University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Kākoʻo kaunaloa i ka ʻimi naʻauao: supporting determined perseverance in seeking education

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Kākoʻo kaunaloa i ka ʻimi naʻauao: supporting determined perseverance in seeking education

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Content Kākoʻo Kaunaloa i ka ʻImi Naʻauao:
Supporting Determined Perseverance in Seeking Education
by
Isaac Keoua Vigilla
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2024

© Copyright by Isaac Keoua Vigilla 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Isaac Keoua Vigilla certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Artineh Samkian
Kēhaulani N. Vaughn
Robert A. Filback, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

Abstract
This dissertation explores the engagement of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi (Native Hawaiian) college students
with culturally aligned support systems within diverse higher education contexts in the United
States. This study uses a qualitative research design to examine the experiences of eight
undergraduate students who navigate predominantly Western educational environments while
seeking cultural validation, community connection, and academic persistence. The findings are
organized around three key themes: (1) Cultural Identity and Validation, (2) Community and
Connection, and (3) Empowerment and Academic Persistence. The results reveal that culturally
aligned support systems, such as cultural clubs, mentorship programs, and dedicated cultural
spaces, play a crucial role in affirming students' cultural identities, fostering a sense of
belonging, and empowering them to succeed academically. This study is significant as it is the
first to examine the impact of culturally aligned support for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students across
different institutional settings. It highlights the broader implications for developing inclusive
policies and practices that support Kanaka ‘Ōiwi and other Indigenous students in higher
education. The findings contribute to the discourse on Indigenous education by advocating for
culturally responsive practices that honor diverse cultural identities, promote equity and
inclusion, and ensure all students' academic and personal success.
Keywords: Kanaka ‘Ōiwi, Indigenous education, culturally aligned support systems,
higher education, academic persistence
4

Dedication
To my wife Darcy and our fur baby Toki, I am deeply grateful for your unconditional love and
support. I love you both. This is for you.
5

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the USC Rossier faculty members who
guided and supported me throughout my dissertation journey. To my chair, Dr. Rob Filback, your
commitment to my success and insightful feedback were invaluable. I am also grateful to my
committee members, Dr. Kēhaulani Vaughn and Dr. Artineh Samkian, for their expertise,
encouragement, and support. I would also like to thank USC faculty members Dr. Ruth Chung,
Dr. Rudy Crew, Dr. Mary Stevens, and Dr. Michael Chung, who significantly impacted my EdD
journey.
Mahalo piha to Juli and Vanessa, my EDL besties, for your unwavering support,
friendship, and guidance throughout this journey. I would not be here without you both. I am also
grateful to Lucy and Siobahn for your encouragement, from our time as CAA officers and our
first-year reading group to celebrating together as doctors. To the Rossier Babes, you made the
first year unforgettable, and to the Thursday online cohort, thank you for being so welcoming
and supportive in my final year.
I want to thank my USC SDA ‘ohana for taking a chance on a young Hawaiian
professional. Your belief in me set the foundation for this incredible journey. Another mahalo to
USC Annenberg for allowing me to grow and develop as a leader. To Priscilla and Nicole, your
friendship has been the most supportive and reliable, and I am deeply grateful. Mahalo nui to the
haumāna of USC PISA and Hawaiʻi Club for reminding me of my true purpose: supporting
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students.
I am profoundly thankful to the participants who contributed to this project. Your manaʻo
was invaluable and reinforced my commitment to advocating for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi haumāna.
6

Lastly, I want to acknowledge my family: my mom, Leinaʻala, my dad, Kaipo, and my
grandparents, Pops and Nans, who have always supported my educational pursuits. Although my
dad is no longer with us, I know he would be proud of what I’ve accomplished here for our lāhui.
7

Table of Contents
Abstract iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgments vi
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
Chapter One: Overview of Study 1
Statement of the Problem 2
Purpose of the Study 5
Conceptual Framework 6
Research Questions 7
Methodology 8
Significance of the Study 9
Definition of Key Terms 10
Organization of the Study 12
Chapter Two: Literature Review 14
ʻO Wai Nā Haumāna Kanaka ʻŌiwi? 14
ʻIke Haumāna: The Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Student Experience 22
Kaunaloa: Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Student Persistence 32
Conceptual Framework 40
Conclusion 47
Chapter Three: Methodology 49
Population and Sample 50
My Role as Researcher 54
Data Collection Strategies 57
Data Analysis 62
Trustworthiness Measures 63
Ethical Considerations 63
Limitations and Delimitations 64
Chapter Four: Findings 67
Participants 68
Results for Research Question 1 71
Results for Research Question 2 82
Conclusion 96
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations 99
Discussion 100
Recommendations 107
8

Future Research 112
Final Reflections 114
Conclusion 116
References 119
Appendix A: Call for Participants 130
Appendix B: Informed Consent and Screening Survey 131
Appendix C: Interview Protocol 137
9

List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Participation 69
10

List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Haumāna Experience 46
11

1
Chapter One: Overview of Study
In higher education, countless students embark on a transformative journey filled with
aspirations and dreams. For me, this journey took a challenging turn when I started my first year
at college. Being a first-generation Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian) college student, I was
unprepared for the academic and mental health challenges I encountered. Navigating these
challenges became problematic, accompanied by the persistent feeling of imposter syndrome.
The pressure of high expectations, coupled with rigorous coursework, made me realize that I
needed help.
My undergraduate journey, marked by its challenges, was a profound period of personal
growth and self-discovery. During this transformative phase, I sought academic support and
forged invaluable community connections, primarily through my involvement with the Native
American Cultural Center (NACC). This center, dedicated to nurturing indigenous student
communities on campus, played a pivotal role in my academic and personal development.
At the NACC, I was embraced by a close-knit family of fellow "Native" students and
supportive staff who wholeheartedly assisted me in navigating academic life while honoring my
cultural identity. This welcoming space provided a safe and nurturing environment where I could
freely express myself, interact with peers with similar backgrounds, and engage in activities
deeply rooted in our heritage. It became more than just a physical space; it became a place of
belonging, a true home away from home. For the profound impact it had on my academic
journey and personal identity, I am forever indebted to the unwavering support of the NACC.
Nevertheless, this narrative is not solely about my journey. Instead, it serves as a
powerful reminder of the significant role that educational support systems and culturally
responsive approaches play in students' lives. Years later, this profound experience has shaped

2
my career path in academic advising and student support. As an educational leader, I have
dedicated myself to fostering inclusive learning environments where students, like myself in the
past, are empowered to confront and surmount challenges. Drawing from the intentional and
individualized support I once received, I continue to advocate for creating supportive
environments that celebrate the unique cultural identities of students and empower their
academic success.
As part of this dissertation, I explore how such support systems enhance academic
success and persistence among Kanaka ʻŌiwi students, who face unique educational obstacles
within the broader context of settler colonialism and its far-reaching consequences.
Statement of the Problem
The problem at the heart of this study revolves around the persistent educational
disparities experienced by Kanaka ʻŌiwi (K'Ō) college students, the indigenous people of
Hawaiʻi. These disparities are deeply interconnected with the consequences of settler colonialism
and occupation, which have had profound and lasting effects on Hawaiian culture and have
imposed Western standards of language, religion, and education (Lucas, 2000). The implications
of this problem are multifaceted and far-reaching.
For decades, data aggregation with Asian Americans under the umbrella term Asian and
Pacific Islander (API) has obscured Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander (NHPI) educational
disparities (Hall, 2009). This aggregation not only masks the unique experiences, struggles, and
identities of NHPI but also hides significant ethnic disparities between NHPI and Asian
Americans across various socioeconomic factors (Empowering Pacific Islander Communities
[EPIC], 2014). While NHPI represent one of the fastest-growing groups in the U.S., they face
considerable educational disparities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012).

3
Disaggregated data from ACT and the Asian & Pacific Islander American Scholarship
Fund (APIASF) (2016) suggests that NHPI students are less likely to meet specific college
readiness benchmarks. Nearly 50% of NHPI do not enroll in postsecondary education; when they
do, almost half leave without completing a degree (National Commission on Asian American
and Pacific Islander Research in Education (CARE) & Asian & Pacific Islander American
Scholarship Fund (APIASF), 2010). For the few students that persist, only 19% of NHPI
students graduate with a bachelor’s degree, a rate similar to that of Blacks or African Americans
(EPIC, 2014).
A key element in addressing these educational disparities is recognizing the inadequacy
of API labels, which group diverse ethnic communities under a single, misleading label (Hall,
2009; Vaughn et al., 2020). Policymakers must acknowledge that race plays a significant role in
access to resources in U.S. society (Smedley & Smedley, 2005). As evidence of this, the White
House (2002) recently acknowledged Asian Americans' (AA) and Native Hawaiians' (NHPI)
disparities, discrimination, and inequitable barriers.
Addressing these disparities involves disaggregating data to better understand the unique
needs of K'Ō students and advocate for targeted support and resources (Vaughn et al., 2020).
Without access to disaggregated data, it remains challenging to fully comprehend the status of
K'Ō communities and develop effective support systems that uplift their educational and
socioeconomic standing (Kauanui, 2008). Furthermore, this study contributes to the broader
educational discourse by shedding light on the experiences and challenges faced by K'Ō
students, thereby facilitating our understanding of how to enhance their educational persistence
and success.

4
Although most Kanaka ʻŌiwi live in Hawaii or California, many southern and western
states have experienced a 50 percent growth in their K'Ō population since 2000 (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2012). As more K'Ō move to other states and enroll in higher education institutions, it
will be essential to continue disaggregating K'Ō student enrollment data from the API umbrella
to provide an accurate understanding of K'Ō enrollment and retention. Additionally, K'Ō students
have historically sought educational opportunities on the mainland at predominantly Primarily
White Institutions (PWIs), where the prevailing Western colonial influence clashes with their
culture and indigenous ways of knowing (Lipe, 2018). This cultural dissonance negatively
impacts their learning, development, and engagement, contributing to educational disparities.
The consequences of settler colonialism, such as identity appropriation, militarization, and land
exploitation, continue to affect K'Ō students' educational experiences (Kukahiko et al., 2020).
In light of the enduring consequences of settler colonialism and occupation, it is
imperative to employ decolonizing frameworks like KanakaʻŌiwiCrit (K'ŌC) to create culturally
responsive educational systems that celebrate the culture and identity of K'Ō students (Cristobal,
2018). Educational disparities among K'Ō college students represent a critical issue that demands
attention and action to ensure equitable educational opportunities and outcomes for this unique
and historically marginalized group.
The core focus of this dissertation centers on supporting the persistence and academic
success of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. It is essential to recognize that education is a vital conduit for
revitalizing and empowering the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi lāhui (community) (Keene, 2016). As educators,
our commitment to nurturing the educational success of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students plays a pivotal
role in addressing the enduring legacies of colonization and occupation, which have left a
profound impact on the political, economic, and physical well-being of the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi lāhui.

5
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to deeply explore the experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college
students within culturally aligned support systems in higher education. The central focus of this
investigation revolves around two key dimensions: engagement with culturally aligned support
systems and how these cultural supports facilitate a sense of belonging in higher education.
Studying Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students in a predominantly Westernized college environment requires a
comprehensive approach to examining their challenges, coping mechanisms, and strengths.
Specifically, it explores how these students harness the cultural support systems provided by
their educational institutions as tools for navigating these challenges.
Furthermore, an essential aspect of this research is the examination of the intricate
interplay between cultural identity and the ability to overcome obstacles (Kana‘iaupuni &
Malone, 2006). It seeks to unravel how Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students leverage their cultural
identities to confront and overcome adversities in their academic journey. By exploring these
cultural connections and relationships, the study aims to uncover the pathways that lead to
persistence and, ultimately, academic success among this unique group of students.
In summary, this research endeavors to provide a holistic understanding of the
experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students within the context of culturally aligned support
systems, ultimately contributing valuable insights to higher education, cultural studies, and
Indigenous research. This research will also provide a strong foundation for future studies on the
academic success of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi and other indigenous college students. Additionally, it will
provide potential solutions to the challenges that Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students face in pursuing
higher education.

6
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of this dissertation is founded upon a deep exploration of the
unique experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students in higher education, guided by a multifaceted
conceptual framework. This framework brings together the principles of Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit
(K'ŌC) (Cristobal, 2018), Huffman's (2001) Transculturation Hypothesis, and the Culturally
Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model (Museus, 2013) to comprehensively understand
and address the challenges and strengths of these students.
Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit (K'ŌC), which is rooted in Critical Race Theory and Tribal Crit,
recognizes that Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students' identities are multiple, intersecting, and liminal (Wright
& Balutski, 2016; Salis Reyes, 2018; Cristobal, 2018). It asserts that mo‘olelo (stories,
narratives, histories) are integral to understanding their experiences and that K'Ō have a kuleana
(responsibility) to use their ‘ike (knowledge) and mo‘olelo for social justice. K'ŌC provides a
lens to critically examine educational policies and practices and identify systemic inequities that
impact K'Ō students.
Building upon Huffman's (2001) Transculturation Hypothesis, this conceptual framework
explores how Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students navigate cultural discontinuities between their indigenous
culture and the mainstream academic environment. The transculturation process demonstrates
how students can use their indigenous identity as an anchor and source of strength to persist in
academia. It recognizes that cultural discontinuities can lead to alienation or, when managed
successfully, transculturation, where students maintain their Indigenous identity while interacting
within mainstream educational settings.
The Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model emphasizes the
importance of culturally engaging campus environments to foster a sense of belonging, promote

7
academic success, and support students' cultural identities. CECE underscores that inclusive
spaces and culturally responsive approaches are vital for marginalized and underrepresented
student communities (Museus, 2013). This model identifies nine indicators of culturally engaged
campus environments, offering a roadmap for institutions to create supportive and culturally
aligned educational settings.
By integrating these frameworks, this dissertation aims to illuminate the challenges faced
by Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students in higher education while recognizing their resilience and strengths.
The conceptual framework identifies the issues and presents a path forward - fortifying academic
foundations, alleviating financial barriers, cultivating culturally safe spaces, and sustaining
culturally aligned support. Through this comprehensive approach, this research seeks to
contribute to a more inclusive, supportive, and equitable higher education landscape for Kanaka
‘Ōiwi students.
Research Questions
The research questions that guide this study address the overall problem, which is to
deeply explore and understand the experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students in the context
of culturally aligned support. These questions align with the purpose of the study and the
theoretical framework, integrating the critical perspective of Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit (K'ŌC),
transculturation, and the Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model. The two
research questions that guide this study are:
RQ1. How do Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students engage with culturally aligned support
systems within their educational institutions?
In alignment with the first research question (RQ1), exploring participants' identities and
challenges can offer valuable insights into the motivations and dynamics driving students

8
to actively seek and engage with culturally aligned support systems within their
educational institutions.
RQ2. What role do culturally aligned supports play in the sense of belonging of
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students?
Prior studies suggest that culturally aligned support systems enhance feelings of
belonging, foster more robust connections, and provide valuable mentorship within the
K‘Ō community, positively impacting academic persistence and success. Additionally,
many K‘Ō students are motivated by their overarching responsibility (kuleana) to their
lāhui, and these culturally aligned supports can aid in fulfilling this duty. By examining
how these support systems influence participants' educational journeys and achievements,
this research question seeks to understand how these systems play a significant role.
Through these research questions, we can examine how cultural alignment within support
systems influences the engagement, persistence, and academic success of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students
in higher education. They are closely aligned with the conceptual framework and guide the
exploration of these students' nuanced experiences and outcomes.
Methodology
This study adopts a qualitative research design that aligns well with the exploratory
nature of this study. This approach allows for a deep exploration into the experiences of K‘Ō
students regarding cultural support engagement and a sense of belonging. This study employed a
purposive sampling technique of K‘Ō undergraduate students enrolled in institutions with
culturally aligned support. This sample allowed insights into the experiences of K‘Ō college
students within the context of our research questions. It is essential to study these experiences to
improve academic outcomes, especially for those students in institutions lacking such support.

9
Data collection involved online qualitative interviews, accommodating the geographical
diversity of participants. The researcher conducted semi-structured interviews using a talk-story
approach, which aligns with K‘Ō epistemology, emphasizing the cultural significance of
storytelling. Talk-story involves informal, conversational storytelling to build rapport and gather
rich data on experiences, perspectives, and beliefs. The interview protocol consists of questions
that explore participants' backgrounds, connections to their K‘Ō identity, and engagement with
culturally aligned supports. Informed by an extensive literature review, the interview protocol
aligns closely with the research questions.
A thematic analysis was performed on qualitative responses to identify, analyze, and
report patterns. This iterative data familiarization, coding, theme development, and refinement
process ensured that themes aligned with research questions and the data. Data saturation, peer
review, and member checks ensured trustworthiness.
Significance of the Study
The existing body of research concerning K‘Ō college students predominantly originates
from educational institutions within Hawaiʻi, with a substantial institutional commitment to
supporting this demographic. However, a significant research gap persists concerning K‘Ō
college students across the United States who benefit from culturally aligned support systems.
This study aims to bridge this gap by offering new insights and perspectives from K‘Ō college
students across diverse geographical regions. Furthermore, existing research on culturally
aligned support systems is often limited to examining the effectiveness of a specific program or
initiative (Allaire, 2018; Bonus, 2021; Hokoana, 2010; Jensen, 2020; Kealoha, 2012; Roberts &
Hitchcock, 2017; Saelua et al., 2016, Wright, 2018). In contrast, this study adopts a holistic
approach, delving into various culturally aligned support systems. These encompass student-led

10
groups, dedicated cultural spaces, mentorship programs, and culturally specific academic
departments, comprehensively exploring the range of support options available to K‘Ō college
students.
These findings can inform the development of policies and guidelines for institutions that
lack culturally aligned student support for K‘Ō college students. In highlighting these support
systems' pivotal role in academic persistence and success, this study provides a compelling case
for creating or enhancing specific cultural supports within institutions. Given the rising numbers
of K‘Ō college students, educational institutions are responsible for developing intentional
support mechanisms tailored to address the unique characteristics and requirements of K‘Ō
students.
Furthermore, the results of this study offer valuable practical implications for educational
leaders, practitioners, and college staff committed to designing intentional support structures for
K‘Ō college students. By uncovering the sociohistorical factors that significantly influence the
experiences of K‘Ō college students, this study offers specific recommendations for promoting
their persistence and academic success. As diversity and cultural inclusivity become increasingly
important in higher education institutions, this research equips stakeholders with actionable
insights to foster an environment where K‘Ō college students feel recognized, valued, and
empowered to achieve their educational goals.
Definition of Key Terms
Colonization refers to the process by which Western contact with the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi (K'Ō)
in Hawai‘i led to the introduction of Western ideals, the decimation of the K'Ō population, the
suppression of indigenous culture and language, the forced assimilation to Western standards,

11
and the loss of political and economic power, ultimately resulting in the occupation of Hawai'i
(Trask, 1990; Osorio, 2002).
Haole refers to white foreigners, particularly those of European descent, who arrived in
Hawai‘i and played a significant role in the colonization, suppression of indigenous culture, and
establishment of Western ideals and economic control in the region (Silva, 2000).
Kanaka ʻŌiwi refers to the Indigenous peoples of Hawai'i. This study intentionally uses
this term to encompass all individuals of Kanaka ʻŌiwi descent, irrespective of their blood
quantum level. Cristobal (2018, p. 28) prefers Kanaka ʻŌiwi over other terms like "Hawaiian" or
"Native Hawaiian," which were introduced by colonizers and may not be the preferred or
inclusive terminology for many within the Kanaka ʻŌiwi community.
Kīpuka refers to culturally safe spaces inspired by the Kanaka ʻŌiwi tradition. Similar to
oases within a lava field, kīpuka preserve life and vegetation. These spaces, adapted for higher
educational institutions, aim to support Kanaka ʻŌiwi students' academic, cultural, and social
development (Vaughn et al., 2020).
Kuleana represents the deeply ingrained responsibility or duty to care for and contribute
to one's community and culture. It embodies a commitment to cultural preservation and
empowerment through active engagement and giving back (Salis Reyes, 2019).
Lāhui refers to the community or nation in Kanaka ʻŌiwi culture. It signifies a collective
group of people with shared cultural, historical, and often ancestral ties, and it embodies a sense
of belonging and identity within this community or nation (Wright, 2018).
Moʻolelo refers to storytelling as a foundational means of transmitting knowledge,
preserving cultural identity, and challenging dominant narratives, contributing to cultural
revitalization and decolonization efforts (de Silva & Hunter, 2021; Cristobal, 2018). It

12
encompasses traditional oral storytelling methods and contemporary conversational narratives
known as talk stories (Au & Kawakami, 1985).
Native Hawaiian is a term introduced by colonizers to describe Kanaka ‘Ōiwi, the
Indigenous peoples of Hawaiʻi (Cristobal, 2018). Still, the term Native Hawaiian is used more
colloquially than Kanaka ‘Ōiwi, which is more academic. This study uses the terms Native
Hawaiian and Kanaka ‘Ōiwi interchangeably, although Kanaka ‘Ōiwi is preferred.
Occupation refers to the historical and ongoing presence and control of Western colonial
powers in the land and lives of Kanaka 'Ōiwi, which has significantly influenced their
experiences, identity, and education (Cristobal, 2018; Osorio, 2002).
Pilina refers to forming meaningful relationships and connections with the 'āina (land) or
lāhui (community). It represents the Kanaka 'Ōiwi value of interconnectedness and belonging,
essential for their identity and well-being (Yeh et al., 2021).
ʻĀina refers to the land in Hawai'i, which holds deep spiritual, cultural, and ecological
significance for Kanaka 'Ōiwi students. Their connection to ʻāina encompasses not only the
physical aspect of the land but also its spiritual and psychological dimensions, emphasizing their
role as caretakers and protectors of their ancestral homeland (Kanaʻiaupuni & Malone, 2006).
Organization of the Study
This dissertation comprises five chapters. Chapter Two presents the literature review,
covering the history of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi, the K‘Ō student experience, and the factors influencing
K‘Ō student persistence. Chapter Three outlines the methodology, detailing research methods,
data collection, and analysis. Chapter Four analyzes the collected data and presents identified
themes. Finally, Chapter Five discusses the results, offers recommendations, and concludes the

13
study. Supplemental documents, such as the interview protocol and the Institutional Review
(IRB) approval, are included in the appendices.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
This literature review chapter focuses on the experiences and challenges faced by Kanaka
‘Ōiwi college students within the context of the Western college environment. Understanding the
identity of Kanaka 'Ōiwi students within a sociohistorical framework is essential for appreciating
their educational journey and its challenges (Wright & Shotton, 2019; Wright, 2018).
The chapter begins by discussing the historical consequences of colonization and
occupation on Kanaka'iwi, which continue to shape their lives, especially their pursuit of higher
education (Wright & Balutski, 2016). The following section focuses on various dimensions of
their educational journey, particularly the concept of cultural discontinuity, the importance of
pilina (connection), challenges with racism and stereotypes, and the underlying kuleana
(responsibility) to the lāhui (community). The chapter subsequently examines four factors that
underlie the persistence of Kanaka 'Ōiwi students in higher education: academic preparedness,
financial support, culturally safe spaces, and culturally aligned student support. A conceptual
framework is presented at the end of the chapter to understand and address the unique challenges
and experiences of Kanaka 'Ōiwi students in higher education.
This chapter serves as an introduction to a comprehensive exploration of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
student experiences, setting the stage for understanding their unique challenges, strengths, and
the frameworks guiding and supporting their educational journey.
ʻO Wai Nā Haumāna Kanaka ʻŌiwi?
Who are Kanaka ‘Ōiwi (K'Ō) students? Defining Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students necessitates a
thorough understanding of their identity within the sociohistorical context. The historical
underpinnings of colonization, subjugation, and their responses to resilience collectively
contextualize the intricate nature of their educational trajectory. This first section delves into the

15
intricacies of their moʻolelo (narrative), shaped by a tumultuous past and unwavering collective
mana (spirit) that perseveres amid adversity.
Hoʻokolonaio: Colonization in Hawai‘i
Before Western contact, Kanaka ‘Ōiwi (K'Ō) lived in isolation in the Hawaiian
archipelagoes with their interdependent system of trade, regional governance, and a kapu system
or sacred law that provided moral order (Trask, 1990). They lived harmoniously with nature and
in a universe of familial relations. They believed they were directly related to the ‘āina (land) and
held the kuleana (responsibility) to serve as stewards for the ‘āina. The arrival of Captain James
Cook in 1778 represented the introduction of Western ideals of language, religion, and
capitalism. Western contact introduced diseases that decimated the K'Ō population from 800,000
to less than 40,000 by 1890 (Osorio, 2002). Amongst the few K'Ōs that remained, missionaries
abolished the Hawaiian language, religion, and cultural practices, such as hula (dance) and ‘oli
(chant) (Silva, 2000). Haole (white foreigners) introduced capitalist ideals such as private
ownership of ‘āina (Silva, 2000). In 1843, haole occupiers forced King Kamehameha III to
divide all lands after a five-month British government takeover. Sadly, many K'Ōs did not
understand this concept and failed to claim their land. Thus, many K'Ō lost significant unclaimed
land to haole settlers and sugar plantations (Trask, 1990).
In 1887, influential haole politicians forced King Kalakaua to sign a new constitution at
gunpoint, stripping him of his political power and ceding land to the US in exchange for
duty-free sugar (Trask, 1990). Queen Lili‘uokalani, his sister, succeeded him after his death and
sought to reinstate the political power of the Hawaiian monarchy. To prevent this, a group of
haole plantation and business owners plotted with the US to forcefully overthrow Queen
Lili‘uokalani in 1893. Eventually, Hawai‘i was illegally annexed, and the haole-led “Republic of

16
Hawai‘i” took control of the local government and 1.8 million acres of royal lands (Trask, 1990).
Because of its illegality, many K'Ō scholars recognize this as the beginning of Hawai'i's illegal
occupation (Osorio, 2002).
During the 120 years following Western contact, K'Ō suffered massive depopulation,
cultural genocide, loss of their identity and lands, and forced removal of their government. This
cultural genocide rendered K'Ō politically and economically powerless and eventually forced
them to assimilate to Western cultural standards (Trask, 1999). They were conquered and
colonized. In the following decades, the K'Ō oppression continued under the Western-led
economic control of Hawai‘i.
Hoʻokele Waiwai: Economic Development in Hawai‘i
After annexation, a Western-controlled economy relied on plantations, tourism, and the
US military. By 1915, Hawai‘i’s population doubled with new immigrants from Japan, the
Philippines, China, and Portugal to provide manual labor on plantations (La Croix, 2002). With
this large influx of racial groups, Hawai‘i was seen as the “melting pot” of the Pacific, which
resulted in a cultural transfusion between K'Ō, Asian-Pacific, and haole cultures, often called
“local culture.” Hawai‘i has been referred to as a multicultural “racial paradise,” assuming
positive race relations and equality among all groups. However, haole settlers used local culture
to mask Asian Settler Colonialism and its oppressive effects on K'Ō. Since their arrival, Asians
have disproportionately influenced politics and controlled the wealth of Hawai‘i’s economy
(Fujikane & Okamura, 2008). Consequently, K'Ō remain underrepresented in political and
educational leadership (Wright & Balutski, 2016).
As the plantation industries collapsed during World War II, Hawai‘i turned to tourism to
supplement its economy (Cristobal, 2016). Western-led tourism appropriated cultural capital and

17
covered beachfront property with newly constructed hotels. Eventually, Hawai‘i established
reliance on an unstable service-based economy that impacted K'Ō's identity and education. K'Ō
who work in the tourist industry must endure exposure to a commercialized and racialized
version of K'Ō identity (Wright & Balutski, 2016). Since work in tourism-related sectors does
not require college degrees, many K'Ō forgo higher education to enter the workforce (Kukahiko
et al., 2020).
Hawai‘i’s strategic location in the Pacific strongly influenced the US-supported illegal
annexation, eventually leading to statehood (Niheu et al., 2007). The US military seized lands
across the state to establish military bases and bomb-testing sites. Eventually, the military
destroyed the island’s natural ecosystem, causing long-term detrimental environmental effects on
the reef, wildlife, and water tables (Wright & Balutski, 2016; Troeschel, 2022). The US military
controls nearly 25 percent of the land and makes up roughly one-fifth of the total population of
Hawai‘i (Cristobal, 2018; Trask, 1990). K'Ō activists resist militarization and advocate regaining
control of K'Ō resources, land, and economic self-determination (Cristobal, 2018).
Continued occupation increases housing and living costs for K'Ō, essentially pricing
indigenous natives out of their homeland. Militarization, tourism, limited resources, and few
career options have caused a massive diaspora of K'Ō to the continental United States,
commonly known as the “mainland.” (Hafoka et al., 2020; Kauanui, 2007). Recent estimates
from the American Community Survey (2021) show about 309,800 Native Hawaiians in Hawaiʻi
and about 370,000 in other states. According to EPIC (2014), California, Washington, and Utah
have the largest NHPI populations outside of Hawaii. Hawaiians living on the mainland are more
likely to have a college degree than Hawaiians living in Hawaiʻi (Malone & Shoda-Sutherland,
2005). Additionally, population forecasts predict that the Hawaiian population within the

18
continental United States will more than double between 2005 and 2050. Consequently, as the
number of Native Hawaiians on the mainland increases, more Native Hawaiian students will
continue to enroll at Primarily White Institutions in the continental United States (EPIC, 2014).
Ka Hoʻonaʻauao ma Hawaiʻi: Education in Hawai‘i
Before Western contact, Hawai'i's chief communication medium was ‘ōlelo, or spoken
Hawaiian. When the missionaries arrived, they eventually sought to educate K'Ō about
Christianity in their native language and taught K'Ō how to write in ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i (Hawaiian
Language). In 1824, King Kamehameha III, Kauikeaoli, proclaimed Hawaiʻi a nation of
education, “He aupuni palapala ko‘u” (Kukahiko et al., 2020, p. 188). K'Ō embraced the written
word and learned to read and write in multigenerational school and home environments. Within a
generation, K'Ō reported a 91-95% literacy rate (Kukahiko et al., 2020).
During the 18th century, English quickly became the preferred language of education,
business, diplomacy, and government (Lucas, 2000). After the illegal overthrow of 1893, an
English-only law eliminated government funding for all Hawaiian-medium schools, which all
eventually closed by 1902. This law was the founding of an English-based “compulsory
education system responsible for the ongoing domestication and indoctrination of immigrants
and indigenous peoples of Hawai‘i” (Kukahiko et al., 2020, p. 189). Haole leaders used
educational strategies, like the ones used to educate Native Americans and African Americans in
the US mainland, to prepare K'Ō to be subordinate to Haoles. These leaders did not believe K'Ō
were mature or disciplined enough to run their nation or pursue higher education (Beyer, 2017).
This education prepared K'Ō for employment in the emergent plantation economy while more
haoles began to assume leadership positions in education and government.
Since then, K'Ō students have continued to experience significant generational

19
educational disparities due to these oppressive educational practices (Kana‘iaupuni et al., 2021).
Advocates have tried to address these federal, state, and local inequalities. In 1988, the US
Congress enacted the Native Hawaiian Education Act (NHEA) to address and support the
educational needs of Native Hawaiians (US Congress, 1988). NHEA (1994) acknowledges and
addresses the influence of Western influence on K'Ō education:
“Despite the consequences of over 100 years of non-indigenous influence, the Native
Hawaiian people are determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations
their ancestral territory, and their cultural identity in accordance with their own spiritual
and traditional beliefs, customs, practices, language, and social institutions.”
NHEA initially funded K'Ō programs in family-based early childhood education, elementary
curriculum development, higher education, special education, and gifted and talented programs.
Later reauthorizations of NHEA expanded educational services, supported Native Hawaiian
language curriculum development, and included community consultations to improve program
assistance. In 1997, the NHEA established the Native Hawaiian Education Council (NHEC) to
include representation from public officials and private entities, collect data, and implement
assessments to guide resource appropriation. Today, NHEC continues to work closely with the
K'Ō community to ensure their work “perpetuates excellence in Native Hawaiian education”
(NHEC, n.d.).
Ea: Decolonization in Hawai‘i
In the 1970s, K'Ō activists began forming political organizations and community groups
to combat the effects of colonization through advocacy for land rights and sovereignty. In 1993,
President Bill Clinton issued a formal apology acknowledging the United States’ participation in
the illegal overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai‘i (Trask, 1990). Now, several state, federal, and

20
non-profit organizations work to fight for self-determination. Although each differs in their
approach, they recognize that colonists have violated K'Ō rights, and reparative action is
necessary for social justice.
Throughout their turbulent history of colonization and occupation, K'Ō have preserved
their culture by reclaiming its cultural values and traditions. Cultural practices once banned by
missionaries now serve as a vital source of cultural preservation and a method to promote K'Ō
wellness and survivance. Many K'Ō have a sense of kuleana (responsibility) to share their ‘ike
(knowledge) of these cultural practices to strengthen the lāhui (community). Kumu (teachers)
teach haumāna (students) and mo‘olelo (stories, histories) while grounding them in K'Ō cultural
values. Other practitioners practice aloha ‘āina (love for the land) by returning to sustainable K'Ō
methods of harvesting kalo (taro), fishing, farming, and la‘au lapa‘au (holistic medicine using
plants) (Cristobal, 2018). K'Ō practitioners continue these practices to actively resist the effects
of colonization and occupation, particularly in education.
Pīkoʻu Hawaiʻi: Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Identity
Kanaka ʻŌiwi identity encompasses many aspects intricately linked to their culture,
heritage, and sense of self. This examination provides insights into defining aspects of the
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity, including an intimate connection to land, a profound sense of community,
the role of language, and the significance of cultural practices. These facets collectively shape
the experiences and resilience of Native Hawaiian students as they navigate their educational
journey.
Colonization deleteriously impacts Indigenous identities, eroding crucial elements such
as sovereignty, ancestral lands, language, and cultural knowledge (Maaka, 2004). Trask (1999)
adds that colonialism diminishes indigenous identity by controlling its definition and even whom

21
others consider indigenous, leading to denial and challenges from the dominant culture.
Historical examples of colonial identity definition include census grouping and blood quantum
requirements. Consequently, the influx of American processes, promises, and influences has
engendered huikau (confusion) regarding K'Ō identity (Osorio, 2006). Osorio emphasizes the
necessity of cohesive identity and effective leadership for revitalizing the Hawaiian lāhui,
accentuating the broader implications of the Hawaiian identity and advocating for collaborative
leadership to facilitate its reinstatement. Ultimately, Osorio calls for a collective commitment to
reinstating the Hawaiian identity and revitalizing the lāhui.
Indigenous scholars have explored the centrality of indigenous identities and the role of
knowledge transmission in identity development. Trask (1999) and Durie (1998) emphasize the
significance of connectedness to lands, family, and language in defining Indigenous identities.
Additionally, acquiring cultural values and practices helps establish and reinforce unique
Indigenous identities (Kawagley, 1995). Colonization aims to erode indigenous features such as
ancestral language, which can devastate intergenerational knowledge transfer (Maaka, 2004).
Osorio (2010) underscores the role of ancestry and the use of ancestral stories in sustaining
indigenous knowledge and identity, pushing back against the effects of colonization. Exploring
these perspectives is vital to understanding Indigenous identities' influence and knowledge
transmission on cultural heritage and its survival among oppressed Indigenous communities.
In her foundational work, Meyer (1998) argues that Native Hawaiian epistemology is the
foundation of indigenous education to support empowerment and resistance against settler
colonialism. Native Hawaiian epistemology is deeply rooted in cultural practices, beliefs, and
values, emphasizing the interplay between spirituality, senses, relationships, utility, words, and
the body/mind connection. She emphasizes that the Hawaiian concept of ʻōlelo (word or speech)

22
is more than communication; it is a force with mana (spirit). Meyer also underlines the
implications for pedagogy, highlighting the importance of community-based projects that align
with Hawaiian epistemology, fostering a sense of identity and cultural pride. Preserving
Indigenous identities and working towards education liberation requires recognizing Indigenous
identities and diverse knowledge systems.
In conclusion, exploring Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity reveals a complex interweaving of
culture, heritage, and personal agency. This identity encompasses a profound connection to the
land, strong community bonds, language's pivotal role, and the significance of cultural practices,
all shaping Native Hawaiian students' resilience in education. Colonization's detrimental impact
on indigenous identities calls for united leadership to revive Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity. The vital role
of ancestral wisdom and knowledge transmission echoes across indigenous experiences. Meyer's
work emphasizes Hawaiian epistemology's role against colonialism, stressing the forceful nature
of ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian language) and community-based pedagogy. Preserving identities
and achieving educational liberation mandates recognizing diverse knowledge systems and
committing to heritage preservation.
ʻIke Haumāna: The Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Student Experience
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students experience challenges and opportunities shaped by the
dissonance of their cultural heritage and the college environment. This section explores the
experiences of K'Ō students as they navigate cultural differences, manage their identities, and
encounter racism and stereotypes. Rooted in a solid connection to their ancestral ʻāina and lāhui,
these students seek out a sense of belonging and a kīpuka, a culturally safe space, that honors
their culture and heritage. Additionally, K'Ō students feel collectively responsible for giving back
to their lāhui. This exploration highlights the resilience and cultural pride that characterize the

23
experiences of K'Ō students in higher education.
Kūʻē: Cultural Discontinuity
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students navigate a profound cultural dissonance as they reconcile
their K'Ō identity with the dominant Western educational model shaped by the influence of a
settler education system. Such dissonance can manifest in feelings of alienation, conflicting
expectations, and encountering unfamiliar pedagogical approaches that may not align with their
cultural learning styles (Lipe, 2018). Many settler education systems aim to erase indigenous
languages, cultural practices, and traditional knowledge (Trask, 1999). As a result, K'Ō students
may feel compelled to suppress their K'Ō identities to assimilate to achieve academic success
and recognition. This cultural adjustment may involve adapting to new social norms, academic
expectations, and cultural practices that differ from their K'Ō upbringing. K'Ō students often
struggle with maintaining their cultural identity while integrating into predominantly white
academic and social environments (Wright, 2018). Balancing their K'Ō heritage and cultural
values with the pressures to conform to mainstream norms can be a complex process that
requires navigating multiple identities.
Many Kanaka ‘Ōiwi scholars have examined how to address the effects of settler
colonialism in the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi educational experience. Wright (2018) explores the significance
of decolonization and the search for identity within the context of higher education through the
examination of the kuleana (responsibility) centered approach employed at the Kamakakūokalani
Center for Hawaiian Studies (KCHS) at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Inspired by the
Hawaiian sovereignty movement in the 1990s, this educational approach centers on kuleana
(rights, responsibility, and authority) to empower graduates to understand and embody
Hawaiiannes through a culturally-based curriculum, pedagogy, and faculty role modeling. Wright

24
(2018) highlights the importance of developing appropriate frameworks and methodologies that
align with the cultural and political context of K'Ō students and the broader lāhui to enhance
educational success and identity understanding. Lipe (2018) suggests that educational leaders
must transform educational institutions into inclusive spaces that value and integrate Indigenous
worldviews, thus promoting equity and equality. She proposes the Hō‘ālani Framework, which
emphasizes recognizing mo‘okū‘auhau (genealogical connections), kaikua‘ana and kaikana
(interdependent relationships), and kuleana (reciprocal responsibilities). In their study of
Indigenous culture-based education, Kana‘iaupuni et al. (2017) highlight the transformative
potential of Indigenous Culture-Based Education (CBE) to empower students, communities, and
nations. The findings suggest that CBE positively impacts students' socioemotional development,
self-efficacy, and community engagement. They support a shift in Indigenous education and
research towards recognizing and valuing the strengths and resilience of Indigenous
communities, promoting culture-based education as a path to empowerment for all.
In summary, these K'Ō scholars emphasize the urgent necessity of a transformative shift
in educational paradigms for K'Ō students. Beyond Western notions of individual achievement,
there is a need for a culturally-based educational experience that is holistic, collective, and
interconnected. A K'Ō-centered approach would honor diverse identities, knowledge systems,
and relationships, reflecting the values and aspirations of the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi lāhui.
Pilina: Finding Connection
The next explores the complex process of cultural adjustment that Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students
encounter within the college environment, examining their profound connection to ʻāina (land)
and the lāhui (community). The physical and emotional displacement from ʻāina and lāhui
creates many challenges for K'Ō students. This exploration reveals the complex dynamics

25
involving cultural heritage, geographic displacement, and the crucial role of forming
connections.
The ʻāina is a significant source of identity, strength, and belonging for K'Ō. In the K'Ō
worldview, the understanding of ʻāina contrasts with the Western capitalist perspective, which
views land as a commodity subject to rental, purchase, or sale for monetary exchange (Yeh et al.,
2021). Their profound connection to the ʻāina, rooted in spiritual beliefs and cultural practices,
views natural elements and creatures of the islands as primordial ancestors. This relationship
emphasizes interdependence, with the responsibility of mālama (care) and kiaʻi (protector) for
the older siblings, ensuring the well-being and care of the younger sibling (Kanaʻiaupuni &
Malone, 2006). This dynamic illustrates that the K'Ō concept of ʻāina consists of physical,
psychological, and spiritual dimensions, which are essential to understanding K'Ō notions of self
and well-being. Students with firmly deep-rooted connections to the land feel the kuleana
(responsibility) to serve as kiaʻi for the ʻāina and have their own experiences with a place that
influenced this connection and their cultural identities (Yeh et al., 2021). The connection to ʻāina
holds crucial importance for the well-being of Native Hawaiians, serving as a resilient force in
navigating challenges stemming from colonization, historical trauma, and environmental changes
(Antonio et al., 2023). Thus, being away from college and displaced from their ʻāina is not just a
physical separation but a disruption to the very foundations of their self and well-being, as the
ʻāina represents a source of spiritual, psychological, and physical nourishment for Kanaka ʻŌiwi
students. This disconnection from the ʻāina creates a lack of cultural and spiritual nourishment,
which can be challenging to overcome, mainly if they are thousands of miles away studying on
the continent (Antonio et al., 2023). Finding pilina (connection) with the ʻāina and the lāhui is
important for K'Ō students to restore their identity and purpose.

26
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi value their pilina (relationship) with their families and lāhui, which
provide K'Ō with a strong sense of support and belonging. In indigenous cultures, identities are
relational and emphasize belonging. Indigenous relationships are foundational to learning
environments and tribal communities. The concept of belonging reflects an Indigenous
worldview of interrelatedness, interdependence, and mutual responsibility to all living beings
(Chow-Garcia et al., 2019). Kupo (2010) found that K'Ō college women found importance in
their relationships with family members, which extended beyond traditional notions of family,
including distant relatives and ancestors. From these relationships, participants learned about
their culture, values, and connections to ‘āina. The participants regarded their family
relationships as indispensable to their identity, providing insights into their place in the world
and a deeper understanding of their legacies. Yeh et al. (2021) highlight the significance of
interdependent selves within K'Ō and NHPI communities, adapting across various ecological
settings and responding to historical, familial, and cultural challenges such as land displacement,
government property seizure, and exclusionary immigration policies. The interdependent self
contrasts the emphasis on independent selves, which Western U.S. educational settings highly
value. The individualistic environment of Western college settings conflicts with the
collectivistic, interrelational context of their homes, thus removing Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students from
their lāhui and supportive familial networks when in college, which introduces a profound
challenge. This disconnection from communal support impacts their identity and well-being, as
the importance of belonging and relational identities is deeply rooted in their cultural framework.
At college, Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students seek connection with others to restore their sense of
self and purpose, navigating the tension between the cultural values they cherish and the
individualistic norms of their college environment. In this struggle, the significance of familial

27
and lāhui relationships becomes even more pronounced, emphasizing the vital role of these
connections in maintaining the well-being and identity of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students.
Wae: Racism and Stereotyping
This section explores the discrimination that Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students endure, highlighting
the enduring impact of historical settler colonialism. The legacy of colonialism presents
persistent challenges, including discrimination, systemic racism, and stereotypes. These
challenges can significantly impact their educational experiences and overall well-being. The
following section will explore how K'Ō students navigate wae (racism and stereotypes), using
their ancestral knowledge and traditions to promote and preserve their cultural identity amid
these challenges.
K'Ō students often experience racism and stereotypes in educational and social settings
(Miller, 2011). These experiences include being called names, made fun of, and treated
differently than other students (Yeh et al., 2021; Wolfgramm, 2021). Students also reported being
targeted by teachers for assumed behavior associated with negative stereotypes and experienced
racist practices and policies against K'Ō students (Yeh et al., 2021; Borthwick-Wong, 2017). In a
study of STEM K'Ō students, Allaire (2018) found that professors questioned their intellectual
ability and suggested that the K'Ō students change their majors to something less rigorous
because they were Hawaiian. Some students also experienced negative stereotyping and criticism
within the K'Ō community.
Addressing the negative impacts of racism and stereotypes on students' well-being is
essential. These experiences can lead to isolation, shame, alienation, anger, and tokenism
(Allaire, 2018; Borthwick-Wong, 2020). Jensen (2020) highlighted the concerning issue of
pervasive racism and stereotypes, revealing that students internalize negative stereotypes,

28
potentially hindering their college aspirations and academic success. K'Ō students consistently
derive strength from their ancestral knowledge and traditions to actively confront and defy
racism. These traditions offer a profound sense of identity and purpose and foster resilience in
adversity. In demonstrating cultural pride, K'Ō students collectively uphold a deep respect for
themselves, others, and their rich traditions (Yeh et al., 2021). To counteract the impact of
stereotypes, Jensen (2020) advocates for a reconceptualization of early college and
college-going, which involves integrating K'Ō culture and knowledge into programs to nurture a
sense of belonging and empowerment and incorporating familial and community support to build
collective strength.
As K'Ō students navigate their educational journeys, their experiences overcoming
racism, stereotypes, and discrimination become a testament to their resilience. K'Ō students rely
on their cultural identity and communal strengths to navigate a Western landscape deeply
influenced by systemic biases with historical and systemic origins. Their experiences testify to
their ability to confront and overcome racism, stereotypes, and discrimination, exhibiting a
powerful combination of cultural pride and collective resilience.
Kuleana i ka Mālama: Responsibility to Give Back
Kanaka ʻŌiwi students have a profound and inherent belief that they have a kuleana
(responsibility) to mālama (take care) and meaningfully contribute to their lāhui (community)
(Salis Reyes, 2019; Vaughn, 2023; Wright, 2003; Wright & Shotton, 2019). Vaughn (2023)
highlights that within Pacific feminisms, kuleana extends beyond personal duty to encompass
collective care, where educational success is viewed as a communal achievement. This ethic of
care deeply intertwines with the responsibility to give back, fostering a resilient collective
cultural identity. This empowerment narrative is central to Indigenous epistemologies,
emphasizing the importance of community engagement, cultural preservation, and the broader

29
pursuit of academic achievement (Keene, 2016; Wright, 2003; Wright & Shotton, 2019). This
section examines how giving back fosters empowered identities, community engagement, and
cultural revitalization, ultimately contributing to Indigenous nation-building.
The concept of “giving back” holds significant importance within Indigenous
communities, including Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Salis Reyes, 2019; Keene, 2016; Vaughn, 2023).
Indigenous epistemologies prioritize relationships, seeking completeness and equilibrium by
connecting with fellow humans, nonhuman entities, and living and nonliving realms (Salis
Reyes, 2019). Acts of giving back forge a vital link for Indigenous students to their cultural
origins, honoring ancestral legacies and the importance of relativity. This empowered identity
becomes a foundation for their commitment to community and cultural preservation. Giving
back involves active community engagement, fostering relationships, and contributing to
collective well-being (Salis Reyes, 2019). Kuleana intricately connects to the indigenous concept
of nation-building, combining the pursuit of cultural revitalization with the broader pursuit of
academic achievement (Keene, 2016). Driven by a commitment to give back to their
communities, Indigenous students exhibit resilience in pursuing and persisting through higher
education despite challenges (Wright, 2003). Lopez (2018) highlights the predictive role of
giving back in both academic performance and the perseverance of Indigenous college students.
The potential impact of Indigenous students on their communities is significant as they
utilize the knowledge, skills, and networks gained through education to improve their
communities. Vaughn (2023) highlights that kuleana extends beyond personal responsibility to
include collective care and kinship for Pacific Islander women. This ethic of care is deeply
embedded in their educational journeys, where success is viewed as a communal achievement,
and the responsibility to give back is intertwined with maintaining cultural ties and supporting

30
future generations. Vaughn emphasizes that Pacific feminisms offer a framework for
understanding how kuleana operates not only as an individual duty but also as a communal
practice of nurturing and sustaining the lāhui through education. Salis Reyes (2019) found that
K'Ō educators utilize their education, access, and knowledge to enhance opportunities, provide
resources, and advocate for improved policies and practices within their community. These
engagements strengthen ties within the community, contributing to the building of a more
resilient nation.
The concept of nation-building is pivotal in understanding higher education's role in the
lives of Indigenous students, serving not only as a tool for social mobility but also as a means of
decolonization (Wright & Shotton, 2019). Through formal education, Indigenous students may
engage in resistance, decolonization, nation-building, and self-determination. Scholars suggest
that Indigenous communities may use formal education to revitalize traditional knowledge
systems, cultural practices, and languages through transformational resistance (Wright, 2003;
Salis Reyes, 2019). In a study of Hawaiian Studies college graduates, Wright (2003) found that
their Hawaiian studies program valued the “Native perspective” on history, politics, and culture,
focusing on the impact of colonialism on Kanaka ʻŌiwi. This collective understanding fostered a
sense of community, engendering resistance to colonialism and strengthening connections among
students and the broader community. Graduates expressed a commitment to giving back to honor
the privileges they received and contribute to the survival of the lāhui.
The intricate relationship between giving back and nation-building among K'Ō students is
profound, serving as a foundation for cultural empowerment, community engagement, and
cultural preservation. As individual K'Ō students actively fulfill their kuleana, the responsibility
to contribute and care for their lāhui, they integrate a narrative of resilience and collective

31
identity. These acts of giving back contribute to the well-being and resilience of individuals and
the broader self-determination and survivance of the lāhui. Acknowledging and supporting the
dedication of K'Ō students to giving back is essential for educational institutions and holds
significant potential for supporting and strengthening the lāhui.
In conclusion, Kanaka ʻŌiwi students in higher education experience resilience, cultural
pride, and a profound sense of responsibility. Navigating through the challenges of cultural
discontinuity, displacement from the ʻāina, and the enduring effects of historical settler
colonialism, K'Ō students showcase an unwavering commitment to preserving their cultural
identity and their lāhui. The dissonance arising from cultural differences and the pressures of
assimilation underscores the urgent need for transformative shifts in educational paradigms. K'Ō
scholars advocate for frameworks rooted in K'Ō culture, embracing a holistic, collective, and
interconnected approach that honors diverse identities and knowledge systems. A culturally
based framework enhances educational success by fostering a deeper understanding of K'Ō
students’ place within their lāhui. The profound connection to the ʻāina and lāhui forms the
emotional core of K'Ō students' experiences. Displacement from the ʻāina is not merely physical;
it disrupts the very foundations of their self and well-being. Seeking pilina (connection) becomes
crucial for restoring identity and purpose, emphasizing the importance of familial and lāhui
relationships in K'Ō students' well-being. Enduring racism and stereotypes, K'Ō students draw
strength from their ancestral knowledge, defying challenges with cultural pride and resilience.
The experiences of overcoming discrimination testify to their ability to confront systemic biases,
relying on their cultural identity for empowerment. Central to the K'Ō student experience is the
concept of kuleana (responsibility) to give back. Their experience goes beyond individual pursuit
as they are committed to community and cultural preservation. Acts of giving back empower

32
K'Ō students, providing a foundation for cultural identity, community engagement, and
resilience. It bridges individual academic pursuits and the broader goal of indigenous
nation-building, reflecting a commitment deeply rooted in a shared cultural identity.
In acknowledging and supporting K'Ō students' dedication to giving back, educational
institutions contribute to preserving and strengthening the lāhui. The narratives of K'Ō students
in higher education transcend individual success, embodying a powerful journey of resilience,
cultural pride, and collective empowerment.
Kaunaloa: Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Student Persistence
In the journey to understand how Kanaka ʻŌiwi students persist within higher education,
four fundamental pillars emerged as crucial: academic preparedness, financial support, cultural
safe spaces, and student support. Each of these pillars represents a distinctive aspect vital to the
holistic well-being and success of KʻŌ students. This section delves into the intricate
relationships between academic preparedness, financial support, and creating culturally aligned
support in fostering an environment conducive to KʻŌ student success. By examining the work
of pioneering scholars and recent research endeavors, this exploration navigates the nuanced
interplay of factors influencing KʻŌ academic success and the transformative potential
embedded within cultural kīpuka and culturally aligned support.
Mākaukau Naʻauao: Academic Preparedness
Makuakane-Dreschsel and Hagedorn (2000) published one of the first studies that
specifically explored factors that impacted K'Ō student persistence. They found that cumulative
GPA, financial aid, average credit hours, and enrollment improved persistence for liberal arts and
vocational-technical majors. In contrast, reverse transfer and attending an urban high school were
significant only for liberal arts students.

33
Another study by Hagedorn et al. (2006) explored the influence of academic factors on
graduation rates of K'Ō students. They found that socioeconomic status and high school GPA
were significant factors in attaining a bachelor’s degree. Students who graduated from
Kamehameha Schools, a private college preparatory school for K'Ō students, were more likely to
begin at a four-year institution (Hagedorn et al., 2006) and more likely to complete a Bachelor’s
degree (Oliveira, 2005). Other predictive academic factors include college readiness, a group of
academic behaviors such as time management, responsibility, and maturity (Jensen, 2020).
Jensen (2020) argues that K'Ō students could benefit from early college models that help
improve academic achievement and college enrollment. Benham (2006) found that NHPI
students face several challenges, including insufficient academic preparation in high school, lack
of access to college preparatory programs, and financial barriers to college attendance. This
research suggests that K'Ō students require increased access to rigorous college preparatory
programs to build academic self-discipline and increase their academic preparedness to prepare
them for higher education success.
Other research on K'Ō higher education persistence found that socioeconomic status
(Hagedorn et al., 2006), high school GPA (Makuakane & Hagedorn, 2000; Hagedorn et al.,
2006), friend and family support (Hagedorn et al., 2006; Lima, 2015), student involvement
(Lima, 2015), living on campus, and engaging with peers and faculty (Matsumoto, 2010), and
attending a mainland college (Hagedorn et al., 2003) improved retention. Family responsibilities,
job responsibilities, and community college attendance negatively impacted retention (Hagedorn
et al., 2003). Surprisingly, Matsumoto (2010) found no significant relationship between a sense
of belonging and degree completion.

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Kākoʻo Kālā: Financial Support
Financing education is a significant factor shared amongst many K'Ō education studies
(Makuakane & Hagedorn, 2000; Hagedorn et al., 2006; Lima, 2015; Roberts & Hitchcock, 2018;
Oliveira, 2005; Borthwick-Wong, 2017; Uehara et al., 2018; Rothwell, 2013; Hokoana, 2010).
Makuakane and Hagedorn (2000) found that financial aid was the “most predictive variable for
persistence” in their study on liberal arts and vocational-technical K'Ō students. Hagedorn and
Tibbets (2003) found that many students would not have gone to college without financial aid.
Similarly, their study found that financial aid, particularly from Kamehameha Schools, was the
strongest positive predictor of college completion. The lack of finances was among the most
mentioned barriers to staying in school (Jensen, 2020; Uehara et al., 2018). Uehara et al. (2018)
found that many NHPI students needed to work to defray the cost of tuition and basic living
expenses.
Considering the historical economic challenges endured by the K'Ō community, one can
expect that college financial assistance strongly impacts academic outcomes and degree
attainment. Borthwick-Wong (2017) and Oliveira (2005) call for increased commitment from
private philanthropists and public institutions to increase scholarships and financial support
programs to help K'Ō students pay for college. Oliveira (2005) recommends establishing a
state-sponsored financial aid program and combining efforts between other scholarship programs
to strengthen financial opportunities for K'Ō students. Personal banking options such as a
matched savings program, like individual development accounts (IDAs), can improve
enrollment, graduation, and college degree attainment for K'Ō students (Rothwell, 2013). Early
college programs that address the actual cost of college education with parental involvement may
improve financial literacy and college planning (Oliveira, 2005; Jensen, 2020).

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Kīpuka: Culturally Safe Space
In the Kanaka ʻŌiwi tradition, kīpuka are known as an oasis of life and vegetation spared
from destruction within a sea of hardened lava. The vegetation and life preserved within kīpuka
are essential resources where new life may generate and thrive within a nutrient-deficient lava
field. Similarly, cultivating cultural kīpuka, or a protected oasis for K'Ō students in higher
educational institutions, can promote academic, cultural, and social growth for K'Ō students. In
addition to providing safe spaces, complementary culturally aligned student support can cultivate
a greater sense of belonging, improving academic success and retention. This section will
explore how cultural kīpuka and culturally aligned support are essential for K'Ō student support
and academic success.
McGregor (1995) found that geographically isolated rural communities in Hawaiʻi served
as cultural kīpuka, insulated from Western and colonial influences, and maintained the
“Hawaiian way of life” through traditional K'Ō beliefs and practices. The cultural ʻike
(knowledge) sustained in these cultural kīpuka supported the Hawaiian Renaissance and cultural
regeneration in the 20th century. Within higher education, Vaughn et al. (2020) suggest cultural
kīpuka on college campuses promote academic, cultural, and social development, which are
critical for the growth of the K'Ō community on campus. Kīpuka can provide culturally aligned
support by providing intentional spaces to facilitate NHPI success, supporting NHPI studies,
honoring genealogy and fostering mentorship, hiring PI staff and faculty, working with local
organizations, and disaggregating data on AAPI students. Additionally, frameworks integrating
K'Ō conceptualizations of well-being that center on culture, wellness factors, community, and
connection to the land can improve student educational attainment (Wong-Wilson, 2016).
Institutions must validate and incorporate the indigenous cultural practices perspectives within

36
higher education through cultural kīpuka. In the same way that cultural kīpuka benefited the
entire KʻŌ community in Hawaiʻi, cultural kīpuka on campus can also enhance the experience
and development for all KʻŌ students, faculty, and staff (Vaughn et al., 2020; Lipe, 2018).
As discussed earlier, KʻŌ and other indigenous people strongly connect to place and land.
Consequently, providing inclusive physical spaces, such as cultural centers, offers critical student
support services that can support KʻŌ and other underserved student populations. Unfortunately,
no current studies examine the effectiveness of dedicated KʻŌ cultural centers on a sense of
belonging. Given the shared Indigenous histories of KʻŌ and Native American (NA) students,
marked by the effects of colonization, educational researchers have advocated for the
aggregation of data and research efforts to gain a more comprehensive understanding of
Indigenous student experiences (Vaughn et al., 2020). Vaughn and Ambo (2022) introduce the
concept of Trans-Indigenous education, which highlights the importance of creating spaces that
honor the unique cultural identities of KʻŌ students and foster connections with other Indigenous
groups. This approach recognizes the shared struggles and histories of Indigenous peoples and
encourages educational institutions to cultivate spaces that promote solidarity and collective
growth among diverse Indigenous communities. Tachine et al. (2017) explored the sense of
belonging of NA students in their first year of college at a PWI with a dedicated NA cultural
center. Although NA students experienced microaggressions and structured disconnection from
their home communities, the Native Student Center provided a “home away from home”
environment that improved students’ sense of belonging.
Similarly, Alcantar et al. (2022) found that physical spaces are essential for supporting
underserved students and improving campus integration. Results recommend that educational
leaders address institutional biases and issues affecting these students before evaluating the

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placement of physical spaces on campus. Beyond creating physical space, institutions can
improve cultural validation for KʻŌ students by creating supportive learning environments,
effective teaching practices, increasing quality interactions with peers, increasing student-faculty
interactions, and collaborative learning (Saelua et al., 2017). Hokoana (2010) suggests that K'Ō
students could benefit from having a good understanding of their culture to assist them with
navigating college. Hokoana argues for creating services integrating K'Ō pedagogy to support
K'Ō students better. These improvements can help KʻŌ students feel their culture and identity are
acknowledged, valued, and supported.
Kākoʻo Moʻomeheu: Culturally Aligned Student Support
Educational institutions must recognize their responsibility to offer culturally aligned
student support to address systemic issues affecting KʻŌ students, whose worldview heavily
relies on relatedness and connection (Lipe, 2018). Higher education can be an isolating
experience, especially for KʻŌ students who become separated from their familial support
networks and physical homeland. At college, KʻŌ students rely heavily on student support
networks, including friends, faculty, student organizations, and advisors (Borthwick-Wong,
2017). They actively seek support from faculty and staff who understand their culture (Uehara et
al., 2018). To ensure KʻŌ student success, institutions must create and maintain culturally
aligned student support that reduces financial, academic, cultural, and social barriers and
incorporate KʻŌ culture and opportunities for Indigenous identity exploration (Borthwick-Wong,
2017). Although limited, this section will discuss examples of successful culturally aligned K'Ō
student support, which include intentional support services and mentoring programs offered
before and during college.
Jensen (2020) found that one early college program in Hawai‘i that integrated cultural

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supports saw statistically significant increases in student English and math scores and an 85%
postsecondary enrollment rate. Students in this program expressed satisfaction with their K'Ō
mentors, who they felt were there for them and provided essential guidance and new knowledge.
The program also used culturally aligned mentoring, which involved culturally specific and
pluralistic teaching approaches that built cultural competence and respect. Additionally, the
program fostered a sense of belonging through an extended family structure, which prior
research has demonstrated to support retention for Indigenous college students. Yamamoto and
Black (2013) also found that family was essential to K'Ō students with disabilities. Their
decisions about post-high plans were influenced by their culture and their family’s economic
situation rather than their disability. Family presence, support, and cultural validation are
significant in K'Ō academic journeys.
Similarly, Roberts and Hitchcock (2017) assessed the impact of culturally aligned support
of a K'Ō high school program aimed at increasing the number of K'Ō students who participated
in dual enrollment programs and earned college credit in high school. Students received
comprehensive support, including culturally aligned mentoring and career counseling, cost
deferment for expenses not covered by other programs, after-school tutorial support to improve
college-level skills, and a computerized accelerated learning program that diagnosed and
improved reading, math, and writing. Students shared positive responses about their future career
and academic aspirations and improved practical skills, time management, and responsibilities.
The program hired K'Ō adults from the students' communities with backgrounds in counseling to
provide culturally aligned mentoring and academic and career counseling. Previous research
suggests that culturally aligned mentors help students envision themselves as college students
and promote college identification, a sense of college belonging, and self-efficacy (CITE).

39
These mentors serve as positive role models, listeners, and helpful advisors who
genuinely support students in their college and career attainment, a factor that prior research has
linked to student success (Kealoha, 2012). Culturally aligned academic and career counseling
helped deepen students' sense of haʻaheo (pride) and ponoʻi (self and place). Mentors who
helped students improve their time management, set higher postsecondary goals, and strengthen
their cultural identity were crucial to program success.
Bonus (2021) focused on NHPI students who quit college and found that students often
perceived failure as their own rather than an institutional shortcoming. He explored how NHPI
students in continental US schools utilize cultural practices to counteract educational challenges
and build connections. Bonus uses the ocean as a metaphor for the students’ struggle to integrate
their identities, symbolizing connection to other NHPI students and the physical separation from
their homelands. Collective support through mentorship programs and study groups challenges
the Western individual-focused educational framework, allowing NHPI students to find
validation, support, and a sense of purpose in their schooling.
Other K'Ō scholars have developed specific programs integrating cultural pedagogy,
evaluation, and community support. Silva (2020) examined the effectiveness of a robust
culturally based program, Ke Ala ‘Ike, developed to increase K'Ō enrollment, persistence,
graduation, and transfer outcomes. Program leaders based the program's curriculum on Hawaiian
culture and values and integrated financial aid, scholarships, career development, and culturally
aligned activities to enhance academic success in transferring to a four-year university by
offering academic support, tutoring, and counseling. Silva used indigenous evaluation methods
to assess the program’s effectiveness. The program’s framework led to promising financial aid,
graduation, transfer, and cultural well-being outcomes among K'Ō and non-K'Ō graduates.

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Saelua et al. (2016) developed a student-initiated outreach project called Pacific Islanders
Education and Retention (PIER) at UCLA. The program started as community half-day visits
that current UCLA students coordinated with local high schools. As student leaders transitioned
to graduate school and staff positions at UCLA, they expanded the program, eventually
becoming a university-supported program with full-time staff. PIER provided a safe space for
students to engage with their cultural identity, connect with the larger NHPI community, and
increase NHPI visibility on campus.
In summary, culturally aligned student support within higher education institutions is
essential for ensuring academic success for K'Ō students and reinforcing their cultural identity,
pride, and resilience. Thus, institutions play a crucial role in creating environments where K'Ō
students can thrive academically, culturally, and personally. Educational institutions responsive
to this call will lay the foundation for a more inclusive, supportive, and equitable higher
education landscape for K'Ō students.
Conceptual Framework
Kanaka ʻŌiwi students have a unique history affected by systematic oppression through
settler colonialism and occupation. A critical framework is necessary to fully understand how
colonization and occupation affect and continue to affect the educational history of K'Ō students.
However, existing critical frameworks are insufficient to examine the history and challenges of
K'Ō. This conceptual framework reframes the issue of K'Ō student adjustment and cultural
assimilation. Smith (2012) suggests that imperialism and colonialism influence Western research
and recommends that researchers decolonize research by centering indigenous narratives and
perspectives. Similarly, Milner (2008) suggests that research should disrupt notions of normality
and deficit narratives that describe communities of color.

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This proposed conceptual framework follows both recommendations by providing a
positive, indigenous-centered framework centered on how cultural factors are a source of cultural
strength and resilience for K'Ō students and their Indigenous identity. The following section will
explain how this conceptual framework operationalizes the tenets of Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit (Wright &
Balutski, 2016; Salis Reyes, 2018; Cristobal, 2018) within the transcultured phase of Huffman’s
(2001) Transculturation Hypothesis and Museus’s (2013) Culturally Engaging Campus
Environments (CECE).
Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit
K'Ō scholars have synthesized features from Critical Race Theory, Tribal Crit, and K'Ō
epistemology to develop a K'Ō-specific critical race model. This K'Ō-specific model,
Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit, is necessary to understand K'Ō identities, needs, and experiences. The central
tenets of Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit (K'ŌC) are 1) colonialism and occupation are endemic in society, 2)
K'Ō identities are multiple, intersecting, and liminal, and mo'okū'auhau (connections to people,
places, and spaces) are used to understand relationships, 3) mo‘olelo (stories, narratives,
histories) are integral to understanding, and 4) K'Ō have a kuleana (responsibility) to use our ‘ike
(knowledge) and mo‘olelo for social justice (Wright & Balutski, 2016; Salis Reyes, 2018;
Cristobal, 2018). The consequences of colonization and occupation are pervasive and unique to
Hawai‘i. K'Ō have endured cultural genocide, exploitation of their ‘āina (land), and
appropriation of their identity. Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit provides a framework to understand these
impacts and develop active resistance and survivance.
K'ŌC argues that colonialism and occupation are endemic to society, especially in
education. Cultural discontinuities result from the Western colonial influence on Western
education and indigenous ways of knowing, negatively impacting learning, development, and

42
engagement (Kukahiko et al., 2020). Many successful examples of K'Ō educators have used
K'ŌC as a framework to challenge and change dominant Western ideologies of education. These
K'Ō educators successfully integrated K'ŌC tenets into their work by using mo‘olelo,
mo‘okū‘auhau (relationships), and cultural ‘ike to develop new methods of culturally responsive
education. However, researchers conducted nearly all research on culturally responsive K'Ō
education in Hawai‘i, where most K'Ō learners and educators reside. In this context, K'Ō
educators have administrative and systemic support to integrate K'ŌC into their curriculum and
change their predominately Western educational approach. Since K'ŌC is relatively new, no
research has been using K'ŌC to understand how K'Ō students navigate challenges at PWIs
outside of Hawai‘i. This study seeks to fill this gap by using K'ŌC in a Western educational
environment where K'Ō students have limited culturally responsive support from the institution
or other K'Ō educators.
Transculturation Hypothesis
In his seminal work, Huffman (2001) studied how traditionally ethnic Indigenous
students responded to cultural discontinuity at a small midwestern university. Indigenous
students at a non-indigenous PWI experience a conflict between their Indigenous culture and the
mainstream culture, referred to as cultural discontinuity. Huffman argues that an Indigenous
student’s success could be predicted by how they respond to this discontinuity. He found that
successful students used their Indigenous identity as an emotional anchor and source of strength
to navigate mainstream cultural settings, which he calls transculturation. Transcultured students
developed their ability through different stages (self-discovery, realignment, and participation)
and eventually were able to interact within and between cultures as needed. These students could
relate to both cultures without fully assimilating into the mainstream culture and continued to use

43
their native cultural heritage for personal strength and a socio-emotional anchor. Essentially, they
could interact within the mainstream Western culture with their indigenous identities intact.
Unfortunately, students who resisted mainstream culture and the resulting cultural conflict
eventually developed alienation, estrangement, and, in some cases, left the university.
Huffman suggests that the discontinuities between Indigenous culture and Western
education, cultural expectations, and traditions place Indigenous students at a disadvantage and
could be used to understand Indigenous students' educational disparities. The Transculturation
Hypothesis suggests that culturally traditional Indigenous students can overcome cultural
discontinuity and achieve academic success while retaining their Indigenous identities. Most
importantly, this framework suggests that transcultured students can rely on their Indigenous
identity and culture as a source of strength to persist.
Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE)
Vincent Tinto (1993) developed Integration Theory, a significant and foundational aspect
of student development theory, which focuses on the factors influencing student persistence and
success in higher education. Although Tinto’s Integration Theory has significantly contributed to
student development and influenced our understanding of student persistence and success in
higher education, Tinto’s Integration Theory emphasis on integration assumes that students must
abandon their previous contexts and assimilate into the institution’s academic and social
expectations to succeed. Tierney (1992) argues that this oppressive discourse risks otherizing
marginalized populations. K'Ō students have unique challenges and experiences that require
more inclusive and equitable practices within higher education.
Museus’ (2013) Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) responds to Tinto’s
Integration Theory by emphasizing the relevance of cultural inclusion and responsiveness in

44
encouraging student integration and success in higher education. Museus argues that focusing
solely on social and academic integration risks overlooking student communities’ different
experiences and demands. Museus’ proposal for CECE aims to establish inclusive spaces that
value and promote students’ different cultural backgrounds, identities, and experiences. CECE
suggests institutions can build a sense of belonging and improve student integration by
embracing culturally sensitive approaches such as curriculum development, programming, and
support services, particularly for marginalized and underrepresented students. The cultural
relevance and inclusion prioritized within CECE closely align with the earlier discussion on
cultivating cultural kīpuka to improve cultural validation and belonging among K'Ō students.
Museus (2013) argues that undergraduates who encounter more culturally engaging
campus environments are more likely to exhibit a greater sense of belonging, have more
favorable academic dispositions, achieve higher levels of academic performance, and persist to
graduation. The CECE model suggests nine indicators of culturally engaged campus
environments: cultural familiarity, culturally relevant knowledge, cultural community service,
opportunities for meaningful cross-cultural engagement, collectivist cultural orientations,
culturally validating environments, humanized educational environments, proactive philosophies,
and availability of holistic support.
Combined Conceptual Framework
The resulting combined conceptual framework uses K'ŌC as a foundation, the
transculturation process as a framework for understanding, and the CECE model as a supportive
context. The foundation centers K'Ō epistemology and cultural practices to challenge colonial
narratives and promote self-determination, sovereignty, and cultural revitalization. Educational
researchers can use K'ŌC to critically examine educational policies, practices, and curricula to

45
identify and address systemic inequities and biases that impact K'Ō students. The proposed
framework identifies various cultural factors, based on the tenets of K'ŌC, that provide cultural
strength to K'Ō students to build and strengthen their indigenous identity: moʻolelo (stories,
narratives, histories), cultural ike (knowledge), mo‘okū‘auhau (relationships) and kuleana
(responsibility).
The framework of understanding uses the transculturation process to explore the interplay
between K'Ō cultural values and practices and the dominant cultural norms and expectations in
educational settings. The framework provides space for the challenges and opportunities as K'Ō
students navigate transcultural spaces and supports developing a strong sense of cultural identity
and connection to the lāhui. The tenants of K'ŌC provide the elements that support Indigenous
identity development and use their Indigenous identity to reach transculturation.
The CECE model allows students to reach transculturation by creating a campus
environment that is culturally welcoming, affirming, and supportive of K'Ō students' identities,
languages, and cultural practices. The institution can offer culturally aligned curricula, programs,
and activities that connect to K'Ō history, culture, and traditions, fostering a sense of belonging
and engagement. The institution can strengthen students' cultural connections and sense of
purpose by providing opportunities for K'Ō students to engage with cultural mentors, role
models, and community members.
Figure 1 illustrates the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi haumāna experience as a dynamic process of
transculturation that occurs between two primary contexts: the Indigenous context, influenced by
elements of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Crit (K’ŌC), and the Western educational context. On the left side of
the diagram, the Indigenous context is depicted with a mountainous island symbolizing the
foundational elements of K’ŌC—mo‘olelo (stories), mo‘okū‘auhau (genealogy), cultural ‘ike

46
(knowledge), and kuleana (responsibility), contribute to strengthening the student's Indigenous
identity. In the center, the waʻa (canoe) represents the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Haumāna navigating the
process of transculturation, which involves self-discovery, realignment, and participation. This
process enables students to navigate and integrate both their Indigenous identity and the Western
educational context without losing their cultural roots. The right side of the diagram represents
the Western educational context, symbolized by a university building. A culturally engaging
campus environment supports validating the student’s identity through cultural familiarity,
relevant knowledge, holistic support, cross-cultural engagement, and culturally validating
environments. Arrows and waves frame the diagram, indicating this identity navigation's
ongoing, fluid nature and validation across different contexts. This framework emphasizes the
importance of Indigenous cultural grounding and supportive campus environments in fostering a
successful transculturation experience for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. Integrating the frameworks
combines the critical lens of Kanaka 'ŌiwiCrit with the dynamic understanding of the
transculturation process to develop culturally responsive educational practices that address the
unique needs and experiences of K'Ō students. The Culturally Engaging Campus Environments
(CECE) model provides clear indicators to create supportive campus environments that promote
cultural engagement, identity formation, and academic success for K'Ō students.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework for the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Haumāna Experience

47

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Conclusion
In exploring Kanaka 'Ōiwi persistence within higher education, the four foundational
pillars, academic preparedness, financial support, culturally safe space, and culturally aligned
support, help shape the resilient paths of K'Ō students. The conceptual framework presented,
anchored in Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit (K'ŌC), the transculturation process, and the Culturally Engaging
Campus Environments (CECE) model, plays a pivotal role in contextualizing the significance of
the four foundational pillars—academic preparedness, financial support, culturally safe space,
and culturally aligned support.
Academic preparedness underscores the significance of increasing access to rigorous
college preparatory programs for K'Ō students to strengthen their foundation to ensure academic
success in higher education. K'ŌC emphasizes the centrality of decolonizing educational
practices, providing a critical lens to scrutinize existing educational policies, practices, and
curricula and identifying systemic inequities that impact K'Ō students. By embracing K'Ō
epistemology, the framework guides the development of academically prepared K'Ō students,
ensuring that the preparatory programs are culturally responsive and aligned with K'ŌC
principles.
Supporting K'Ō students' academic pursuits is highly dependent on financial support.
Research emphasizes the urgent need for continued commitment from philanthropists,
educational institutions, and state-funded programs to increase financial aid, scholarships, and
financial support programs. While acknowledging the historical economic challenges the K'Ō
community faces from generations of colonization and occupation, increased financial assistance
is vital to addressing this educational and financial debt. K'ŌC, in this context, advocates for
socio-economic justice and calls for concrete actions to address financial and academic

49
disparities by aligning them with Indigenous perspectives on wealth and communal well-being.
Cultural kīpuka, safe spaces, serve as sanctuaries essential for nurturing the academic,
cultural, and social growth of K'Ō students (Vaughn et al., 2020). The concept of cultural kīpuka,
integral to K'ŌC, is an essential bridge to understanding the need for culturally safe spaces. It
acknowledges that spaces for K'Ō students must be physically safe and culturally affirming.
Drawing parallels with the cultural kīpuka that preserved traditional K'Ō beliefs and practices,
the framework facilitates the creation of these kīpuka on campuses, where cultural practices and
identities are not only preserved but actively contribute to the cultural and social development of
the K'Ō community.
K'ŌC becomes instrumental in understanding the transformative potential inherent in
culturally aligned support. In addition to assisting, this framework promotes culturally aligned
counseling, active community engagement, and mentoring by integrating indigenous knowledge
and mo'olelo. K'ŌC aligns with transculturation, where the Indigenous identity becomes not just
a point of departure but a source of strength in navigating the complexities of a mainstream
educational environment. Educational institutions must recognize the importance of connection
within the K'Ō worldview and prioritize and sustain culturally aligned support systems.
Integrating the conceptual framework with these pillars provides a critical and cultural lens
to understand the challenges and strategies essential for success in K'Ō student persistence. The
call to action is clear - fortify academic foundations, alleviate financial barriers, cultivate
culturally safe spaces, and sustain culturally aligned support. In doing so, we honor the resilience
of KʻŌ students and pave the way for a more inclusive, supportive, and equitable higher
education landscape.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter will explore the methodology employed for this study, providing a clear
understanding of its alignment with the research questions and how it contributes to the study
objectives. This study seeks to explore and understand the experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college
students with culturally aligned support, with a primary focus on engagement, persistence, and
success in higher education. These research questions guided this study:
● How do Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students engage with culturally aligned support systems
within their educational institutions?
● What role do culturally aligned supports play in the sense of belonging of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
college students?
These research questions will guide this exploration into the factors contributing to the
engagement and sense of belonging of K‘Ō college students in an educational context supporting
their cultural identity.
This study employed a qualitative research design that focuses on understanding the lived
experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students with culturally aligned support systems. The
research design is grounded in the analysis of empirical data gathered primarily through in-depth
interviews, observations, and textual analysis. This approach is particularly well-suited for
exploring the complex and nuanced experiences of students, allowing themes to emerge directly
from the data without the constraints of predefined categories. The qualitative design aligned
effectively with the research questions by exploring the patterns and themes that reflect students'
perspectives on cultural alignment, persistence, preparation, and success.
Several studies in the literature have successfully employed a qualitative research design
to explore similar topics, demonstrating its efficacy in revealing nuanced and context-specific

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insights into the K‘Ō educational experience (Wright, 2003; Borthwick-Wong, 2017). By
aligning with this methodology, this study can comprehensively explore the experiences of K‘Ō
students regarding cultural alignment, engagement, and sense of belonging.
Population and Sample
This study focused on a specific sample of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students enrolled in
higher education institutions with culturally aligned supports. This sample allows the study to
gain a deeper understanding of their experiences within the context of the research questions.
Studying their experiences was crucial because it sheds light on the challenges, opportunities,
and support systems that impact their educational journey, particularly cultural alignment,
persistence, preparation, and success. This knowledge can improve the academic experiences and
outcomes of all K‘Ō college students, particularly those enrolled in institutions without culturally
aligned support systems.
Sampling Approach
This study used purposive sampling, which is appropriate for this type of qualitative
research. Purposive sampling involves selecting participants based on specific criteria relevant to
the research objectives (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). In this study, the criteria for selection
include K‘Ō or Native Hawaiian ethnicity identification and enrollment as an undergraduate
student in a post-high institution with culturally aligned support systems. By focusing on
students who self-identify as K‘Ō or Native Hawaiian, the study maintains the authenticity and
relevance of the data collected. Restricting the sample to undergraduate students narrows the
focus to a critical phase of the academic journey, where students face challenges and pivotal
decisions, making it an ideal opportunity to explore the impact of culturally aligned supports.

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Understanding how these supports intersect with the undergraduate experience provides insights
into their role in persistence and academic success.
I recruited participants from seven four-year institutions with varying characteristics to
ensure a broad range of perspectives. These included six universities in the continental United
States and one in Hawai‘i, encompassing a mix of public and private institutions with varying
enrollment sizes and cultural resources. The selection of institutions aimed to capture diverse
educational contexts—such as predominantly white institutions (PWIs), mid-sized public
universities, and large private universities—each offering different levels of culturally aligned
support systems. Although I recruited students from community colleges, only participants from
four-year institutions responded. This narrowed the scope of the study to focus on the
experiences of K‘Ō students within four-year college settings.
The criteria for selecting these schools included geographic diversity, culturally aligned
support systems, and a range of institutional types (e.g., public vs. private, large vs. small
enrollment). I designed these criteria to provide a comprehensive understanding of how different
educational contexts impact the availability and effectiveness of support for K‘Ō students. The
variety in institutional type also allowed for examining how different levels of cultural
integration within educational settings affect students' sense of belonging and academic
persistence.
The specific context for this study is academic institutions that provide culturally aligned
support for K‘Ō college students. These systems encompass various resources and initiatives,
including student-led K‘Ō and Pacific Islander groups, dedicated physical spaces or cultural
centers, culturally oriented programming, mentorship programs, instructors with K‘Ō and Pacific
Islander expertise, and academic departments focusing on these cultures. The study situates

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student experiences within a supportive ecosystem that fosters cultural alignment by selecting
participants from these institutions. By doing so, the research captures the nuances of how these
supports function in diverse settings, providing richer insights into their roles in promoting a
sense of belonging and academic success among K‘Ō students.
My Role as Researcher
In the context of this dissertation research, it is essential to provide a comprehensive
understanding of my role as a researcher, including my positionality and its implications for the
study. Villaverde (2008), as cited in Douglas and Nganga (2015), describes positionality as an
individual’s intersection between power and the politics of various factors such as gender, race,
class, sexuality, ethnicity, culture, religion, and language. This section explores my role as the
researcher, potential biases, and strategies to address them.
Positionality Reflection in the Researcher's Practice
I am Isaac Shalom Keoua Kealiʻi Pā I Ka Lani Nui Vigilla, a doctoral candidate at the
Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California. My deep commitment to
addressing critical educational issues, especially those related to supporting K‘Ō students, drives
my research journey. Understanding my positionality is essential for conducting this research
effectively. The significance of positionality in the research process cannot be overstated. As
Jones and McEwen (2000) assert, social identity dimensions and contextual factors, such as
family background, sociocultural conditions, life experiences, and career choices, are intricately
connected to one’s identity. These elements collectively shape how individuals perceive the
world and inform their actions. Recognizing one's positionality in educational research is
paramount for collecting and interpreting data.

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To contextualize my positionality as a researcher, it is pertinent to delineate certain
aspects of my social identities that may influence this study. I identify as a first-generation,
heterosexual, cisgender male of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi, Chinese, and Filipino descent. These identities,
upbringing, and life experiences influence my research approach. Growing up in Hawaiʻi's
multicultural environment instilled a strong sense of diversity, equity, and inclusion. This
multicultural background has fostered a deep appreciation for cultural diversity and the practice
of cultural humility.
My K‘Ō culture has imparted the value of Aloha, a dynamic Hawaiian term defined as
compassion, kindness, grace, and empathy. This principle guides my interactions throughout this
research, emphasizing empathy and compassion while providing support. My K‘Ō heritage fuels
my passion for advocating for K‘Ō students and their educational advancement.
Experiencing financial instability in a family with a low socioeconomic status (SES) has
taught me resilience and the importance of empathy in student support. Witnessing how
economic challenges impact educational opportunities underscores the need to understand
students' unique circumstances. As a first-generation college student who experienced both
privilege and challenges in higher education, I am committed to advocating for inclusive learning
environments that recognize students' journeys, celebrate their strengths, and empower them to
overcome obstacles. Understanding my positionality allows me to approach this research with
sensitivity to potential biases and a commitment to mitigating their influence on the study.
Acknowledging Assumptions or Biases
As a researcher, it is essential to recognize and address potential assumptions or biases
that may unconsciously affect this study (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). While my multicultural
background has enriched my cultural understanding and empathy, I remain vigilant against

55
biases, whether cultural, racial, or ethnic, that could shape my interpretation of student
experiences.
A fundamental aspect of this self-awareness is acknowledging the diverse experiences
and identities within the K‘Ō community. K‘Ō college students arrive at educational institutions
with varying degrees of closeness or association with their cultural identities. Historical and
socioeconomic factors have sometimes compelled K‘Ō families to leave their native Hawaiʻi,
seeking career and academic opportunities on the "continent." This diaspora has resulted in
varying levels of "Hawaiianness" among K‘Ō college students, encompassing their cultural
knowledge and language skills. Many of these students seek out K‘Ō cultural groups and support
systems on campus to reconnect with their roots and sense of community. As a researcher, I must
not bias the participants' responses based on my experience as a K‘Ō born and raised with access
to K‘Ō history, practices, and knowledge.
The exploration of K‘Ō experiences in higher education holds profound personal
significance for me, as I, too, underwent a challenging transition to college life. While my shared
K‘Ō identity and heritage with participants establish a connection, I must consistently
acknowledge throughout this research process that my experiences are not universal. Each
student's journey is uniquely their own. As a researcher, my primary responsibility is to capture
their voices and experiences without inadvertently imposing my beliefs or experiences on their
narratives.
By maintaining this mindful approach to these dynamics, I can genuinely and
comprehensively understand the intricacies of their identity development and educational
journeys. In so doing, I aspire to use this research to help create environments where Kanaka
‘Ōiwi students feel genuinely recognized and valued for their unique cultural backgrounds. I will

56
actively self-reflect and seek peer feedback to mitigate potential assumptions or biases
throughout this rigorous research process.
While I am an alumnus of one of the data collection sites, there were no prior
relationships with any study participants or the other data collection sites used.
In conclusion, my role as a researcher in this dissertation research is deeply rooted in my
positionality and social identities. The recognition of my multicultural heritage, past experiences
as a college student, and the privilege of my educational background collectively serve as the
lens through which I approach this study. I am committed to embracing cultural humility,
challenging biases, and fostering inclusivity and equity in this research. Through self-reflection, I
aim to minimize potential assumptions to gather an authentic understanding of K‘Ō student
experiences.
Data Collection Strategies
This section provides a comprehensive overview of the data collection strategies
employed in this study. The study aims to explore the experiences of K‘Ō college students and
their interactions with culturally aligned supports within higher education institutions. A
well-structured methodology for data collection is essential to ensure the information's accuracy,
depth, and relevance.
Recruitment Strategy
I compiled a list of post-high school institutions that provided culturally aligned support,
from which I recruited eligible students. I recruited participants through the identified culturally
aligned support systems to guarantee that participants were not only of K‘Ō descent but also
actively engaged with the culturally aligned support their higher education institutions offered. I
used email listservs, personal emails, and ads on social media channels to recruit participants.

57
Some members involved with the cultural support programs assisted with recruitment by sharing
electronic flyers or email announcements (See Appendix A for Call for Participants). The study
employed this strategy to ensure the highest response rate from students actively engaged with
culturally aligned supports.
An initial online screening confirmed that participants met the criteria for participant
selection, self-identification as Kanaka ‘Ōiwi or Native Hawaiian, and current enrollment as
undergraduate students at a post-high institution with culturally aligned support. Participants
received the Informed Consent document before the screening, which indicated that data would
remain on record throughout the study. To proceed to the Screening Survey, the participant
agreed to participate. They could not proceed with the study if they declined participation (Q1)
or answered no to any eligibility criteria questions (Q2-Q4). I offered students a $50 gift card to
complete the screening survey and participate in the online interview process (See Appendix B
for Informed Consent and Screening Survey).
I maintained impartiality throughout the study by not having any prior personal
acquaintances with the research participants. Additionally, there were no pre-existing
relationships with data collection sites. This approach ensured I conducted recruitment without
potential biases or conflicts of interest from prior associations.
Data Collection Procedure
The methodology employed in this dissertation draws upon Indigenous epistemologies,
particularly K‘Ō epistemology, and emphasizes the cultural significance of storytelling as a
methodological approach (Kawano, 2023; de Silva & Hunter, 2021). Following Tillman’s (2002)
recommendation for culturally sensitive research approaches, this approach uses personal and
participants' cultural knowledge and experiences in data design, collection, and interpretation.

58
This approach aligns seamlessly with the overarching Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Crit framework, which
underscores the pivotal role of moʻolelo (storytelling) in sharing and comprehending knowledge.
In ancient Hawaiʻi, moʻolelo was the primary method of transmitting knowledge, history,
and cultural values from generation to generation (hoʻomanawanui, 2008). Moʻolelo in K‘Ō
epistemology serves to transmit knowledge, preserve identity, and ensure community survival,
aligning with Indigenous epistemologies (de Silva & Hunter, 2021). Moʻolelo preserves and
revitalizes cultural ʻike (knowledge) and aids decolonization by challenging dominant narratives
and supporting K‘Ō resurgence through cultural revitalization (Kawano, 2023; de Silva &
Hunter, 2021).
Talk-story, a contemporary form of moʻolelo, involves informal, conversational
storytelling, where people share personal experiences, memories, and reflections (Au &
Kawakami, 1985). Talk story serves as a way to connect with others, build relationships, and
foster a sense of community (Sentell et al., 2020). Talk-story emphasizes relationality and
interconnectedness (Rogers, 2018). The talk-story interview method in this study involved an
informal, semi-structured one-on-one discussion used to build rapport and gather rich data on
experiences, perspectives, and beliefs (de Silva & Hunter, 2021). Using talk-story as a
methodology creates a more inclusive and culturally sensitive research process that aligns with
the values and perspectives of the K‘Ō participants.
Given the geographical diversity of participants, the study employed online qualitative
interviews as the primary data collection method. This approach provided a convenient means
for students from various regions to share their experiences. The researcher interviewed eight
K‘Ō undergraduate students for this study. Before each interview, I gave participants an informed
consent document explaining the study, confidentiality, data management, and compensation

59
information. Interviews lasted approximately 30-90 minutes, which allowed participants to share
their in-depth experiences. In total, I gathered 7 hours and 20 minutes of interview recordings.
The interviews employed a talk-story approach that entailed a non-formal, free-flowing
conversation led by the storyteller. Even though I developed a general interview protocol, the
interview evolved naturally. This approach allowed participants to explore and share their
experiences and challenges within higher education and how culturally aligned support systems
impacted their experiences. After the interview, I transcribed the responses, and participants
performed member checks via an online review. These member checks allowed participants to
review the interview summary and ensure their perspectives were accurately captured and
validated.
Instrument
The interview protocol served as the primary data collection tool. These protocols were
developed specifically for this study, drawing upon established qualitative research methods. The
researcher designed questions to elicit information about participants' backgrounds, connections
to Hawaiian identity, and engagement with culturally aligned supports. Given that the talk-story
approach relies on an informal, spontaneous exchange led by the storyteller, we developed the
interview protocol as a flexible guide. Throughout the conversation, I facilitated its natural
progression, ensuring that pertinent questions continued to be addressed (see Appendix C for
interview protocol).
Alignment
A crucial element of the research methodology employed in this study involves aligning
the data collection instruments with the research questions. The primary data collection
instrument, interview protocols, was intentionally designed to reflect the research questions

60
closely. This alignment ensures the collected data are systematically structured to provide
comprehensive insights into the research questions. The development of these interview
protocols was rooted in an extensive literature review on K‘Ō students and culturally aligned
supports. This iterative process ensured the questions were firmly grounded in the relevant
research, further solidifying the alignment between the research questions and the data collection
instrument. The following explains how I purposefully designed each interview question to align
with the research questions, contributing to the rigor of the data collection process.
The interviewer used clear and straightforward language to facilitate an open and
understandable discussion. Academic terms, like Kanaka ‘Ōiwi and culturally aligned supports,
were replaced with simpler, more commonly used terms such as Native Hawaiian and cultural
supports. The interview covered different questions on pilina (connection), experiences in higher
education, K‘Ō identity, cultural dissonance, engaging with cultural supports, connections on
campus, and kuleana. The researcher developed these questions based on the extensive literature
review on K‘Ō student characteristics and experiences.
Building pilina is an essential component of the talk-story approach and also aligns with
the values of K‘Ō students. Building rapport with interviewees also helped create a trusting
connection, allowing them to feel more comfortable sharing their beliefs, experiences, and
challenges. Aligned with RQ1, exploring the participants’ identity and challenges with cultural
dissonance can help provide insights into why students seek and engage with cultural support on
campus. These questions encourage participants to articulate their interactions, feelings, and
insights regarding their experiences with these systems, particularly when faced with difficult
situations or challenges.

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In line with RQ2, the second set of interview questions investigates the influence of
culturally aligned support on participants' sense of belonging. The research suggests that the
increased sense of belonging, connection, and mentorship K‘Ō can receive from culturally
aligned support can increase academic persistence and success. Additionally, many K‘Ō students
are motivated by their larger kuleana for their lāhui, which culturally aligned supports can
facilitate. These questions aim to uncover the pivotal role these supports play by exploring their
educational journeys and their successes alongside these supports.
This study demonstrates a deliberate and systematic approach to data collection by
systematically aligning the interview protocols with the research questions. The comprehensive
integration of these elements forms the foundation for robust data collection, positioning the
study to address its research questions successfully.
Data Analysis
This study rigorously subjected the qualitative data gathered to thematic analysis, an
established method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns within qualitative data
(Braun & Clarke, 2006). This approach ensured a systematic and thorough exploration of the
experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students with culturally aligned support systems.
The analysis began with an in-depth familiarization phase, where I repeatedly read and
analyzed the interview transcripts to familiarize myself with the content. I generated 42
data-driven initial codes during this stage that captured critical concepts and recurring patterns,
avoiding preconceived notions. After initial coding, I organized the 42 initial codes into seven
broader potential themes: engagement with cultural support programs, the importance of
community, personal and academic development, navigating cultural differences, the role of
mentorship, identity formation and validation, and empowerment and advocacy. Themes

62
represented recurring patterns of meaning that are prevalent across the dataset. I meticulously
reviewed and refined themes to represent the data accurately. Peers critically reviewed and
validated the alignment and consistency of the themes derived from anonymized interview
transcripts, significantly contributing to the robustness of the analysis. This iterative process
ensured that the seven potential themes were refined and consolidated into six final themes
aligned with the research questions and dataset.
These finalized themes were descriptively named and integrated into the narrative
analysis, providing a comprehensive portrayal of the findings. I constructed narrative
descriptions of these themes supported by direct quotations from the interviews to provide a rich
and contextually grounded portrayal of the findings. I integrated themes and interpretations into
the report analysis, which presents a comprehensive narrative of the findings, facilitating a
thorough understanding of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students' experiences.
Trustworthiness Measures
Several key strategies, including member checks, peer review, and data saturation, were
employed to ensure the trustworthiness of the qualitative data collected for this study. Member
checks involved active participation by research participants in validating and refining the data
collected (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The researcher allowed participants to review transcripts of
their interviews, contributing to the accuracy and credibility of the findings. Peer review added
credibility by seeking input from individuals with expertise in K‘Ō students (Merriam & Tisdell,
2015). Their insights and critiques played a pivotal role in refining data analysis and
interpretation, enhancing the overall quality of the research. Data saturation was methodically
attained by repeatedly collecting and analyzing data until redundancy became apparent,
indicating no new insights, themes, or information emerged (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This

63
process ensured that the study comprehensively explored participants' experiences and
perspectives, contributing to the trustworthiness of the findings.
These strategies worked together to enhance the overall trustworthiness of the research,
aligning with established practices in qualitative research and reinforcing the validity and rigor
of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). While acknowledging potential limitations, such as
participant bias in member checks, the strengths of these approaches in enhancing
trustworthiness were evident throughout the research process.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations are essential in research, and this study has taken multiple
measures to uphold the highest ethical standards using Pattonʻs (2002) “Ethical Issues
Checklist.” Informed consent was obtained from all participants, emphasizing the voluntary
nature of their involvement. The researcher explicitly informed all participants that they could
withdraw from the study at any point without repercussions. To protect participants' privacy, I
concealed their identities during data analysis and reporting and securely stored all data
accessible only to me. The researcher will conduct the study sensitively to the potential
vulnerabilities of K‘Ō college students, as this study will minimize harm or exploitation to
participants.
We recognize the potential bias associated with my K‘Ō background. To mitigate this,
ongoing self-reflection and peer engagement will be integral to the research process. The
researcher maintained transparency regarding their positionality with close consideration of
biases, dispositions, and assumptions.

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Limitations and Delimitations
This section examines the study's limitations and delimitations, focusing on the small,
purposefully selected sample, the geographic and institutional scope, and the qualitative
methodology. Additionally, it addresses the potential influence of the researcher's positionality,
factors regarding culturally aligned supports, and the use of English during data collection.
While these factors allowed for an in-depth exploration of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students' experiences
with culturally aligned support systems, they also pose challenges to the generalizability of the
findings and highlight the need for further research.
While well-suited for exploring complex and nuanced experiences, qualitative
methodology inherently prioritizes depth over breadth (Maxwell, 2013). This focus on in-depth
exploration with a small sample limits the generalizability of the findings across a larger
population. The insights gained are highly contextualized and tied to the specific participants and
settings studied, potentially reducing their applicability to other contexts or populations
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
The small, purposefully selected sample of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students, all engaged
with culturally aligned support systems, provided in-depth insights but presented challenges in
achieving consistency across key variables and ensuring diverse representation. The diversity
within the K‘Ō community, including variations in age, gender, socioeconomic status, home
region, and levels of cultural engagement, was not fully captured. The focus on students, many
of whom were seniors actively engaged in cultural supports across multiple years, may have
resulted in a sample with stronger Indigenous identities and a stronger affinity towards cultural
supports, potentially skewing the findings. Additionally, all participants were originally from
Hawai‘i, so their responses do not reflect the experiences of diaspora K‘Ō students who were not

65
born and raised in Hawai‘i. Furthermore, excluding students not engaged in these supports limits
the study’s ability to capture a broader range of experiences.
The study's geographic and institutional scope was confined to U.S. institutions with
culturally aligned support systems, primarily coastal continental schools and one university in
Hawaiʻi. As a result, the findings reflect these specific contexts and may not apply to students in
different geographic regions or institutions lacking similar support systems. The unique cultural
and institutional settings influenced the participants' experiences, and these findings may not
fully capture the diversity of experiences among Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students in other educational
environments.
As a Kanaka ‘Ōiwi researcher, my positionality may have influenced data collection and
interpretation, particularly in identifying and analyzing themes that resonate with my cultural
perspectives. While I employed rigorous measures, including member checks, peer review, and
self-reflection, to minimize bias, the potential influence of my background and experiences
remains a consideration in interpreting the findings.
Additionally, the study is delimited to institutions with culturally aligned support systems
for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students and does not assess the quality or effectiveness of these programs.
The variability in the support quality across different institutions may influence students'
experiences and perceptions, limiting a comprehensive understanding of their impact on student
outcomes. The interview protocol, informed by the literature review on Kanaka ‘Ōiwi student
experiences and cultural support benefits, may have emphasized positive aspects, potentially
leading to fewer negative observations and overlooking challenges or gaps within these systems.
The study also does not encompass historical or future contexts, focusing instead on
capturing the experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students during the year 2024. This temporal

66
limitation means that findings are specific to this period and may not account for how these
experiences or the availability and nature of culturally aligned supports evolve.
Finally, using English for interviews, the dominant language in the academic context,
may have impacted participants’ ability to fully express culturally nuanced experiences or
feelings that might be better articulated in ‘Ōlelo Hawaiʻi or another language more closely tied
to their cultural expressions.
To address these limitations, the study employed several strategies to enhance the
credibility and trustworthiness of the findings. Member checks allowed participants to review
and validate their interview transcripts, ensuring an accurate representation of their perspectives.
Peer review helped refine the thematic analysis by offering critical feedback on the coding
categories and confirming the consistency of the identified themes, thereby enhancing the study's
rigor and reliability. Data saturation was reached during the analysis, ensuring a comprehensive
exploration of participants' experiences. Regular self-reflection and peer feedback helped address
potential biases and maintain reflexivity throughout the research process.
These strategies collectively strengthen the study’s credibility, ensuring that the findings,
while contextualized and specific, offer valuable insights into the experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
college students with culturally aligned support systems. However, the limitations identified
underscore the importance of considering these findings within their specific cultural and
educational contexts rather than as broadly generalizable conclusions. By recognizing these
limitations and delimitations, this study explores Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students' engagement with
culturally aligned support while acknowledging the need for further research to address these
gaps.

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Chapter Four: Findings
This study explored the engagement of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students with culturally
aligned support systems and examined the role these supports play in fostering their sense of
belonging within educational institutions. Two primary research questions guide this study: (1)
How do Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students engage with culturally aligned support systems within
their educational institutions? and (2) What role do culturally aligned supports play in the sense
of belonging of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students?
This study is grounded in a theoretical framework emphasizing the significance of
cultural identity and community support in academic success. This study integrates concepts of
cultural discontinuity, pilina, and the navigation of predominantly Western educational
environments. By understanding these dynamics, this study highlights the unique experiences of
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students.
This chapter presents the findings from qualitative interviews conducted with eight
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi undergraduate students. It begins with an overview of the participants, followed
by a detailed analysis of the results for each research question. This chapter organizes the
findings into themes that emerged from the data, illustrating the active participation of students
in cultural supports, their engagement in cultural practices, the role of institutional support, and
the profound impact of these supports on their sense of belonging.
For Research Question 1, the themes highlight how students actively participate in
cultural clubs and organizations, seek guidance and mentorship from culturally aligned staff and
faculty and utilize cultural programs and resources to support their academic and personal
journeys. For Research Question 2, the themes reveal how culturally aligned supports validate

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and affirm cultural identity, provide community and connection, and empower students to
navigate challenges and succeed.
Participants
The participants were eight Kanaka ʻŌiwi college students currently enrolled in various
undergraduate institutions across the United States. These students were selected to provide a
diverse perspective on how Kanaka ʻŌiwi students engage with culturally aligned support
systems within their educational environments. The participants were given pseudonyms in
ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian Language) based on the themes that emerged from their interviews,
reflecting the cultural significance of their experiences.
Table 1 provides an overview of each participant, including their pseudonyms, the
institutions they attend, the type of institution, the size of the institution, the region of the
institution, and their year in school.

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Table 1
Summary of Participation
Pseudonym School School Size Type Region Year in School
ʻOluʻolu (Joy) LU Small Private West Junior
Ho‘okō (Determination) NW Large Public West Senior
Kaulike (Balance) NW Large Public West Freshman
Pilina (Connection) SU Small Private West Senior
Kākoʻo (Support) UR Small Private West Senior
Ikaika (Strength) MU Large Public Pacific Sophomore
Lōkahi (Harmony) CU Small Private West Senior
Mana‘olana (Hope) DC Small Private East Senior
Note. Each participant's pseudonym is also a code for their school name, size, type, region, and
year in school.
ʻOluʻolu (Joy) attends LU, a small private university in the Pacific Northwest. As a
junior, she actively participates in cultural events, finding them crucial for staying connected to
her heritage. She emphasized the joy and sense of belonging she gains from building community
through cultural programs.
Ho‘okō (Determination) is a senior at NW, a large public university in the Pacific
Northwest. Ho‘okō is involved in various projects that reflect and promote Hawaiian culture,
providing a sense of purpose and a clear connection to heritage. Ho‘okō demonstrated a strong
determination in their involvement with culturally aligned projects and their academic journey.

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Kaulike (Balance) also attends NW. She is a freshman who benefits significantly from
mentoring programs that help her navigate academic and cultural challenges. Kaulike highlighted
the challenge of balancing her cultural identity with academic life.
Pilina (Connection) attends SU, a small private university on the West Coast. As a junior,
Pilina values cultural events and programs that help her reconnect with her cultural roots. Pilina
spoke extensively about the importance of reconnecting with her cultural roots and feeling
connected to her heritage.
Kākoʻo (Support) is a senior at UR, another small private university on the West Coast.
She emphasizes the crucial role of cultural mentors in her academic journey, offering culturally
aligned and academically sound advice. Kākoʻo focused on the role of emotional and cultural
support in her college experience and sense of belonging.
Ikaika (Strength) attends MU, a large public institution on a Pacific Island. A sophomore,
Ikaika finds that cultural support systems are vital in strengthening his cultural identity and
navigating academic challenges. Ikaika demonstrated resilience and strength in navigating
cultural and academic challenges.
Lōkahi (Harmony) is a sophomore at CU, a small-sized private university on the West
Coast. Lōkahi appreciates integrating traditional Hawaiian practices into her daily routine, which
helps her stay grounded and focused. She spoke about the importance of harmony between her
cultural identity and academic pursuits.
Mana‘olana (Hope) studies at DC, a small private university on the East Coast. As a
junior, Mana‘olana finds that cultural support systems at her school are essential for maintaining
her cultural identity and achieving academic success. Mana‘olana reflected a sense of hope and
optimism about the future impact of cultural support on Kanaka ʻŌiwi students.

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These participants provided a broad perspective on the engagement with culturally
aligned support systems, reflecting their diverse experiences and the varying contexts of their
educational institutions. All seven students discussed the importance of cultural support
programs and finding a sense of community in predominantly white institutions. Several students
described specific challenges, such as navigating unfamiliar social norms and confronting
microaggressions. Many spoke about the importance of representation and their efforts to
educate others about Native Hawaiian culture. All of the students expressed gratitude for the
cultural support systems and mentors they found. Their insights contribute significantly to
understanding engagement and the role of these supports in fostering a sense of belonging among
Kanaka ʻŌiwi students.
Results for Research Question 1
The engagement of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students with culturally aligned support
systems is essential for fostering academic success and personal well-being. These support
systems help students maintain their cultural identities and provide critical connections to
community and tradition. According to Museus’ (2014) Culturally Engaging Campus
Environments (CECE) model, culturally aligned support systems are instrumental in helping
minority students thrive by aligning institutional practices with their cultural values and needs.
The CECE model emphasizes the importance of validating cultural backgrounds and fostering a
sense of belonging, vital to student success. This section explores how Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students
engaged with culturally aligned support systems, shedding light on their experiences and
strategies for maintaining cultural connections within Western educational institutions.
The analysis of the interview data revealed three primary themes regarding how Kanaka
‘Ōiwi college students engage with culturally aligned support systems within their educational

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institutions: (1) Building Community through Participation in Cultural Clubs and Organizations,
(2) Seeking Cultural Guidance and Mentorship from Supportive Faculty and Staff, and (3)
Leveraging Cultural Programs and Resources for Academic and Personal Development. These
themes underscore how Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students involve themselves in culturally aligned
support systems, highlighting the significance of community building, guidance and mentorship,
and cultural support and resources in their college experience.
Theme 1: Building Community through Participation in Cultural Clubs and Organizations
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students engage with culturally aligned support systems primarily
by participating in cultural clubs and organizations designed for Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, and
Native American/Indigenous students. These clubs serve as vital spaces for students to connect
with peers who share their cultural background, participate in cultural activities, and celebrate
their heritage. Some students engaged with formal, university-supported systems, while others
relied primarily on student-led clubs and events for their cultural support. The sense of
community fostered through these clubs is essential for maintaining cultural ties and promoting a
sense of belonging within the more significant, often predominantly non-Hawaiian, campus
environment. This section explores how Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students build community through
cultural clubs and organizations, focusing on three key aspects: social connection and peer
support, leadership and personal growth opportunities, and cultural expression through events
and celebrations.
ʻOluʻolu shared how the Hawaii Club at her university is critical in building community
and fostering friendships: "I'm a part of our Hawaii Club here at LU. We host events, just
building community and just trying to be inviting and make friends here." This quote

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underscores the importance of such clubs in providing a welcoming space where students can
connect with others who share similar cultural values and experiences.
Similarly, Ikaika emphasized the importance of the cultural support’s study and social
spaces, which contribute significantly to creating a supportive environment: "They help a lot
with studying tutoring, they have their own area on campus where you could go just to hang
out... it really helps build that sense of community between others." Ikaika’s experience
highlights these cultural clubs' dual role as academic and social support networks.
Lōkahi discussed the impact of participating in cultural organizations at her university,
including the Asian Pacific Islander Association and the Hawaii Club. She described these clubs
as instrumental in helping her find community and develop leadership skills: "I also joined the
Asian Pacific Islander Association. And I would say those two clubs have been really, really
helpful in helping me find community. I was able to get leadership roles in them as well, which I
think, you know, even helped me more because I could facilitate that same communal experience
for like new kids coming in." Lōkahi’s experience illustrates how cultural clubs not only provide
social support but also offer opportunities for personal growth and leadership development.
Kaulike provided further insight into the student-driven nature of these cultural
organizations, notably the Hawaii Club, noting, “A lot of it is student-run, not anything done by
the school, themselves to promote that kind of diversity. It's like students who want to find other
students, and they have to go through extra effort to keep the club running and make more
connections.” Despite the lack of institutional support, these student-led efforts are crucial for
maintaining cultural connections and fostering a supportive community on campus.
The significance of these cultural clubs and organizations extends beyond mere social
interaction; they are essential for cultural expression and community building. Events like annual

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lūʻau’s, hosted by the student-run Hawaiʻi clubs, serve as crucial opportunities for students to
celebrate their heritage and share it with the broader campus community. As Kaulike highlighted,
events like these allow Native Hawaiian and other Polynesian students to connect and support
each other, providing a sense of familiarity and comfort in an otherwise unfamiliar environment.
Active participation in cultural clubs and organizations is a fundamental way Kanaka
‘Ōiwi students engage with culturally aligned support systems. These clubs help students
maintain their cultural identity and create spaces for community, leadership, and academic
support, which are crucial for their success and well-being in higher education.
Theme 2: Seeking Cultural Guidance and Mentorship from Supportive Faculty and Staff
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students often seek guidance and mentorship from cultural staff and
faculty who understand their unique experiences and perspectives. These individuals' mentorship
is particularly impactful because it is grounded in a shared cultural understanding and a genuine
willingness to listen, empathize, and offer culturally aligned support. These relationships are
pivotal for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi student academic success and maintaining their cultural identity and
sense of belonging within the broader university environment. This theme explores the critical
role of culturally aligned mentorship in guiding Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students, the challenges faced
with general support services, and the significant influence of Indigenous faculty and staff in
fostering inclusive and supportive learning environments.
Ho‘okō emphasized the profound impact of culturally aligned mentorship, mainly
through his experiences with the Indigenous Studies department. He described how the most
impactful mentors understood the unique ways that he and other Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students learn.
“Sometimes our ways of learning, the ways we communicate with each other, are different than
most instances, especially Western institutionalized ways of thinking,” Ho‘okō explained. He

75
especially appreciated the teaching methods of a particular professor whose approach resonated
with his cultural upbringing, contrasting it with the traditional Western rote memorization
approach.
Ho‘okō also highlighted the importance of mentors open to learning from him,
particularly in academic environments where Indigenous perspectives were often marginalized.
While he acknowledged that not all professors in his political science and international studies
majors fully understood Indigenous viewpoints, he found value in those who were “willing to
learn.” He provided him with a platform to share his knowledge. “For every professor I’ve had
that’s been a little bit ignorant, I’ve had professors who are willing and open to learning from
me,” he noted. This willingness to learn created spaces where Ho‘okō could educate others about
Indigenous issues, reducing the burden of tokenism often placed on him as one of the few
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. Ultimately, the most meaningful mentorship for Ho‘okō came from those
who either shared his cultural background or showed a genuine willingness to understand it. This
support was vital for navigating the challenges of higher education while maintaining a solid
connection to his Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity. Ho‘okō’s experiences underscore the importance of
having mentors who provide academic and cultural guidance and actively seek to understand and
respect the unique perspectives of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students.
Pilina emphasized the crucial distinction between general support services and culturally
specific support, noting that while resources like free therapy are available to all students, they
often need more depth of understanding for Indigenous students. Pilina explained, “I think other
available support is applicable to anybody... but they hired a native therapist or native counselor
because he can understand, honestly, our lives are just different. Being Indigenous, you just
know, you just like to understand things differently than people who aren't.” She highlighted that

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cultural support goes beyond empathy, extending into sympathy, where the support provider can
genuinely relate to the unique challenges faced by Indigenous students. “There’s a difference
between empathy and sympathy,” Pilina noted, adding, “Sometimes it’s just nice when people
can sympathize with you because they felt the same thing as you.” For Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students
like Pilina, being seen and supported as Kanaka ‘Ōiwi rather than just as students significantly
enhances the relevance and effectiveness of the support they receive. This culturally attuned
approach ensures that Indigenous students feel seen, understood, and validated in their academic
journey, fundamentally changing the quality and impact of the resources they access.
Kākoʻo’s experience further underscores the profound impact of culturally aligned
mentorship, especially when contrasted with her earlier struggles with general support services.
Initially, Kākoʻo encountered challenges in accessing effective counseling and often faced
superficial and insensitive responses from professors and staff who were more intrigued by her
Hawaiian background than focused on addressing her needs. She recounted, “They would just be
like, ‘Oh, you're from Hawaii. Oh my god, like, where do you go? Like, what do you eat? Like,
what do you do?’ And I'm just like, I'm not here for your entertainment. I'm not here to be on
display. Like, I'm literally depressed. I just want you to help me solve this problem.” This
disconnect highlighted the inadequacy of general support services in addressing the unique needs
of Indigenous students.
In contrast, Kākoʻo found meaningful support from two Native staff mentors who,
despite not being Native Hawaiian themselves, provided immediate, empathetic, and practical
assistance rooted in a shared understanding of Indigenous experiences. These mentors made her
feel prioritized and understood, fostering a sense of belonging and security that was absent in
other institutional resources. However, despite their supportive roles, these mentors struggled

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with underappreciation and marginalization within the university. They often confided in Kākoʻo
about the lack of institutional support and recognition for their efforts, highlighting how they
were frequently pitted against one another by the administration. This shared experience of
marginalization deepened the bond between Kākoʻo and her mentors and revealed the broader
systemic challenges Indigenous faculty and staff face in higher education. Reflecting on this,
Kākoʻo remarked, “It’s just so heartbreaking that these people do all these amazing things for
me, but the place that they call home, whether they live there or not, treats them just as bad as I
get treated. And that’s just unfair in my eyes.”
Kākoʻo’s experience took a positive turn in her final year when a Native Hawaiian staff
member, ʻEleu, was hired by UR. ʻEleu’s arrival marked a significant shift in Kākoʻo’s sense of
support and connection. Before ʻEleu’s arrival, Kākoʻo often felt isolated as one of the only
Polynesian students on campus, burdened by the responsibility of representing her culture in an
environment that lacked dedicated cultural support. “For the longest time, representing Hawaii
was just on my back,” she explained. ʻEleu’s presence quickly made a substantial impact,
increasing the visibility of Polynesian culture on campus and providing Kākoʻo with
much-needed support. Describing ʻEleu as “talkative, energetic, and full of goals and intention,”
Kākoʻo noted how ʻEleu’s efforts to rebrand the Hawaiian student group to be more inclusive
and connect students with alumni brought a fresh energy to the campus. ʻEleu’s mentorship
alleviated the burden Kākoʻo had carried and filled a crucial gap in her college experience. “Now
you have me,” ʻEleu reassured her, representing a shift from isolation to support.
ʻEleu’s influence extended beyond practical changes; her mentorship gave Kākoʻo a
renewed sense of belonging and hope for the future. Before ʻEleu’s arrival, Kākoʻo admitted she
would have described UR as “a racist place that doesn’t like Polynesians.” However, ʻEleu’s

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presence gave her hope that future generations of Polynesian students would find a supportive
community at the university. “I do have hope that the next generations to come and the next
classes of Polynesians are going to have a place to call home,” Kākoʻo stated, illustrating the
transformative effect that culturally aligned mentorship can have on students’ perceptions of
their institutions.
In summary, the guidance and mentorship provided by culturally aligned staff and faculty
are integral to the success and well-being of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. Whether through shared
cultural backgrounds or a genuine willingness to learn, these mentors create a safe and
supportive environment that helps students navigate the complexities of higher education while
maintaining their cultural identity. These experiences underscore the critical role of culturally
aligned mentorship in fostering a sense of belonging, academic success, and personal growth for
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students.
Theme 3: Leveraging Cultural Programs and Resources for Academic and Personal
Development
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students benefit significantly from cultural programs, scholarships, and
resources designed to support their academic journeys while reinforcing their connection to their
cultural identity. These resources play a critical role in fostering a sense of belonging,
community, and cultural continuity, which are essential for the academic success and personal
well-being of Native Hawaiian students. This section explores how Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students
leverage cultural programs and resources to support their academic and personal development,
focusing on the impact of scholarships, the role of cultural centers, and integration of cultural
practices into their academic lives.

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Kākoʻo highlighted the transformative impact of an Indigenous student scholarship
funded by a local Native American community. This scholarship provided essential financial aid
and connected her with a supportive Native American community that understood her
experiences as a minority. Growing up in Hawaii, Kākoʻo was accustomed to a strong sense of
community and cultural support, where everyone looks out for one another. This sense of
community was in stark contrast to what she observed on the continent, where Native American
communities often face significant marginalization and lack of recognition. The scholarship was
more than just financial support; it was a bridge to a community that shared similar values and
experiences, helping her navigate the challenges of being far from home. Kākoʻo’s experience
underscores the importance of financial aid that goes beyond monetary value, integrating cultural
support to create a more holistic and meaningful impact on student’s lives. This support can be a
lifeline for students far from home, helping them maintain a sense of identity and belonging in
unfamiliar and often isolating environments.
Mana‘olana emphasized the critical role of the Native American Program at DC, which
offers a range of resources, clubs, and academic programs designed to foster a sense of belonging
and support for Native students. Her college was initially founded with a charter focused on
Native American education, and the college reinstated this commitment in the 1970s by creating
dedicated spaces and programs for Native students. The Native American House is a home away
from home for Native American, Native Hawaiian, and Alaska Native students, fostering a
strong sense of community and cultural continuity. Mana‘olana described this space as “my
home away from home. This is my family,” highlighting the deep sense of belonging it provides.
In addition to the house, DC offers a university-funded program that supports various student-led
clubs and initiatives, enhancing community building and providing administrative support. These

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include clubs for all Native students, one focused on Pacific Islander culture and others centered
on traditional ecological knowledge, language preservation, and Native American studies.
Mana‘olana noted that the growing presence of Native Hawaiians is a positive trend, enhancing
the cultural vibrancy of the campus community. “It’s been very helpful... it’s nice to turn to them
and be like, they are my family,” Mana‘olana shared, emphasizing the importance of these
cultural and academic support systems in making her college feel like home and maintaining
their cultural identity. This structure of dedicated spaces and programs demonstrates the
long-term benefits of institutional support for cultural initiatives, ensuring that Native students
have the resources to thrive academically and personally.
Ikaika described how cultural programs and scholarships at his university have been vital
in balancing his financial needs with maintaining his cultural identity. This scholarship program
eased the financial burden of tuition and housing and provided cultural support through tutoring,
study spaces, and opportunities for community building. Additionally, Ikaika participated in
hands-on cultural activities, such as cleaning the loʻi (taro patches) and learning about traditional
Hawaiian practices, reinforcing his connection to his cultural roots. "We've done stuff like
cleaned up the loʻi... got to learn about old Hawaiian traditions and values," he shared. Ikaika’s
experience illustrates how cultural programs integrating financial support with cultural
engagement can significantly enhance students' academic and personal development, allowing
them to thrive while staying connected to their heritage.
Kaulike discussed the opportunities and challenges of accessing cultural programs and
resources at his university. While acknowledging the availability of specific scholarships and
internships through the Office of Minority and Diversity Affairs, he noted that these
opportunities are often need-based and can be difficult to access. Despite these challenges,

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Kaulike found that engaging with local Indigenous communities through academic programs
gave him a valuable sense of belonging. Reflecting on his experience, he said, “It really brought
me a sense of belonging, things like the concepts that we have naturally in our society in Hawaii
just seemed to erupt in the same way in these Indigenous communities here, and it was really
eye-opening.” Additionally, he emphasized the importance of attending cultural events, which
helped him connect with others and find his community within the university. “It’s been really
meaningful to find my people through actually going to these events,” Kaulike remarked. He
advised other Native Hawaiian students to actively navigate the resources available to find
support in unfamiliar environments, acknowledging that “There will be people still to support
you. You just have to navigate through the schools’ resources to find them sometimes.”
Kaulike’s experience highlights the necessity of proactive engagement in seeking out cultural
resources and the significant impact these resources can have on fostering a sense of belonging
and cultural continuity in significant and often impersonal university settings.
Lōkahi shared the significance of cultural programs and resources at CU, notably the
Hawaiʻi Club and the Asian Pacific Islander Association, in helping Native Hawaiian students
connect with their culture and create a sense of community. Lōkahi described how the Hawaiʻi
Club, which is open to everyone, hosts an annual lūʻau where students can engage in Hawaiian
cultural activities, share traditional food, and invite friends from other cultural groups to learn
about the culture. "What I like about it is that I invite a lot of my friends from, like, the
first-generation program or from some other clubs... and they always do [attend], so it’s kind of
nice to be able to showcase that to other people at CU as well,” Lōkahi explained. These
programs have been instrumental in helping her manage culture shock and feel grounded,
especially while attending a university far from the islands. Additionally, Lōkahi’s involvement

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in leadership roles within these clubs allowed her to facilitate communal experiences for new
students, further strengthening the sense of community. Lōkahi’s story illustrates the importance
of student-led initiatives in providing cultural support, especially in environments where
institutional backing for such programs may be limited. Her ability to balance cultural
engagement with academic responsibilities demonstrates these programs' critical role in
supporting the holistic development of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students.
In summary, cultural programs, scholarships, and resources are indispensable in
supporting the academic and personal development of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. These programs
provide essential financial aid and foster cultural continuity, community, and a sense of
belonging crucial for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students navigating higher education far from their home
communities. These experiences collectively demonstrate the importance of these resources in
helping Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students academically succeed while staying connected to their cultural
identity. By integrating financial support with cultural engagement, these programs create a more
holistic and meaningful educational experience, allowing students to thrive academically and
personally.
Results for Research Question 2
The role of culturally aligned support systems in fostering a sense of belonging among
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students is critical for addressing the challenges posed by cultural
discontinuity in higher education. Cultural discontinuity occurs when there is a significant
disconnect between the cultural values and norms of the educational environment and those of
the student's native culture (Huffman, 2010). For Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students, this disconnect often
manifests as a struggle to reconcile their Indigenous identities with the dominant institutional
culture. Culturally aligned support systems are vital in mitigating these challenges by providing

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spaces where students’ cultural identities are validated and affirmed. These support systems
facilitate pilina, offering students a sense of belonging and continuity with their cultural heritage,
essential for their academic persistence and success (Lipe, 2018; Kana‘iaupuni et al., 2017).
As discussed in Chapter Two, the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi Crit (K‘ŌC) framework underscores the
significance of culturally responsive educational systems in resisting the settler colonial
structures embedded within Western educational institutions (Cristobal, 2018). Within this
framework, culturally aligned support systems that integrate moʻolelo, moʻokūauhau, ʻike, and
kuleana are essential spaces of resistance and affirmation. These cultural supports serve as
kīpuka where students feel seen, understood, and valued, enabling them to maintain their
Indigenous identity while achieving academic and social integration (Lipe, 2018; Vaughn et al.,
2020). This section explores how these support systems impact students' sense of belonging,
drawing on their experiences and highlighting the strategies that help them sustain their cultural
connections.
The analysis of the interview data identified three key themes regarding the role of
culturally aligned supports in fostering a sense of belonging among Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college
students: (1) Validation and Affirmation of Cultural Identities through Aligned Support Systems,
(2) Cultivating a Sense of Belonging through Community and Connection in Culturally Engaged
Spaces, and (3) Empowering Students to Overcome Challenges and Achieve Success through
Culturally Responsive Supports. These themes illustrate how culturally aligned supports help
students maintain their cultural identity and play a critical role in their academic and social
integration within their educational institutions.

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Theme 1: Validation and Affirmation of Cultural Identities through Aligned Support
Systems
For Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students, culturally aligned supports are vital anchors that validate and
affirm their cultural identities in environments where they might feel invisible or marginalized.
In predominantly Western academic settings, these supports are not merely beneficial—they are
essential for students to maintain a solid connection to their cultural roots and foster a sense of
belonging. The significance of these supports is evident in how they enable students to navigate
the complexities of higher education while remaining true to their Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity. This
section highlights the role of culturally aligned support systems in reaffirming Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
students’ cultural identities, navigating the complexities of dual identity and representation, and
fostering a deep sense of responsibility and commitment to their lāhui.
Ikaika’s experience underscores the profound impact of culturally aligned support
programs on students' sense of identity and belonging. In his university's diverse and often
overwhelming environment, where students from various backgrounds converge, Ikaika found
connecting challenging and often felt lost. He reflected on this, stating, “There’s different…
mentalities, being at MU, since there’s students from all over the world, and sometimes I can get
kind of lost in that.” However, his involvement in cultural support programs gave him a vital
sense of clarity and a renewed understanding of his Hawaiian heritage. These programs, as
Ikaika described, “really solidified that identity of, well, I’m Hawaiian, this is who I am… My
identity is here in Hawaii, and to take care of this land that’s pretty much given me everything
I’ve ever had.”
For Ikaika, cultural support was about more than finding a community; it was about
reaffirming his identity in a space that often challenged it. The pressures to conform to the

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dominant cultural norms of his institution were significant. Still, the cultural support programs
offered him an anchor—a space to reconnect with his roots and confidently assert his Hawaiian
identity. This process of cultural reaffirmation allowed Ikaika to resist these pressures and
embrace his identity with renewed strength. The support he received went beyond mere
socialization; it provided a foundation for building a stronger sense of self. This example
highlights the critical role that cultural support systems play in the lives of Indigenous
students—not just in fostering community but in empowering them to maintain and strengthen
their cultural identity, even in environments that may challenge or marginalize it.
Ho‘okō’s narrative underscores the duality of their Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity within the
context of higher education. On the one hand, they feel a profound ancestral connection to
Hawaii; on the other, they carry the responsibility of representing their culture in academic
spaces where Indigenous perspectives are often marginalized. This duality is especially evident
in Ho‘okō’s experiences as a political science and international studies major. They faced
significant challenges, such as the lack of recognition for the Pacific region within their
international studies program, which compelled them to create opportunities and spaces for
Indigenous research. Despite these obstacles, Ho‘okō found solace and support within the
broader Pacific Islander, Kanaka ‘Ōiwi, and Native American communities at their university.
This sense of community provided a crucial sense of belonging and reinforced Ho‘okō’s cultural
roots, essential as they navigated the complexities of their academic journey.
Furthermore, Ho‘okō’s involvement as a peer mentor and advocate for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi and
Native American students highlights the critical importance of cultural validation and
community support in academic success. As a peer mentor, Ho‘okō guided younger students and
worked actively to increase the visibility and presence of Indigenous students within their

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academic community. By advocating for increased representation, Ho‘okō illuminated the
essential role that cultural validation plays in fostering academic persistence and achievement.
For many Indigenous students, seeing others who share their cultural background in positions of
influence and leadership can be incredibly empowering. It sends a powerful message that their
identity and experiences are valued, helping dismantle the feelings of isolation and
marginalization often prevalent in predominantly Western institutions.
Ho‘okō’s dual role as a mentee and a mentor exemplifies the reciprocal nature of cultural
validation within Indigenous communities. Their support empowered them to give back,
reinforcing a cycle of cultural continuity and community resilience. This interconnectedness is
vital in creating sustainable support systems that nurture the academic and personal growth of
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students, ensuring that each generation has the resources and encouragement
needed to succeed in higher education.
Kākoʻo’s reflections on her time on the continent reveal a deepened appreciation for her
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity. The distance from home and the challenges of living in an environment
that often lacks cultural understanding made her more aware of the uniqueness and value of her
heritage. She shared, “I have learned how well I always knew how special Hawaii and the
Hawaiian culture is. But I think I’ve finally learned that no matter what, I’m still Hawaiian.”
This statement underscores the resilience of her cultural identity, even in the face of cultural
dissonance. For Kākoʻo, culturally aligned support systems were essential in helping her
navigate these challenges, allowing her to stay connected to her roots and maintain her sense of
self.
Similarly, Pilina’s experience highlights the centrality of cultural contribution and
community support in defining her identity as a Kanaka ‘Ōiwi. She is strongly committed to

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uplifting her community, stating, “For me, defining my Hawaiian identity is how much I am
creating or making space for other Hawaiians… I will always loop back indigeneity and how
important it is to remember where you came from.” Pilina’s focus on advocacy and
representation reflects how culturally aligned supports empower students to integrate their
cultural identity into their academic and personal lives. Her dedication to ensuring that future
generations of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi and other Indigenous students have opportunities for success
speaks to the transformative power of these supports.
These narratives collectively highlight the critical role of culturally aligned supports in
validating and affirming the cultural identities of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. Whether through
programs, community engagement, or mentorship, these supports are fundamental in helping
students navigate the often challenging landscape of higher education while maintaining a strong
connection to their Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity.
Theme 2: Cultivating a Sense of Belonging through Community and Connection in
Culturally Engaged Spaces
Culturally aligned support systems are vital in providing Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students with a
sense of community and connection, essential for their academic and personal well-being. These
support systems connect students with peers, mentors, and a broader network of individuals who
share their cultural heritage, creating a sense of family and belonging away from home. They
offer a space where students can speak their language, engage in cultural practices, and combat
feelings of homesickness or isolation. The significance of these connections is evident in the
students' narratives, which consistently highlight the importance of being part of a supportive
community that understands and shares their cultural background. This section explains how
culturally engaged spaces help Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students combat isolation, bridge the gap between

88
their cultural and institutional identities, and foster inclusivity and intersectionality within the
broader university environment.
Mana‘olana emphasized the critical role of community in navigating the challenges of
being far from home, particularly in an academic environment where Native Hawaiian students
are often in the minority. She noted, "The community is huge too when you're homesick when
you're struggling with classes to like turn to the people that are from the same land that you're
from, those who know the same cultures…And they understand your struggles, because it's not
spoken, because they grew up in the same places as you did…Like here, we're a minority." This
story reinforces the importance of shared cultural experiences in creating a safe and affirming
space for students to feel understood without explaining their background or experiences. For
Mana‘olana, this community serves as a home away from home, providing the emotional and
cultural support necessary to thrive in an otherwise alien environment.
Ho‘okō’s experience highlights the profound impact of engaging with a broader Pacific
Islander, Kanaka ‘Ōiwi, and Native American community on campus, which proved essential for
their sense of belonging and academic persistence. They faced significant challenges,
particularly within an academic discipline that often marginalized Indigenous perspectives.
However, the support and solidarity of their community provided a crucial anchor, allowing them
to navigate these challenges with resilience. Ho‘okō’s involvement as a peer mentor and student
ambassador further illustrates their commitment to fostering a sense of belonging among
Indigenous students. In this role, Ho‘okō worked tirelessly to uplift and guide younger students,
offering culturally aligned resources and support to those who, like them, might struggle to see
themselves in higher education. Reflecting on this work, Ho‘okō shared, "These more
cultural-based support systems... are better suited for serving these communities and the sort of

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nuances, the complexities that come with coming from these communities." Their advocacy
extended beyond their immediate cultural community, embracing intersectionality and
supporting other marginalized groups, demonstrating their cultural support efforts' expansive and
inclusive nature. Through active participation in these communities, Ho‘okō maintained a strong
connection to their cultural roots, reinforcing their identity and empowering them to advocate for
greater inclusivity and representation within their academic environment. They noted that such
involvement made "such a large campus feel smaller," underscoring the critical role of culturally
aligned support systems in fostering a sense of belonging for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi and marginalized
students.
Kākoʻo’s experience also reflects the importance of a culturally aligned community in
maintaining a connection to her identity. Although the Polynesian community on her campus was
small, it provided her with a sense of security and familiarity vital in combating feelings of
isolation. She said, “I would definitely say, like all the people from Hawaii, or even just the
Polynesians that were on campus, although there was like, maybe three every year, including
myself, I think it gave me that sense of security.” The presence of this community, albeit small,
was significant in helping her stay grounded in her cultural identity, even as she navigated the
broader challenges of attending a predominantly white institution (PWI). However, her
experience was also marked by challenges related to cultural discontinuity and microaggressions.
She frequently encountered ignorance and stereotypes about her Hawaiian background, which
added to her sense of isolation. As Kākoʻo described, “I experienced a lot of like, you know,
prejudice and stereotypes and microaggressions... it was just exhausting and really tiresome.”
Her challenges made the presence of a culturally aligned community even more crucial for her
well-being and academic persistence.

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In addition to fostering a sense of community, these cultural support systems help
students bridge the gap between their cultural identities and the dominant institutional culture.
The presence of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi staff, faculty, and mentors who provide culturally aligned
guidance is pivotal in this process. For example, Kaulike noted the impact of having an advisor
who understood their culture, stating, "Having an advisor who understood my culture was very
impactful... it's just a different vibe that I feel like I can share." This sense of shared
understanding and cultural relevance is crucial in helping students feel more connected to their
academic environment, reducing the cultural discontinuity they often experience.
However, the process of bridging cultural and dominant cultures has its challenges.
Ikaika described the friction between Kanaka ‘Ōiwi cultural values and the mainstream college
culture at his institution, noting that the latter often prioritizes status and material success over
the communal and purpose-driven values central to Kanaka ‘Ōiwi culture. He shared, “I feel like
Native Hawaiian culture dips into the values more about your purpose and what you're
outputting into society, rather than what you're getting in return.” Despite these challenges,
culturally aligned support programs helped Ikaika navigate these differences by reinforcing his
cultural identity and providing a community that shared his values.
Lōkahi’s experience underscores the challenges of navigating cultural discontinuity in a
predominantly white institution (PWI). She noted that while there is a sizable population of
students from Hawaii at CU, many of them are not Kanaka ‘Ōiwi, adding complexity to her
experience. Lōkahi found connection and comfort through participation in the Hawaii Club and
other cultural organizations, where she bonded with peers who shared ties to home, even if they
were not Kanaka ‘Ōiwi. Reflecting on her experience, she explained, "I'd say it's a much
different experience than even like I'm a business student... the majority like nationality is

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obviously white. So it was a very different dynamic from… being in business classes and
working with kids like that, and then going into my Hawaii Club meetings... and the…vibe
totally changing." This stark contrast between the culturally aligned spaces she felt comfortable
in and the predominantly white spaces, such as her business school classes, led her to limit her
time with the latter group. She elaborated, "There is, for sure, like a divide between the way that
both groups act. I didn't see as much just because I tried to limit my time being around business
kids." The divide became more pronounced after her first year, which was entirely virtual due to
COVID-19. During that time, she gravitated toward the friendships she had formed within
cultural clubs, making it easier to stick with them throughout college. While Lōkahi did not
necessarily feel uncomfortable around the larger PWI population, she found it more fulfilling to
connect with peers who understood her cultural background, noting that it "was just easier to
kind of start with them and stick with them throughout my years."
Pilina’s experience at SU highlights the stark contrast between her institution's
individualistic, competitive culture and the collective, community-focused values inherent in
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi culture. She observed that the mainstream culture at SU is "extremely
competitive," emphasizing technology, innovation, and individual achievement. In contrast, she
noted that Kanaka ‘Ōiwi culture is "focused a lot more on a collective," which she found lacking
at her institution. The cultural disconnect was initially overwhelming, leading to significant
homesickness and difficulty adjusting to the new environment. Pilina shared, "The cultural shock
made me so homesick at first, it was tough to adjust to." However, over time, she found solace in
connecting with a small group of fellow Kanaka ‘Ōiwi on campus, which helped alleviate her
isolation. Reflecting on this connection, she stated, "Having just a few Hawaiians with me has
reminded me of what being a Hawaiian in a non-Hawaiian space is about, and bringing your

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culture, your love, and who I am in general." This connection to her cultural roots, even within a
small group, gave Pilina the strength to navigate the challenges of being in a non-Hawaiian space
and reinforced her sense of identity.
Pilina’s identity as a Kanaka ‘Ōiwi is deeply tied to her sense of responsibility toward her
community and culture. She explained, "I would measure or, you know, identify my
Hawaiian-ness based on how much I'm contributing to my Hawaiian people, that's always, or to
the land, like, always going back to like, what am I doing to uplift other people." For Pilina,
cultural practices are not just about preserving traditions but also about uplifting her community
and continuing the legacy of her ancestors. This commitment to collective well-being is central
to her understanding of her Hawaiian identity, even as she navigates the predominantly
individualistic environment at SU. Through her involvement with cultural groups such as PISA,
Pilina expanded her community to include other Polynesians, further reinforcing her cultural
identity and purpose. She also deepened her understanding of her heritage by learning from the
experiences of diaspora students, gaining valuable insights into how Native Hawaiian identity is
navigated and defined away from Hawaii. This broader connection to the Polynesian and Native
Hawaiian diaspora gave Pilina a more nuanced understanding of her identity, helping her
maintain her cultural roots while far from home.
The presence of culturally aligned support systems is not just about providing a space for
students to connect; it is about creating an environment where they can reconcile their cultural
identity with the demands of their academic environment. These systems help students navigate
the often challenging terrain of higher education by offering a sense of belonging, cultural
affirmation, and community support. The students' narratives underscore the vital role these
supports play in helping Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students thrive academically and personally, even in

93
environments that may not fully understand or value their cultural perspectives. In conclusion,
culturally aligned support systems are essential in fostering a sense of community and
connection for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. These systems help bridge the cultural divide and provide
a critical lifeline for students navigating the challenges of higher education far from home. By
creating spaces where students can engage with their cultural heritage and connect with others
who share their experiences, these support systems empower Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students to maintain
their cultural identity and succeed in their academic pursuits.
Theme 3: Empowering Students to Overcome Challenges and Achieve Success through
Culturally Aligned Supports
The cultural support systems available to Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students are more than just
resources for maintaining a connection to their heritage; they are essential for empowering these
students to navigate academic challenges and achieve success. The intersection of cultural
identity and academic performance is critical for students whose identities are deeply rooted in
their culture. For these students, cultural support is not merely an additional benefit but integral
to their academic persistence and overall well-being. The narratives of the students interviewed
underscore how cultural support fosters a sense of belonging and purpose, enabling them to
overcome obstacles and succeed in their educational pursuits. This theme examines how
culturally aligned supports empower Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students by providing a sense of purpose,
fostering leadership development, and maintaining resilience during personal and academic
crises.
Pilina articulated the importance of cultural support in her academic journey,
emphasizing that cutting off a part of one’s identity can hinder academic success. She shared,
“Having cultural support is integral to academic success. Because cutting part of your identity off

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will hinder your ability to… do your homework to go to class, right?… [You can] lose your
ability to continue on in your college education.” For Pilina, cultural activities like dancing hula
and singing with fellow Hawaiian students provide joy and remind her of her purpose: giving
back to her community. She reflected on this sense of purpose, stating, “Like, why am I learning
all this? Why am I spending all my time at this white institution? Because I want to give back to
my community in the future… I have to remember… What is my purpose? My purpose is the
people here, even though I can't see them right now, they are still there, and they are still fueling
my fire.” This connection to her culture is a source of motivation, fueling her persistence in an
academic environment that often feels alienating.
Moreover, Pilina highlighted the role of cultural support in affirming her belonging at her
institution. She reflected on how the Native community on campus constantly reminded her that
she deserved to be there, saying, “You are like I am special. I do have something special to
contribute. My Native Hawaiian perspective and upbringing give me a unique perspective that I
can bring to this institution that other people can’t.” This sense of purpose and validation from
her community reinforces her commitment to education, even in the face of challenges. For
Pilina, the connection to her cultural roots and the support from her community are not just
comforting but essential for her academic success and personal resilience.
Ikaika also expressed how cultural support has shaped his academic journey, particularly
by giving him a greater sense of purpose. He noted, “It really gives [students] a purpose, like a
greater purpose… to give back to the community… having that strong cultural background will
be that foundation for that purpose.” Ikaika’s experience underscores how cultural support does
more than just help students navigate college; it empowers them to see their education as a
means of giving back to their community. This sense of responsibility and purpose is crucial for

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sustaining motivation, especially when faced with the financial and academic pressures that
many Native Hawaiian students encounter. Ikaika emphasized the importance of leading by
example, stating that his success could inspire other Native Hawaiian students to persevere
despite financial or academic challenges.
Ikaika also highlighted the impact of active engagement in cultural support programs,
noting, “There’s a divide between just being in a cultural support program and actually engaging
in a cultural support program… The more you can engage with it… maybe pursue a leadership
position… it helps you kind of like, leave a legacy on the school.” This sentiment illustrates how
cultural support systems do more than just provide resources; they empower students to become
leaders and agents of change within their academic institutions. For Ikaika, active participation in
these programs has enriched his college experience and positioned him as a role model for future
generations of Native Hawaiian students.
Ho‘okō shared similar insights, reflecting on how cultural support systems have provided
a refuge and a source of strength in his academic journey. He described how cultural
communities like Polynesian and Indigenous students helped him navigate the pressures of being
one of the few Pacific Islanders in his academic spaces. Ho‘okō emphasized that these
communities offered a balance against the institutional challenges he faced, including
microaggressions and the marginalization of Indigenous perspectives. He remarked, “Whenever
it gets too difficult in my classes, I always have my safe spaces that I can return to and be in
community and be in that good company.” This balance is crucial for Indigenous students like
Ho‘okō, who must navigate the dual pressures of academic rigor and cultural marginalization.
Ho‘okō also acknowledged the complex role of leadership in these spaces, noting that
while it is gratifying to serve as a leader and role model, the pressure can sometimes be

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overwhelming. Nevertheless, his commitment to uplifting the next generation of students,
especially those from underrepresented communities, keeps him motivated. He remarked, “I love
being a leader… not for my own personal gain, but because I like being someone that people can
look up to.” Despite his challenges, this sense of kuleana (responsibility) drives Ho‘okō to
continue advocating for greater inclusivity and representation.
ʻOluʻolu provided a poignant example of how cultural support can be a lifeline in times
of personal crisis. After her family was impacted by the Lahaina fires, the outreach and support
she received from her advisors and faculty were instrumental in helping her continue her
education. She explained, “I wasn’t really sure if I was gonna be able to go to this school again,
but because of the whole thing, it was really great to know that… they had my support.” For
ʻOluʻolu, this support was not just financial but deeply emotional, reinforcing her sense of
belonging and her ability to succeed despite the overwhelming challenges.
The experiences of these students illustrate that cultural support is not a peripheral aspect
of their education; it is central to their ability to succeed. These supports empower Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
students by providing a sense of purpose, community, and identity that are critical for navigating
the challenges of higher education. By affirming their cultural identities and offering a support
network, these systems help students maintain the resilience to persevere in environments that
may not always value or understand their cultural perspectives. In this way, cultural support
systems are not just beneficial but essential for the academic and personal success of Native
Hawaiian students.
Conclusion
This study explored the engagement of eight Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students with
culturally aligned support systems and the role these supports play in fostering their sense of

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belonging. Two primary questions guided this research: (1) How do Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college
students engage with culturally aligned support systems within their educational institutions? and
(2) What role do culturally aligned supports play in the sense of belonging of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
college students?
For Research Question 1, the findings revealed that Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students engage with
culturally aligned support systems in multiple, meaningful ways. These include active
participation in cultural clubs and organizations, which offer them spaces to build community
and maintain cultural practices; seeking guidance and mentorship from culturally aligned staff
and faculty, who provide them with academic and emotional support rooted in a shared
understanding of their cultural background; and utilizing cultural programs and resources, such
as scholarships and cultural centers, which play a vital role in sustaining their academic
persistence and personal well-being. These engagements are beneficial and essential for cultural
continuity and navigating the challenges of higher education.
For Research Question 2, the study found that culturally aligned supports are
indispensable in fostering a strong sense of belonging among Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. These
supports play a critical role in validating and affirming students' cultural identities, which is
crucial for their ability to navigate predominantly Western academic environments. They also
provide a profound sense of community and connection, offering students a "home away from
home" to find comfort, understanding, and shared cultural experiences. Additionally, these
supports empower students to overcome academic and personal challenges by reinforcing their
sense of purpose, resilience, and commitment to giving back to their communities. Students can
maintain their cultural roots through these culturally aligned systems, thrive academically, and

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develop as leaders who contribute positively to their educational institutions and home
communities.
The findings of this study contribute to the field of Indigenous education by highlighting
the importance of culturally aligned support systems in addressing the challenges of cultural
discontinuity faced by Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students in higher education. These systems are essential
for maintaining cultural identity, fostering community, and empowering students to succeed
academically and personally. The interconnectedness of the themes across both research
questions illustrates how active engagement in cultural support systems fosters identity
validation, community connection, and empowerment, collectively contributing to a holistic
sense of belonging and academic persistence.
The final chapter will summarize key findings, discuss their implications, provide
recommendations for institutional practices, and offer conclusions on how institutions can
develop culturally aligned support systems to support Indigenous students effectively. This study
underscores the need for higher education institutions to implement culturally aligned practices
that validate Indigenous identities, create supportive communities, and empower students to
thrive in challenging environments.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
The primary focus of this study was to explore the engagement of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college
students with culturally aligned support systems within higher education institutions. It is critical
to explore the unique challenges Indigenous students face in predominantly Western educational
environments that marginalize their cultural perspectives and identities. This study is the first to
examine the experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students across a diverse range of educational contexts
rather than focusing on a single institution or cultural support program. By analyzing culturally
aligned supports within multiple types of institutions with varying cultural supports, this study
provides a broader understanding of how these supports function and impact students’ sense of
belonging. The findings reveal how Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students navigate cultural discontinuity and
develop resilience in environments that may not always prioritize their cultural needs. This
broader scope allows for a deeper exploration of how institutional contexts, cultural
representation, and access to resources influence the effectiveness of culturally aligned supports.
Specifically, the study sought to understand how Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students engage with culturally
aligned support systems and how these systems foster a sense of belonging within their
educational institutions.
Two primary research questions guided this study: (1) How do Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college
students engage with culturally aligned support systems within their educational institutions? and
(2) What role do culturally aligned supports play in the sense of belonging of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
college students? The researcher developed these questions to address the gap in understanding
the experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students, particularly about their cultural identity, community
connection, and academic persistence. This study contributes to the broader discourse about
Indigenous education and the role of culturally aligned supports in supporting student success.

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This chapter will comprehensively discuss the findings, drawing connections between the
results and existing literature. It will begin with a summary of the key findings organized around
three higher-level themes: Cultural Identity and Validation, Community and Connection, and
Empowerment and Academic Persistence. The chapter will also explore the practical
implications and offer recommendations for higher education institutions to enhance support for
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students and foster more inclusive environments. Finally, the chapter will
conclude with recommendations for future research, emphasizing the need for further exploration
of the long-term impacts of culturally aligned supports and the development of effective
mentorship programs for Indigenous students.
Discussion
Engaging Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students with culturally aligned support systems in higher
education is crucial for maintaining their cultural identity, overcoming challenges, and ensuring
academic success. The key themes identified in the results—Cultural Identity and Validation,
Community and Connection, and Empowerment and Academic Performance—highlight the
varied experiences of these students as they navigate predominantly Western academic
institutions. This discussion will compare and contrast these themes, linking them to the existing
literature on Indigenous education and culturally aligned support systems.
Cultural Identity and Validation
Culturally aligned support systems play a crucial role in validating the cultural identities
of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students, offering them essential academic and emotional guidance that fosters
a sense of belonging and academic persistence. Integrating cultural validation within educational
environments is significant for individual student success and counterbalances the often
marginalizing influences of predominantly Western academic institutions. This section explores

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how cultural identity validation, through mentorship and support programs, reinforces students'
sense of self and belonging, enabling them to navigate academic challenges while maintaining
their cultural heritage.
The study found that culturally aligned mentorship and support programs were
instrumental in affirming Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students' identities. For instance, Ikaika’s participation in
cultural support programs at his university was pivotal in solidifying his Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity.
He described how these programs provided clarity and connection to his heritage, essential for
maintaining his cultural identity in an environment that often felt overwhelming and
disconnected from his cultural roots. This experience is consistent with existing literature
emphasizing cultural validation's importance for Indigenous students. Meyer (1998) argues that
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi epistemology, deeply rooted in cultural practices and beliefs, is fundamental in
supporting students' empowerment and resilience against the pressures of settler colonialism.
Furthermore, the presence of culturally aligned mentors, as highlighted in the study, is a
significant factor in the successful navigation of academic and social challenges by Kanaka
‘Ōiwi students. Ho‘okō’s experience with a culturally responsive mentor who understood his
unique learning style exemplifies how such mentorship can transform a student's academic
journey. This narrative aligns with the CECE model proposed by Museus (2013), which
underscores the importance of culturally validating environments in enhancing students' sense of
belonging and academic success. In contrast, the experience of Kākoʻo, who lacked such support
for most of her college experience, underscores the disparity in culturally aligned support across
institutions and highlights the need for more consistent mentorship opportunities that resonate
with students' cultural backgrounds.

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The significance of cultural identity validation also ties into the broader context of
Indigenous education, where maintaining a connection to cultural roots is often a form of
resistance against the erasure and assimilation pressures imposed by colonial structures (Maaka,
2004; Kawagley, 1995). This connection is crucial for Indigenous students, as it reinforces their
resilience and sense of purpose in environments where their cultural identities are often
marginalized or misunderstood. For example, Ikaika’s ability to resist the pressure to conform to
dominant cultural norms while maintaining his connection to his Kanaka ‘Ōiwi heritage
illustrates the influential role that culturally aligned support systems can play in sustaining
students' cultural identities and academic persistence. This finding is consistent with Wright's
(2018) exploration of the kuleana-centered approach at the Kamakakūokalani Center for
Hawaiian Studies, which emphasizes the importance of cultural identity in fostering educational
success among Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students.
Ho‘okō’s experience highlights the profound impact of engaging with a broader
Indigenous community on campus, which proved essential for their sense of belonging and
academic persistence. Within an academic discipline that often marginalized Indigenous
perspectives, the support and solidarity of their broader Indigenous community provided a
crucial anchor, allowing them to navigate challenges with resilience. Vaughn and Ambo’s (2022)
Trans-Indigenous education emphasizes the interconnectedness of Indigenous identities across
different communities. This framework resonates with Ho‘okō’s experience, where engaging
with various Indigenous groups on campus fostered a sense of shared consciousness and
collective resilience. Their peer mentor and student ambassador role illustrates how culturally
aligned support systems create spaces that center Indigenous knowledge and build community,
empowering students to see themselves as part of a broader Indigenous identity. This broader

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view of identity enriched Ho‘okō’s sense of self and reinforced their commitment to advocating
for inclusivity and representation within their academic environment, demonstrating how such
involvement made "such a large campus feel smaller." This connection to a broader Indigenous
community aligns with the goals of Trans-Indigenous education, which seeks to cultivate
solidarity and support among Indigenous students through shared experiences and knowledge.
In conclusion, validating cultural identity through culturally aligned mentorship and
support systems is essential for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students to navigate the complexities of higher
education while maintaining their cultural heritage. Moreover, these systems help students
broaden their sense of identity to include connections with other Indigenous communities,
fostering a sense of belonging that extends beyond their cultural background. These systems
provide academic and emotional guidance and serve as a foundation for students to build a
strong sense of self and belonging, which is critical for their academic success and overall
well-being.
Community and Connection
This study highlights the critical role of community and connection in fostering a sense of
belonging and cultural continuity among Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. Engagement in cultural clubs
and communities emerged as a significant factor in helping these students navigate the
challenges of higher education, particularly in predominantly Western institutions where cultural
discontinuity can be pronounced. The literature supports the necessity of culturally aligned
support systems, such as cultural clubs, mentorship programs, and culturally responsive spaces.
It underscores the importance of these environments in maintaining cultural identity and
promoting academic persistence.

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For instance, Lōkahi’s experience with the Hawaiʻi Club at her university illustrates how
such cultural organizations provide a space for students to feel grounded and connected to their
cultural roots. This example aligns with Kana‘iaupuni et al. (2017), who emphasize that
Indigenous Culture-Based Education (CBE) positively impacts socioemotional development,
self-efficacy, and community engagement. These cultural supports foster a sense of belonging
and serve as a haven where students can counter the cultural discontinuities in the broader
academic environment. The importance of these spaces is further highlighted by Meyer (1998),
who argues that Native Hawaiian epistemology plays a vital role in fostering resilience and
empowerment against colonial influences.
The sense of community and connection is particularly crucial for students studying far
from home. For example, Mana‘olana described her community of peers from similar cultural
backgrounds as a “home away from home,” providing the emotional and cultural support
necessary to thrive in a predominantly Western academic environment. This finding resonates
with Vaughn et al. (2020), who assert that culturally aligned spaces on college campuses are
critical for Native Hawaiian students to engage in cultural practices, connect with peers, and
maintain their cultural identity. The shared cultural experiences within these communities
contribute significantly to students’ overall well-being and academic success, as Yeh et al. (2021)
and Chow-Garcia et al. (2019) emphasize.
Moreover, the connection between community support and cultural identity is central to
the Indigenous worldview, which values interrelatedness and mutual responsibility (Kupo, 2010).
The experiences of students like Ho‘okō, who relied on the broader Pacific Islander, Kanaka
‘Ōiwi, and Native American communities on campus, illustrate how culturally aligned
communities can buffer the effects of cultural discontinuity and provide a foundation for

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academic persistence. This finding aligns with the findings of Kana‘iaupuni et al. (2017), who
advocate for Indigenous Culture-Based Education (CBE) to foster empowerment and resilience
among Indigenous students.
Overall, the study demonstrates that community connections and cultural engagement are
vital for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students in navigating the complexities of higher education. These
culturally aligned support systems promote a strong sense of belonging and empower students to
succeed while maintaining their cultural identity academically.
Empowerment and Academic Persistence
The empowerment and academic persistence of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students are profoundly
influenced by their engagement with culturally aligned support systems, which offer essential
resources and programs that help them overcome academic challenges and maintain a strong
connection to their cultural identity. These support systems are not merely supplementary aids
but are central to students' academic journeys. They provide the motivation and tools necessary
for success in environments that often feel alienating or disconnected from their cultural heritage.
The findings of this study underscore the importance of cultural programs and resources
in empowering Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. For example, Pilina and Ikaika found that participating in
cultural activities such as hula, singing, and engaging with other Hawaiian students reinforced
their sense of purpose and kuleana to their lāhui. This connection to their culture was a
significant source of motivation, helping them persist academically despite the challenges posed
by predominantly Western academic environments. The empowerment derived from these
cultural engagements is consistent with Huffman’s (2001) Transculturation Hypothesis, which
posits that Indigenous students who successfully navigate cultural discontinuity often draw

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strength from their cultural identities, using them as emotional anchors in challenging
educational settings.
Moreover, the literature on Indigenous education supports the idea that culturally aligned
support systems are crucial for academic persistence. The experiences of students like Ikaika,
who took on leadership roles within his community, exemplify how these systems empower
students to succeed academically and become leaders and role models for others. These results
align with Wright's (2003), Salis Reyes’ (2019), and Vaughn's (2023) discussions on the role of
kuleana in Indigenous students' persistence, where a strong sense of cultural responsibility drives
their commitment to education. Vaughn (2023) emphasizes that kuleana fosters individual
resilience and reinforces communal bonds, further tying the notion of giving back to one’s
community with academic success. This central aspect of Indigenous identity is reflected in the
experiences of students who engage deeply with cultural programs.
The disparities in access to these support systems, as highlighted by the different
experiences of students like Kākoʻo and Mana‘olana, reveal broader systemic challenges within
educational institutions. These disparities underscore the need for more equitable access to
culturally aligned resources, vital for fostering academic persistence among Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
students. The CECE model (Museus, 2013), which advocates for culturally engaging campus
environments, is particularly relevant here, as it emphasizes the importance of creating culturally
welcoming, affirming, and supportive of students' identities. The experiences of the students in
this study align with this model, demonstrating how culturally aligned support systems can
reduce the sense of alienation and marginalization that Indigenous students often experience in
Western institutions.

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Furthermore, the study highlights the psychological and cultural impacts of cultural
discontinuity and disconnection from ‘āina on Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. Those who lack access to
culturally aligned support systems often experience heightened cultural discontinuity, negatively
affecting their academic persistence. Conversely, students like Mana‘olana, who found strong
cultural connections, were better equipped to navigate the challenges of higher education while
maintaining their cultural identity. This finding is consistent with the literature on culturally
responsive education, emphasizing the role of culturally validating environments in fostering a
sense of belonging and purpose among Indigenous students (Lipe, 2018; Wright & Shotton,
2020).
The empowerment provided by culturally aligned support systems is essential for Kanaka
‘Ōiwi students to navigate academic challenges and succeed. These systems offer more than just
academic support; they provide a foundation for students to build a strong sense of self and
belonging, which is critical for their academic persistence and overall well-being.
This discussion explores the profound impact of culturally aligned support systems in
higher education for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students through three pivotal themes: Cultural Identity and
Validation, Community and Connection, and Empowerment and Academic Persistence. These
themes collectively illustrate the essential role such supports play in preserving cultural identity
and enhancing Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students' academic journeys within predominantly Western
institutions. Together, these themes demonstrate a comprehensive picture of how culturally
aligned support systems are indispensable in supporting the educational trajectories of Kanaka
‘Ōiwi students. They highlight the necessity of integrating these supports within higher
education to foster environments that respect and promote Indigenous identities, thereby
contributing to a holistic approach to student success and empowerment. Given the significant

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benefits highlighted by these themes, the following section will present recommendations to
enhance and expand culturally aligned support systems to empower Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students and
ensure their educational success.
Recommendations
The findings of this study have significant implications for educators, policymakers, and
stakeholders in higher education, particularly those working with Indigenous student populations
such as Kanaka ‘Ōiwi. The study underscores the critical role of culturally aligned support
systems in fostering cultural identity, community, and academic persistence among Kanaka
‘Ōiwi college students. These findings highlight the need for institutions to implement practices
that validate students' cultural identities, create supportive communities, and empower students
to overcome challenges and succeed academically. The following recommendations aim to
enhance culturally aligned support systems to better serve Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students.
Empowering Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students to navigate academic challenges and persist in their
educational journeys is a crucial finding of this study. The results emphasize the significant
impact of culturally aligned programs and resources in helping students academically succeed
while preserving their cultural identities. To support this empowerment, institutions should
increase access to culturally specific programs and resources tailored to Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students'
unique needs, such as culturally responsive scholarships, tutoring services, and academic
advising. Additionally, it is essential to create safe spaces where Indigenous students can gather,
share their experiences, and engage in cultural practices without fear of discrimination or
exclusion. Such spaces are vital for fostering community and supporting students' mental and
emotional well-being, as suggested by the concept of cultural kīpuka (Vaughn et al., 2020).
Cultural kīpuka, or protected oases within educational institutions, can serve as nurturing

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environments where Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students can experience academic, cultural, and social
growth, akin to the life-sustaining roles of geographical kīpuka in traditional Hawaiian
communities (McGregor, 1995; Vaughn et al., 2020). Dedicated offices or centers focused on
Indigenous and other marginalized students should provide a range of services, including
academic advising, mental health support, and culturally relevant programming that aligns with
the values and practices of diverse student populations (Alcantar et al., 2022; Saelua et al., 2017).
Notably, the study reveals that few participants had access to academic or counseling supports
tailored to Indigenous or Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students, underscoring the need for more intentional and
inclusive institutional support.
The study also highlights the importance of fostering community and connection among
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students through culturally aligned support systems. The findings suggest that
cultural clubs and organizations are essential in creating spaces where students can connect with
peers who share their cultural background, participate in cultural activities, and find a "home
away from home." Institutions should prioritize establishing, expanding, and supporting these
cultural clubs and dedicated cultural spaces on campus to strengthen these connections (Tachine
et al., 2017; Alcantar et al., 2022). These spaces should be inclusive, welcoming, and
representative of the cultural diversity of Indigenous student populations.
Moreover, institutions should actively promote the participation of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
students in these cultural organizations by providing resources, funding, and institutional
support. The results indicate that institutional support for culturally aligned programs varies
significantly across educational institutions. Support can include offering leadership
development opportunities, organizing cultural events, and fostering collaborations between
cultural clubs and academic departments. By enabling students to engage with their cultural

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heritage and connect with others, institutions can significantly enhance the sense of belonging
and well-being among Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. This recommendation aligns with the
recommendations of Wright (2018), Lipe (2018), and Vaughn and Ambo (2022), which
emphasize the importance of educational frameworks that integrate Indigenous perspectives and
promote cultural engagement to support student success and identity development.
A key finding of this study is the importance of cultural validation for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
students, which extends beyond affirming their Hawaiian identity to recognizing their place
within a broader Indigenous community. The results demonstrate that culturally aligned
mentorship and support programs are vital in fostering a sense of belonging and academic
success. To address this need, institutions should develop comprehensive policies prioritizing
culturally aligned support for Indigenous and marginalized student populations. This includes
creating and expanding mentorship programs that involve Indigenous mentors or those who
deeply understand Indigenous student experiences, emphasizing connections across Indigenous
communities, fostering cross-cultural learning and collaboration, and investing in faculty and
staff training to support Indigenous identities.
Recruiting diverse faculty and staff who reflect the identities and experiences of
Indigenous students is also crucial. A diverse faculty enhances cultural validation and provides
Indigenous students with role models who share their cultural backgrounds and understand their
unique challenges. By actively recruiting and retaining Indigenous faculty and staff, institutions
can create a more inclusive environment that resonates with the cultural values and experiences
of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. These educators serve as cultural connectors, bridging the gap
between students' cultural heritage and the academic environment, fostering students' stronger
sense of belonging and resilience.

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Furthermore, integrating cultural training for faculty and staff can enhance their
understanding of Indigenous perspectives, fostering inclusive and supportive environments.
Providing opportunities for cultural engagement and ensuring that students feel valued for their
cultural contributions supports the holistic development of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. This approach
aligns with the CECE model (Museus, 2013), emphasizing the importance of culturally engaging
campus environments in promoting student success.
Institutions must support the development of Trans-Indigenous spaces that connect
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students with other Indigenous students, fostering a broader sense of Indigenous
solidarity and resilience. Many participants in this study felt a strong connection with other
Indigenous students, even when few or no other Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students were present at their
institution. These spaces allow Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students, who are far removed from their ancestral
‘āina, to build pilina with the mo‘olelo, mo‘okū‘auhau, and ‘āina of their fellow Indigenous
students. Vaughn and Ambo (2022) emphasize that Trans-Indigenous education creates networks
that help students navigate academic challenges while enriching their cultural identities. These
spaces become transformational by cultivating relational connections and reinforcing Indigenous
knowledge systems, contributing significantly to student well-being and success. Moreover,
Trans-Indigenous spaces offer unique opportunities for learning and growth, centering
Indigenous relationships and preventing the marginalization of diverse Indigenous identities. As
Vaughn and Ambo highlight, such spaces also help students honor their kuleana to home
communities while fostering relationships with other Indigenous groups, countering the
individualism prevalent in Western educational institutions.
Similarly, Lipe (2018) also argues for transforming educational institutions into inclusive
spaces that value Indigenous worldviews. Institutions should consider integrating Indigenous

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cultural knowledge and practices into the academic curriculum, offering courses and programs
that reflect the cultural perspectives of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi and Indigenous students. Participants who
could engage with Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity and issues in their coursework felt recognized,
understood, and experienced a stronger sense of belonging. Participants who could minor in
Indigenous or Pacific Islander Studies found that this academic pathway allowed them to balance
their major studies with a deeper exploration of their Kanaka ‘Ōiwi identity, further
strengthening their academic and cultural connection. By creating opportunities for students to
engage with their cultural heritage within the academic context, institutions can help students
develop a stronger sense of purpose and resilience, which are crucial for academic persistence
and success (Vaughn, 2023). These opportunities enable students to share and explore their
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi culture and identity more deeply while reinforcing their kuleana to the lāhui
(Kana‘iaupuni et al., 2017; Wright, 2018; Salis Reyes, 2018).
These recommendations are further supported by the conceptual framework used in this
study, which combines Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit (K’ŌC), the Transculturation Hypothesis, and Museus’s
(2013) Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE). Kanaka‘ŌiwiCrit provides a critical
lens to understand the systemic issues that Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students face due to colonialism and
occupation, emphasizing the need for educational practices that validate and affirm Indigenous
identities (Wright & Balutski, 2016; Salis Reyes, 2018; Vaughn, 2023; Vaughn & Ambo, 2022).
This framework, in conjunction with the CECE model, suggests that creating culturally engaging
and supportive campus environments is essential for fostering a strong sense of belonging and
academic persistence among Indigenous students.
In conclusion, this study underscores the critical importance of culturally responsive
practices in higher education. The findings reveal that when institutions prioritize cultural

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validation, foster a strong sense of community, and empower students through culturally aligned
support systems, they significantly enhance the academic success and overall well-being of
Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. By affirming and celebrating the cultural identities of Indigenous
students, institutions not only meet the unique needs of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students and move closer
to cultivating genuinely inclusive and equitable educational environments for all. Implementing
these recommendations is an investment in the success of Indigenous students and a step toward
enriching the diversity and inclusivity of all higher education.
Future Research
The current study offered significant insights into the experiences of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
college students with culturally aligned support systems; however, several areas remain
unexplored and warrant further investigation by future researchers. Notably, the current study
focused on a highly engaged sample with positive experiences from cultural supports, limiting
the findings' generalizability. Additionally, there is a lack of longitudinal data to understand the
sustained impacts of these supports. Addressing these gaps is essential to develop a more
comprehensive understanding of how culturally aligned support systems influence K‘Ō students
across different institutional contexts and over time. Future research should prioritize exploring
less-engaged student populations, expanding institutional comparisons, inquiring about
challenges or gaps in support systems, and assessing the long-term outcomes of culturally
aligned supports. Additionally, examining the recruitment, training, and development of
Indigenous faculty and staff is crucial for better supporting K‘Ō students.
One of the critical limitations of the current study is its focus on K‘Ō students who were
highly engaged with culturally aligned support systems. This narrow focus may not capture the
full spectrum of student experiences, particularly those less engaged or disconnected from these

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supports. Future research should include students with lower levels of engagement to explore
barriers to participation and why some students may not utilize these supports. Understanding the
experiences of less-engaged students could provide insights into making culturally aligned
supports more accessible and appealing to a broader range of students, particularly those with
weaker connections to their Indigenous identity. Additionally, there is a need to explore the
experiences of K‘Ō diaspora students who were not born and raised in Hawai‘i, as their unique
perspectives could offer valuable insights into the adaptability and effectiveness of these
supports in diverse contexts.
Another area for future research involves conducting comparative studies to examine the
variability and effectiveness of culturally aligned supports across different institutions. The
current study focused on institutions that offered culturally aligned supports but found high
variability in their availability. Additionally, participants consistently reported positive
experiences with their support systems. Future studies could investigate how institutional
contexts influence the availability of these supports, identify factors that contribute to their
success, and uncover potential challenges and gaps. Comparative analyses across various
institutional characteristics could provide critical insights, ultimately guiding improvements in
cultural support systems to serve K‘Ō students better.
The current study’s design limits its ability to capture the long-term impacts of culturally
aligned support systems on K‘Ō students. It would be beneficial to conduct longitudinal research
to address this gap, tracking students from their initial engagement with these supports to
graduation and beyond. Longitudinal studies would be invaluable in assessing the sustained
effects of culturally aligned supports on academic persistence, graduation rates, career success,
and continued connection to cultural identity. Longitudinal research could also explore how the

115
benefits of these supports evolve and how they contribute to the lifelong success and well-being
of K‘Ō students.
While existing research supports the benefits of mentorship for K‘Ō students, there is
limited research on the recruitment, training, and development of Indigenous and culturally
responsive faculty and staff. Future research should explore how institutions can optimize these
efforts to support K‘Ō students better. Studies should examine effective recruitment strategies,
professional development programs, and retention practices that enhance the presence and
influence of Indigenous faculty and staff. By focusing on the role these educators play in
mentoring and advocating for K‘Ō students, research can provide insights into how to strengthen
institutional commitment to cultural validation and inclusivity, which are critical to student
success.
In summary, future research should address the gaps identified in this study by
broadening the scope of the study population, conducting institutional comparisons,
implementing longitudinal designs, and investigating the recruitment and development of K‘Ō
faculty and staff. By expanding future research, educators can deepen the understanding of the
diverse experiences of K‘Ō students and enhance the effectiveness of culturally aligned support.
These efforts are essential for creating more inclusive, equitable, and culturally responsive
educational environments that meet K‘Ō and other Indigenous students' unique needs.
Final Reflections
As a Kanaka ‘Ōiwi scholar and advocate, my research is deeply intertwined with my
experiences as a first-generation Kanaka ‘Ōiwi student in Western academic environments.
Growing up in Hawai‘i, my cultural identity was firmly rooted in local traditions and values, but
transitioning to higher education in predominantly Western institutions revealed significant

116
cultural disconnects. These challenges motivated me to explore how culturally aligned support
systems can better serve Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students, who often face systemic barriers in educational
settings. My narrative, highlighted in the introduction, underscores the struggles of maintaining a
strong cultural identity while pursuing academic success—reinforcing the need for culturally
validating educational environments.
My positionality as a Kanaka ‘Ōiwi researcher brought strengths and challenges to this
study. It enabled me to connect with participants culturally, fostering trust and openness.
However, it also required careful reflection to ensure that my own experiences did not
overshadow the diverse voices of the students. This awareness informed my approach,
emphasizing culturally responsive methodologies like talk-story interviews to center
participants’ authentic narratives.
Through this research, I gained more profound insights into the critical role of cultural
validation, community, and empowerment for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students. The findings reveal that
culturally aligned supports—such as mentorship, cultural clubs, and dedicated physical
spaces—are beneficial and essential for fostering a sense of belonging and academic persistence
in predominantly Western settings. These supports validate students' identities, counteracting the
alienation that can arise in environments that often overlook or marginalize Indigenous cultures.
Initially, I assumed a similar experience among Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students with cultural
support; however, the research revealed significant variability based on factors like institutional
context and personal engagement. This understanding challenged my assumptions and
highlighted the need for more tailored approaches that consider Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students' diverse
experiences, contexts, and needs across different settings.

117
This journey has reaffirmed my commitment to advancing Kanaka ‘Ōiwi education
through research and advocacy. It has deepened my understanding of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students'
complex challenges and strengthened my resolve to promote more inclusive and equitable
educational environments. Moving forward, I remain dedicated to this work—whether through
further research, collaboration with educational institutions, or community initiatives focused on
centering Kanaka ‘Ōiwi voices and narratives. This process has been transformative, reinforcing
my dedication to creating spaces where Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students can thrive academically and
culturally.
Conclusion
This study explored how Kanaka ‘Ōiwi college students engage with culturally aligned
support systems within predominantly Western higher education institutions. It illuminated the
significance of such support in fostering cultural identity, community connection, and academic
persistence. The findings are synthesized around three key themes—Cultural Identity and
Validation, Community and Connection, and Empowerment and Academic Persistence—each
contributing to a deeper understanding of the Kanaka ‘Ōiwi student experience and the role of
culturally aligned supports.
First, the Cultural Identity and Validation theme underscores the importance of culturally
aligned mentorship and support programs in affirming Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students' identities. Such
validation is critical not only for student well-being but also as a counterbalance to the
marginalization experienced within Western academic environments. This finding aligns with
Meyer’s (1998) argument that Indigenous epistemologies are foundational for empowerment and
resistance to colonial pressures. Culturally responsive mentors further enhance students’ sense of
belonging and academic persistence, reflecting the principles of Museus’ (2013) Culturally

118
Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model. In contrast, students who lack access to
culturally aligned support illustrate the disparities across institutions and underscore the need for
more consistent and accessible cultural validation.
The second theme, Community and Connection, highlights how cultural clubs,
organizations, and communities foster belonging and cultural continuity for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi
students. Engaging in these culturally aligned communities helps students navigate the
challenges of predominantly Western institutions by providing spaces that honor and uphold their
cultural identities. This sense of community is critical for students studying far from home, as
participants found a "home away from home" among peers with similar cultural backgrounds.
These findings resonate with Vaughn et al. (2020) and Kana‘iaupuni et al. (2017), who
emphasize the significance of culturally aligned spaces and Indigenous Culture-Based Education
(CBE) in supporting Indigenous students’ socioemotional development, community engagement,
and academic persistence.
The third theme, Empowerment and Academic Persistence examines how culturally
aligned support systems provide Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students with the motivation and tools necessary
for academic success. Cultural programs and resources empower students by reinforcing their
sense of kuleana and connection to their lāhui, motivating them to persist academically despite
challenges. The empowerment derived from these cultural engagements supports Huffman’s
(2001) Transculturation Hypothesis, which suggests that Indigenous students who anchor
themselves in their cultural identities are better equipped to navigate cultural discontinuities in
Western educational settings. However, disparities in access to these supports highlight the
systemic challenges within educational institutions and the need for equitable access to culturally
aligned resources.

119
These themes underscore the transformative potential of culturally aligned support
systems in validating the cultural identities of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students, fostering community
connections, and nurturing a sense of belonging in predominantly Western higher education
settings. This study is a pioneering exploration of these supports across diverse educational
contexts and a critical contribution to the broader discourse on Indigenous education. By
demonstrating the positive impact of culturally relevant supports in fostering belonging, cultural
identity, and academic persistence, the findings reaffirm the need for integrating culturally
responsive practices within educational institutions. Central to these practices is creating cultural
kīpuka on campus—safe, nurturing spaces where Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students can find refuge, connect
with their heritage, and thrive academically. These kīpuka serve as vital oases within the often
challenging landscape of higher education, offering the support necessary for students to
maintain and celebrate their cultural identities. These insights have significant implications for
developing more inclusive educational policies and practices that honor and promote Kanaka
‘Ōiwi and Indigenous identities and extend to other marginalized groups. By implementing these
recommendations, including establishing cultural kīpuka, institutions can significantly enhance
their support for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students and other Indigenous students, ensuring their success in
higher education and beyond. The study lays the groundwork for future research and policy
innovation to create supportive educational spaces for all students, particularly those whose
cultural identities are often marginalized in traditional academic settings. These insights
contribute to a comprehensive student success and empowerment strategy, highlighting an
optimistic future where diversity, equity, and inclusion are prioritized across higher education
environments.

120
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Appendix A: Call for Participants
Aloha mai kākou,
Are you a Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian) undergraduate student? Are you actively engaged in
cultural supports on your campus, like cultural student groups, cultural centers, cultural
mentorship, or a cultural bridge program?
My name is Isaac Keoua Vigilla. I am a graduate student at the University of Southern
California. I am conducting a research study to examine the experiences of Kanaka ʻŌiwi college
students like yourself and their engagement with crucial cultural supports.
I am recruiting individuals who meet all these criteria:
1. Identifies as Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian)
2. Currently enrolled undergraduate student
3. Engaged with cultural support on campus (cultural student groups, cultural centers,
cultural mentorship, cultural bridge program, etc.)
If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to complete the following activities:
1. An online screening survey ~10 minutes
2. An online 1:1 interview with the researcher ~60-90 minutes
During these activities, you will be asked about:
● Demographic questions such as your age, education, geographic location, and how you
identify.
● Experiences navigating college life.
● Engagement with cultural supports on campus.
Participants in this study will receive one $50 gift card after completing the screening survey and
online interview.
If you are interested in participating in this study, please visit the link below to learn more about
the study and complete the screening survey.
https://usc.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_cA58XIoGfKPln6e or
https://bit.ly/hawaiiancollegesupport
If you have any questions, please contact vigilla@usc.edu.
Mahalo!
Isaac Keoua Vigilla
vigilla@usc.edu

133
Appendix B: Informed Consent and Screening Survey
Informed Consent for Research
Study Title: Kaunaloa i ka ʻImi Naʻauao: Supporting Determined Perseverance in Seeking
Education
Principal Investigator: Isaac Keoua Vigilla
Department: USC Rossier School of Education
Introduction
We invite you to take part in a research study. Please take as much time as you need to
read the consent form. You should discuss it with your family, friends, or advisor. If you need
help understanding any of the language, please ask questions. You will be asked to sign this form
if you decide to participate. A copy of the signed form will be provided for your records.
Purpose
This study aims to examine the experiences of Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian) college
students and their engagement with cultural support. We hope to learn how undergraduate
Kanaka ʻŌiwi students engage with cultural supports to navigate college life. You are invited as a
possible participant because you are an undergraduate Kanaka ʻŌiwi student. About 10
participants will take part in the study.
Procedures
● If you decide to participate, you must complete an online screening survey.
● If selected, you will be invited for a one-on-one interview with the researcher, which may
last 60-90 minutes.
Risk and Discomforts
Possible risks and discomforts you could experience during this study include:

134
Surveys/Questionnaires/Interviews
Some of the questions may make you feel uneasy or embarrassed. You can skip or stop
answering any questions you do not want to.
Breach of Confidentiality
There is a small risk that people not connected with this study will learn about your
identity or personal information.
USC Student Participants
There is a risk that people not connected with this study will learn your identity or
personal information. You will be asked questions about activities that, if you are under 21 years
old, may be illegal and/or not in compliance with university policy. Although highly unlikely, the
university might refer you to Campus Support and Intervention (CSI) or Trojans Care 4 Trojans
(TC4T) if your information becomes public.
Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian) Participants
This study recognizes the uniqueness of the Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian) community.
Research with Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian) participants differs from working with other
underserved, minority, or rural populations. The researcher has implemented various safeguards
to prevent potential physical, psychological, social, or economic harm to the participants and the
broader lāhui (community).
Consent occurs throughout the research project, not just at the outset. The goal is to
ensure that the advantages of this research extend beyond individual participants, benefiting the
entire lāhui.
Benefits

135
Participants in this study will receive one $50 gift card after completing the screening
survey and online interview. Through participation, you will share valuable insights about your
college journey that can help other Native Hawaiian students. Additionally, your involvement
can inform policies and practices that enhance support for Native Hawaiian students like you.
Privacy/Confidentiality
We will keep your records for this study confidential as permitted by law. However, if
we are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. Efforts will
be made to limit the use and disclosure of your personal information, including research studies,
to people required to review this information. We may publish the information from this study in
journals or present it at meetings. If we do, we will not use your name.
The University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Human
Research Protection Program (HRPP) may review your records.
Alternatives
An alternative is not to participate in this study.
Payments/Compensation
Participants in this study will receive one $50 gift card after completing the screening
survey and online interview. Payments for research participation are considered taxable income,
and participants may be required to pay taxes on this income. If participants are paid $600 or
more within a calendar year for participation in one or more research studies, the University will
report this as income to the IRS, and participants may receive an Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
Form 1099. This does not include any payments you receive to pay you back for expenses like
parking fees.
Injury

136
The University of Southern California does not provide monetary compensation. If you
are injured directly due to research procedures, you will receive medical treatment; however, you
or your insurance will be responsible for the cost.
Voluntary Participation
It is your choice whether to participate. If you choose to participate, you may change
your mind and leave the study anytime. If you decide not to participate or end up participating in
this study, you will not be penalized or lose any benefits you are otherwise entitled to.
Contact Information
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints or think the research has hurt you, contact
the investigator, Isaac Vigilla, at vigilla@usc.edu.
This research has been reviewed by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB
is a research review board that reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and
welfare of research participants. Contact the IRB if you have questions about your rights as a
research participant or have complaints. You may contact the IRB at (323) 442-0114 or by email
at hrpp@usc.edu.
Statement of Consent
I have read the above information. I have been given a chance to ask questions. All my
questions have been answered. By selecting YES below, I agree to participate in this study.
Please print this page before continuing if you would like a copy for your records.
Screening Survey
Eligibility Criteria
Q1.Do you agree to participate in this study? YES/NO

137
Q2.Are you currently enrolled as an undergraduate student at a post-high institution?
YES/NO
Q3.Do you identify as Native Hawaiian or part-Native Hawaiian? YES/NO
Q4.Do you actively engage with cultural supports on campus, like cultural student groups,
cultural centers, cultural mentorship, cultural bridge program, or a Pacific Island Studies
program? YES/NO
Screening Survey
Q5.Full Name
Q6.Preferred Email Address
Q7.Phone Number
Q8.What is your ethnicity or race? Select all that apply.
A. American Indian or Alaska Native
B. Asian
C. Black or African American
D. Hispanic
E. Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian)
F. Other Pacific Islander
G. White or Caucasian
H. Other
Q9.What institution are you currently enrolled at?
Q10. What types of cultural supports on campus do you engage with? Select all that apply.
A. Cultural student group
B. Cultural center

138
C. Cultural mentor program
D. Cultural peer program
E. Cultural bridge program
F. Native Hawaiian and/or Pacific Island Studies program
G. Other
Q11. Which cultural supports are specifically for Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian)
students?
Q12. How often do you engage with these support services?
Thank you for your responses. You will receive an email invitation to schedule your one-on-one
interview if you are selected to participate. Mahalo for your participation.

139
Appendix C: Interview Protocol
Introduction
Mahalo for answering my survey and agreeing to participate in this interview. I
appreciate the time you took to answer my questions and look forward to talking story with you
today. The recruitment documents listed that this interview should take about an hour. Does that
still work for you?
Before we get started, I wanted to remind you about the study included in the Informed
Consent and Screening Survey and answer questions you might have about this interview. I am a
doctoral student at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles. I am conducting a study
to examine the experiences of Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian) college students and their
engagement with cultural support. We hope to learn how undergraduate Kanaka ʻŌiwi students
engage with cultural supports to navigate college life.
Your participation in this interview is completely voluntary, and you may choose to
withdraw at any time. Your responses will be kept confidential and anonymous and will only be
used for this study. I hope to record our conversation today to capture your experience. Although
I may use direct quotes, none of the data will be directly attributed or connected to you. I will
protect your confidentiality and de-identify any data collected today. If you're interested, I’m
happy to provide a copy of my final paper.
Do you have any questions about the study before we get started? As I mentioned, I plan
to record our conversation today to capture your perspective best. It will not be shared with
anyone outside our team. May I have your permission to record our conversation?
Questions
First, I want to ask about you and your college experience.

140
1. Where are you from? Tell me about your upbringing.
2. Tell me about your family background. How did they influence your educational
experiences?
3. Why did you pursue college?
Next, I want to ask you a few questions about Native Hawaiian identity.
4. How would you define your identity as a Native Hawaiian?
5. How would you compare your Native Hawaiian culture to the mainstream culture of your
college?
6. What challenges, if any, have you encountered in maintaining your cultural identity while
at college?
Now, I’d like to ask you some questions about your engagement with cultural supports.
7. Could you describe any cultural supports within your educational institution that have
been particularly meaningful to you?
8. What distinguishes cultural support from other support resources available to students?
9. Share an experience when cultural support positively impacted your academic success, if
any.
10. Share any moments when cultural support helped you navigate difficult situations in your
academic journey, if any.
11. How do you perceive the role of cultural support in academic retention?
Next, I’d like to ask you some questions about building connections.
12. How has cultural support influenced your sense of belonging within your educational
institution?

141
13. How has engagement with cultural support helped you connect with peers who share
your cultural identity?
14. What types of guidance or mentorship have been most impactful for you as a Native
Hawaiian?
Finally, I'd like to ask how your experience can benefit other Native Hawaiian students.
15. From your perspective, how might cultural support impact the future of Native Hawaiian
students in college?
16. How do you envision sharing your experiences to inspire future Native Hawaiian
students?
Closing
Mahalo nui loa for sharing your thoughts with me today! I am humbled and appreciate
your time and willingness to talk-story with me today. Everything that you’ve shared is very
helpful for my study. Now that the interview is complete, I’ll email you your $50 gift card. If I
have any follow-up questions, would it be okay to email you? Mahalo again for participating.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This dissertation explores the engagement of Kanaka ‘Ōiwi (Native Hawaiian) college students with culturally aligned support systems within diverse higher education contexts in the United States. This study uses a qualitative research design to examine the experiences of eight undergraduate students who navigate predominantly Western educational environments while seeking cultural validation, community connection, and academic persistence. The findings are organized around three key themes: (1) Cultural Identity and Validation, (2) Community and Connection, and (3) Empowerment and Academic Persistence. The results reveal that culturally aligned support systems, such as cultural clubs, mentorship programs, and dedicated cultural spaces, play a crucial role in affirming students' cultural identities, fostering a sense of belonging, and empowering them to succeed academically. This study is significant as it is the first to examine the impact of culturally aligned support for Kanaka ‘Ōiwi students across different institutional settings. It highlights the broader implications for developing inclusive policies and practices that support Kanaka ‘Ōiwi and other Indigenous students in higher education. The findings contribute to the discourse on Indigenous education by advocating for culturally responsive practices that honor diverse cultural identities, promote equity and inclusion, and ensure all students' academic and personal success.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Vigilla, Isaac Keoua (author)

Core Title Kākoʻo kaunaloa i ka ʻimi naʻauao: supporting determined perseverance in seeking education

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 09/12/2024

Defense Date 09/11/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic persistence,culturally aligned support systems,Higher Education,indigenous education,kanaka ‘ōiwi,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Filback, Robert (committee chair), Samkian, Artineh (committee member), Vaughn, Kēhaulani Natsuko (committee member)

Creator Email vigilla@usc.edu;h7isvigi@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11399AT0O

Unique identifier UC11399AT0O

Identifier etd-VigillaIsa-13524.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-VigillaIsa-13524

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Vigilla, Isaac Keoua

Internet Media Type application/pdf

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Source 20240918-usctheses-batch-1212 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

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