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Development of higher education student affairs staff to assist U.S. military veteran college students
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Running head: DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION STUDENT AFFAIRS STAFF TO ASSIST
MILITARY VETERANS
Development of Higher Education Student Affairs Staff to Assist U.S. Military Veteran College
Students
by
Jacqueline Y. McPherson
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2024
Copyright 2024 Jacqueline Y. McPherson
Running head: DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION STUDENT AFFAIRS STAFF TO ASSIST
MILITARY VETERANS
ii
Acknowledgements
There are so many to whom I owe a debt of gratitude for having reached this point in my
life. To my parents, Dr. Jerry Shimoda and Clara Shimoda, my siblings (Karen Macedonio,
Randall Shimoda, Shaun Shimoda-Kobayashi, Teri Shimoda, and David Shimoda) and their
families, and to my friends for life (Susana Pascua, Kim Kerr, Candace Ho, Joseph Kamai, and
Ruth Adriatico) I love you all so very much and thank you all for being with me every step of the
way. (We did it!) To my current and original Dissertation Committee Members: Dr. Larry Picus,
Dr. Monique Datta, Dr. Ash Datta, and Dr. Dominic Brewer - thank you all so much for all of
your support, encouragement, and patience as I inched my way towards the finish line
throughout the years! To all of my study participants: Thank you all for taking the time to share
your invaluable insights with me. I pray that our work together will make a difference. To all the
Military Veteran College Students, please don’t give up! This one is for ALL of you. Finally,
and most importantly, all praise and honor to Jesus. To God be the Glory!
Running head: DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION STUDENT AFFAIRS STAFF TO ASSIST
MILITARY VETERANS
iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………….ii
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………...v
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….. ……………vi
Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………………………………………...1
Background of the Problem…………………………………………………………….....9
Context of the Problem…………………………………………………………………..11
Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………………..20
Research Questions………………………………………………………………………21
Importance of the Study………………………………………………………………….21
Limitations and Delimitations ……………………………………………………………22
Definition of Terms……………………………………………………………………....22
Organization of the Study………………………………………………………………..24
Chapter Two: Literature Review………………………………………………………………...26
Conceptual Framework: Human Capital Management Model…………………………..28
Attracting and Selecting Employees……………………………………………..28
Engaging Employees After They Are Selected………………………………….29
Developing Employees Once They Are Engaged……………………………….30
Retaining Employees Once They Are Developed……………………………….31
Developing Higher Education Student Affairs Staff…………………….33
Effective Development in Higher Education…………………………….34
Developing Student Affairs Staff to Assist Veterans…………………….35
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………41
Chapter Three: Methodology…………………………………………………………………….43
Research Questions………………………………………………………………………43
Research Design………………………………………………………………………….44
Sample and Population….………………………………………………………………..45
Instrumentation…………………………………………………………………..46
Interview Protocol……………………………………………………………….47
Data Collection…………………………………………………………………………..48
Data Analysis…...……………………………………………………………………….49
Limitations……………………………………………………………………………….50
Ethics…………………………………………………………………………………….51
Chapter Four: Results……………………………………………………………………………53
Description of Participants and Organizations…………………………………………..54
Research Questions and Interview Questions…………………………………………..;56
Findings: Question 1…………………………………………………………….58
Formal Training…………………………………………………………65
Informal Training………………………………………………………..69
Self-Directed Training…………………………………………………..72
Findings: Question 2…………………………………………………………….73
Email…………………………………………………………………….76
Website…………………………………………………………………..77
Social Media……………………………………………………………..77
Provide Resources……………………………………………………….78
Running head: DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION STUDENT AFFAIRS STAFF TO ASSIST
MILITARY VETERANS
iv
Provide Support………………………………………………………….81
Communication………………………………………………………….84
Increase Resources………………………………………………………85
Data-Gathering…………………………………………………………..87
More Effective Communication…………………………………………89
Summary of Findings……………………………………………………………………90
Question 1……………………………………………………………………….90
Question 2……………………………………………………………………….92
Relation to Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………..94
Situation………………………………………………………………………....95
Self……………………………………………………………………………....96
Support…………………………………………………………………………..96
Strategies………………………………………………………………………...98
Chapter 5: Discussions, Implications, and Recommendations………………………………...100
Discussion of Findings………………………………………………………………....101
Question 1………………………………………………………………………101
Question 2………………………………………………………………………103
Implications for Practice………………………………………………………………..104
Suggestions for Future Research……………………………………………………….106
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...107
References…………………………...…………………………………………………………112
Appendix A: Interview Questions……………………………………………………………...121
Running head: DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION STUDENT AFFAIRS STAFF TO ASSIST
MILITARY VETERANS
v
List of Tables
Table 1: Research Design/Validity Matrix………………………………………………………44
Table 2: Data Collection Timeline………………………………………………………………49
Table 3: Description of Participants and Organizations…………………………………………55
Table 4: Research Questions Aligned With Interview Questions……………………………….57
Table 5: Development Opportunities Offered in Last 24 Months……………………………….60
Table 6: Number of Development or Training Opportunities Offered in the Last Year………...61
Table 7: Does Your Organization Make Training Available To You In the Following Areas?...63
Table 8: Formal and Informal Training Obtained and Conducted……………………………....65
Table 9: Does Your Organization Offer the Following Services?................................................74
Running head: DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION STUDENT AFFAIRS STAFF TO ASSIST
MILITARY VETERANS
vi
Abstract
College degrees help graduates achieve financial stability. Student Affairs Staff are on
the frontline for assisting students, so retention is needed. Human Capital Management is
important for retention. When considering Phillips and Roper’s (2009) Human Capital
Management Framework, it was decided to focus on Development. Development is integral to
retention since employees engaged in development tend to stay.
This study focused on military veteran students (not retirees), who have circumstances
that could make degree completion difficult. The purpose was to describe training Student
Affairs Staff receive and to gain insight into how they support students. The two Research
Questions were, “What do college or university staff know about helping veteran students and
what training do they receive?” (Question1) and “How is this knowledge used to support veteran
success in colleges and universities?” (Question 2) Qualitative interview data from nine Student
Affairs Staff led to thematic group development.
Findings for Question 1 identified three categories of staff training, Formal, Informal, and
Self-Directed Training. Findings for Question 2 yielded two services offered by all interviewees
– workshops and personal counseling. Analyses revealed providing resources, providing support
and effective communication as effective ways to assist students. Three themes (i.e. need for
more data, more resources, and more effective communication) emerged as ways to better assist
students. Implications suggest more detailed data collection would provide insight into students’
challenges as well as the most effective ways to assist. In conclusion, there seems to be ample
room for improvement to more effectively help veteran college students.
Running head: DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION STUDENT AFFAIRS STAFF TO ASSIST
MILITARY VETERANS
1
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
Higher education has been, and continues to be, one of the most critical elements of a
worldwide solution to address a depressed economic climate (The White House, 2013). When
college students are able to graduate with college degrees that allow them to successfully enter
the workforce, they become economic contributors to society who help to stabilize and stimulate
the economy (The White House, 2013). As an indicator of the state of education and the
economy in the United States, in a 2013 speech on the economy in Buffalo, New York, U.S.
President Barack Obama stated that most families in the U.S. have to work harder than ever just
to make ends meet (The White House, 2013). Former President Obama’s statement was accurate
then and continues to be accurate today, especially given that the economic climate has been
impacted by the COVID 19 pandemic (Gupta, et al., 2020). Recent articles have stated that the
U.S. is in a COVID 19 recession (Cutler, 2020; Ozili & Arun, 2020).
When viewing the U.S. economy and the effects of education from a global perspective,
President Obama also remarked that the key to economic mobility, in the face of increasing
global competition, is education (The White House, 2013). The former President stated, “A
higher education is the single best investment you can make in your future” (The White House,
2013). More recently, President Obama reiterated the relationship between education and a
global economy. He stated that U.S. graduates are no longer only competing with others in the
U.S. for jobs (The White House Office of the Press Secretary, 2016). He stated that with today’s
technology and with the internet, U.S. graduates are now competing with others in other
countries for the best jobs; and the best jobs will go to whoever is the best educated.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
2
President Biden also emphasized the importance of education when competing in a global
economy (The White House, 2021). He stated that the U.S. is in a worldwide competition and,
according to his wife, any countries that out-educate the U.S. will out-compete the U.S. (The
White House, 2021). Over the past couple of decades, both Presidents’ statements regarding the
relationship between upward economic mobility and completion of higher education degrees
have been supported by data (Hanushek et al., 2008; Leslie & Brinkman, 1993, U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 2021).
The correlation between higher education degree attainment and personal economic
stability is supported by data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. According to 2021 data
from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics income increases and unemployment rates decrease as
people progress through higher educational levels. That is, the higher the college–level degree
obtained, the less likely the chances of being unemployed (U.S.Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021).
Higher education degree completion also leads to substantially higher lifetime earnings for
graduates. (Institute of Education Sciences, 2010). Historical data analyses have shown that the
salary gap between people with a high school diploma versus people with Bachelors’ degrees has
only widened throughout the ensuing years (Torpey, 2018; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2021).
A 2019 Business Insider article used U.S. Census data from 2017 to analyze the median
incomes of people with different educational levels in all 50 states. The Business Insider
analyses showed that people with 4-year college degrees out-earned people with high school
diplomas in all 50 states (Akhtar & Kiersz, 2019). According to The Business Insider, while
North Dakota had the lowest income gap between people with 4-year degrees versus people with
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
3
high school diplomas (38%), Washington D.C. had the highest income gap between the two
groups (167%).
When considering how average U.S. salaries correlate with educational levels in more
detail, 2017 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ data and 2021 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ data
were consistent over time. In 2018 (Torpey) and in 2021 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ data
were analyzed. Both sets of data analyses showed that average annual salaries continued to
increase with increasing educational levels. According to Torpey (2018), the average salary for
people with High School diplomas in 2017 was $34,000 and in 2021 the average salary for this
same group was $38,000 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021). In 2017 those with a
Bachelor’s earned $56,000 (Torpey, 2018) and in 2021 the average salary for this same group
was $64,000 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021). Per Torpey (2018) those with a Master’s in
2017 earned $67,000 and in 2021 the average salary for this same group was $75,500 (U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021). Lastly, in 2017 those with a Doctorate earned $83,600
(Torpey, 2018) and in 2021 the average salary for this same group was $91,600 (U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 2021).
In addition, a 2014 Pew Research analyses of U.S. Census data between 1965-2013
showed that the income inequality between high school graduates and college graduates seemed
to be on an ever-widening trend over time. According to Pew Research (2014), in 1965 college
graduates earned about $38,000 per year and high school graduates earned about $31,000 per
year. However, in 2013 college graduates earned about $45,000 annually and high school
graduates earned about $28,000 annually (Pew Research, 2014). Parker’s (2019) analyses of a
2018 Pew Research Survey showed that the widening gap continued with the average income of
people with high school diplomas $31,000 per year while people with a college degree averaging
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
4
$56,000 per year. The Pew Research article authors were unable to provide a clear explanation
for the income gaps between the two groups, but they suggested that the Great Recession along
with society’s declining views of the value of high school diplomas may have contributed to the
widening income trends between those with high school diplomas and those with college degrees
(Pew Research, 2014; Parker, 2019).
Even with the possibility of society’s declining view of the importance of obtaining
educational diplomas and degrees, because higher education degree attainment likely leads to
financial stability, finding effective strategies to increase higher education graduations rates is
important. Despite the importance of higher education degrees to personal and societal economic
stability, U.S. higher education institutions continue to struggle to increase graduation rates. In
2021, data from the U.S. Department of Education showed that the overall graduation rate for
those completing a Bachelor’s degree within six years was 63% (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2022).
A more detailed consideration of 2022 data from the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES, 2022) showed a wide range of graduation rates, depending on the type of
institution students attended. Per NCES in 2022 public institutions had an average graduation
rate of 62%. Private nonprofit organizations had a higher-than-average graduation rate of 68%.
Private for-profit organizations had the lowest graduation rate with a 26% graduation rate.
Even while living in the age of rapidly advancing technology, average higher education
graduation rates in the U.S. continue to have about one third of students unable to graduate with
their Bachelor’s degrees. As an example of the technological advancement over time, the U.S.
was able to send rovers to Mars and people to the moon, but has not been able to find a viable
solution to increasing U.S. college graduation rates higher than around 63% (National Center for
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
5
Education Statistics, 2022). Nevertheless, experts and stakeholders continue to discuss strategies
to increase graduation rates (Venezia & Jaeger, 2013; Student Veterans of America, 2019).
The higher the number of college students who are able to complete their Bachelor’s
degrees, the greater their chances are of having a more prosperous future (U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2021). Obtaining a college degree increases the likelihood of obtaining a high paying
job and increases lifetime earnings (Institute of Education Sciences, 2010; U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2021). The correlation between a college degree and future financial security holds
true whether the college graduate is a Civilian or a Military Veteran. In order to help Military
Veterans have a smooth financial transition from a military career to a civilian career obtaining a
college degree makes economic sense. People with college degrees earn more than people who
do not have college degrees and they also have lower unemployment rates than those who do not
have college degrees (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021).
A decade ago the national average unemployment rate was 12% and the average
unemployment rate for Military Veterans between the ages of 18-24 years old was 29% (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2012). Seven years later, 2019 U.S. Department of Labor national
unemployment statistics were better for both Veterans and Civilians (3.5 percent and 3.6 percent,
respectively). However, the unemployment rate for college-aged veterans was still higher than
the national average. As was seen with the 2012 statistics, the 2019 unemployment rate for
college-aged veterans (7.4 percent) was higher than the average national unemployment rate of
3.4% (United States Department of Labor, 2019).
It is noted that due to the age range addressed, with a maximum of 24 years old, these
statistics could not be referencing anyone who is a traditional Military Retiree. Military Retirees
are generally defined as those who have served at least 20 years in the military (Defense Finance
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
6
and Accounting Service, 2015). Anyone who is a maximum of 24 years old could clearly not
have 20 years of prior military service. For the purposes of this study, all references to Military
Veteran Students do not include Military Retirees. Regardless of Military Veteran college
students’ ages, finding ways to help increase Military Veterans’ college graduation rates will
help these veterans have increased financial security.
While there is the possibility of long-term financial benefits for veterans who have
completed their college degrees, there are also advantages for the higher education organizations
where veterans enroll to pursue their degrees (Student Veterans of America, 2019). For example,
in 2013 there were approximately two million veterans who were eligible to use their GI Bill
benefits to pursue college degrees (Green & Hayden, 2013). As of 2018, there were 890,000
veterans enrolled in higher education programs (Holian & Adam, 2020). The veterans who enroll
in college degree programs bring an increase in revenue to their higher education institutions, via
their GI Bill benefit tuition payments. It seems that the best way higher education institutions can
help these veterans succeed is to find ways to increase their graduation rates.
Military veteran college students also bring advantages other than financial, to the
institutions where they pursue their college degrees. Military veteran students can help enrich
college experiences at their schools. For example, it is common for veterans who are pursuing
their college degrees to have gained vast life experiences while serving in the military (Student
Veterans of America, 2019). Veterans have often deployed to countries outside of the U.S while
in leadership positions (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008). Time spent abroad immerses
veterans in different cultures to the point where many of them are multilingual. Veterans’ rich
life experience allows them to have understanding and empathy of different cultures and gives
them a broad worldview (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Olsen, Badger, McCuddy,
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
7
2014; Students Veterans of America, 2019). The vast majority of undergraduate college students
simply do not have the life or job experiences that veterans have obtained throughout their
military careers. Veterans who are willing and able to share their unique perspectives, and jobacquired skills with students, faculty, and staff help to enrich college experiences for those with
whom they share and interact (Olsen, Badger, McCuddy, 2014).
In addition, the valuable life, job, and leadership experiences that veterans already
possess can translate to helpful skills on college campuses and as campus alumni (Olsen, Badger,
McCuddy, 2014; Student Veterans of America, 2019). By the time veterans pursue college
degrees many of them already have years’ worth of leadership skills and job experiences that
they gained throughout their careers (Osborne, 2014; Student Veterans of America, 2019).
Veterans’ skills and experiences often allow them to easily help resolve issues on campus and in
classroom settings (Olsen, Badger, McCuddy, 2014). For example, by the time veterans leave
their military careers they have often effectively worked with many different and diverse teams
throughout the world (Olsen, Badger, McCuddy, 2014; Osborne, 2014). Effectively working
with diverse groups during their military careers makes small group classroom projects
something that is likely relatively easy for veteran students to complete.
Veteran college students’ past experiences and job skills may also prove to be helpful to
higher education organizations when addressing situations that call for quick solutions and
actions to solve a problem. In order to effectively and efficiently complete military tasks with
short deadlines, self-discipline and teamwork are essential (Osborne, 2014). Because it is
common for military work assignments to include fast-paced training and tasks with short
deadlines, veteran students often have years’ worth of experience to quickly and effectively solve
a variety of problems (Osborne, 2014). All of these acquired job-related skills allow veteran
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
8
students to creatively problem-solve, and take action, especially in situations when teamwork is
needed.
Veteran college students have a proven track record of working together to solve issues at
their colleges. For example, veteran college students banded together as early as post-World War
II (WWII) in order to resolve issues that arose with a large influx of veterans enrolling in college
programs. Post-WWII, most colleges were unprepared, and lacked the resources, to
accommodate the sheer number of veteran students who enrolled in their programs (Student
Veterans of America). The campuses that were unprepared for the large volume of veteran
students experienced shortages of necessities, such as housing (Student Veterans of America).
The veteran students did not wait for the higher education organizations to take action to address
the problems. Instead, the veteran students organized, banded together, and shared information
and resources to help each other resolve issues (Student Veterans of America). The WWII
veteran student groups appear to be some of the earliest examples of college veteran groups.
In addition, in general, veteran student groups operated in silos throughout the U.S., on
individual college campuses, until the nationally organized Student Veterans of America (SVA)
group was founded in 2008. The formation of a national student veterans’ organization gave the
veteran students a more powerful, united voice on issues such as legislation for GI Bill benefits.
The SVA also allowed local chapters to more easily share information, resources, evidencebased practices, and provided national networking opportunities (Student Veterans of America).
There are currently about 1,300 Student Veterans of America Chapters and they exist in all 50
states (Student Veterans of America).
With all of the advantages that military veteran college students have, due to their life and
job experiences, it would one might hypothesize that veterans should have a distinct advantage
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
9
over traditional students when it comes to completing their college programs. Starting their
college careers with experience in things such as quickly learning new tasks, meeting deadlines,
teamwork, and self-discipline would seem to make it relatively easy for veterans to obtain a
college degree. However, the current graduation rate of about 51 percent for veteran college
students implies that unique challenges are likely creating barriers to degree completion for this
group of students (Blevins Sinski, 2012; Brown & Gross, 2011; Cate, 2011; Mentzer, Black, &
Spohn, 2015). Addressing the barriers and challenges veteran college students face, while trying
to earn their undergraduate degrees, would likely increase their graduation rates.
Background of the Problem
For the purpose of this study terms such as, “military students” and “veteran students”
will only refer to U.S. military veteran college students. Also for the purpose of this study, the
focus is only on graduation rates with regard to Bachelor’s degree attainment. The scope of the
study was narrowed to only Bachelor’s degree attainment in order to provide a practical and
realistic scope of study. All references from this point forward will refer to Bachelor’s degree
graduation rates.
While conducting literature searches for this study, it was discovered that a paucity of
studies exists for this particular group of college students. The scarce number of research studies
may be due to the proportionately small number of veteran students on college campuses.
References throughout this paper have been updated via literature searches in 2022 and 2023. As
an example of the scarcity of available research data, the most recent veteran student graduation
rates that could be found were from 2015. There was, however, some historical data for veteran
student graduation rates.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
10
A study conducted in 2013, as a joint venture between the VA (Veterans Affairs) and
Student Veterans of America, reported that veterans’ graduation rates were approximately 51%.
(Mentzer, Black, & Spohn, 2015). More recent data for veterans’ graduation rates yielded
information on the Postsecondary National Policy Institute (PNPI) webpage, dated November 9,
2021. PNPI reports that in 2015 veterans’ graduation rates were 54%. Lastly, the Student
Veterans of America’s Million Records Project Executive Summary (2020) stated that veterans’
average graduation rates from 2002-2010 were 51%. In contrast, however, veteran students had
higher average GPAs (3.3 vs 2.9) and were 1.4 times more likely to earn certificates or degrees
overall (Hill, et al, 2019). Despite the GPA and completion successes the consistently low
graduation rates for veteran college students pursuing Bachelor’s degrees likely indicates that
these students face unique challenges in college, which may make degree completion difficult
(Blevins Sinski, 2012; Brown & Gross, 2011; Cate, 2011; The Postsecondary National Policy
Institute, 2021).
When college students face challenges and barriers to degree completion, a core element
to help them overcome adversity is an organizationally supportive student environment
(DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008). In fact, studies have shown that students are more
successful when higher education institutions are supportive of their students (DiRamio,
Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008). Higher education administrators and staffs’ main job tasks
revolve around developing and providing services necessary to enhance student learning
outcomes and to ensure student success (Green & Hayden, 2013; Ludeman, 2009). Student
Affairs staff, administrators, and faculty in higher education are responsible for focusing on
development of appropriate, effective student service practices. Higher education administrators,
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
11
faculty, and staff should be able to design and implement effective processes to help increase
veterans’ graduation rates. (Ludeman, 2009).
One of the ways that Student Affairs staff promote students’ success is through
specialized support for different types of student groups (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell,
2008). For example, most college campuses provide individualized and specialized group
support for international students and honors students (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008).
With U.S. Military veteran college students having about a 54% graduation rate (The
Postsecondary National Policy Institute, 2021), there may be more effective actions that higher
education Student Affairs staff could take to assist these students, as they do with other types of
non-traditional student groups. Being aware of veteran students’ strengths and the unique
challenges that they face will help Student Affairs Staff become better advocates for these
students, and will likely help them provide more effective assistance to the veterans as well
(Griffin & Gilbert, 2015)
Context of the Problem and Purpose of the Study
In 2008, there were approximately 875,000 military veteran students in U.S. colleges
(Barnard-Brak et al., 2011). Between 2009 and 2012, the average number of military veteran
college students per institution increased from 357 to 823, respectively (American Council on
Education, 2012). The increase in the number of veteran college students is expected to continue
increasing over the coming years (Postsecondary National Policy Institute, 2020. However, even
with the increase in the number of military veteran college students on campuses, these students’
graduation rates were only around 54% in 2015 (The Postsecondary National Policy Institute,
2021). There is a paucity of information regarding military veteran college students’ graduation
rates. A search for this information in 2023 did not yield more recent information. The low
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
12
graduation rates could be related to unique challenges military veteran college students face on
campus.
Because U.S. Military veteran college students tend to be non-traditional students, they
often face a variety of challenges in traditional college classes (American Council on Education,
2009; Cate, 2011, Zalaznick, 2019). Finding effective strategies to assist veteran students is
challenging since there is a paucity of recent data and research with regard to this select group of
students. The scarcity of information on veteran students may be due to these students
representing a small number of students on college campuses.
Although the information does not appear to have been updated recently, the American
Council on Education (2009) has some of the demographics that set military students apart from
traditional students. In 2009 according to the American Council on Education 85% of Military
veteran college students were older than 24, 75% were married, and almost all were financially
independent. The military students’ demographics have only markedly changed with regard to
the percentage of students who are married. In 2020 the Postsecondary National Policy Institute
stated that 47% of veteran college students were married. Other demographic percentages
remained relatively unchanged from the 2009 American Council on Education information. In
contrast during this same timeframe, the traditional student was younger than 24 years old, was
not married, lived at home, and had little work experience (American Council on Education,
2009; The Postsecondary National Policy Institute, 2021).
The vast difference in life experience and maturity level between veteran college students
and traditional college students presents a barrier between the two groups, to the point where
they do not feel a sense of connection to each other (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008;
Griffin & Gilbert, 2015; Kirchner, Coryell, & Yelich Biniecki, 2014; Olsen, Badger, &
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
13
McCuddy, 2014; Osborne, 2014; Ryan et al., 2011). The broader problem is that while veteran
students desire a feeling of connection and sense of community on their college campuses (which
is what they are used to having while serving in the military), they often do not feel that sense of
connection with their peers, faculty, staff, or to the college community at large (DiRamio,
Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Ryan et al., 2011). In addition, veteran students also do not feel
supported or understood by peers, faculty, or staff (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008;
Osborne, 2014).
As an example of why veterans do not feel supported or understood while in college,
veterans’ perceptions of the stereotyping of veterans by fellow students and faculty has
contributed to veterans’ lack of connection with students, faculty, and staff (Hill, et al., 2019;
Osborne, 2014). Veterans also feel that the overall college perspective on veterans is that they
are a violent and unstable group of individuals (Osborne, 2014). Other common misconceptions
of veterans are that they are a disadvantaged group with mental health problems (Hill, et al.,
2019; Olsen, Badger, McCuddy, 2014). Veterans have reported that they feel that faculty and
peers interact with them with uncertainty due to concerns about their mental wellbeing (Osborne,
2014). Because of the negative stereotypes of veterans that exist on college campuses veterans
often do not identify themselves as veterans, preferring instead to blend in with other students
(DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008).
Supporting some veterans’ thoughts, that blending in with other undergraduate students is
preferred to disclosing their veteran status, is the fact that some veterans are aware of
uncomfortable situations that have occurred on college campuses when veterans have disclosed
their veteran status. For example it has been, reportedly, common for fellow students to ask
questions such as whether the veteran has ever killed anyone and how many people he has killed
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
14
(DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008). Few veterans, if any, want to discuss the difficult parts
of their jobs with strangers. In another instance, an instructor spotlighted a veteran in front of his
class when the veteran did not want to participate in a particular class discussion (DiRamio,
Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008). In one of the most uncomfortable situations that a veteran has had
to face, a former American Soldier was sitting in class when his Professor referred to American
Soldiers as terrorists (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008). Based on the past experiences of
veterans on college campuses it is understandable that many of them choose not to disclose their
veteran status.
Whether opting to disclose their veteran status or not, the transition from being an active
military member to being a civilian undergraduate student can often be difficult (Kirchner,
Coryell, & Yelich Biniecki, 2014). As an example, the differences between military culture and
civilian culture can create a barrier. The military culture is quite different from other U.S.
cultures (Ryan, et al., 2011; Olsen, Badger, McCuddy, 2014). Military veterans spend many
years immersed in a culture where emphasis is placed on concepts such as teamwork, leadership,
duty, and selfless service. These types of concepts are repeatedly focused on until they are
ingrained in and adopted by military service members. To leave a culture where duty and
community is placed before self, and to enter a culture where individuality is emphasized and
encouraged over team, makes for a difficult transition for veterans (DiRamio, Ackerman, &
Mitchell, 2008; Olsen, Badger, McCuddy, 2014; Ryan, et al., 2011). Veterans leave an
environment that includes a community of cooperation and support and they are thrust into a
community of isolation with lack of support (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008).
Compounding the issues that veteran students face while in college is that they also come
from a culture where they are taught to be self-reliant and self-sufficient but to function as an
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
15
effective team member (Osborne, 2014; Vacchi, 2012). In other words, veteran students will tend
to try every avenue to obtain information on their own before they seek help. When the veteran
students eventually seek staff assistance there is usually a barrier to them receiving help, since
veterans report that their colleges are often unable to provide answers to their questions (Griffin
& Gilbert, 2015). Veterans have often stated that there is a lack of quality veterans’ services on
campuses, when they need help (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Hill et al., 2019).
Veteran students’ colleges being unable to answer their questions, or to at least put them in
contact with someone who can help them, sometimes results in delays with program progression
(Vacchi, 2012).
While trying to navigate their new environment, many veterans gain the awareness that
even the rules and regulations that guide the military and civilian institutions are vastly different.
The military culture is run, for the most part, by a standardized set of rules and regulations
(Griffin & Gilbert, 2015). Service Members can move to just about any location in the world
and, in general, they will still be subjected to a standard set of rules, policies, and regulations
(Griffin & Gilbert, 2015). In contrast, higher education institutions tend to be governed by fluid
sets of rules and regulations that may differ among different colleges in the same university and,
often, differ even from department to department (Griffin & Gilbert, 2015; Hill, et al., 2019).
Morphing rules and regulations, and a lack of a single point of contact to help them, sometimes
has veterans going from one person to another and from one location to another while trying to
find help and answers to their questions (Griffin & Gilbert, 2015; Hill, et al., 2019). All of the
runaround is likely to feel like foreign territory to the veterans who are used to order,
standardized rules and regulations, and to being able to fairly easily obtain assistance whenever it
is needed.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
16
Other barriers that prevent veterans from feeling a sense of community at their colleges
are that veterans entering college for the first time commonly discover that they need to relearn
schoolwork-related skills, address financial issues that were never issues in the past, and are
unable to connect with their peers (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Hill, et al., 2019;
Ryan et al., 2011). The multi-faceted stressors seem to occur simultaneously for the new veteran
college student. Specifically, the need to work and provide for family, while taking college
classes, place demands on the military veteran college student that the traditional college student
does not have to face (American Council on Education, 2009; Hill, et al., 2019). Traditional
college students tend to be able to focus solely on school, since most of their financial situations
are taken care of due to many of them living at home with their parents while in school.
In contrast to the traditional students, veteran college students transition from an
environment where housing, food, and medical expenses were covered by their jobs to being
responsible to paying for all of these items on their own (Olsen, Badger, & McCuddy, 2014).
Additionally, military education benefits tend not to provide enough money for veterans to attend
college full-time without working (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Hill et al., 2019).
Educational benefits not providing enough, financially, for the veterans to live on while they
pursue college degrees sometimes results in veteran students having to work instead of studying
for school.
Compounding veterans’ financial issue is the fact that it is also common for the Veterans
Administration (VA) to delay GI Bill benefit payments, for a multitude of reasons (DiRamio,
Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Griffin & Gilbert, 2015). When VA payments are delayed past the
college tuition payment deadline, veterans have to pay their tuition out-of-pocket and wait to be
reimbursed by the VA, which often takes months (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008;
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
17
Griffin & Gilbert, 2015). In one instance a veteran reported sending all of the paperwork to the
VA for his GI Bill benefits a year earlier, and he was still waiting for reimbursement (DiRamio,
Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008). As recently as 2014, Olsen, Badger, & McCuddy stated that
veteran students reported financial stress as one of the three biggest stressors that they faced as
college students.
Another challenge that military veteran college students face is that many veterans have
traded their military leadership roles for the role of college student and their military work and
training often does not translate to college credits (Brown & Gross, 2011; Hill, et al., 2019;
Olsen, Badger, & McCuddy, 2014). Colleges that are unsure of how to credit military students’
professional training often disregard the training, making degree completion take longer than
necessary (Brown & Gross, 2011). Lack of credit for training obtained during military students’
military careers often leads to these students being placed in lower-level classes than they should
be; which forces them to repeat course content that they have already mastered (Brown & Gross,
2011; Griffin & Gilbert, 2015; Hill, et al., 2019).
In addition, veterans must sometimes retake courses that they have already completed.
Oftentimes it has been so long since they took the course the first time that they need refresher
courses (DiRamio, Ackermen, & Mitchell, 2008; Ryan, et al., 2011). Common courses that
veterans sometimes need to retake are math courses (DiRamio, Ackermen, & Mitchell, 2008).
Forced repetition of course content frustrates some military students, which leads to them
dropping out of college prior to completing their degrees (Brown & Gross, 2011). Other
challenges a large population of military students face are challenges such as symptoms related
to a Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), that was acquired while serving in the military. Up to 22% of
the military veterans returning from the decade-long overseas conflict are returning with TBI and
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
18
an estimated 20% of the veterans are also returning with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
(Barnard-Brak et al., 2011; Luskin, 2015; Nelson & Esty, 2012; Wells et al., 2011). With such a
high percentage of veterans diagnosed with TBI and/or PTSD, and with an estimated 900,000
U.S. college students with military backgrounds, the chances are good that some of these
students have TBI and/or PTSD (Barnard-Brak et al., 2011; Hill et al., 2019).
While the veteran students with physical disabilities, such as loss of limb, are easily
identifiable, students with hidden injuries (such as TBI or PTSD) are not easily identifiable as
military veteran students (Branker, 2009; Postsecondary National Policy Institute, 2020). Lack of
self-disclosure of the TBI or PTSD diagnoses makes it nearly impossible to know exactly how
many military veteran college students have TBI (Branker, 2009; Postsecondary National Policy
Institute, 2020). Military veterans with TBI or PTSD are not likely to disclose their injuries or to
seek help; mostly because these veterans do not want to be labeled as someone who is disabled.
(Burnett & Segoria, 2009; Postsecondary National Policy Institute, 2020). Veterans want to be
seen as capable and will often insist, as they are taught while part of the military culture, that
they will tough it out rather than seek help (Burnett & Segoria, 2009).
Common symptoms associated with people who have TBI and/or PTSD include
cognitive, sensory, and physical issues (Blevins Sinski, 2012; Lew et al., 2010; Lew et al., 2009).
Some of the common symptoms associated with TBI and PTSD include difficulties with
concentrating, difficulties with learning and memory issues, all of these symptoms could affect
classroom learning (Cate, 2011; Dolan et al., 2012; Marshall et al., 2012). Compounding the
challenges military veteran college students face is the fact that they often have multiple
disabilities, especially the combat arms veterans (Branker, 2009; Windome et al., 2011;
Postsecondary National Policy Institute, 2020).
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19
Veterans who have seen combat are often put into positions whereby they are fired upon
with artillery as well as various types of firearms. The effects of having gunfire and artillery fire
anywhere near military personnel produce a myriad of problems, including TBI for any
personnel within 50 meters of an artillery round. Physical injuries from firing various weapons,
and from having weapons fired at or near military personnel, may include vision, hearing, and
mobility problems (Branker, 2009; Windome et al., 2011). Military veteran students with
mobility problems often also have to deal with pain issues, which makes concentrating and
learning difficult (Branker, 2009; Windome et al, 2011). The veterans with vision and hearing
problems may have learning issues in classes, where much of the didactic material is presented in
the lecture format (Branker, 2009; Windome et al., 2011).
While there is some information regarding the myriad of physical and psychological
issues that U.S. military veteran college students could face in college, especially if the military
students have symptoms related to TBI and/or PTSD. There is little information on what type of
development or training higher education student affairs staff employ to address these issues.
Multiple literature searches have revealed a paucity of information with regard to this topic.
Compounding the issues for veteran students is the fact that veterans have reported that the
current staffing levels are already unable to accommodate the number of veterans who need
assistance (DiRamio, Akerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Postsecondary National Policy Institute,
2020). The lack of staffing will only exacerbate the challenges that veteran students face since
their numbers on college campuses are projected to increase over the coming years (American
Council on Education, 2012; Hill, et al., 2019).
The projected increase in the number of veteran college students on campuses will likely
exacerbate an already existing problem of the lack of effective help for these students
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
20
(Postsecondary National Policy Institute, 2020). The differences between traditional college
students and veteran college students are so vast that it makes it difficult for traditional faculty
and staff, including Student Affairs Staff, to know how to effectively help the veteran students.
Effectively assisting veteran college students is a complex issue that is further complicated since
veteran students face a multitude of challenges to degree attainment that traditional college
students do not face (Hill, et al., 2019; Vacchi, 2012). Assisting veteran students is also hindered
by the fact that the majority of faculty and staff have never served in the military and have also
never been trained to assist veteran students (Hill, et al., 2019; Ryan, et al., 2011; Osborne,
2014). Knowing how to best assist the veteran students is difficult for someone who does not
understand the complex issues that the veterans face as undergraduate college students.
In a survey of 700 higher education organizations, only four percent had orientation
specifically for veterans and fewer than 37 percent had staff trained to help veterans who had any
type of disability (Ryan, et al., 2011). Further hindering assistance for veteran college students,
who may need help, is the fact that some organizations do not even try to identify the veteran
students on their campuses, since they have neither the resources nor the manpower to assist
these students (DiRamio, Akerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Griffin & Gilbert, 2015; Postsecondary
National Policy Institute, 2020).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand what development activities or support
colleges and universities provide for Student Affairs staff to assist military veteran college
students. Because of the myriad of complexities involved with effectively assisting veteran
college students, who bring many benefits to students, faculty, and staff on the campuses where
they pursue their degrees, it is worthwhile to obtain information on how Student Affairs Staff are
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
21
trained to assist these students. Given the extent of the challenges faced by U.S. Military Veteran
college students this dissertation will examine the development practices in higher education for
Student Affairs staff who work with military veteran students. Therefore, the purpose of this
study is to examine development practices for Student Affairs staff who work with U.S. Military
veteran college students at colleges and universities.
Research Questions
The specific research questions guiding this study are:
1. What do college or university staff know about helping veteran students and what
training do they receive?
2. How is this knowledge used to support veteran success in colleges and universities?
Importance of the Study
The importance of this study is to understand how colleges and Universities can help
veterans succeed in earning bachelor’s degrees to help improve both personal earnings and
overall societal productivity. Interview data from Student Affairs staff, who are hired to
specifically help students, will provide insight into the information and training Student Affairs
staff currently have to help veteran students. The study will also help impart understanding of
how the current training and information is used for different types of interventions within their
programs.
Analyses of interview data from Student Affairs staff may provide value-added
information to help organizations make program implementations and adjustments to better
assist military students. This study specifically focuses on Student Affairs staff knowledge-base
for assisting military students, as well as what types of actions they have taken and what types of
programs have been implemented at their organizations. Increasing Student Affairs Staff
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
22
knowledge-base could help them better assist their military students. More effectively helping
military students could help increase their graduation rates. Lastly, the interview data will
address what the interviewees felt could be done to better assist the military students. It is hoped
that this study will provide useful information for higher education Student Affairs staff so that
they may more effectively help increase the graduation rates of U.S. Military veteran college
students.
Limitations and Delimitations
Numerous limitations and delimitations apply to this study. First, data were collected
from Student Affairs staff at multiple colleges and universities in the Western United States.
Thus, findings cannot be generalizable to Student Affairs staff development anywhere else in the
U.S. or anywhere else in the world. Next, the data collected were collected pre-COVID
lockdowns. College environments may have changed for both veteran college students and
Student Affairs staff since the data were collected. The study also only investigated self-reported
and perceived development practices for Student Affairs staff. Therefore, the information will
not be generalizable to other types of higher education staff. Finally, the study was limited to
nine participants which could indicate respondent biases.
Definition of Terms
The following are key terms used throughout the dissertation:
American Council on Education (ACE) provides information regarding
higher education in the US
Development refers to the procedures, requirements, and methods used in higher
education to train Student Affairs staff
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
23
GI Bill refers to educational assistance provided to servicemembers, veterans, and their
dependents
Military student refers to a student who previously served in the U.S. Armed Services and
is classified as a U.S. veteran. For the purposes of this study, military student and veteran
student are used interchangeably.
Postsecondary Policy Institute (PNPI) is an organization that provides information on
professional development in higher education.
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a medical diagnosis given to people who have
experienced a traumatic event.
Student Affairs Staff refers to employees who perform tasks related to assisting higher
education students, with any challenges students face with regard to degree completion,
as prescribed by colleges and universities. Training varies by the institution to which the
Student Affairs staff is assigned
Student Veterans of America (SVA) is a national student veterans’ organization which
gives veteran students a united voice on issues such as legislation for GI Bill benefits.
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) refers to an injury to the brain. For the purposes of this
study TBI is used interchangeably with concussion.
VERSUSOC Counselor is a counselor from vocational rehab and employment from the
VA, The interviewee who used this term was unsure of what the acronym stood for and a
google search did not yield any results.
Veterans Affairs (VA) refers to the veteran organization that provides information and
resources to veterans
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
24
Veteran Resource Center (VRC) refers to a facility that provides a first point of contact
for veterans needing to connect with veteran service organizations and educational or VA
resources.
Veteran student refers to a student who previously served in the U.S. Armed Services and
is classified as a U.S. veteran. For the purposes of this study, military student and veteran
student are used interchangeably.
Veterans’ Integration Transition Into Academic Leadership (VITAL) is a program
provided by the VA which allows for a mental health therapist to be located on campus.
Vet Success on Campus (VSOC) is a program that includes a vocational rehab counselor
to assist students who have a disability.
World War II (WWII) refers to the second World War
Organization of the Study
This study explores the development process of higher education Student Affairs staff
and whether or not the services rendered are meeting the needs of military veteran college
students. Chapter one provides an introduction, statement of the problem, background of the
problem, importance of the study, limitations and delimitations of the study, and closes with
definitions of relevant terms for the study.
Chapter two is the literature review with regard to the study. Chapter two opens with a
broad overview of human capital then presents a theoretical framework by Phillips and Roper
(2009) which captures the five major components of human capital management, namely,
attracting, selecting, engaging, developing, and retaining of employees within an organization.
Chapter two follows with a literature review of each of the five aforementioned components of
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
25
human capital with specific emphasis on the developing component as it relates to Student
Affairs staff in higher education.
Chapter three restates the purpose of the study and the research questions using a validity
matrix designed by Maxwell (2013). The method of study for this dissertation is qualitative, in
that nine Student Affairs staff were interviewed using a questionnaire consisting of demographic
questions as well as open-ended questions. As detailed in the literature review of chapter two, the
instrumentation was designed to emphasize and capture data related to the development
processes and effectiveness in developing Student Affairs staff within higher education.
Sampling, criteria for selection, process of selection, sampling issues and population from which
the sample population was drawn was discussed in chapter three. The relationship between the
instrumentation (questionnaire) and the research questions was also addressed.
Chapter four describes study findings and identifies themes through coding and analysis
of the qualitative interview data. Qualitative interview data was based on a convenience
sampling of interviews with nine current higher education student affairs staff. Participant names
and school names were not used in order to maintain anonymity of the participants. Study codes
were assigned to all participants, instead of using names. All data presented were associated with
the assigned codes to maintain confidentiality of study interviewees.
Chapter five summarizes the study, summarizes the data analysis, and addresses
conclusions and recommendations based on the study findings.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
26
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Organizational effectiveness is dependent upon the quality of employees (Crook, et al.,
(2011). Therefore, chapter two will begin with an overview of the human capital management
(HCM) framework as presented by Phillips and Roper (2009). Next, a literature review of the
individual components of the HCM framework (namely attracting, selecting, engaging,
developing and retaining of employees) is addressed. The developing component of HCM is
emphasized, since the focus of this study is on the development of higher education Student
Affairs staff to assist U.S. Military veteran students. Chapter three addresses research questions
based on development of higher education Student Affairs staff to assist U.S. Military veteran
students. This chapter also addresses methodology associated with the project inquiry.
When considering economics, human capital is often considered the most important form
of capital (Becker, 2002). Human capital may be defined as the knowledge, ideas, skills, and
health of individuals (Becker, 2002; Eide & Showalter, 2010; Coff, 2002; Flamholtz & Lacey,
1981). Management of Human Capital (otherwise known as Human Capital Management or
HCM) is a system that can contribute to an organization's success (Becker & Gerhart, 1996;
Huselid, 1995; Joshi, 2012;). Human Capital Management may be defined as a systematic
process to attract, select, engage, develop, and retain the individuals with the highest abilities
(Becker & Gerhart, 1996; Huselid, 1995; Joshi, 2012; McMahan & Wright, 1992; Phillips &
Roper, 2009).
The framework upon which this dissertation literature review of HCM will be based is
from Phillips and Roper (2009). The literature review begins with an overview of Phillips and
Roper’s five stages of HCM namely, attracting, selecting, engaging, developing, and retaining.
Next, the specific area of HCM pertinent to this dissertation, which is “developing”, will be
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
27
addressed. All five HCM stages will then be summarized, and a broad overview of the
methodology chapter will be presented. This literature review was written jointly by Maureen
Ikeda, Eric Okazaki, Julie Elting, Jana Fukada, Keoni Kuoha, Jackie McPherson, Roger
Kiyomura, Melia Abreu, and Richard Gonsalves of the University of Southern California Rossier
School of Education.
Figure 1 details Phillips and Roper’s (2009) conceptual framework of the five stages of
human capital management.
The HCM framework in figure 1 consists of five stages: attracting, selecting, engaging,
developing, and retaining. The core of the framework consists of organizational values and
competencies. Values and competencies are connected to each of the five stages via learning.
The five key stages are all influenced by the continuous processes of strategizing, executing, and
evaluating. Research emphasizes that effective organizational decisions should be aligned to one
another and should also be linked to the strategic needs of the organization (McMahan & Wright,
1992).
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
28
Conceptual Framework: Human Capital Management Model
Phillips and Roper (2009) developed a comprehensive HCM model that depicts
interrelationship between five stages of HCM: attracting, selecting, engaging, developing, and
retaining (figure 1). The foundation of effective HCM is the alignment of employee and
organizational values along with job competencies (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Phillips & Roper,
2009). When alignment of employee values, organizational values, and job competencies occur it
is termed as person-organization (PO) fit. Person-organization fit precedes workplace entry. The
better the PO fit, the more positive the new employee’s adjustment is to the new job. PO fit is an
outcome measure that is strongly tied to long-term organizational loyalty (Bauer & Erdogan,
2012; Van Vianen & De Pater, 2012).
Learning opportunities link Phillips and Roper’s (2009) five stages to the core concepts
of organizational values and competencies. Life-long learning is an integral part of HCM and, to
be effective, must be offered by the organization and embraced by the employee. The HCM
stages are connected to each other via organizational strategic planning and the implementation
of those plans. Evaluation of strategic plan effectiveness must occur to determine if
organizational goals were met (Phillips & Roper, 2009).
Attracting and Selecting Employees.
The HCM framework begins with stages one and two, namely, attracting and selecting of
employees. The initial human resource management goal for attracting and selecting involves
recruiting the right people for the job (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Phillips & Roper, 2009).
Thoughtful creation of job descriptions and responsibilities is key to ensuring clarity regarding
which job applicant could be an effective match to which job. Successfully pairing a job
applicant who possesses the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitude needed for a higher
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
29
education position should lead to successful integration into the organization.
During the selection process, the traditional method includes interviews, reference
checks, and careful review of an applicant’s work experience, training, and education. In the
absence of complete information, the interview, reference checks, and application information
review are considered in place of actual proof that the employee possesses the knowledge, skills
and abilities desired by the organization.
Engaging Employees After They Are Selected
Engagement and development, the third and fourth stages, can be viewed as a continuation
of the first two stages. Engagement and development are shared responsibilities between the
employer and employee. Engagement is the process by which new employees are acclimated to
the institutional structure and job role (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012). The organization offers some
formal onboarding information which differs depending on the job position. Numerous activities
occur during this initial period, including reviews of benefits and job responsibilities, review of
the institution’s mission, goals, and structure, and orientation to the physical surroundings (Bauer
& Erdogan, 2012). Early organizational socialization is dependent upon how proactive the new
employee is in seeking information and connections (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012).
According to Phillips and Roper (2009), organizations need to instill satisfaction and
engagement in their employees in order for employees to be effective in their jobs. Satisfaction
occurs when an employee is happy with the pay, atmosphere, and benefits received. Satisfaction
without engagement can lead to less ambition and initiation from employees (Phillips & Roper,
2009). Engagement refers to innovation and creativity, personal responsibility, desire for success
of the organization, and an emotional bond to the organization (Wagner & Harter, 2006).
Engaged employees may have a positive effect on organizational success and desired outcomes
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
30
(Phillips & Roper, 2009).
To facilitate the process of keeping employees satisfied and engaged, Odden (2011)
outlines four elements of HCM related to talent development: induction and mentoring,
professional development, performance management, and compensation. Induction and
mentoring refers to processes to provide new employees with the knowledge and skills necessary
to succeed. Professional development includes programs structured to align with organizational
visions and goals in order to support development and engagement. Performance management
involves processes to direct and improve performance. Lastly, employees provided with
adequate compensation may have increased motivational factors.
The transition from the engagement stage to the development stage should be a natural
progression. Continuous development of human capital has been linked to the retention of
effective employees (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Becker, 1962; Blair, 2011; Byerly, 2012; Crook et
al., 2011; Guest, 2011). Regularly offering opportunities for professional development leads to
an increase in knowledge and skills (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Crook et al., 2011). Committed
employees tend to use newly acquired knowledge to advance the organizational mission.
Developing Employees Once They Are Engaged
In a nationwide survey of employees, the opportunity to learn and grow ranked third
among the most important elements of employee preferences (Dychtwald, Erickson, & Morison,
2006). Development is valued by employees at various job levels (Phillips & Roper, 2009).
Research indicates that it is beneficial to organizations to allow employees to utilize training
opportunities (Wagner & Harter, 2006). The importance of human capital as a solution to
economic problems within organizations has gained in popularity in recent years (O’Connell &
Jungblut, 2008).
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
31
According to O’Connell and Jungblut (2008) it is usually the employees with more
education who are likely to take advantage of training opportunities. The pursuit of training, by
the more educated employees, could lead to a labor market disparity via exclusion of
underprivileged workers. Access to training tends to be determined by employers’ investment
decisions. Investment decisions are based on estimated return on investment, which includes
employment prospects, wages, and increased employee productivity.
Human capital theory suggests that training may be categorized as either general or
specific (O’Connell & Jungblut, 2008). General training refers to training, knowledge, and skills
that may be transferrable to current and subsequent employers. Specific training is defined as
knowledge and skills that may only be useful to a current employer. Employers usually do not
pay for general training. General training knowledge and skills may be a loss, for the employer,
if the employee decides to leave the company.
Retaining Employees Once They Are Developed
Retaining a skilled workforce and decreasing turnover rates of quality employees are
goals for companies and organizations worldwide (Belbin et al., 2012). Employee retention is
crucial to company progression (Frank, 2004). An organization’s ability to retain its best workers
is critical in maintaining a competitive advantage while ensuring that operations run smoothly
(Cardy & Lengnick-Hall, 2011). Losing talented employees translates to loss of human capital,
since time and financial resources used for the former employee are lost (Cardy & LengnickHall, 2011). Organizations tend to simultaneously compete to hire talented employees while
trying to retain gifted employees to maintain a high level of human capital (Govaerts & Kyndt,
2010).
Employee retention is critical to the financial success of an organization (Belbin et al.,
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
32
2012). Because employee turnover may cost companies up to 50% of an employee’s salary,
organizations seek ways to increase retention in an effort to control organizational cost. (Laddha,
2012). One of the things companies have done to shed some light on employee retention is to
investigate the reasons workers leave one job for another (Belbin et al., 2012).
According to Govaerts and Kyndt (2010) employee retention is multi-factorial.
Organizationally, factors such as challenging and meaningful work, opportunities for
advancement, empowerment, and managerial quality and integrity can affect whether or not an
employee stays in an organization (Birt, 2004). Other factors that may influence retention are
fair compensation, learning opportunities, positive relationships with coworkers, recognition of
worker contributions, and positive communication (Walker, 2001).
Because employee retention is such an important factor to organizational profit,
organizations should place an emphasis on doing what they can to retain their employees,
especially their high quality employees. One way that organizations could proactively address
employee retention would be through employee development opportunities. Govaerts & Kyndt
(2010) stated that staff development is critical to attracting and retaining high-quality employees.
Echols (2007) also stated that learning and development opportunities, coupled with promotions
and salary increases, contributed to increased staff retention. Research has also supported that
retention is high amongst employees who feel that they are learning and growing in their jobs
(Rodriguez, 2008). Staff development activities often form the core of learning and growth
opportunities within an organization.
In addition to learning and growth opportunities, positive coworker relationships are also
advantageous for employee retention (Basford & Offerman, 2012). Quality coworker
relationships are based on team-based, cooperative efforts (Basford & Offerman 2012). When
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
33
staff work together to accomplish goals and to complete tasks, a climate of cooperation and
teambuilding often occurs. Intertwining staff development, educational opportunities, and
teamwork tasks could lead to positive coworker relationships which could, in turn, positively
affect retention rates. Because healthy coworker relationships are key to organizational success,
an estimated 80% of companies incorporate a teamwork approach when conducting business,
(Basford & Offerman, 2012).
Developing Higher Education Student Affairs Staff
Development Procedures in Higher Education. According to Rowden (1996) and
Onnismaa (2008) the vast majority of training in the workplace occurs via on-the-job training.
On the job training has roots that go back centuries, and it continues to be the prevalent form of
workplace training and staff development today (Onnismaa, 2008). Additional training
methodologies include self-paced learning such as webinars, conferences, and online training
(Dean et al., 2007).
Development for higher education Student Affairs staff commonly occurs via reading
literature and attending conferences (Dean et al., 2007). Professional development is usually not
required for the job and tends to be driven by personal interest. Because staff training is usually
not supervisor-directed, there is no standardization for training for higher education Student
Affairs staff (Dean et al., 2007). For complex student populations, such as military veteran
students, having Student Affairs staff who are not required to attain or maintain a knowledgebase can make for a difficult situation when a student needs help with something (Connelly,
2013). Texas Tech University recognized the need to train faculty and staff to assist veteran
students (Green & Hayden, 2013). In an effort to better assist their veteran students, Texas Tech
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
34
University developed and offered classroom training to teach staff how to be effective advocates
for veteran students (Green & Hayden, 2013).
Effective Development in Higher Education. Research has shown that giving students
easy access to academic services, financial services, and social support increases the likelihood
of the students completing their college degrees (Schanker & Taylor, 2012). The vast majority of
higher education institutions have academic services, financial services, and social supports in
place so that students are able to utilize these services. Financial services and financial
information are often crucial in preventing delays in veterans’ progress in their degree programs.
In fact, veterans’ tuition payments from the VA were delayed so often that Big State University
and Eastern University both took action to assist their veteran students (Griffin & Gilbert, 2015),
Both universities started crediting veteran students with institutional funds to cover their tuition
payments until they received their VA payments (Griffin & Gilbert, 2015). Student Affairs staff
who are aware of these types of resources and who regularly refer students for these services
provide much needed assistance to veteran students (Schanker & Taylor, 2012).
Recognizing the unique needs of their veteran students, South Carolina State University
developed specific interventions to assist these students. South Caroline State University is one
of the few schools that offers veteran-specific student orientation sessions (Ryan, et al., 2011).
Because veteran students often comprise such a small percentage of the general student
population, most higher education institutions do not offer veteran-specific orientation. South
Caroline State University provides information on financial resources, benefits, and they have
different veterans’ groups come in to speak to the veterans about the resources they are able to
offer the veteran students (Ryan, et al., 2011).
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
35
Because veteran students could be considered an at-risk population of students, meaning
they may need additional help and resources to complete their degrees, information on research
results from the Michigan Center for Student Success could prove useful for Student Affairs
Staff. The Michigan Center for Student Success (MCSS) conducted research to identify training
areas that could help more at-risk college students succeed in college (Schanker & Taylor, 2012).
Additional development areas for Student Affairs staff that are recommended by MCSS include
specialized training to identify careers that are the best fit for individual students and training to
effectively evaluate students’ prior coursework and experiences in order to give them college
credits for both events (Schanker & Taylor, 2012). Lastly, Student Affairs staff should establish
peer and faculty networks to help struggling students with their coursework.
More recently, other institutions have also implemented programs to assist veteran
students with their unique needs (Zalaznick, 2019). For example, Central Oklahoma offered yoga
classes specifically geared towards veterans to assist with anxiety (Zalaznick, 2019). The
University also offered financial literacy workshops to provide more information for military
students (Zalaznick, 2019). In addition, Eastern Michigan University’s Resource Center assists
students with things like homebuying as well as long=term financial planning (Zalaznick, 2019).
Developing Student Affairs Staff to Assist Veterans. With regard to a more detailed
example of Student Affairs Staff who were devcloped to assist veteran students, The University
of West Florida (UWF) is noted. UWF has a total student population of about 10,000 students
(Ford et al., 2009). Approximately 30% of UWF’s student population consists of military veteran
students. Because UWF has such a large percentage of military veteran students, the
administrators were particularly sensitive to the unique needs of their military veteran student
population. The administrators worked with a variety of external groups over a period of years to
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
36
develop programs to assist their military veteran students in overcoming barriers to degree
completion (Ford et al., 2009).
As UWF successfully created community partnerships and connections to assist their
military veteran students, they noted some interventions that proved to be particularly effective.
Recommendations from UWF that should be included in the development of Student Affairs
staff includes participating with a group of faculty, staff, and students to work on ways of
improving programs and services (Ford et al., 2009). Other recommendations that should be
included with Student Affairs Staff development are determining the best way to identify
military veteran students on campus, conducting surveys to collect data on student’s needs, and
taking the lead to coordinate student services so that students are able to succeed in the
educational setting (Ford et al., 2009).
More recently, a major public University developed and implemented a program called
the Veteran Ally (Osborne, 2014). The Veteran Ally program is designed to train and develop
faculty and staff to, specifically, help veterans with the unique challenges that they face while
pursuing their college degrees. Veteran Ally training is held twice a month (Osborne, 2014). The
program also gives participants information on veteran-specific campus and community
resources that may be useful to veteran students (Osborne, 2014). The Veteran Ally participants
are informed about questions and comments that veteran students find to be offensive (Osborne,
2014). Once participants complete the training, they are given a placard that they can place on
their office doors so that they are easily identified as a staff member who has completed the
training and who can help the veteran student (Osborne, 2014). The program provides an
effective network of faculty and staff who are able to help the veteran students (Osborne, 2014).
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
37
The University that has the Veteran Ally program also instituted other measures to help
their veteran students. One of the things the University did to help the veterans was that they
conducted a veteran panel meeting that students, faculty, and staff could attend in order to learn
directly from the veterans (Osborne, 2014). The rules of engagement were decided upon by the
veterans involved in the panel discussion (Osborne, 2014). The veterans did not want to speak
from a podium and they did not want an agenda (Osborne, 2014). Veterans were allowed to
either answer or pass on the questions that were asked (Osborne, 2014).
In order to avoid putting the veterans on the panel in uncomfortable situations, nonveteran participants in the question-and-answer meeting were given a list of questions and
comments to avoid, based on information provided by the veterans (Osborne, 2014). The
veterans on the panel and the students, faculty, and staff who participated in the meeting,
reportedly found the meeting to be helpful (Osborne, 2014). The veterans on the panel reported
feeling empowered and proud of their military background (Osborne, 2014). The veterans on the
panel also said that they felt honored to present themselves as examples of nonviolent, stable
veterans, in direct contrast to the stereotypes often placed upon veterans (Osborne, 2014).
The Veteran Ally program gave non-veteran program participants more empathy and
understanding of the stressors that veteran students faced (Osborne, 2014). The Veteran Ally
participants were motivated and wanted to do more for veterans and for those currently in the
military. The University created a faculty and staff veteran section on the University webpage,
faculty invited veterans to be guest speakers in their classes, and local media covered veterans’
issues and feature veteran service projects (Osborne, 2014).
In addition, the Veteran Ally conducted fundraising events to raise money to help
homeless veterans (Osborne, 2014). The University also held a national diversity conference that
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
38
focused on the unique issues and challenges that veteran students faced while in higher education
organizations (Osborne, 2014). The Veteran Ally program managed to create a bond between the
veterans and the faculty and staff who took the time to learn more about the issues and
challenges that veterans face. Projecting into the future, from a Student Affairs Staff standpoint,
the increased faculty and staff engagement with the veterans could lead to an increase in veteran
retention rates which could, in turn, lead to more veterans obtaining their college degrees
(Kirchner, Coryell & Yelich Biniecki, 2014).
Another University that developed a program to assist their Veteran college students was
Western Michigan University (WMU). Between the years 2005-2010, WMU predicted a 25
percent increase in their veteran student population, but what they found was that their veteran
student population increased by 43 percent (Moon & Schma, 2011). WMU faculty and staff soon
noticed that the veteran students had unique needs and issues, so WMU created the Office of
Veteran and Military Affairs (Moon & Schma, 2011).
To further help the veterans, WMU developed a multidisciplinary System of Care that
was based on collaborations between on and off campus resources (Moon & Schma, 2011). The
system of care was based on two principles. The first principle was to listen to the veterans when
they said that they needed help with something (Moon & Schma, 2011). The second principle
was active participation from faculty and staff in order to assist the veterans (Moon & Schma,
2011). The System of Care was designed to help the veterans academically as well as personally.
Organizations that collaborated with WMU in order to assist the veterans were
organization such as the Student Veterans of America, local and statewide student groups, food
banks, and the VA hospital (Moon & Schma, 2011). This comprehensive, multidisciplinary team
approach provided a vast variety of resources that enabled WMU to assist students with a wide
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
39
range of issues. In order to help veterans financially, since delayed payments from the VA were
common issues, WMU created the Veterans Tuition Assistance Program (VTAP) (Moon &
Schma, 2011). VTAP granted veteran students with full tuition for their first semester, so that the
first VA payment could be used for the next semester (Moon & Schma, 2011). Having the first
semester paid for created a financial safety net for the veterans. Lastly, in an effort to show
gratitude for those who served in the Military, WMU veterans who self-identified as veterans
were recognized at their graduation ceremonies with red, white, and blue honor cords (Moon &
Schma, 2011).
Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) also created and implemented the Green
Zone program, a unique veterans’ program designed to assist their veteran students (NicholsCasebold, 2012). The Green Zone program allowed faculty and staff to voluntarily attend
training session so that they would know how to best assist veterans (Nichols-Casebold, 2012).
The training consisted of information campus and community resources, unique issues that
veteran students faced, and small group discussions with veterans (Nichols-Casebold, 2012). The
small group discussions comprised of scenarios that the faculty, staff, and veterans could work
through in order to better prepare faculty and staff to help veterans who may need help (NicholsCasebold, 2012).
Once volunteers were fully trained, they were given a sign with the Green Zone logo that
they displayed in their work area so that they were easily identified as someone who could help
any veteran who needed help (Nichols-Casebold, 2012). The Green Zone volunteers were added
to a listserve so that they could receive current information and updates on how to best assist
veterans (Nichols-Casebold, 2012). A follow up survey (after the Green Zone program had been
implemented for a few months) of VCU veteran students showed that 70 percent of VCU’s
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
40
veterans knew someone who they could go to for help if they needed help with something
(Nichols-Casebold, 2012). In addition, 89 percent of the veterans reported being moderately to
very satisfied with their transition to becoming a VCU student (Nichols-Casebold, 2012). Lastly,
70 percent of the respondents viewed VCU as a veteran-friendly campus (Nichols-Casebold,
2012).
For a more technologically advanced example of how an organization has assisted
veteran students, the Veterans On Campus (VOC) program provides virtual training for faculty
and staff (Cate & Albright, 2015). The VOC program is considered to be a form of gatekeeper
training. Gatekeeper training is designed to help people recognize when someone needs
psychological help so that they can connect the person with appropriate services (Cate &
Albright, 2015). Faculty and staff who train in the VOC program complete 30 minutes of online
training and interact with animated and responsive virtual veterans (Cate & Albright, 2015). The
training with the virtual veterans helps faculty and staff understand challenges that veterans face
on campus (Cate & Albright, 2015).
The VOC virtual training allows faculty and staff to have realistic, effective
conversations with veterans. The training also helps the participants learn about best practices for
putting veterans in distress in touch with the appropriate type of support (Cate & Albright, 2015).
It has been reported that 785 faculty and staff, representing 24 higher education organizations,
have been trained via the VOC program (Cate & Albright, 2015). In a three month follow up
survey after completing the VOC training, 52 percent of the participants felt that VOC helped
them recognize signs and symptoms of veterans in distress (Cate & Albright, 2015). In addition,
48 percent of the participants felt that VOC training increased the number of veterans (who
appeared to need assistance) who were approached out of concern for their wellbeing (Cate &
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
41
Albright, 2015). Participants felt that VOC training changed their behavior in that it made them
more cognizant of veterans who may be in distress and made them feel comfortable in
approaching the veterans in order to offer assistance (Cate & Albright, 2015). In a nutshell, VOC
users believed that the training was effective.
Summary
The effectiveness of organizations is dependent upon the people they employ.
Maximizing the efficiency of human capital is one of the cornerstones of organizational
psychology inquiry (Crook et al.,2011). Chapter two of this dissertation began with a broad
overview of the human capital management framework presented by Phillips and Roper (2009).
HCM framework incorporates the five stages of attracting, selecting, engaging, developing and
retaining of employees. At the core of the conceptual framework are the organizations’ values
and competencies. Values and competencies are closely aligned to the five key elements as well
as to the continuous process of strategizing, executing and evaluating.
Chapter two also presents a literature review of the individual components of Phillips and
Roper’s Human Capital Conceptual Framework. The developing component of the conceptual
framework is heavily emphasized within the literature review since developing is the area of
study for the dissertation as it relates to higher education Student Affairs staff and their
development to assist U.S. Military Veteran students. Student Affairs staff development
procedures are covered in detail in the literature review since development is the specific area of
focus in the instrument component of chapter three.
The most valuable resource in education is the talents and skills of its people (Thompson
& Kleiner, 2005). The necessity of the literature review on effective human capital management
practices is imperative to higher education Student Affairs staff, since there are complex issues
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
42
that are difficult to address in regard to effective staff development. Chapter three of this
dissertation details a formulaic approach to address research questions based on development
practices of higher education for their Student Affairs staff. Chapter three will re-emphasize the
focus of the study, that is, to investigate higher education development practices for Student
Affairs staff to assist U.S. Military veteran students. The chapter will also address methodology
associated with the project inquiry.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
43
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this qualitative study was to investigate the phenomena of higher
education and the development of Student Affairs staff. The main focus of this study was to
provide information on how Student Affairs Staff are developed to support military students as
well as how they may be able to better assist veteran college students. This study explored and
analyzed specific development practices used in higher education when developing Student
Affairs staff to assist U.S. Military veteran students. This chapter will identify the setting for the
data collection, the research design, instrumentation used, and limitations of the study.
Student Affairs staff in higher education are under pressure to effectively assist students
in the midst of constantly shifting student demographics and changes in training areas. Staff
members are expected to be able to address a wide variety of barriers and challenges that military
veteran students face that traditional students do not face. Student Affairs staff are called to
retain and assist military veteran college students who may need access to a multitude of services
and resources in order to complete their degrees.
Research Questions
The specific research questions guiding this study are:
1. What do college or university staff know about helping veteran students and
what training do they receive?
2. How is this knowledge used to support veteran success in colleges and universities?
Maxwell (2013) states that research questions are the primary determinant of the research design.
Maxwell’s (2013) research design/validity matrix was used to select appropriate research
questions for this study.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
44
Table 1: Research Design/Validity Matrix
Maxwell, J. (2013). Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach, p. 131
Research Design
This was a qualitative study which used a semi-structured interview methodology in
order to interview nine current higher education Student Affairs staff. Interview questions were
emailed to the participants about one week prior to the actual interview so that respondents
would be able to consider how they would answer the interview questions. In addition, emailing
the questions prior to the interview allowed the respondents to identify any questions they would
What do I
need to
know?
Why do I
need to
know it?
What kind of
data will
answer the
questions?
Analysis
plans
Validity
threats
Possible
strategies
for dealing
with validity
threats
Rational
e for
strategie
s
1. What do
college or
university
staff know
about
helping
veteran
students
and what
training do
they
receive?
2. How is
this
knowledge
used to
support
veteran
success in
colleges
and
universities
?
Military
veteran
college
students
are an
increasing
population
and they
are underperforming
as
evidenced
by a 51%
graduation
rate. We
should
know what,
if anything
is in place
to develop
the staff
who assist
these
students
Interviewing
higher
education
Student Affairs
staff to gain
insight into
what
development
methods are
used (if any)
and what
specific training
is being
provided
Interpretiv
e process
of
interviewi
ng
(promptin
g, notetaking and
recording)
,
transcripti
on,
grouping
patterns
(coding)
External
validity
threat: nongeneralizable
due to small
sample size
Internal
validity
threat:
Participants
may have
selective
memory, may
not fully
disclose
State in the
dissertation
that findings
can only be
suggestive
due to small
sample size.
Ensure
anonymity of
participants
for
trustworthy
disclosure
Apply
ethical
considera
tions and
what was
acquired
througho
ut the
study,
follow
Institutio
nal
Review
Board
guideline
s on
qualitativ
e inquiry
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
45
not feel comfortable answering. This study attempted to understand how higher education
institutions develop Student Affairs staff to assist U.S. Military veteran students. Rather than
utilizing a quantitative methodology this research study used a qualitative methodology. The
qualitative methodology was used since the study sought to understand how people interpreted
their experiences and what meaning people attributed to their experiences (Merriam, 2009).
To assist in understanding more about Student Affairs staff’s experiences research
questions were developed (see above). Next, an interview protocol was developed in order to
collect relevant data. Once the data were collected, data analysis occurred via interview data
reviews and thematic coding. Lastly, research findings were presented. Participation in the study
was voluntary and anonymous. Respondents were told that they could skip any questions that
they were not comfortable answering and that they could stop the interview or change their
minds about participating in the project at any time.
Sample and Population
Convenience sampling was utilized to recruit participants for this project. Acquaintances
who worked in higher education institutions were contacted and asked for assistance in providing
contact information for anyone in their institutions who worked as Student Affairs Staff. By the
time recruitment was completed for the study, a total of 32 individuals, representing 16 different
colleges and universities, had been contacted. When the recruitment phase was completed, the
total population for this study consisted of nine current higher education Student Affairs staff,
representing nine different organizations. All nine participants were currently working in higher
education institutions in the Western Region of the United States. A pilot test was completed
prior to utilization of the questionnaire. The pilot consisted of interviews with university Student
Affairs staff. The purpose of the study was to obtain a variety of perspectives based on Student
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
46
Affairs staff’s experiences. The selection of respondents was based on nonprobability or
purposeful sampling (Patton, 1987). Purposeful sampling was selected in order to gain insights
from a sample of respondents from whom the most could be learned (Merriam, 2009). Thus, a
typical sample was utilized to represent the phenomenon of this study.An interview protocol was
developed with a subsequent administration of a semi-structured interview. Prior to the start of
every interview, participants were told that, with their permission, a digital recorder would be
used throughout the interview in order to ensure that transcription of the interview was accurate.
In order to maintain confidentiality and anonymity of the participants and their organizations,
digital recordings were deleted upon completion of transcription. Transcription of the interview
was completed after the interview. Field notes were written immediately after the interviews in
order to address any issues of concern (e.g. one interview occurred in a café instead of in an
office) and to provide richer detail for data analyses. The issue of neutrality and reading the
questions slowly was considered by the interviewer in order to optimize data integrity. Findings
yielded data which were placed into categories which were coded and analyzed.
Instrumentation
In order to facilitate an effective interview, Weiss (1994) presents four guidelines to build
a successful relationship between the interviewer and the respondent:
1. The interviewer will work with the respondent to produce information useful to the
project.
2. The interviewer will tactfully and ethically probe the respondent for information the
respondent would not generally make available to the public.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
47
3. The interviewer will respect the respondents’ level of comfort when responding to
questions. This means that the interviewer will not question or judge the respondents’
motives or personal worth.
4. The interviewer will ensure confidentiality of the respondents’ data at all times, both
during and after the interview.
Interview Protocol
An interview is defined as a conversation between a researcher and a participant that is
focused on research questions (Merriam, 2009). The interview protocol was developed using
Patton’s (1987) six categories of questions as a foundation. The interview instrument begins with
some general demographic questions and continues with open-ended interview questions. Six
pre-interview questions were asked in order to obtain some background information on
participants’ organizations and to obtain some information on the staff development
opportunities available to them. The interview questions were developed based on the University
of Northern Iowa’s (UNI) Human Resources Service’s Student Affairs Professional
Development Survey (2012). The UNI Human Resources Service’s Student affairs professional
development survey was modified to exclude questions that were not relevant to this study. No
identifiers were collected either with the demographic data or with the interview data.
A total of ten interview questions were asked and four of the interview questions were
open-ended questions. The interview questions are located in Appendix A. The questions were
administered by the investigator at a site convenient to the participant. Location was taken into
consideration and the interviewer ensured that the interviewer and the respondent could easily
hear each other. In addition, the interviewer ensured that the respondent was comfortable with
the site and that the respondent had no privacy concerns during the interview. The interviews
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
48
relied on a semi-structured format that allowed for flexibility and data collection (Merriam,
2009). Neutrality was addressed by not arguing or expressing the interviewer’s views (Merriam,
2009).
A pilot study was completed first in order to test and revise the interview questions.
Recall from the literature review that Human Capital Management is critical to organizational
success (Becker & Gerhard, 1996; Huselid, 1995; Joshi, 2012). Development is valued by
employees and research indicates that development is beneficial to organizations that allow their
employees to take advantage of training opportunities (Phillips & Roper, 2009; Wagner &
Harter, 2006). This study examines the degree to which higher education institutions assist in
developing their Student Affairs staff to assist U.S. Military veteran students. Nine current higher
education Student Affairs staff were interviewed for this study.
Data Collection
The Institutional Review Board (IRB) process was completed between the months of
June and July 2019 for the University of Southern California. Once IRB approval was received,
the data collection process began. Nine interviews were conducted with current higher education
Student Affairs staff. Each interview ranged between thirty to forty-five minutes. Interview
protocols (see appendix A) were emailed to each respondent about one week prior the actual inperson interview.
Participants were informed that the interview was going to be digitally recorded in order
to maintain accuracy of participant responses. Participants were given the option of not having
the interview recorded. All participants agreed to have their interviews recorded. A digital
recording device was used throughout all of the interviews and the device was in plain view of
the participants while in use. Upon completion of each interview, field notes were immediately
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
49
written to include more details about each interview. Upon completion of transcription of each
interview, and once the transcription was double-checked against the recordings for transcription
accuracy, the digital recordings were deleted. Each participant was informed that their
participation in the study would be anonymous and that their identities, and their school’s
identities, would remain confidential.
Table 2: Data Collection Timeline
____________________________________________________________________
Timeline Tasks_________________________________
July 2019 Completed IRB process for USC
July-October 2019 Interviews: Based on convenience sampling,
completed semi-structured interviews with nine
current Student Affairs staff
January-February 2020 Synthesize, code and analyze interview data
*On hold 2020-2023 due to COVID conditions at work
August-September 2023 Recode and reanalyze interview data
Data Analysis
According to Maxwell (2013) analysis involves the generation, development, and
verification of concepts. Merriam (2009) states that data analysis begins with the first interview
or with the first observation during the project. Insights and tentative hypotheses direct the phase
following data collection (Merriam, 2009). Data analysis allows an investigator to produce
trustworthy findings. Corbin and Strauss (2008) stated that a researcher cannot simply collect
data forever. Data analysis must be done to give the data significance. Data for this study were
collected via the interview protocols. Field notes, digital recordings, and transcripts were
reviewed during data analysis. The interviews were digitally recorded. Interviews were
transcribed and field notes were enhanced post-interview. Merriam (2009) suggested that
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
50
observation data should be recorded immediately after the interview in order to optimally capture
what was observed Merriam’s (2009) process was followed throughout the interview and
observation processes. Upon completion of the data collection, data analysis began.
The initial step in data analysis was the identification of units of the data that addressed
the research question (Merriam, 2009). Noting the units of data that addressed the research
question assisted with answering the research question. The next step was to consider the units of
data in order to note regularities or patterns in the data to form different categories. The raw data
was coded by writing words in the margins.
After reaching a data saturation point, the last step was to name the categories. While
software programs, such as Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)
can be utilized for create categories, for purposes of this study, software was not utilized for data
analyses.
Limitations
It is important to acknowledge limitations in research studies. (Connelly, 2013). External
validity focuses on generalizability of the findings. It would be difficult to generalize beyond the
small sample of higher education Student Affairs respondents utilized for the study. Because the
respondent sample size consisted of less than ten individuals, generalizability is a limitation for
this study. In addition, upon closer inspection, the group of nine individuals who were
interviewed for the study represented even smaller groups since it was discovered that the
interviewees fell into two different categories of Student Affairs Staff. One category consisted of
three Veterans Resource Center (VRC) Staff, whose job entailed both providing and obtaining
training. The VRC staff provided training and information for students, faculty, and staff, but
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
51
they also obtained training for themselves. The remaining six study participants were traditional
Student Affairs Staff who did not provide training for students, faculty, and staff.
The study participants also represented nine different institutions. Therefore, the
information from the single participant from one institution may not represent the views of other
staff in their organization. The interview data are comprised only of data from staff from
organizations within the Western Region of the United States, so the findings may not represent
the views of other Student Affairs Staff in other regions of the U.S., other states in the U.S., or in
other countries. As a result, the findings can only be suggestive.
In addition, while there was an abundance of research on effective development of
employees, there was limited research available regarding developing higher education Student
Affairs staff to specifically assist U.S. Military veteran students. Lack of available research was
an argument in favor of pursing this area of the workforce. Finally, self-reported interview data
has limitations as respondents tend to have selective memories, may incorrectly remember the
timing of events, and may attribute positive events to their actions and negative events to
external forces, etc. Self-reported responses may yield bias in the research (Bauhoff, 2011)
Ethics
Researchers have opinions, beliefs, and prejudices all of which may be revealed in field
notes, because field notes often reflect one’s thinking (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Glesne (2011)
states that most ethical discussion in qualitative research concerns the relationships between
researchers and participants. Anonymity of respondents was a potential issue. Because Student
Affairs staff can be a tight-knit community there may have been concerns that if respondents
were honest and open about developing practices, they could potentially be identified. Despite
the guarantee of anonymity, potentially being identified as a study respondent may have caused
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
52
some concern on the part of the respondents. Patton (1987) offers an ethics checklist which was
useful throughout this study. Patton’s (1987) checklist is as follows:
1. Explain the purpose of the study and methods to be used
2. Promises and reciprocity
3. Risk assessment
4. Confidentiality
5. Informed consent
6. Data access and ownership
7. Interviewer mental health
8. Advice (counselor on ethical matters)
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
53
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
To summarize the study thus far, military veteran college students represent a small
portion of students on college campuses. Likely due to the small number of these types of
students on campuses, a paucity of data and research exists to address this nontraditional group
of students. As an example of the scarcity of data, the most recent Bachelor’s degree graduation
rate (data from 2015) stated that the graduation rate for veteran students was 54% (The
Postsecondary National Policy Institute, 2021). Because Student Affairs Staff are often key to
helping students succeed in degree completion, nine Student Affairs Staff located in higher
education institutions within the Western United States were interviewed. The intent of the
interviews was to obtain data on staff development to assist veteran college students. The
purpose of the interviews was to obtain qualitative data on the interviewees’ perspectives with
regard to development activities provided by their colleges, as well as to obtain data on their
experiences in working with military students.
Convenience sampling methodologies were used to contact potential interviewees for the
study. A total of 32 current Student Affairs Staff with affiliations at 16 higher education
institutions were identified and contacted to see if they would participate in the study. If the staff
expressed interest in being interviewed, then the interview questions were sent for their review,
and a date/time/location for the interview was determined by the interviewee. Snowball sampling
methodology was also used in that two potential interviewees referred the Investigator to 14
potential participants who were currently working as Student Affairs Staff. All 14 potential
interviewees were contacted. Ultimately, nine Student Affairs Staff at nine different
organizations volunteered to participate in the study.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
54
Data were used to evaluate and describe development opportunities, with regard to
assisting military veteran students, at participants’ organizations. Data were collected via semistructured interviews with participants. Participants were asked for their permission for the
Interviewer to use a digital recorder during the interviews, to ensure accuracy of transcription.
Interviewees were informed that upon completion of transcription of the interviews, the digital
recordings would be deleted. All nine participants agreed to being digitally recorded. All nine
digitally recorded interviews were deleted after accuracy of transcriptions was confirmed.
Interview questions were based on a modified version of the University of Northern
Iowa’s (UNI) Human Resources Service’s Student Affairs Professional Development Survey
(2012). The interview questions allowed the interviewer to obtain background information on the
organization that the participant worked for, development opportunities that were available to the
participants, and services that were offered to their veteran students.
Using multiple data points, such as organization demographic information, interview
data, and field notes strengthens data analyses since triangulation of the data can occur (Patton,
2015). Comprehensive data analysis provides the foundation for a rich, robust study analysis. To
begin, some background information was obtained in order to have some context of participants’
higher education organizations. The vast majority of the participant demographic information
was provided by the study participants. Some information was also augmented, and confirmed,
by online searches of the participants’ organizations.
Description of Participants and Organizations
In order to provide some general context for the participants and their related higher
education organizations, some background information was obtained on participants’
organizations. Participants were assigned Participant ID numbers in order to keep their and their
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
55
organizations’ identities confidential. Table 3 contains a comprehensive overview of the nine
participants’ organizations.
Table 3: Description of Participants and Organizations
Participant
ID
Number of
Students
%
Veteran
Students
Public or
Private
Institution
University or
College
Organization
Has Veterans
Resource
Center (VRC)?
Works at
Veterans
Resource
Center?
P1 9,000 12% Public College Yes Yes
P2 6,565 5% Public College Yes Yes
P3 3,300 4% Public College Yes Yes
P4 2,500 2% Private University No No
P5 2,100 10% Private University No No
P6 1,134 5% Public College No No
P7 500 8% Private College Yes No
P8 243 16% Private University No No
P9 200 13% Public College Yes No
The nine participants’ organizations averaged 2,800 students and had an average of 8
percent of their student population as military veteran students. The organizations represented
consisted of both public and private schools located in the Western Region of the U.S. 55 percent
of the participants were from public higher education organizations and 44 percent were from
private higher education organizations. Sixty-Six percent of the interviewees worked in college
positions and 33 percent working in University positions. In addition, 55 percent of the
participants had a Veterans Resource Center (VRC) located on campus and 44 percent of the
participants did not have a VRC on campus.
Lastly, 33 percent of the study participants worked for the VRC on their campus and 66
percent of the participants did not work for a VRC. Five interviewees worked at an institution
that has a VRC. Three of these five interviewees worked at their campus VRC. One interviewee
had a VRC on campus but the interviewee did not work at the VRC. Four interviewees did not
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
56
have a VRC at their organization. Including VRC staff members in this study provided a unique
data opportunity in that the VRC staffs’ job duties included both providing training and obtaining
training. The VRC staffs’ dual roles as both trainee and trainer is in contrast to most traditional
Student Affairs Staff who typically only receive training.
In order to help keep participants’ identities, and their organizations’ identities,
confidential participant numbers were assigned so that no names were used. The participant
numbers were assigned based on the size of the student population, from largest to smallest. In
general, it could be expected that larger institutions would have more financial resources
available to them than smaller institutions. So it would be expected to find that VRCs are more
often located on larger campuses than on smaller campuses, since larger campuses would be
more likely to be able to fund a VRC. The study data supported that the campuses with the
largest student bodies (P1, P2, and P3) were able to obtain the funds to support a VRC. The three
largest organizations represented in the study (P1, P2, and P3) all had VRCs on their campuses
and all three of the VRC staff participants were from P1, P2, and P3. Simply based on available
financial resources, it would seem reasonable to anticipate that the smallest organizations would
not have a VRC. However, P9 was the smallest organization represented and they did have a
VRC on campus. The anomaly was likely because P9 was a college representative who was
associated with a university with a proportionately large veteran student population.
Research Questions and Interview Questions
Research questions for the project were created using Maxwell’s (2013) research
design/validitymatrix. Open-ended interview questions were developed based off of the
following research questions:
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
57
1. What do college or university staff know about helping veteran students and what
training do they receive?
2. How is this knowledge used to support veteran success in colleges and universitie?
Table 4: Research Questions Aligned With Interview Questions
Research Questions Interview Questions
1. What do college or university staff know
about helping veteran students and what
training do they receive?
Question 6: What professional development
opportunities (designed to assist military
veteran college students) has your organization
provided in the past 24 months?
Question 3: How many development or
training activities, to assist military veteran
college students, has your organization offered
in the past year?
Question 5: Does your organization offer
training, in the following areas, to assist
military veteran college students? (Academic
monitoring, consultation services with the
university/college community, workshops and
special programs for military veteran college
students, personal counseling, other services)
Question 7: Please describe any formal and
informal training, to assist military veteran
college students, which your organization has
provided.
2. How is this knowledge used to support
veteran success in colleges and universities?
Question 4: Does your organization offer the
following services for military veteran college
students? (Academic monitoring, consultation
services with the university/college
community, workshops and special programs
for military veteran college students, personal
counseling, other services)
Question 9: Please describe how your
organization provides current information of
available resources for military veteran college
students.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
58
Question 8: Please describe the most effective
ways your organization assists military veteran
college students.
Question 10: Please tell me how your
organization could better assist military
veteran college students.
Findings: Question 1
Findings for the two Research Questions were addressed via the data from eight
Interview Questions. The Interviewees’ responses were paraphrased and then divided into
thematic groupings. The analyses were in an effort to provide insight and structure into how
Student Affairs Staff currently assist veteran students (Question 2), what training and
information they have to assist (Question 1), and what the staff felt could be done to better assist
students (Question 2). For the nine organizations represented, training and information came in
the form of the broad categories of informal and formal training.
Formal training included information provided via events such as conferences. Informal
training occurred via events such as webinars. A few interviewees also mentioned having to
learn via on-the-job training. Across the nine organizations there was varied access to both
formal and informal training. In general, staff at larger organizations had easier access to a
variety of training opportunities.
Life experiences of the Interviewees seemed to make a difference in the type of data
provided during the interviews. For example, the organizations that had Student Affairs Staff
who were veterans themselves seemed to have more information available to them. It is likely
that these veteran Student Affairs Staff had more information because they had to navigate
through higher education settings as military students themselves. Because they previously had
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
59
to work their way through the system as military students, their responses seemed to indicate that
they were more attuned to the needs of these types of students. The veteran Student Affairs Staff
also seemed to have more specific ideas on how veteran students could be more effectively
assisted by their organizations. More detailed analyses of the data related to the two Research
Questions is addressed in the following sections.
To address Question 1, “What do college or university staff know about helping veteran
students and what training do they receive?” Data from four different Interview Questions were
used. Namely, Interview Questions 6, 3, 5, and 7. The current section will address Question 1..
Data from Interview Question 6 were analyzed to address Question 1. Interview Question
6 was, “What professional development opportunities (designed to assist military veteran college
students) has your organization provided in the past 24 months?” Interview Question 6 was
asked to elicit specific responses to discover the types of training Student Affairs Staffs’
organizations typically offer so that they can effectively assist veteran students.
Interviewees were asked to specifically identify any training with regard to Regional
Conference, National Conference, webinars and other trainings provide by an outside
organization, campus training sessions, departmental training sessions, taken classes at a
university or college, engaged in a book/discussion group, none of the above, other (please
specify). Question 6 was based off a question on the UNI’s Human Resource Service’ Student
Affairs Professional Development Survey (2012). Table 6 shows participant’s responses to
Question 6.
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60
Table 5: Development Opportunities Offered in Last 24 Months
Development Opportunities
Offered by Organization in
last 24 months
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P
6
P
7
P
8
P
9
% Yes
a. Regional Conference Y N Y N N Y ? N N 33%
b. National Conference Y N Y Y Y N ? Y N 55%
c. Webinars and other
trainings provided by an
outside organization
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N 88%
d. Campus training sessions Y Y Y Y N N Y Y N 66%
e. Departmental training
sessions
Y Y Y Y N Y Y N N 66%
f. Taken classes at a
university or college
N N Y Y N N Y Y N 44%
g. Engaged in a
book/discussion group
N N Y N Y N Y N N 33%
h. None of the above NA NA NA NA NA N
A
N
A
N
A
Y 11%
i. Other (please specify) None Annual
State
conference
None None State
Conference
N
o
n
e
N
o
n
e
N
o
n
e
N
o
n
e
22%
When analyzing the information from Question 6, it is noted that the three most
frequently reported methods of training offered by participants’ organizations (88 percent
webinars, campus training 66 percent, and departmental training 66 percent) are also likely to be
the least expensive and most convenient forms of training. Interestingly, being engaged in a
book/discussion group was only offered for 33 percent of the participants. This would seem to be
a relatively low cost training methodology, but it was not used very often. It may be that this was
not used as an option too often because, depending on the length of the book, this may have
entailed several weeks’ worth of training for participants. Something like a multi-chapter
textbook probably would not have been read and discussed within a week.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
61
Another seeming anomaly in the dataset was that P9 was the only participant who stated
that his organization did not offer any of the aforementioned training. His campus did have a
VRC and he stated that he always referred his veteran students to the VRC. Another participant
(P7) responded that she was unsure if there were any Regional Conferences or National
Conferences offered by her organization. She was also in a college (similar to P9) that did not
have a VRC physically located in her department. There was also a VRC on her campus and she
regularly referred her veteran students to her VRC. It may be that since the two of them (P7 and
P9) did not have VRC staff physically located in their departments; there was training that was
offered to the VRC staff but the two of them were not aware of the training.
For a general overview of data for Interview Question 3 data were put into a table format.
Table 6 shows an overview of participants’ responses to address the frequency with which their
organizations supported staff development within the past year. Answers from participants
ranged from no trainings to 4+ trainings in the past year.
Table 6: Number of Development or Training Activities Offered in the Last Year
ID Number P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9
Number of Trainings Offered in Last Year 4+ 4+ 4 1 0 4+ 4+ 4+ 0
For further analyses of Interview Question 3, data were further analyzed based on
interviewees’ individual responses. When participants were asked about the number of
development or trainings offered in the last year, five stated that there were more than four
trainings offered in the last year (55 percent), one stated that there were four trainings offered in
the last year (11 percent), one stated that there was one training offered in the last year (11
percent), and two stated that there were no trainings offered in the last year (22 percent). The
average numbers of training offered per year across the nine organizations calculates to
approximately 3 trainings per organization.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
62
Of the six organizations that offered four or more trainings in the last year, four of the
organizations were public institutions (P1, P2, P3, and P6) and two were private institutions (P7,
P8). The three organizations represented by their VRC staff all offered four or more trainings per
year. P4 and P5, which offered one training and no training respectively, did not have VRCs on
their campuses. P9 did have a VRC on campus but there was no representative physically in the
college where the participant worked, so veteran students were regularly referred to the VRC. P4
and P5 also regularly referred veteran students to their VA representative. In fact, the
organizations with the fewest number of trainings per year stated the following:
P4 stated that there’s nothing that the school does on its own. The training received is
focused on ensuring that staff have all the information needed to correctly submit
students’ information.
P5 stated that staff does all possible to assist students. For example, if a student’s forms
have not been processed the records department will call the VA directly to try and find
out what is holding up the paperwork.
P9 stated that the organization does not have either formal or informal training programs
related to military and veteran’s assistance. Instead, they have a dedicated office to
assist their veteran students. The office will periodically send one of their staffers to
assist veteran students. Student Affairs staff at this organization will forward the contact
information of the military advisor to the veteran students. P9 stated that the help
provided from the military advisors is “…very good and of a high caliber!”
Based on the participants’ comments, even if training was not offered for them at their
organizations, they did reach out for assistance for the students as needed. P5 mentioned that the
majority of their staff training came in the form of on-the-job training. It may be the case that onthe-job-training is the form of training that occurs most often for other organizations who do not
have VRCs as well.
The next interview question associated with Question 1, to further describe training for
the Student Affairs’ Interviewees, was Interview Question 5. Interview Question 5 was, “Does
your organization offer training, in the following areas, to assist military veteran college
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
63
students? (Academic monitoring, consultation services with the university/college community,
workshops and special programs for military veteran college students, personal counseling, other
services)” was based on a question from the UNI’s Human Resources Service’s Student Affairs
Professional Development Survey (2012). Table 7 provides an overview of data analyses of
Interviewees’ responses to Interview Question 5.
Table 7: Does Your Organization Make Training available to you in the Following Areas?
Does your
organization offer
training in the
following areas?
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 % Yes
a. Academic
Monitoring
Y N Y Y N Y Y Y Y 77%
b. Consultation
Services with the
University/College
Community
Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y 88%
c. Workshops and
Special Programs
for Military Veteran
College Students
Y Y N Y N N N Y Y 55%
d. Personal
Counseling
Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y 88%
e. Other services
(Please describe)
N N N Have
training
specifically
for
certifying
officials,
e.g.
benefits
“OTJ” N N N Student
Financial Aid
Consulting
33%
The most frequent trainings offered by the participants’ organizations were consultations
with the university/college community and personal counseling (both were 88 percent). This is a
result of almost all of the participants indicating that they refer the students the serve to other
services available at their institution. For example, two participants (P1 and P2) mentioned that
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
64
sleep issues were common for the veteran students they serve. Both participants organized sleep
workshops and a sleep hygiene class to help veteran students with their insomnia.
The personal counseling answer (also 88 percent) was likely based on the fact that just
about every interviewee stated that they provided counseling for their students. The next most
frequently provided training was academic monitoring (77 percent). Although student success is
a primary goal for student affairs’ staff, neither personal counseling nor academic monitoring
training was provided for all participants (Green & Hayden, 2013; Ludeman, 2009). The
responses from P5 were notably all “no.” She stated that neither she nor others in similar
positions within her organization were given any training once hired into their positions. She
stated that all of her (and her co-workers’) training was “OTJ” (i.e. on the job training). Her
answers were unexpected given that she was located at a private university with one of the larger
student populations.
The last interview question associated with Question 1 was Interview Question 7. Three
themes emerged from analyses of the interview results for Interview Question 7. The two broad
themes that were initially identified were formal training and informal training. However, based
on further analysis of study participant responses a third theme emerged. The third theme that
will be addressed is self-directed training.
The three VRC staff study respondents (P1, P2, and P3) received training and provided
training while in their roles as VRC staff. The VRC staffs’ data was analyzed in conjunction with
the non-VRC staff data. When appropriate, the VRC staff data were clearly delineated as data
that represented training that they provided to faculty and staff, as opposed to training that was
obtained by the VRC staff. Table 5 provides an overview of Formal and Informal Training that
participants received and conducted.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
65
Table 8: Formal and Informal Training Obtained and Conducted
Regional
Conference
(Formal
Training)
State Conference
(Formal
Training)
Department
Training
(Formal Training)
Workshops
(Informal
Training)
Online
Training/Webinars
(Informal
Training)
Training
Obtained
P1, P3
(22%
participated)
P1, P2, P6
(33%
participated)
P1, P5, P6, P7, P8
(55% participated)
P1
(11%
participated)
P1, P3, P4, P5, P6
(55% participated)
Training
Conducted
(by P1, P2,
or P3)
N/A P1, P2 (Annual)
(66% of VRC
staff provided
this type of
training)
P1 (twice a year
and as requested),
P2 (annual), P3
(twice a year and as
requested)
(100% of VRC staff
provided this type
of training)
P1 (twice a
year and as
requested), P2
(completed 4
workshops last
year), P3
(twice a year
and as
requested)
(100% of VRC
staff provided
this type of
training,
multiple times
a year)
N/A
Formal Training
In general, formal training has some type of structure or format to the training and is
taught by an expert in the field (McNamara, n.d.). For participants in this study, formal training
tended to occur via regularly scheduled meetings or conferences. Formal training, with regard to
Student Affairs Staff assisting military veteran college students, is not standardized within the
field or within higher education institutions. In fact, formal training seemed to vary even among
Student Affairs Staff study participants who were employed in affiliated organizations. Data
obtained from the small sample group of participants for this study supported that the type and
frequency of formal training that was provided varied from organization to organization.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
66
The highest level of formal training is training that is presented with an agenda and
involves measuring or grading of the trainees’ depth of knowledge on the content presented,
post-training (McNamara, n.d.). The highest level of formal training was only mentioned once
throughout all of the interviews. Study participant P7 stated, “I just recently graduated from
(school name) so I can say for my Master’s Program there’s a big focus on military veteran
counseling as well as a component of disability services to be able to assist any military veterans
who disclose a disability. I can say that I do have formal training…” However, P7 did not
receive formal training while in her position as a Student Affairs Staff and she regularly referred
students to her on-campus VRC rather than assisting the students herself.
A less structured level of formal training involves an expert serving as the trainer, with
minimal to no grading of learner understanding of the material. (McNamara, n.d.). Formal
training that participants were able to obtain included a regional conference for Academic
Advisors, an annual Statewide Conference, and Department training. The most frequently
attended (or obtained) type of training was the Department level training for faculty and staff.
Department level training was attended by 55 percent of the interviewees. State Conferences
were the next most frequently used; 33 percent of interviewees stated that they had attended a
state conference to obtain training. Lastly, the Regional Conferences were attended the least
frequently, according to study participants. Only 22 percent of interviewees stated that they had
attended a Regional Conference. Four out of the five participants (P1 x2, P2, and P3), or 80
percent, who attended Regional and/or State Conferences were currently working as VRC staff.
It makes sense that VRC staff (P1, P2, and P3) would obtain training from external sources,
since they were charged with providing training for faculty and staff.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
67
Funding, as well as position primary duties/tasks, may have played a role in the type of
formal training that the participants were able to receive. P1, P2, and P3 were all in VRC staff
positions, so it is likely that they had a larger amount of funding dedicated to obtaining training
to assist veteran students, as opposed to staff who did not work for a VRC. In order to be
effective at their jobs VRC staff need to be able to stay abreast of changes to policy or law that
could affect the veteran students, who they are there to support. Training at the State or Regional
level would help ensure that VRC staff are informed of current changes. Attendance at the
Regional or State Conferences would also allow them to ask, and get answers to, any questions
that they may have with regard to any changes.
In all instances where training involved some type of registration fee, or a similar
expense, participants reported that their organizations were supportive of their attendance to the
point where their organization would cover the costs for them to attend. As expected, the most
frequently attended type of formal training occurred at the department level. Department level
training likely required little to no travel time and probably occurred at the jobsite, making the
training both inexpensive and convenient for participants to attend.
VRC interviewees, who provided training for faculty and staff, most often attended
conferences to obtain their formal training. Because the VRC interviewees were considered to be
the experts on their campuses, they often led formal training sessions for faculty and staff. In
order to obtain training VRC staff would attend formal training led by external experts in their
field. In contrast, the non-VRC interviewees most frequently obtained their formal training from
department meetings. Specific formal training that was obtained by several of the participants.
Examples of that training include:
P1was able to attend national and regional conferences that offered professional
development. Conference attendance was funded by the organization.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
68
P6 was able to attend a large conference where formal training was offered with
community partners.
P8 would have annual training with the VA. In addition, the VA resource person was
available for additional questions.
The formal training that is obtained varied from one organization to another, as evidenced
by the aforementioned participants’ comments. The formal training obtained might also vary
from staff to staff within the same organization. Even with one of the goals of Student Affairs
Staff being to help their veteran students, with their unique needs and issues, the training for this
type of staff is not standardized. In addition, none of the nine participants mentioned any of the
training being mandatory. It seemed as if training was optional for all who were interviewed.
When looking at formal training that was provided by the three VRC staff who were
interviewed, all were highly participative in providing training for faculty and staff. The VRC
staff mentioned instances of training that was provided to assist veteran students, both within
their organizations and externally as well. The three VRC study participants (P1, P2, and P3)
who provided training on assisting veteran students were able to provide formal trainings via a
State Conference and Department trainings. In order to disseminate the training to assist veteran
students as widely as possible, 66 percent of the VRC interviewees reported being instrumental
in organizing and assisting with state conferences. In addition, at least a couple of times a year,
100% of VRC interviewees provided department-level trainings at their worksites. Specific
statements that VRC study participants made regarding formal training that was provided for
faculty and staff were summarized as follows:
P1 stated that the professional development office offers training to faculty and staff in
interacting more effectively with veterans and in becoming informed about veteran
specific issues. Faculty and staff are educated on how failing grades, withdrawing grades,
or incomplete grades impact veterans’ benefits under the GI Bill. A VITAL (a.k.a.
veterans integration transition into academic leadership) counselor also offers sessions for
faculty and staff to learn how to best interact with veteran students. Examples of issues
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
69
that are addressed are disabilities, PTSD, or TBI. The organization is also adding on more
resources so that all instructors will be well informed about campus resources. New staff
will be educated on how to effectively work with veterans during in-processing.
P3 stated that there are quite a few trainings on campus to educate faculty and staff with
regard to working with and understanding student veterans. The organization also offers
facilitator’s training on how to be a group facilitator for a group of veterans.
As may be seen from these two comments, formal training provided for faculty and staff
(to assist veteran students) varied in scope and dissemination methods. The difference in training
scope and dissemination between the two organizations represented by the two participants may
be due to P1 having a much larger student population (almost three times as large), than P3.
Because P1 had a much larger student population to assist, she seemed to have more resources
and funding available to her. For example, one of the big differences between P1 and P3’s
situations was that P1 had an organizationally funded position and P3 reported having to apply
for grant funding for him and his staff every year. P3 also stated that he had to spend a lot of time
on his grant application to cover the salaries for himself and for his staff. It may have been the
case that P1 may have just had more time to focus on providing formal training opportunities
than P3, since P1 did not have to spend any time applying for grant funds every year.
Informal Training
Informal training tends to not have a structured format and learner knowledge of the material
taught is minimally measured or not measured (McNamara, n.d.). Informal training is also
usually less expensive and used more often than formal training (McNamara, n.d.). Data from
study participants supported the generalities regarding formal versus informal training. The data
supported that the more cost-effective informal types of trainings (i.e. trainings that did not
require travel costs or conference fees) were the most frequently used. For the three VRC
interviewees (P1, P2 and P3), the informal training method used most often to provide training
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
70
was Workshops. In fact, 100% of the VRC participants provided Workshops for their faculty and
staff. For non-VRC interviewees, the most frequently used informal training method to obtain
training was online or webinars. Participants mentioned being able to participate in webinars and
online training via the following statements:
P1’s organization offers webinars that provide information on academic advising and
counseling from different organizations, as well as from Veterans Affairs. Veterans
Affairs provides specific information for working with the veterans’ population.
P4 is also able to attend webinars with the veteran’s department. The veteran’s
department offers additional webinars whenever there is updated information on
something.
P6 stated that they are able to attend webinars that are held multiple times throughout the
semester.
The second type of informal training mentioned by participants were meetings and
discussions. Participants made the following statements regarding meetings and discussions:
P1 stated that they have a student panel to interact with faculty and staff where they
discuss things such as how to best interact with a veteran as well as potential academic
situations or safety situations. For consultation services, we don’t have any primary
training for that, but we do offer student panels that share information to faculty and staff.
P2’s organization has monthly meetings where they discuss any veteran student issues
that have come up.
P4 stated that they have conference calls where they are given updates on what is needed
to help veterans with their classes.
P6 stated that counselors alternate between business meetings and “AWA” or alternate
week activities to provide professional development for staff on working with military
veteran students. P6 also stated that their Admissions Office staff meets with staff to
discuss updates.
P7 stated that staff will meet to discuss equity and support for different student
populations.
The next type of informal training that was discussed by a participant was workshops.
The following statements were made with regard to workshops:
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P1 stated they offer workshops and special programs at the beginning of the semester.
P2 stated that they offered four staff workshops per year that were open to everyone on
campus. The workshops were designed to help people learn about VA education benefits
and policies regarding VA funding for students.
The last type of informal training mentioned by a participant was a resource fair. The
following statement was made about resource fairs:
P2 stated that their organization holds annual resource fairs. Community partners, such as
the VA are there to provide information about their organization to students, faculty, and
staff.
As with formal training, the participant’s comments supported that the depth and breadth
of the informal training, that is both provided and obtained, varied from one participant to
another, and varied from one organization to another. Also similar to formal training, informal
training seemed to not have standardization with regard to training that should be obtained to
effectively assist veteran students. The informal training also appeared to be optional since none
of the participants mentioned mandatory training.
In another type of informal training, P1, P2, and P3 reported that they also provided oneon-one training and consultations for any faculty or staff who had specific questions regarding
veteran students who may need assistance. The one-on-one training reportedly included
information on the financial ramifications of letting a student withdraw from class as opposed to
getting a failing grade, what resources are available if a student appears to be an at-risk student
(i.e. a student who may need resources or assistance of some kind), how to support a student who
identifies as having TBI or PTSD, etc. The one-on-one training was also, reportedly, on demand
and occurred when a faculty or staff member reached out to the VRC staffer.
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Self-Directed Training
Self-directed training occurs when the learner is motivated to learn more about a
particular topic (McNamara, n.d.). Upon data analyses, the theme of self-directed training did
appear for a few of the study participants, with regard to training to help their veteran students.
Although motivation to obtain training was not within the scope of this study, the theme of selfdirected training was worth noting since 44 percent of study participants alluded to the concept.
Comments regarding self-directed training, that was not previously mentioned, were as follows:
P1 stated that the faculty wants to learn how to help veteran students. P1 would receive
invitations to attend departmental meetings in order to present information on the
Veterans Resource Center and to discuss academic issues that may arise with veteran
students.
P5 stated that if someone needed information on VA certification they could reach out to
the records section and they would assist with the necessary information.
P6 stated that staff would receive notifications of upcoming webinars and they were
given the opportunity to sign up individually.
The self-directed training that was mentioned was due to staff being reached out to, by
faculty or staff, or by a staff member taking action to obtain training. There were instances of
self-directed training obtained in the form of both formal and informal training. For example,
participants attended Regional Conferences, State Conferences, and Department level trainings
and none of the participants stated that the training was mandatory. Comments such as, “…we
are allowed..”, “…we continued to go to…”, and “…there’s opportunity for staff…”, when
referring to obtained training implies that the training was optional and was self-directed
training. Although not addressed in this study, the motivation behind self-directed training would
likely be due to a desire to help veteran students.
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Findings: Question 2
Question 2 was, “How is this knowledge used to support veteran success in colleges and
universities? ” Question 2 was asked in order to delve deeper into services and processes that the
participants’ organizations may have in place to help their veteran students. Embedded in the
data analyses for this question, due to a tangential relationship, were interviewees’ perspectives
on what interviewees felt was helpful for their students. Question 2 was addressed via Interview
Questions 4, 8, 9, and 10.
To present a logical flow for data analyses for this section, the Interview Questions’ data
analyses were arranged in the order of Interview Questions 4 and 9 and then Interview Questions
8 and 10. Interview Question 4 was, “Does your organization offer the following services for
military veteran college students? (Academic monitoring, consultation services with the
university/college community, workshops and special programs for military veteran college
students, personal counseling, other services)”, Question 8 was, “Please describe the most
effective ways your organization assists military veteran college students”, Question 9 was,
“Please describe how your organization provides current information of available resources for
military veteran college students”, and Question 10 was, “Please tell me how your organization
could better assist military veteran college students.”
A previous interview question (Interview question 5) obtained information on specific
training that was offered at participants’ organizations, for commonly offered student services.
Question 4 is a related question that seeks to provide details with regard to the specific types of
services offered for veteran students. Question 4 was modified from the UNI Human Resources
Service’s Student Affairs Professional Development Survey (2012). Table 7 offers a summary of
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the participants’ responses to what type of services are offered for the veteran students at their
institutions.
Table 9: Does Your Organization Offer the Following Services?
Does your
organization offer the
following services?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 %
Yes
f. Academic
Monitoring
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y 99%
g. Consultation
Services with the
University/College
Community
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 100%
h. Workshops and
Special Programs
for Military
Veteran College
Students
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 100%
i. Personal
Counseling
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 100%
j. Other services
(Please describe)
Student
Financial
Aid
Consulting
Career Centers,
Tutoring Center
(working on
getting online
tutoring for
veterans who are
not on island)—
also available
email, online, in
person
**No current VA
counselor/certifyi
ng official,
position posted
but every records
staff has been
certified to help
N
o
n
e
N
o
n
e
N
o
n
e
N
o
n
e
Course
specifically
for MIL
Vets, national
endowment
for
humanities
Tutoring –
online and
face to face
(for all
students),
targeted
services/
disability
services,
new student
orientation
program, 1st
year
program,
transfer
student
program,
once a
month
different
academic
programs on
campus –for
all students
N
o
n
e
55%
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As per responses from Interview Question 5, less than 100 percent of institutions offered
training for academic monitoring (77 percent), consultation services with the university/college
community (88 percent), workshops and special programs for Military Veteran College Students
(55 percent), and personal counseling (88 percent). However, despite some institutions not
offering training on how to provide these services, the vast majority of the participants’
organizations offered these services to their veteran students. In fact, consultation services with
the university/college community, workshops and special programs for Military Veteran College
Students, and personal counseling were offered at 100 percent of the participants’ organizations.
Academic monitoring was offered at 99 percent of the organizations. In addition, 55 percent of
the participants mentioned other services that were offered for their veteran students. Of the
additional services mentioned as being offered for veterans, none of the additional services were
mentioned as services for which the participants had received training. It is clear that having a
service offered for veteran students does not necessarily mean that the staff were trained to
provide the service. Whether or not the participants felt that they were adequately prepared to
assist their veteran students was not addressed in this project.
Because providing support to the veteran students is key to helping students succeed, it is
worthwhile to describe how information is communicated from staff to student. To address how
information is communicated, Interview Question 9 was included in the interview. Question 9
was, “Please describe how your organization provides current information of available resources
for military veteran college students.”
Three approaches emerged with regard to how participants provided information to their
veteran students. The most frequently mentioned method of communication was email (77
percent), followed by website (55 percent), and social media (44 percent). The responses made
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sense since each participant was working with hundreds, if not thousands, of veteran students.
Contacting many students all at once using technology was a practical, effective, and efficient
method of communication. Specific comments regarding communication with students were as
follows:
Email
Email is a relatively inexpensive, efficient method of communication since one message
may be sent to several people all at once. It is also a practical method of communication since
any message that is received is opened, and responded to, at the convenience of the recipient.
Email allows people to send and receive messages 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The
ability to send and receive messages at all hours of the day and night allows people to transcend
the pre-email communication issue of being in different time zones, worldwide. The following
comments were made with regard to communicating via email:
P1 stated that they have a listserv that they use to send out information.
P2 stated that they use email blasts. They use a process where they filter for anyone who
is using VA benefits to obtain a listserv for their targeted population. When they want to
get information to their targeted population they e-blast them.
P3 stated they also send out email blasts. They use a veteran email list that consists of all
the veterans on campus. They send information on any important dates, any workshops,
and basically anything that could be relevant information to the students.
P4 stated that they have a list of students that we work with, and they ensure that they
keep in touch with them so that the students are updated on any needed information. For
example, they email the students to ensure that their invoice is paid out.
P5 stated that their organization emails all students and reminds veteran students to fill
out their forms, sends information on resources, and provides them with updated course
information. P5 emails the students at the beginning of the semester, during the semester,
and at the end of the semester. P5 also emails the students if there are updates with VA
benefits since students are not always up to date on current legislation.
P6 stated that if a student wants to go to a conference or something specific coming up
they email that information directly to that student.
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P8 stated that they assist VA students and they fairly consistently send out information
via email. They also email students to let them know about available resources available
in the area.
Website
Similar to email communication, websites offer a way to provide information to students
no matter what time of the day or night it is when the student is looking for information. In
addition, websites have the potential to reach more people than email listservs, since the message
sender generally identifies individuals to add to an email listserv. In contrast, most websites are
available to anyone who can locate the webpage simply by using search terms in a search engine.
Comments made regarding website communication were as follows:
P1 stated that they want more flexibility to post information on their own webpage. Their
webpage is currently controlled by the marketing department so they are not currently
able to post information that their students may need. They are working on a process to
have more access to the webpage.
P2 stated that they have a website to post information.
P5 stated that they have a few locations on their webpages where their information is
postedit.
Social Media
Social media communication, in general, combines the world of email and websites. In
some instances, individuals are only connected to an account when they request to be connected
(like email). However, individuals are also able to search for and locate different groups, similar
to how they would search for and locate webpages. An advantage of social media is that an
individual can send out one message and could, potentially, reach millions of users. Social media
is another practical, inexpensive, convenient form of communication. Interviewees made the
following comments regarding social media:
P1 stated that they use social media, like Facebook. They use their Facebook page to send
information to the students.
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P2 stated that they have an Instagram account that was very active in the Fall, but is not
currently being utilized.
P3 stated that they use both Facebook and Instagram.
The three VRC staff who participated in the interviews mentioned using multiple
methods of communication. Two out of the three participants who mentioned using all three
methods of communication were VRC staff (i.e. P1 and P2). The third VRC staff member (P3)
who participated in the study, mentioned using two out of the three methods of communication.
The things that all three forms of communication methods have in common are that they are
widely used, inexpensive, easy to use in a short period of time to reach a large number of people,
and convenient in that information may be sent out, and retrieved, at any time of the day. What
was not addressed in this study was how effective the different modes of communication were in
getting the information to their target audiences. Efficacy of communication methodology could
prove to be useful information in the future.
In order to obtain information on what the participants felt that their organizations did
that were effective in helping their veteran students, Interview Question 8 was asked. Interview
Question 8 was designed to obtain information on what the participants felt were the best
interventions that their organizations did to help their veteran students. The question that was
asked was, “Please describe the most effective ways your organization assists military veteran
college students.” Three themes emerged with regard to how participants’ institutions best
support their veteran students. The three themes were to provide resources, provide support, and
communication.
Provide Resources
The first theme, provide resources, was mentioned several times throughout the
interviews. Resources that the interviewees mentioned were not limited to funding resources.
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Although funding was mentioned quite often, there was a wide variety of other resources that
were mentioned, including the VRCs, events for veterans, and the VA. The following comments
addressed funding and other provided resources.
P1 stated that they have a Veterans Resource Center (VRC). Students who visit the VRC
are able to obtain information with regard to all of the different options available
regarding veterans affairs, educational benefits, and services that students may not be
aware of that may helpful for them. Organizations come in once a year during the
veterans’ resource fair. P1 brings in organizations, state-wide, to the resource fair so that
veteran students are able to obtain information on all of the different options that students
may have regarding needed services. P1 brings in organizations other than the VA, such
as home loan organizations, health and wellness organizations, and representatives of
Disabled American Veterans and Wounded Warriors.
P1 learned that veteran students don’t just want to see a counselor, they want to be shown
online about e-benefits and VA websites. Veteran students want to know about the type
of benefits for which they qualify. P1’s office serves as a central information hub for all
of this information and they also have a counselor in their office. The VERSUSOC
program, as well as VITAL are helpful so that veteran students have a one-stop shop
where they can get answers to their questions.
P1 felt that the best thing the organization had done was to have a VRC. P1 stated that
once the VRC was opened a lot of students started coming to their school. Students either
learned about the VRC online or via word of mouth from other students.
P2 stated that they have a VA work study program. They currently had five veteran
students in VA work study this semester. The VA work study students worked at the
front desk and were paid by VA as part of an education benefit. To be on VA work study,
the students have to work in a position that serves other veteran students. The VRC is
effective since the VA work study staff knows and understands issues from the students’
perspective. Once they gain experience as staff, they learn how the process works so that
they can help the veterans access their VA benefits.
P2 also stated that the VA also has a private tutoring program. The private tutoring takes
some effort to set up but P2 works with both the student and their instructor in order to
document that student’s academic situation in order to provide private tutoring. The VA
funds the private tutoring for veteran students,
P2 instituted VITAL, VA work study and private tutoring to help veteran students. P2
also provides briefings on how to apply for benefits, how to use benefits, how to
maximize benefits, how to ensure that students align their benefits so that they achieve
their academic goals, and helps monitor the students’ progress to try to ensure that they
don’t run out of benefits. If students do run out of their benefits, P2 works with them to
ensure that they access other resources so that students can achieve their goals.
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P3 stated that one of the most effective things they did was to implement their Veterans
Resource Center on campus. The VRC is the first point of contact for our veterans.
P9 stated that their university has dedicated a budget and office to assist veterans and
active military students.
The resources mentioned as being effective in providing help to veteran students could be
broadly divided into two categories, internal resources and external resources. Internal resources
were considered to be resources that existed within the organization (e.g. VRC). External
resources were resources that were considered to be resources that existed externally, but were
brought in or connected to the organization (e.g. VA). After dividing the comments into the
categories of internal or external resources, it became evident that internal resources were
mentioned about three times more often than external resources. It appears that the participants
felt that resources that currently existed on their campuses (internal resources) were effective in
helping their veteran students more often than external resources.
Another common theme came from comments made with regard to the VRC as being one
of the effective (internal) ways campuses have helped their veteran students. However, there may
have been some bias with regard to responses for this particular question since the participants
who stated that VRCs were helpful (P1, P2, and P3) were all staff who worked at the VRC.
Participants who worked at organizations which did not have VRCs mentioned that veteran
students expressed frustration at not being able to obtain effective assistance when needed. The
participants without VRCs also stated that veteran students tended to get frustrated at not having
quick and easy access to an experienced point of contact who could assist them. The participants
who did not have a VRC on campus did not seem to be aware of VRCs since none of them
mentioned VRCs. Important to note was that even though some participants were VRC staff they
also mentioned other resources that were provided to the veteran students. Some of the other
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resources mentioned included providing jobs (via work study), providing financial information,
and providing VA benefit information. Serving as an information hub for the veteran students
also tied into the next theme that emerged, namely providing support.
Provide Support
Providing support for students is vital to students’ success (Green & Hayden, 2013;
Ludeman, 2009). It is even more important to support nontraditional groups of students who
have unique issues and challenges. Most of the participants addressed providing support and
mentioned this theme in conjunction with some of the most effective ways their organizations
assist their veteran students. Comments with regard to providing support to veterans were as
follows:
P1 stated that if a student has attendance issues, academic issues, or other problems they
will follow up with the student. Their office also gets referrals from instructors on
campus if a student seems to be struggling with their courses. Instructors can refer
students to the VRC if they identify a student who may be at high risk for coursework
issues. P1 stated that they have a Behavioral Intervention Team (BIT). Veteran students
can be a high-risk population due to disability issues and concerns. P1 has a handful of
students who are considered to be in the high-risk category so the VRC monitors them
academically and for personal reasons and safety reasons.
P1 stated that they also have a program with the VA called VSOC, Vets Success on
Campus. The VSOC staff is a vocational rehab counselor. If a student has a disability,
then they may be able to enter an employment program with Veterans Affairs and they
can also use their GI Bill. In this situation, the student would have an assigned vocational
rehab counselor so that they could get assistance with obtaining a degree. The student
would also have help finding employment after they’ve completed their degree.
Organizations have to apply to participate in VSOC.
P1 stated that they also have an arrangement with the vet center mobile truck. The vet
center mobile truck comes to campus once a month or twice a semester and they are able
to provide consultation services. The vet center mobile truck completes initial counseling
with students. They can provide information on veterans’ services, counseling, personal
counseling, and family counseling.
P1 also participates in a program called VITAL. VITAL stands for veterans’ integration
transition into academic leadership. VITAL is a mental health program that Veterans
Affairs has set up so there’s a mental health therapist located on campus. The therapist is
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hired by the VA. Any veteran who is enrolled in the health program through the VA can
obtain free personal counseling. The counseling sessions have to be scheduled when the
therapist is on campus.
P2 stated that they have an MOU (memorandum of understanding) with VA to have a
psychologist on campus. The psychologist is on campus two days a week, but he is
shared between their campus and another private university. The psychologist is from the
VA and he has an extensive background, so he is able to effectively work with student
veterans on campus. Having the psychologist on campus is convenient for busy students.
For students who are not able to meet with the psychologist on campus, he also does
telehealth visits. Telehealth visits are completed via a secure VA app. The psychologist
is able to be a liaison with the VA and he is able to obtain VA appointments. He is also
able to help students sign up for VA health care.
P2 has only been in the position for about 17 months and one personal goal is to anchor
the services that VA supplies for student veterans because it’s very specialized. The
program that P2 started is called Veteran Integration To Academic Leadership (VITAL).
P2 works with a therapist who is trained to assist patients with PTSD and trauma. The
therapist started with face to face and telehealth appointments, but his goal is to do
groups and to provide other services for our students.
P3 stated that they work closely with admissions and records, certifying officials, and the
counselors on campus in order to assist students with enrolling into the proper courses
and classes and to ensure that they are placed in the right major. P3 helps to streamline
the whole process of students getting their benefits on time and in an efficient manner.
Helping students obtain benefits in a timely manner is the most effective thing P3’s
organization has done to assist veteran students.
P4 stated that they provide the same type of services for all students. For example, all
students have access to a counselor who they can meet with to discuss their graduation
timeline and to ensure that they graduate on time. Staff also ensure that paperwork is
completed so that students’ money comes in to pay their tuition on time so that students
don’t have to wait to register. They try to make sure that students register before the
classes close.
P5 stated that the most important way that they help students is by advising them. They
work with students to ensure that they have at least one course in person (as opposed to
distance learning) so that they are able to obtain their full benefits. They try to be
proactive when advising students. They do their best to help students in every way
possible. P5 has helped students who needed to have degree plans for the current
semester.
P6 stated that they use a case management model. With the case management model each
student is assigned to an academic counselor for the duration of their time at (school
name). Military students are connected with an academic counselor to help them through
the processes of getting their transcripts, processing VA registration paperwork in order
to activate their benefits, etc. P6 stated that the constant professional development
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training and the assigned counseling model are probably the most effective ways that our
counseling staff supports our military veteran students.
P7 stated that they offer effective military veteran college services. They have a VRC on
campus. The VRC offers support in terms of scholarships, involvement, admission
information, and various events for veterans.
P8 stated that if veteran students are using their post-911 GI Bill, they are able to
capitalize on the housing allowance afforded to them. If veteran students take six credit
hours as undergraduate students or three credit hours as graduate students, they are
considered to be full time students. As full-time students they are able to receive the full
BAH (Basic Allowance Housing) but they need to take their courses in the classroom.
The BAH is a huge benefit for them. The staff tries to ensure that their students are able
to qualify for BAH.
P9 stated that VA requirements for students often change. Because requirements change
often, P9 refers students to the VA for assistance. The VA is very specific with their
required information and forms. The VA is able to better assist students since the VA is
up to date on needed forms and requirements.
As with the participants’ responses with regard to resources, the comments made as far as
providing support could be broadly divided into internal and external support. Internal support
would be considered assistance that was provided by faculty and staff on campus. External
support would be considered assistance that was provided by personnel external to the higher
education institution. After categorizing the comments into internal versus external support, it
became clear that internal support was mentioned about twice as often as external support when
commenting on how their organizations provide support for veterans.
As may be seen in the variety of support and services offered at the different higher
education institutions, veteran students may have many unique needs that require support in
order for them to succeed in college. A team approach seems to work best for veteran students in
order to be able to holistically assist them with whatever they need as they navigate through their
degree programs. Most participants mentioned engaging internal and external resources in order
to provide the necessary support. Resources mentioned to provide support included the VA,
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Mental Health, counselors, and advisors. With a multidisciplinary team approach to assisting
veteran students, communication between team members is of vital importance. Communication
is the final theme that emerged from the participants’ answers to the question on how their
organizations most effectively help their veteran students.
Communication
Providing support for veteran students often comes in the form of multidisciplinary team
assistance. Effective communication is key to any team of higher education staff who is trying to
help their students achieve academic success (O’Brien, 2015). Communication between team
members, faculty, and staff, and with students are imperative to effectively help the student,
especially a student with unique challenges and barriers. The participants in this study
acknowledged the need for effective communication based on the following comments:
P1stated that their student population is pretty informed because staff sends information
to them. Faculty and staff also know where to go if a veteran student is having issues and
they know exactly who they need to talk to as well.
P5 stated that the goal is to have students graduate. They want their students to graduate
within 4 years. P5 will engage faculty or the dean to let them know if a student may have
special circumstances. For example, there was a student who wanted to return to school
when he had been out of school for more than a decade. When a student has been out of
school for more than 10 years, P5 has to get approvals for the previous courses to apply
to a program. P5 also helps with setting up the VA benefits P5 communicates as much as
possible but it can be difficult if the students is in a different time zone.
P6 stated that they do a good job of training staff and keeping everyone in the loop with
updates and statuses on students’ benefits.
Communication methods that were mentioned involved staff to staff communication, to
assist the student, as well as staff to student communication, to keep the student informed.
Effective communication was seen as being critical to success for veteran students.
Lastly, data for Interview Question 10 was analyzed to identify what Interviewees felt
were areas of improvement. Interview Question 10 was, “Please tell me how your organization
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could better assist military veteran college students.” The three themes that emerged from
participant responses were (in order of frequency) increase resources, data gathering, and more
effective communication. The theme of increasing resources was mentioned by 77 percent of the
interviewees. The themes of gathering data was mentioned by 66 percent of study participants
and effective communication by 55 percent of participants.
Increase resources
Having the theme of providing resources mentioned the most frequently, with regard to
helping students more effectively (Question 10), was not unexpected. When considering that
providing resources was also mentioned most frequently when participants were asked what their
organizations did to best help their veteran students, having interviewees respond that increasing
resources would result in being able to more effectively help students makes sense. Comments
related to the theme of increase resources were as follows:
P1 stated that their disability population is growing and was worried that they may not
have enough resources to assist their students. Resources currently include the learning
resource center, the writing resource center, and the math lab. But P1 questioned whether
they have enough tutoring services. P1 felt that more specialized tutoring may help with
their growing population with disabilitiesP1 also stated that within the last two years
there has been an increase in disability as well as an increase in high-risk students.
P2 said that they would like to have a VERSUSOC Counselor on campus, a counselor
from vocational rehab and employment from VA. P2 said 70 percent of their students are
GI Bill benefits users, but 10 percent of students are on vocational rehab. P2 was
concerned that their students using their GI Bill may not be aware of the vocational rehab
option. P2 felt that having the VERSUSOC on campus would be helpful.
P2 also felt it would be helpful to get a grant to do a facelift on the student center. P2 said
that part of the job includes improving their physical space. P2 felt fortunate to have the
current space but felt that there was room for improvement.
P2 stated that they have veteran students who are homeless and who struggle to make
ends meet. They want to find a way to provide food. They have a food pantry open to all
students but wants to do something specifically to help student veterans. P2 wasn’t sure
how or who to coordinate with to have a way forward. They have free coffee and snacks
that staff pitches in to pay for but P2 wanted to have more food. P2 noticed that
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especially at the end of the month, funds run low and felt it would be helpful to have a
food pantry or to grow some hydroponic food or something like that. The counselors
provide food one to two days a week to help with food insecurity. P2 stated that students
having to choose between buying books or transportation was an issue.
P3 stated they want to expand their facilities at the veterans’ resource center in order to
reach out to more students. They wanted more veteran students to know that they are a
point of contact and that they can help their community.
P3 felt that the organization should provide money for veterans’ services. P3’s position
and the staffs’ positions, were paid for via grants. P3 had to reapply for grant every year
to keep their office open. P3 said one campus has a paid position for military services.
But only three campuses have veterans resource centers. Of these three veterans resource
centers, only two positions are funded via general funding. They have seven other
campuses with no military programs or money for their programs. P3 felt that the
organization could do more by paying for veterans’ services, programs, and campus
resources.
P5 stated that hiring a VA certifying official would be helpful for students and
departments that are understaffed.
P6 said that they don’t have a designated person that only focuses on military veteran
college students. P6 felt it would be helpful to have someone dedicated to helping these
students.
P6 stated that having a veteran student organization could be helpful but it’s difficult to
have an organization like this on a campus that mostly comprised of students who
commute. The other difficulty mentioned was that they would have to find the right
student to start it.
P8 said that the primary complaint that they have received is not having enough
residential courses so that students can be in the classroom. P8 stated that having more
residential courses would help these students since their veteran students are not able to
100% capitalize on their GI Bill when they’re limited in the number of available
residential courses.
P9 stated the continuing the fund the VA/Military Department and increasing the number
of advisors housed with the colleges would be most helpful since the in-house advisors
are helpful when students need to navigate VA requirements and resources.
The comments made regarding needing more resources to better help veterans could also
be divided into the two broad categories of internal versus external resources. In this instance,
needing to increase internal resources was mentioned about three times more often than needing
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to increase external resources. Internal resources that were mentioned as being needed included
more staff (e.g. instructors, advisors, more space, etc). External resources that were reportedly
needed included resources from the VA. One noteworthy comment was that P1 stated that she
was seeing an increase in the number of veteran students with disabilities and with at-risk
military students at her VRC. She expressed concern as far as whether or not they would have
enough staff to assist the veterans in the future.
While realizing that there are many areas where more resources would allow participants
to more effectively help their veteran students, the breadth and depth of currently unfilled needs
was noteworthy. While most participants mentioned resources like funding and personnel needs,
there were other needs expressed that were likely just as, or perhaps more, important to the
veteran students. For example, hearing that veteran students were unable to provide basic
necessities for themselves (for example, housing and food) was eye-opening. For traditional
undergraduate students, most of whom live at home with their parents, neither housing nor food
would be an issue. The challenges that veteran students face are, indeed, unique and complex.
Data gathering
Obtaining feedback from the veteran students would enable organizations to focus their
efforts on the areas that the veteran students themselves feel are most important. Data gathering
from the students would probably prove to be an effective means to identify priority areas of
veteran student needs. Comments from participants supported that data gathering would likely
provide information so that faculty and staff could more effectively help veteran students.
Comments related to data gathering were as follows:
P1 stated they need to be more effective and have a process or protocol so that everyone
knows what to do when there’s a high-risk situation with a veteran student.
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P2 stated they need to understand these students’ needs and the best way to fulfill those
needs in a sustainable way. P2 said helping students instead of directing them somewhere
else when they are already busy would be helpful.
P3 stated that they need better data since they have done a poor job with data collection
with regard to veteran students. As an example, their admissions applications for years
didn’t have a question asking whether or not a student was a veteran. The questions was
just added within the past year or so. They do have data with regard to veterans who are
using their benefits, and they average about 60 students who are using their benefits.
However, P3 said that there are another 40-50 veteran students on their campus who are
not using their benefits.
P3 said the difficult part is tracking accurate numbers for their veterans on campus.
P3 did not have a solution to maintain accurate numbers for their veteran students but
sees this as a definite area of improvement. In addition, P3 feels this is not an issue that is
unique to their campus and believes that this is a systemic issue since P3 has been on the
university system veterans task force and this issue was discussed about 4 years ago with
all of the admission groups from various organizations. Another issue P3 mentioned was
that not all veterans are using their benefits, since sometimes veterans use up their
benefits and then return to school.
P5 said they just started using a biannual survey that was sent to all students. The purpose
of the survey was to find out what veterans need and what has been helpful for them.
Once they know the needs of the veteran students, they can implement changes to help
them. P5 said they also added a customer service survey in their signature lines on their
emails so that anyone can submit feedback at any time instead of waiting for the biannual
survey.
P6 stated better organization and a plan to disseminate information more consistently to
decrease duplication of efforts would be helpful.
P7 stated that hosting a town hall with student veterans to collect significant data, with
the goal to use the data to identify and provide needed services, would be helpful.
Data gathering, particularly directly from veteran students, could provide valuable insight
into how to best meet the needs of these students. Hearing from students with regard to what they
feel has been effective and what could be done better would likely be helpful to students. Since
student opinions could vary from one organization to another, it would be fruitful for individual
institutions to gather data from their own veteran student population, rather than relying on data
from other institutions. However, finding an effective, efficient way to identify the veteran
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students, while helpful, may also prove problematic since some veterans prefer to blend in with
other undergraduates instead of identifying themselves as veterans.
More effective communication
Helping as many students as have been identified as veteran students is important since
veteran students represent such a small portion of the student body. Because identifying veteran
students has been an issue for higher education organizations, helping the veterans who have
been identified becomes more important. Effective communication is the key to disseminating
useful information to veteran students and communication was the final theme that was
identified as what organizations could do better in order to better assist their veteran students.
The participants made the following comments with regard to effective communication:
P2 stated they have not reached out to veterans’ organizations yet, but they feel that
community partnerships are a great idea.
P3 said that they have not reached out to other locations, but they want to reach out and
give veteran students access to their organization so that veterans can go back to school.
P3 stated that they are an untapped resource for veterans who do not have access to
classes, programs, etc. They want to improve on serving as a resource for veterans.
P5 stated that having veteran students more aware of other resources on their main
campus would be helpful. The information is on their website but students don’t always
see the website. P5 felt that sending a reminder email reminding students of counseling
services and showing students how to access online resources would also help. Lastly,
they are working on having orientation for online and undergraduate students in order to
provide resources and information on VA benefits.
P6 stated that making sure that every military veteran college student gets standardized
information consistently would be beneficial. Ensuring that all students are onboarded
with standardized information is something that they could improve upon.
P9 felt that increasing communication on existing services would be helpful for veteran
students.
In almost every instance where effective communication was mentioned, it was
mentioned with respect to disseminating information on the VRCs, what they do and how they
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can help veteran students. Only one participant (P2) mentioned communication in regard to
communicating with other organizations in the community to try and obtain more services for the
veterans. Whether better communication is needed to help their students directly or indirectly, it
is clear that the interviewees felt that better communication was an important part of more
effectively helping their students.
When looking at the themes that emerged from all interview questions, in their totality, it
is interesting to note that two themes emerged in two different interview questions. Interview
Question 8 was, “Please describe the most effective ways your organization assists military
veteran college students.” Two of the themes that emerged, with regard to responses to question
8, were providing resources and communicating with students. Interview Question 10 was,
“Please tell me how your organization could better assist military veteran college students.”
Two of the themes that emerged with this question were increasing resources and better
communication. It is interesting to note that resources and communication were mentioned as
both effective interventions that were implemented to help veteran students and also as
interventions that were needed to better help veteran students.
Summary of Findings
For purposes of this study, evaluations of interviewees’ data were conducted and
descriptions of organizational trainings were obtained. Question 1 which was, “What do college
or university staff know about helping veteran students and what training do they receive"?
Interview data analyzed for Question 1 were from Interview Questions 6, 3, 5, and 7. Interview
Question 6 was, “What professional development opportunities (designed to assist military
veteran college students) has your organization provided in the past 24 months”? Respondents
reported that webinars were offered the most frequently (88 percent). The next most frequently
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mentioned opportunities were campus and department-level training sessions (both 66 percent).
Lastly, of note was that one respondent reported that her organization had offered no training
opportunities in the past 24 months. She reported that her Student Affairs training had all be
“OTJ” (on the job training).
Interview Question 3 was, “How many development or training activities, to assist
military veteran college students, has your organization offered in the past year”? The answers to
this question ranged from 0 (or none) to four or more. Per the respondent’s answers to the
question, 66 percent had organizations that offered four or more trainings or activities in the last
year. One respondent (11 percent) reported that the organization only had one training
opportunity in the last year. Two respondents (22 percent) reported that their organization had 0
trainings in the past year.
Interview Question 5 was also used to address Question 1. Question 5 was, “Does your
organization offer training in the following areas to assist military veteran college students? The
choices were academic monitoring, consultation services with the university/college community,
workshops and special programs for military veteran college students, personal counseling, and
other services. The most frequently reported trainings mentioned by the respondents were
consultation services with the university/college community and personal counseling (88
percent). Next, academic monitoring was mentioned by 77 percent of the respondents. Lastly,
workshops and special programs for veteran students were mentioned by 44 percent of the
respondents.
The final data for Question 1came from Interview Question 7 which was, “Please
describe any formal and informal training, to assist military veteran college students, which your
organization has provided. Data analyses from Question 7 resulted in the emergence of three
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themes with regard to how training was organized at participants’ institutions. The three themes
that emerged were formal training, informal training, and self-directed training. Formal training
was most frequently seen at the department level (55 percent of respondents). Informal training
was most frequently accomplished via online training or webinars (55 percent of respondents).
Self-directed training was mentioned by 44 percent of the respondents.
Question 2
Question 2 was, “How is this knowledge used to support veteran success in colleges and
universities”? To address Question 2, data from Interview Questions 4, 8, 9, and 10 were
analyzed. Although to ensure a logical flow for this section, the Interview Questions’ data were
addressed in the order of Interview Questions 8, 4, 9, , then 10.
Interview Question 8 was, “Please describe the most effective ways your organization
assists military veteran college students.” Three themes emerged in response to this question; the
themes were provide resources, provide support, and communication. When dividing the
responses for “provide resources” and “provide support” into internal (campus assets) and
external (from an external organization), most respondents reported internal resources and
support. In fact, for “provide resources” internal resources were mentioned about three times
more often than external resources. When addressing “provide support” responses internal
support was mentioned about twice as often as external support. Communication was mentioned
as occurring from staff to student as well as from staff to staff.
Interview Question 4 was, “Does your organization offer the following services for
military veteran college students”? The choices for this question were academic monitoring,
consultation services with the university/college community, workshops and special programs
for military veteran college students, personal counseling, and other services. Three of the
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choices were affirmed as being offered by their institutions by 100 percent of the respondents.
The three that were offered at all interviewees’ organizations were consultation services with the
university/college community, workshops and special programs for military veteran college
students, and personal counseling. Academic monitoring was offered as a service by 88 percent
of the respondent’s organizations.
Interview Question 9 was, “Please describe how your organization provides current
information of available resources for military veteran college students.” Three themes emerged
with regard to this question. The three themes were email, webpage, and social media. Email was
reportedly used by 77perent of interviewees. Webpages were used by 55 percent of interviewees,
and social media was used by 44 percent of the interviewees. Use of these three methods of
communication made sense since they were all practical and inexpensive ways to deliver
messages to a large number of students all at once.
The final Interview Question 10 was, “Please tell me how your organization could better
assist military veteran college students.” Three themes emerged in participants’ responses to this
question. The three themes were increase resources, data gathering, and communication. When
dividing the three themes into internal resources and external resources, increasing internal
resources was mentioned about three times more often than increasing external resources.
Data gathering had specific items mentioned in relation to veteran students. Three
respondents mentioned obtaining feedback directly from students via surveys and a Town Hall.
One respondent mentioned the importance of finding a better process to identify the veterans on
campus in order to provide them with information on resources. The difficulty with identifying
veterans on campus is that not all veterans want to be identified as veterans. Many of them prefer
to blend in with other undergraduates in order to avoid uncomfortable situations.
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The interviewees provided rich, detailed data that allowed the Investigator to obtain
useful data that looked in-depth into development activities for Student Affairs Staff located in
higher education institutions located in the Western Region of the U.S. Although only nine
participants were interviewed, their varied experiences, and sometimes unanimity on data,
provided an opportunity to gain insight and understanding into their experiences. There is clearly
no standardization with regard to providing information to military veteran students. There is
also clearly no standardization with regard to providing training for Student Affairs Staff to assist
military veteran students. However, with thousands of higher education institutions operating
around the U.S. obtaining any type of standardization for all of the different institutions would
probably prove to be nearly impossible.
Relation to Theoretical Framework
The purpose of the study was to utilize Phillips and Roper’s Human Capital Management
Model (2009) with a focus on development. In particular, the focus was on the practices of
development of Student Affairs Staff in higher education organizations, in order to support
military veteran college students. Data obtained from interviews showed that participants’
organizations had Student Affairs Staff development opportunities with regard to training to
assist veteran college students. This section will relate the themes that emerged during
participants’ interviews to the Schlossberg Transition Model (Schlossberg, Walters, & Goodman,
1995). The Schlossberg Transition Model addresses how people are able to adapt to general life
transitions. Schlossberg identified four factors that help to measure an individual’s ability to cope
with life transitions. The four concepts are situation, self, support, and strategies (Schlossberg,
Walters, & Goodman, 1995). Situation refers to how in control of their transition a person feels.
Self refers to how able a person feels with regard to coping with the transition. Support addresses
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how much family and community support a person has when dealing with the transition. Finally,
strategies refer to the coping strategies the person may use to deal with the transition. The model
provides a holistic assessment of a person who is going through a life transition.
Higher education Student Affairs Staff could assess how holistic their individual
programs are by evaluating their programs using Schlossberg’s Transition Model concepts. For
the purposes of this study, evaluating Student Affairs Programs using Schlossberg’s four
concepts could give staff some indication of how effective their programs are with helping
veterans cope with the transition from Military Service Member to college student. Background
information regarding military students, along with the data obtained for this study, will be
analyzed via Schlossberg’s transition concepts.
Situation
Military veteran students likely feel in relative control of the situation regarding their
decision to attend college to obtain a degree. Because it takes time to arrange for benefits (such
as the GI Bill benefits) to fund higher education, veteran students have likely spent some time
and put thought into their decision to pursue higher education. Students tend to have control over
decisions such as which school to attend, which classes to take, what degree to pursue, etc. The
ability to make major decisions regarding higher education could give veteran students a fairly
high sense of control regarding their transition from Service Member to student.
However, the veteran students do have additional stressors that they deal with while
going to school that could affect their ability to cope with the transition. For example, these
nontraditional students often have full time jobs, families, and may have been out of school for
several years (American Council on Education, 2009). In addition, veteran students have to
transition from having food, housing, and medical care paid for to figuring out how to cover
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these costs on their own (Olsen, Badger, & McCuddy, 2014). There are a couple of areas of the
situation that may help the veterans cope with the transition.
One of the things that may help the veterans cope with the situation is realizing that the
situation is temporary. Once the veteran obtains the college degree, their situation will drastically
change since the stressors of working on a college degree will no longer exist. The second thing
that may help the veteran cope with the situation is the veteran’s work and life experiences. The
veteran students may have faced similar situations while in their jobs as Military Service
Members.
Self
The military veteran college students’ sense of self likely helps them cope with their
transition to the role of college student. The veteran student is often older than traditional college
students and was often in a leadership role upon separating from the military (Brown & Gross,
2011; Olsen, Badger, & McCuddy, 2014). The veterans are, in general, more mature and have
more life experience than traditional students (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008;
Zalaznick, 2019). Having previously successfully navigated through similar situations (e.g.
frequent moves throughout their careers makes them comfortable with finding resources in new
areas, working through complications with the physical moves, and connecting with people who
are able to help when an issue arises, etc), the veteran students are likely to have a strong sense
of self that allows them to cope with yet another life transition.
Support
Support within the Schlossberg Transition Model includes support from family, friends,
and the community (Schlossberg, Walters, & Goodman, 1995). Since most veterans are married,
they likely have strong support from their spouse (i.e. family). However, the veteran students,
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once they separate from the military, have left friends and their military community.
Compounding the issue of losing major sources of support for the veterans, is the fact that their
life experiences are so different from those of students, faculty, and staff that they often feel
isolated on their campuses (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Ryan et al., 2011). Although
veterans want to have a connection with their campus community, they do not often feel that
sense of connection (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Ryan et al., 2011).
In addition to losing some of their support systems, veterans tend to face unique
challenges and barriers to completion of higher education. For example, facing the challenge of
the lengthy VA process in order to obtain their GI Bill benefits to pay for their schooling is an
additional stressor that traditional students do not have to face. Because veterans face different
barriers that traditional students do not tend to face, and since faculty and staff often have never
faced these challenges themselves, effective support for the veterans is important.
It appears that college campuses have realized that veterans often face barriers that other
students do not face. Support for the military students was addressed by several participants in
this project. Interviewees mentioned resources and support for veterans were provided. In fact,
two of the themes addressed in Sub-Question 3 showed that interviewees felt that two of the
ways that their organizations best assisted the veterans was by providing support and by
providing resources.
One of the best sources of support includes having veterans available for the veteran
students to connect with while in school. A fellow veteran will understand what the military
veteran college student is facing better than anyone else. Two of the VRC staff who were
interviewed for this project were veterans. One of the intangibles that came across during the in-
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person interviews was the passion and dedication that these veterans had for assisting a fellow
veteran, especially if the fellow veteran was having some kind of trouble.
Providing support for the veteran students was seen as important for all of the Student
Affairs Staff who were interviewed, whether they were veterans or not. A variety of resources
and support were mentioned throughout the interviews. The specific resources and support that
were mentioned included VRCs, tutoring, counseling, and connection with VA resources and
support, amongst other things.
Strategies
Similar to the concept of self, strategies utilized by the experienced veteran students are
likely to be effective most of the time. However, the veterans have also not faced all of the
situations they are likely to face as students. For example, while in the military, housing, food,
and medical care are all provided. Once the veteran separates from the military the responsibility
to pay for these basic necessities now falls on the veteran. In addition, the veteran has likely been
out of school for several years to college courses, such as math, may need to be repeated or the
veteran may need tutoring in order to catch up on the course material. The veterans, often having
transitioned from leadership positions, are probably not used to being in situations where they
need help or resources that they may or may not be able to obtain.
Sone strategies that Student Affairs Staff are able to help the veterans with, as per their
interview responses, include providing needed counseling when needed, connections to VA
resources for mental help assistance when needed, tutoring when needed, etc. The resources to
provide these types of services were often in the form of external organizations, mostly the VA.
In addition, a couple of the participants mentioned that sleep issues were a fairly common issue
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for their veterans. Because of the sleep issues, the participant’s organizations provided sleep
classes and strategies to help the veterans.
Evaluating Student Affairs Staffs’ veteran programs and methods of support could help
faculty and staff identify and fill any gaps in order to provide more effective services and
assistance to their veteran students. Knowing where the organizational gaps are, with regard to
student transitional support, would help the institutions identify focus areas for improvement. To
create an even more detailed transitional student plan, faculty and staff could utilize the
Schlossberg Transition Model in conjunction with the veteran student to create an individualized
plan to support veteran students.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Military Veteran college students face unique challenges and barriers to completing their
college degrees. These non-traditional students often have competing stressors when in college
(DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Ryan et al., 2011; Zalaznick, 2019). They often have
full-time jobs and family obligations that take time away from studying for school (DiRamio,
Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Ryan et al., 2011). In addition, because of veterans’ life
experiences being so different from civilians’ life experiences, veterans often do not feel a sense
of connection to students, faculty, or staff (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008; Ryan et al.,
2011). Assisting veteran students is further complicated by the fact that many veterans would
rather blend in than identify themselves as veterans due to uncomfortable situations veterans
have had to endure in the past (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008).
The purpose of the study was to analyze and describe Human Capital Management
practices of Students Affairs Staff with a focus on development, as defined by the framework
provided by Phillips and Roper (2009). To facilitate retention of employees it is important to
keep them satisfied and engaged. Continuous development of employees has been linked to
employee retention (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Becker, 1962; Blair, 2011; Byerly, 2012; Crook et
al., 2011; Guest, 2011). Committed employees tend to use newly acquired knowledge to advance
the organizational mission (Phillips & Roper, 2009). Therefore, development opportunities for
employees are important as they may affect both employee retention as well as organizational
mission.
The study used a comparative, descriptive, qualitative data set obtained via semistructured interviews. The interviews allowed the Investigator to evaluate and describe the
experiences of nine participants from nine different higher education institutions. The data
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supported that development practices existed at the employees’ organizations. Data analysis
allowed for evaluations and descriptions of participants’ organizational trainings. The study was
based on the following research questions:
1. What do college or university staff know about helping veteran students and what
training do they receive?
2. How is this knowledge used to support veteran success in colleges and universities?
This chapter will discuss the findings and address limitations of the study. In addition,
implications of the findings will be discussed and suggestion will be made with regard for future
research. Lastly, a conclusion and final thoughts will be presented.
Discussion of Findings
As discussed in Chapter Four, the study used two Questions. In order to address the two
Questions, pre-interview questions and eight Interview Questions were used. Question 1 was
addressed via Interview Question 6, 3, 5, and 7. Question 2 was addressed via Interview
Questions 4, 8, 9, and 10The participant data obtained supported that development opportunities
existed at participants’ organizations. Evaluations of the data were conducted and descriptions of
the trainings were obtained through data analyses of data provided by the participants. Data
analyses if the data for each Interview Question was as per the following sections.
Question 1
Interview Question 6 addressed what type of development opportunities, to assist veteran
students, organizations had offered in the past 24 months. The most frequently mentioned type of
training mentioned were webinars (88 percent), followed by campus and department-level
trainings (66 percent each), and lastly no trainings (11 percent). Interview Question 7 had the
most frequent type of training offered in the last 24 months were webinars and campus and
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department-level trainings. The responses support that there is no standardization to training for
Student Affairs Staff to assist veteran students.
Interview Question 3 was asked to obtain information on the number of training
opportunities, to assist veteran students, the participants’ organization offered in the last year.
Respondents reported that four or more training opportunities were offered to 66 percent of the
respondents. One training was offered to 11 percent of the respondents and two respondents
reported that no trainings were offered to them in the last year. Question 3 data also showed that
there was no standardization of training for Student Affairs Staff to assist military students.
Interview Question 5 was designed to elicit responses to commonly used Student Affairs
Staff training. The most frequently mentioned trainings were consultation services and personal
counseling (88 percent each). Academic monitoring was mentioned with the next highest
frequency (77 percent) and, lastly, workshops and special programs for veteran students was
mentioned by 44 percent of participants.
The data from Interview Question 5 also seems to support that there is no standardization
with regard to training for Student Affairs Staff to assist veteran students.
The themes identified in Interview Question 7, to describe formal and informal training to
assist military veteran college students, provided by the participant’s organizations, were formal
training, informal training, and self-directed training. The most frequent form of formal training
mentioned by participants was department-level training. The most frequent form of informal
training was online or webinar training. Motivation was not discussed as a part of this study, but
self-directed training could indicate some level of motivation by staff to obtain training.
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Question 2
Interview Question 8 obtained information on the most effective ways organizations
assisted veteran students. Three themes emerged from the participant’s responses, providing
resources, providing support, and communication. interviewees’ responses appeared to support
that internal resources (e.g. VRCs) were one of the most effective ways that their organizations
helped veterans. While providing support was mentioned as another way that organizations
helped veteran students, the type and level of support varied between organizations. Resources
and support available seemed to coincide with the size of the organization. The larger
organizations seemed to be able to offer more resources and services than the smaller
organizations.
Interview Question 4 asked if participants’ organizations offered services, commonly
offered by Student Affairs Staff. Respondents mentioned that consultation services with the
university/college community, workshops and special programs for military veteran college
students, and personal counseling were all offered at 100 percent of the organizations. Academic
monitoring was offered at 88 percent of the participant’s organizations.
Interview Question 9 addressed how the organizations provided information on available
resources for the veteran students. Three themes emerged for this question, namely, email,
webpages, and social media. With regard to social media, the respondents who reported using
them reported using Facebook and Instagram. One respondent stated that he did not use Twitter
since Twitter took too much time to maintain.
Interview Question 10 was asked in order to obtain information on what respondents felt
that their organizations could do to better support their veteran students. Three themes emerged,
increase resources, data gathering, and better communication. The data seemed to show that
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respondents were aware of other services that their organization could offer if they had the
available resources (e.g. VERSUSOC, VA resources). Some of the desired resources included
additional internal staff (e.g. more counselors/advisors), additional external staff (e.g. VA
connections), and increased funding (e.g. provide funding for VRC staff instead of the VRC staff
having to obtain grant funding every year).
The issue of not being able to identify all of the veterans on campus is an important issue
since it would be impossible to provide resources and support to all of the veterans, if there is no
way of knowing who is and who is not a veteran student. Having a large number of veterans on
campus could lead to more resources, funding, and support for the campus. Since VRC staff who
participated in this study reported that they are already working short-staffed, not having an
accurate count of the numbers of veterans on campus will likely lead to a supply and demand
issue in the future.
The final theme mentioned with regard to Interview Question 10 was better
communication. Effective communication is important to providing accurate information,
efficiently. While there were a couple of respondents who stated that they regularly contacted
veteran students, none of the respondents reported that they regularly contacted veterans to help
with academic monitoring.
Implications for Practice
The data and findings from the study revealed a wide variety of practices and trainings
amongst Student Affairs Staff, when it came to helping veteran students. The data supported that
development practices existed at the interviewees’ organizations. Evaluations of existing
development opportunities yielded detailed descriptions of current training activities at
participants’ organizations. The organization of training (Question 1), the type of training
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available (Question 1), how organizations help their veteran students (Question 2), and how
organizations effectively help and could better help veteran students (Question 2) all seemed to
vary in depth and breadth from one organization to another. While all participants seemed to
want to help veteran students, most seemed unsure of how to best help the veterans. What this
project’s data supported was that, in general, higher education organizations should probably
provide more consistent, standardized training and resources for Student Affairs Staff who work
with the veterans. Veterans who often have complex challenges that they face, while in school,
would probably benefit the most from Student Affairs Staff who are trained to effectively assist
them. The data showed that resources, training, and support for Student Affairs Staff, who work
with veterans, varied from one institution to another.
Providing a form of standardized training for all Student Affairs Staff who work with
veteran students would be helpful in that veterans would then be able to seek assistance from any
Student Affairs Staff member, when necessary. A good place to begin standardized training
would be to start by providing background information on the unique issues and challenges that
veterans face as undergraduate students. Providing background information on the barriers that
veterans face while in school would probably help faculty and staff better understand issues from
the veterans’ point of view.
Not having any standardized training and program implementations could result in lower
graduation rates for veterans. As stated before, veteran students’ graduation rates are around 54
percent (The Postsecondary National Policy Institute, 2021). Veterans, as non-traditional
students, are (generally) considered to be an at-risk student population. At-risk students tend to
need more assistance than traditional students, with a wide variety of issues, and they tend to
have more difficulty with degree completion. A few participants in this study reported being
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
106
short-staffed at this time and the number of veterans in school is projected to increase in the
future (DiRamio, Akerman, & Mitchell, 2008). If veterans cannot get effective help and if they
are unable to obtain help when they need it, they may be at higher risk to not complete their
degrees.
Suggestions for Future Research
There were several limitations for this project. To begin with, only nine participants
representing nine different organizations were interviewed for this study. Therefore, the
respondents’ interview data may not represent the views of others in other organizations, or even
within their own departments. It would be helpful for a future study, if organizations that
represented Regions across the entire U.S. had representation, since all respondents were from
the Western Region of the U.S. It is also suggested that obtaining a higher number of
respondents would be helpful to gain more insight into the issue to see if the nine interviewees’
views are upheld with a larger respondent group.
In addition, the interview questions were not designed to elicit any information with
regard to staff’s motivation to complete any training offered to them. Because a certain type of
training is offered to staff that does not mean that staff will actually take the training. A study
with regard to Students Affairs Staffs’ level of motivation and engagement to obtain training to
assist veteran students would be helpful. Also, due to the amount of time it would have taken to
complete the IRB process, no questions were asked with regard to the staff’s background.
Knowing background information, such as how long an individual has worked in Student
Affairs, could prove to be useful information. It could be expected that the longer an individual
has worked in Student Affairs, the more knowledge and information they may already have with
regard to effectively helping veteran students. Therefore, someone who has many years of
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
107
experience in working with veteran students may not attend, or keep abreast of, as many training
sessions as someone who is relatively new to the field.
Lastly, no input was obtained from veterans who are currently students in college. While
two of the study participants did self-disclose that they were veterans, it is not known how long
they have been out of school. A study including questions for veterans, who are currently
students, could provide valuable insight into what types of training should be prioritized in order
to best help veteran students. In addition, there may be services that veteran students may not
find helpful. If there are services that veterans do not feel are helpful, the services could be
stopped, thereby saving some resources from being used unnecessarily.
Conclusions
The purpose of the study was to describe Human Capital Management practices of
Students Affairs Staff with a focus on development. The development framework used was
provided by Phillips and Roper (2009). According to Phillips and Roper (2009), keeping
employees satisfied and engaged helps to facilitate retention of employees. Continuous
development of employees has been linked to employee satisfaction and could lead to employee
retention (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Becker, 1962; Blair, 2011; Byerly, 2012; Crook et al., 2011;
Guest, 2011). Committed employees (i.e. engaged employees) tend to use newly acquired
knowledge to advance the organizational mission (Phillips & Roper, 2009). Advancing
organizational mission helps move a company forward as a whole. Therefore, development of
employees is an important part of organizational mission. This study was designed to evaluate
development practices of Students Affairs Staff, with regard to assisting military veteran college
students, and to provide descriptions of any available training.
The two Research Questions that were addressed were, “What do college or university
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
108
staff know about helping veteran students and what training do they receive?” and “How is this
knowledge used to support veteran success in colleges and universities?” Eight Interview
Questions were used to provide data for the two Research Questions. The data supported that
development practices did exist for study participants’ organizations. Data also allowed for
evaluation and descriptions of the current trainings at participants’ organizations. Question 1 data
showed that participants’ organizations offered mostly webinars (88 percent) along with campus
and department trainings (66 percent each) within the last 24 months.
Interview Question 3 showed that the majority of participants’ organizations offered four
or more trainings in the last year (66 percent), 11 percent offered one training, and 22 percent did
not offer any training. Interview Question 5 yielded information on trainings for common types
of services provided by Students Affairs Staff, namely academic monitoring, consultation
services with the university/college community, workshops and special programs for military
veteran college students, personal counseling, and other services. Data showed that consultation
services and counseling were offered the most often (88 percent), followed by academic
monitoring (77 percent). Data for Interview Question 7 revealed that training was organized into
the three themes of formal training, informal training, and self-directed training.
Question 2 data from Interview Question 8 showed data on the most effective ways
organizations assisted veteran students. Upon data analysis, three themes emerged. The three
themes were: provide resources, provide support, and communication. Interview Question 4
yielded information on common services offered by Student Affairs Staff. Similar to Interview
Question 3 the types of services interviewees were asked about were academic monitoring,
consultation services with the university/college community, workshops and special programs
for military veteran college students, personal counseling and other services. The data showed
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
109
that consultations, counseling, and workshops were provided at all of the participants’
organizations (100 percent). Not far behind, academic monitoring was provided by 99 percent of
participants’ organizations.
Interview Question 9 obtained information on how information on resources was
disseminated to veteran students. The three themes found upon data analyses were email,
webpages, and social media. This was not surprising since all three communication methods are
convenient (for both the sender and the receiver), inexpensive, and practical (in that the sender
can easily send one message to many recipients all at once. Lastly, Interview Question 10
provided information on how participants’ organizations could better assist military veteran
college students. Three themes emerged from analysis of the data for this question also. The
three themes were increase resources, data gathering, and better communication.
The study design allowed for the collection, analyses, and evaluation of interviewees’
data. The interviewees’ data yielded rich, detailed data that allowed the Investigator to evaluate
and compare development opportunities at nine different higher education organizations. The
data descriptions, analyses, and evaluations allowed the Investigator to relate the data to the four
concepts within Schlossberg’s Transition Model’s Theoretical Framework (Situation, Self,
Support, and Strategies).
While implications for practice and suggestions for future research were also discussed,
based on the data analyses it seems that more could and should be done to assist Military Veteran
college students These non-traditional students face a multitude of complex challenges that
traditional students do not face. In addition, the barriers that they face they often face alone.
Their fellow classmates, faculty, and staff have no real concept or understanding of the
challenges with which they have to contend or how to best help. The easiest path for most on
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
110
campus seems to be to ignore the problem. Ignoring the problem is not acceptable, ethical , or
moral. These Military Veteran Students have earned and deserve, through their years of service
and sacrifice, help and assistance in any way possible.
The clear challenge to providing help to these students, as evidenced by the interview
data, is providing effective, efficient assistance while working with limited resources. Some
practical recommendations would include universities and colleges collaborating across
campuses to combine efforts to assist Military Veteran Students, as opposed to working in silos.
Having campuses with more resources share the load with campuses with fewer resources could
lead to more students obtaining the help that they need. To further help with the issue of limited
resources, a website that was maintained with current information on frequently asked questions
would likely be beneficial. Sharing the website across campuses would allow a multitude of
students from different organizations to have access to the information.
Next, student support groups led by Civilian Students (for example Military Family
Members who have not served) who could recruit Military Students to assist, could prove
helpful. Military family members are a valuable resource since they often have personal
experience and understanding of what Military Members have gone through while in service.
Military Family Members would also likely have the motivation and determination needed to
locate any assistance and resources that Military Veteran Students may need.
Lastly, it would likely be beneficial for all Student Affairs Staff and Faculty who assist
Military Students to regularly meet to network and share information and resources. All nine
interviewees alluded to feeling alone in the work that they were trying to accomplish. Regularly
meeting, even if via Zoom or some such platform, could go a long way into building
relationships and knowledge-sharing. A VA representative should definitely be included in these
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
111
meetings since the VA representatives often have current information that could be relevant for
Military Students. It is hoped that in this age of high-technology that effective, efficient means of
assisting Military Veteran college students will be quickly identified and implemented.
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION
112
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Appendix A
Interview Questions
The following were the interview questions used for the study:
1. Regarding assisting military veteran college students, how is the training at your
college/university organized?
o How often does training occur?
o Who does the training?
o Who selects the type of training that will be given to staff?
2. What type of formal and informal training is required for staff?
o Please describe the training you have received regarding assisting military
veteran college students.
3. How are you informed of available resources for military veteran college students
who may need assistance?
4. How do you maintain current knowledge of available resources for military
veteran college students?
5. Please tell me about the training at your organization with regard to assisting
military veteran college students.
o Who has access to training?
o Please describe a typical training session
o Please describe the quality of the training.
o Please tell me about training sessions you have attended to help you assist
military veteran college students.
6. Please tell me about any ideas or suggestion you have to better assist military
veteran college students.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
College degrees help graduates achieve financial stability. Student Affairs Staff are on the frontline for assisting students, so retention is needed. Human Capital Management is important for retention. When considering Phillips and Roper’s (2009) Human Capital Management Framework, it was decided to focus on Development. Development is integral to retention since employees engaged in development tend to stay. This study focused on military veteran students (not retirees), who have circumstances that could make degree completion difficult. The purpose was to describe training Student Affairs Staff receive and to gain insight into how they support students. The two Research Questions were, “What do college or university staff know about helping veteran students and what training do they receive?” (Question1) and “How is this knowledge used to support veteran success in colleges and universities?” (Question 2) Qualitative interview data from nine Student Affairs Staff led to thematic group development. Findings for Question 1 identified three categories of staff training, Formal, Informal, and Self-Directed Training. Findings for Question 2 yielded two services offered by all interviewees – workshops and personal counseling. Analyses revealed providing resources, providing support and effective communication as effective ways to assist students. Three themes (i.e. need for more data, more resources, and more effective communication) emerged as ways to better assist students. Implications suggest more detailed data collection would provide insight into students’ challenges as well as the most effective ways to assist. In conclusion, there seems to be ample room for improvement to more effectively help veteran college students.
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McPherson, Jacqueline Y.
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Core Title
Development of higher education student affairs staff to assist U.S. military veteran college students
School
Rossier School of Education
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Doctor of Education
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Educational Leadership
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2024-08
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Tags
higher education students
military college students
military students
military veteran college students
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