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Educated African American male voices: closing the cultural divide between the low-income lived experiences they bring to higher education…

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Educated African American male voices: closing the cultural divide between the low-income lived experiences they bring to higher education…

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Content A Dissertation
EDUCATED AFRICAN AMERICAN MALE VOICES: CLOSING THE CULTURAL
DIVIDE BETWEEN THE LOW-INCOME LIVED EXPERIENCES THEY BRING TO
HIGHER EDUCATION AND THE ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL SUPPORT NEEDED TO
COMPLETE COLLEGE
By
BARBARA E. JOHNSON
Submitted to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Chair of Committee Dr. Robert Filback
Committee Member Dr. Briana Hinga
Committee Member Dr. Paul Dieken
Dean of Rossier Dr. Pedro Noguera
August 5, 2024
Major: Educational Leadership—Higher Education Concentration
Curriculum and Instruction
Copyright 2024 Barbara E. Johnson

ii
Table of Contents
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ ix
Abstract............................................................................................................................................1
Dedication........................................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................3
Chapter I: Overview of the Dissertation Study................................................................................5
Segregated Lived Experiences: The Elephant in the Room.............................................................6
Changing the Educational Landscape..............................................................................................9
Statement of the Problem...............................................................................................................11
Historical Roadmap to Literacy.....................................................................................................16
Interrogating School to Prison Pipeline .........................................................................................18
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................................19
Participants are Closest to the Problem of Practice .......................................................................20
Theoretical Frameworks Unlock Purpose......................................................................................21
Critical Race Theory (CRT).............................................................................................. 21
The African American Male Theory (AAMT)................................................................. 21
Tinto’s Student Retention Theory..................................................................................... 22
Empowerment: Defying the Odds .................................................................................... 23
Research Questions........................................................................................................................24
Significance of the Problem...........................................................................................................24
Gaps in the Literature.....................................................................................................................25
Definitions......................................................................................................................................26

iii
Limitations.....................................................................................................................................27
Student Benefits.............................................................................................................................27
Organization of the Dissertation ....................................................................................................27
Chapter II: Literature Review ........................................................................................................28
Historical Background Regarding African Americans and Educational Disparities.....................29
The Reconstruction Era..................................................................................................... 31
The Contributions of Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Marcus Garvey...... 32
Genesis of Historically Black Colleges ............................................................................ 33
Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)................................................... 34
HE Institutions Other Than HBCUs................................................................................. 36
Government Laws, Regulations, and Oversight: Attempts to Address the Wealth and
Opportunity Gaps.............................................................................................................. 36
Meritocracy and Low-Income Students............................................................................ 40
Reasons for the African American Male Phenomenon..................................................... 48
Myths ................................................................................................................................ 50
Overcoming Legal Injustices Suffered by African American Males................................ 51
School to Prison Pipeline.................................................................................................. 52
Asset-Based Strategies and Programs Designed to Address Inequalities and Help African
American Males Access HE ..........................................................................................................60
Center X................................................................................................................ 61
Long Beach Program ............................................................................................ 62

iv
AVID..................................................................................................................... 63
Puente.................................................................................................................... 64
Upward Bound...................................................................................................... 64
Summer Bridge ..................................................................................................... 65
Economic Opportunity Program (EOP)................................................................ 65
Mentoring.......................................................................................................................... 65
High School Course Work................................................................................................ 67
Support of Family Members Who Attended HE .............................................................. 67
What Teachers Need to Understand and Do: Compassion Required ............................... 67
Theoretical Frameworks Create the Blueprint...............................................................................69
CRT................................................................................................................................... 69
African American Male Theory (AAMT) ........................................................................ 75
Tinto’s Student Retention Theory..................................................................................... 77
Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................78
Chapter III: Research Methodology...............................................................................................81
Research Questions........................................................................................................................82
Study Design..................................................................................................................................83
Data Sources ..................................................................................................................................84
Data Collection ..............................................................................................................................87
Study Sample .................................................................................................................................88
Participants’ Recruitment.................................................................................................. 88

v
Participants’ Demographics.............................................................................................. 89
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................................91
Trustworthiness Measures .............................................................................................................94
Triangulation..................................................................................................................... 94
Ethical Considerations...................................................................................................... 95
Delimitations..................................................................................................................................96
Limitations of the Study.................................................................................................................96
Researcher’s Biases .......................................................................................................................97
Positionality ...................................................................................................................................97
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................100
Chapter IV: Results and Findings................................................................................................101
Danger Zones...............................................................................................................................104
School-to-Prison-Pipeline ............................................................................................... 104
Embedded Entrapment.................................................................................................... 105
Cultural Navigation......................................................................................................... 107
Lifelines .......................................................................................................................................109
Local Schools/Safety Net................................................................................................ 109
Churches ......................................................................................................................... 111
Lasting Relationships...................................................................................................... 111
Community Interventions ............................................................................................... 113
Family Infrastructure ...................................................................................................................113
A Mother’s Influence and High Expectations ................................................................ 114

vi
First-Generation Empowerment...................................................................................... 116
Low-Income Reality ....................................................................................................... 117
Defiance of the Odds ...................................................................................................................119
Dream-Killing................................................................................................................. 120
Personal Agency ............................................................................................................. 121
Brotherhood Networking ................................................................................................ 123
Relation of Achievement to Heritage ............................................................................. 124
Diverse Staff ................................................................................................................... 125
Summary......................................................................................................................................126
Chapter V: Discussion and Recommendations............................................................................127
Answers to Research Questions...................................................................................................128
The Usefulness of CRT and AAMT............................................................................................130
The Significance of an Asset-Based Mindset ..............................................................................132
The Ecology of Hope Model........................................................................................................132
Recommendations........................................................................................................................141
Recommendation for AAMs........................................................................................... 141
Recommendations for Educators.................................................................................... 143
K–12 Educators................................................................................................... 143
HE Educators...................................................................................................... 144
Recommendations for Policymakers .............................................................................. 146
Recommendations for Communities............................................................................... 147

vii
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................149
References....................................................................................................................................151
Appendix: Interview Questions ...................................................................................................170

viii
List of Tables
Table 1: Average Income of Different Populations .........................................................................7
Table 2: Description of HACLA Targeted Housing.........................................................................7
Table 3: Special Issues Latino and African American Males Face Regarding Education............49
Table 4: Tenets of Critical Race Theory ........................................................................................72
Table 5: The Narrative and Counternarrative of Critical Race Theory (CRT).............................75
Table 6: Demographic Information of African American Males and Residences in Projects.......91
Table 7: Participants’ Frequently Used Words.............................................................................93
Table 8: Codes-to-Themes System .................................................................................................94
Table 9: Participants’ Compiled Overarching Themes and the Study’s Theories ......................104

ix
List of Figures
Figure 1: Education Statistics about Minority Groups..................................................................12
Figure 2: Race and College Admission: The Justice and Education Departments Jointly ...........14
Figure 3: Black People’s Interest in and Perceptions of Specific Jobs .........................................16
Figure 4: Tinto’s Theory ................................................................................................................23
Figure 5: High-Income and Low-Income Schools .........................................................................41
Figure 6: Percentage of Students Who Are Not Attending School or Working .............................43
Figure 7: Unemployment Rates and Earnings by Educational Attainment in 2018, US. ..............44
Figure 8: Percentage of Public High School Class of 2013 Graduates Who Have Taken an
Advanced Placement Exam............................................................................................................45
Figure 9: College Enrollment Rates of Racial Groups in 1990 and 2014.....................................46
Figure 10: The School-to-Prison Pipeline .....................................................................................55
Figure 11: Student Suspensions and Arrests..................................................................................56
Figure 12: Number of African American Males in College or Jail/Prison....................................59
Figure 13: Critical Race Theory Concepts ....................................................................................71
Figure 14: Information About Housing Projects Study Participants Grew Up In.........................86
Figure 15: Topics Covered in Chapter 5......................................................................................128
Figure 16: Ecology of Hope Model..............................................................................................134
Figure 17: Intersectionality of Ecology of Hope Model, CRT, AAMT, and Tinto’s Theory ........136
Figure 18: Average Family Income for the Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles.........139
Figure 19: 6-Year Outcomes by Race and Ethnicity....................................................................140

1
Abstract
The study reframes the underappreciated and underreported success stories of African
American Males (AAMs) who grew up in the low-income community of Watts, California, and
who graduated from college. Fifteen participants were interviewed and provided
counternarratives that challenged the majoritarian narrative that AAMs are unmotivated,
unintelligent, and hard to teach in low-income, urban communities. Although these issues exist,
there are countless college graduation stories. This study details the resistance and resilience of
AAMs students who navigated through cultural experiences and higher education challenges to
earn college degrees. The study findings and conclusions have implications for pre-K–12 schools
and higher education administrators and staff. In the wake of trends against Black people;
affirmative action; and diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI), this study can possibly bring hope
and lead to the implementation of strategies and resources that can support the college
enrollment and completion of AAMs who grew up in low-income communities. The research
questions were as follows?:
 How did educated African American Males navigate through the challenges of lowincome households, peer pressure, police presence, and day-to-day cultural lived
experiences outside of the school to graduate college?
 How were AAMs supported, assisted, and guided to tenaciously overcome institutional
racism, discrimination, implicit biases, and microaggressions?
The participants’ interview responses add to the asset-based research, which examines
how low-income families (mothers in particular), local churches, underresourced schools, higher
education institutions, and governmental agencies can collaboratively serve as an infrastructure
to help increase AAMs’ college enrollment and completion.

2
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my heavenly parents, Obadiah and Ruby Bennett, gone
from my sight but not from my heart; to my beautiful, loving family—my husband, Wilbert (my
number one Trojan supporter), and son, Dana—to my siblings, Ray, Lynnell, and Eric; to my in
laws, Veronica, Leticia, and Michael; to my nephews and nieces; to my aunt Doris and cousins
Juanita and Eleanor; and to the Autry family. I also dedicate this dissertation to my heavenly
grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins, and in-laws, all of who, are missed but not forgotten.
The love of family is life’s greatest blessing.

3
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my eternal gratitude to my dissertation committee chair, Dr.
Robert Filback. I want to thank you for providing prodigious leadership, unwavering guidance
and support, and empowering inspiration throughout this qualitative research study.
Dr. Briana Hinga, I am extremely thankful for your impressive, intellectual content
expertise and for your willingness to share a wealth of research with me that shaped the purpose
and goal of the dissertation.
Dr. Paul Dieken, I deeply appreciate your impactful university experiential and
organizational contributions.
I would also like to acknowledge several professors: Dr. Michael Escalante, Dr. Jane
Rosenthal-Dicken, Dr. Shaun Harper, and Dr. Cynthia Olivo. I also offer a special tribute to the
late Dr. Tatiana Melguizo.
I am deeply indebted to Dr. Kenneth Witte, who faithfully supported me throughout my
doctoral journey, along with his wife, Virgie. The completion of this dissertation would not have
been possible without this support team. My dissertation support team not only included the
Wittes but also the magnanimous Dr. Susane Foulk, the USC Doctoral Support Center, my loyal
son (Dana Johnson), and the excellent services or my recorder and devoted brother Eric Bennett.
I would also like to acknowledge my participant recruiters: Pastor Robert Taylor and
Pastor James Latriece from the Watts Area Ministers Council. Clarence and Lois Kidd were
representatives from the Jordan High School Alumni Association.
It was an honor to serve as the principal investigator and researcher who conducted the
interviews of extraordinary AAMs. Participants enthusiastically committed to participating in the

4
study because they believed success is measured not by how high you climb but also by how
many you bring along (May, 2015).

5
Chapter I
Overview of the Dissertation Study
The narrative research study explored the educational success stories of African
American Males (AAMs) who grew up in segregated South Central Los Angeles housing
projects and graduated from college. In rich discourse, participants recounted their experiences,
thoughts, and feelings. One of the most polarizing discussed topics of the 21st century among
scholars is the unresolved problem of low college attainment rates for AAMs (Kendi, 2016). The
literature reviewed convincingly corroborates that AAMs remain one of the most academically
marginalized student groups in the United States (Sojoyner, 2013). The overarching theme of the
study is how the voices of college-educated AAMs who grew up in housing projects, can inform
educational and societal efforts in promoting higher education enrollment and completion for this
subgroup (Harper, 2012).
Currently, there exists an underrepresentation of AAMs taking advanced placement (AP)
and honors classes, enrolling in Higher Education (HE), and graduating once enrolled
(Dulabaum, 2016). The lived experiences of low-income AAMs are undeniable and daunting, yet
there are many untold stories of college-educated AAMs who completed HE (Harper, 2012).
They attended underserved, underperforming, low-income neighborhood schools saturated with
unfavorable media coverage (Howard, 2019). The author of the study argues that it is important
for educators to holistically embrace AAMs’ cultural reality (Kunjufu, 1987) to close the cultural
divide between lived experiences that they bring to HE and the academic and social support
needed to graduate (Howard, 2019; Kendi, 2016). Khamarov (Davis, 2021) stated poverty is like
punishment for a crime you did not commit. There is a declaration in Matthew 25:40: “Whatever
you did for the least of these, you did for me.” The least of these is described as socially,

6
psychologically, and economically disadvantaged (Mouity, 2023). For the purpose of this study,
the least of these are the students living in South Central Los Angeles Watts housing projects.
The study focused on former students who lived in three Watts projects: Jordan Downs,
Nickerson Gardens, and Imperial Courts. These former student resident participants persevered
to obtain college degrees and shared their respective academic pathways to graduation. Two of
the Watts housing units are listed among the worst housing projects in the United States (Briggs,
2020; Rothstein, 2017).
Segregated Lived Experiences: The Elephant in the Room
To set the cultural stage, there are 19 Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles
(2023) Projects (HACLA) located in Los Angeles, California. Table 1 documents stratified
poverty comparisons among governmental categories. Nickerson Gardens is the largest housing
project west of the Mississippi River. The homicide rate is part of the challenging reality for
students (Francis, 2022). As illustrated in Table 2 (Briggs, 2020), Jordan Downs maintains a
large student population and demands the attention of educators to culturally serve them to break
the cycle of generational poverty. There are over 3,000 students (current, possible, and future)
ages 1-24 in this housing unit. In Table 2, Imperial Courts’ longevity of family residencies may
suggest inopportunities to financially transition to single-family homes (Rothstein, 2017;
Rothstein 2019b). Tables 1 and 2 gave cultural context to understand the lived experiences that
created an educational divide and reinforced self-fulfilling prophecies of unfulfilled college
hopes and dreams (Briggs, 2020; U.S. Census, 2023).

7
Table 1
Average Income of Different Populations
Location Average income % compared to U.S. average
U.S. $62,843 100.00%
L.A. County $68,044 108.28%
L.A. $62,142 98.88%
L.A. low-income housing $24,881 39.59%
Note. Adapted from Statistics and Demographics Report Public Housing Sites, 2021, by A.
Zamora. Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles.
Table 2
Description of HACLA Targeted Housing
Nickerson
Gardens
 1,068-unit public housing
 Largest public housing development West of the Mississippi River
 LA Coroner’s office report 22 homicides in Watts January through
November 2022; double the number for the same period a year
earlier.
Jordan
Downs
 700 Unit apartment complex in Watts, California
 Has 103 townhouse style units in 103 buildings of 1 to 5 bedrooms
 The population is mainly 0-to-24-year-olds.
Population Demographics
Age Group
Number of people in the age
bracket
0-4 669
5-9 719
10-14 744
15-19 696
20-24 619
25-29 464
30-34 464

8
35-39 471
40-44 472
45-49 395
50-54 325
55-59 259
60-64 207
65-69 148
70-74 101
75-79 71
80-84 56
85+ 51
Median Age 24.29
Imperial
Courts
 A 498-unit complex built in 1944.
 African American and Mexican descents predominantly inhabit units.
 10% of residents have moved from LA County. 82 % stayed in the
same house last year.
 Moved from Abroad 0.84%
 Moved from Same County 10.13%
 Moved from Same State 2.31%
 Moved from Different State 3.78%
 Same House as Last Year 82.98%
Note. Adapted from Top 10 Worst Housing Projects in the United States, by J. Briggs, 2020,
YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_r_bGUPidGQ. Copyright 2020 by J. Briggs.
Rothstein (2017) and Sojoyner (2013) asserted segregation in America has contributed to
much of the social strife for African Americans and is a byproduct of governmental policies at

9
the local, state, and federal levels. Rothstein (2017) and Sojoyner (2013) vehemently declared
that poor housing in impoverished de jure segregated neighborhoods consequentially produces
underfunded, under-resourced, and underperforming schools. The authors revealed it could not
have happened without governmental approval which contributes to the generational cycle of
poverty (Patel, 2016; Rothstein, 2017). The lived realities that AAMs experience and the cultural
interconnections in the educational environment are important constructs of the HE successful
graduation process (Kendi, 2016; Huerta et al., 2021). Educated is defined as obtaining an
associate’s or bachelor’s degree (U.S. Department of Education, 2020). The overall aim of this
study is to help change the deficit paradigms and depictions of African Americans (Etherington
& Bridges, 2011; Howard, 2014; Morris, 2015) specifically, AAMs living in housing projects in
South Central Los Angeles. Educated AAM voices, not researchers, navigate the narrative study
(Etherington & Bridges, 2011). Through storytelling, the study added counter-disaggregated data
for this subgroup (Solórzano & Yosso, 2001) whose enrollment and completion rates continue to
decrease. This unexplained phenomenon of low HE rates remains unresolved and continues to be
an urgent call to action until the downward trend is reversed (Harper & Simmons, 2019; Hess &
Noguera, 2021). The reasons for AAMs’ stagnation are some of the most dissentious arguments
taking place in urban education today (Hannah-Jones, 2021; Kendi, 2016; Loury, 2003;
McWhorter, 2021; Riley, 2016).
Changing the Educational Landscape
There are three illustrious African descendants in the literature reviewed who were HE
life changers for AAMs. These leaders proudly asserted who the people of African descent were
historically, and their unprecedented contributive importance in the United States and world
histories. These men greatly contributed to the improvement of Black life and set educational

10
attainment on a new trajectory. The first is Booker T. Washington (2013), a former slave who
fought tenaciously to establish segregated colleges, vocational schools, and African Americanowned businesses for self-improvement. Washington (2013) declared success is not measured by
the position one has reached in life, but rather by the obstacles one overcomes while trying to
succeed. The second is W.E.B. Du Bois (1999) who advocated for HE integration. He was the
first African American to graduate from Harvard with a PhD (Farrie et al., 2018) and stated HE
is one of the most important tools of emancipation for the Black community (Farrie et al., 2018).
Du Bois (1999) was one of the first AAMs to discuss a sense of belonging and revealed that it
was lacking at Harvard compared to his valued interaction and acceptance at Fisk University, an
HBCU (Farrie et al., 2018). There was one courageous leader born in Jamaica who migrated to
the United States and stands out among the rest (Cronon, 1960). He set out to raise the quality of
life for people of African heritage globally and return them to Africa (Cronon, 1960). His name
was Marcus Garvey. He was inspired by Booker T. Washington to establish schools and improve
African American lifestyle which included economic, social, and educational liberation (Cronon,
1960).
Garvey created the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in over 40
countries (Cronon, 1960) and collected monies from Blacks in various countries (Cronon, 1960;
Helfer, 2006). He masterminded businesses and schools in Harlem, New York, created jobs,
started a newspaper entitled Negro World, and bought a ship named The Black Star Line
(Cronon, 1960). According to Cronon (1960) at one point, Garvey claimed there were over six
million African descendants in the UNIA. With that much power and force under the watch of J.
Edgar Hoover, African Americans assumed Garvey would not survive lynching or prison, but his
global following gave way to several years of uninterrupted nationalistic achievements which

11
included the first Negro Declaration of Rights (Cronon, 1960). Unfortunately, as recorded by
Cronon (1960), J. Edgar Hoover enlisted the aid of Blacks to infiltrate UNIA and later convicted
Garvey on tax charges (Helfer, 2006). He was deported back to Jamaica (Cronon, 1960). More
than any other Black leader, he instilled Black pride, Black nationalism, and self- perseveration
by connecting African heritage to the past, present, and future. Garvey inspired powerful leaders
like Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, and Nelson Mandela (Cronon, 1960; Helfer, 2006). Garvey
created a flag featuring the colors black, green, and red (still used today). Garvey stated that
Black skin was not a badge of shame, but rather a glorious symbol of national greatness (Cronon,
1960).
Statement of the Problem
African American male students are the lowest subgroup completing undergraduate
degrees which is the seriousness of the problem as illustrated in Figure 1. Across racial and
ethnic groups, African American male students earned a smaller share of undergraduate degrees
and certificates than did males in other groups and than did African American female students
(Harper, 2012).

12
Figure 1
Education Statistics about Minority Groups
 34% of AA male students completed bachelor’s degrees within 6 years, compared to 44%
of AA female students.
 50% of Hispanic male students completed bachelor’s degrees within 6 years, compared to
58% of Hispanic female students.
 35% of American Indian male students completed bachelor’s degrees within 6 years,
compared to 42% of American Indian female students.
 70% of Asian male students completed bachelor/s degrees within 6 years, compared to
77% of Asian female students.
 50% of Pacific Islander male students completed bachelor’s degrees within 6 years
compared to 53% of Pacific Islander female students.
Note. Data from Hussar et al. (2020).
There is a disproportionately low rate of transfers from high school to college for
impoverished AAMs that leave these students without the economic benefits of a college
education, which perpetuates the generational cycle of poverty and illiteracy (Melguizo et al.,
2017; Morris, 2015; Sojoyner, 2013).
With the recent ruling of the United States Supreme Court (Boyd et al., 2023) regarding
race and admissions, Figure 2 is a depiction of the intersection of race and college admissions
that has fueled a 21st century debate regarding AAMs. The debate centers around affirmative
action, institutional racism, meritocracy, family support, and personal agency (Loury &

13
McWhorter, 2022; McWhorter, 2021; Riley, 2016). The Justice and Education departments
jointly announced that they had rescinded Obama-era guidelines encouraging colleges to racially
diversify their campuses. Many critics of using race in admissions say it discriminates against
White people. Martin Luther King (2010) addressed meritocracy by stating it is unfair to ask a
man to pull himself up by his bootstraps if he has no boots. King (2010) also elaborated that
there were two Americas: one America was overflowing with prosperity and the freedom to
pursue happiness for some, while the other America allowed economic, educational, and political
deprivation for others (Matthew, 2018).

14
Figure 2
Race and College Admission: The Justice and Education Departments Jointly
Note. From A National View of Student Completion Rates—Fall 2011 Cohort,
https://nscresearchcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/SignatureReport14_Final.pdf). Copyright 2017
by the National Steering Clearinghouse.

15
The disjointed K–16 infrastructure between low-income secondary schools and higher
education jeopardizes the success of AAMs’ completion of higher education (Harper &
Simmons, 2019). Recent studies found that infrastructure should include the following: culturally
responsive instructional administrators, staff with high expectations, advanced course offerings,
diverse hiring (especially African American males) practices, culturally relevant pedagogy, male
mentorships, and empathetic individualized scaffolding support (Duncan-Andrade, 2009; Huerta
et al., 2021; Love, 2019; Weissman, 2022).
The literature reviewed confirmed the fact that reversing trends remains urgent (HannahJones, 2021; Howard, 2019; US Department of Education, 2019; US Department of Education,
2020). This present work explores counter-narratives from high-poverty AAMs from
underperforming urban schools who successfully obtained degrees (Harper & Simmons, 2019).
Resurgent literature has been recently published (Mac Donald, 2018; Mac Donald 2023; Murray,
2020, 2021) arguing that cognitive differences between African Americans exist when compared
to White Americans. This argument affirms there is a gap in the literature reporting successful
HE narratives according to Harper (2012) and Harper and Simmons (2019). Many AAMs are
socialized to prioritize sports and music over academics. In high school, such messages are
sustained and can continue once in college (Harper, 2012). Figure 3 illustrates the dire need to
persuasively expose African American males to various career options, educational programs,
and college choices; specifically in mathematics and science for students demonstrating early
talents in these areas.
Comparatively small shares of Black adults see science and engineering jobs as open to
Black people. Figure 3 shows the percentage of Black adults who say the following about each

16
professional group. Note: Respondents who gave other responses or who did not give an answer
are not shown.
Figure 3
Black People’s Interest in and Perceptions of Specific Jobs
Note. The data are from a survey conducted November 30–December 12, 2021. From Black
Americans’ Views of and Engagement with Science, by C. Funk, 2022, Pew Research Center,
https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/04/07/black-americans-views-of-and-engagementwith-science. Copyright 2018 by the Pew Research Center.
Historical Roadmap to Literacy
Historically, Southern Caucasians kept AAMs illiterate and second-class citizens, first to
maintain capitalistic wealth and power, and secondly, out of fear of insurrections in retaliation
for years of inhumane slave atrocities (Bennett, 2018; Lester, 2000). Jones (2021) found
Southern Caucasians believed African Americans were best situated to be slaves, which explains

17
why the census counted a slave as three-fifths of a man. After the Emancipation Proclamation
was issued, Blacks could officially be referred to as African Americans and enjoy full citizenship
(Bennett, 2018). Countless murders, lynchings, separation of families, rapes, discrimination in
employment, education, property ownership, and suppression of civil rights have plagued
African American progress. Barbarity continued through many unpunished actions of the hate
group Ku Klux Klan and law and order officials (Bennett, 2018; Fryer, 2019; Lester, 2000; Patel,
2016). The Reconstruction and Jim Crow periods presented ongoing literacy obstacles. Despite
educational setbacks, HBCUs have been successful in enrolling and graduating AAMs and
establishing a career trajectory for success. HBCU studies found a plethora of data evidence
demonstrating AAMs’ HE high performance, cognitive abilities, and successful professional
skills (Anderson et al., 2020; Spring, 2016; Steward, 2008). HBCUs enroll 10% of African
American students and produce 20% of overall graduates (Spring, 2016). According to Steward
et al. (2008) and Anderson et al. (2020), faculty diversity was a contributing factor to the
increased numbers of HE enrollments and completions for African American men. Faculty
diversity allowed students to enjoy a closer relationship with faculty (Anderson et al., 2016).
HBCUs have a rich history and celebrate revered traditions (Steward et al., 2008).
The studies that have argued African Americans lack intelligence and leadership skills
(Mac Donald, 2018; Murray, 2014) have been exacerbated by the media images of segregated
low-income neighborhoods, as well as primitive behavior and living conditions in Africa
(Bennett, 2018; Coates, 2015; Helfer, 2006). Undeniably, many African American communities
struggle with poor health care, academic underachievement, low-income households, singleparent homes, early pregnancies, racial profiling, gangs, drugs, and contentious relationships
with police (Foyer, 2016; Hayes, 2019; Kendi, 2016). Governmental provisions such as President

18
Johnson’s War on Poverty, Civil Rights Act in 1964, the Elementary and Secondary Education
Act (ESEA) in 1965, and No Child Left Behind (NCLB) in 2002 were meant to eradicate
inequalities for African Americans (Ladson-Billings, 2006; Lee, 2015; Rothstein, 2017). Dr.
Martin Luther King clarified that some political acts such as War on Poverty passed without
sufficient funding to transform or fully solve the intended problems (King, 1964). Noguera
(2003) and Noguera (2009), authored compelling arguments regarding student engagement,
nurturing, and relationships. Harper (2012) and Harper and Simmons (2019) authored
overwhelming racial studies to help eradicate institutional racism and move to antideficit
mindedness. Over the years, AAMs experienced special education labeling for behavioral (not
learning) issues which subsequently created a school-to-prison pipeline (STPP) trajectory
(Sojoyner, 2013). STPP originated from disproportionate high school suspensions and expulsions
(Wilson, 2014).
Interrogating School to Prison Pipeline
Sojoyner (2013) described the STPP as an enclosure that pushes students out of schools,
and exchanges pathways to college and careers with the juvenile justice system. Laura (2018)
emphatically documented that educators were either engaged in incarceration prevention or
incarceration expansion. This meant that educators had to create healthy and productive learning
spaces for young people (Laura, 2018). Restorative justice policies and programs have been
implemented where students were provided psychological, social, and educational support
(Danker, 2021; Núñez-Eddy, 2020).
In the housing projects of South-Central Los Angeles, STPP has been one of the most
egregious interruptions to HE (Laura, 2018; Wilson, 2014). According to Laura (2018),
educators can potentially make an impact by understanding their role to interrupt and interrogate

19
STPP (Laura, 2018; Sojoyner, 2019). Henceforth, ample discussion is written in the study about
the problems of STPP injustice systems. Currently, there are educational trends (Hopkins, 2002)
that are taking place to reverse the downward spiral of AAMs entering HE and completing
degree programs (Harper & Simmons, 2019; Levine & Tennant, 2020; Morris, 2015). Welldocumented K–16 educational programs that have addressed lived realities and that were
culturally relevant were illuminated in the study (Center X, 2021; Somchandmavong, 2009).
Purpose of the Study
Educated AAMs who grew up in South Central Los Angeles Watts housing projects
shared what they learned from their culturally lived experiences that would help maximize
educators’ efforts to increase HE enrollment and completion (Briggs, 2020; Long, 2021).
Polarizing HE attainment arguments of the 20th and 21st centuries regarding AAMs were
expounded upon (Du Bois, 1999; Kendi, 2016; McWhother, 2020; Washington, 2013). The
dissertation study unpacks theories, programs, policies, and practices that have proven successful
in supporting African American male students (Center X, 2020; Lee, 2015; Weissman, 2022). To
conceptualize the educational journey of African Americans, the study began historically, with
millions of citizens in Africa, who were captured and later relegated to positions of enslaved
illiterates in America. Thereafter, during the Reconstruction and Jim Crow eras, survivors
exhibited unprecedented motivation to pursue educational hopes and dreams (Foner, 2015).
Thenceforward, years later, generational descendants of former slave survivors have been
labeled unmotivated underachievers and intellectual underperformers (Mac Donald, 2023; Zong
& Davis, 2022). Reports continue to document that AAMs have the lowest enrollment and
completion HE rates among racial subgroups (Huerta et al., 2021; U.S. Department of Education,
2020; Zong & Davis, 2022). The study’s participants endeavored to help give answers to the

20
questions: how did we get here, but more importantly, how do we improve the HE trajectory for
AAMs (Harper & Simmons, 2019; Hess & Noguera, 2021)?
Participants Are Closest to the Problem of Practice
The narrative research study examined the AAMs’ educational pilgrimage differences
that create a cultural reality disjuncture when they enter a community college or a four-year
institution (Matthews, 2024; Melguizo et al., 2017). The narrative research study was grounded
in Critical Race Theory (CRT) (Crenshaw, 2017; Ladson-Billings, 2006), which critically
explore where racist programs and policies are that continue to place barriers in the pathway of
AAMs from college to their careers. Participants were recruited from high schools, churches, and
local colleges. This study was intended to destigmatize students who live in poverty and youth
who need a second chance after early encounters with law enforcement.
The narrative research study explored and conceptualize human experiences as they are
represented in textual form by way of interviews. The researcher collected counter-storytelling
narratives about cultural experiences and describe HE completion success journeys to obtain rich
discourse. AAMs received a voice to define problems and suggesting solutions. The participant
voices of African American college graduate males who lived in Los Angeles South Central
housing projects reveal meaningful relationships, best pedagogical practices, institutional support
programs, and campus activities, as well as sagacious advice, shared that contributed to their
respective college success stories (Dulabaum, 2016). This narrative study added qualitative
academic data for the AAM subgroup. The critical intent of this research was to present counternarratives of AAMs who successfully negotiated deficit-based societal and educational
challenges to achieve success (Pasque, 2022; Solórzano, 2013). Their storytelling will inform
efforts on how to promote early success among AAMs educated in urban environments. The

21
study used key concepts of counternarratives to suppress majoritarian ideologies that perpetuate
negative viewpoints and perceptions (Duncan-Andrade, 2009; Love, 2019; Solórzano & Yosso,
2002). Counter-storytelling was used as a methodological tool to reconceptualize research
regarding AAMs (Kendi, 2016; Patel, 2016).
A major purpose of the study was to investigate effective programs and initiatives
designed to support AAMs when challenged with social injustices and adverse cultural
experiences (Center X, 2020: Weissman, 2022). The researcher focused on a K–16 tenacious
journey to complete HE. The media coverage depicts violent, pathological, irresponsible
dropouts and deadbeats, but countless untold narratives of persistence and perseverance exist in
high-poverty, segregated neighborhoods (Harper, 2012; Howard, 2019; Mita, 2004).
Theoretical Frameworks Unlock Purpose
Critical Race Theory (CRT)
The theoretical framework of Critical Race Theory provides a historical understanding of
the existence of racism, violence, and oppression that contributes to a cultural gap when African
American males enter and complete higher education. The CRT framework supports the
relationship between schools and zero-tolerance discipline policies which is a pathway to prison.
CRT moves conversations about racism past arguments from whether racism exists or not to how
it exists. There are six tenets, and the study focused on counter-storytelling.
The African American Male Theory (AAMT)
AAMT is another lens by which the researcher explained unpreparedness, personal
agency, and motivation of AAMs when entering higher education. After 40 years of study, no
other comprehensive theory has been developed to analyze the lives of AA boys and men until

22
AAMT, which is grounded in CRT. This theoretical framework can be used to articulate the
trajectory of AAMs in society.
Tinto’s Student Retention Theory
Tinto’s (1975, 1988) student retention theory discusses the principles of transitioning
mentally, socially, and cognitively to a college learning environment from a segregated
neighborhood. Tinto (1988) proposed that students enter college with preexisting attributes and
experiences, including family background, skills, and prior schooling. To persist through the
challenges of HE academic and social structures, the student must connect and feel a sense of
belonging (Metz, 2004; Tinto, 1988) to graduate. According to Tinto’s theory, the decision of
poor urban students to defer HE dreams relates to their lived realities. The theory raises questions
about the aspirations of people and the consequences if hopes and dreams are not realized (Metz,
2004). Figure 4 summarizes Tinto’s theory.

23
Figure 4
Tinto’s Theory
Family
Background
Individual
Attributes
Note. From Challenge and Changes to Tinto’s Persistence Theory: A Historical Review, by G.
Metz, 2004, Journal of College Student Retention: Theory & Practice
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.2190/m2cc-r7y1-wy2q-upk5 Copyright 2004 by the
Journal of College Student Retention: Research Theory & Practice
Empowerment: Defying the Odds
According to Kunjufu (1987), reversing downward trends starts with early literacy and
raising expectations for AAMs to achieve. Also important is increasing AAMs’ self-esteem, and
self-pride, understanding their cultural identity, as well as appreciating differences, and the
invaluable under-addressed contributions of Ancient Africa and African Americans in the United
States. Most ethnic groups have a descendent connection to their place of origin (Bennett, 2018)
that most AAMs do not have. Most ethnicities know who they are and can trace their heritage
roots (Bennett, 2018).
Social
Experience
s in HE
Goal
Commitment
Academic
Experiences
in HE Social and
Academic
Interaction
Goal
Commitment
Decision to
Complete/
Drop out Pre-College
Schooling

24
A preponderance of research data revealed the advantages of widespread college
preparation in low-income secondary education, and HE cultures that include positive classroom
engagement and a sense of belonging. Center X (2020) and Zong and Davis (2022) identified
research-based best practices and accommodations for AAMs’ learning styles. The HE
antideficit minded trend documented by Harper (2012) was an effort to change the lens to assetbased, equity-mindedness. There is a need to continue correlating psychosocial and academic
performance (Swanson, 2021), and addressing the over-representation of AAMs in both juvenile
court and prison systems (Laura, 2018; Sojoyner, 2013).
Research Questions
 How did educated African American Males (AAMs) navigate through the challenges of
low-income households, peer pressure, police presence, and day-to-day cultural lived
experiences outside of the school to graduate college?
 How were AAMs supported, assisted, and guided to tenaciously overcome institutional
racism, discrimination, implicit biases, and microaggressions?
Significance of the Problem
The findings of the study bear great significance as educators strive to study and resolve
the challenges faced by young Black men in America (Hayes, 2019). Children are suffering as
reported by Edelman (1987). Eldelman further states that the suffering related to AAMs
continues to be a national disaster (Eldelman, 1987).
The results of this dissertation contribute to the value of the discourse surrounding
AAMs’ K–16 academic success (Hannah-Jones, 2021; Harper & Simmons, 2019). The urgency
of the problem is a call to action to unpack the disjuncture between low-income lived

25
experiences AAMs bring to higher education and the academic and psychosocial support needed
to enroll in and complete higher education (Huerta et al., 2021; Zong & Davis, 2022).
The participants were educated men who demonstrated personal agency in high- poverty
environments. The literature revealed the origins of segregated housing conditions and the
process of transitioning from deficit-thinking to antideficit mindedness (Hannah-Jones, 2021;
Rothstein, 2017).
Financial resources play a huge role in the decision to attend and complete college for
AAMs (Deming et al., 2013). For-profit HE institutions began targeting students of color to
accept high-interest loans for accelerated certifications and degree programs (Brooms, 2019).
Many of these schools closed, leaving disproportionate numbers of AAM students in debt with
or without degrees or certificates from non-accredited institutions (Iloh, 2016). Satisfying
financial aid, fulfilling family obligations, and attaining college readiness provides a pathway to
HE completion (Brooms & Davis, 2017; Dulabaum, 2016). Dulabaum (2016) suggested a
paradoxical construct. Low-income students may experience institutional inopportunities in
underfunded and underperforming segregated schools. However, AAM students in high-income
schools may face impactful discrimination, implicit biases, and microaggressions (Dulabaum,
2016; Harper & Simmons, 2019) that may prevent HE completions. The AAM participants
voiced lived experiences that confirm ways to situate Black men for success at the earliest stages
(Huerta et al., 2021).
Gaps in the Literature
The researcher found that longitudinal studies regarding effective programs that resulted
in generational systemic changes for AAMs were limited. Additional research was needed to
demystify the belief that there were more African American males in prisons than those pursuing

26
HE. There was a need for additional asset-based studies to counter the majoritarian narratives
about high-income/low-income AAMs’ HE journeys.
Definitions
Achievement Gap: The term refers to the disparities in standardized test scores between
Black and White, Latina/o and White, and recent immigrant and White students (LadsonBillings, 2006). The National Governors: Association describes the achievement gap as a matter
of race and class; and as one of the most pressing educational-policy challenges that state
currently face (Le Duc, 2022).
African American Males (AAMs): Males who are part of an ethnic group of Americans
with total or partial ancestry from any Black racial group of Africa (Bennett, 2018).
Antideficit mindedness: An approach created by Harper (2012) that leads to
understanding Black male success by emphasizing institutional racism as a barrier to academic
achievement rather than individual responsibility.
Deficit Thinking: Defined by Skrla and Scheurich (2001) and Valencia (1997) as the
governing epistemology that informs the quality of educational leadership for many
economically, linguistically, and culturally diverse children in America.
The Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles (HACLA): Government subsidized
housing: Housing projects, public housing and Section 8 housing units (Zamora, 2024).
Institutional Inopportunity: Periods experienced by the Black male when they are not
given fair and equal access to educational opportunities (Haycock, 2002).
Racial Injustice: The unequal distribution of resources, power, and economic opportunity
across races in a society (Bowdler & Harris, 2022).

27
Limitations
The study had multiple limitations: (a) Case study results can be difficult to replicate and
can be expensive and time-consuming to complete. (b) Case studies may lack scientific methods
and rigor to protect the data collected, and researchers can allow their feelings to influence the
research with biases.
Student Benefits
The study’s benefits support and foster college matriculation and transition, mentorships,
role models, community advancements, collegiate first-generation experiences, and the academic
and social needs of AAMs.
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter 1 introduces the significance and purpose of the study and the rationale for
exploring the topic of continued low enrollment and completion rates of AAMs. Chapter 2
examines existing literature to assess what has been written regarding AAMs and where the gaps
are in the literature on this topic. Chapter 3 details the research methodology, which included
conducting the qualitative narrative case study design, outlining the data collection process,
analyzing the data depth and limitations, and finally determining the research findings. Chapter 4
presents the data analysis results. Chapter 5 discusses the answers to the research questions and
provides recommendations based on the analysis results.

28
Chapter II
Literature Review
This literature reviewed revealed African American males’ educational pilgrimage and
their cultural lived realities that create an educational disjuncture between low-income secondary
schools and higher education (HE) (Harper, 2012; Noguera, 2003; Noguera, 2009). According to
Harper (2012), the academic success of AAMs’ college success stories were underexplored.
Brooms and Davis (2017) argued to teach factual United States history that covers 200 years of
slavery, Jim Crow segregation and discrimination laws, ancient Africa’s invaluable achievements
to mankind, African American patented inventions, as well as the tenacious survival skills of
African Americans in the United States of America (Kendi, 2016).
In the second section of the literature reviewed, three theories served as the blueprint of
the study: Critical Race Theory (CRT) (Harper, 2012), African American Male Theory (AAMT)
(Bush & Bush, 2018), and Tinto’s Theory (Metz, 2004). CRT was used to critically examine
where racist programs and policies are that present barriers that challenge African American
male students and remove them from a college and career pathway. Coates (2015) and Rothstein
(2017) addressed segregated housing that recycles generational poverty and underperforming
schools. Tinto’s Theory reveals how these low-income students can transition to college (Metz,
2004).
These theories served as the lens to help understand the lived experiences of students who
lived in the housing projects of South-Central Los Angeles (Jordan Downs, Imperial Courts, and
Nickerson Gardens) and were at risk of entering the STPP (Laura, 2018). The STTP has been
one of the most egregious interruptions of HE (Agudelo et al., 2021; Danker, 2021; Laura, 2018;
Sojoyner, 2013; Wilson, 2014). Agudelo et al. (2021) addressed the ongoing disproportionality

29
of African Americans in prisons and in the juvenile justice system, henceforth, ample discussion
is presented about STTP. Currently, restorative justice practices have been implemented to
reverse the downward spiral of African American males entering HE and completing degree
programs (Hopkins, 2002; Huerta et al., 2021; Melguizo et al., 2017). Struble (2023) expanded
the research of Huerta et al. (2021) regarding the HE struggles of men of color face. This chapter
also discusses well-documented, successful educational programs such as African American
male initiatives that have addressed lived realities and college preparation for AAM students
(Center X, 2020; Weissman, 2022).
Historical Background Regarding African Americans and Educational Disparities
To fully understand the relationship between African American men and HE today, it is
essential to understand the journey they have traveled. To narrate a sufficient historical
perspective, one must begin with the backdrop of the American slave period, when America
considered Blacks to be three-fifths of a person (Bennett, 2018; Lester, 2000). The first enslaved
Africans arrived in colonial Virginia in 1619 on slave ships to be subjugated as less than human
(Bennett, 2018; Lester, 2000). Patel (2016) further discussed the inhumane slave atrocities and
abdominal savagery suffered. African Americans survived 200 years of slavery, ingrained in
24/7 insufferable free labor, family separation (never to be reunited), ruthless rapes, heinous
murders, brutal castrations, horrific beatings, and local displays of dismemberment of limbs
(Bennett, 2018; Du Bois, 1999; Patel, 2016; Van Sertima, 1976).
The historical African descendants’ cultural journey should be incorporated into today’s
teaching and learning (Howard, 2019; Kendi, 2016; Kunjufu, 1987; Washington, 2013) to bolster
identity, self-confidence, a sense of belonging, classroom engagement, and cultural appreciation
for African American male students’ heritage (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; DiAngelo, 2022;

30
Hannah-Jones et al., 2019; Kendi, 2016). Slaves were forbidden to practice African cultural
traditions and were forbidden to recognize great African achievements that connected them to
the motherland (Bennett, 2018; Lester, 2000; Patel, 2016). Cronon (1960), Kunjufu (1987), and
Van Sertima (1976) disclosed that this is the reason African American males know little about
their African heritage and more about Blacks serving as slaves. There is a tenacious and
persevering cultural African American journey not taught in schools (Hannah-Jones, 2021;
Kendi, 2016; Patel, 2015). A span of contributions were left under-addressed in the US
educational system (Coates, 2015).
According to some experts, slavery was the root cause of African American men’s
illiteracy (Anderson et al., 2020; Du Bois, 1999; Kendi, 2016; Washington, 2013). Slave owners
anticipated that educating African Americans would destroy slave owners’ dominance; therefore,
barriers were established that kept enslaved African descendants illiterate (Bennett, 2018; Du
Bois, 1999; Laura, 2018). According to Bennett (2018), many slaves were strategically pitted
against one another. The darker complexioned slaves were treated more harshly, and spoken
English was learned from the slave overseers. Bennett noted that these facts may have future
implications for African Americans. The studies of scholars (Bennett, 2018; Cohen &
Odhiambo, 1989; Van Sertima, 1976) illuminated many ingenious and overlooked advancements
that began in ancient Africa. These contributions included: mathematical counting, astronomy
discoveries, tool making, architecture, engineering, medical procedures, sailing vessels, and
navigation (Bennett, 2018). Schools sprang up in churches and homes with teachers who kept
literacy hidden from slave masters (Lester, 2000; Washington, 2013).

31
The Reconstruction Era
After 3.5 million slaves were freed, without any financial means, a thirst for knowledge
was unquenchable for African American males old and young (Anderson, 1988; Bennett, 2018;
Du Bois, 1999; Lester, 2000; Van Sertima, 1976). Ruelas (2017) explored the educational
journey of African American males from reconstruction to the 21st century. Ruelas’s research
study confirmed that African Americans possessed an insatiable desire to learn after
Reconstruction.
Recent scholars who have studied the aftermath of the Civil War such as Foner (2015)
found that in current social studies standards, 45 of 50 states partially or completely omitted the
reconstruction era when this complex period chronicles the emancipated slave’s search for
economic autonomy, educational opportunities, and full citizenship. Foner (2015) suggested this
was the underpinning of racial attitudes and patterns of race relations. Though slavery was
abolished, African American males experienced structural barriers to obtaining education (Fryer,
2016; Patel, 2016). For example, Jim Crow laws later established discriminatory practices in
education, voting, housing, and employment (Howard, 2019; Rothstein, 2017) Documented by
Foner (2015) and Lester (2006), many Southern Caucasians opposed laws promoting any course
of action to educate slaves. Consequently, African Americans often attended schools with
insufficient funding and resources to prepare for HE (Laura, 2018; Lester, 2000; Patel, 2016;
Rothstein, 2017; Ruelas, 2017). Ingeniously, ex-slaves solicited and received community
grassroots funding and support for African American schools (de Oliveira et al., 2015; Fryer,
2016; Patel, 2015; Washington, 2013). Sabbath schools opened throughout the South, reaching
thousands of African Americans who were restricted by indentured daily work schedules (Lester,
2000). African American churches operated schools in which the teaching focused on reading

32
comprehension, moral structures, and intense spelling instruction (Du Bois, 1999; Hooks, 2014;
Ruelas, 2017; Washington, 2013).
The Contributions of Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Marcus Garvey
During the late 19th century and early 20th century, three prominent men made
considerable contributions to the idea of equal rights for African Americans: Booker T.
Washington (2013), W.E.B Du Bois (1999), and Marcus Garvey (Cronon, 1960). Washington
came to prominence during the Reconstruction era, seeking a pathway for African American
males to obtain HE (Washington, 2013). He became an African American spokesperson who
promoted self-independence and racial solidarity (Washington, 2013). The rise of Washington to
the role of spokesperson for African Americans was, to opponents, counterproductive to the
long-term educational goals for African Americans (Washington, 2013). As adduced by
Washington (2013), the acceptance of Washington’s segregated lifestyle was rejected by his
opponents within the African American community such as Du Bois (1999) and de Oliveira et al.
(2015). Opponents believed segregation was the continuation of enslavement (Du Bois, 1999;
Farrie et al., 2018). Washington (2013) believed that African Americans were not inferior to
Whites, but the social norms gave way to racial segregation. Washington (2013) also believed
that vocational training would be a path for African Americans to exit slavery and subsequently
invest in African American-owned businesses (de Oliveira et al., 2015; Washington, 2013).
Du Bois (1999), who later attended Harvard, was vehemently opposed to Washington’s
idea of vocational training and was convinced segregation was a second-class citizen ideology
(Farrie et al., 2018). Du Bois (1999) opposed racial segregation and campaigned for immediate
equality, demanding the dismantling of segregation. He believed that getting an education was
primarily for self-improvement. Du Bois’s (1999) wrote that racial injustice originated with the

33
God-like power of Whites to possess the earth exclusively (Farrie et al., 2018) and the
redistribution of wealth’s encompassing power was his answer to White supremacy (DiAngelo,
2022). Du Bois was elected to organize the Pan African Conference to advance Black global
unity (Du Bois, 1999). In 1935, Du Bois was credited with promoting Black history education in
schools (Du Bois, 1999). The great 20th century Black education debate began with the scholars
Washington (2013) and Du Bois (1999).
Genesis of Historically Black Colleges
Proponents for both schools of thought were the genesis for historically Black colleges
and universities (HBCUs), as well as the integration of African Americans into predominantly
White institutions (PWIs) of HE (Johnson & Elliot, 2004; Patel, 2015; Steward et al., 2008).
Both Washington (2013) and Du Bois (1999) vigorously supported the educational improvement
of African Americans. The two scholarly philosophies were worthwhile to consider because
there was not a one size fits all educational option (Emdin, 2016; Hess & Noguera, 2021; Love,
2019; Massey et al., 2014). Marcus Garvey profoundly contributed to the progress of Blacks
(Cronon, 1960). He was a courageous 20th century Black leader who rose to fame executing a
goal to unify Blacks in 40 countries and return Blacks to Africa so they could experience
educational and economic liberation (Cronon, 1960; Kendi, 2016). Garvey traveled the world
and witnessed Black labor power that was the basis for White economic power (Coates, 2015;
Cronon, 1960; de Oliveira et al., 2015; Patel, 2015, 2016). Blacks were isolated globally, and he
established the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) (Cronon, 1960). Garvey
crossed paths with Malcolm X’s father Earl Little who became a staunch supporter of the UNIA
movement (Helfer, 2006). Years later, this exposure had a significant impact on Malcolm’s
Black nationalistic leadership (Helfer, 2006). Garvey, as recorded by Cronon (1960), reached

34
thousands of Black people, who bought shares in the association. He authored the Negro
Declaration of Rights (Cronon, 1960; Martin, 1986) to improve living conditions worldwide, the
first of its kind.
Cronon (1960) revealed J. Edgar Hoover’s Federal Bureau of Investigations infiltrated
the organization with spies and destroyed this Black force of power (Cronon, 1960; Helfer,
2006). Howard (2019) argued that a racist hate group KKK sprang up after Reconstruction to
violently oppose African American civil rights and their financial generational wealth,
particularly through property ownership. Kendi (2016) highlighted KKK members over the years
transitioned from hooded menaces to law-and-order political leaders and officers (Fryer &
Levitt, 2012; Hannah-Jones, 2021).
Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)
Egregious acts of racial discrimination ignited an educational fire among African
Americans during and after the reconstruction era (Anderson, 1988). HBCUs provided a haven
for African Americans to be taught by them and to learn with each other (Bennett, 2018; Spring,
2016; Washington, 2013). Wealthier students and those without financial means were both
welcomed (Spring, 2016). In Philadelphia, Cheney State was the first HBCU to transform HE
dreams into possibilities (Jones & Okun, 2001; Washington, 2013). The number of HBCUs grew
exponentially in the Union States after the Civil War (Spring, 2016). Lincoln University, named
after President Lincoln, was the first HBCU to confer degrees for African Americans, starting in
1854 (Kezar, 2004). Prominent people were educated in HBCUs, which speaks to their impact
(Patel, 2015, 2016). Thurgood Marshall, who argued 32 court cases before the United States
Supreme Court and won 29 of them, is another example of the HE and career success of HBCU
alumni (Spring, 2016). The aforementioned trends (Steward et al., 2008) were some of the

35
reasons that HBCUs make up 3% of colleges in the United States. Fifty percent of African
American doctors and 80% of African American judges were educated in HBCUs (Anderson et
al., 2020). In 2021, there were 104 HBCUs, with 28,000 students enrolled (Enrollments, 2021;
Farrie et al., 2018).
According to Steward et al. (2008) and Kezar (2004), HBCUs are thriving because these
institutions are successfully enrolling and graduating African American men by embracing,
supporting, and accommodating their lived experiences (Anderson et al., 2020). HBCUs have
continued to be an important option for high school students in their college searches (Anderson
et al., 2020; Kezar, 2004). HBCU data has persistently affirmed that AAMs possess intellectual
abilities and qualifications for HE enrollment and completion (Spring, 2016).
HBCUs enroll 10% of African American students and produce 20% of overall graduates
(Spring, 2016). According to Steward et al. (2008) and Anderson et al. (2020), faculty diversity
was a contributing factor to the increased numbers of HE enrollments and completions for
African American men. Faculty diversity allowed students to enjoy a closer relationship with
faculty (Anderson et al., 2016). Traditionally, Black fraternities and sororities provided an
opportunity for social and community service needs (Steward et al., 2008). HBCUs offered many
opportunities for students to develop their leadership skills (Spring, 2016). Students were
challenged to be prepared for leadership and service in an increasingly complex and rapidly
changing world (Steward et al., 2008). Statistical data from HBCUs addressed (Anderson et al.,
2020) a sense of belonging and cultural wealth that PWIs can learn from (Anderson et al., 2016;
Zong & Davis, 2022). Emerging research studies (Boland, 2018) have questioned and
highlighted decades of underfunding for HBCUs; despite its longitudinal studies of successful

36
HE enrollment and completion rates compared to PWIs serving AAMs (Boland, 2018; EmreyArras, 2018).
HE Institutions Other Than HBCUs
Many African Americans have enrolled at HE institutions that are not HBCUs (Ruelas,
2017), which align more with the educational philosophy of Du Bois (Du Bois, 1999; Farrie et
al., 2018). The freed slave John Chavez was the first African American HE student and attended
Princeton (Kezar, 2004). In 1862, Mary Jane Pattern was the first African American woman in
HE, and she graduated from Overland College (Kezar, 2004). Slater (1994) recounted the legal
integration treatment of African American men into HE, which began with McLaren vs.
Oklahoma State Regents, 1950, 339 U.S. 637, U.S. Supreme Court. The court ruling was that
African American students admitted to PWIs must not be segregated and must receive equal
treatment (Cameron & Heckman, 2001). For many years, very few African Americans entered
the university system through PWIs, including West Point (Woldoff et al., 2011). It was not until
the civil unrest in the 1960s that major universities provided greater access to minority students
(Ruelas, 2017; Woldoff et al., 2011). Fleming (1985) reported that African American men at
White institutions achieved at only half the rate of their peers because success and the feeling of
belonging are intimately connected (Zong & Davis, 2022).
Government Laws, Regulations, and Oversight: Attempts to Address the Wealth and
Opportunity Gaps
Policies can influence and hold educational institutions to a higher standard of
accountability (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). The U.S. Office of Education formulated
federal policies which included federal student financial assistance programs that significantly
impacted low-income African American men (Sojoyner, 2013; Zong & Davis, 2022). In 2014,

37
the U.S. Department of Education (2014) reported on several congressional enactments, such as
Title X, Title IX, and Title VI, all of which prohibited discrimination in educational programs
and activities receiving federal financial assistance (Boland, 2018; Carrasco, 2023; Deming et
al., 2013).
Governmental arms have had the authority to monitor, assess, and evaluate the degree to
which rules and regulations were adhered to (Orfield & Frankenberg, 2014). Certified
monitoring teams have made recommendations for equity improvement that must be instituted to
ensure government funding for institutions and organizations (Erickson, 2011; Orfield &
Frankenberg, 2014). Recent studies accentuated that when programs such as affirmative action
disappear, the participation numbers of underrepresented populations decrease significantly
(Crenshaw, 2017; Massey et al., 2014). According to the U.S. Department of Education (2014),
postsecondary educational institutions and programs were accredited to ensure adherence to HE
affirmative action regulations. Zong and Davis (2022) referred to government policies and
programs as provisions of protection for fair and equitable treatment for low-income Americans.
Oliver and Shapiro (2013) predicted segregation would continue to widen the financial
and educational gaps between Caucasians and African Americans. Rothstein (2017) asserted that
housing in impoverished neighborhoods can produce impoverished underserved schools, and this
would not be possible without governmental approval. That is, impoverished housing contributed
to an unending generational cycle of poverty according to Rothstein (2017). Rothstein (2017)
further disclosed that the wealth gap widening was based partly upon segregated housing.
Rothstein (2019b) argued that his research concluded de facto residential school segregation is a
myth and that government has the power to integrate schools to improve the quality of schools
for low-income students (Rothstein, 2019b; Sojoyner, 2013).

38
Coates (2015) wrote about growing up in a low-income, Black neighborhood in Chicago
and depicted the disjuncture between lived experiences and HE expectations. Coates cited
Rothstein’s (2017, 2019b) extensive research and acknowledged the unconstitutional
discriminatory patterns regarding housing projects, city policies, racial zoning, and the historical
migration from South to North. Due to Jim Crow segregation laws, Rothstein (2017, 2019a)
presented an argument reporting low- and middle-class African Americans were relegated to
projects and many were denied financial opportunities to purchase homes to build middle-class
generational property ownership wealth (Hannah-Jones, 2021; Rothstein, 2017). Rothstein’s
(2017, 2019a) empirical data traced the government’s housing policies after World War I. These
data reveal there was construction of segregated military housing projects for African Americans
and Whites. Rothstein (2017) disclosed numerous White Americans were given opportunities to
move out of the projects to the suburbs with Federal Housing Administration (FHA) grants after
African American requests for housing reached capacity and more housing projects were needed
(Coates, 2015; Rothstein, 2017).
Darling-Hammond (2007) stated that the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was a major
education initiative legislated under the George W. Bush administration to provide educational
equity for impoverished schools and students (Whitney & Candelaria, 2017). NCLB was enacted
with the goal of raising educational achievement and closing the achievement gaps between
races and ethnicities. Strategies included raising test scores, mandating the hiring of highly
qualified teachers, and giving parents choices regarding schools (Whitney & Candelaria, 2017).
Low student test scores triggered intervention that incorporated a written plan of action to
raise test scores (Darling-Hammond, 2007). Although students were able to transfer to other
schools, there were no incentives for good schools to accept low-performing children, and

39
according to Darling-Hammond (2007), NCLB instituted high-stakes testing in lieu of highly
effective teaching. NCLB failed to address unequal educational resources and differences in
school support . There were inappropriate assessments for ESL and special education students
(Darling-Hammond, 2007). NCLB used scores to reward and punish schools and districts
(Whitney & Candelaria, 2017). This established an unrealistic goal and labeled schools as
failures for not meeting the goal (Darling-Hammond, 2007). The focus was on identifying and
shaming schools to produce results, and the incentive was to take away funding, based on the
premise that schools would then shape up (Whitney & Candelaria, 2017). Darling-Hammond
(2007) further specified that school personnel pushed back because the initiative was:
 Lacking support.
 Not holding federal or state government accountable to ensure equal and adequate
opportunities.
 Narrowing instructionally rich curriculum.
 Reducing development of research skills, writing opportunities, and real-world skills.
 Undermining safety nets for struggling students.
 Ignoring already-established assessments.
After 13 years and much debate, NCLB ended and was replaced by the Every Student
Succeeds Act. (Lee, 2015; Whitney & Candelaria, 2017). The neediest students suffer from not
receiving appropriate services to close the achievement gap when funding priorities were
redirected (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). Edelman (1987) avowed that just because a
child’s parents are poor and uneducated is no reason to deprive the child of basic human rights to
health care, education, and proper nutrition (U.S. Department of Education, 2014).

40
Meritocracy and Low-Income Students
The unaccountability of stakeholders to monitor curriculum, instruction, and assessment
interrupted the reporting of how well students are preparing for college and careers (College
Board, 2013; Howard, 2019). Although programs meant to rectify racial tensions were seemingly
altruistic, the real intent was to further marginalize students of color which undermined
meritocracy (Coates, 2015; Hannah-Jones, 2021; Kendi, 2016; Kunjufu, 1987; Sojoyner, 2013).
Figure 5 shows the academic learning reports between a high-income high school and a
low-income high school in Southern California, Los Angeles. The academic performance rates of
African Americans in both schools showed that there were lower achievement gains for African
Americans compared to Caucasians. The figure reveals it was important to disaggregate data for
AAMs vs. using students of color for accurate data reporting.

41
Figure 5
High-Income and Low-Income Schools
Jordan High Watts (Los Angeles Unified School District)
Jordan High
Santa Monica High
Note. From Santa Monica High, by California School Board, n.d., https://www.caschooldashboard.org/reports
/19649801938000/2022, and https://reports.collegeboard.org/ap-program-results/class-of-2023. Copyright 2013 by
California School Board.

42
According to a report from the University of California’s Advisory Committee on
Professional Education, the purpose of public schooling was to create a more just, equitable, and
humane society (Center X, 2021). However, there were injustices in the school system such as:
continued cultural secondary and HE disparities in pedagogy, preparation, funding, and
opportunities for students in impoverished housing project communities compared to students in
higher-income communities (California Department of Education, 2022; Center X, 2021). Patton
(2016), drawing upon work from the Amherst H. Wilder Foundation, argued that White
supremacy still exists in HE today. Some authors continue to argue for a HE meritocracy
enrollment system (Riley, 2016).
The California Department of Education (2019), Duncan-Andrade (2009), Fryer (2016),
and Howard (2019) suggested poverty’s collateral damage outside of school included: low
household incomes, foster care, single-parent homes, racial profiling, unemployment, violent
deaths, drug addiction, early pregnancies, and high crime rates (Hayes, 2019; Wilson, 2014).
According to research by C. I. Harris (2016) and Hayes (2019), what students have witnessed
can affect them for life. Abuse, neglect, and harm imposed upon children living in housing
projects were life changing in terms of educational and career pathways (Kezar, 2004; Laura,
2018; Schein, 1985; Tierney, 2012). The most alarming statistics are the number of impoverished
African American males who are neither working or attending school (Coates, 2015). Coates
(2015) described lived experiences as a classroom outside of the classroom. Figure 6 shows the
high percentage of students who are not attending school and who are not employed. According
to Harper (2012) and Harper and Simmons (2019), there is a need for antideficit counternarratives.

43
Figure 6
Percentage of Students Who Are Not Attending School or Working
Note. Adapted from “Table 501.30: Number and percentage of persons 16 to 24 years old who
were neither enrolled in school nor working, by educational attainment, age group, family
poverty status, and race/ethnicity: 2014,” by National Center for Education Statistics, 2020,
https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d14/tables/dt14_501.30.asp. Public domain.
As shown in Figure 7, the more education students attain, the greater the job
opportunities they can access. Racial achievement gaps persist despite years of assistance at the
federal, state, and local levels to add more preparation classes in urban high schools (Adedoyin,
2022). Support programs such as the Dual Credit Program have successfully helped students
acquire college credit and required greater implementation (Henneberger et al., 2022). Fewer

44
African American male students were taking advantage of college preparation classes compared
to members of other ethnic groups (Francis, 2022; C. I. Harris, 2016; Haycock & Jerald, 2002).
Figure 7
Unemployment Rates and Earnings by Educational Attainment in 2018, US.
Note. From “Education pays,” Career Outlook Copyright 2019 by the U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics.
Figure 8 shows the disparities in AP participation. African American males enroll in
fewer AP classes, and take fewer AP Exams than White and Asian American students (U.S.
Department of Education, 2019). The data in Figure 8 suggest that low-income minority
students, particularly African Americans, need to enroll in advanced placement (AP) and honors
classes (U.S. Department of Education, 2019).

45
Figure 8
Percentage of Public High School Class of 2013 Graduates Who Have Taken an Advanced
Placement Exam
Note. Percentage of Public High School Class of 2013 Graduates who have taken an Advanced
Placement Exam. Copyright 2013 by the College Board.
In 1996, the Office of Civil Rights issued a report revealed that 10.5% of college students
were African American (Wilson, 2014). The report also indicated that from 1986 to 1996,
minorities’ enrollment in colleges and universities increased 61% (U.S. Department of
Education, 2014). By 1964, 10 years after Brown vs. Board of Education, the National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) promoted a legal campaign that
became a mass movement to eliminate institutional racism (Wilson, 2014). However, African
American males’ enrollment and completion rates remain the lowest among subgroups (Wilson,
2014), as depicted in Figure 9.

46
Figure 9
College Enrollment Rates of Racial Groups in 1990 and 2014
Note. Blue bars represent 1990; orange bars represent 2014. From “Turning Off the
School-to- Prison Pipeline,” by H. Wilson, 2014, Reclaiming Children and Youth, 23(1),
Copyright 2014 by the Reclaiming Youth International.
Organizations such as NAACP have called for action to address educational inequality
(Wilson, 2014). Private and for-profit HE institutions began heavily recruiting students of color
to accept high-interest loans for accelerated certifications and degree programs, along with
promising career jobs (Wilson, 2014). Many of these schools closed without fully distributing
federal loans to students, leaving students in debt and without degrees or certificates (Deming et
al., 2013; Hooks, 2014). Financial resources have played a huge role in African American male
students’ decision to attend and complete HE institutions (Coates, 2015; Deming et al., 2013).
In recent years, there have been ongoing efforts to increase diversity, equity, and
inclusion (DEI) awareness, CRT usage, asset-based pedagogies, racial justice, and anti-racism

47
movements (Crenshaw, 1988; Hannah-Jones, 2021; Harper, 2012; Kendi, 2016). These
responsive books and articles on systemic racism were written by authors such as Coates (2015),
Hannah-Jones (2021), Harper, (2012), and Kendi (2016). Researchers such as Mac Donald
(2018) and Murray (2014) have written alternative narratives to institutional racism and low
academic performance of AAMs. Their respective writings attribute skills gaps to African
Americans’ intellectual inferiority and lack of personal agency, rather than systemic racism (Mac
Donald, 2023; Murray, 2021). These studies are counter explanations for low HE enrollment, the
decline in completion rates, and low performance on professional entrance exams (Mac Donald,
2023; Murray, 2021). The literature provided a more preferred common ground strategy to
transition from opposing combative arguments, agendas, and discussions to actions and solutions
(Hess & Noguera, 2021). Outlined in Hess and Noguera (2021) was an HE debate with opposing
viewpoints between Hess and Noguera regarding solutions for higher educational attainment for
African American males.
There are two noteworthy African American scholars who have altered their educational
narratives for African American males’ decline (Loury & Loury, 2009; Riley, 2020). First is
Loury, who was more empathetic regarding AAMs’ upward mobility before arguing for a more
neo-conservative stance which now includes meritocracy, personal agency, and family support
(Loury, 2003; Loury & Loury, 2009). Second is Kennedy (2012), a CRT critic who recently
admitted structural racism does exist. There is no colorblind society. For Kennedy, unacceptable
was the United States Supreme Court ruling on Shelby v. Holder that eviscerated part of the 1964
Civil Rights Act (Engstrom, 2014). Kennedy clerked for Supreme Court Justice Thurgood
Marshall.

48
Reasons for the African American Male Phenomenon
The literature reviewed offers three powerful reasons African American males enroll in
and graduate from HE institutions at lower rates than White American males do. First, according
to Coates (2015), de Oliveira et al. (2015), Kendi (2016), and Kunjufu (1987), Patel (2015), and
Patel (2016), there was fear of intelligent and knowledgeable African American males and the
perceived power they bring. Sir Francis Bacon in 1597 stated, “Knowledge is itself power”
(1910, p. 71). Second, Rothstein (2017) presented a powerful argument that federal, state, and
local governments give rise to housing discrimination which creates a wealth gap that reinforces
impoverished neighborhood school segregation. Third, Sojoyner (2013) blamed the ideological
contestation regarding poor education in the African American community, which occurred from
the reconstruction era to the civil rights as part of maintaining marginalization.
Hannah-Jones (2021) argued that slavery did not end with emancipation but continues to
shape contemporary American life today. The author also argued that historical truths and facts
included slavery and racism: and were the central themes of American history and culture that
were purposely glossed over. Pasque (2022) expanded the work of Hannah-Jones and
summarized that there was a need to cultivate a new African American subjectivity that would
address African American oppression and suffering (Pasque, 2022).
Table 3 shows that there was a lack of college preparation resources and opportunities for
African American males in low-income schools. Paradoxically, the data in the table 3 also
revealed that African American males experienced racial discrimination, implicit biases, and
microaggressions in higher income schools. According to Brooms and Davis (2017) and
Dulabaum (2016), barriers to academic success include the following:
 Financial Aid (tuition fees, supplies, meals, full-ride scholarships, work-study)

49
 College readiness (Advanced Placement classes, SAT/ ACT prep, College Applications)
 School and family financial contributions (balancing school and work)
Researchers have asserted that without the above-mentioned assistance and support, students find
it difficult to impossible to stay focused and motivated to complete HE (Brooms & Davis, 2017;
Dulabaum, 2016).
Table 3
Special Issues Latino and African American Males Face Regarding Education
Main shared themes Latino male special issues African American male
special issues
Lack of Financial Resources Language Stereotype threat
Lack of College Readiness Fear & Little SelfConfidence
Discrimination
Balancing College with work
& Family
Need Assistance Accessing
College
Miscommunication with
Instructors & Counselors
Lack of Focus & SelfMotivation
Need Supportive Friends &
Support
Background – Family,
Cultural Expectations
Need Assistance &
Engagement from Instructors,
Counselors, Tutors
Note. Information from “Barriers to Academic Success: A Qualitative Study of African
American and Latino Male Students,” by N. L. Dulabaum, 2016, League for Innovations, 11(6),
1–13.

50
Myths
According to Wilkins and Staff (2006), there has been a myth that there were more
African American males in prison than those pursuing college (Harper, 2012; Huerta et al., 2021;
Wilkins & Staff, 2006). Wilkins and Staff endeavored to dispel myths of race and education
using a social cartography lens. The researchers highlighted results from the Chicago ChildParent Center which showed that low- income minority children thrived in high-quality prekindergarten and kindergarten programs (Reynolds et al., 2003; Wilkins & Staff, 2006). Further,
another study reported students at Florida State University had the same rates for White
American and African American male graduates (Wilkins & Staff, 2006). Currently, HBCU
students have continued to make HE completion progress (Zong & Davis, 2022). According to
the U.S. Department of Education (2019), test scores revealed academic gaps are closing.
Despite Covid-19, California students of color made academic gains (California Department of
Education, 2022).
According to Dulabaum (2016) and Patel (2015), African American men were born with
a desire for self-determination, which opposed deficit paradigms. African American men
possessed powers that allow them to rise above adverse experiences originating from socially
oppressive constructed systems (Bush & Bush, 2018). Patel (2016) described self-determination
to survive as marronage, which is defined as the process of extricating oneself from forms of
enslavement. Further, Patel (2016) suggested survival is a practice of freedom that starts from the
conditions of captivity.
Coates (2015), Howard (2019), Noguera (2009), and Wilkins and Staff (2006) argued
that it is also important to demystify beliefs about the social cartographies of race and education
for African American male students. Beliefs were explained as defiant behaviors, gaps in test

51
scores between affluent and marginalized students, and the idea that African American students
are damaged and hard to educate (Danker, 2021; Howard, 2019; Noguera, 2009; Wilkins &
Staff, 2006). According to de Oliveira et al. (2015), social cartographies were not meant to be
neutral representations of reality; rather, they were situated snapshots of crossroads that
highlighted different choices and opened new affective and existential possibilities to facilitate
organizational change (Huerta et al., 2021; Melguizo et al., 2017). The research conducted by
DiAngelo, (2022), Harper and Simmons (2019), Hess and Noguera (2021), and Kendi (2016) on
diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) can be used to counter arguments that suggest the racial
cognitive differences cited in the research of Mac Donald (2018) and Murray (2014).
Overcoming Legal Injustices Suffered by African American Males
The contentious relationship between African American males and the police began when
Africans arrived on slave ships and suffered death sentences at the hands of Caucasian
authorities (de Oliveira et al., 2015; Fryer 2016, 2019; Hannah-Jones & Elliot, 2021). Howard
(2019) argued hate crimes perpetrated by some Caucasian men who have continued in their
official capacities or self-appointed capacities. The most well-known victims were Kunta Kinte,
Emmett Till, Trayvon Martin, George Floyd, and Ahmaud Arbery (Francis, 2022; Fryer, 2016,
2019; Fryer & Levitt, 2012; Gray, 2018).
According to Hayes (2019) and Love (2019), U.S. criminal justice policies and practices
did not address the root causes of historical inequities, such as an underfunded, understaffed, and
underserved educational system (Danker, 2021; Emdin, 2016; X. X. Harris, 2016). Policies and
practices that were established did not address the following constructs: learning disabilities,
concentrated poverty, child abuse, neglect, trauma, and racial disparities in law-enforcement
practices (J. C. Harris, 2016; Howard, 2019).

52
In the United States, deep racial injustice (Hopkins, 2002) perpetuated the disparities in
educational opportunities between racial minorities and White populations (DiAngelo, 2022;
Howard, 2019). This injustice was manifested as early as preschool (Danker, 2021). The chances
of incarceration are significantly higher in poor Black populations, largely due to the structures
and policies that began at the start of formal schooling (Bugden, 2017; Danker, 2021). In recent
years, troubling statistics reflecting prison rates among African American communities have
gained attention (Wilson, 2014). In 2016, according to the U.S. Department of Education
(Stullich et al., 2016), the highest prison rate states were: California 101,000, Texas 133,00,
Florida 80,000, and Georgia 47,000. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) as highlighted
in Wilson (2014) defined the pipeline as policies and practices that pushed the nation’s minority
children, especially African American males, out of classrooms and into juvenile and criminal
justice systems (Danker, 2021). In the United States, nearly one million Black people were
incarcerated, composing 43% of the country’s 2.3 million prisoners (Sojoyner, 2013; Tuck &
Gorlewski, 2016; Wilson, 2014).
School to Prison Pipeline
Over time, criminal justice policies in the United States have rebuffed rehabilitation in
favor of long terms of incarceration (Laura, 2018). According to Heitzeg (2009), in the past
decade, there has been a growing relationship between schools and the legal system. The
educational and criminal justice systems intersected by way of specific events, racist policies,
practices, and lived experiences of children of color (Núñez-Eddy, 2020). In the last decade,
society’s punitive and overzealous tools and approaches have affected schools by removing
children from mainstream educational environments (Christle et al., 2005; Hayes, 2019).
Society’s perception that school violence has been a growing problem has resulted in the

53
involvement of on-campus police officers and juvenile courts when students have violated school
rules (Núñez-Eddy, 2020). Students have been criminalized for minor infractions, and this has
expedited the HE decline of African American males (Laura, 2018; Sojoyner, 2013).
Zero-tolerance policies were removing students from educational institutions and putting
them in the adult criminal justice system (Núñez-Eddy, 2020). Over 6,500 students were
expelled each year and received little or no instruction while expelled (Hamilton, 2020).
According to Weidner and Schultz (2019), the United States has had the highest incarceration
rate in the world, and segregated inner-city housing projects and Section 8 apartments
contributed to the increase of incarcerated people in the United States (Danker, 2021; Laura,
2018).
Pursuant to students of color, particularly African American and Latino students, they
were often met with punitive measures in Los Angeles County’s high schools (Bugden, 2017;
Wilson, 2014). As a result of punitive measures, such as suspensions and expulsions, students of
color were more likely to enter the STPP (Zong & Davis, 2022). A significant number of African
American students in the foster care system were suspended for minor offenses and entered the
STPP by way of the juvenile court system or entered correctional settings as adults (Danker,
2021; Hayes, 2019; Laura, 2018).
Skiba et al. (2014) described the STPP as a construct used to describe policies and
practices, especially with respect to school discipline. In the public schools and juvenile justice
system, the probability of school success decreased, and subsequently, the probability of
negative life outcomes increased due to STPP (Skiba et al., 2014). According to Christle et al.
(2005), these policies have served to isolate and remove disproportionate numbers of African
Americans from their communities (Hayes, 2019; Sojoyner, 2013). STPP also prevented African

54
American males from participating in civil society (Laura, 2018). Academic failure, exclusionary
discipline practices, and dropout rates have been identified as historical elements in the STPP
(Christle et al., 2005). The STPP deprived historically marginalized students of their freedom
and successful futures (Sojoyner, 2013; Wilson, 2014). According to Skiba et al. (2014), the
STPP trajectory began when juvenile crime, detention, and incarceration rates dropped and yet
schools still initiated zero-tolerance discipline policies. This was due to fears and concerns
regarding perceived violent behaviors on campus (Laura, 2018; Skiba, et al., 2014). Zerotolerance policies increased out-of-school suspensions and expulsions, particularly for African
American students (Laura, 2018; Sojoyner, 2013). The problem began when schools started
outsourcing discipline to juvenile courts and police officers (Sojoyner, 2013). In an interview,
author Mariame Kaba stated that even when schools were not deliberately sending children into
the juvenile justice system, disciplining them made them more likely to end up in the system
(Hayes, 2019). These concepts are illustrated in Figures 10 and 11.

55
Figure 10
The School-to-Prison Pipeline
Note. From The School-to-Prison Pipeline, by Public Health Post,
https://www.publichealthpost.org/databyte/school-prison-pipeline/. Copyright 2017 by the
Boston University School of Public Health.

56
Figure 11
Student Suspensions and Arrests
Note. From The School-to-Prison Pipeline, by Public Health Post,
https://www.publichealthpost.org/databyte/school-prison-pipeline/. Copyright 2017 by the
Boston University School of Public Health.

57
Recorded in Núñez-Eddy (2020), zero-tolerance policies were compounded for African
American male students who asked teachers interrogative and disruptive questions. Those
unwelcomed classroom pushbacks were interpreted as violent behaviors by many Caucasian
women educators who comprised the majority of teachers and administrators in the United States
(Harper, 2012; Kendi, 2016; Love, 2019). Disciplinary actions at schools increased the risk of
further negative outcomes for adolescents (Núñez-Eddy, 2020). School suspensions caused
significant classroom disengagement, academic remediation and widened the achievement gap
(Danker, 2021; Núñez-Eddy, 2020). These practices put students of color disproportionately in
contact with law enforcement (Hamilton, 2020).
Assembly Bill (AB) 420, is a bill that suspends willful defiance to disassemble the STPP
(Danker, 2021). Danker (2021) reported that the bill allowed California to become the first state
in the nation to eliminate school suspensions for students in kindergarten through third grade. In
addition, the bill eliminated expulsions for students in all grades in the California school system
(Danker, 2021). Regarding AB 420, Danker (2021) avowed that it was also important to
recognize and discuss that while this policy may have been enacted by the system(s) of power,
the bill was still widely unimplemented and unpracticed in schools because of what was referred
to as an enclosure (Danker, 2021).
Sojoyner (2013) provided the historical context regarding enclosures and described an
enclosure as a process in which an attempt is made to gain control over resources and the
distributive institutions governing the allocation of the resources (Howard, 2019; Sojoyner,
2013). Sojoyner found these constructs focused on marginalized people living in a state of
oppression, with oppressors of the dominant culture exercising control through inequitable
policies, programs, and practices (Danker, 2021; Laura, 2018). Sojoyner’s research found

58
oppression occurs through a gamut of strategies, such as forced removal, neglect, and
abandonment. Furthermore, Sojoyner concluded that the goal of enclosures was to blur the social
vision of African American communities, thereby keeping the structure of public education as is,
which in turn informed the development of prisons (Coates, 2015; Sojoyner, 2013; Wilson,
2014). Danker (2021) inferred that the lack of accountability by the systems that implemented
policies such as AB 420 was deceptive because the policies failed to demolish the foundation of
anti-Blackness or dismantle systemic inequities and racism (Laura, 2018). Danker affirmed these
policies neglected to disrupt and question the archaic status quo, which has enacted unfair school
discipline and expulsions of historically marginalized students (Laura, 2018).
One of the greatest American dream killers for impoverished African American males
was the threat of imprisonment (Sojoyner, 2013; Hayes, 2019; Laura, 2018). Figure 12 illustrated
the number of persevering African American males in HE is greater compared to the number of
African American males in prison (Desmond-Harris, 2015). Restorative justice trends have been
a call to action nationwide in response to overwhelming data regarding African American males
and the STPP (Hopkins, 2002; Laura, 2018; Núñez-Eddy, 2020; Sojoyner, 2013; Wilson, 2014).
Authors such as Thomas (2017) have proposed turning jails and prisons into educational
institutions for individuals who must serve time at a correctional facility. Laura (2018), Love
(2019), and Núñez-Eddy (2020) studies show there is a need for educators and schools to push
against prisons and this life-changing pipeline.

59
Figure 12
Number of African American Males in College or Jail/Prison
Note. From “The Myth That There Are More Black Men in Prison Than in College, Debunked in
one Chart,” by J. Desmond-Harris, February 12, 2015, Vox,
https://www.vox.com/2015/2/12/8020959/black-men-prison-college. Copyright 2015 by Vox.
The current juvenile court and prison system has been one of the most crippling
impediments for African American men enrolling in HE. If this system is not addressed, STPP
will become a U.S. travesty as argued by Laura (2018), Sojoyner (2013), and Wilson (2014).

60
Asset-Based Strategies and Programs Designed to Address Inequalities and Help African
American Males Access HE
Black Male Initiative (BMI) programs were established to advance academic potential,
opportunities, and resources to increase African American males’ post-secondary education
success (Brooms, 2019). Weissman (2022) described and cited current Black male programs as a
call for investment initiatives to increase African American men in enrolling and completing
Higher Education. Weissman recommended a Black Male Achievers Academy; a 6-week
summer program designed to provide a smooth transition to college. The second initiative
referenced by Weissman was a grant funded by the McCormick Foundation at Arrupe College
that used part of the grant to initiate mentorship programs for Black males. A third initiative
mentioned was located at Compton Community College where the college president has hired a
Black Success Officer (Weissman, 2022).
Agudelo et al. (2021) indicated that school districts were working to overhaul their
discipline policies and practices, by exploring restorative justice practices (Hopkins, 2002) that
build healthy relationships and a sense of commitment (Hamilton, 2020). There were vital
concerns regarding individuals who were being released from correctional facilities and their
likelihood of recidivism (Antenangeli & Durose, 2021). Recidivism was defined by the National
Institute of Justice as one of the most fundamental concepts in the criminal justice system
according to Antenangeli and Durose (2021). Recidivism referred to a person’s relapse into
criminal behavior, often after the person received sanctions for a crime (Antenangeli & Durose,
2021). Avoiding recidivism could lead to promising jobs and other opportunities for former
prisoners to support themselves and their families (Danker, 2021). Finally, reducing recidivism

61
helped examine the institutional and structural racism that historically marginalized communities
have suffered from for decades (Antenangeli & Durose, 2021; Tuck & Gorlewski, 2016).
According to Thomas (2017), districts were proposing that in lieu of the STPP, students
who were identified as appropriate to receive additional support should not be suspended or
expelled, but should instead be housed in a program that is built like a house (and not like a
restrictive detention facility). Students would be provided with the following (Thomas, 2017):
 Both one-on-one and group therapy services with an assigned mental health clinician
 Access to an assigned psychiatrist, when needed.
 Access to tutors to assist with schoolwork.
According to the literature reviewed, what exists today were many well-documented cocurricular and collaborative programs that increased higher HE enrollment for students of color
(Jacks, 2019). To avoid mismatched expectations and to ensure a K–13 academic readiness
infrastructure, several successful engaging programs have been developed (Center X, 2021; Lee,
2015). These programs exemplified researched pedagogical, interdisciplinary programs that were
implemented for students to transition successfully from high school to HE (Anderson et al.,
2020; Clay 2022; Hess & Noguera, 2021; Jacks, 2019). These K–13 programs provided a
seamless curriculum and a continuous dialogue between secondary and postsecondary
institutions (Bensimon, 2007; Harper, 2012; Huerta, et al., 2021; Smith et al., 2014; University
of California, Davis, 2021; Weimer, 2014).
Center X
The literature highlighted a systems approach at UCLA that was implemented schoolwide in many areas (Center X, 2021). The center was called Center X (2021) to capture the
intersection of research and practice. It was first conceived in 1992 because of the upheaval and

62
self-examination stemming from uprisings after Los Angeles’ Rodney King verdict (Center X,
2021; Nägel & Nivette, 2023). As a result, the focus of the Graduate School of Education and
Information Studies changed after 1992 (Center X, 2021). The center was then guided by
principles of social justice to serve and collaborate with the lowest-resourced and underserved
schools in the Los Angeles community, specifically East Los Angeles, Pico Union downtown
area, South Los Angeles, and the Crenshaw District (Center X, 2021). Center X (2021) at UCLA
has grown into a community of more than 100 educators working across multiple programs: two
graduate credential programs, the Teacher Education Program (TEP), the Principal Leadership
Institutes (PLIs), and many professional development initiatives (Center X, 2021). According to
the center’s goals, it was documented that this work was an enduring feature of democracy and
that it occurred within and across multiple communities of teachers, students, parents, elected
officials, other community members, researchers, and others engaged in democratic life (Center
X, 2021). Communities were transforming public schooling through inquiry and change, by
asking questions and solving problems that were fueled by passionate resolve and persistent
effort (Center X, 2021).
Long Beach Program
Long Beach partnership program was an example of how to close the opportunity and
preparation disjuncture (Jameson-Meledy, 2016). Long Beach Community College and Long
Beach Unified School District (LBUSD) have begun working together to establish fieldwork
experiences for future teachers; the program is called Tomorrow’s Teachers.
With the support of LBUSD, Tomorrow’s Teachers’ participants have been placed in
local K–6 sites to observe and tutor (Jameson-Meledy, 2016). Tomorrow’s Teachers’ students at
CSU Dominguez Hills, CSU Fullerton, and Long Beach were using a comprehensive, fully

63
articulated curriculum, which was also aligned with the California Content and Professional
Teaching Standards (Jameson-Meledy, 2016).
The Long Beach Higher Education Promise (The Promise) extended HE opportunities to
every student in the LBUSD to create a more vibrant community (Jameson-Meledy, 2016). This
innovative and award-winning initiative was transforming the lives of students and the city’s
economic future by placing HE within reach for all (Jameson-Meledy, 2016; Long Beach
Community College, 2021). The Promise aimed to support the academic potential of all youth by
offering guidance and support along every step of the student experience, from pre-K through
HE (Jameson-Meledy, 2016). The Promise was a dynamic partnership between Long Beach and
public institutions (high schools, community colleges, and the state university) to improve HE
preparation, access, and completion (Jameson-Meledy, 2016). This program was one that has had
a systemic effect because it addressed middle school, high school, and HE students who attended
Long Beach schools (Jameson-Meledy, 2016). Students were guaranteed HE enrollment spaces.
Scholarships were also awarded to those with the most financial hardship (Jameson-Meledy,
2016).
AVID
AVID was a HE readiness system for elementary through HE designed to increase
school-wide learning and performance, and to foster a HE culture at school (Smith et al., 2014).
AVID was designed to serve students in the academic middle, motivating them both
academically and attitudinally to raise academic expectations and foster a college-going culture
(AVID Senior Data Collection, 2012–2013; Greene & Forster, 2003). According to Greene and
Forster (2003), 70% of 2013 AVID students were African American and Latino, many of whom
would be first-generation HE students (Smith et al., 2014). AVID has demonstrated consistent

64
success in HE enrollment: three out of four AVID students who applied to 4-year HE institutions
were accepted and were twice as likely as their non-AVID peers to complete university entrance
requirements (Smith et al., 2014; Jacks, 2019).
Puente
Puente was comprised of academic and mentoring programs for HE students. The model
combined personal mentoring and community leadership with academic counseling and rigorous
writing instruction. In 2009, the community college to the 4-year-HE-institution transfer rate of
Puente participants was 56%, compared to 44% for all California community college students
(Castillo et al., 2023). Thirty-four percent of these students were educationally disadvantaged.
This continued to increase annually, with a 44% increase in transfers between 2001 and 2009
(California Community Colleges, n.d.; Castillo et al., 2023).
Upward Bound
Upward Bound was described by Seftor et al. (2009) as one of the first and largest TRIO
programs (Upward Bound, AVID, and Center X). It provides high school students from
underrepresented groups with college preparatory, academic, and nonacademic enrichment
classes; tutoring and academic support; and guidance through the HE searches, and application
process (Seftor et al., 2009). The program was focused on creating students’ HE identities and
academic preparedness through exposure to HE environments and rigorous coursework (Seftor et
al., 2009). A longitudinal study of Upward Bound found that the program significantly increased
the number of high school credits earned by students who were academically at risk (Clay,
2022). Students participating in Upward Bound were also more likely to enroll in a 4-year HE
institution and earn a bachelor’s degree (Clay, 2022; Seftor et al., 2009).

65
Summer Bridge
Summer Bridge programs assisted first-generation HE students in transitioning from
secondary to postsecondary schooling by introducing them to HE campuses (Castleman et al.,
2012). Additionally, students enrolled in a course for HE received support from peer advisors,
faculty, and staff before the school year began (Castleman et al., 2012). According to a study by
Castleman et al. (2012), Summer Bridge sought to address the period between high school and
HE. This research indicated that students committed to HE failed to matriculate in the fall, a
phenomenon termed summer melt (Castleman et al., 2012).
However, students who received summer HE counseling had higher rates of full-time
enrollment and attendance at 4-year universities (Castleman et al., 2012). Such programs have
assisted African American males in navigating their way to and through postsecondary education
(Anderson et al., 2020; Fenske et al., 1997; Weissman, 2022).
Economic Opportunity Program (EOP)
EOP offered a series of services, including admission counseling, academic advising,
peer mentoring, academic departments, student success workshops, tutoring, graduation writing
test preparation, and financial assistance (Somchandmavong, 2009). As reported by
Somchandmavong (2009), EOP has improved educational access and opportunities for more than
250,000 low-income students throughout California; the majority are first-generation HE
students (Weissman, 2022).
Mentoring
In the literature, various mentoring programs for at-risk youth have been reported as
promising (Weimer & Thornton, 2014). Using the definition categories of the University of

66
California, Davis (2021), there were three types of mentoring that support African American
males:
 Traditional one-on-one mentoring involves the matching of mentee and mentor either
through a program or on their own.
 Distance mentoring is a mentoring relationship in which the two parties are in separate
locations. This is also called virtual mentoring and was a good option during the COVID19 pandemic.
 Group mentoring involves a single mentor with a cohort of mentees. The mentor decides
the schedule and activities.
The Accelerated Study in Associate Programs (ASAP) at the City University of New
York focused on helping students avoid noncredit remedial courses, which many students were
assigned to take because they were deemed unprepared for HE-level work (Linderman &
Kolenovic, 2013). Prior studies showed that few students complete their developmental
requirements, and only 15% earn a degree within six years (Linderman & Kolenovic, 2013).
Through a set of scaffolding supports, ASAP helped low-income, predominately minority
students complete community HE faster (Linderman & Kolenovic, 2013). The program
requirements included attending full-time, enrolling in special seminars and classes, receiving
counseling and career services, and obtaining tuition waivers to cover gaps in financial aid
(Linderman & Kolenovic, 2013).
As reported by Weimer and Thornton (2014), interim results from mentoring program
studies indicated that the programs have increased participant retention each semester by 8–10%,
the number of credits earned by 25%, and the proportion of students graduating in 2.5 years by
as much as 15%. Over one-third of the study sample was male; and early indications were that

67
these effects were likely to grow substantially by the end of the 3-year study (Dukakis et al.,
2014; Weimer & Thornton, 2014).
High School Course Work
Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) was an integrated curriculum
based on the idea of educating students in four special disciplines: science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (Henneberger et al., 2022). STEM created pathways for
underrepresented students to pursue careers in these areas (U.S. Department of Education, 2014).
Another option was dual enrollment concurrently in two distinct academic educational
institutions, with the opportunity to earn academic credit in both (Hamilton, 2020; Henneberger
et al., 2022). Further, students could enroll in Advanced Placement (AP) courses (U.S.
Department of Education, 2014). The AP courses were high school courses that taught collegelevel content. A standardized test was administered, and when passed, students received college
credit (Hamilton, 2020; U.S. Department of Education, 2014).
Support of Family Members Who Attended HE
To date, the largest national qualitative study of African American males enrolled in a
wide variety of 4-year postsecondary educational institutions was authored by Harper (2012) and
Harper and Simmons (2019). Harper found that even though only half of the parents and family
members in the study received a bachelor’s degree, they played a huge role in establishing clear
expectations for attending HE. Parents and family members were helpful in the students’
decision process (Harper, 2012).
What Teachers Need to Understand and Do: Compassion Required
Teachers of impoverished African American males who live or lived in housing projects
need to understand the character traits of African American males which include courage,

68
tenacity, resilience, cultural wealth, and unique skill sets developed through lived cultural
experiences (Brooms & Davis, 2017; Dulabaum, 2016; Emdin, 2016; Kunjufu, 1987; Love,
2019). These cultural experiences outside of school strongly affirmed the argument for counterstorytelling (Coates, 2015; Solórzano et al., 2000; Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). The following
three cultural examples embrace the cultural lived experiences and the context of African
American challenges that teachers need to identify and connect to (Harper, 2012; Hannah-Jones,
2021; Kendi, 2016).
In 1912, an African American family purchased property on Manhattan Beach. The state
government confiscated the property by eminent domain in 1929. Govern Newsom signed a bill
returning the property to heirs in 2021 (Xia, 2021). Emmett Till, a 14-year-old African American
male, was accused of flirting with a young White girl (Francis, 2022). He was savagely beaten
and lynched in 1955 (Francis, 2022). In 2022, the U.S. Congress passed, and President Biden
signed an antilynching bill (Francis, 2022). In 1963, the Ku Klux Klan bombed the 16th Street
Baptist Church during Sunday School . Four young Black girls were killed and in 1977,
Chambliss, one of four murderers, was tried and convicted of a life sentence (Rosen et al., 2019).
Laura (2018) asserted that different stakeholders (teachers, principals, mental health
professionals, parents, and policymakers), needed to shed light on where they were in the reform
space. According to de Oliveira et al. (2015), there were four kinds of reform spaces: everything
was awesome, soft-reform, radical-reform, and beyond-reform. As such, stakeholders had
different approaches about ways to reform and break down barriers and injustices (de Oliveira et
al., 2015). Laura asserted that individuals must develop personal policies to strengthen core
beliefs about injustices and create a healthy and productive learning space for young people.

69
Laura declared emphatically that educators were either engaged in incarceration prevention or
incarceration expansion.
Duncan-Andrade (2009), Emdin (2016), Howard (2019), and Love (2019) found
transformational educators must respond with asset-based, equity-mindedness to connect, lead,
and apply culturally responsive constructs to enable high-performing academic results. The
results of lacerations caused emotional scarring, low self-esteem, and a loss of faith in the very
people who were supposed to mold and mentor them in an academic setting (Laura, 2018).
According to Love (2019), equitable organizational systems and culturally responsive
leadership will be required to address the increasingly complex educational operations in private
and public settings. HE will have to move forward in empowering all students to become
productive citizens; otherwise, America risks losing economic and political dominance (Coates,
2015; Howard, 2019; Kendi, 2016).
Theoretical Frameworks Create the Blueprint
Martin Luther King (2010) asserted that we must accept disappointments, but never lose
infinite hope! This quotation led to the selection of three theories to serve as the framework for
the current study. These theories were the Critical Race Theory (CRT) (Harper, 2012), the
African American Male Theory (AAMT) (Bush & Bush, 2018), and Tinto’s Student Retention
Theory (Metz, 2004).
CRT
Tate (1997) developed the CRT to challenge scholars and educators to raise questions,
engage in conscientious dialogue, and produce research in which CRT serves as a tool and
framework to unsettle racelessness and myths in education (Tate, 1997). Much of the emphasis

70
was placed on K–12 school contexts, thus providing a platform to extend CRT to HE in the
current study (Harper, 2012).
CRT was defined as a body of scholarship and an academic movement in the United
States that seeks to critically examine U.S. law as it intersects with issues of race (Crenshaw,
1990). CRT also challenges mainstream American approaches to racial justice (Agudelo et al.,
2021). The intellectual movement and framework of legal analysis were based on the premise
that racism is socially constructed and was used to oppress and exploit minority groups
(Crenshaw, 1990; Horsford, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 1995). CRT examined systemic racism as
part of American life and institutions and how it gave White Americans an advantage (DiAngelo,
2022; J. C. Harris, 2016; Ladson-Billings, 1995). CRT moves conversations about racism past
arguments about whether racism exists to how it exists (Crenshaw, 2017; Harper, 2012; Riley,
2020; Sojoyner, 2013).
Crenshaw (2017) described how CRT addressed its intersections with other identities,
such as social class, language ability, sexuality, and gender identity/expression, for the purpose
of revealing oppression that was hidden when examining racial identity. According to Crenshaw
(1990), CRT was an analytical tool used to search out the structures in policies, programs, and
practices through which access and opportunities could be expanded to: close the racial wealth
gap; reform the criminal justice system; and promote an America in which liberty, freedom, and
equality for all its citizens (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; J. C. Harris, 2016). The concepts
depicted in Figure 13 provide the foundation for CRT. The tenets of CRT are summarized in
Table 4.

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Figure 13
Critical Race Theory Concepts
Note. From “Mixed Feelings About Mixed Schools: Superintendents on the Complex Legacy of
School Desegregation,” by S. D. Horsford, 2010, Educational Administration Quarterly, 46(3),
287–321. Copyright 2010 by the American Psychological Association.

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Table 4
Tenets of Critical Race Theory
CRT tenet Definition Source
Permanence of racism Racism, both conscious and
unconscious is a permanent
component of American life
Bell (1992); Ladson-Billings
(1998); Ladson-Billings & Tate
(1995); Tate (1997);
Whiteness a property The notion of Whiteness can be
considered a property interest.
Ladson-Billings (1998);
Ladson-Billings & Tate (1997)
Counter storytelling and
majoritarian narratives
A method of telling a story that
aims to cast doubt on the validity of
accepted premises or myths,
especially ones held by the
majority; majoritarian narratives are
also recognized as stories and not
assumed to be facts or the truth
Bell (1980, 2004); LadsonBillings (1998); Ladson-Billings
& Tate (1997); Tate (1997);
Matsuda (1995); Solórzano &
Yosso (2000)
Interest convergence Significant progress of African
Americans is achieved only when
the goals of African Americans are
consistent with the needs of
Whites
Bell (1980, 2004); LadsonBillings (1998)
Critique of liberalism Critiques of basic notions are
embraced by liberal ideology to
include color blindness,
meritocracy, and neutrality of
the law
Crenshaw (1988);
Ladson-Billings & Tate
(1995); Tate (1997);
Ladson-Billings
(1998)
Intersectionality The intersection of race with other
identities and differences
Crenshaw (1991).
Note. Information from “Mixed Feelings About Mixed Schools: Superintendents on the Complex
Legacy of School Desegregation,” by S. D. Horsford, 2010, Educational Administration
Quarterly, 46(3), 287–321.

73
In the literature reviewed, racism was a polarizing topic and has continued to be argued
as a significant factor in educational inequity according to Harper (2012) and Harper and
Simmons (2019), C. I. Harris (2016), Kendi (2016), and Noguera (2009). Howard (2019) more
recently challenged racial inequities in the educational contexts of African American men by
exposing blatant racism in HE. CRT also helped to contextualize ways in which racism,
discrimination, and oppression contribute to the disproportionately low HE enrollment and
completion rates of African Americans compared to their White counterparts (C. I. Harris, 2016).
CRT was used as a disrupter in HE, in which racism has existed for centuries (Patel 2015;
Patton, 2016). Harper (2012) argued that CRT was the strongest critique of the educational
system. CRT was a tool that can expose racist norms and practices that are embedded in the
system (Crenshaw, 2017; Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; C. I. Harris, 2016).
Various scholars have discussed CRT and have used it in their research (Bush & Bush,
2018; Crenshaw, 2017; Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; J. C. Harris, 2016). One earlier example was
Ladson-Billings (1998), a professor at Wisconsin University, who asserted that CRT comes from
a legal perspective and that racism was common in the United States. Another example was J. C.
Harris (2016), a law professor at the University of California, Davis (2021), who continued to
examine the law through the CRT lens. Additionally, Delgado, a professor at the University of
Alabama, teaches and writes about CRT (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). Additionally, C. I. Harris
(2016), a professor at the University of California, Los Angeles, has developed a groundbreaking
scholarship regarding CRT. C. I. Harris’s (2016) CRT discussions have been argued in law
schools and history classes.
CRT served as a tool in Harper’s (2012) study to interrogate how racist policies and
practices contributed to the lower HE enrollment and graduation rates of African American

74
males compared to White counterparts. Harper and Simmons (2019) found that the most
effective way to analyze and interpret data regarding African American HE enrollment and
completion was to use the CRT framework.
Opponents of CRT rejected the uncomfortable idea, also referred to as White fragility
(DiAngelo, 2022) that America is racist (Loury & McWhorter, 2022; Murray, 2020; Mac
Donald, 2018; Riley, 2016). The above-listed rejecters asserted that CRT is destructive and that
it is a form of reverse discrimination. CRT opponents also discussed banning all race-based
theories and reporting caste systems to replace the rule of law (Loury, 2003; Loury &
McWhorter, 2022; Mac Donald, 2018; Murray, 2020). According to Rayshawnj and Gibbons
(2021), Representative Dan Bishop of North Carolina discussed an anti-CRT bill and claimed
CRT was a divisive ideology that promulgates oppressors versus the oppressed (Rayshawnj &
Gibbons, 2021; Sowell, 2019). Numerous researchers opposed this CRT view and suggested it
was a distortion of the truth (Coates, 2015; Crenshaw, 2017; Francis, 2022; Harper, 2012; C. I.
Harris, 2016; Ladson-Billings, 1998). DiAngelo (2022) argued that White Americans do not
want to discuss race, atrocities of ancestors, or generational benefits.
McWhorter (2021) argued that individuals who opposed CRT were said to employ a
colorblind ideology, and believed systemic racism does not explain racial disparities in police
killings, housing, education, and job discrimination (McWhorter, 2000, 2021).
Mac Donald (2018), McWhorter (2021), Murray (2020), and Riley (2020) discussed law
and order and agreed that force is part of policing when interacting with criminals. Opponents of
CRT, such as Mac Donald (2018) and Murray (2020), argued that CRT labels all White people
as oppressors and all African Americans as victims of the oppressors (Loury & McWhorter,
2022; McWhorter, 2021; Riley, 2016). Table 5 summarizes the tenets and counter tenets of CRT.

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Table 5
The Narrative and Counternarrative of Critical Race Theory (CRT)
CRT tenets Anti-CRT tenets
CRT pushes back on claims of color
blindness, neutrality, objectivity, meritocracy.
CRT challenges incorrect history and lack of
concern regarding historical truths.
CRT recognizes cultural capital.
CRT is interdisciplinary.
CRT’s purpose works toward eliminating all
forms of oppression.
CRT teaches racism.
CRT believes in personal agency.
CRT will promote reverse discrimination and
create a nation of groups and victims.
CRT makes race the prism through which
citizens analyze all aspects of the American
life.
CRT should not hold descendants responsible
for ancestors’ roles as slave owners or
generational wealth they have benefitted
from.
CRT will normalize the belief in systemic
racism.
Note. Information from Black Male Student Success in Higher Education: A Report From the
National Black Male College Achievement Study, by S. R. Harper, 2012, Center for the Study of
Race and Equity in Education, University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education; Losing
the Race: Self-Sabotage in Black America, by J. H. McWhorter, 2000, Simon and Schuster;
“Racial Stigma: Toward a New Paradigm for Discrimination Theory,” by G. C. Loury, 2003,
American Economic Review, 93(2), 334–337.
African American Male Theory (AAMT)
The Bush and Bush (2018) theory was built upon the CRT and presented the first
theoretical understanding of the psychological and social ways of thinking of African American
males. According to Bush and Bush, AAMT was used to undermine oppression by explicitly
investigating, exposing, and correcting the practices, policies, programs, systems, concepts, and
institutions that promoted the continuation of oppression. The theory further posited that it is not
reactionary or responding to hegemony (Bush & Bush, 2018). The theory was drawn upon

76
historical and current culture to determine what was necessary to achieve social justice for
African American boys and men (Bush & Bush, 2018). The theory found that on pre- and postenslavement experiences while capturing the spiritual, psychological, social, and educational
development of African American males (Bush & Bush, 2018). According to Bush and Bush,
AAMT served as a framework and as a guide for practitioners when educating African American
men. The following six tenets of AAMT addressed root causes of African American males’
educational experiences, their lived realities, and expectation gaps that exist in HE (Bush &
Bush, 2018):
 Individual and collective experiences, behaviors, outcomes, events, phenomenon, and
trajectories of African American boys and men were best analyzed using an ecological
systems approach.
 There was something unique about being male and of African descent.
 There was continuity and biology in the African American culture consciousness that
influences the experiences of African American boys and men.
 African American boys and men were resilient and resistant.
 Race and racism coupled with classism and sexism have a profound impact on every
aspect of the lives of African American boys and men.
 The focus and purpose of AAMT concerning African American boys and men should be
to pursue justice in the face of systematic racism (Bush & Bush, 2018).
The AAMT was an alternative lens that researchers have used to understand and explain
the unpreparedness and motivation of Black males when entering HE. This theoretical
framework can be used to articulate the trajectory of African American males in society (Bush &
Bush, 2018).

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Tinto’s Student Retention Theory
Tinto’s (1975, 1988) student retention theory revealed that the importance of
transitioning mentally, socially, and cognitively to a college learning environment. Tinto
proposed that students enter college with preexisting attributes and experiences, including family
background, skills, and prior schooling (Metz, 2004). To persist through the challenges of HE’s
academic and social structures, the student must connect and feel a sense of belonging (Metz,
2004; Tinto, 1988). The theory raised questions about aspirations of people and consequences if
hopes and dreams were not realized (Metz, 2004).
According to Tinto’s theory, a student’s persistence or departure from HE reflected his or
her success or failure in navigating the stages of separation, transition, and integration (Metz,
2004). Tinto (1988) found that during the stage of separation, new college students need to
detach themselves from the groups in their previous communities, such as family and high
school, which have different values, norms, and behaviors than the communities in their
academic institutions. Accordingly, students need to live on campus and interact comfortably
with professors and engage successfully with peers in their new environments. Furthermore,
once a student has started the process of disassociating from the old communities, the student is
in the transition stage. This stage can occur during or after the student began the process of
integration into the new community of the college, then the student reaches incorporation (Tinto,
1988).
Tinto (1988) stated that colleges consist of two systems: academic and social. Students
need to be integrated into both systems to persist in their academic institutions. Academic
integration could be measured by the students’ grades and intellectual development, while social
integration was measured by students’ interaction with college peers and faculty (Metz, 2004).

78
According to the model, the students’ experiences in academic and social integration could
continually change either by weakening or strengthening the level of initial goals and
commitments (Metz, 2004; Tinto, 1975). To persist through the challenges of HE’s academic and
social structures, the student must connect and feel a sense of belonging (Metz, 2004; Tinto,
1988). According to Tinto’s theory, the decision to defer HE dreams for urban poor students
relates to their lived realities (Metz, 2004).
Conclusion
The literature reviewed examined the historical background regarding African Americans
and education, which includes the slave illiteracy and reconstruction discrimination eras. During
the late 19th and 20th centuries, the rise of three African American leaders included Washington
(2013), Du Bois (1999), and Garvey (Cronon, 1960), changed the educational forecast for
African American males. HBCUs and other HE institutions were established and presented
educational options and opportunities for African Americans (Howard, 2019). Despite ongoing
efforts of education stakeholders, cultural programmers, government officials and private
organizational leaders (Adedoyin, 2022), African American males continue to have the lowest
enrollment and completion rates among Whites and other ethnic groups. (Howard, 2019, Skiba et
al., 2008; Spring, 2016).
From the literature reviewed, there were a plethora of past and present legal injustices
suffered by African American males such as: housing segregation, education discrimination,
voting oppression, and adversarial relationships with police (Crenshaw, 2017; Delgado &
Stefancic, 2017; C. I. Harris, 2016; Howard, 2019). During the 19th and 20th centuries emerged
a great higher education debate between Washington (2013) and Du Bois (1999). Washington
(2013) advocated for segregated colleges and vocational training while Du Bois (1999)

79
advocated for integrating and enrolling in HE as African American intellectuals. Today, the 21st
century debate (for and against) has centered around systemic racism, CRT, diversity, equity,
and inclusion (DEI), affirmative action, cultural experiences, structural barriers and institutional
racism (Coates, 2015; Danker, 2021; Harper, 2012; Kendi, 2016). The opponents of DEI
advocate for meritocracy (Loury, 2021; McWhorter, 2020; Riley, 2020), personal agency, and
African American family support. There have been resurgent counter narrative studies describing
intellectual inferiority and inherent deviant traits to explain African American males’ decreased
HE completion rates and increased criminal behavior rates (Mac Donald, 2023; Murray, 2022).
This dissertation’s educated participants lived in housing projects and the research
reviewed included the empirical housing studies of Rothstein (2017). Rothstein’s (2017, 2019a)
studies indicate that segregated housing has produced under resourced, underfunded, schools in
impoverished neighborhoods. However, what was negligent according to Rothstein (2017) was
discrimination in housing, denials of FHA loans, eminent domain, redlining, gerrymandering and
gentrification practices (Rothstein, 2019b). These practices have prevented many opportunities
for African Americans to acquire generational wealth and property ownership (Rothstein, 2017).
The school-to-prison phenomenon started in preschool and was a structural barrier that
prevented African American males early from achieving HE goals (Danker, 2021; Laura, 2018;
Sojoyner, 2013). Restorative justice strategies and programs were designed to address
inequalities and have been widely implemented to support cultural differences and cultural
wealth (Brooms, 2019; Center X, 2020; Hopkins, 2002; Weissman, 2022). The literature
discusses highly researched programs, practices, and policies. CRT will be used to examine
structural, political, and social barriers that hinder the enrollment and degree completion of
African American males. AAMT examined and clarified for educators the real-life cultural

80
experiences of African American males when entering and completing HE (Bush & Bush, 2018).
Tinto’s (1975) theory examines students making a full commitment by living on campus and
leaving the urban neighborhoods to complete college (Metz, 2004). Martin Luther King Jr.
reminded educators that “the arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice”
(Gray, 2018).

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Chapter III
Research Methodology
The purpose of the study is to further understand the lived experiences and educational
journeys of African American males (AAMs) who grew up in or close to housing projects and
then completed college. During extensive interviews, AAM graduates described how they
navigated and negotiated deficit-based societal challenges and institutional barriers in order to
earn college degrees.
This study was needed because an achievement gap between AAMs and other racial
groups exists despite efforts, resources, policies, and initiatives to close the gap. Higher
education data consistently reports low academic performance, lower enrollment, and lower
graduation completion rates than do various other student groups (Hannah-Jones, 2021; Kendi,
2016; McWhorter, 2021; Riley, 2016). Nevertheless, some AAMs do complete college, and their
experiences are important to better understand so that policymakers and educational institution
leaders can gain insight into how to best support AAMs’ academic success.
The challenges facing AAMs living in urban, low-income housing are undeniable and
daunting, as depicted in the media’s majoritarian coverage of the Watts community. The study’s
work provides a means to explore the counter-narrative storytelling offered by college-educated
AAMs who mostly attended underserved, under-resourced South Central Los Angeles secondary
schools. Nevertheless, there are countless untold stories of AAMs who have achieved
educational success.
The study’s problem is low enrollment in and completion of higher education programs.
Two presumed reasons for the low enrollment and completion are that AAMs (a) are ill-prepared
academically and (b) lack the financial means to complete college (Laura, 2018; Love, 2019).

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Individuals who do not complete college work are more likely to earn low wages, be
unemployed, serve time in prison, experience teen pregnancies, be sexually abused, be addicted
to drugs, and experience gang violence (Coates, 2015; Duncan-Andrade, 2009; Love, 2019).
This chapter contains a presentation of the research methodology. Specifically, the
chapter includes a presentation of the research questions; the study design; and information about
the study sample, including the recruitment process. The chapter also includes a discussion of the
data collection method and tool and the data analysis method. This information is followed by
discussions of the limitations, delimitations, and assumptions in the study and the researcher’s
biases. The chapter ends with a summary of the information presented.
Research Questions
This study contained two research questions:
● How did educated AAMs navigate through the challenges of low-income households,
peer pressure, police presence, and day-to-day cultural lived experiences outside of
school to graduate college?
● How were AAMs supported, assisted, and guided to tenaciously overcome institutional
racism, discrimination, implicit biases, and microaggressions?
The interview questions were created using all three frameworks: Critical Race Theory
(CRT), African American Male Theory (AAMT), and Tinto’s theory as detailed in Chapter 2.
Under research question number one, the interview questions were grounded in the AAMT and
CRT theories because the interview questions were based on daily lived experiences. These
experiences include barriers to enrolling and completing HE, which is rooted in CRT. The most
important aspect of lived experiences is how AAMs react, respond, interpret, and overcome the

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challenges of being Black in a White dominated society, which is why AAMT was the basis for
most questions.
Under research question number two, the interview questions integrated all three theories.
Questions focused on classroom engagement, campus life, academic support programs,
meaningful relationships, and personal agency needed to navigate the journey and persist until
graduation success was achieved. These aspects are grounded in Tinto’s retention theory.
Study Design
To explore AAMs’ lived experiences regarding their academic success, a narrative case
study design was employed. According to Chan and Holosko (2020), qualitative research was
designed to give a powerful voice to human experiences. Participants provide narrative data that
are analyzed to uncover themes (Chan & Holosko, 2020), To achieve this aim, qualitative
research involves gathering thorough data (Anfara et al., 2002). Qualitative studies involve
obtaining thick, descriptive details of a phenomenon. The extensive details make participants’
narrative data more credible (Lincoln & Guba, 1990). Geertz (2003) discussed the importance of
obtaining thick descriptions of social life from the perspectives of those being studied. HesseBiber and Leavy (2011) stated that thick descriptions are obtained by conducting in-depth
interviews. Lincoln and Guba (2016) recommended that obtaining thick descriptions of social
life from the viewpoints of the participants leads to a more complete understanding of the
phenomenon being studied and clarifies the meaning of the participants’ perspectives.
According to Yin (1994), case study research involves studying a case within a real-life,
contemporary context or setting. The case study is a design particularly suited to situations in
which it is impossible to separate the phenomenon’s variables from their context (Yin, 1994).

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According to Sturman (1999), a case study is a general term for the exploration of an
individual group or phenomenon, a comprehensive description of an individual case and its
analysis. Similarly, Sagadin (1999) stated that a case study is used when the goal is to describe
and analyze individual people, a group of people, an institution, or a problem, process,
phenomenon, or event.
Simons (2009) stated that a case study is an exploration of multiple prospects and that the
primary purpose is to obtain a detailed understanding of a topic. Creswell (2013) referred to case
study design as a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a real-life,
contemporary bonded system over time through detailed data from multiple sources. The data are
then analyzed to identify themes (Creswell, 2013).
According to Creswell (2013), a single case study consists of one bounded case, which
can consist of one individual, one group, or one program or activity. A multiple case study
consists of more than one bounded case, such as two or more groups or programs (Creswell,
2013). One benefit of a case study approach is that it provides a holistic understanding of a
problem or issue within its social context. (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011).
The qualitative case study approach was appropriate for the current study because the
goal was to explore the lived experiences of AAMs in the Watts community regarding their
educational journeys, particularly in terms of the AAMs’ perceptions of the factors that helped
those individuals graduate from college. This approach gave AAM participants a powerful voice.
Data Sources
In qualitative research, participants provide narrative data about their lived experiences: the
goal is to understand the meaning of the complexity of human lives, cultures, and behaviors (Chan &
Holosko, 2020). In the current study, the narrative research approach allowed educated AAMs the
opportunity to explain how they navigated through family, cultural, and community experiences, and

85
institutional barriers while pursuing higher education degrees. The major intent was to provide counternarratives to a majoritarian deficit-thinking mindset. Figure 14 provides information about the
housing projects the study participants grew up in.

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Figure 14
Information About Housing Projects Study Participants Grew Up In

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Data Collection
In this study, primary and secondary sources of data were collected. According to
(Edward & Holland, 2013), a primary source is an original material created at the time an event
occurs or soon afterward. Examples include documents, creative works, and objects. Secondary
sources are created by someone who did not experience firsthand. Secondary sources can be used
to interpret and analyze primary sources.
In this study, the main type of data collected was primary source data. Specifically, data
were collected through 60- to 120-minute in-person and Zoom interviews. Interviews were semistructured to allow more flexibility in the format of the interview and to enable the conversation
to flow more freely. With the semi-structured approach, the interviewer also had more liberty to
add and subtract questions according to how an interview progressed. The interview questions
were open-ended. Asking open-ended questions gives participants the latitude to talk about what
was of interest to them (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011). According to Stake (2011), it is better to
ask open-ended questions, because open-ended questions allow interviewees to tell stories
structured around their own ethnic experiences. Interview questions focused on classroom
engagement, campus life, academic support programs, meaningful relationships, and the personal
agency needed to navigate the education journey and persist until graduating. These aspects are
grounded in Tinto’s retention theory. Each interview was recorded and then the recordings were
transcribed by using the Dovetail transcription software. The recordings and transcripts were
stored and secured. Each participant was assigned a pseudonym in order to maintain
confidentiality.
The participants requested that questions be sent ahead of the interviews to allow time to
reflect on experiences and be prepared to engage in the most productive dialogue. The study

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participants had busy schedules but nevertheless made time to be interviewed thereby giving
back to their community. Three participants lived in States and cities far away from the Watts
community. Amri drove over 100 miles to participate in his interview.
The researcher began each interview with an overview of the dissertation and the
importance of the participant’s educational journey. All participants were prepared to describe
their educational journeys, helping to destigmatize growing up in low-income neighborhoods in
the Watts community. The participants provided examples of their lived experiences by
describing challenges and triumphs. Participants explained how they imparted wisdom to their
children as well as to other youth.
Three secondary sources of data were also collected. There were three well-known
AAMs in the Watts community that the researcher wanted to include. The researcher found a
university newspaper interview for Ushindi (Salinas, 2021). The researcher found a second Los
Angeles Times interview article about Kibwe, a politician (Dixson, 2023). The third interview
that the researcher found was an interview on a YouTube music video because the participant,
Kinubi, is a musician (G. W. Harris, 2017).
Study Sample
Participants’ Recruitment
To recruit participants for the study, the researcher posted a steady recruitment flyer on
social media. The researcher also contacted and explained the study to leaders of schools,
(Jordan High School, Lock High School, Markham Middle School, Compton College, and
Southwest Community College), housing management (Jordan Downs, Nickerson Gardens, and
Imperial Courts), high school reunion groups and community organizations: (Watts Area
Ministers Council, Watts Neighborhood Block Club, and Watts Labor Community Action

89
Committee) all located in the South-Central Los Angeles Watts area. Several of the individuals
particularly those representing the Jordan High School alumni group and the Watts Area
Ministers Council, agreed to help recruit potential study participants. To qualify for the study,
individuals needed to live in the South-Central Los Angeles Watts community and to have
graduated from an institution of higher education. To cast a wider net, the decision was made to
sample individuals from three housing projects and nearby residences in Watts.
Potential participants were asked to provide the following information:
● First and Last name.
● Email address.
● Phone number.
● Name of high school attended.
● Name of college, graduation year, and degree obtained.
● Name of the housing project where the individual lived or lived close to.
The researcher collated a list of potential participants in the South-Central Los Angeles
Watts community and then contacted each person via phone and/or e-mail to explain the study,
including the participation expectations, the individual’s interest in the study, and availability to
participate in the study. After verifying a person’s interest and availability, the researcher
emailed the person an “information sheet” for review.
Participants’ Demographics
All participants had lived in the South-Central Los Angeles Watts housing projects. All
participants had earned bachelor’s degrees, and most had also earned master’s degrees. One
participant had earned a Ph.D., and two had earned a juris doctorate (all from accredited
universities and colleges). The participants grew up in the Jordan Downs, Nickerson Gardens, or

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Imperial Courts housing projects or in homes close to those projects. The participants had
achieved success in various professions: one was a city programmer, one was a deputy county
administrator, one was an engineer, one was an attorney, one was a judge, one was an architect,
one was a professional musician, and the others were educators. Table 6 contains demographic
information about the participants.
During the interviews, the participants described their lived experiences about their
educational journeys, particularly while pursuing higher education. The participants also
described their home and school relationships, school practices, academic programs, and campus
activities that contributed to the participants’ persistence in college. The participants provided
rich details, which enabled the problems to be assessed, and recommendations for improvement
to be developed.

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Table 6
Demographic Information of African American Males and Residences in Projects
Participant Degree 1 or 2
Parents
Siblings Marital
Status
Children 1
st
Generation
Housing
Jelani PhD 2 9 M 3 Followed Nickerson
Simba MA 2 2 M 2 Y Nickerson
Zuberi MA 2 2 M 4 Y Nickerson
Ushindi JD 2 9 M 2 Y Jordan
Kibwe BA 1 3 M 0 Y Imperial
Kinubi BA 2 2 M 1 Followed Imperial
Takatifu BA 1 3 M 3 Y Jordan
Mosi MBA 2 2 M 2 Y Jordan
Hakimu JD 1 1 S 2 Y Jordan
Maliki MS 2 7 S 7 Y Imperial
Refu MA 2 2 S 4 Followed Imperial
Amri MA 1 1 S 3 Y Nickerson
Salaam BA 2 3 M 2 Followed Jordan
Maceo BA 1 3 M 2 Y Jordan
Kuumba MA 1 0 M 1 Y Nickerson
Data Analysis
Table 7 and Table 8 display the coding data analysis. Preliminary analysis took place as
the researcher recorded copious notes in the form of frequently used words and phrases for

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possible themes. After the interviews were conducted, the data analysis began with selecting
words and phrases that were frequently used among the participants. These words were colorcoded and uploaded in Dovetail software. A spreadsheet was created (See Table 8). Each
interview’s transcripts were color-coded, and the number of frequently used words was recorded
and charted to update each entry accordingly. New codes were added as deemed necessary.
During the coding process, notes were taken about how the resulting data were analyzed to create
categories to subsequently develop themes and subthemes. The analysis steps included
organizing the data, identifying themes, and creating a draft of the findings. Table 8 contains
information regarding the data collected from each participant. Table 8 reveals how codes in
Table 7 were broken down into subthemes and overarching themes. These categories were based
on the number of responses from participants and their frequency of used words.

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Table 7
Participants’ Frequently Used Words
Participant College Church Family Mom School Campus Culture
Jelani 44 10 9 20 56 9 35
Simba 5 4 0 11 6 2 20
Zuberi 25 1 0 0 32 6 10
Ushindi 178 17 19 9 56 44 0
Kibwe 6 0 4 7 11 0 3
Kinubi 5 6 3 1 14 0 4
Takatifu 24 5 1 6 0 7 12
Mosi 9 0 0 2 0 0 0
Hakimu 13 12 4 6 32 0 96
Maliki 16 0 0 0 1 2 3
Refu 12 22 12 35 3 47
Amri 27 0 1 6 5 2 1
Salaam 17 12 4 4 37 0 28
Macheo 14 10 9 15 42 1 11
Kuumba 44 10 9 30 56 9 35

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Table 8
Codes-to-Themes System
Overarching themes Sub themes # of participant
responses
Danger zones
School-to-prison 12 of 15
Embedded entrapment 10 of 15
Cultural navigation 15 of 15
Lifelines
Local schools 15 of 15
Churches 14 of 15
Relationships 15 of 15
Community 8 of 15
Family infrastructure
Moms 15 of 15
First generation 15 of 15
Low income 15 of 15
Defiance of the odds
Dream killing 7 of 15
Personal agency 15 of 15
Relating to heritage 12 of 15
Diverse staff 9 of 15
Trustworthiness Measures
Reliability involves the dependability, consistency, and/or repeatability of a project’s data
collection, and analysis (Creswell & Miller, 2000). Dependability is established through
credibility and involves the ability of other researchers to obtain the same results (Lincoln &
Guba, 1990). The most widely used procedures to increase trustworthiness are audit trails, thick
and rich descriptions, triangulation, and member checking (Creswell & Miller, 2000; Merriam,
1998). The researcher used triangulation to increase the study’s trustworthiness.
Triangulation
Triangulation is generally used to establish validity in a case study (Stake, 2005).
Triangulation involves using two or more methods to obtain data and examine the same question

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(Greene et al., 1989). According to Stake (2005), researchers use triangulation to provide more
clarity and pursue diverse perspectives.
The present study relied on social media, churches, community organizations, and
companies to fact-check the participants’ education and career successes. The researcher also
validated the participants’ interview data by talking with former classmates, relatives, and
recruiters who have had firsthand knowledge of participants’ successes through the years.
The researcher performed triangulation by following up with two Jordan High Alumni
Association leaders in a Zoom meeting to review the research questions and summarize the
findings. Before the meeting, the researcher created a flyer to distribute at two reunion events.
After discussing the participants’ various quotes, the recruiters verified that the information
gathered was accurate, and verified the names of the qualified participants. The researcher met
with two Watts area ministers who verified and assured the accuracy of cultural lived
experiences interviews. To add creditability to these recruiters, the Watts area ministers adopted
Jordan High to serve the school as a community resource and safety net for staff, students, and
parents. To add credibility and validity the researcher emailed essential quotes to the 12 primary
participants and inquired if the information was accurate. In each case, the selected quotes were
confirmed as accurate by the participant.
Ethical Considerations
Protecting the privacy of research participants involves ensuring identities and responses
are kept confidential and not disclosed to unauthorized people:
 The researcher ensured participants that the interview was voluntary.
 The researcher used a secure server to store information.
 The researcher removed identifying information from the data.

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 The researcher ensured that the participants could withdraw from the interview at any
time.
Delimitations
This narrative research study explored the lived experiences of only AAMs who grew up
in housing projects in the Watts community or nearby and then graduated from college. The
focus was on exploring the participants’ educational journeys. This study examined AAMs who
lived in or near low-income projects in Los Angeles who received degrees. The sample size was
15 participants. The study’s narrow focus limits the generalizability and transferability of the
findings.
Limitations of the Study
A limitation of the study was the difficulty of recruiting individuals who met the
participation criteria. The researcher wanted to interview 30 individuals but was able to saturate
with 12 primary participants and three secondary source participants. Kwanza names were given
to maintain the participants’ anonymity. There were a number of individuals who qualified to
participate and were urged by family and friends to do so. But some elected not to participate. It
was unclear why. Nevertheless, data saturation was achieved after about 15 interviews. Other
researchers may not be able to repeat the study in other geographical locations and within
different racial groups and obtain similar results.
Another limitation of this study included the assumption that culture is part of lived
experiences in segregated neighborhood schools. It was also assumed that culture affects AAMs’
preparedness to enter higher education institutions and affects AAMs’ access after entering
college.

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Researcher’s Biases
All individuals possess biases. During the study, the researcher acknowledged my biases
and avoided them to the best of my ability. For example, the researcher presented both sides of
the argument. The researcher controlled biases by recording self-reflections throughout the
study.
Positionality
I am a retired assistant superintendent of Lynwood Unified School District. I supervised
curriculum, instruction, and assessment. I received my bachelor of science degree and California
teaching credential from the University of Southern California. As assistant superintendent, I
utilized the university’s gifted and talented K–12 services offered by Professor Sandra Kaplan
for students, teachers, and administrators. I established two important partnerships: the UCLA
Center X with a K–12 math resident, and a Boeing science and engineering partnership for all
fourth-grade teachers. I also obtained district grants to offer UCLA’s summer enrichment jumpstart programs in English Language Arts and Math. I established a Saturday algebra utilizing
secondary math teachers and alumni engineers including a board (member) which resulted in a
California State Board of Education award. I believed children needed to compete in academic
competitions to increase their understanding of the reality of the academic world outside of
Lynwood. I set aside funds for students to compete in mock trials, county math olympics,
decathlon, pentathlon, science fair, art, and history events. The greatest rewards were the high
school winning the LA County Mock Trial and being awarded a California state gifted education
award.
During my tenure, two schools in the district became California Distinguished Schools.
Further, eight of twelve elementary schools in the district met or exceeded state performance

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criteria. I established the district’s first African American Council for students, staff, and parents.
The district’s successful action plan was one of five presented to former Secretary of Education
Arnie Duncan in Washington, D.C., and was also presented to the Education Trust organization
in Washington, D.C. The goal of the plan was to replace the generational poverty cycle with a
college-going culture. One of the major goals was for at least one child in each family to
complete college. I am currently the Chief Executive Officer of my educational institution, and I
serve as the educational resource for South-Central city agencies.
I grew up in Watts, California, near the Nickerson Gardens housing project, and attended
local schools and a local church. Thirty-five years later, I still attend the same church located at
103rd and Central Avenue. I drive past housing projects and Section 8 residences in Watts every
week. At church, I have served as youth department and choir director for more than 30 years. It
is critically important to me to author a meaningful and purposeful dissertation that will help to
clarify the support needed for AAMs students in the Watts community to graduate from college.
I renamed and addressed this subgroup of students as Students Left Behind, based on the
definition outlined in the mandate, “No Child Left Behind” (Ladson-Billings, 2005). In most
low-income housing projects, academically and athletically gifted students are offered
scholarships and transported out of the area for school. My call to action is to increase awareness
of the cultural lived experiences of the students left behind. K–12 superintendents and higher
education faculty hear directly from educated AAMs regarding how to strengthen a disjointed
infrastructure to serve AAMs students. I proclaim, as an educator, that the children we serve are
more than their test scores, and based on that perspective, I created the mantra “Our children are
like roses; we measure their growth, one rose at a time.”

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I wrote the following poem to express my personal beliefs and perspectives through
which I view the research process. My poem is written to connect me to the research study and
explain how I understand and relate to the participants.
I AM
I am Watts, South Central LA
From homemade, second-hand, and layaways.
I am house near alleys, housing projects, churches, and liquor stores.
I am the oldest of four roses that grew out of concrete cracks.
I am Obie and Ruby, who moved West
from Texas to escape violence and death.
I am in pursuit of success
from dedicated teachers in ghetto schools.
I am victorious
from speech, debates, and leadership offices.
I am from a strong Baptist faith and -It takes a village- unity called to raise neighborhood
children.
I am, 35 years later, serving youth and young adults
from the same church, inspiring hopes, and dreams for those now in search.
I am married, with one son, who went to college overseas and is now chasing Wall Street
dreams in NYC.
I am family chicken dinners on Sundays,
celebrating birthdays, holidays inclusively, enjoyably, routinely,
from parents’ legacies after earthly labor to heavenly reward.

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I am a teacher, director, assistant superintendent, and CEO.
I am a first-generation college graduate
from the University of Southern Cal when the Trojans were #1 in football.
From BA to EDL,
I am back like new, writing a dissertation in 2022
about college-educated African American males who grew up in Watts housing projects.
I am Barbara Johnson!
This poem is dedicated to the late Dr. Tatiana Melguizo.
Conclusion
Chapter 3 explained the qualitative data methods used in the study. The method was inperson and Zoom. Interviews used semi-structured questions for added flexibility. The purpose
was to obtain thick, rich responses from the participants. Participants were recruited mostly by
local high school administrators and alumni, as well as the Watts Area Ministers Council. This
allowed for fact-checking of credentials. The interviews were recorded and transcribed by
Dovetail software. The most frequently used words were color-coded and placed in categories.
These categories were analyzed for commonalities and importance. From these categories,
themes were developed. The researcher was the principal investigator, and it is important to
explain that as interviews were being conducted, the researcher while recording copious notes
was also creating preliminary codes and possible themes. The number 15 was used as the sample
size and saturation was achieved. Interview participants met the criteria of lived experiences in
low-income communities and yet graduated.

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Chapter IV
Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to understand how AAMs navigated through cultural lived
experiences to enroll in and graduate from college. The methodological tool used was
counternarrative storytelling (Harper, 2012) to move from a deficit-mindset to an asset-based
mindset. As the educational gap widens between White individuals and AAMs (Kendi, 2016), it
is important to learn from educated AAMs who grew up in the Watts community how to be
resilient in order to achieve educational goals (Bush & Bush, 2018). Deficit-mindedness is
problematic for the self-esteem of African American students and the community in which they
reside. Deficit-mindedness is problematic because it can limit educators’ perceptions regarding
how to address students’ talents, strengths, and potential. Teachers may become blinded by
assumptions about disadvantages and limited resources (Harper, 2012).
The problem of the study is the low enrollment and low college completion rates of
AAMs. The goal of this study was to add to the research on AAMs who earned college degrees.
The college success stories of AAMs in the Watts community and elsewhere are underreported
and underappreciated. The study results challenge the media’s negative depiction of AAMs as
being involved with gangs, guns, and violence; becoming fathers while young; and, most
troubling, being unintelligent and unmotivated, underperforming, and experiencing unsupportive
family structures (Mac Donald, 2018). Issues in this area do exist, but there are countless
successes as well. This study’s conclusions expand the hope of college completion among AAMs
because the study results show that AAMs from low-income households have earned college
degrees (Harmon et al., 2020).

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In the study, educated AAMs detailed how their lived experiences in a low-income
community fueled the motivation to complete college in hopes of changing the living conditions
for themselves, their parents, and future generations. The data from the interviews provides
insight regarding how students can overcome living in an underresourced, underfunded
community and accomplish the goal of completing a college degree (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
The researcher was assisted by Jordan High Alumni and the Watts Area Council to
recruit participants. The qualifications included being an educated AAM who lived in the Watts
projects or homes close by when growing up.
The researcher found the participants eager to participate in the study. Sending the
questions to them prior to the interview proved quite useful. It made it easier to conduct the
interviews with fewer interruptions. Participants were able to share in-depth information, and the
researcher was able to obtain descriptions that were rich in detail.
The suggested 90-minute timeframe was enough to capture many stories, events, and
circumstances. The participants were told that pseudonyms would be used and that they would
be able to talk freely. There were 12 primary participants and 3 secondary-source participants.
The researcher recorded copious notes, which were used in the coding process in preparation for
finding patterns in the data. The three most important themes the participants revealed were the
influence of mothers, the role of churches, and the importance of secondary schools. The
participants used their poverty and first-generation leadership as motivation to overcome
neighborhood negative peer pressure, microaggressions, and structural barriers in order to stay
on track to complete college.
Lived experiences represent individuals’ marginalization, which affects housing, health,
wealth, education, and social status (Coates, 2015; Jones, 2021). AAMT builds upon the CRT

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theory. This lens gives insight into the expectations and experiences of AAMs. It is used for
investigating, exposing, and correcting practices, policies, programs, systems, concepts, and
institutions that promote the continuation of oppression (Bush & Bush, 2018). AAMs are not
devoid of personal agency despite limited opportunities. These individuals are resilient,
relational, and difference-makers (Harmon et al., 2020).
CRT was used to examine racial barriers that impede progress (Harper, 2012). Ushindi
recalled the following experience:
I could not join the football team in the housing facility where players stayed 2 weeks
before school started. As the only Black, the owners clarified that I could not sleep in the
accommodation. I asked if I could sleep overnight and the owner said, No! My team
members found a welcoming hotel in the middle of the night in San Fernando Valley,
California, for all of us.
Tinto’s theory examines cultural adjustments needed to transition from low-income
housing and underresourced secondary schools. When hopes and dreams are deferred, it relates
to their lived realities (Metz, 2004). Tinto argued that students must remove themselves from
cultural lived experiences and assimilate into campus living in higher education institutions. The
results and findings in this chapter are best described as an AAM navigation and negotiation
collective.
This chapter presents the results of the data analysis. The main themes identified were
danger zones, lifelines, infrastructure, and defiance of the odds. Table 9 shows the study’s
themes and their relation to the main three theories of the study.

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Table 9
Participants’ Compiled Overarching Themes and the Study’s Theories
Theme CRT AAMT Tinto
Danger zones X X
Lifelines X X
Family
Infrastructure
X X
Defiance of the
odds
X X
Danger Zones
A danger zone is the avoidance of trouble in order to not engage in confrontational and
consequential life-changing predicaments, which include the school-to-prison pipeline,
embedded entrapment, and cultural navigation. (Harmon, 2018).
School-to-Prison-Pipeline
The school-to-prison-pipeline includes disciplinary policies and practices that create an
environment for criminalization of youth (Sojoyner, 2013). Disproportionate numbers of AAMs
are in the juvenile court system or incarcerated (Laura, 2018). In this regard, Refu told the
following stories about how he interacted with police:
My dad didn’t tell me this, but I learned it through other people. When you get pulled
over, the first thing you do is make sure you let them see your hands, put them both on
the steering wheel and you answer and talk with them. “Yes, sir,” and “No, sir.” You
respect the position. You don’t necessarily have to respect the person, but surely have to

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respect the position. I tell this to my own boys and the players I coach. The whole thing is
the conversation. Whatever way it goes, it must end where you walk away from it.
Refu also stated the following:
I remember at Drew Middle School when I was a teacher’s aide, this Firestone sheriff
chased a boy. He had chased him through the school campus. The sheriff caught up to the
student and decided to hit him with a stick. The kid went crazy. And that’s the only time
I’ve ever grabbed a policeman, and I put my hand on his gun and said, “Don’t pull that
out.”
Mosi rarely encountered police: “If stopped by police, I would share that I was a
Christian and attended a neighborhood church and this prevented harassment.”
Jelani, unlike other participants, explained that he and his friends were harassed by police
weekly. He provided the following example:
One day my college-bound school friends and I were sitting, laughing, and having fun
talking when police arrived and harassed us for no reason. The interesting thing is when
you needed the police to help with a gang fight, they would take their time to arrive and
allow escalation.
Police and low-income African American communities have had a long-standing
contentious relationship (Sojoyner, 2013). However, participants found ways to deescalate
circumstances that could have led to changing their lives forever.
Embedded Entrapment
Embedded entrapment involves provoking AAMs to do something in school that is illegal
or otherwise prohibited that would result in suspensions or expulsions. Embedded entrapment

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can include microaggressions (Harper, 2012). Simba recounted examples of microaggressions
from his first Caucasian roommate:
My roommate would say statements like, “Hey, bring a chicken in today?” or “I know
you like to dance.” I answered, “Yeah, how did you know, I do like chicken. Do you
know what I mean? Like, It’s delicious.” Or Whites would ascribe it to - you remember
Tiger Woods when he won the Masters Golf Tournament, the media said, “Are you going
to have chicken and watermelon? These are the kinds of things that come up.” And I
didn’t like the jokes. My roommate and I didn’t ever bond. So, by the end of that first
quarter, my roommate had requested to move, and I didn’t even know it. One day, I
returned to the room, and he was taking his stuff out. I would find out later what he
reported to the resident advisor.
The other thing that would happen is there’d be these discussions going on about
things and you didn’t know what was going on, right? So, higher-ups would be talking
about stuff, but they wouldn’t tell you. They wouldn’t come to you and just say, “Hey,
we’re hearing that you were doing this.” Or “We hear that you’re having a disagreement
with Bob or John or whatever.” The administration would let it escalate. They purposely
would let it escalate until it was so bad that somebody had to go, right? And for a lot of
African Americans at Cal Poly and other schools, it was us that had to go.
Macheo described an unsettling joke a Caucasian classmate made to generate a reaction:
There was one raw joke that sticks with me to this day. A Caucasian student said, “If you
gave $100,000 to a White or Asian, they would invest it. If you gave $100,000 to an
African American, they would buy a new suit and a Cadillac.” After that joke experience,
I chose to run for ASB Treasurer and was elected two consecutive years.

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Moving to the college setting, participants understood there would be dire consequences
if they fell victim to entrapping situations. Amri, who approached life’s challenges with a more
aggressive temperament, shares an example of entrapment early in high school.
I was late once to class and the new vice-principal told me I would have to do detention
for the tardy. At the time, I was ASB High School President, and I told him it was only
one tardy and the policy was three tardies equals one detention. He insisted on detention
and I rejected his punishment vehemently which he knew I would. He was hoping to have
the detention escalate to suspension or expulsion because of my opposition. A coach
talked with me after no other administrator would come to my rescue and I did the
detention.
Cultural Navigation
Cultural navigation forces AAMs to learn how to protect family members and live in the
community despite dangers and hardships (Kendi, 2016). Simba related the following experience
a life altering neighborhood incident:
One thing in particular, a good friend of mine at the time of adolescence was MM. He
tested gifted and scored the highest. In other words, amongst all of us going through the
gifted testing, his IQ was the highest, but [he] had a crazy family environment and so he
was disruptive. But as a kid, you wanted to be around [him] because he kind of kept you
protected. I hung around him until one day we were out on 112th St and my mom had
been telling me, “You got to be careful about being around him.” MM was a gang
member. He was drifting into that world. I was just going to school, you know, having
fun riding my bike, doing all that kind of stuff to have a normal life. But MM was doing
some things that were not so good. One day, gang members drove down the street and

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one came pretty close to me. I could admit it now. That was a critical moment in my life
when I remembered going home because, for the first time, I heard bullets get so close
you could hear a real high, piercing noise and your ears were ringing. This stuff that my
dad used to talk about when he was in the military, kind of all of a sudden came together.
My mom is doing the pat down like, where was I bleeding? But I just couldn’t hear. And
then Mom said the thing that she had said before, but it resonated. She said, “Birds of a
feather flock together. And it doesn’t matter if you’re an eagle; if you’re hanging with
pigeons, you’re a pigeon.”
Amri recalled a time when he was living with his cousin and aunt in Nickerson Gardens
and shared this story:
My aunt and I were away from the house. There was a lot of commotion outside and my
cousin opened the door. When she did, a young man ran into the house and hid. She
closed the door quickly because she could see several gang members headed for the
house. They started banging on the door and shouting obscenities. She was extremely
frightened. She called the police, and the young man called his dad. The police arrived,
and the gang members ran off. After 8 years, my aunt and cousin were able to move out
of Nickerson into a home.
It was important for Maliki and Salaam to navigate the pitfalls in the segregated
neighborhood culture. Maliki reported that older siblings were often drawn into troubling
situations brought on by younger siblings. Because of the feeling of family responsibility, older
siblings felt required to protect younger siblings. Maliki recalled the following:

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Sometimes, I was being pulled into conflicts that involved my siblings that would spill
onto the school campus. This put me and my siblings at great risk and harm with other
families. Learning how to negotiate socially in the neighborhood was key to survival.
Salaam remembered: “After I worked two summers to save money to purchase a car,
gang members wanted to access the new vehicle for their transportation. I had to talk my
way out of this situation constantly.”
Lifelines
African American communities join forces to take advantage of the strength that is
available within community networks which include local schools, churches, community
contributions, and lasting relationships (Harmon et al., 2020). An African proverb states, “It
takes a village to raise a child.” In this section, the village includes the family (primarily the
mother); the local schools, with supportive, caring teachers; the local churches; and community
interventions, mostly sponsored by city and state governments or individual and group donors.
Local Schools/Safety Net
One example of lifelines is local schools serving as safety nets and beacons of hope. The
schools served as lighthouses during participants’ most challenging times (Duncan-Andrade,
2009). Zuberi credited teachers for helping students to become college bound:
The schools had caring and supportive teachers. It was the cornerstone of the
neighborhood. There were nine children in our family. So, there wasn’t extra food to go
around. At school, staff knew the large families and would find ways of helping.
Teachers would make it a point on special occasions, to reward with hamburgers, fries,
and drinks. I tried my best to win class competitions or sports activities for those food
rewards. I also remember how the schools offered trade classes to learn technical skills.

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The teachers who taught these classes taught with such pride and passion. They loved to
pass the knowledge and skills on to the students. What was gained was the ability to get a
part-time job after school and in the summers often initiated by teachers. On occasion,
celebrities would hear about students’ work and purchase some of the art designs or
furniture made. Again, rewarded by teachers.
Kinubi gave credit and praise to his mentors, local schools, and church:
I was a proud student at Lock High School and member of Beulah Baptist Church. Under
the mentorship of the church choir director and high school band director I advanced, as a
musician. My parents had me on a trajectory to succeed, but I needed development,
resources, role models, and opportunities to flourish. And this happened at a high school
in the Watts community. I would not have become an accomplished musician with 40
albums, nine Grammy nominations, and wealth without passionate caring, supportive,
and talented teachers.
Jelani referred to a broader context. He reported that the most negative vulnerable aspect
of living in low-income public housing was being jobless:
Looking back, I was able to find extra work on campus based on my skill training learned
in trade classes at Jordan High. There were jobs that I had no experience in, but I would
convince college administrators or professors to give me a try. Those foundational skills
provided me with extra income throughout college.
When asked what the most impactful community entity was, all participants stated that
schools were the most impactful. Next to mothers, caring teachers were most influential in the
lives of these AAMs.

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Churches
Another example of a lifeline was churches, which served as support systems outside of
the home and school (Jones, 2021). Participants explained how the church was a community
asset. For example, Ushindi stated the following:
My mother did the best she could raising five kids to attend church as much as possible. I
was more of a child of the Sunday School of the local church in Watts. I went to where
the kids went, and then I came home. Church was a constant during the week and on the
weekends. We were always kind of a small family that had emerged, and that’s because
of the church, which is different now. Today, the church is more migratory. You go in,
you go out. For us, it was more a family, it was a family center with community
resources, school supplies, financial help, and mentors.
Takatifu stated: “My grandparents took me to church, and I enjoyed a spiritual
upbringing that still exists today. It influenced me to attend a Christian college.” Macheo stated:
“My dad was a minister, and I was influenced by my parents to attend a Christian college.”
Takatifu and Macheo were raised in deeply religious home environments, which influenced both
participants’ decision to enroll in Christian colleges. Takatifu’s and Macheo’s decision resulted
in fewer experiences with microaggression and implicit biases.
Lasting Relationships
Through community schools and colleges, participants cultivated lasting relationships.
Establishing these relationships required effort, but the participants maintained these strong
connections even after college (Coates, 2015). Ushindi, a Rhode Scholar, experienced many
meaningful relationships that led to more successful achievements:

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I was invited to become a member of the Alumni Association Board of Governors and
later a member of the Board of Trustees. Initially, I maintained contact with the college
through all of those years, since graduation, as a booster of the athletic program as well.
There is a club called the 795 Club, representing former players: baseball, basketball, and
football players at Whittier College who continue to support the various sports programs,
and that’s always been a great connection.
There is a Sports Hall of Fame at the college. I was an early inductee into the Hall
of Fame and have participated in subsequent induction ceremonies for some of my
teammates. Over the years, it’s also been a way of connecting back to the college as a
sports booster. My relationship after graduation with faculty was pretty much limited to
the faculty who remained. And that would be something that I would remind students, for
example, if they have a relationship with a faculty member, use them to make those
connections as often as they possibly can.
Kinubi enjoyed and benefitted from early connections that still existed at the time of the
study: “The most memorable time that I shared with high school teachers who groomed me was
playing at President Obama’s inauguration.” Macheo was very outgoing and enjoyed friendships
with individuals of different races: “I was transported to an integrated middle school. And then
went to high school where it was 80% White population. I felt comfortable making White
friends, some of which I have to this day.”
Lasting relationships can be critically important in the lives of AAMs. These friendships
can serve as a way to stay connected with the community and to give back to the community by
being mentors and role models.

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Community Interventions
Community interventions provide support and resources to families in segregated lowincome communities (Rothstein, 2019b). Kibwe stated: “You can’t pull yourself up by the
bootstraps if you don’t have boots.” He went on to say the following:
In August, the Los Angeles City Council approved $363,000 for the Watts Empowerment
Center through the city’s new municipal anti-discrimination agency, the Civil, Human
Rights, and Equity Department. The money, which is to be used to expand after-school
programming at the center, will be distributed through a pilot program called Los
Angeles Reforms for Equity and Public Acknowledgement of Institutional Racism (L.A.
REPAIR) which focuses on impoverished communities. The Watts Empowerment Center
stands right in the middle of Imperial Courts, a collection of apartment buildings with
faded, teal-colored cinder block walls and bars on the windows.
Kuumba, who worked as a Watts youth activities coordinator as a college student,
described a donation not long before the study: “Vanessa Bryant, wife of basketball legend Kobe
Bryant, renovated the Nickerson Gardens Basketball gym and the 109th Street gym.” Takatifu,
who stayed connected to Watts community events, stated that “several well-known rappers, such
as Kendrick Lamar, gave a free concert at Nickerson Gardens, with Rihanna as his special guest.
Kendrick also donated money to the community.” The interviews suggest there were many
unsung heroes who made smaller donations, which also affected the lives of AAMs.
Family Infrastructure
African American families are resilient and persevere through dynamic changes and
periods of adversity. Examples of resilience and perseverance include mothers’ influence and

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high expectations, first-generation aspirations, and overcoming the low-income reality (Harmon
et al., 2020).
A Mother’s Influence and High Expectations
A mother is a resilient warrior ready to fearlessly take on all obstacles; make wise
decisions as a leader; and have a never-give-up attitude with family, friends, and the community.
A mother also has high expectations for her children, and these expectations influence her
children’s behavior (Harper, 2018). Simba referred to his mother’s influence when he shared the
following:
Mom always said some person you may meet may be the only person they ever really
interact with. So, you are responsible for the race, how you act, how you interact, how
you relate, how you discuss, how you think is what they would put a tab on. Everything
else is media-driven. They’re looking at movies, hearing news articles, and watching
negative news. That’s what they see. But when they come in contact with you, you can be
the one that gives them the other side of the picture. So, I was always hell-bent in those
environments to be three times better, which means you are three times better.
Kuumba described his mother’s influence on his decision to attend college:
At an early age, my mother instilled in me that I would be going to college. She stated it
was important to go to college, so college was always in my head. My mother wanted me
to have it better than what she had. I was taught at an early age to get good grades in
middle and high school and college would be a goal. So, I always had college aspirations,
you were taught this at an early age.
Takatifu explained that his mom gave him up to ensure a better life for him:

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My mom was a teenager when she had me and instead of an abortion, she gave me to my
grandmother to raise me. She married later and moved closer to where my grandmother
lived, but I wasn’t able to live with her, my stepdad, or my three step-brothers. However,
I was her only child to graduate from college.
Amri had perhaps the most emotional memories of all the participants. His mother
experienced dire poverty conditions:
My mother worked every day in two homes as a housekeeper. She would be exhausted
each night, but always found time to feed us, care for us, and engage in conversation. She
dropped out of school in middle school. My dad was never interested in being a part of
our lives. I found out as an adult that my mom was sending him updates. I went on a
search to find him and did. He knew of my accomplishments, but I explained to him that I
could not forgive him. He left his wife and three children to live such an impoverished
lifestyle which began on an Indian reservation. Mom didn’t have any resources, but she
did have hope. I didn’t and wouldn’t let her down by not going to college. I earned two
degrees and many awards all to honor my mom.
Zuberi recalled that his dad allowed his mom to make final college decisions for Zuberi.
Zuberi recalled the following:
I wanted to attend USC, but the sports scholarship offer wasn’t enough, and I had no
other resources. My mother decided that the school with the most financial help was
where I would go. It turned out to be a good decision. There was a school district close to
the college. I applied to do part-time work to add to my living expenses as a college
student. After graduation, I applied to be a substitute teacher and eventually a permanent
teacher.

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Mothers were the most powerful influence in the lives of the participants. In particular,
their mothers had the most impact regarding the participants’ college enrollment and completion
decisions.
First-Generation Empowerment
First-generation empowerment involves setting an example that shows that family
members can earn a college degree. The individuals who set this example are first-generation
siblings. This empowerment is the best possible role model (Kendi, 2016). First-generation
siblings accepted the responsibility and role without hesitation, setting the standard for
completing college and participating in graduation ceremonies. Ushindi was the first in his
family to complete college but was not the first to go to college. He noted the following:
Mother had a strong sense like my father about the importance of education. They both
urged college on all of their children. While I was the 4th child, I was the first to finish
college, but, I was not the first to go to college. All of my three older siblings went to
college but did not finish. All three siblings graduated from high school, but they never
finished the college education that they started. I was vastly different. I did not in truth
have the same struggles that they did. Later, when my father decided after he retired from
the city of Los Angeles, to go back to school and get his high school diploma, my mother
went with him. They were both walking the halls of my local Jordan high school,
completing classes to get their high school diplomas. I always think of myself, even today,
as a role model.
Mosi was the first sibling to go to college. He recalled: “It was important to me and my
parents to be the first to graduate college and move out of the neighborhood and break the low-

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income poverty cycle.” Salaam was Mosi’s younger brother, and Salaam expressed the positive
impact of having a first-generation sibling:
I proudly followed in my brother Mosi’s footsteps. I wanted to be a good student like he
was; even wanting a car like my brother’s. He taught me how to drive and picked out a
car when it was time. Although my dad and mom worked, they had very little money. At
the beginning of the school year, we received two shirts, two pairs of jeans, and a sweater
to last the whole school year. With the advice of my brother, I went to college and
worked full-time. If I had a racist professor, I would hang in there for 10 weeks. That was
the beauty of the quarter system, it was only 10 weeks long. So, you could endure
anything and stay on track.
Jelani explained that his brother was the first-generation study, but it was also his sisters
who enthusiastically cheered him on:
I am a second-sibling college graduate. I recall how my sisters pushed me to graduate
from college. I have four sisters. I was the only sibling to earn a Ph.D. I enjoyed my
college years, although it was difficult being the only African American pursuing
engineering at the time. I wanted to give back to the college by way of scholarships but
was told Black students could not be singled out. Donations would go into the category:
Students of Color.
Low-Income Reality
The concept of low-income reality is when the wealth gap disparities significantly impact
the quality of housing, schools, jobs, neighborhood businesses, and community resources
including infrastructures (Jones, 2021; Rothstein, 2019). Kuumba shared his mom’s struggles:

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My father died by suicide when I was 3. After that, my home life consisted of a mother
and a stepfather. Mom wanted me to have a father or a father figure. She was married
four times and usually worked two jobs. I was raised in Watts, where most of the families
had a mother and father, both hard working. Watts was an impoverished, segregated area
with not a lot of community programs until after the Watts riots in 1965. We didn’t even
know we were poor. I spent a lot of time by myself when my parents were working.
There were friends, good and bad, in my neighborhood. Most everyone was working to
better themselves, but I occasionally hung out with the wrong crowd, where I got in
trouble for stealing.
Maliki reflected on how being poor affected his social experiences at a young age. He
explained the following:
My four brothers and I worked part-time jobs to help increase the household income. I
couldn’t play sports like my friends because of it. But I didn’t mind since my mom whom
I loved so dearly was a stay-at-home housewife to raise 10 kids. After my older brother
died in a car accident, I worked multiple part-time jobs in high school and a full-time and
part-time job in college. I assumed my older brother’s role always there for my mom and
siblings when they needed financial help.
Hakimu recalled that after college, he experienced bank-lending redlining. He shared the
following story:
When I attempted to purchase a house in the South Central Los Angeles neighborhood, I
was denied. The bank that I had a longtime account with said no to my loan application to
purchase property near where I grew up and where my mom lived. It was explained

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clearly that my credit was not the issue. However, the bank did not loan money in those
housing areas.
Amri experienced the following incident as a senior in college as he was trying to
graduate:
When I attempted to rent an apartment for me and my wife while attending college, the
landlord said no. I went to the fair housing authorities immediately. An official
representative sent a White couple to the same apartment. The landlord quickly recanted
when the housing agent pulled out his badge and then the landlord offered an apartment
rental to the first African American couple.
Hakimu and Amri told of experiencing discrimination as youth and then as adults in
search of housing. CRT examines these experiences as evidence of the permanence of racism.
The average income of families living in housing projects is $30,000; in contrast, families
in Los Angeles City and the United States have an average income of a little over $60,000. Lowincome living conditions can limit many opportunities. The Bureau of Statistics (2024) reported
that Black youth have higher unemployment (16.9%) than their peers. Black adults in California
have an unemployment rate of 8.1%; the percentage is 5.3% when not disaggregated.
Disaggregating data is the truest form of validating accurate academic and social progress and
conditions (Harper, 2012).
Defiance of the Odds
Defiance of the odds involves tenaciously overcoming negative cultural lived
experiences, which include dream-killing, personal agency, brotherhood networking, relating
achievement to heritage, and diverse staff (Harmon et al., 2020).

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Dream-Killing
The participants persisted in their academic journeys despite experiencing dream-killing,
which consists of unintentionally putting down dreams and hopes because of fears a student will
fail. Dream-killing is sometimes done by caring parents and teachers trying to protect children.
Consequently, students may end up settling for career paths that require less education. Dreamkilling also consists of schools being unsupportive of students’ aspirations. For example, schools
may not provide instructional materials, preparation programs, or opportunities to advance
(Laura, 2018). Simba explained that low-income students are often discouraged from dreaming
bigger dreams and from maximizing their potential; a situation that confirms again the harsh
reality of poverty (Rothstein, 2017). Hakimu recalled: my mother thought a career in teaching
would be a secured job for me, until she realized I had a bigger dream which was to become a
lawyer. Simba explained the following:
I wanted to be an open-heart surgeon because I was exposed to dissecting a cow’s heart
in elementary school. There was a gifted program at that time. And so, I was like, “Oh! I
want to be a doctor! I want to be an open-heart surgeon!” But then that was extinguished
over time because of a lack of exposure to resources and support to prepare for
undergraduate classes and medical school. I was in the gifted program at a unified school
district, which had limited gifted program options in different fields. They were all
operating within the same kind of construct. So, you’d separate gifted high achievers, and
then expose them to a little bit more, but they still kept everybody in the same classroom.
Kibwe had an intentional dream-killing experience that had a lasting effect on him:

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When I was about 6 or 7 years old, a teacher asked me what I wanted to be when I grew
up. I said I wanted to be President like President Obama. A teacher’s aide later told me,
“You are going to work at Taco Bell or Jack in the Box.” I will never forget it.
Mosi and Jelani experienced backlash enrolling in highly academic majors. Mosi
recalled, “My goal was to graduate no matter how the students in the class tried to discourage
me.” Jelani remained encouraged in his pursuit to become an engineer: “I was never thrown off
by the challenges I faced in the Engineering Department, because my sisters’ faith in me to get
my degree kept me moving forward.” According to Tinto’s theory, dreams can be deferred
because of lived realities (Meta, 2004).
Personal Agency
The participants also persisted in their educational journeys by exercising personal
agency, which is an individual’s ability to control his or her reactions to circumstances beyond
their control (Coates, 2015; Du Bois, 1999). Simba bravely challenged racial encounters:
I had many teachers who I knew were racist and I was just the worst kind of student
because I was always sitting in the front. I was always going to professors’ office hours
and, I am sure they were thinking this African American keeps showing up. So, you
know, I’m going to wear the professors out. But many teachers would skip over you in
the classroom when questions were being asked. You would have your hand up, and they
would skip over you to have somebody else answer that question. If you answered it
right, there was always a correction. That’s those microaggressions you had to
experience.
You would have been A-minus, but they made you B+. You know, there was that
kind of subjectivity. It was very hard to go to a teacher and say, “Wait a minute, I wrote

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this book,” especially when you write papers. You write a paper, and you read your
friend’s paper. You read your paper, and you go, “Wait a minute. How did you get an A?
How did I get a B-plus? How did that happen?” I remember having study groups where
some of the White students would just walk out once we walked in. And we just got so
used to it.
Maliki was a gifted math student, as indicated by his test scores. He described courageous
educational and career decisions:
When I went to high school, the counselors enrolled me in advanced math classes. A
White math teacher who was racist announced on the first day that he only gave Fs, Ds,
Cs, and a few Bs. No A grades. He was allowed to undermine the achievements of
African American students for many years. This mistreatment fueled my pursuit to
become a math teacher. I returned to Fremont High School to prove a personal point, at
first, but soon I realized that I had to rescue African American students from thinking
they possessed poor or average skills when in fact they were capable in math.
Zuberi described a situation in which he had to courageously outthink opponents in the
neighborhood:
As an underclassman, I would compete in sports competitions against the upperclassmen.
If my team, who were underclassmen, won, students would want to fight. One day, when
I knew, I was going to have to fight with an upperclassman, I decided to request the help
of the neighborhood bully. He agreed to come after school and allow the two of us to
fight without other upperclassmen joining in. This way it was a fair fight.

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Personal agency involves exercising patience, courage, and intuitiveness to negotiate and
navigate through cultural and societal systems to survive and stay on track to attain goals.
Participants found a way or developed a way to move forward in life.
Brotherhood Networking
Brotherhood networking also helped participants to persist in their academic journeys.
Brotherhood networking involves connecting with other men united in common interests,
beliefs, or undertakings to create and increase strength, support, and guidance (Laura, 2018).
Kuumba shared how important it was to have like-minded friends:
While in college, several peers were striving for the same thing that I was pursuing. It
was good to be in a circle where we were doing positive things like studying and so forth.
I had no problems with my peers, and I had no peer pressure to quit. College years were
filled with the will to finish. After my graduation, I continued until I finished and earned
my credential to teach.
Simba remembered that he and his fraternity brothers unified and fought for equality for
their organization:
There were White fraternities on campus, and we enjoyed our Black organization. We
learned early that we didn’t have privileges like the others. We changed that by working
together and seeking how to become a top fraternity which we later accomplished.
Jelani also discussed benefits of brotherhood: “Brothers called on each other to solve
personal and school issues. We were there and always available for each other day and night.”
Black campus organizations can be life saving for AAMs when they face new experiences in
predominantly White institutions after attending segregated low-income schools (Harper, 2012).

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Relation of Achievement to Heritage
Participants were also better able to persist by relating achievement to their heritage.
Doing so involves understanding who they are culturally and ethnically and building on African
ancestors’ world-changing contributions (Jones, 2021). Simba shared the following:
When I was in college, I remembered an epiphany. I was taking an architectural class in
urban planning, and they started to discuss the history of architecture, of course, you
can’t discuss the history of architecture unless you are talking about the pyramids. You
have to talk about it. I’m in the class, and I am the only person of color in that class. And
they started showing these images of early civilization. It validated the proud Black
heritage that I have. Historically, circumstances may have landed you in the projects right
now, and you may be at a disadvantage, but that doesn’t change what your ancestors were
able to do and accomplish. And if you just look under the hood a little bit, you will see it.
You will see the legacy of greatness. Every culture has it.
Refu discussed the following efforts he made to honor Black culture:
In the neighborhood school where I worked as a coach, I established an annual basketball
tournament in South Central Los Angeles to honor the Black culture. White teams were
invited, and they traveled for many years to participate in this community tournament.
Jelani likewise made efforts to support his culture: “I created art designs for local
businesses to embrace our culture. Some of these designs have remained to this day in the momand-pop businesses that are still operating.” Kuumba reported the following:
African pride and cultural appreciation were celebrated and promoted during my college
years. Black is Beautiful was celebrated in songs and awareness activities. This promoted
a sense of well-being and belonging. There was a song entitled “I am Black and I’m

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Proud” by James Brown that expressed African American pride. The Educational
Opportunity Program assisted me with a job at the college. The college work-study
program helped me tremendously.
Diverse Staff
Participants persisted in their academic pursuits through the guidance and assistance of
diverse staff. Hiring diverse staff creates a workforce that is representative of the overall
population of students (Harper, 2018). Simba recalled the following:
In college, African American males had Dr. Bell, who was a vice president or vice
chancellor of the school, and Dr. Hammond who was a tenured professor at the school.
They were our go-to folks. Both were alphas and both passed on great legacies. We all
know that our parents taught us to find an advocate who will be somebody who will
advocate. They call them mentors now, right? Find somebody who will guide you
through the process, who can give you wisdom and insight, and allow you to navigate.
That is why it is so important to have African American folks in the system. But
you may find a White guy, a Jewish guy, an Asian guy, or a European guy who will help
you. AAMs are hard to find and if you do find them, they are usually very busy because
they help all the Black folks. The key is to find somebody who is African American,
male, or female, who you can latch on to. Dr. Hammond not only exposed you to how to
navigate through the system, but he would also occasionally save you from yourself. If
you did something stupid, as a senior professor, he would go to the other professors and
talk to them on your behalf.
Refu witnessed the need to ensure that the most supportive and caring teachers work in
low-income schools: “When I returned to teach at my former middle school, several White

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teachers retired on the job. They were not happy and were not for kids but for a paycheck. That
really hurt me.” Takatifu had twin girls who were born with cerebral palsy. He entered the
educational field to add diversity to the profession: “When my girls were younger, I found there
was a need for more AAs in this profession that specialized in disabilities.” The participants also
highlighted the importance of having staff members who represented and related to the various
ethnicities enrolled in higher education institutions. Diversity was important for students who
grew up in public housing.
Summary
The focus of this chapter was on the results of analyzing the 15 interviews. The analysis
indicates that schools, churches, and families (primarily mothers) created a village to raise
children. Within this village, some AAMs were motivated to pursue a college education and to
persevere amid various obstacles. Mothers were described as wise, decisive, and unwavering in
their hopes that their sons would earn degrees. First-generation college students set an example
for siblings, demonstrating that college degrees were attainable.
Duncan-Andrade (2009) discussed urban schools as a one-stop, all-encompassing entity
that can compensate for the lack of resources in households and underfunded schools and
communities. The local churches served as extended families; increased spirituality; fostered the
development of new friendships; and provided resources such as food, clothing, and supplies.
The data indicated that AAMs can stay on track to graduate despite these obstacles they
face when growing up in low-income communities. Disaggregating data was the most effective
methodological tool to use to monitor the progress of AAMs and hold stakeholders who serve
them accountable.

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Chapter V
Discussion and Recommendations
Historically, AAMs have faced racist structural and institutional barriers to completing
higher education. During the slavery era, it was illegal for slave owners to teach slaves to read
and write (Jones, 2021). Frederick Douglas documented that when his owner’s wife began
teaching him to read. The female owner was vehemently opposed and demanded that she stop
immediately. He argued that Blacks would revolt and turn against their masters. This would
result in owners losing their authoritative control and positionality. Blacks would no longer
consider themselves slaves (Jones, 2021).
The literacy battle continued under the Jim Crow segregation era. Schools operated
separately in vastly different learning environments until Plessy vs Ferguson and then Brown vs
Board of Education in 1954 (Jones, 2021). The 1960s brought a new focus to America with the
passing of civil rights laws. After the Rodney King riots, many higher education institutions,
such as UCLA, established partnerships with urban low-income school districts and
neighborhood schools. The No Child Left Behind Mandate enacted additional criteria for
establishing standards and assessing teaching and learning (Ladson-Billings, 2013).
Relevant to this study, Rothstein (2017) conducted research that explains why AAMs
made up the majority of the population in low-income segregated schools. He argued that
housing discrimination and its racist practices, such as redlining, did not allow African American
families to relocate to communities where the schools enjoy an ample tax base and resources.
Figure 15 represents the sections in this chapter. In this chapter, there is a discussion of
findings and recommendations for stakeholders. The findings were taken from counternarrative
stories shared by participants who grew up in Watts and graduated from college. The in-person

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and Zoom interviews revealed the significance of an asset-based mindset and the usefulness of
CRT, AAMT, and Tinto’s theory. The overall message gleaned from the study is a message of
hope. Recommendations outline actions that can be taken to effectuate hope.
Figure 15
Topics Covered in Chapter 5
Answers to Research Questions
Research question 1 was “How educated AAMs navigate through the challenges of lowincome households, peer pressure, police presence, and day-to-day cultural lived experiences
outside of school to graduate college?” The analysis of the interview data indicates that several
factors contributed to the participants’ college success, particularly family, churches, and
neighborhood schools.
AAMs Counter
Story telling
Literature
contribution and
Implications
Ecology of
Hope
Recommendations
for stakeholders
RQ 2
RQ 1
Usefulness of
CRT, AAMT,
and Tinto’s
models

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Regarding family, mothers in particular were influential. They set the groundwork and
planted the seeds for college attendance and graduation. Regardless of how much education the
participants’ mothers (and, in one case, a grandmother) had, they were the participants’ go-to
people when it came time for college discussions.
Regarding local churches, the participants indicated that church members provided an
extended family in the neighborhood. In this way, youth with similar Christian values and
educational goals received support and encouragement.
In neighborhood schools, the participants latched on to supportive, caring, and
enthusiastic elementary and secondary teachers. Teachers found ways to help compensate for the
lack of resources in students’ daily lives. Each participant stated that a high school teacher served
as a mentor and that these relationships lasted over the years. Zuberi proudly shared that at his
college graduation, some of his elementary, middle, and high school teachers were present.
Research question 2 was “How were AAMs supported, assisted, and guided to
tenaciously overcome institutional racism and other discrimination, implicit biases, and
microaggressions?” The participants described various types of discrimination, biases, and
microaggressions. Mosi, Simba, and Jelani experienced more racial barriers because they
majored in scientific and technological fields, which fewer AAMs enter. Additionally,
participants grew up in a segregated community with few resources. Nevertheless, the
participants enrolled in higher education institutions and found African American professors,
coaches, and staff who helped the participants navigate through the challenges. The diverse staff
at colleges served as critically important go-to people and mentors throughout the participants’
college journeys. Even more importantly, the participants found other AAMs to network with
and this networking provided important support and strength.

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It is important to note that participants did not pursue professions in sports and that only
one pursued a profession in music. The participants’ career success contradicts the widely held
belief that sports and music careers are the only ways that AAMs in the lowest-income
communities can earn wealth and move to higher-income communities (Jones, 2021; Love,
2019).
Another insight from this study is that 11 participants were first-generation college
graduates. First-generation participants faced additional pressure to complete college and set an
example for others. The participants, particularly Jelani and Simba, understood that relating
identity to African heritage and contributions helped fuel the motivation to complete college and
contribute to the community.
The Usefulness of CRT and AAMT
The theories selected for the study served as a foundation for understanding the
participants’ lived experiences. For example, each participant experienced life adjustments after
entering college, and the CRT helped explain the barriers that participants experienced. As one
example, Mosi’s classmate asked him why he was in the MBA program. His inner motivation to
complete college outweighed the anger he felt in response to the questions his classmates asked.
The study’s data support that the participants experienced racism. CRT defines racism as both
conscious and unconscious and as a permanent component of life (Harper, 2012). The AAMT
also provided insight into the participants’ decisions to persevere when challenged with
unwelcome behaviors from classmates and professors (Bush & Bush, 2018). Tinto’s theory
clarifies the importance of moving out of low-income housing and living on campus (Meta,
2006). Though doing so was beneficial for participants, it was not without challenges. For
instance, Takatifu and Macheo transitioned from segregated Black schools to Christian colleges

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where they were the only Blacks in their classes. Fortunately, they were welcomed by students
and professors. Spirituality gave participants strength during challenging times, and the
participants remained encouraged.
The participants did not allow stereotypes and other challenges to be insurmountable
obstacles. For example, Kuumba was placed on academic probation but worked to remain in
school. The participants were able to use the negative experiences as motivation to succeed.
They understood that completing their educational goals and pursuing careers would provide
better lifestyles than their parents had.
Hakimu explained that as a youth, he had never talked with or met a lawyer, but he saw a
lawyer portrayed on TV and one day decided to pursue a law career. He was not discouraged
when his LSAT score was not high. He talked with the admissions department at the target
university and submitted a convincing application. He was accepted into the law school, earned
his law degree, and became a successful judge. He latter interacted with attorneys Johnny
Cochran and Kamala Harris.
Hakimu talked about humility: “When you don’t have a lot, you’re humbled to preserve
and conserve the little you have. You are careful not to be wasteful and thankful to have the little
you have.”
The study participants were proud that they were able to rise from very humble
beginnings to earn college degrees. Each participant told of peers who did not achieve this
accomplishment. Amri recalled a brilliant friend who was on a college trajectory in middle
school but fell prey to drugs in high school. Simba recalled a gifted student with great academic
potential who became a gang leader.

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The Significance of an Asset-Based Mindset
The most important contribution of this study to the literature is that the study’s findings
add to the asset-based mindset. This mindset challenges the narratives about AAM students that
the media typically presents, including that AAM students are involved in gangs and gun
violence; become fathers while in high school; and most alarming, are unintelligent and
unmotivated and are hard to teach (Mac Donald, 2018). These narratives must be interrogated,
and the other lived experiences of this study’s participants show that the prevailing narratives are
often inaccurate.
The findings of this study can be cited in articles, educational journals, and magazines in
an effort to change the current paradigm from a deficit-based mindset to an asset-based mindset.
The conclusions from the study can also be used as a foundation for training presented to faculty
and staff at secondary and higher education institutions in order to increase academic and social
support for AAMs.
According to Duncan-Andrade (2009) and Love (2019), the distinct significance of the
asset-based mindset is it represents hope. For stakeholders, the practice of hope allows
stakeholders to remain creative and strategic. Hope requires stakeholders to reject indifference; it
demands effort in order to thrive. Hope is something stakeholders do rather than simply have.
Stakeholders take a clear view of reality, and they identify what they hope for in terms of
direction. Stakeholders like things to move, and they take steps to move in the desired direction.
The Ecology of Hope Model
Hope is an optimistic state of mind based on an expectation of positive outcomes
concerning events and circumstances in one’s life (Kesav, 2022). The theme of this study is hope
for AAMs who grew up in the Los Angeles Watts community. The information that participants

133
shared in their interviews supports what Reverend Jesse Jackson often said: “Keep hope alive”
(Stewart, 2016). Hess and Noguera (2021) argued that ideologies are symbolic of keeping hope
alive. Former president Barack Obama (2004) encapsulated the idea of hope in the book The
Audacity of Hope. Obama suggested that finding commonalities among opposing principles is an
act of standing with others to uphold shared values and equal treatment regardless of race,
gender, or religion. The study participants were all spiritually minded and believed “faith is the
substance of things hoped for and the evidence of things unseen” (Hebrews 11:1).
As Figure 16 shows, the ecology of hope model includes four major concepts: contested
prolificacy, community proactivity, familial perseverance, and academic persistence.

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Figure 16
Ecology of Hope Model
Note. Adapted from “Ecologies of Hope: Understanding Educational Success Among Black
Males in an Urban Midwestern City,” by W. C. Harmon, M. C., James, and R. Farooq, 2020.
Journal of Multicultural Affairs, 5(2), Article 6. Copyright 2020 by The Journal of Multicultural
Affairs.
The ecology of hope model was used in this study to illuminate the study’s purpose and
meaning. The study concludes on a resounding note of hope. The participants’ educational
journeys ended with degrees and graduation celebrations. These college completions are tied to
Contested
Prolificacy
This
section answers
the research
question. How
did African
American Male
students
navigate
through
collegiate
experiences to
persist
academically?
Black men are incessantly
Tested with bouts of
Opposition and systemic
challenges
Ecology of
Hope Model
Academic
Persistence
Community
Proactivity
Familial
Perseverance
African American community join
forces to take advantage of the
strength that lies within the
connectedness of community
networks.
Black males attain academic goal
achievement through summoning
the positive, collective forces
within their respective
communities.
The African American Family is resilient
and perseveres through dynamic changes
and periods of adversity or transition.

135
constructs of hope: low-income AAMs can help close the higher education gap by completing
college. Low-income AAMs living in housing projects can help change the majoritarian deficit
mindset to an asset-based mindset by completing college.
Figure 17 shows the intersectionality between the ecology of hope model and the three
main themes of the study. Contested prolificacy and community proactivity are connected to the
answer to research question 1: How did educated AAMs navigate through the challenge of lowincome household peer pressure, police presence, and day-to-day cultural lived experiences
outside of school to graduate college?

136
Figure 17
Intersectionality of Ecology of Hope Model, CRT, AAMT, and Tinto’s Theory
Note. Adapted from “Ecologies of Hope: Understanding Educational Success Among Black
Males in an Urban Midwestern City,” by W. C. Harmon, M. C., James, and R. Farooq, 2020.
Journal of Multicultural Affairs, 5(2), Article 6. Copyright 2020 by Journal of Multicultural
Affairs.
The ecology of Hope model includes the constructs of prolificacy, perseverance, and
persistence to offer hope (Harmon et al., 2020). In this study, this model was used to provide
hope for AAMs residing in the Watts community, that they can successfully pursue higher
education. All participants described how they negotiated and leveraged social networks to stay
Contested
Prolificacy
This
section answers
the research
question. How
did African
American Male
students
navigate
through
collegiate
experiences to
persist
academically?
 CRT & AAMT= Avoiding school to prison
pipeline
 CRT & AAMT= Embedded Entrapment
 CRT & AAMT= Cultural Navigation
Ecology of
Hope Model
Academic
Persistence
Community
Proactivity
Familial
Perseverance
 CRT & AAMT Local Schools
 AAMT-Churches
 AAMT-Lasting Relationships
 AAMT-Contributing Interventions
 CRT-Dream Killing
 AAMT-Personal Agency
 AAMT-Brotherhood
Networking
 AAMT-Relating Achievement
to Heritage
 CRT & AAMT-Diverse Staff
 Tinto-Mother’s Influence and Expectations
 Tinto-First Generation
 AAMT-Low Income Reality

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out of trouble with gangs, the police, and school police. Jelani recalled being harassed physically
and verbally weekly. Jelani also stated that White training officers tasked Black policemen with
doing the harassing. The practice of dropping off gang members in rival housing projects with
the intent of the gang members being assaulted or killed was an example. Jelani said he would
never forget those experiences, which caused him to still have a negative opinion of the police.
Familial perseverance and academic persistence related to the answer to research
question 2: How were AAMs supported, assisted, and guided to tenaciously overcome
institutional and structural barriers including racism, discrimination, implicit biases, and
microaggressions?
The ecology of hope model presents a path to contemplate the relationships between
AAMs’ higher education goals and their cultural environment. This model includes elements
through which AAMs and educators who teach AAMs actively hope. The ecology of hope model
is based on theories such as CRT, AAMT, and Tinto’s theory of college student success. The
model has language codes related to individual and collective lived experiences that promote
AAMs’ potential to fulfill dreams of graduating from college. The model also represents AAMs’
lived experiences combined with higher education retention (Harmon et al., 2020). This model
includes interconnected social systems. It is within these social systems that study participants
find hope.
The ecology of hope model was used to analyze the data of recruited educated AAMs.
The model symbolizes futuristic hope in the same way that Octavia Butler framed hope when she
wrote about a world in which everyone flourished no matter the individual differences (Rowell &
Butler, 1997). There are four concepts in the ecology of hope model:

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 Contested prolificacy: Black men are incessantly tested with bouts of opposition and
systemic challenges designed to impede their progress (Harmon et al., 2020).
 Academic persistence: Black males achieve academic goals by summoning the positive
forces of their respective communities (Harmon et al., 2020).
 Community proactivity: The African American community joins forces to take advantage
of the strength that is available within community networks (Harmon et al., 2020).
 Familial perseverance: African American families are resilient and persevere through
dynamic changes and periods of adversity (Harmon et al., 2020).
The interview data indicate that low household income is a determining factor in whether
an AAM goes to college and graduates. Income served as the primary motivator to break the
poverty and to begin a new educational cycle. Figure 18 displays the impoverished conditions
that families in Los Angeles housing projects experience compared to families in other
communities in the city, state, and nation.

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Figure 18
Average Family Income for the Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles
Note. Adapted from Statistics and Demographics Report Public Housing Sites, 2021, by A.
Zamora, 2024, Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles,
https://www.hacla.org/sites/default/files/2020-04/PDFS/2021_statistics_and_demographics.pdf.
Copyright 2021 by Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles.
Figure 19 shows the problem of enrollment of AAMs, but low completion rates to
graduate from college. The figure highlights the problem in the study which was a call to action
for secondary schools and higher education institutions to address college incompletions of
AAMs.
$0 $10,000 $20,000 $30,000 $40,000 $50,000 $60,000 $70,000 $80,000
HACLA Average
Los Angeles City
L.A. County
U.S.
Average Income
Income

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Figure 19
6-Year Outcomes by Race and Ethnicity
Note. From “Completing College—National by Race and Ethnicity—2017,” National Student
Clearinghouse Research Center, 2017, https://nscresearchcenter.org/signaturereport12
-supplement-2/

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Recommendations
The results of this study may have several benefits. AAMs may receive more support and
may experience a college-going culture. Higher education institutions may experience increasing
enrollment and graduation rates by promoting outcome-based assessments for disaggregation,
providing ideas on how to increase student engagement in classrooms, providing pedagogical
support for designing opportunities to learn, closing cultural divides, and supporting cultural
differences. Society may benefit from new or improved networking opportunities and
partnerships among community schools, churches, and government organizations. There is an
urgent need to inform policymakers about the importance of increasing higher education funding
for work-study programs, improving access to higher education, and building positive
participation and representation in order to improve the future.
Recommendation for AAMs
Throughout the interviews, the participants shared words of wisdom to help others
complete college. Kinubi, who became a well-known musician, stated that AAM students must
believe in themselves even if nobody else does. AAMs must understand without a doubt that
they have the freedom to dream and hope for a better life. Amri likewise referred to agency: “It
starts with personal agency, not where students were born and not where students live or the
circumstances students find themselves in. Students must take lemons and find a way to make
lemonade.”
Jelani stated, “It may appear optically that the journey is overwhelming and too difficult
to envision. A better life does not involve gang participation and the school-to-prison pipeline
(Laura, 2018). Amri reflected, “Start where you are, use what you have, and do what you can.”

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The participants also indicated that being connected to the spiritual is important when
persevering through challenges and that spirituality the participants them not feel ashamed to be
who God created them to be. AAMs set their sights on dreams bigger than those of their parents.
Visiting local churches to increase spirituality was recommended by participants.
Attending Sunday school, which is held in the early mornings, or attending worship services with
friends, alone, or with family members would be beneficial. There is usually a van that can
transport attendees to and from church. It is important for AAMs to understand that they can
return to school at any time in their lives. Learning is a life-long journey. If AAMs are student
athletes either in high school or college, they must acknowledge that academic performance is
just as important as athletic performance.
AAM students must establish a study routine. If possible, the routine should include the
following: reviewing class notes immediately after class lectures, completing class homework in
the evening, and completing class assignments at school or at a public library. During class time,
it is imperative for AAMs to be actively engaged and find ways to enjoy a sense of belonging in
classes. The most important message is to never be afraid to seek assistance, because there will
be struggles. When course content is unclear and incomprehensible, ask for assistance. For each
subject, it would be helpful to maintain a vocabulary book of definitions and examples and then
memorize terminology in each discipline. Again, there are three sources to reach out to for
academic or social capital. They are local secondary schools, churches, and elected officials. The
interview data indicate that joining a study group and a Black organization are beneficial.
Seeking out caring secondary and high school staff is even more beneficial when there are no
other AAM students in classes. AAMs need to understand that it is not their environment but

143
themselves—the quality of their minds, the integrity of their souls, and the determination of their
wills that will decide AAMs’ futures (Mays, 2015).
Recommendations for Educators
K–12 Educators
Kuumba stated that female teachers should consider collaborating with other AAM
teachers in school activities and projects so that AAM students have more access to male role
models. Maliki asserted, “All teachers should consider teaching Black history throughout the
year in order to build pride and clarify truths of many contributions and inventions created by
African Americans that have had life-changing impacts.” Similarly, Amri stated the following:
Slavery should be taught in the context of how America became great with free labor.
When teaching African American history, it is imperative that the contributions of Africa
are also taught. If teachers embrace these truths, all students will acknowledge and
connect AAMs to a proud heritage.”
Zuberi and Simba opined that individuals should not be afraid of requesting interventions
that work specifically for AAMs.
Amri enjoyed serving as the chairperson overseeing all Black celebrations and activities.
School administrators should appoint a person or committee to plan and carry out activities to
celebrate holidays such as Juneteenth and Martin Luther King Day. Zuberi recommended that
“AAM professors consider attending special events during students’ educational journeys to
support and congratulate achievements.”
There is a need to establish a college-going culture in low-income communities. Many
students and parents assume that the unaffordability of college will be an insurmountable
impediment. The more information that is available to all students, the more applications to

144
college will be submitted. College fairs should be held for middle school students, and college
representatives should distribute current information. Additionally, students should receive
postcards with additional information. College fairs should include PWIs, community colleges,
Christian colleges, and HBCUs. Students should be able to sign up for college visits and receive
follow-up mailings.
Administrators at local community colleges and 4-year universities can offer campus
classroom space for tutoring and educational programs, particularly in reading and math.
Tutoring can be conducted throughout the year. Summer months are often the periods during
which at-risk students fall prey to troubling circumstances and situations. Schools should be open
for 8-week interventions and 6-week enrichment programs, as are Puente, AVID, Center X,
Long Beach Promise, Upward Bond, and Summer Bridge. Universities could also fund
enrichment programs for gifted low-income secondary students. District offices can sponsor
English and math clinic and camps in all elementary and middle schools, utilizing high school
teachers, middle school teachers, and advanced secondary school students. The data regarding
low math and English test scores of AAMs warrants math and English department chairs in
secondary schools partnering with math and English departments at colleges and universities to
implement research-based strategies. It is also recommended that secondary teachers coteach
with professionals in the corporate world. Every person is born to do something unique and
something distinctive. If the person does not do it, it will never be done (Mays, 2015).
HE Educators
State education departments have cut back on gifted education. Universities can establish
gifted schools on low-income, underresourced high school campuses, as suggested by Fryer
(2016). The schools would be funded, coordinated, and implemented by colleges and

145
universities. Part of the purpose would be to prepare students in grades 5–12 to take the PSAT
and other standardized college entrance tests.
HE institutions can establish the position of an AAM academic and retention officer to
supervise an action plan to monitor AAMs’ completion of college. There is a critical need to
monitor AAMs’ progress throughout the 4-year period in order to support graduation. In each of
the study 15 interviews, HE diversity was majorly important. The recommendation is to continue
adding diverse HE staff members. The study data overwhelmingly illuminated that low-income
can largely influence AAMs’ college decisions. Admissions and financial aid department
representatives can talk with counselors, pastors, and community leaders to award early letters
for scholarships and for admission into work-study programs for praiseworthy low-income
AAMs. The new process would be similar to how athletes are watched in middle schools to
identify those who might receive full-ride scholarships if the athletes’ performance and grades in
high school maintain eligibility. Draft commitment letters could be awarded for students in
middle schools, with ceremonies held and commitment letters given to students.
College students who grew up in public housing or close by in the community of Watts
could be offered weekend and summer jobs in low-income communities as part of the workstudy programs at colleges and universities. These college students could be assigned to tutor
and mentor selected middle school students projected to earn full academic scholarships. Higherincome communities start early in laying the foundation for students to attend college. Colleges
can offer training on Saturdays and Sundays for parents, students, and teachers. The research of
Duncan-Andrade (2009), Love (2019), and Rothstein (2017) indicates that year-round HE
educational support is needed to maintain the college trajectories of AAMs.

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Projects in 1st-year English classes can include writing and sending postcards to high
school students. The study emphatically discussed NCLB, and in that vein, every student in the
school could receive a postcard twice a year by way of teachers. An academic advisor can be
assigned to reach out to first-generation AAMs who did not complete college to discuss a return
path. In an effort to continue the secondary connection, secondary students could be given free
tickets to sports events if they commit to completing an English literacy follow-up assignment
related to the game experience. The same assignments can be expected after a tour or other
special event and can be coordinated by alumni groups.
Administrators should consider establishing a Black council and having that council
create an action plan to support AAMs. Refu noted the following:
The administration should consider applying for grants to hire an African American
academic officer patterned after Compton College. Higher education administration
should consider creating a retention officer to encourage students to return to school with
a pathway to complete college to reframe academic success for AAMS.
The purpose of education is not to create a better world just for those who complete it but
for future generations as well (Mays, 2015).
Recommendations for Policymakers
Participants highlighted the urgent need for policymakers to continue funding secondary
preparation programs for AAMs. The Long Beach city, district, and college model can be
adopted in all cities. HBCUs need to consider creating West Coast programs that are cofunded.
The study’s data reveal that policymakers need to consider funding trade programs and classes to
add more options and opportunities for African American youth. Policymakers should also
examine how to establish partnerships between governmental agencies, churches, and businesses

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to establish 4-year scholarships for AAMs and to facilitate jobs for African American youth
(Kendi, 2016).
The California department of education must continue to level the educational playing
field by developing a standards-based Pre-K–16 State curriculum and assessment infrastructure.
Appointed educators should work with low-income schools, such as by serving on writing
committees. Ongoing disaggregation of data is the most important methodological tool to
monitor college enrollment and completion of AAMs. Policymakers must reinstate secondary
trade programs in low-income schools, with internships and job options funded by government
and corporations. NCLB is significant because in low income communities, the brightest
students and the gifted athletes are offered enrollment at higher-income schools. Simba sadly
remarked that when he was able to transfer to a valley school, he left knowing his gifts, talents,
and test scores were also leaving.
Policymakers can open schools and create year-round job opportunities for advanced
secondary students, nearby college students, and math and English high school teachers to
provide classes in the lowest-income elementary and middle schools.
Policymakers can open schools and local libraries to offer Saturday and Sunday test
preparation classes for 5th–11th graders on school campuses. Funds should be set aside to
sponsor college tours at HBCUs.
Leadership is not about being in charge. It is about taking care of those in a leader’s
charge (Mays, 2015).
Recommendations for Communities
Communities are underfunded and underresourced. This means the needs are great in all
areas, especially academic preparation for AAMs pursuing college degrees. One of the

148
recommendations is to prioritize needed support according to the greatest area of need. If there
are several government agencies and organizations in the same area, these agencies could
reorganize, specialize, and support certain areas to avoid competing for the same families. There
is an urgent need to invite wealthy donors and former Watts residents to reinvest in the
community by adding scholarships and jobs in various academic areas, particularly for firstgeneration and committed siblings. Community college can begin by giving students in 5th grade
promise contracts if students continue on college trajectories.
Participants described how their underresourced communities made valiant efforts to
support their academic goals. Many community programs and initiatives can be implemented
more efficiently and effectively to better meet AAMs’ needs. One successful strategy was
implemented by the New York Public Library. The library collaborated with Jay-Z to use his
likeness on new library cards and displays for the community (Love, 2019). It is imperative to
find ways to foster literacy, which is the basis for all career exploration. In low-income
communities, young AAMs assume music and sports are the two ways to exit public housing.
Role models in math, history, science, and English need to be available to AAMs to demonstrate
that music and sports are not the only options. Ushindi chose an academic scholarship over an
athletic scholarship. His two older brothers, who started out with athletic scholarships, did not
complete college. After these scholarship were not renewed, the brothers had no choice but to
drop out.
Churches must regain respect and position in the community as extended families,
serving as sources for jobs, supplies, food, clothing, scholarships, and tutoring (Jones, 2021).
Churches can take on an active community-school role and adopt the schools nearby. Churches
can offer families support, starting with spiritual activities. Churches also can provide resources

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for food, school supplies, clothing, and jobs. Churches can offer transportation to and from
Sunday and other services. Churches can also present information to after-school Christian clubs
and provide information, support, and resources. Policymakers can establish partnerships among
high schools, local churches, Black organizations, businesses, and government agencies to
increase full scholarships and offer jobs throughout college years of AAMs.
A person cannot change the past but can shape the future (Mays, 2015).
Conclusion
The study involved obtaining and presenting authentic, meaningful accounts of the lived
experiences of AAMs who grew up in the Watts community and then completed college degrees.
Data saturation was achieved by conducting 15 interviews. The goal of presenting AAMs’ lived
experiences was to affirm that students with low-income, diverse backgrounds can earn degrees
and to show how AAMs can close the educational divide. The study results show that AAMs can
succeed by obtaining wisdom, insights, and knowledge from others. The overall theme was the
need to promote the development of AAMs from low-income households, better enabling them
to participate in and contribute to society. The findings of this study can help change the media’s
negative narrative regarding AAMs from a deficit mindset.
Analyzing the interview responses resulted in the following main conclusions: AAMs
who grew up in low-income housing and attended underresourced schools can earn degrees.
Local schools can be beacons of hope, and local churches can be lifelines. A mother can
influence college decisions through her unrelenting high expectations. The power of a mother’s
hopes and dreams for her children to enroll in and complete college should never be
underestimated.

150
In several cases, fathers worked multiple jobs to pay bills and put food on the table.
Affirmative action and diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives are essential pathways to close
the financial and educational gaps in underresourced and underfunded communities (Harper,
2012). AAM students suffered a substantial setback in June 2023, when the Supreme Court
struck down affirmative action. First-generation college students can close the educational divide
by serving as role models for family members and others in the community (Harper, 2018).
Diverse staff can be safety nets as AAMs navigate through the HE system. Each study
participant fulfilled his dream to complete college.
There were several important recommendations for education stakeholders and the
corporate world, such as increasing the number of trade classes, internships, and job
opportunities in secondary schools. Another recommendation is to fund summer and weekend
youth jobs beginning in middle school. Further, middle school students could be selected for
academic scholarships and work-study programs; doing so could increase the chances of AAMs
enrolling in and graduating from college. Extending scholarships early on can also lead to paths
to successful careers and professions.
Implementing these recommendations can lead to additional support that benefits AAMs
who live in public housing and Section 8 housing. The academic performance of AAMs in high
school could also improve through establishing year-round partnerships between high school and
college English and math departments to provide tutoring, content projects, training, and
coteaching opportunities.
A man is what his dreams are (Mays, 2015).

151
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Appendix
Interview Questions
Research question 1: How did educated African American Males (AAMs) navigate
through the challenges of low-income households, peer pressure, police presence, and day-to-day
cultural lived experiences outside of the school to graduate college? (AAMT, CRT, Tinto)
1. Discuss your home life and the community in which you were raised. (CRT)
2. Tell me a story about your childhood that explains who you are and how you grew up
with college aspirations. (Tinto)
3. How would you describe your college motivation, personal agency, and family support?
(AAMT)
4. Describe any peer influences, peer problems, and/or peer pressures during your college
years. (AAMT)
5. What close relationships, role models, and resources, outside of school, did you have that
supported and guided you to successfully enroll in and complete college? (AAMT)
6. What were your educational goals and plans growing up? How did you carry them out?
Did you know others who didn’t? If so, explain. (Tinto)
7. How were your college aspirations cultivated by people in the family, in the community,
and at neighborhood schools? (AAMT)
8. Do you have children? How are you helping them to navigate cultural experiences to
complete college? (AAMT)
9. Share any current community mentoring involvement that you and anyone you know of
are engaged in.

171
10. What day-to-day cultural life experiences were most impactful in your life that kept you
pursuing college? (CRT/AAMT)
Research question 2: How were AAMs supported, assisted, and guided to tenaciously
overcome institutional structural racism, discrimination, implicit biases, and microaggressions?
(CRT, AAMT, Tinto)
11. Share ways, if any, how African American pride, self-efficacy, and cultural appreciation
were promoted at your college that supported your sense of belonging. (Tinto)
12. Discuss secondary and post-secondary programs and activities (i.e., dual enrollment, AP,
Honors, EOP, STEM, Summer Bridge, etc.,) that assisted you academically. (Tinto)
13. Did you live on campus? Discuss the full campus collegiate experience. Did you
experience barriers, racism, or discrimination? If so, explain. (CRT/AAMT)
14. Were there any academic skills or resources lacking or needed when you transitioned
from high school to college? If so, give examples. (CRT)
15. What role did financial aid play, if any, in enrolling and completing college? (CRT)
16. Describe the college learning environment. Where and when could you be the best
student you could be academically and socially? (Tinto/AAMT)
17. How did you go about cultivating meaningful college relationships with key institutional
agents? (AAMT/Tinto)
18. Describe your relationships with professors. How were you treated? Discuss your
feelings of classroom belonging and your classroom engagement. (AAMT/Tinto)
19. If you had difficulty with content or understanding assignments, how did you handle and
resolve these situations? What could you have done differently and what could the

172
professors have done differently to enrich your college classroom experience?
(AAMT/Tinto)
20. Did you have college challenges relating to microaggressions and implicit biases? If so,
describe. (CRT/AAMT)
21. Discuss how Higher Education faculty and staff supported your journey to complete
college. Who were your college go-to people, and resources that helped guide and
encourage you to graduate? (AAMT/Tinto)

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Full title: Educated African American male voices: closing the cultural divide between the low-income lived experiences they bring to higher education and the academic and social support needed to complete college. Abstract: The study reframes the underappreciated and underreported success stories of African American Males (AAMs) who grew up in the low-income community of Watts, California, and who graduated from college. Fifteen participants were interviewed and provided counternarratives that challenged the majoritarian narrative that AAMs are unmotivated, unintelligent, and hard to teach in low-income, urban communities. Although these issues exist, there are countless college graduation stories. This study details the resistance and resilience of AAMs students who navigated through cultural experiences and higher education challenges to earn college degrees. The study findings and conclusions have implications for pre-K–12 schools and higher education administrators and staff. In the wake of trends against Black people;affirmative action; and diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI), this study can possibly bring hopeand lead to the implementation of strategies and resources that can support the college enrollment and completion of AAMs who grew up in low-income communities. The research
questions were as follows: How did educated African American Males navigate through the challenges of low-income households, peer pressure, police presence, and day-to-day cultural lived experiences outside of the school to graduate college? How were AAMs supported, assisted, and guided to tenaciously overcome institutional racism, discrimination, implicit biases, and microaggressions? The participants’ interview responses add to the asset-based research, which examines how low-income families (mothers in particular), local churches, underresourced schools, higher education institutions, and governmental agencies can collaboratively serve as an infrastructure to help increase AAMs’ college enrollment and completion.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Johnson, Barbara Eloise (author)

Core Title Educated African American male voices: closing the cultural divide between the low-income lived experiences they bring to higher education…

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 08/07/2024

Defense Date 07/24/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,African American males (AAMs),anti-deficit mindedness,deficit thinking,Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles (HACLA),institutional inopportunity,OAI-PMH Harvest,racial injustice

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