. I mitigated any
potential risk posed by being sensitive and responsive to other types of potential marginalization
women described experiencing beyond sexism and identified any potential intersectional issues
emerging from the research findings. I was also mindful of intersectional-related power
dynamics (Hanscome & Cervero, 2003; Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989) that were described during
my interviews to ensure the participants’ safety and comfort during the interview process. For
example, during my interview with Maddy, she shared a story of being overlooked for a
promotion. While asking her follow-up questions about how this experience made her feel, I

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reminded her that if she did not feel comfortable sharing details we could skip to the next
question.
Data Source: Qualitative Interviews
The following section reviews this study’s participants, instrumentation, data collection,
and analysis. The research was conducted via qualitative interviews, with semi-structured
questions guiding the data collection. After data was collected, transcripts were reviewed, edited
for clarity, and analyzed to identify themes.
Participants
This study’s participants were mid-level managers living in the United States who
identify as women, have worked at least five years in-person in a medium to large-size
organization, and currently work remotely at least 3 days a week. Participants must have had
prior leadership experience with in-office employees and current leadership responsibilities for
virtual employees. Thirteen women were interviewed, with no restrictions on age, ethnic identity,
or race. The recruitment approach was purposeful sampling (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), and the
researcher utilized personal contacts and LinkedIn to find interviewees. Purposeful sampling was
appropriate for this study given that the goal was to solve a qualitative problem experienced by a
specific subset of women (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Instrumentation
This study used a semi-structured, qualitative approach guided by a research protocol
with 15 prepared semi-structured interview questions and probing follow-up questions. A
flexible semi-structured approach allowed follow-up questions that delved deeper into topics the
researcher felt were connected to the conceptual framework and research goals (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The researcher used an emergent discovery approach, adjusting main interview

66
questions and pre-written probing questions as needed throughout subsequent interviews. This
approach allowed continued refinement of clarity in expectations throughout the qualitative data
collection process, as “interviewing is our only defense against mistaken expectations” (Weiss,
1995, p. 55). Questions regarding potentially sensitive or emotionally triggering experiences
(e.g., exposure to sexism) were asked at the end of the interview unless the participant
independently offered this information earlier. The placement of my questions at the end of the
interview was intentional, as I believe it is important to establish a rapport with the participant
before asking questions that may become deeply personal (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016).
The interview design centered on the three key concepts of SCT: environmental,
behavioral, and personal. Within the environmental, specific questions were asked to probe the
details of virtual work and institutional sexism. Within behavioral, specific questions were asked
to explore the participant’s perceptions of what she believed helped networking (networking
supports) and hindered networking (networking barriers). Within personal, specific questions
were asked to explore personal characteristics that, according to literature, are a support or
barrier to networking effectiveness. The interview concluded with questions that focused on the
connection between networking and career advancement, with the researcher asking questions to
explore further the participants’ perceptions of how networking impacts their career
advancement opportunities and how they believe barriers can be overcome. Overall, the research
goal was to understand how virtual work impacts career advancement for mid-level managers
who identify as women, given the shifts in their ability to network and the impact of virtual
networking.

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Data Collection Procedures
Data was collected during 45 to 60-minute Zoom video interviews conducted online.
Each session was recorded after the interviewee granted permission. Women were asked to stay
on video, if possible, to capture non-verbal cues best; all participants agreed to stay on video and
have the session recorded. Participants were told in advance that interview questions would be
related to their experiences at work, and it was suggested they either be at home during the
conversation or in a private office. I explained that pseudonyms would be used in the report and
that the Zoom recording will be kept on a private server not associated with the researcher’s
workplace. The interviews were transcribed using Otter.ai, and I reviewed the transcription
immediately following the interview to adjust for automatic transcript errors.
Data Analysis
I used a constant comparative method to derive patterns and themes when analyzing data
results. Using an iterative process began immediately following the first interview. Data was
categorized using both a priori and open codes and continually revised as additional data was
collected (Gibbs, 2018). Findings were added to a coding spreadsheet and participants quotes
were recorded directly to the spreadsheet in alignment with key findings. Throughout the coding
process, the coding spreadsheet served as the main source of data collection, with findings
consolidated and revised as code alignment was identified. Appendix B provides codes used in
this study.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Effective qualitative inquiry requires research with maximum credibility and
trustworthiness; without credibility, a study’s findings could be dismissed as unreliable (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). This study utilized three main strategies to establish credibility and

68
trustworthiness: mechanically recorded data, verbatim transcripts, and reflexivity. Utilizing
Zoom recording and Otter.ai transcription software supported accuracy and trustworthiness by
increasing dependability in research results (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). I reviewed the written
transcription immediately following each interview to correct transcription errors. In addition, I
coded each interview directly from the verbatim transcripts which ensured accurate
documentation drove the findings. Lastly, I was continually aware of my positionality during the
research process. This ongoing self-reflection served to avoid assumptions that might have
otherwise resulted in inaccurate findings.
Ethics
Protecting the anonymity of participants in this study was of primary importance, as
participants may be sharing confidential and sensitive information about their personal and work
lives. The study protected each participant’s identity by not disclosing their name, the
organization they work for, the city they live in, or any other personally identifiable information.
Only the industry was provided when describing a participant’s current workplace, not the
specific company or location. In addition, participants were told before the interview that their
participation was voluntary and reminded at the beginning of the interview process that they may
decline participation at any point.
In addition, the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB)
approved this study’s interview protocol and data collection methodology. Appendix A provides
the interview protocol. Before each interview, I received expressed permission from the
participant to record the interview.

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Limitations and Delimitations
Qualitative research carries with it the risk of limitations and delimitations. Limitations
are factors outside the researcher’s control; delimitations are decisions within the researcher’s
control that may impact the study (Dimitrios & Antigoni, 2018). One notable limitation is the
study’s sample size. While 13 participants are satisfactory for a qualitative inquiry of this nature,
the low sample size did not provide a diverse perspective of women’s opinions, restricting the
applicability to broader groups of women. It is also important to point out that 85% (11 out of
13) of the participants included in the study were White, and a more racially diverse study may
not result in the same findings. This lack of racial diversity should be acknowledged as limitation
as organizations review and consider the study’s findings. The interviews intended to capture
participants’ experiences and note potential shared barriers, but due to time limitations
interviews could not fully investigate if perceived barriers were caused by different intersections
of identities. In addition, the quality of this study’s interview findings depended upon the
interviewees’ truthfulness; if the interviewees did not feel comfortable providing honest answers,
the data collected would not be accurate. Another potential limitation was the interviewees’ state
of mind at the time of the interview. If the interviewee was facing environmental challenges that
impacted her ability to carefully consider her responses, the quality of the interview itself could
have been jeopardized.
This study’s delimitations drew primarily from the design of qualitative inquiry. Using a
semi-structured interview approach was appropriate given the goal of an in-depth understanding
of women’s experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Another delimitation was also by design:
the participants’ breadth of industries. This research study did not focus on one specific industry.
Instead, the participants were selected according to organizational size and included women

70
working across industries. The potential impact of natural differences in the participants’
industries are potential differences in the women’s experiences.

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Chapter Four: Findings
The increase in virtual work during the onset of the 2020 COVID–19 pandemic caused a
sudden reduction of women working “in person”, reducing their ability to physically see leaders,
formally connect in person, informally “chit-chat” with leaders, and establish the authentic,
effective networking relationships important for career growth. It is important to study and
understand the potential consequences of reduced networking effectiveness immediately so that
organizations, academia, and impacted women acknowledge potential consequences and work
towards solutions. While prior researchers have studied networking’s positive effect on women’s
career growth, little data considered the prevalence of virtual work nor how working virtually
impacts networking. Similarly, recent research regarding the COVID–19 pandemic’s impact on
working women was conducted broadly across women as a group, not focused on U.S.-based
mid-level managers. In addition, most existing research focuses on stress impacts instead of
career growth impacts. This study examined United States-based mid-level managers’
experiences using social cognitive theory as a framework, with environmental, behavioral, and
personal factors influencing the interview protocol and guiding follow-up questions. Three
research questions guided the interview protocol:
1. What are the networking experiences of U.S. women in mid-level management roles
who work virtually?
2. To what extent do U.S. women in mid-level management believe virtual work has
made it challenging, if at all, to network with leaders effectively?
3. What do U.S. women report about the connection between virtual networking and
their career advancement opportunities?

72
It is important to note that the participants’ personal feelings about the shift to working
virtually did not influence their selection for this study. During recruitment, participants were not
told if this study’s focus would be “pro” or “con” virtual work, and as such, some women shared
a preference for working virtually, and some shared they desired to work primarily in person
again. The findings cut through the binary of “love or hate” for virtual work, highlighting the
nuances and challenges of how losing in-person connection impacts women on a personal and
professional level.
Demographics
The researcher recruited thirteen women participants using purposeful sampling
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), with no restrictions on age, ethnic identity, or race. Only women
based in the United States, currently working virtually at least 3 days a week, and having
experience leading people both in person and remotely were interviewed. The strict participant
criteria helped ensure that participants would offer rich experiences and meaningful insights into
the complexity of virtual work. The qualitative study examined their lived experience working
in-person and virtually, gathering information about perceived challenges and opportunities for
both workplace settings and how they feel these challenges and opportunities impact their career
advancement. Data was collected through semi-structured Zoom interviews lasting 45 to 60
minutes. Pseudonyms replaced participants’ names to protect their anonymity. Table 2 describes
the demographic characteristics of the participants.

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Table 2
Participant Demographics
Participant Industry Ethnic identity Virtual work per week
Bonnie Arts, entertainment, and recreation Caucasian all days
Jade Health care and social assistance Caucasian 3-4 days
Joanna Arts, entertainment, and recreation Caucasian 3-4 days
Katie Arts, entertainment, and recreation Caucasian 3-4 days
Kristin Finance and insurance Caucasian 3-4 days
Maddy Arts, entertainment, and recreation Latina all days
Maggie Public administration Caucasian 3-4 days
Melinda Public administration Caucasian 3-4 days
Missy Retail trade Caucasian all days
Molly Educational services 2+ races 3-4 days
Nora Retail trade Caucasian 3-4 days
Sandy Health care and social assistance Caucasian all days
Tammy Finance and insurance Caucasian 3-4 days
As Table 2 displays, the 13 participants represented six industries
(arts/entertainment/recreation, educational services, finance/insurance, healthcare/social
assistance, public administration, and retail trade) and three racial categories (Caucasian, Latina,
and multiple races). All participants were employed full-time; nine participants (69%) worked
virtually either 3 or 4 days a week and the remaining four participants (31%) worked virtually all
days of the week.
Qualitative Findings Overview
As this study focused on women’s lived experiences, ensuring a confidential environment
was essential to establish trust and encourage openness during the interview process. Each
participant was encouraged to attend the interview in a location where they could speak openly

74
about the workplace and their experiences, told that the data would remain confidential, and
offered the chance to skip any question they did not feel comfortable answering. Each semistructured interview began with questions taken from the study’s interview protocol, with
follow-up questions customized according to each participant’s unique response. Each question
was framed by the study’s guiding theoretical framework (social cognitive theory, or SCT) and
coded according to where it aligned with the research question and SCT element (environmental,
behavioral, or personal). After each interview, the researcher reviewed the transcription for
accuracy, coded findings using qualitative coding methods, and documented key findings.
Except for introversion and extroversion, findings were deemed key when repeated by most
participants and closely aligned with one of the three research questions.
Across the research study, 12 key themes emerged across the three research questions.
These themes are listed in Table 3 in order of research question, along with the number of
occurrences in the data:

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Table 3
Themes, Sorted by Research Question
RQ Theme Occurred
RQ 1 Camera-on culture supports virtual networking effectiveness. 11/13
Less informal conversation exists when working virtually. 8/13
Extroverts have virtual communication advantages. 5/13
Introverts have virtual communication disadvantages. 7/13
RQ 2 Virtual work leads to a loss of unexpected learning opportunities. 8/13
Building relational capital is challenging when working virtually. 9/13
Seeing facial expressions supports authentic relationship building. 13/13
Women need to interrupt to have their voices heard. 9/13
RQ 3 Intentionality supports virtual networking effectiveness. 10/13
Funding supports virtual networking effectiveness. 8/13
Virtual work restricts visibility to leaders and job opportunities. 9/13
Quality mentorship supports networking effectiveness. 10/13
The following sections in Chapter 4 review the four themes for each research question,
for a total of 12 themes in all. These sections also highlight the four broader constructs that
connect the themes: intentionality, quality connections, leadership support, and leadership
access. Chapter 5 will explore these four broader constructs in greater detail.
Research Question 1: Women’s Networking Experiences
RQ 1 asked, “What are the networking experiences of U.S. women in mid-level
management roles who work virtually?” Overall, the key findings for RQ 1 help clarify the
current state of organizational norms surrounding “seeing” a co-worker during the workday,
regardless of work location, and how women feel this impacts their ability to create authentic,
supportive, and career-enriching workplace relationships. The four top findings for RQ 1 are a
camera-on culture, less informal conversation, extrovert advantages, and introvert disadvantages.
These findings are listed and described in Table 4.

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Table 4
RQ 1 Themes: Networking Experiences
Themes Details Occurred
Camera-on culture
supports virtual
networking
effectiveness
Women report that keeping cameras on during
virtual meetings helps develop workplace
relationships, as conversations feel more
connected, intimate, and accountable
11/13
Less informal
conversation when
virtual
Women report less informal conversation (“chitchat”) takes place when meetings are virtual,
leading to feeling less connected to co-workers
8/13
Extrovert advantages Extroverts report having an easier time networking
while working virtually; they also report
supplementing virtual networking with in-person
networking
5/13
Introvert disadvantages Introverts report less comfort with virtual
networking; they also report avoiding in-person
networking opportunities
7/13
The most common theme for RQ 1 focused on using cameras during video calls. Eleven
of 13 women reported their organization’s norm is “camera-on” and reported that this supports
workplace connection by helping conversations feel more connected, intimate, and accountable.
The loss of informal conversation was the next most common theme; women felt the reduced
“chit-chat” opportunities were a barrier to workplace connection in a virtual work environment.
The last two themes for RQ 1 were related to where women fell on the extrovert/introvert scale.
Extroverts reported an easier time networking; introverts reported less comfort with networking
and shared examples of actively avoiding networking opportunities virtually and in person.
Importance of Camera-On Culture
This study provides evidence that keeping cameras on during workplace meetings is a
common norm. Most participants (11 out of 13) reported that cameras are commonly turned on

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for meetings with leaders and provided thoughts regarding why this results in feelings of deeper
connection and communication intimacy. Participants also reported it encourages accountability,
as meeting participants are less likely to be distracted when showing their faces. Bonnie said, “I
feel that in perhaps 50% of the meetings I’m in, 50% or more people don’t have their cameras
on, and I just wonder what are they doing? Are they really focused on what we are meeting
about?” Maggie agreed, saying, “So when you’re on camera, there’s just something that creates
that momentum of accountability.” Kristin said camera-on conversations allow for a more
personal connection, saying, “It also depends on the context. If it’s HR related or something that
would require a personal conversation, then we would have cameras on so we can see each other
and engage (better) in that interaction.”
Women also said that leaders’ expectations, both stated and implied, drive when cameras
are on. Tammy said, “When we meet with our SVP (he) wants all of us on camera. And we have
a brand-new executive vice president, and she’s made it clear that she wants everybody on
camera.” Kristin said, “For broader meetings, the expectation is that you do have your camera on
and that you’re presentable.” Sandy added, “We do encourage people to turn their cameras on. I
think that it’s really helpful to be able to real … facial expressions, et cetera.”
Only one participant stated that the organizational policy drove this expectation; the rest
described it as an expectation modeled by leaders. Maggie’s organization has a camera-on
policy, which Maggie described as setting the cultural tone but also allowing for flexibility if
someone is unwell or having technical challenges. She said, “We do give grace, but our culture is
to be on camera.” Some women gave examples of how leaders encourage cameras to be turned
on. Maddy gave an example of this gentle encouragement, saying, “They [leaders] will use
compliments to influence, saying things such as, ‘Congratulations on your promotion, please

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share your camera so we can see your beautiful face.’” As a department leader, Bonnie described
how she models a camera-on culture, saying, “It’s my norm and I’ve seen it’s other people’s
norms too. They [the meeting participants] will wait, not start with a camera, and then they’ll see
if someone puts a camera on, so they’ll put it on.” In contrast, most women agreed that “allhands” meetings were the exception; many will keep their camera off if the meeting consists of
participants across a large department or the entire company. Missy reported, “Video is on 90%
of the time unless there’s a big all-hands or … a larger meeting.” Melinda agreed, saying that at
her organization the culture is, “if you’re not on an all-hands meeting, you should be on video.”
Less Informal Conversation
Women reported that less informal conversation exists when meetings are virtual, leading
to knowing less personal information and feeling less connected to co-workers whom they don’t
regularly see in person. Most participants (eight out of 13) shared a belief that this reduced
personal connection includes both peers and leaders, resulting in fewer opportunities to access
leaders and make a positive impression. The words “meaningful” and “human” were used often
to describe this dynamic. Missy said she missed the “human connection of small talk”,
specifically “the hallway talks, sitting next to each other in a large room … and just having that
small talk.” Joanna agreed, saying, “The opportunity for just bumping into [a leader] is very
slim, slim to none.” Bonnie reported that the “social piece of meetings” has been lost by virtual
work life. She reflected on in-person meetings before COVID, where people would “just chat
and smile at one another and talk about just random nonmeeting related things,” as bringing
“another human side to the workplace … that is very natural, very healthy social behavior.”

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Women also reported missing the accidental and unplanned moments of connection.
Melinda reflected that she has experienced fewer unplanned moments of connection since
working virtually, saying:
I remember connecting with leaders in a prior organization when I was in person. Now,
you don’t just pass each other in the hallway to the kitchen or hop on the elevator
together. You don’t have those happenstance drive-bys. … I feel like you have to work a
lot harder to make those moments happen.
Jade suggested that the lack of accidental, informal connection is a barrier to building
relationships with coworkers, saying, “A lot happens in the halls of the office … accidental
conversations and what’s going on and ideas. Light bulbs go off a lot, so if you’re not there and
you’re in a remote location you miss out on that.”
Notably, even women who felt virtual work provided tangible advantages stated that
virtual meetings restrict informal connection with leaders. Katie, a self-described introvert who
spoke positively about virtual work, said, “I don’t know what it is about meeting online as
opposed to in person that stifles [informal chit chat] a little bit.” Maddy spoke about how virtual
work has provided a positive work-life balance for her but followed by saying her ability to
informally connect when working virtually “is very limited.” She added that she no longer “has
the opportunity to bump into someone in the hallway” for a quick connect or start “chit-chatting
while getting coffee” and feels this has caused her to miss out on leadership connections. Tammy
summed it up well, saying, “I think [being virtual] definitely has led to a lot less opportunity to
network. [I don’t have a chance to] chit chat like before and after meetings, making connections
that way.”

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Extrovert Advantages
Extroverts in the study report having an easier time networking while working virtually,
calling upon their networking “how to” knowledge, networking confidence, and experience
working in person to assist their virtual networking experience. Extroverts also frequently
reported supplementing virtual networking with in-person networking. Participants were asked to
self-identify where they fall on the extroversion/introversion scale, with results showing an even
split between self-described extroverts and introverts, as shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Extrovert Versus Introvert, n = 13
Identity Number of participants
Extrovert 5
Introvert 5
Introverted extrovert 2
Declined to respond 1

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Of the 13 participants, five self-identified as extroverted, five as introverted, two as a
blend (“introverted extrovert”), and one declined to identify. The two who self-identified as
introverted extroverts (Missy and Bonnie) described their approach to social situations as
hesitant, but comfortable once in the situation. Missy shared that while she finds most social
situations tiring, “When it’s with people that I know, or I’m getting introduced to people from
people I know, I’m pretty extroverted.” Bonnie said she finds constant communication “very
draining” and will “get up and break away from it and find ways to disconnect to be able to
connect effectively again.”
The five participants who identified as extroverted (Melinda, Sandy, Joanna, Molly, and
Maggie) described feeling “natural” in social situations and gave examples of actively seeking
out personal connections in the workplace, with one stating she regularly seeks out networking
situations to help combat feelings of loneliness brought on by primarily virtual work. In all cases,
the five extroverts provided examples of leveraging their “how to” networking knowledge and a
high level of confidence in creating personal relationships. Molly stated that her networking
confidence came from years of experience, saying:
Being confident in building relationships and having that open communication and
dialogue doesn’t mean that it’s easy. It’s just the more you do it, I think the better you get
at it, and it takes some of the anxiety and stress off a bit because it’s like I’ve been
through this many times.
Joanna provided examples of how extroverts with “how-to” networking knowledge succeed
when working virtually, saying, “I think extroverts will thrive … because no matter what the
barriers are, they will get hold of you… they will call your teams chat or they’ll start calling your
phone.” Similarly, Sandy stated that her networking confidence has been built by years of

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working in person and practicing “seeking people out.” She expressed concern for younger coworkers who entered a virtual workforce, saying, “I’ve had to learn how to advocate for myself. I
don’t think younger people just starting out know how … to seek people out.”
Introvert Disadvantages
Introverts in the study reported less comfort networking while working virtually and
provided examples of avoiding in-person networking opportunities both before and after working
virtually. Five participants self-identified as introverted (Katie, Maddy, Tammy, Nora, and
Kristin). The introverted participants described challenges when networking virtually, including
exhaustion, reduced opportunity for self-expression and self-advocacy, and neglecting the
connection between networking and career growth. In addition, some participants observed
extroverts dominating workplace conversations and noted that introverts are easily “talked over”
in meetings.
“Exhaustion” was a common word introverts used to describe networking. To combat
exhaustion, introverts shared they schedule downtime and avoid in-person networking
opportunities. Many said that one aspect of virtual work they appreciate is having more control
over their interactions with co-workers, keeping their cameras off, or avoiding team calls or team
chats when they do not want to have social interaction. Katie said,
I do better when I can separate and just focus and have my downtime. But with the nature
of my position, I’m in meetings all day, every day … so it’s constant engagement of
people. I appreciate whenever I can have my camera off and … have my downtime to
recoup.
Some introverted participants also shared that while working virtually, the time spent in person
can feel more stressful than it used to feel. Katie shared an experience working in the office,

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saying, “I’m an introvert and … I have an office in the middle. People will just drop into my
office and it’s much more stressful than it used to be … it’s exhausting.” Maddy mentioned that
in-person work impacts her mental health, triggering her anxiety. She attributes some of that to
her introverted personality, saying, “I think because I am an introvert, it’s difficult for me to be
in a big space with a bunch of people. I get anxiety when there’s a lot of people and there’s a lot
going on.”
Participants also felt virtual work is used as a means for introverts to avoid selfexpression and self-advocacy. Missy has observed introverts on her team using the virtual
platform to “hide” and not speak up during meetings. She said:
Extroverts don’t have a problem still connecting with others via Zoom. But introverts, it’s
difficult regardless, right? That’s something they have to strategically work toward to
form those relationships. So, something like the Zoom platform makes it very easy to
continue to hide deeper into a hole and not express.
Tammy shared that the virtual platform may restrict her self-advocacy, possibly being a barrier
to her career development. She reflected, “I’m definitely an introvert. I don’t think about
opportunities that come my way like, What could this do for my career?”
Participants also observed that extroverts can act as a barrier to introverts’ inclusion
during virtual meetings. Both introverted and extroverted participants observed that extroverts
typically speak more during virtual meetings, and introverts are less likely to interrupt. Joanna
shared that in her workplace, people “talk over each other” so interrupting is a necessary skill,
especially important during video-off meetings. Kristin, a self-described introvert, said that to be
heard as an introvert, “You have to be aggressive, and you have to interrupt, and you have to
speak with your outside voice so that they listen to you.” Joanna expanded on that point, saying,

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“If two are trying to talk at the same time, it’s the person that talks the loudest that is able to
finish that point.” Joanna feels her introverted peers who don’t speak up readily in a meeting are
at a disadvantage during virtual calls, a dynamic that she did not see as often when working in
person. She posits this dynamic is due to the virtual environment, saying, “I think it’s actually
more difficult to get your voice heard in virtual squares than it is in a [physical] room. You can
use other things apart from your voice to signal that you want to talk.” Nora expanded this point
to offer that lack of inclusion during virtual meetings is a barrier to effective problem solving,
saying, “Introverts are … less likely to speak up in the moment … getting those opinions heard.
You know, [speaking up] to the right crowd to say, Hey, this is a big risk, can we shut this
down.”
Summary of RQ 1
RQ 1 focused on gathering women’s networking experiences, asking “What are the
networking experiences of U.S. women in mid-level management roles who work virtually?”
The four themes that emerged from RQ 1 provide insight into how a woman’s environment,
behavior, and personality impact their virtual networking experience and establish a foundation
for virtual networking challenges. First, women reported that keeping cameras on during video
calls is common and helps conversations feel more connected, intimate, and accountable.
Second, women reported less informal conversation takes place during virtual work and that
reduced “chit-chat” opportunities are a barrier to workplace connection. Third, extroverts
reported an easier time networking, citing “how to” networking knowledge and confidence as
virtual networking supports. Lastly, introverts reported less comfort with networking, citing
exhaustion and interruptions as virtual networking barriers. The following section reports
findings from RQ 2 related to virtual networking’s impact on workplace relationships,

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uncovering what is lost during virtual networking and what is necessary to establish virtual
networking success. These findings provide insight into women’s current challenges in
effectively networking with leaders in a virtual environment.
Research Question 2: Effective Virtual Networking With Leaders
The second research question (RQ 2) asked, “To what extent do U.S. women in mid-level
management believe virtual work has made it challenging, if at all, to network with leaders
effectively?” RQ 2 gathered women’s experiences related to the challenges of virtual
networking, focusing on behavioral and personal characteristics. Four themes emerged related to
what women feel they lose when working virtually (unexpected learning opportunities and
relational capital) and what they feel is important for virtual networking success (seeing facial
expressions and having the confidence to interrupt). The four top themes for RQ 2 are seen in
Table 6.

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Table 6
RQ 2 Themes: Effective Virtual Networking With Leaders
Theme Details Occurred
Loss of unexpected
learning opportunities
Women report that virtual communication reduces
the chance for informal conversation, which in
turn reduces the chance for “unexpected
learning” about co-workers or future job
opportunities
8/13
Harder to build relational
capital
Women report that virtual communication reduces
the chance for informal conversation, which in
turn reduces the chance to bond with co-workers
and building relational capital
9/13
Seeing facial expressions
supports relationship
building
Women report that virtual communication reduces
opportunities to see co-workers’ facial
expressions and non-verbal cues, which in turn
reduces the chance to build authentic workplace
relationships
13/13
Need to interrupt to be
heard
Women report that virtual meetings require
interrupting existing conversations to have their
voices heard
9/13
Loss of Unexpected Learning Opportunities
This study provides evidence that virtual work can reduce opportunities for informal,
casual conversation, leading to fewer organic conversations that drive unexpected learning about
co-workers and job opportunities. More than half of the participants (eight out of 13) shared that
when working in person, the ability to “chit-chat” provided opportunities to hear about coworkers’ projects, learn about co-workers and leaders personally, and discover creative ways to
connect with leaders. Participants reported that in-person, casual conversation felt “organic” and
supported unplanned moments of discovering important information about co-workers or work
opportunities. Molly described these moments as “hallway conversations” where “different
things come up that just don’t [normally] happen because in a telework environment.” Jade

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added that casual, unplanned networking moments with co-workers gave her unexpected
information to support her job performance. She said,
There are always things that come up during a conversation that … happen across the
board, very informally and very organically. … Almost every conversation [while inperson] at my work will give me some sort of insight into either something I could do,
something I shouldn’t have done, or to a different idea on a way to do something.
Bonnie also believes that informal conversation happens more organically when coworkers gather physically in the same space. She suggested this could be due to ease of
opportunity, saying that group in-person meetings expose her to people she doesn’t normally see
while working virtually. She added that company-sponsored, in-person division conferences are
an especially helpful way to network with co-workers, saying, “Suddenly doors are open … and
it’s just a random conversation, but you know, having a couple of those opportunities once or
twice a year, your network just very quickly grows. And I don’t think you can create that
virtually.” Tammy agreed, saying that informal, in-person moments have increased her access to
leaders and opened up possibilities for future projects. Tammy said, “Sometimes I’ll just run into
people … from my time [when I worked in person]. I’ll say hey, I meant to ask you about
whatever.” Melinda also shared this experience, providing an example of how physically running
into a leader provided her the opportunity to hear about a project she would not have otherwise
known about. She added that in-person moments have increased her exposure to leaders and
helped her career growth, saying, “I feel like that’s how I’ve done a lot of growing in my career
because I’ve had that opportunity, but I’ve always made myself available, [in person].”
Participants also spoke of learning about projects, co-workers, or future job opportunities
by “accident” when informally conversing with co-workers. Some described these as

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“unexpected learning moments”, saying they happened in the workplace hallways, lunchrooms,
or when “lingering” after a meeting ended. The women often audibly sighed when describing the
organic nature of this type of communication, seeming to miss this aspect of in-person work.
Sandy said that when working virtually, the casual, post-meeting debriefs “don’t happen as much
now, because people are scheduled back-to-back to back-to-back; there isn’t that kind of
lingering opportunity.” Kristin spoke about the value of unexpected opportunities and how she
tries to replace them in a virtual environment by having robust virtual chats with her team,
adding that “there’s a lot of typing” when trying to build informal moments while working
virtually. Molly described unexpected learning moments as an advantage for team building,
allowing her to be more available for her team members when they have unplanned questions.
Molly said they allow “people [to] just pop into my office and say, Hey, since you’re here, I’ve
been wondering about this thing.” Molly believes this type of flexibility has yet to be replicated
in a virtual environment.
In contrast, participants also said that planned in-person networking events can still lead
to unexpected learning opportunities and “open doors” while working virtually. Bonnie said that
during in-person events, she can speak to people she wouldn’t normally be able to talk to,
adding, “It’s just a random conversation, but you know, having a couple of those opportunities
once or twice a year, your network just very quickly grows. And I don’t think you can create that
virtually.”
Harder to Build Relational Capital
Women reported that virtual communication reduces opportunities for casual, informal
connection, making it harder to bond with others and build relational capital. Participants shared
both positive experiences of in-person networking and negative experiences of virtual

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networking, with nine out of 13 women concluding that casual, informal connection is reduced
during virtual work. Women described relational capital as strong work relationships and intercompany team connections that can be leveraged to solve problems, gain trust, and collaborate
effectively. Women also described the impact of poor relational capital: team communication
that’s hard to break into, challenges getting other teams to take you seriously, or barriers to
getting everyday problems solved.
While Tammy appreciates being able to work from home, she spoke of the negatives of
virtual work relative to the challenges of building work connections. She described her
workplace culture as “relationship-driven” and added that without in-person connections, it is
hard to build strong, trusting work relationships. She said, “A lot of our work, before and still,
gets done by who you know … I might need an exception or there’s an escalation or I need a
rush.” For Tammy, the lack of relational capital is a barrier to effective networking and problemsolving for her everyday tasks. Nora agreed, saying that the “us versus them” mentality is
difficult to break through while working virtually. She believes relational capital and trust could
be established if they could communicate in person. “Sometimes … we need a certain team to do
something for us and they’re at capacity so, there is an us versus them mentality and lack of
empathy of what others are going through.” Nora described an example where she asked another
team to resolve a problem, yet the other team was uncooperative. “I think there are certain
members of the team that just … don’t want to help.” Sandy added an example as well, saying
that working virtually makes it difficult for her to break down silos with people who have
worked together before. She said, “I have a team that’s always a challenge for us to work with …
issues raise up, like preconceived notions of each other. … It’s hard to break into that.” Sandy
described this as a lack of relational capital that allows her to connect with this other team.

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Similarly, Joanna reflected that she has built solid relationship capital over her career, but she
worries about the younger generation of women who began their careers in a virtual
environment, saying:
New graduates or people starting at the bottom, whose careers could be completely
different if they were integrated into a [in-person] workforce … I think we owe it to
younger women … who have joined our teams to create that environment [of supportive,
in-person relationship building]. Because it’s just not the same rapport.
In addition, Molly spoke of the benefits of in-person connection relative to relationship building,
saying that being in person with co-workers is “not only fostering and uplifting, it’s also good for
addressing challenges.” She described an example of having a conflict with a co-worker and
being able to “just walk down the hall and say, you know that conversation we had earlier, I
didn’t feel good about that. And here’s why. Here’s how your comment impacted me.” She feels
that is not the type of instant problem-solving that is easy to do when working virtually.
Seeing Facial Expressions Supports Relationship Building
This study provides evidence that virtual communication reduces the opportunities for
building authentic workplace relationships by restricting co-workers’ ability to see facial
expressions, read body language, and observe non-verbal cues. All participants (13 out of 13)
shared a belief that seeing facial expressions and reading body language supports authentic
relationship building. Molly spoke about how facial expressions and body language support
direct and open communication, saying “body language … and just being in the same space with
someone is different” than when on a virtual call. She added, “It’s too easy to view reactions on
Zoom and see eye rolls and inside think, oh my god, I can’t believe they’re doing that, without
addressing it in real-time.” Kristin said that seeing facial expressions gives people a “feeling they

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are more engaged” and supports back-and-forth communication during meetings. Maggie said
that not seeing someone’s face restricts full communication, saying “I believe that a lot of
communication is done with your face, your hands.” While Sandy’s organization is flexible with
people who do not want to go on camera during meetings, she agreed that not being on video
limits the level of intimacy due to not seeing facial expressions. “Sometimes not having the
video, I would say is not always a great thing. Because again, you can’t read the facial
expressions or whatever.” Tammy spoke about how seeing facial expressions when
communicating virtually makes her feel, saying that without seeing someone’s face, the meeting
feels “more performative, or formal” to her. In contrast, when in-person or with cameras on, she
knows people can see her facial cues, and she doesn’t feel like “just a voice.” Nora extended the
benefits of seeing body language to supporting problem-solving, saying “body language is really
difficult … it’s more like the subtleties, like someone shifting in their chair, wanting to say
something that they may not get to say and taking different perspectives into consideration.”
The phrase “feeling disconnected” was used often when describing how workplace
relationships feel when working virtually. After switching to fully remote, Missy said she felt
disconnected from her co-workers. She said, “I’m at a disadvantage because I am fully remote …
I don’t get that day-to-day interaction in the office and the watercooler chats and all of that. I feel
a little bit disconnected from the team.” Sandy recalled informal “lingering” after meetings that
helped her connect with co-workers, lamenting that is no longer possible during Zoom calls.
Sandy said:
I remember before, there’s a big group meeting and … at the end of the meeting, it’d be
like, Hey, can you stay after … to keep things going? That doesn’t happen as much now,
because people are scheduled back-to-back; there isn’t that kind of lingering opportunity.

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Nora contrasted the disconnection she sometimes feels working virtually with the connection she
recalls feeling when working in person, seeing her co-workers’ faces, and having casual
conversations in hallways and elevators. She said these small moments “built bridges” between
teams and ultimately supported problem-solving, adding, “I think there is (a better)
understanding of the bigger picture rather than being so siloed” when teams connect on a casual
level. Similarly, Melinda shared that going into the office brings her a greater level of
communication intimacy with her co-workers, saying, “I feel I’m going to form a better
partnership with them because they see me, and this is how they communicate. … When you’re
with somebody in person, I feel you can read so much more about the situation.” Katie reflected
that in-person communication can increase one’s comfort level, saying, “If you’re sitting there at
a table with somebody, you’re going to feel more comfortable, chit-chatting with them or
looking at them. It’s a different experience when you’re on a call.”
Lastly, participants commonly mentioned the connection between trust and seeing facial
expressions. When asked if being in-person is important when establishing trust with co-workers,
Bonnie said, “Yes, definitely. Just also getting to know people, you know, is difficult when
you’ve only ever made them virtually.” Missy shared that the loss of building trust is something
she misses about working in person, saying, “I miss the ability to connect but also establish my
own brand … building that trust and having people feel like I am the subject matter expert.”
Similarly, Tammy believes that trusting relationships are easier to establish when working in
person with co-workers, and without that trust, it’s easier for people “to brush things off” and
ignore requests from team members whom they don’t know well. This has led her to feel ignored
by other teams and has created barriers for her in her job.

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Need to Interrupt to Be Heard
Women reported that virtual meetings require advocating for themselves, raising their
voices, and needing to interrupt existing conversations to have their voices heard. Women who
do not feel comfortable interacting in this way face exclusionary environments. Most participants
(nine out of 13) shared that they have witnessed this dynamic happen to others or have felt this
experience themselves. Maggie shared seeing a lack of inclusion in virtual meetings when
extroverts dominate the conversation, stating, “Extroverts have no problem talking. Nobody pulls
anything out of the introverts.” As an introvert, Tammy supported this claim, describing her
experience as “awkward” and restricting her ability to be heard. She said, “It’s harder [for me] to
start talking … people will jump and start talking at the same time, and then it’s awkward about
who goes next.” Nora shared her experiences of co-workers “going down a rabbit hole” during
virtual meetings, where the dominant voice gets the most airtime. She added, “With a virtual
environment, my experience has been that not all voices are heard.” Joanna specifically
mentioned that women who “don’t have a fear of interrupting others” are most likely to get their
voice heard, saying:
The women who thrive in that environment are the ones who are not scared to interject …
If you are a natural introvert and you’re scared of interrupting, you’re less likely to
succeed in this virtual environment. You have to be confident to put your point across.
While describing experiences witnessing the exclusion of women not interrupting during
meetings, participants often added their personal methods for self-advocacy. Sandy said her selfadvocacy is rooted in confidence, learned over many years of working in person, and added
concern for women who have only experienced the virtual workplace. She said, “I’ve had to
learn how to advocate for myself … I don’t think younger people just starting now know how.”

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Jade said she is at the end of her career after many decades of working in person and feels
confident communicating in a virtual environment, even interrupting if needed. She said, “I feel
like I can really communicate with anybody internally, anytime that I need to. … So, I don’t
have any problems doing that.” Molly also expressed confidence in her ability to network, which
she believes comes from years of experience. She said:
Being confident in building relationships and having those that open communication and
dialogue doesn’t mean that it’s easy. It’s just the more you do it, I think the better you get
at it, and it takes some of the anxiety and stress off a bit because it’s like I’ve been
through this many times.
Summary of RQ 2
RQ 2 focused on gathering women’s opinions on the challenges of virtual networking,
asking, “To what extent do U.S. women in mid-level management believe virtual work has made
it challenging, if at all, to network with leaders effectively?” Four key themes emerged related to
the impact of less informal and face-to-face communication in the virtual workplace. First,
women reported fewer unexpected learning opportunities due to fewer opportunities to connect
informally. Second, women reported challenges building relational capital due to fewer informal
conversations. Third, extroverts reported a belief that seeing facial expressions supports
workplace relationships and that the loss of seeing co-workers’ faces during conversations
creates a barrier to building authentic relationships. Lastly, women reported that those
comfortable with interrupting during virtual meetings experience a better chance of having their
voices heard, and those who aren’t comfortable interrupting experience an exclusionary
environment. These themes provide insight into women’s current challenges and opportunities in
effectively networking with leaders in a virtual environment.

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Research Question 3: Virtual Networking Connection to Women’s Career Advancement
The third research question (RQ 3) asked, “What do U.S. women report about the
connection between virtual networking and their career advancement opportunities?” RQ 3
examined women’s thoughts and experiences regarding how virtual networking impacts their
career advancement opportunities. Participants made connections between virtual networking
barriers and the perceived loss of opportunities, sharing what they would like to see improved
(intentionality, funding for in-person connections, and quality mentorship opportunities) and
what they are concerned about (lack of access to leaders). Four themes emerged that connect
virtual networking with women’s potentially reduced opportunities for career advancement, as
seen in Table 7.
Table 7
RQ 3 Themes: Virtual Networking Connection to Women’s Career Advancement
Themes Details Occurred
Intentionality supports
networking
effectiveness.
When virtual communication and relationship
growth opportunities are cultivated with
intention, networking is more effective.
10/13
Funding supports virtual
network effectiveness.
When leaders provide resources (e.g., money and
travel) for effective networking, women’s
networking relationships are strengthened.
8/13
Virtual work restricts
information about job
opportunities.
Women report a lack of visibility and access to
leaders at their boss’ level and above, and are
concerned this will reduce access to information
about job opportunities.
9/13
Quality mentorship
supports networking
effectiveness.
Women report that quality mentorship relationships
are important for their career growth, yet virtual
mentorship opportunities are not as easy to find
as they were when working in person.
10/13

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Intentionality Supports Virtual Networking Effectiveness
The concept of “intentionality” was a common theme, appearing in 10 out of 13
participant interviews. In addition to the frequency of findings, participants described
intentionality as a key driver of networking success, providing examples of intentional actions
used in response to perceived networking barriers. Phrases such as “creating opportunities,”
“being strategic,” “taking initiative,” “carefully planning,” “on purpose,” and “forcing myself to
remember” were all used by participants to describe intentional behavior that drives success
while working virtually.
Bonnie described intentionality as making her own opportunities happen, believing it
could be considered the “word of the year” given its importance in the workplace. About
intentionality, she said:
You’ve got to create those opportunities for yourself … if you need to be seen or show
your worth or your value to someone else … to seek out opportunities where you can
kind of worm your way in because you know you can add value, but they don’t.
Melinda agreed and attributed much of her networking success to “working hard to create
opportunities for myself,” saying that she strategically sets up remote meetings with her leaders,
often needing to take the initiative to reschedule multiple times. Tammy shared that she does not
see networking happening naturally while working virtually. She believes people need to be
intentional and plan for it, saying, “I only feel [successful virtual networking] happening …
when it’s really very intentional.” Sandy described being intentional and strategic in planning
networking conversations, saying, “regular communication and regular access is extremely
important. As people are getting busier, as time goes on, you have to be strategic. … You need to
think when’s the right time to have that conversation.” Maddy provided an example of how she

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networks with intention, saying that she carefully considers where to sit in her organization’s
open-office floorplan during her “in office” days. She said, “During those very rare times where
we get to go to the office, I on purpose sit in areas that I’ve never sat in before … to maximize
meeting new people.” As an introvert, Katie said being intentional is especially important for her
since networking doesn’t “organically happen.” She said,
I have to now be really thoughtful about building that work relationship … to force
myself to remember (to) make sure everything’s good on a personal note, before we jump
into [work]. … It’s a skill you have to build.
Melinda summed the idea up well, saying, “Virtual work … drives people to be more intentional.
… The action falls on them.”
As a leader, Molly spoke about the importance of intentionality when nurturing
teamwork in her organization, saying, “You have to be really intentional about building
community within work teams and across the organization.” Likewise, Kristin gave examples of
how she works with intention to build community within her team while working virtually:
facilitating a lively group chat, having regular one-on-one conversations with her individual team
members, hosting a bi-weekly video-on roundtable, and sponsoring quarterly team virtual happy
hours. Maggie provided similar thoughts, explaining that she believes it is especially important
for leaders to be strategic and intentional about networking. She gave the example of a meeting
in her organization where leaders did not have a clear strategy for networking and how it
negatively impacted the team. She said:
Every week, we have something called the huddle, and then every quarter, all directors
from the entire [department] come together. And they have been done virtually since

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COVID. They don’t have an on-camera policy, so the leaders who are facilitating the
meetings aren’t even on camera [and as a result], very little is innovative and creative.
Funding Supports Virtual Networking Effectiveness
This study provides evidence that when leaders provide networking funding and
resources (e.g., money for travel, access to in-person opportunities, or support for virtual
strategic planning), women’s networking relationships are strengthened. Most participants (eight
out of 13) either shared experiences of leadership providing resources that they believe helped
networking efforts or shared experiences of leadership failing to provide resources, which
created a barrier to effective networking. Maggie shared an example of her leadership supporting
her efforts to create a strategic plan for implementing virtual work, “paving the way” for her
initiative to be successful. She said, “Without the support, [the initiative] probably wouldn’t have
happened.” Participants also shared examples of leaders supporting networking efforts by
funding travel. Missy’s request to visit the office in person was approved by her leader, and as a
result, Missy reported those visits have turned out to be extremely beneficial for her internal
networking success. She described it as a “breakthrough in terms of leadership knowing who I
am,” adding:
I popped my head into our VP office, and I said, you know, we had planned for me to
come up here, maybe twice a year. But I’d love to come up quarterly because I feel it’s
very valuable for me to get into the office for a week and really spend time, have people
see me and I see them, put faces to names.
In contrast, Joanna expressed disappointment that her leadership did not advocate for
more in-person moments this past year. Joanna relocated for a new role within her company,
assuming this would support her career growth within the organization. Only afterward did she

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discover that leaders at the new company location all work virtually. She said, “I didn’t need to
move here to do this job if it’s all going to be virtual.” Joanna decided to try going into the office
regardless, to build better connections with co-workers. She described those efforts as useless,
saying that since leadership had not encouraged in-person work, building strong connections in
person did not work out the way she had anticipated. Similarly, Nora described a lack of
resources and support from her leadership as a barrier to her virtual networking effectiveness.
“I’m pretty candid with my boss, [saying] I don’t have the right network here. Can you help me
out? And I feel like that’s just not his priority. … [He replies] ‘We’ll figure that out, and then
nothing happens.’” Nora feels this restricts her from networking with leaders and as a result,
believes this “will not serve her well” in the eyes of leadership, limiting her promotional
opportunities. In Kristin’s case, she said that leadership has good intentions, but doesn’t always
pull through for her. She shared an example of missing out on an important networking
opportunity when her boss failed to invite her to an in-person meeting. She said, “It was an
oversight, but if we had been in person, it may have been different. My boss might have walked
past me every day and thought, hey, I need to invite [her] because there she is. Right there.”
Virtual Work Restricts Access to Leaders and Job Information
This study provides evidence that a lack of access to leaders restricts information about
job opportunities when working virtually. Most participants (nine out of 13) reported that virtual
work limits leader visibility, impacting the quality and quantity of information they have about
future job opportunities. For example, Kristin said she believes networking is extremely
important for finding out about job opportunities, and not being in person limits her exposure to
information. She said, “Because it’s all networking, you have to know who to know, so that you
can hear about these opportunities when these things come up.” She said that job openings are

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often sent internally at her organization, but not consistently, adding “emails don’t always go out
to the masses, so that has been challenging.” Maddy also felt virtual work contributed to job
growth limitations. She shared her story of working in a hierarchical organization with a
“gatekeeping” boss whose micro-management limits her open contact with other leaders, directly
preventing her from pursuing career moves. She gave an example of expressing interest in a
promotional opportunity with her boss, but not formally applying for the role since her boss
expected his employees to speak with him before applying for promotional roles. Unfortunately,
Maddy’s boss ignored her interest and filled the role externally without speaking with her. If she
had in-person access to leaders, Maddy said, she may have had an opportunity to mention her
interest to another leader casually. Similarly, Nora shared that the impact of reduced access to
leaders contributes to her desire to exit her current role, as she feels her opportunities for learning
about higher-level roles are now limited. Nora said, “It already has me looking. The lack of
transparency is a big one, the lack of networking, and access [to leaders] is closed off.” Tammy
shared a related thought, focusing on how virtual work restricts information about other
departments in her organization. She said that networking helps her learn about the people in
other departments she may or may not want to work with, which ultimately will be the key
reason she would consider a higher-level job internally. Tammy said:
So much about whether I will like a job has to do with the people that I (will) work with
and the direct manager that I’ll have. [Networking] helps me see that. … Because I
haven’t been on-site and haven’t built as many relationships with as many people, I think
maybe being remote has made the pool of jobs I’m interested in smaller.
Participants also reflected on their experiences working in person, sharing thoughts about
how that helped them gather information about job opportunities. Melinda shared experiences

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where being in the “right place at the right time” when working in person led to career
opportunities, yet since working from home due to the COVID pandemic, these moments no
longer exist. Melinda said:
I feel like [being in person] has made a huge impact for me because then it’s, Are you
available for this? I’m going to this meeting. … Can you come with me? And I found that
happened more [in person] than it does now [while working virtually].
Missy stated even though she isn’t actively pursuing promotional opportunities, she is still
worried about missing the in-person, informal events where “organic opportunities” happen.
Missy described organic opportunities as unintentional connections with leaders, where better
job opportunities may present themselves without her seeking them out intentionally. When
asked if she feels in-person moments have impacted her ability to learn about career
opportunities, Joanna said without hesitation that it has. She explained, “I wouldn’t be where I
am if we had always worked from home.” Joanna gave the example of her current role, saying
that she was promoted largely due to the relationship she made with a senior leader who is now
the company president. She shared ideas and problem-solved in real-time, which made a positive
impression and led him to sponsor her career advancement. She said, “This [relationship] was
developed face-to-face … it could not have been built over Zoom or Teams. That 100% I can say
with certainty.” Molly also shared that being in-person during her career supported her growth,
saying that it has been a powerful way for her to network. Molly added, “There’s something that
you can’t replace in the virtual space when it comes to being in person.” Maggie also spoke
positively about how working in person supported her networking experience. She said she is
grateful that she was able to be in her job pre-Covid to build connections in person and expressed
concern for newer people who are trying to build strong connections virtually. Missy expanded

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on this, saying, “I haven’t had that experience to where I had to reintroduce myself. So that
would be a challenge that [if I was new], I would need to consider how best to formulate a
relationship with that person.”
Quality Mentorship Supports Networking Effectiveness
This study provides evidence that quality mentorship supports networking effectiveness.
Most participants (10 out of 13) reported that mentorship relationships are important for their
career growth, with some experiencing challenges in finding quality mentorship relationships
while working virtually and others providing examples of using their status as leaders to mentor
others. Across the study, women reported mentorship benefits such as confidence, efficacy,
encouragement, problem-solving support, skill attainment, sponsorship, and having a role model.
For example, Maggie shared that early in her career, a mentor gave her the confidence to apply
for a role she hadn’t considered. “It’s the reason I have the job that I have. I didn’t even consider
it or know about it.” This encouragement changed the course of her career. She said, “It wasn’t
until she put it [the idea] in my head, said maybe I should go for it and try something totally
different than what I used to do. I did it and here I am.”
Participants also shared stories of mentors providing confidence, problem-solving
strategies, and skill attainment. Melinda said that her mentor helps give her confidence. Sandy
sees her boss as a mentor and said that this relationship has been very helpful for navigating
virtual networking. Maddy was recently part of a formal mentorship program at her job and said
she benefited greatly from her mentor, both in skill attainment and in a possible job lead. She
said:

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I was assigned a mentor in a whole different area … And I wanted to grow in strategy
and be able to communicate better with leaders. And while this person was in an area
completely different, he had a strength that I had identified as a weakness [in me].
Participants also gave examples of why they believe working in-person benefits
mentorship. Bonnie gave an example of mentoring a junior person informally while in person,
noticing their talent, and providing them an opportunity to grow in a different role. She said, “I
think [the value in] some of these in-person meetings are finding opportunities for junior people
to showcase what they produce and give them the opportunity to speak.” Participants also shared
concerns about how younger women in the workforce will establish effective mentorship
relationships without working in person. Joanna said that while working in person, “I created
really important relationships. I had a sponsor, I had a cheerleader … I think that [not being in
person] will impact future people trying to come up greatly if we don’t find a way to get more of
a balance.” Molly also worries for the younger generation of women who have not yet
established in-person mentorship relationships, wondering how they will find good mentorship.
Molly said:
Where I see challenges in the virtual space is how we coach and mentor, because
coaching and mentoring might not come directly from your supervisor. It might come
from a colleague, it might come from someone else in another part of the organization,
where you run into someone in a cafeteria or the little coffee place in the building and
you build these relationships.
Women also reported challenges finding mentors while working virtually. Tammy
described her challenges finding mentors while working remotely this way:

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I think that being remote is impacting [finding a mentor]. … When in person, it’s not too
much of a stretch to ask Hey, these are some things that I’ve seen you do that I’d like to
grow in. That’s harder with someone I don’t have a connection with.
Similarly, Nora said she has not had great success finding mentorship relationships outside of her
immediate team while working virtually. She said, “Everybody is busy, everybody is juggling
multiple things. … Finding that right person without really having these in person relationships
has been tough.”
Summary of RQ 3
RQ 3 focused on gathering women’s thoughts and experiences about how virtual
networking impacts their career advancement opportunities, asking, “What do U.S. women
report about the connection between virtual networking and their career advancement
opportunities?” Four key themes emerged, with three related to what women would like to see
improved and one related to their concerns. Regarding what women would like to see improved,
women reported they would like more virtual communication opportunities cultivated with
intention, funding for opportunities to network in person, and quality mentorship opportunities.
Regarding what women are concerned about, women shared that they believe the lack of leader
visibility due to less in-person networking negatively impacts their opportunities to learn about
job opportunities. These findings provide additional insight into women’s current challenges and
opportunities in growing their careers in a virtual environment.
Conclusion
This study examined U.S.-based mid-level managers’ experiences using social cognitive
theory as a framework, with environmental, behavioral, and personal factors influencing the
interview questions. Results show that while networking remains important for women’s career

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growth, the current virtual workplace offers inadequate support for an effective networking
experience. Women reported having rich experiences networking in person before the COVID–
19 pandemic and now experience barriers networking in a virtual workplace. While women
reported appreciating virtual work’s flexibility, they also reported worrying about how the lack
of access to leaders will impact their longer-term career goals and regret the loss of personal
connections with co-workers.
RQ 1 asked, “What are the networking experiences of U.S. women in mid-level
management roles who work virtually?” Women were asked about their experiences networking
in a virtual workplace, how that differed from networking in person, and to reflect on what
supports or hindered their networking effectiveness. The four top themes for RQ 1 are that a
camera-on culture supports effective virtual networking, virtual work results in less informal
conversation, extroverts have advantages while working virtually, and introverts have
disadvantages while working virtually. These findings help clarify the current state of
organizational norms surrounding “seeing” a co-worker during the workday, regardless of work
location, and how women feel this impacts their ability to create authentic, supportive, and
career-enriching workplace relationships.
RQ 2 asked, “To what extent do U.S. women in mid-level management believe virtual
work has made it challenging, if at all, to network with leaders effectively?” Women were asked
about their experiences related to the challenges of virtual networking, with questions focused on
behavioral and personal characteristics. The four top themes for RQ 2 are that seeing facial
expressions supports building authentic workplace relationships, virtual work results in fewer
unexpected learning opportunities, virtual work creates challenges in building relational capital,
and women need to interrupt during virtual meetings to be heard. These findings provide insight

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into women’s current challenges and opportunities in effectively networking with leaders in a
virtual environment.
RQ 3 asked, “What do U.S. women report about the connection between virtual
networking and their career advancement opportunities?” Women were asked their thoughts
regarding how virtual networking impacts their career advancement opportunities. The four top
themes for RQ 3 are related to what they would like improved (intentionality, leader-supported
funding for in-person connections, and quality mentorship opportunities) and what they are
concerned about (lack of access to leaders). Women reported they would like more virtual
communication opportunities cultivated with intention, funding for opportunities to network in
person, and quality mentorship opportunities. They also reported that they believe the lack of
leader visibility due to less in-person networking negatively impacts their opportunities to learn
about job opportunities. These findings provide additional insight into women’s current
challenges and opportunities in growing their careers in a virtual environment.
Across the 12 themes, four overarching broader themes emerged: intentionality, quality
connections, leadership access, and leadership support. Intentionality is a theme woven
throughout many of the participants’ responses and provides a pivotal foundation for the
recommendations in Chapter 5. Quality connections is a theme supported by 50% of the study’s
findings (six of 12) and is woven throughout all three of the research questions. Leadership
access is also woven throughout all three research questions; this theme’s associated findings
provide specific recommendations in Chapter 5. Leadership support is a theme with only one
associated finding yet is also a pivotal foundation for this study’s recommendations. Chapter 5
will provide recommendations for practice and connect the recommendations to these four
overarching themes.

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Chapter Five: Discussion And Recommendations
Workers lost important in-person networking moments when virtual work became a norm
during the 2020 COVID–19 pandemic. Women have traditionally used these informal, in-person
moments to connect with leaders and advance their careers. This study addresses the claim that
losing in-person connection impacts women’s career advancement by studying the networking
experiences of women in mid-level management roles who work virtually. This study began with
the assumption that women have historically used in-person networking to gain access to leaders.
Added to this assumption was the research-supported claim that women’s access to leaders
positively impacts their career advancement (Blickle, 2009; Eby et al., 2003; Kuvaas et al.,
2012), with methods such as networking, mentorship, and sponsorship leading to increased
promotional opportunities (Barkhuizen & Sluis, 2022; Forret & Dougherty, 2004).
To discover the connection between virtual networking experiences and career
advancement, this study’s original qualitative research asked about women’s in-person
networking experiences, virtual networking experiences, workplace communication norms,
networking behavior, networking barriers, access to leaders, and perceptions about how virtual
networking impacts career advancement. Social presence theory framed inquiry regarding
communication, in-person networking, and virtual networking; social cognitive theory framed
inquiry regarding networking behavior, networking barriers, networking effectiveness, access to
leaders, and impact on career advancement; and feminist theory framed inquiry regarding
institutional sexism. Interviews were conducted with 13 women using semi-structured interview
questions. Three research questions guided qualitative inquiry:
1. What are the networking experiences of U.S. women in mid-level management roles
who work virtually?

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2. To what extent do U.S. women in mid-level management believe virtual work has
made it challenging, if at all, to network with leaders effectively?
3. What do U.S. women report about the connection between virtual networking and
their career advancement opportunities?
There is an urgent imperative for organizations to study this problem, as leadership
development cycles involve a long-term timeline. Mid-level managers can take a decade or
longer to rise to executive ranks (Dillard & Lipschitz, 2014), so potential gender disparities at
executive leadership levels may take years to manifest. To prevent further decline in gender
equity for executive leaders, now is the time for organizations to identify and mitigate career
advancement barriers for women on the path to top leadership.
Summary of Findings
As described in Chapter 4, this study identified four broader themes around 12 findings.
The four broad themes are the following: quality connections, leadership access, intentionality,
and leadership support. Two of the four broad themes (quality connections and leadership
access) are drawn from multiple research findings; the remaining two broad themes
(intentionality and leadership support) are each directly drawn from one research finding but
have core ideas heavily woven throughout the other findings. The quality connections theme
refers to building and sustaining effective networks while navigating virtual communication in a
quality manner; in this context, quality is described according to the 12 research findings. The
leadership access theme acknowledges that providing women access to leaders, including
information about job opportunities, is an important part of building relational capital and is
supported by the 12 findings from this research study. The intentionality theme refers to acting
with intention, as opposed to passively waiting for exclusive structures, processes, norms, or

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systems to change. This theme connects tightly with the leadership support theme, stating that
when leaders provide resources and funding for in-person networking opportunities, women are
prepared to navigate the virtual work environment and dismantle virtual communication barriers.
Table 8 further details the four broad themes.
Table 8
Four Broad Themes Summarized
Theme Summary
Intentionality Taking action with intention, as opposed to passively waiting for
exclusive structures or systems to change, was important for
women’s networking effectiveness before virtual work and remains
important while navigating networking without the advantage of inperson connectivity.
Quality connections Building and sustaining effective networks while navigating virtual
communication requires establishing quality connections with coworkers and leaders that allow for occasional in-person, informal
communication and seeing facial expressions. Establishing quality
connections also includes building mentor relationships and
supporting introvert personality types.
Leadership access Leadership access is an important part of building relational capital
and providing women adequate information about job opportunities
when working virtually. Access to leaders is supported by actions
such as a camera-on culture and inclusive virtual meeting
environments where women may speak without needing to interrupt.
Leadership support Leadership-supported resources and funding for in-person networking
opportunities support women’s navigation of the virtual work
environment and dismantling of virtual communication barriers.

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Recommendations for Practice
This study uncovered factors supporting women’s career advancement through effective
virtual networking practices. Five recommendations are provided based on evidence from
qualitative narratives of 13 women in mid-level management roles. The findings suggest clear
strategies to mitigate barriers women face when networking in a virtual work environment.
While each recommendation is effective individually, when acting in concert and combined with
an intentional, strategic approach from leadership, this study suggests an improved virtual
networking experience for women that will lead to positive career growth.
Organizations should consider referencing Kotter’s 8-step change model when
implementing the recommendations. Kotter’s 8-step model emphasizes creating a core coalition
of leader support and communicating a shared vision, both important aspects of engaging leader
champions and building stakeholder engagement (Galli, 2018). Kotter’s model also supports the
belief that leaders are core to creating organizational change (Kotter, 1996) and that a change
effort is more successful if leaders create a sense of urgency around the change (Kotter, 2012).
As presented in the following recommendation section, creating a virtual communication
strategy will establish this urgency, set the foundation for change efforts, and bring employee
visibility to the importance of the study’s remaining three recommendations. It is also suggested
that organizations empower employees to act on change recommendations, such as participating
in mentorship programs and celebrating visible short-term wins. The complete eight steps of
Kotter’s model are: create urgency, create a core coalition, develop a strategic vision,
communicate the vision, empower employees to act on the vision, generate short-term wins,
consolidate gains, and initiate new changes. The change model is typically displayed as a
repeating cycle, allowing continued change to flow. Figure 2 displays the full model.

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Figure 2
Kotter’s 8-Step Change Model
Employee acceptance of change is particularly important for a virtual communication
change that permeates multiple small moments of an employee’s work experience. The
following section details the five recommendations, provides research support for each, and
details application recommendations.
Recommendation 1: Create and Maintain a Thoughtfully Designed, Healthy Virtual
Communication Strategy
It is recommended that organizations create a virtual communication strategy that is
thoughtfully created and regularly maintained. This study’s findings suggest that an intentional,

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strategic approach will help influence meaningful change in women’s future virtual networking
experience. The virtual communication strategy should be based on research findings that are
aligned with what women report as successful virtual networking experiences. These include a
camera-on norm during virtual meetings, active facilitation of virtual meetings that ensure all
voices are supported, and leader-supported, intentional planning for in-person connection
opportunities. Recommendations two, three, four, and five are driven by recommendation one, as
it is recommended that plans for creating a camera on culture, funding, normalizing informal
moments, and creating mentorship programs all be included in an organization’s virtual
communication strategy.
Findings to Support This Recommendation
The value of an organizational strategy is well documented in the literature (Bishop &
Mitchell, 2023; Kuipers & Giurge, 2017; MacKay et al., 2021; Masud et al., 2019; MusielloNeto et al., 2021). Literature supports the claim that strategy should be intentional, as it “is a
verb, not a noun” (Hughes et al., 2023, p. 429). Porter’s foundational work on organizational
strategy states that an effective strategy positions organizations for competitive advantage
(Porter, 1980) and provides leadership with a vision for success. Research also establishes the
value of designing a strategy for virtual work. In 1999, Staples et al.’s research showed that
skillful use of technology is a critical success factor in developing virtual intelligence. This
research suggested that effectively using virtual-related technology is an important precursor to a
worker’s ability to perform effectively in a remote environment (Staples et al., 1999). In
addition, Bishop and Mitchell’s 2023 research studied enablers and coping mechanisms for
senior-level women’s career advancement, showing that proactive adoption of strategies is a key
enabler for women when pursuing career opportunities (Bishop & Mitchell, 2023).

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In addition, this study’s findings support the claim that active virtual meeting facilitation
leads to increased feelings of self-efficacy and inclusion. This concept is supported by research
showing the importance of inclusivity in the face of gender power imbalances and inequality
regimes (Acker, 2009; Stainback et al., 2016). Lastly, this study’s findings suggest that while inperson opportunities help women create important networking relationships with co-workers,
leaders often do not proactively support these types of opportunities. When leaders intentionally
support in-person networking opportunities, the women in this study felt more connected to their
peers and leaders. This finding is supported by research that shows providing women inclusive
scaffolding (e.g., opportunities for mentorship, sponsorship, and professional networking group
participation) provides tools for successful networking (Eby et al., 2003; Gottlieb & Travis,
2018; Villesèche & Joserand, 2015).
Application of Recommendation
The recommended that organizations design virtual communication strategy with
stakeholders in mind and include a plan for ongoing strategy maintenance. When considering
Kotter’s 8-step change model, organizations should focus creating a core stakeholder coalition
and communicate a shared vision to empower employees to act on the vision (Galli, 2018).
Generating short-term wins should also be a focus, as this will generate excitement and support
for the broader strategy efforts (Galli, 2018).
Recommendation 2: Encourage a Camera-On Culture
It is recommended that organizations encourage employees to keep their cameras on
during video calls as often as possible. A consistent camera-on culture helps develop workplace
relationships, as conversations feel more connected, intimate, and accountable. Leaders should

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model keeping their cameras on and reinforce the value of seeing co-workers’ faces by building
this directive within the virtual networking strategy.
Finding to Support This Recommendation
This study’s findings suggest that building a camera-on norm during virtual meetings
supports effective networking. Most participants in this study (11 out of 13) reported that
cameras are commonly turned on for meetings with leaders and provided thoughts regarding why
this results in feelings of deeper connection and communication intimacy. Participants reported
that the ability to read co-workers’ facial expressions help to build healthy and trusting
workplace relationships. Participants also reported that seeing facial expressions encourages
accountability. Knowing that other meeting participants can track one’s eyes and facial
expressions increases the level of accountability and decreases the temptation to multi-task. This
claim is supported by published research related to Social Presence Theory (SPT) which supports
the claim that lack of nonverbal cues during virtual based communication may limit information
to those communicating (Hiltz et al., 1993). Research also supports the claim that closer social
proximity, such as face-to-face conversations, is perceived more favorably for building friendly
relationships with co-workers (Satake et al., 2024). In addition, Wenger (2023) noted that seeing
how a person moves or how enthusiastic they seem during a conversation supports networking
interaction.
Application of Recommendation
Encouraging a camera on culture should be included as part of the organization’s virtual
communication strategy and Kotter’s 8-step change model should be used to engage stakeholders
in the shared vision. While research supports the value of keeping cameras on, leaders should
listen to the unique needs of their employees when determining the timing and tone of what

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might be a significant cultural transition. Using Kotter’s 8-step change model to create a core
stakeholder coalition and communicate a shared vision will ultimately support cultural adaption
with employees (Galli, 2018). When sharing this vision, leaders should emphasize the value of
seeing co-workers faces, stressing that it supports developing workplace relationships. Leaders
should emphasize this message with personal examples whenever possible. All levels of
leadership should also model keeping their cameras on during their interactions, both during
large meetings and one on one conversations.
Recommendation 3: Fund and Support In-Person Networking for Women
It is recommended that organizations fund multiple, diverse opportunities for in-person
networking, particularly for women on the path to executive leadership. This study’s findings
suggest that for many women, meeting in person provides a type of meaningful connection
unable to be replicated while working virtually. A leader’s financial support for women’s inperson networking should be inclusive of mid-level leaders (e.g., not only for executives),
strategic (e.g., included in a broad virtual communications strategy), and flexible (e.g., fund
travel to support informal connection as well as business meetings).
Finding to Support This Recommendation
Women in this study reported that when leaders fail to provide sufficient resources for inperson networking, it impacts networking success by restricting chances to connect informally
and creates networking barriers. This study’s findings suggest that informal networking supports
the ability to authentically bond with co-workers, experience moments of unplanned learning,
and build social capital. Research also supports this finding. Ibarra (1993) found that limited
access to informal networking produces multiple disadvantages, including difficulty forming
alliances (Ibarra, 1993). This study’s findings include women’s experiences of in-person learning

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moments that have helped them bond with co-workers and learn about future job opportunities.
Adding to these findings is Cross and Sproull’s research showing that proximal networking
benefits result when social capital is exchanged through interpersonal interactions (Cross &
Sproull, 2004). When leadership supports in-person networking through adequate funding,
women’s ability to informally network in person will be enhanced, and networking barriers for
women mid-level managers working virtually will be reduced. Women in this study also
provided evidence that they sometimes need to “beg for funds,” produce written justification for
travel, and are often hesitant to ask for travel money without the ability to prove an in-person
benefit. This proof is made challenging in organizational cultures that do not see the value of inperson networking, and leaders reject even well-justified requests due to budget availability. As a
result, some women report being afraid to advocate for themselves and fail to make in-person
travel requests.
Application of Recommendation
Greater funding for in-person networking should be made as part of a broader virtual
communications strategy championed by top leadership. When operationalizing this strategy,
leaders should align funding decisions with existing networking programs and create new
networking opportunities as needed. Leaders should also consider flexibility and inclusivity
when determining funding amounts. For example, travel funds to support informal connections
(e.g., celebrations of organizational milestones) should be considered along with funding formal
business meetings (e.g., meetings to produce products or problem-solve). In addition, in-person
networking opportunities should be inclusive of mid-level leaders as well as executives. The
strategy should also consider how to support women unable to travel due to illness, disability, or
family obligations.

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When applying the recommendation, Kotter’s 8-step change model should be considered,
especially in generating short-term wins (Galli, 2018). Providing evidence of short-term wins
will amplify the change message and encourage a shared value (Galli, 2018). Leaders should also
be reminded of the long-term value of an inclusive workforce (Huffman et al., 2010; Stainback et
al., 2016), with both quantitative and qualitative risks identified.
Recommendation 4: Increase Access to Leaders by Normalizing Informal Moments of
Connection With Lower-Level Employees
It is recommended that organizations increase women’s access to leadership by
cultivating an organizational culture that normalizes and celebrates frequent informal moments
of connection. In this context, “normalize” means incorporating it into organizational culture to
the extent that it becomes an organizational norm. Likewise, “informal” means conversation that
is relaxed, friendly, and perhaps personal in nature. In a workplace setting, it typically means a
conversation without a set agenda and has a casual atmosphere, meant to establish an improved
relationship bond.
Finding to Support This Recommendation
This study’s findings suggest that the loss of informal conversation (e.g., hallway chitchat) leads to women feeling less connected to their co-workers, resulting in fewer organic
conversations and unexpected learning opportunities. Women described these “unexpected
learnings” as personal anecdotes that help relationship bonding, unplanned ideas for future work
projects, and information about new jobs on the horizon.
This finding is supported by Wengner’s 2023 qualitative study on perceived networking
effectiveness. Wengner conducted a qualitative study with 21 participants, assessing their
perceptions about the value virtual conferences have towards networking success. The study

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found factors relating to networking efficacy, specifically the importance of sharing meals and
drinks, having special autonomy, and being able to target people for follow-up conversations
(Wengner, 2023).
This finding is also supported by Borgatti and Halgin’s 2011 study on weak ties, showing
that weak, informal relationship ties are valuable for building effective bridges of connections,
resulting in unique information (Borgatti & Halgin, 2011). Borgatti and Halgin’s work builds on
Burt’s 1992 research on the structural holes theory of social capital that described weak ties as
essential to integrating disconnected social clusters. Burt explored the concept that weak ties
build social capital growth by connecting people more frequently to those with whom they may
not already have strong connections (Burt, 1992). Burt’s research expanded on Granovetter’s
1983 study regarding the effectiveness of weak connections for job seekers. Granovetter found
that when people connect with only strong ties, they spread ideas and knowledge within their
established communities where people tend to share knowledge similar to their peers (Burt,
1992; Granovetter, 1983). In this context, strong ties mirrors leaders sharing information with
other leaders at the same executive level. When information stays at the top level, it fails to
educate lower levels of management and does not support leadership pipeline growth. In
addition, research regarding communication behavior has shown for decades that frequent and
early exchanges (e.g., email) enhance global team trust, regardless of the content connecting to a
work project (Jarvanpaa & Leidner, 1999; Kanawattanachai & Yoo, 2002). The importance of
trust as a key behavioral skill associated with success while working virtually has also been
supported by more recent research (Crisp & Jarvenpaa, 2013; Yakovleva et al., 2010). Together,
this provides research support for the claim that casual conversations with leaders, such as short,

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unplanned connections in a hallway or lunchroom, represent powerful “weak tie” moments for
building authentic relationships.
Application of Recommendation
Like recommendations one and two, Kotter’s 8-step change model should be considered,
especially in generating short-term wins (Galli, 2018). Providing evidence of short-term wins
will empower employees to act on the shared vision and encourage leaders to model the behavior
(Galli, 2018). This will support the organizations’ goal normalizing informal connections in a
virtual communication strategy and providing real-time evidence-based support. The
recommendation for leaders to normalize informal conversation in the workplace may feel at
odds with efficiency for leaders in a high-performance organizational culture, so providing
evidence in a strategy document will support buy-in and accountability. Evidence can include
internal needs assessment data, weak-ties research results, and data regarding how stronger
workplace relationships can help build a trusting and inclusive workplace. There are multiple
ways for leaders to encourage and normalize informal conversation in the workplace. Some ideas
are as follows:
1. Leaders model informal sharing at the beginning of meetings, helping encourage a
culture where it’s acceptable not to jump immediately into business, even for highperforming cultures.
2. Leaders model facilitating meetings so that constant interrupting is not acceptable
behavior and multiple voices are supported (as opposed to primarily extroverts’ or top
leaders’ voices being heard).

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3. Leaders model informal “reach-outs” via the phone or Teams chat, such as pinging
throughout the day to check in on a personal level or to casually check in without a
formal meeting set up.
4. Leaders coach their junior team members on how to build weak ties, providing
practical behavioral suggestions such as looking for moments to casually network
with people outside their immediate work circle.
Recommendation 5: Establish and Support Virtual Mentorship Programs
It is recommended that organizations establish virtual mentorship programs, provide
opportunities for in-person mentorship connections, and assist women with locating potential
mentors. It is also recommended that organizations design mentorship programs after assessing
their employees’ specific needs, as mentorship is not a “one size fits all” solution. Lastly, it is
recommended that organizations provide resources to encourage the use of mentorship programs.
Finding to Support This Recommendation
Participants in this study said that mentorship is important for women’s career growth but
that finding mentorship opportunities in a virtual workspace is challenging. They reported
mentorship benefits such as confidence, efficacy, encouragement, problem-solving support, skill
attainment, sponsorship, and having a role model. This finding is supported by published
research. Flippin’s (2017) study found that women identify mentors as an important part of their
networking circle, leading the researcher to recommend a multi-pronged approach for women
consisting of mentorship, coaching, networking, and career planning. Dean and Parrett studied
the impact of formal and informal support networks, concluding that formal mentoring
relationships are essential for women’s confidence building (Dean & Parrett, 2020). Barkhuizen
et al.’s (2022) research supports the connection between mentorship and networking, adding

121
evidence to the claim that lack of mentorship prevents women from gaining access to effective
workplace networks. In 2023, Bishop and Mitchell studied enablers and coping mechanisms for
senior-level women’s career advancement, showing that developing a pipeline through
intentional talent management is beneficial and that women should be encouraged to support
women more junior in their careers (Bishop & Mitchell, 2023). In sum, published research
provides ample evidence that mentorship supports effective networking.
Since it is impractical to implement a fully in-person mentorship program for a virtual
workforce, this recommendation combines the pro-mentorship data with the reality of a virtual
environment. Therefore, the recommendation that organizations establish virtual mentorship
programs is practical, given the reality of virtual workplaces. This study also provides evidence
that women report value in connecting in person. Thus, this recommendation adds that programs
should include in-person connections to the extent possible. The benefits of connecting in
person, as stated in Recommendation 2, includes supporting authentic co-workers bonding and
moments of unplanned learning; these benefits also apply to this recommendation. Lastly, it is
recommended that organizations actively assist women in locating mentors and provide
resources that encourage the use of the mentorship program. Women reported that finding a
mentor while working virtually is challenging due to busy schedules and less access to casual, inperson moments before working virtually.
Application of Recommendation
When establishing a virtual mentorship program, organizations should begin by assessing
employees’ specific needs, organizational demographics, and existing organizational power
structures. Like Recommendations 1, 2, and 3, Kotter’s 8-step change model should be
considered, especially in empowering employees to act on the vision by volunteering as a mentor

122
(Galli, 2018). While establishing a mentorship program within a certain affinity group (e.g.,
African American women) may be what their employees prefer, the organization should consider
the risks associated with designing a program that restricts contact across demographics. For
example, if the organization’s leadership demographics are predominantly male, having a
mentorship program that only includes women restricts women’s access to leadership. However,
if the organization’s leadership demographics show a gender power balance at the top, then
having a mentorship program exclusively for women provides important advantages for lowerlevel women. If the organization is large enough, leaders should also establish multiple
mentorship opportunities so employees in marginalized communities benefit from having affinity
group connections and improved access to leaders outside of their specific demographic. After
the employees’ needs are assessed, mentorship program planners should solicit executive-level
support for the program, including resources for occasional in-person connection opportunities
between mentors and mentees. It is also recommended that the organization actively support the
mentor/mentee match process, provide mentorship learning tools, strategically oversee program
quality, and adjust the program as needed.
Virtual Networking Success Ring
Through the lived experiences of women in this study, a model emerged to support
effective virtual networking practices. This model, referred to as the virtual networking success
ring (VNSR), centers leadership support as a core driver of virtual networking success and
directs leaders to influence a supportive virtual communication culture through intentionality.
The model presents the creation of a virtual networking strategy as an overarching
recommendation and identifies four specific, research-based behaviors that support effective
virtual networking: keeping cameras on during virtual communication, providing intentional

123
access to leaders, providing funding for in-person connections, and establishing quality
mentorship opportunities. This model is seen in Figure 3.
Figure 3
Virtual Networking Success Ring (VNSR)

124
In practical terms, the VNSR encourages leaders to drive culture by establishing a virtual
networking strategy centered on intentional leadership support that establishes a clear path for all
four behaviors to exist in their organization. The VNSR model frames the following five
recommendations:
1. Organizations should create and maintain a thoughtfully designed, healthy virtual
communication strategy.
2. Organizations should encourage a camera-on culture.
3. Organizations should fund and support in-person networking for women mid-level
managers.
4. Organizations should increase access to leaders by normalizing informal moments of
connection with lower-level employees.
5. Organizations should establish virtual mentorship programs that align with the
organizational culture and needs of employees.
Recommendations for Future Research
It is hoped this study will serve as a launching point to further dismantle barriers of
oppression and prevent future gender imbalance at mid and executive-level leadership for
women of all identities. Suggestions for future research include studying the impact of virtual
networking across intersectional identities and studying different funding levels for in-person
networking opportunities. Studying virtual networking’s impact on different intersections (e.g.,
different genders, races, religions, sexual orientations, and abilities) will provide insight into how
organizations can support effective networking for people with different lived experiences. In
particular, it is hoped that scholarly interest exists in exploring how virtual networking impacts
marginalized communities where women are facing unique oppression, such as women in

125
LGBTQ communities, women with physical disabilities, and women who have racial identities
other than Caucasian. It is also recommended that future researchers study virtual networking
effectiveness of caregivers, particularly the impact that caregiving responsibilities have on
women mid-level managers. Of additional interest is how different levels of organizational
funding impact virtual networking success. The recommendations for this study posit that greater
funding for in-person connections and virtual resources will support virtual networking
effectiveness, yet this study does not recommend specific levels of funding or resource support.
Additional inquiry regarding funding levels would provide organizations insight with greater
tools to impact change.
Conclusion
This study provided practical insight into how women can build effective networking
practices that support their career advancement goals in the age of virtual work. The study first
presented a literature review along a social cognitive theory (SCT) framework, reviewing
existing literature from the perspective of environmental, behavioral, and personal factors.
Qualitative inquiry followed, with 13 women interviewed to capture their experiences
networking in the virtual workplace. Qualitative inquiry drew 12 themes, four of which emerged
as broader themes: intentionality, quality connections, leadership access, and leadership support.
Two of the four broader themes (quality connections and leadership access) are drawn from
multiple research findings; the remaining two broader themes (intentionality and leadership
support) are each directly drawn from one research finding but have core ideas heavily woven
throughout the other findings. The VNSR centers leadership support as the core driver of virtual
networking success, directing leaders to influence a supportive virtual communication culture
through intentional strategy, program design, and leading by example. The model identifies four

126
specific, research-based behaviors that support effective virtual networking: keeping cameras on
during virtual communication, providing access to leaders, providing funding for in-person
connections, and establishing quality mentorship opportunities. In practical terms, this means
leaders should drive culture by establishing a virtual networking strategy that establishes a clear
path for all four behaviors to exist in their organization. Five specific recommendations are
offered based on these behaviors and framed by the VNSR:
1. Organizations should create and maintain a thoughtfully designed, healthy virtual
communication strategy.
2. Organizations should encourage a camera-on culture.
3. Organizations should fund and support in-person networking for women mid-level
managers.
4. Organizations should increase access to leaders by normalizing informal moments of
connection with lower-level employees.
5. Organizations should establish virtual mentorship programs that align with the
organizational culture and needs of employees.
While the study’s recommendations are primarily written for the ear of corporate leaders,
women on the corporate management track should draw practical advice from the findings. It is
acknowledged that mid-level managers may not have corporate influence that impacts strategic
development (e.g., creating a virtual communication strategy), yet the research-supported Virtual
Networking Success Ring highlights behaviors women can apply at any time in their virtual
work life, regardless of their broad organizational influence. For example, women can adopt a
camera-on norm for meetings they lead or facilitate. They can also begin meetings with their
camera on to see if leaders follow. In addition, women can support normalizing informal

127
moments of connection by reaching out to co-workers informally via Teams or Zoom to casually
check in or give a compliment. Also, women should use these findings as an encouragement to
advocate for their personal communication needs, especially funding for mentorship programs
and travel funds for in-person opportunities. Full application of the five recommendations and
cultural adoption of the VNSR will require strategic leadership support, but the influence of midlevel management women should not be underestimated. Women reading this dissertation should
walk away with practical knowledge to empower their behavior, confidence they can impact
change, and efficacy to influence virtual networking success for their organization.

128
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Research questions:
1. What are the networking experiences of U.S. women in mid-level management roles
who work virtually?
2. To what extent do U.S. women in mid-level management believe virtual work has
made it challenging, if at all, to network with leaders effectively?
3. What do U.S. women report about the connection between virtual networking and
their career advancement opportunities?
Respondent type
Participants will be women currently working in the United States in a mid-level
management role, in a medium to large-size organization, and who work virtually at least 3 days
a week, on average. The participants’ work history must include having worked at least 5 years
in-person in a medium to large-size organization and at a level described as “mid-level
management”. For this study, “woman” is defined as people who identify as a woman, regardless
of sex assigned at birth; “medium to large size organization” is defined as an organization with at
least 500 employees; and “mid-level management” is defined as a people leader who has hiring,
discipline, promotional, and budgeting authority over employees.
Introduction to the Interview
Thank you so much for agreeing to talk with me today. I’m Dayna Provitt, a doctoral
student at USC conducting research on women’s experiences in the workplace. I’m so
appreciative of your time. This research will include questions about your experiences working
virtually, working in person, and how you connect with others in your company. I’ll also be
asking about your experiences as a woman. I’d also like to record the interview and keep the

157
interview for my research. The recording will be kept confidential; only I will have access to it.
If at any time I ask a question you aren’t comfortable answering, we can skip that question. If at
any time you would like to stop the interview, please let me know and we can stop. Do I have
your permission to record? Do I have your permission to proceed?
Table A1
Interview Protocol
Interview questions Potential probes RQ Concept
1.Tell me about your
work location. How
often are you going
into an office each
week?
How many days are you
typically at home?
Does it vary by week or
month?
How long has it been that
way?
1 Environmental
(virtual work)
2. How do people
typically
communicate at
your organization?
How often do they __ (email,
pick up the phone, have
meetings, etc.)
Have you noticed that it varies
by type of job? Level of
person? Other?
While working virtually, are
there norms or unwritten
rules that people seem to
follow? What are they?
If so, are there leaders who
you see “break” these
unwritten rules and can you
give an example?
1 Environmental
(virtual work)
3. While working
remotely, who are
you in contact with
day to day? Month
to month?
Quarterly?
What type of contact? Are
your conversations only
about the task at hand?
What do virtual interactions
with senior leadership look
like? What feels effective
about these interactions?
1 Environmental
(virtual work)
4. What examples can
you share where you
gained access to a
Was that in person or remote?
How did that help you in your
job?
2 Behavioral
(networking)

158
Interview questions Potential probes RQ Concept
leader outside of a
“regular” meeting,
informally?
In that example, what might
have happened if you didn’t
have that time with the
leader?
(If gives example of in person)
Thinking about that inperson example, have you
had an opportunity for this
type of conversation while
working remotely?
If so, was it with a man? A
woman? Thoughts on
differences?
5. How do you believe
your ability to
informally network
has been impacted
after moving to
virtual work, if at
all?
Can you describe an example
of what informal
networking was like before
moving to virtual?
Can you describe an example
of what it’s like to
informally network now,
after moving to virtual?
2 Behavioral
(networking)
6. In your experience,
how does being on a
video call with a
leader compare to
being in person with
a leader?
How has that difference
impacted you, if at all?
How has that difference
impacted those around you,
if at all?
Have you had experiences
during your career so far
where an actual in-person
conversation or connection
with a leader led you on a
good path to your next role?
Can you describe what
happened?
1, 2 Environmental
(virtual work)
Behavioral
(networking &
social
presence
theory)
7. What part do you
feel your
organization’s
culture plays in
helping you connect
with others while
working virtually?
Probe into cultural
descriptions.
Was the culture like that prepandemic?
How has that impacted you
while working remotely?
1, 2 Environmental
(barriers)
Behavioral
(barriers)
8. In your current job,
how would you
What is that career goal? 3 Behavioral
(networking)

159
Interview questions Potential probes RQ Concept
describe the impact
networking has on
reaching your next
career goal, if at all?
When you think about
“networking” at your job,
how would you say the
rules have changed since
being virtual, if at all?
9. Have you
experienced a time
when you felt your
job or career
suffered because
you couldn’t
participate in a
networking
opportunity? If so,
can you describe
what happened?
Were you working virtually at
the time, and did this have
anything to do with the
missed opportunity?
1, 2, 3 Behavioral
(career
advancement)
10. How would you
describe the
mentorship
opportunities you
have in your current
job, if any?
How do you feel the (lack of /
existence of) mentorship
opportunities impact your
career goals?
Has networking or mentorship
turned into sponsorship in
the workplace and if so,
how?
2, 3 Behavioral
(networking,
career
advancement)
11. How comfortable
do you feel in
networking
situations?
Can you think of a time when
you felt differently? Why
do you feel that is?
Explore introversion/
extraversion connection. Do
you consider yourself an
introvert or an extravert?
What connection do you
feel this has with
networking for you?
1 Personal (selfefficacy &
extraversion)
12. Can you describe
your ideal
networking
situation?
Why would you describe this
as ideal?
If description resembles
mentorship, explore her
experiences
Look for information about
personal and behavioral
traits
1 Personal (selfefficacy)

160
Interview questions Potential probes RQ Concept
13. Do you think
you’re less likely or
more likely to apply
for a higher-level
job now that you’re
working remotely?
Why?
Get promoted?
Do you feel this might this be
different if you were still in
person? If so, how?
3 Behavioral
(career
advancement)
14. Do you notice other
women in your
organization taking
action to influence
leaders or gain
access to
promotions that you
admire? If so, what
are they doing?
Do you notice men taking a
different approach?
3 Behavioral
(career
advancement)
15. Is there anything
else you want to add
about how working
virtually may be
impacting your
career?
1, 3 Environmental
(virtual work)
Behavioral
(career
advancement)
Conclusion to the Interview
Thank you so much for your time today. I really appreciate your candor and support.
Your perspective will be very helpful. Do you have any questions for me before we conclude?
Do I have your permission to contact you again for follow up questions?

161
Appendix B: Coding Worksheet
RQ and parent code Child code Observation Instances
RQ1: What are the networking
experiences of U.S. women in
mid-level management roles
who work primarily virtual?
Virtual communication Norms Keeping cameras on during
virtual meetings helps
conversations feel more
connected, intimate,
honest, and comfortable
11/13
Virtual work negatives Lack of access
to influential
people
There are less opportunities
for informal
conversations when
meetings are virtual,
leading to feeling less
connected
8/13
Supports for networking Extroversion Extroverts report having an
easier time networking
while working virtually;
they also report
supplementing virtual
networking with inperson networking
opportunities
5/13
Barriers to networking Introversion Introverts report less
comfort with virtual
networking; they also
report avoiding inperson networking
opportunities
7/13
RQ2: To what extent do U.S.
women in mid-level
management believe virtual
work has made it challenging, if
at all, to effectively network
with leaders?
In-person networking benefits Unexpected
opportunities
In-person communication
casual connections and
“chit chat”, which leads
to unexpected learnings
about co-workers and
tighter bonds
8/13

162
RQ and parent code Child code Observation Instances
Virtual communication Informal
communicati
on
Virtual communication
reduces opportunities for
casual conversation after
meetings, as people are
scheduled back-to-back
8/13
In-person networking benefits Relational
capital
In-person communication
supports casual
connections and “chit
chat”, which helps build
personal relationships by
building relational
capital
9/13
Virtual work negatives Relational
capital
Virtual communication
reduces opportunities for
casual, informal
connection, making it
harder to bond with
others and build
relational capital
9/13
In-person networking benefits Ease of
connection
In-person communication
leads to seeing body
language, reading facial
expressions, and
building authentic
workplaces
13/13
Virtual communication Communication
intimacy
Virtual communication
reduces opportunities to
see co-workers’ facial
expressions, read body
language, see non-verbal
cues, and leads to fewer
chances to build
authentic workplace
relationships
13/13
Virtual communication Trust In person establishes
intimacy by building
trust
13/13
Virtual work negatives Authentic
relationships
Virtual communication
reduces opportunities to
create meaningful
relationships with
leaders
13/13

163
RQ and parent code Child code Observation Instances
Supports for networking Confidence Virtual networking requires
advocating for oneself
and inserting oneself
into conversations
9/13
Virtual work negatives Inclusion Lack of inclusion,
including institutional
sexism, is a barrier
9/13
RQ3: What do U.S. women report
about the connection between
virtual networking and their
career advancement
opportunities?
Supports for networking Intentionality Networking is more
effective when
relationship growth is
cultivated with intention
10/13
Barriers to career advancement Leadership
support
When leaders do not
provide sufficient
resources for in-person
networking, it impacts
networking success
8/13
Supports for networking Leadership
support
When leaders support inperson networking, it
supports building virtual
relationships
8/13
In-person benefits Relationship
growth
Relationships are
strengthened when
connecting in-person
9/13
In-person benefits Job
opportunities
In-person work supports
access to leaders,
providing access to
information they need
about future job
opportunities
9/13
Virtual work negatives Leader access Virtual work restricts
access to leaders,
reducing access to
information and
connections they need
about future jobs
9/13

164
RQ and parent code Child code Observation Instances
In-person networking benefits Mentorship Mentorship is valuable for
career growth whether
in-person or virtual, yet
while working virtually
women report less
frequent mentorship
opportunities
10/13

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Asset Metadata

Creator Provitt, Dayna Leigh (author)

Core Title Networking in the age of virtual work: women’s experiences and strategies for success

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 08/13/2024

Defense Date 08/12/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag camera on,career advancement,communication,Female,informal,intentional,mentorship,networking,promotion,remote,social capital,strategy,virtual,Women,work from home

Format theses (aat)

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