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The challenges women face becoming peace officers
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Content
The Challenges Women Face Becoming Peace Officers
Christopher J. Monahan
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
December 2024
© Copyright by Christopher J. Monahan 2024
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Christopher Monahan certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Carey Regur
Jennifer Phillips
Monique Datta
Helena Seli, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024
iv
Abstract
This study evaluated the challenges women face in becoming peace officers. The participants
were full-time female peace officers. Their first-hand knowledge of the peace officer application
and hiring process was obtained to provide insight for future female peace officer applicants.
This study examined the different reasons female peace officers were drawn to law enforcement,
the environmental influences they reported as barriers to women entering the profession, and the
environmental influences that supported their success in the application process. A survey was
distributed seeking full-time female peace officers. Participants responded to Likert-type and
open-ended questions. The final number of participants who responded to the survey was 592.
This study identified key findings that included the importance of creating an environment that is
welcoming to female applicants, including demonstrating equal opportunities for men and
women. Another finding that came out of the study identified that the current physical fitness
requirements may be out of date and not consistent with current job practices. Two additional
findings revealed the value participants felt mentorship programs offered to women seeking
employment as a peace officer and the need to ensure hiring practices are geared toward enticing
interested applicants to apply to law enforcement as a profession. The recommendations coming
from this study include law enforcement agencies creating a positive working environment for
all, conducting a thorough review of physical fitness requirements for law enforcement
applicants, creating positive mentorship programs, and encouraging involvement in Explorer or
similar programs for those interested in a career in law enforcement.
v
Dedication
To my wife, Amy, I could not have achieved this without your love and support.
vi
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank all of the faculty who supported my education and research during
this academic process. Their instruction and feedback provided a positive and rewarding learning
experience. The support of my first chair, Jennifer Phillips, and my second chair, Helena Seli,
cannot be overstated. Their mentoring made this dissertation possible. I am forever grateful to
both of them, and the University of Southern California should be proud to have them as part of
their faculty. My final defense was conducted on September 12, 2024, National Police Woman
Day.
I would also like to thank my mom, sister, Theresa, and friend, April, for their
proofreading help. For further information, I can be reached at cjmonaha@usc.edu.
vii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures..................................................................................................................................x
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice.........................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................2
Field Context and Mission...................................................................................................5
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions.....................................................................6
Importance of the Study.......................................................................................................7
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .....................................................8
Definitions............................................................................................................................9
Organization of the Dissertation ........................................................................................10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .........................................................................................11
History of the Problem.......................................................................................................11
The Importance of Women in Law Enforcement ..............................................................17
The Barriers Female Law Enforcement Applicants Encounter.........................................21
Supports in Place to Aid Women Becoming Peace Officers.............................................24
Theoretical Framework: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecology of Human Development..................30
Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................31
Summary............................................................................................................................33
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................34
Research Questions............................................................................................................34
viii
Overview of Methodology.................................................................................................34
The Researcher...................................................................................................................35
Data Source: Survey ..........................................................................................................36
Ethics..................................................................................................................................40
Chapter Four: Results and Findings...............................................................................................42
Survey Participants ............................................................................................................43
Research Question 1: What Reasons Do Female Peace Officers Provide for Being
Drawn to Law Enforcement as a Profession? ....................................................................45
Research Question 2: What Environmental Influences Do Female Peace Officers
Report as Barriers to Women Entering the Profession? ....................................................56
Research Question 3: What Environmental Influences Do Female Peace Officers
Report as Supporting Their Success in the Application Process? .....................................69
Summary of Results and Findings.....................................................................................78
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations..........................................................................80
Discussion of Results and Findings...................................................................................80
Recommendations for Practice ..........................................................................................84
Limitations and Delimitations............................................................................................87
Recommendations for Future Research.............................................................................88
Implications for Equity ......................................................................................................90
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................90
References......................................................................................................................................92
Appendix A: Survey Questions ...................................................................................................104
ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Themes Participants Reported As Drawing Them to Law Enforcement as a
Profession 48
Table 2: Survey Item: Being Exposed to a Female Peace Officer During the Application and
Hiring Process Is Helpful 52
Table 3: The Challenges Women Face Today Becoming Peace Officers 59
Table 4: Survey Item: What Reasons, if Any, Made You Not Want to Continue the
Application or Hiring Process at Any Point 68
Table 5: Survey Item: My Spouse or Significant Other Supported my Desire to Become a
Peace Officer 75
Table 6: Why or Why Would You Not Recommend Law Enforcement to a Female Friend or
Relative 77
Table A1: Survey 105
x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Study’s Conceptual Framework 32
Figure 2: Survey Item: How Long Have You Been in Law Enforcement as a Peace Officer? 45
Figure 3: Survey Item: Women Are Drawn to Law Enforcement as a Profession 47
Figure 4: Survey Item: Job Fairs Help Women Enter Law Enforcement 50
Figure 5: Survey Item: Participating in an Explorer or Similar Program Before Becoming a
Peace Officer Is Important 51
Figure 6: Toms River Police Department 53
Figure 7: Stephenville Police Department 54
Figure 8: Survey Item: Job Brochures Accurately Reflect a Career in Law Enforcement 55
Figure 9: Survey Item: There Were Societal Influences That Initially Prevented Me From
Being Drawn to Law Enforcement as a Profession 57
Figure 10: Survey Item: Common Environmental Influences Preventing Women From
Becoming Peace Officers 58
Figure 11: Survey Item: My Department Actively Seeks to Recruit Female Officers 62
Figure 12: Survey Item: My Department Promotes a Work-Life Balance 63
Figure 13: Survey Item: I Found It Difficult to Complete the Physical Agility Test 64
Figure 14: Survey Item: I Believe That the Physical Agility Test Prevents Qualified Women
From Entering Law Enforcement 66
Figure 15: Survey Item: I Believe the Oral Exam Was Difficult 67
Figure 16: Survey Item: I Had a Mentor Who Helped Me to Navigate the Application and
Hiring Process When I Was Seeking to Become a Peace Officer 70
Figure 17: Survey Item: Having a Law Enforcement Mentor Would Help More Women
Successfully Navigate the Application and Hiring Process 71
Figure 18: Survey Item: My Department Offers the Same Formal Mentoring Program to
Female Applicants as They Do Male Applicants 72
Figure 19: Survey Item: My Mentor Continued to Support Me After I Was Hired 73
Figure 20: Survey Item: Male Officers Can Mentor Female Applicants Just As Effectively as
Female Officers Can Mentor Them 74
xi
Figure 21: Survey Item: I Would Recommend Law Enforcement to a Female Friend or
Relative 76
xii
List of Abbreviations
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BJS Bureau of Justice Studies
CPOA California Peace Officers Association
DOJ Department of Justice
PERF Police Executive Research Foundation
1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
The problem addressed in this study is the challenges women face in becoming peace
officers. A peace officer is defined as a civil officer appointed to preserve law and order, such as
a sheriff or police officer (Oxford Languages, 2022). Law enforcement will be another term
widely used throughout this study. Law enforcement describes the agencies and employees
responsible for policing, which is described as the act of enforcing laws, maintaining public
order, and managing public safety (Bureau of Justice Studies [BJS], 2021).
Women face barriers to entry into the profession, as evidenced by their low
representation in the field as compared to their representation in the greater U.S. population.
Women represent 51% of the population, but they only represent 12% of peace officers (National
Institute of Justice, 2019). In 2019, the number of peace officers dropped nationwide to 697,195,
a reduction of 53,145 or 9% from 2016 (DOJ, 2019). The number of female peace officers also
declined in this period from 2016–2019. Female applicants to law enforcement express the rigors
of working unusual work schedules, few holidays, and limitations on time off and vacation as
deterrents to their desire to become peace officers (Sebire, 2020). Law enforcement must value
the need for a representative police force (Donohue, 2020).
Women are important to law enforcement and provide a level of service that their male
counterparts cannot always provide (Sebire, 2020). Female officers have also shown a better set
of skills to help foster community policing (Aiello, 2020). Many experts find several other
beneficial skills that women bring to law enforcement service, including a maternal instinct,
better communication, de-escalation skills, and a calming demeanor (Donohue, 2020). This study
sought to identify opportunities to increase the representation of women in law enforcement by
exploring current female peace officers’ experiences.
2
Background of the Problem
Applications from prospective peace officer candidates, men and women, continue to
decline in the United States (Lehman, 2020). Lehman projected that this trend will become an
even larger concern over the next decade. He cited, noting that in the 1990s, there were only
500,000 peace officers in the United States, and violent crime was peaking. Federal funding from
the Community Oriented Policing Services office assisted, which was established by a 1994
crime bill. This bill enabled law enforcement agencies to recruit and hire peace officers that were
put into place to increase police presence, to expand and improve cooperative efforts between
law enforcement agencies and members of the community to address crime and disorder
problems, and otherwise to enhance public safety. The bill offered significant funding for crime
prevention, including community policing, drug treatment, and programs for young people. It
also contained the landmark Violence Against Women Act, which sharply reduced the incidence
of domestic violence, and a ban on assault weapons, which helped to reduce the firearm
homicide rate (Rashawn & Galston, 2020).
The national workforce crisis involving the lack of peace officers is affecting law
enforcement agencies of all sizes and levels (Police Executive Research Foundation [PERF],
2018). The study found that approximately half of the sworn personnel who resigned accepted a
job at another agency, and nearly one-quarter left the profession. The PERF study also
established that agencies struggle to fill their ranks and provide a desired level of service and are
reducing their crime prevention efforts.
Reductions are causing cities to operate below authorized staffing levels because they
cannot find enough qualified applicants, male or female, willing to join their force (Police
Executive Research Forum, 2018). The PERF study established that while these vacancies exist,
3
law enforcement leaders are also trying to raise the bar to find applicants with a wider array of
talents and skills. These changes include raising the application age to attract a more mature
applicant, easing the nepotism rules to not eliminate otherwise talented applicants, and raising
the education requirements.
Peace officers should be representative of the communities they serve, including having
gender equality at all ranks, to help gain the trust of victims (Aiello, 2020; Corley, 2022; Dobbin
& Kalev, 2017; Sebire, 2020). Corley (2022) discussed the general agreement that police
departments should reflect the communities they serve, but stated that the challenging
atmosphere has made recruiting difficult throughout the country. Corley added that while
agencies are making progress in hiring women, there is a long way to go.
The three primary data sources that provide comprehensive information about the nature
and scope of law enforcement employment in the United States include the Federal Bureau of
Investigation, the United States Census Bureau, and the BJS (2016). Law enforcement officers
employed in a full-time capacity reached a peak in 2011 of 768,287. The next year, full-time
officers dropped to 750,340 (Banks et al., 2016). In the meantime, the U.S. population increased.
The United States population in 2011 was 312,780,968, and in 2019, it was 328,239,523 (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2019). This growth represents a population increase of five percent over those 8
years. As law enforcement numbers decline, the population continues to grow.
Law enforcement leaders struggle to attract new female employees and, in some cases,
retain the female officers already employed. Despite macro-level trends toward gender parity in a
variety of fields, including banking and education, and women comprising 46.8% of total U.S.
workers, women’s presence in policing remains low (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017). Donohue
(2020) cited that female officers make-up 12% of peace officers in the United States, compared
4
to their population representation of 51%. Law enforcement agencies are examining this
underrepresentation and making an effort to revise hiring practices to entice female applicants,
including changing hiring standards, modifying schedules, and providing mentorships (Sebire,
2020).
Female representation can have a positive influence on police forces, especially on the
effective management of domestic and sexually violent crimes that disproportionately affect
women (Sebire, 2020). Donohue (2020) identified the value of having a representative police
force, including increasing community partnerships, enhanced problem solving, and mutual
cultural understanding, as well as other mutual competencies for law enforcement. Female
officers have also shown a better than average set of skills that helps to foster community
policing (Aiello, 2020). Studies have shown the value women bring to law enforcement. For
example, female officers tend to use less force than a situation might normally call for, but this
has not resulted in an increased likelihood of injury to the officers (Archbold & Schulz 2012,
Schuck & Rabe-Hemp, 2005).
The challenges many women face becoming peace officers and the inability to increase
their overall representation continue to be a concern. Employing a diverse workforce,
particularly in terms of female representation in all ranks within the policing command structure,
is a vital determinant for setting a police force’s culture (Sebire, 2020). “Defund the Police” has
become a common theme in communities across the country (Elbeshbishi & Quarshie, 2021),
including advocacy for redistributing police budget funds to other groups that can provide
services that the police should not be performing (Jacobs et al., 2021). Law enforcement leaders
find that applicants are concerned that a job in law enforcement could lead to layoffs if civic
budgets are cut. They face the possibility of being sued for doing their job to the best of their
5
abilities, and they voice that they hear a vocal disrespect for law enforcement officers (Land,
2021; MacFarquhar, 2021). Applicants want flexible schedules, work/life balance, and the
support of the communities they serve (Police Executive Research Forum, 2018).
Field Context and Mission
Law enforcement leaders recognize the worth of a representative police force and are
working to fill vacancies, but they face a national narrative that makes filling those vacancies
difficult (Donohue, 2020). Law enforcement describes the agencies and employees responsible
for enforcing laws, maintaining public order, and managing public safety. The Bureau of Justice
Statistics (2021) identified that the primary duties of law enforcement to include the
investigation, apprehension, and detention of individuals suspected of criminal offenses. Some
law enforcement agencies, particularly sheriff’s offices, also have a significant role in the
detention of individuals convicted of criminal offenses (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2021).
Community members are communicating to law enforcement leaders that they desire a
law enforcement workforce that represents the community they serve. These calls include
increasing the representation of women. Although women represent 51% of the population, they
only represent 12% of law enforcement officers (Reaves, 2015). Law enforcement agencies have
struggled to hire and retain other underrepresented populations. As an example, Asian officers
represent 3% of peace officers nationally and 7% of the population, Black peace officers
represent 12% of peace officers nationally, and 13.4% of the population, and Hispanic peace
officers represent 12% of peace officers nationally and 18% of the population (Reaves, 2015).
The data-collection process for this study focused on female peace officers currently
employed in California. Two recent articles came out in California discussing the need to hire a
diverse workforce. San Diego Police created a women’s hiring expo that was very successful and
6
brought nearly 100 applicants to the event (NBC San Diego, 2021). Assistant Police Chief
Sandra Albrektsen was very pleased with the expo, noting that one applicant drove eight hours to
participate. The Oakland Police Department is focusing on hiring people from the lesbian, gay,
bisexual, transgender, and questioning community, people of color, and women (Rodgers, 2021).
In California, there were 79,550 peace officers in 2019. Of those officers, 13% were female,
slightly above the national average (Lofstrom & Martin, 2021).
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to explore why women make up a small presence of peace
officers related to their presence in the population. I explored the barriers and supports that
influence women to become peace officers. This research aimed to provide law enforcement
leaders the information they need to achieve increased female recruiting for their agencies and,
as a result, decrease gender disparities while providing an increased level of representative
service to the communities their departments serve. Through innovative thinking and research, a
change can occur to curb the historic underrepresentation of women in law enforcement. This
study addressed the following research questions:
1. What reasons do female peace officers provide for being drawn to law enforcement as
a profession?
2. What environmental influences do female peace officers report as barriers to women
entering the profession?
3. What environmental influences do female peace officers report as supporting their
success in the application process?
7
Importance of the Study
The previous sections outlined the consequences of not examining this problem of
practice. Continuing the status quo will not decrease the lack of female representation in
policing. Female officers bring a different level of service to law enforcement, have proven to be
equal in skills and ability to their male counterparts, and, in some instances, are better suited to
the community needs of the departments they serve (Sebire, 2020). Peace officers must be truly
representative of all the communities they serve, and they should have high levels of gender
equality in all ranks and throughout the organization to gain the trust of victims (Sebire, 2020).
The socialization process that peace officers experience could also be changing as a result
of more women entering the field. An increased presence of women may begin to erode what has
traditionally been an “all-boys” club (Archbold & Schulz, 2012). The National Institute of
Justice (2019) stated that women must be aware that they are not solely responsible for change.
All members of the policing community need to be partners in addressing these issues. Men are
important change agents in policing, and they will need to be an integral component to bring
about an essential shift in the policing culture (National Institute of Justice [NIJ], 2019).
Examining this problem of practice affords law enforcement leaders with information
that may prove beneficial for the community they serve and the organizations they lead.
Research has shown that the lack of strong role models, advocates, and mentors (men and
women) among law enforcement leaders was important in a female officer’s career track and
overall success (NIJ, 2019). This study evaluates the external and organizational environments
that influence female peace officer employment, different elements of motivation, barriers in the
hiring process, and overall recruitment efforts (Donohue, 2020).
8
Recruiting and retention strategies have become an increasingly significant issue for law
enforcement agencies nationwide, given the growing staffing challenges facing the policing
profession (Jolicoeur & Grant, 2018). A Police Executive Research Forum survey (2021) found
that law enforcement agencies that range in staff from none to 49 officers only had 91.5% of the
positions filled. This size agency is the majority of law enforcement agencies in the country.
If law enforcement agencies are to succeed in attracting those seeking employment in this
type of ever-changing and evolving society, Jolicoeur and Grant (2018) stated that efforts to
understand and reform the recruitment process are critical. Done properly, such reforms can
result in law enforcement agencies better identifying the proper types of applicants necessary to
support their individualized missions and broader orientations toward the police function. Such
reforms can increase the likelihood that these individuals will demonstrate an interest in seeking
employment in the policing field (Jolicoeur & Grant, 2018).
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The theoretical framework used in this study was the Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological
systems theory. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is one of the most accepted
explanations regarding the influence of social environments on human development. This theory
provides for the ability to evaluate the different environments a female applicant might have to
face or interact with while applying and proceeding through a law enforcement agency’s hiring
process. The Bronfenbrenner ecological systems theory is a complete conceptual framework for
analyzing the layers of the environment that have a formative influence on a person
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The original theory by Bronfenbrenner focused on children. This
framework looks at the impact of the systems that surround and influence a person’s decisions. It
explores the ecological factors in their microsystem or immediate environment, their mesosystem
9
or expanded environment, their exosystem, or community influencers, their macrosystem, or
cultural values, and their chronosystem or changes that may occur over time.
I used a quantitative data-collection methodology for this study. A quantitative method
involves the standardization of all procedures to obtain reliable research data (Johnson &
Christensen, 2014). Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by
examining the relationship among variables. These variables can be measured, typically on
instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). A survey of currently working female peace officers will be the focus group for
the survey. The California Peace Officers Association has agreed to distribute the survey to its
23,000 members, of which approximately 10% are female.
Definitions
Peace officers are described in the online Merriam-Webster (n.d.) dictionary as “a civil
officer (such as a police officer) whose duty it is to preserve the public peace.” Wong-Chi (2016)
described 76 different tasks a peace officer might perform in a report authored for the California
Peace Officer Standards and Training organization. Some of these tasks included directed patrol
duties to prevent crime in a given area, identifying and investigating suspicious activity related to
a possible crime, and conducting follow-up investigations in an effort to solve crime. In addition,
peace officers are asked to be able to provide emotional support to victims, provide problemsolving support, and administer first aid as needed, all while updating dispatch and coordinating
with other officers.
Law enforcement describes the agencies and employees responsible for enforcing laws,
maintaining public order, and managing public safety. The primary duties of law enforcement
include the investigation, apprehension, and detention of individuals suspected of criminal
10
offenses. Some law enforcement agencies, particularly sheriff’s offices, also have a significant
role in the detention of individuals convicted of criminal offenses (BJS, 2021).
Organization of the Dissertation
This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter One of this study included the
introduction to the problem of practice, context, and background surrounding the challenges
women face in becoming peace officers. Also included are the purpose of the project, the
research questions, the importance of conducting this study, an overview of the methodology,
and definitions of the key words and phrases. Chapter Two is a comprehensive review of the
literature, including both the modern and historical contexts pertinent to women in law
enforcement. Chapter Three outlines the quantitative research methodology, survey criteria, and
the data-collection protocols. Chapter Four describes and synthesizes the findings of the
research, and Chapter Five discusses the recommendations based on the outcomes of this study.
11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Chapter Two provides an overview of previous research related to the challenges women
face in becoming peace officers. The current literature identifies this problem as important to
review due to an overall lack of representation of women in law enforcement and the current
state of law enforcement vacancies on a national level. This chapter will also look at how the
representation of women has improved since the early 1900s (Archbold & Schulz, 2012;
A. Schuck, 2014), but the gap is still wide. It will also review how law enforcement has long
been a masculine profession (Donohue, 2020). Women entering the field faced barriers, and
those barriers are currently being evaluated for their relevance to the entry process. Some
supports also aid female applicants (NIJ, 2019) and seem to be growing in numbers. However,
those supports do not seem to be resulting in the desired change in representation. Recruiting
female officers may also require different methods of outreach not commonly addressed. Those
methods need to take into consideration the different responsibilities some women have in
society. Overall, the literature tells a story of the value women bring to law enforcement and the
need to increase their representation in the profession. The last section of this chapter explores
how Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory might influence a female peace officer
candidate and concludes with the introduction of this study’s conceptual framework.
History of the Problem
Despite efforts to increase representation, the percentage of women in law enforcement
has remained relatively stagnant for the past few decades. Women constitute less than 13% of
total officers and a much smaller proportion of leadership positions (NIJ, 2019). A National
Institute of Justice report (2019) indicated there is limited empirical research on how to increase
the number of women in policing, improve the recruitment of outstanding women, and increase
12
the retention and promotion of exceptional women. There is also insufficient research for
understanding the challenges that women face and how best to mitigate or overcome these
challenges (NIJ, 2019).
Studies have shown that women in the workforce continue to increase. Parity continues to
grow in many fields, including banking and education, but female representation in law
enforcement continues to be very low (Aiello, 2020). Scholars attempt to understand the causes
of this stubborn disparity, with researchers pointing to recruitment practices and testing, law
enforcement academy experiences, officers’ judgments of female officer capabilities, as well as
larger structural characteristics of the cities these departments serve (Aiello, 2020).
The Numbers Tell a Story
Research revealed the underrepresentation of women in law enforcement is the greatest
discrepancy among all race and gender comparisons across professions. Although women
represent 51% of the population, they only represent 12% of law enforcement officers (Reaves,
2015). Law enforcement agencies have struggled to hire other underrepresented populations. As
an example, Asian officers represent 3% of peace officers nationally and 7% of the population,
Black peace officers represent 12% of peace officers nationally, and 13.4% of the population,
and Hispanic peace officers represent 12% of peace officers nationally and 18% of the
population (Reaves, 2015). Community members are communicating to law enforcement leaders
that they desire a law enforcement workforce that represents the community they serve (Sebire,
2020; Wilson et al., 2010).
Evidence showed that women have been involved in municipal policing in the United
States since the late 1800s (Archbold & Schulz, 2012). There have been ebbs and flows over the
years regarding their level of participation, but beginning in the late 1960s, women began to
13
emerge from their specialist roles to become patrol officers (Archbold & Schulz, 2012). In the
1970s, women represented just 7% of all sworn peace officers (Sims et al., 2003). Despite efforts
to increase representation, the percentage of women in law enforcement has remained relatively
stagnant for the past few decades (National Institute of Justice, 2019). Donohue (2020) identified
the value of having a representative police force to increase community partnerships and enhance
problem-solving and mutual cultural understanding, as well as other mutual competencies. Law
enforcement leaders recognize the worth of a representative police force and are working to fill
vacancies, but they face a national narrative that makes filling those vacancies difficult
(Donohue, 2020).
Society’s View of Law Enforcement
Research shows that in May of 2020, a series of racial justice protests began across the
United States (Jacobs et al., 2021). Throughout the following summer, mass demands to “defund
the police” reverberated throughout the nation in response to several high-profile police-related
deaths (Jacobs et al., 2021). Young people, including women, stated they did not like the idea of
a lengthy career in a dangerous profession at a time of rising concerns about crime. Fewer are
interested in the kind of blowback police have received in recent years (Barrett, 2022). Research
data suggest current officers are depressed over the negative national narrative about the police
(Police Executive Research Forum, 2021). For example, Xenia police chief Donald Person
stated, “Because of the perceived negative attitude of the public toward the police, and the over
embellishment of the national media about the backlash against the police, most young people do
not see policing as a desirable profession” (Bishop, 2022, p. 2). Taylor (2021) stated that the
defunding narrative and lack of political support for the police in Seattle has led to hundreds of
police officers leaving the city.
14
Studies showed that political support for law enforcement is an important factor for all
applicants to law enforcement. In 2021, exit interviews in the Seattle police department showed
that many officers who left law enforcement did so because they were tired of city council
policies, including threats of layoffs (Westervelt, 2021). Communities that have continued to
support their police have benefited from hiring lateral peace officers who were in jeopardy of
being laid off from their current agency, which did not have the same amount of community and
political support (PERF, 2021). The 2021 effort by the Austin, Texas, city council to eliminate
three police academies and 150 vacant positions met with backlash from the community
(Autullo, 2021). The community mindset was that a reduction of staffing to this degree would
worsen the staffing crisis, see violent crime skyrocket, and see the city become measurably less
safe for every neighborhood. Applicants are seeing ongoing budget uncertainty and the threat to
lay off employees as a reason to stay away from certain agencies and the law enforcement
profession (Land, 2021).
Hypermasculine Environment
Research has revealed there are many similarities among male and female peace officers
(Archbold & Schulz, 2012). The socialization process police officers experience in the training
academy and field training programs might explain this trend of similarities between the genders
in law enforcement (Worden, 1993). However, policing has traditionally been a male-dominated
profession in the United States (Archbold & Schulz, 2012). Female officers only represent 12%
of peace officers, a figure that has remained relatively flat since 2007 (Reaves, 2015). This
hypermasculine environment includes areas of competitiveness and hostile sexism that may all
be affecting the underrepresentation of women in law enforcement.
15
Competitiveness
Research revealed theoretical models of gender roles have highlighted competitiveness as
a masculine attribute, especially in relation to military masculinity (Archer, 2013), and may be
exacerbated in majority-male settings (Bird, 2003), such as policing. In contexts where gender
remains salient and antibias efforts have been less than effective, full consideration of the factors
that contribute to gendered maltreatment and poor social relationships is crucially important
(Schaefer et al., 2021). Some studies have shown that among masculine norms, competitiveness
can be protective in some contexts (Kaya et al, 2019). In the military, the utility of
competitiveness as a masculine attribute in either predicting success or interfering with gender
climate is unknown but worthy of more research (Schaefer et al., 2021). Some female peace
officers expressed at a National Institute of Justice (2019) conference that they felt there were
several barriers they had faced professionally, including the “boys club” dynamics in the law
enforcement culture and some of the sexism in that culture.
Hostile Sexism
Studies have revealed that hostile sexism is often considered in tandem with benevolent
sexism. Hostile sexism is defined as the aim to preserve men’s dominance over women by
underlining men’s power (Mastari et al., 2019). It is expressed in a blatant and resentful way
toward women who violate traditional roles. Benevolent Glick and Fiske (2018) defined sexism
as the belief that women are inherently nurturing but weak and, ergo, should be limited to
specialty roles in society. When investigated singularly, hostility toward women has strong
empirical connections to negative outcomes for women and mixed-gendered groups (Renzetti et
al., 2018).
16
In military settings, with law enforcement being considered paramilitary, hostile sexism
has been associated with the maltreatment of female trainees (Barron & Ogle, 2014). Ultimately,
hostile sexism erodes cohesion and has a negative impact on the retention of women (Moore,
2010). Law enforcement has not been welcoming to women, but understanding the reasons why
and working to change them may have a transformative effect (Corley, 2022).
Negative Impacts of Performative Diversity Programs
Empirical studies revealed many law enforcement agencies state they want a
representative police force (Sebire, 2020). Despite the widespread implementation of diversity
initiatives, several empirical investigations point to challenges associated with these initiatives
(Dover et al., 2020). The presence of diversity initiatives may increase the attractiveness of
organizations to underrepresented groups who anticipate inclusion but increase felt exclusion and
threat among overrepresented groups (Dover et al., 2020). Many law enforcement agencies have
tried these initiatives but have only had short-term success (National Institute of Justice, 2019).
The Los Angeles Police Department tried one dramatic effort after the Rodney King incident,
where the Christopher Commission, formed after the 1991 beating, mandated a 50% increase in
the hiring of female peace officers for that department (National Institute of Justice, 2019). That
change did increase the representation in academy classes, but only for several years before
dropping again (National Institute of Justice, 2019).
Researchers Dobbin and Kalev (2017) examined multiple diversity practices at one time
and have largely supported the findings from various studies of individual programs, such as
field and lab studies of performance rating systems (which show evidence of bias in ratings),
finding the programs seldom show any long-term effects of reducing bias, and frequently
evidence increased stereotyping and resistance. Both psychologists and sociologists have tested
17
the effects of diversity innovations providing the foundation for an evidence-based approach to
diversity management (Kaiser et al., 2013) as the best possibility for positive change. Ultimately,
programs championed as a means to create diversity in the workforce were proven to be
ineffective or counterproductive (Dobbin & Kalev, 2017).
Evidence reviewed by Dover et al. (2020) revealed that despite the widespread
implementation of diversity initiatives, several empirical investigations point to challenges
associated with these initiatives. Law enforcement has tried diversity training, pro-diversity
marketing on websites and recruitment materials, traditional affirmative action policies, targeted
recruitment efforts, diversity committees, specialized diversity management personnel,
mentorship, and affinity groups, yet the underrepresentation remains (Leslie, 2018). Dobbin and
Kalev (2017) offered a theory of organizational change wherein innovations that turn managers
into change agents are effective, while those that seek to constrain managers and control their
discretion will lead to resistance to program goals. Empowering the proper change agents may
lead to a greater understanding of the value women bring to law enforcement.
The Importance of Women in Law Enforcement
The evidence shows women have become an integral part of the law enforcement
profession over the past 50 years. They serve in all the same roles as their male counterparts and,
in some cases, have been shown to perform at a higher or more desired level. Their value
continues to expand while trying to increase their overall representation. Use of force studies and
the investigation capabilities of women continue to represent women favorably (Archbold &
Schulz, 2012). The value women bring to the law enforcement ranks in terms of community
representation, emotional intelligence, and investigative skills continues to be important to law
enforcement leaders and the citizens they serve (Donohue, 2020).
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Research has found that male and female peace officers are more similar than they are
different, but some differences have been detected (Archbold & Schulz, 2012). A number of
studies indicate that female officers were likely to use communication to resolve a dispute, while
male officers were more likely to use an aggressive approach that may involve physical action or
the threat of physical action (Corley, 2022; Morin & Mercer, 2017; National Center for Women
and Policing, 1999; National Institute of Justice, 2019). Differences between male and female
peace officers may become less pronounced as more women enter the traditionally maledominated profession, but meta-analyses has shown female officers are less likely than men to
use force and that men are significantly more likely than women to engage in police misconduct
(National Institute of Justice, 2019).
Traditionally, law enforcement has not been very welcoming to women (Corley, 2022).
Aiello (2020) stated that male instructors and students taught underlying lessons about the place
of women in law enforcement. Those lessons were intended to orient officers, regardless of their
place on the gender spectrum, and create behavioral consequences. Despite these underlying
lessons, the perceptions of women in law enforcement have changed over the years (National
Institute of Justice, 2019). Their presence in law enforcement has shown they have specialized
skill sets that are more advantageous for community relations, support functions, and
investigations concerning child protection and vice than for more traditional areas of law
enforcement (Sebire, 2020). Archbold and Schulz (2012) stated that the socialization process that
peace officers experience could also be changing as a result of more women entering the field.
Presumably, an increase in the presence of female officers will normalize perceptions of women
among their male colleagues (Archbold & Schulz, 2012). A level of competitiveness can take a
toll emotionally on peace officers as they are emotional workers, meaning they are exposed to
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emotionally demanding interpersonal interactions (such as death, illness, accidents, and crimes)
on a daily basis, requiring them to regulate their feelings and expressions (Brunetto et al., 2012).
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and
express emotion; the ability to access and generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the
ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to
promote emotional and intellectual growth (Brunetto et al., 2012). Gender research has found
that gender impacts emotional intelligence. Research by Ponterotto et al. (2011) stated that
female peace officers have a higher emotional intelligence than males. Emotional intelligence is
important to a law enforcement agency because police work is considered stressful as it involves
dealing with people and making speedy decisions that can have serious physical, health, social,
or other impacts on the public (Kyriacou, 2001). Brunetto et al. (2012) indicated that it is
important for modern-day peace officers to be as emotionally aware as it is for them to be
physically fit and knowledgeable about the law.
Community Representation
Studies have shown policing itself has changed immensely over the past 50 years in
response to the demands imposed upon it by an increasingly diverse, technological, urbanized,
globalized, mobile, sophisticated, rights-conscious, and knowledge-based society (Walsh &
Conway, 2011). Communities are demanding a say in how they are policed, and citizens expect
to be included in matters such as selecting top executives, reviewing uses of force, and
developing policies on sensitive issues (Police Executive Research Forum, 2018).
Several benefits come from having a representative police force (Donohue, 2020). These
benefits include building community trust, increasing community partnerships, enhancing
20
problem solving and mutual understanding, increasing cultural understanding, as well as
bringing various other competencies to the profession (Donohue, 2020). Women have a positive
impact on law enforcement agencies and the communities they serve (Corley, 2022.). Corey
went on to state that female peace officers are sued less frequently than their male counterparts
and make fewer discretionary arrests, especially of non-White residents). University of
Wisconsin Law Professor Keith Findley stated in an interview that female peace officers are
trusted more in communities of color and low-income neighbors, both of which are policed more
heavily (Corley, 2022). He says they are often better at communicating and de-escalating tense
situations. They are also sued less frequently than their male counterparts, make fewer
discretionary arrests, especially of non-White residents, and use force and excessive force less
frequently than their male counterparts. Findley’s observation is supported by other studies
(Morabito & Shelley, 2015; NIJ, 2019).
Female Peace Officers as Investigators
There was early research that showed women having greater abilities to express empathy
for victims of rape and domestic violence (Grennen, 1987). Jordan (2002) subsequently
identified professionalism, warmth, and sensitivity as the most important qualities for peace
officers to possess when they respond to calls involving victims of sexual assault. Jordan further
found that these qualities were not exclusive to females and that male officers could be as
effective as females when interviewing victims of sexual assault, contrary to the findings of
Grennen’s (1987) study.
On the contrary, there have been more recent studies showing that some female peace
officers may be less sympathetic toward sexual assault victims than male peace officers (Wentz
& Archbold, 2012). Wentz and Archbold’s (2012) study explored variations in the perception of
21
sexual assault victims among male and female peace officers in a Midwestern police agency that
interviewed 100 patrol officers. Wentz and Archbold discovered that some women are more
likely than men to subscribe to rape myths and victim blaming.
The Barriers Female Law Enforcement Applicants Encounter
Law enforcement applicants are subjected to law enforcement hiring practices that
include a written test, background check, medical screening, physical fitness test, and an oral
board (Kringen & Kringen, 2014). The most common features nationwide are personal
interviews, psychological evaluations, and a written aptitude test, with a higher percentage of law
enforcement agencies serving large populations using more methods (Donohue, 2020).
Additionally, all agencies require a criminal background check, background investigation, and
driving record check (Reaves, 2012). Several different barriers exist that could be hindering the
ability of women to navigate the law enforcement hiring process. These barriers include
struggles with the physical fitness requirements, the male-dominated culture of many agencies,
and a lack of mentorship programs. The specific, traditional, and somewhat rigid hiring process
has had and continues to affect both female and minority applicants, thus presenting a major
barrier to representation (Donohue, 2020).
Physical Fitness as a Barrier to Entry
Studies show physical fitness exams are a traditional part of the hiring process for peace
officers (Donohue, 2020). Aside from the concern that the exams do not accurately portray the
on-the-job necessities such as jumping a solid six-foot wall or dragging a 160-pound dummy,
Donohue (2020) found these exams present a significant barrier to female applicants. Research
has shown that physical fitness tests are a consistent block to accession, especially for female
recruits (Daflos, 2019). Daflos (2019) stated that 20% of all applicants failed the fitness test,
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including 55% of female applicants. Another survey from a Midwestern agency of 841
applicants, 743 males and 98 females, discovered that 93% of the male applicants, but only 28%
of female applicants passed the physical fitness entrance test (Birzer & Craig, 1996). Some
agencies have adopted the boot camp concept, allowing all recruits to physically prepare for the
fitness test with current officers to improve test passage rates (Daflos, 2019). The results of these
efforts have shown some limited success (Jarin, 2021) but are worthy of future study.
Research revealed that physical fitness requirements can vary from state to state, and
many require some combination of endurance and strength. In Wisconsin, applicants are required
to complete 15 push-ups to enter law enforcement academy training and are required to complete
23 push-ups upon graduation (Corley, 2022). A majority of law enforcement agencies in
California use a Work Skills Test Battery. Through this battery, applicants must jump a six-foot
solid wall and a six-foot chain link wall, drag a 165-pound dummy, complete an obstacle course,
and run a 500-yard dash. They receive scores for each event and an applicant must have a
minimum score to move on in the hiring process; they are required to have a higher score to
ultimately graduate from the academy. Looking inside law enforcement agencies for answers,
several scholars pointed to physical fitness requirements and emphasis on physical fitness as
differentially removing women from consideration (Aiello, 2020).
Male-Dominated Culture of Policing
Studies have shown that the traditionally male-dominated field of policing may also
create increased obstacles and stressors for female officers (Dowler & Arai, 2008). Many
departments across the county are discussing ways to recruit more women to increase overall
representation in this male-dominated profession (Stuckler, 2021). Hunt (1990) found that
female officers have had difficulty being accepted into law enforcement by male officers. The
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difficulty some female peace officers experience can be particularly attributed to the perception
held by some male officers that women are not strong enough to do the work (Vega &
Silverman, 1982). Some female applicants are concerned that law enforcement is made up of
large men with military backgrounds (Corley, 2022).
Research has described men as important change agents in policing, especially in a maledominated culture, and they are integral to bringing about an essential shift in the policing
culture (NIJ, 2019). Although the number of female peace officers has risen over the past two
decades, policing continues to be a male-dominated environment. Female officers entering the
profession could face potential gender-based barriers in the workforce (Chen, 2015). A National
Institute of Justice study (2019) revealed that all members of the policing community need to be
partners in addressing the issue of diversity among the ranks and increasing female
representation. As the concept and practice of community policing become more widespread,
male-dominated agencies are realizing that women are important in an organization and help to
create programs that reinforce equality for all residents (A. Schuck, 2014).
Lack of Mentorship Programs
To be more inclusive, effective recruitment strategies for traditionally marginalized
recruiting bases may require a change in organizational approach (Donohue, 2020). Jarin (2021)
described how hiring expositions are bringing greater diversity to the San Diego Police
Department (SDPD). The SDPD values being inclusive and diverse and recognizes that women
are important to their culture (Jarin, 2021). They are striving to have the highest representation of
female officers for any department in the nation.
One study by the Police Executive Research Forum (2018) found that one way to
increase communication between applicants and law enforcement agencies is through a more
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personal recruitment process. Respondents identified that assigned mentors provided a more
direct line of information about the process. A study of almost 800 criminal justice students at
five universities indicated that approximately 70% of the survey respondents agreed that having
a mentor would make a difference in helping them choose a career in policing (PERF, 2018).
Supports in Place to Aid Women Becoming Peace Officers
Law enforcement agencies are using a wide variety of strategies to recruit female
applicants. In light of the national narrative toward policing, recruiting has become an even
higher priority than it was previously. Donohue (2020) explained how effective recruitment
strategies for traditionally marginalized recruiting bases require a change in the organization’s
approach. Agencies are looking at recruiting strategies, college courses, and female law
enforcement conferences that might bear out ideas that are working and recruiting reforms to
help increase female representation.
Recruiting Strategies
Agencies are looking to attract women to their organizations by offering recruiting
information and training geared toward women. Different agencies have tried different
techniques. The Department of Homeland Security directed announcements toward women, and
that led to their agency receiving thousands of applicants (NIJ, 2019). Some agencies are using
female peace officers at recruiting events as examples in an effort to provide the opportunity for
open dialogue and opportunities for female applicants to see how the job can be done by
someone like them (Jarin, 2021). Other agencies are building referral networks so that females
can recruit females (Wilson et al., 2010). Bishop (2022) discussed how agencies are trying to
grow their own talent through youth and support service positions. Agencies are also using
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housing allowances, tuition assistance, take-home vehicles, childcare options, and sign-on
bonuses to attract female applicants (Barrett, 2022; Daflos, 2019; Taylor, 2021).
Research discussed by Jarin (2021) states that job fairs are giving women the opportunity
to learn more about hiring processes and different job opportunities within law enforcement. The
SDPD also gives applicants the chance to participate in training exercises (Jarin, 2021) to build
confidence and provide insight. Once applicants are in the hiring process, different difficulties
can present themselves. Corley (2022) discussed how agencies that in the past had disregarded
unqualified applicants now work to help train and recycle applicants so they can try to succeed in
the hiring process after initial difficulties.
College Courses Related to Law Enforcement Recruiting
Evidence provided by Reaves (2015) stated that a bachelor’s degree is rare in law
enforcement hiring, but an associate’s degree is somewhat more common. Some states, including
California, have reviewed adding a bachelor’s degree to the hiring requirement, which could
make it hard to recruit female officers because women may not have the time or money to obtain
a degree. In California, the Peace Officers Education and Age Conditions for Employment
(PEACE) Act requires community colleges to work with stakeholders to create a modern
policing degree program by 2025 (McConville & Premkumar, 2022). This Act would also
provide financial assistance for men and women from disadvantaged communities to pursue law
enforcement degrees. These types of degree programs would provide students with exposure to a
career in law enforcement, psychology, communications, and ethnic studies (McConville &
Premkumar, 2022).
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Female Law Enforcement Conferences
As law enforcement entities strive to diversify the workforce and include more women,
there is a nationwide movement emerging titled the 30x30 Initiative. This initiative is designed
to have 30% female peace officer recruits by the year 2030 (NIJ, 2019). This initiative is geared
toward transforming agencies by taking a deep look at the policies, procedures, and culture that
make up the agency. The research arm of the U.S. Department of Justice met in 2018 and
dedicated a conference to the NIJ (2019) report. Conferences like these have developed
outcomes related to what is necessary for women to apply and succeed in a law enforcement
career. Topics have included culture, performance, recruitment, retention, and promotion. The
NIJ (2019) report did recognize that creating equity and equality for all women working in
policing will take great effort, dedication, partnerships and time.
Recruiting Considerations for Women
The representation of women in law enforcement has become a prominent aspiration for
law enforcement leaders. The best methods to accomplish this goal require a review of how
women are recruited. Aiello (2020) researched how women were represented in law enforcement
hiring information and how changes are being made to increase gender parity. His research also
reviewed the legal/watchman style of service compared to a more service-oriented model of
policing. There were several other considerations law enforcement agencies were reviewing in
an effort to recruit more female applicants. These considerations include revising the content of
hiring brochures, explorer programs, work–life balance, family and friend influence, and other
recruiting incentives.
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Content in Law Enforcement Hiring Brochures
Research conducted by Donohue (2020) stated that historically, both female and minority
applicants have faced challenges in recruitment, hiring, and selection. Several examples of hiring
materials show a neutral attitude in marketing and recruitment approaches, where advertisement
and selection are for peace officers in general, not minority or female peace officers (Donohue,
2020). While this approach may demonstrate objectivity on the part of the agencies, it signals
that they fail to capitalize on attracting certain people to the profession (Donohue, 2020).
A study reviewed 62 different police departments’ recruiting pamphlets, examining the
styles of their police organizations Jolicoeur and Grant (2018). These authors found that the
watchman/legal style dominates the presentation of policing in these images. The
watchman/legal style of service is defined as having an emphasis on little interaction,
encouraging citations and arrests, and focusing on enforcement. Jolicoeur and Grant (2018)
added that the role of these hiring pamphlets is to show potential applicants, regardless of
gender, a style of policing accurate to what is desired by law enforcement leaders. That desired
style is a service style of policing, arguably more connected to broader trends toward
community-oriented policing. Contrary to the watchman/legal style, those types of brochures
describe a service style of policing as frequent interactions, inclusion of community, and a focus
on helping.
Agencies must change their culture and community presence if they are truly interested in
transitioning from a paramilitary style of policing that is largely premised on an enforcementoriented conceptualization of the police function to one that is more community-based and
reflective of the community (Jolicoeur & Grant, 2018). Law enforcement leaders must ensure
that vertical and horizontal alignment exists across the various support functions (e.g., recruiting,
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hiring, training, evaluation, and promotion) that are necessary to help facilitate such a change
(Jolicoeur & Grant, 2018).
Explorer Programs
Many agencies use youth programs as a pipeline for future department members.
Explorer programs provide training, mentoring, and a close-up experience for high school
students interested in becoming peace officers (Estulin, 2021). Law Enforcement Exploring is a
hands-on program open to young men and women who have completed the 6th grade through
age 20 and are interested in a career in law enforcement or a related field in the criminal justice
system. A gap occurs between this program and the beginning of the recruitment pipeline as law
enforcement agencies require participants to wait until they are 21 to apply to be peace officers.
Agencies are looking for ways to continue the youth Explorer commitment to law enforcement
through the early adult years (Daflos, 2019). Among the top practices law enforcement agencies
can engage in now are growing their own talent and working to recruit people before they can be
hired based on age requirements (Bishop, 2022).
Influence on Friends and Family
Being a peace officer can change a person, negatively or positively, and those changes
will affect everything in their lives, including their family. Research by Karaffa et al. (2015)
suggested new officers change the way they see themselves; some may now think they have
more power and control over people, and this change can affect their relationships with their
families because they carry these traits from the job to home. Karaffa et al. found that supportive
police departments that do their best to create a family environment and support staff with family
needs tend to attract more applicants. The Karaffa et al. study recommended that agencies
include off-duty family functions, provide on- and off-site childcare, allow officers to take lunch
29
breaks at home, and allot time and space for families to visit with their officers during their shift
as all or some may be enticing to a female applicant. To support retention, law enforcement
leaders should be willing to consider making reasonable changes to meet an employee’s needs,
especially those needs that relate to family matters (Langham, 2017).
Family and friends play a role in a woman’s desire to become a peace officer. Support, or
a lack of support, can have a great effect on the applicant. Those relationships and influences
cannot be undervalued. Aiello (2020) discovered that after the influence and recommendations of
family and friends, applicants from a random sample of 50 county and municipal departments
cited online recruiting materials as their next most frequent application motivator.
Law enforcement agencies that prioritize the health and wellness of officers and their
families can often overcome the challenges associated with officer recruitment (International
Association of Chiefs of Police [IACP], 2021). Agencies that promote family-inclusive wellness
resources may be more appealing to potential recruits and make them more likely to stay with an
agency as their families grow and as they evolve throughout their careers (International
Association of Chiefs of Police, 2021).
Agencies are using a wide variety of incentives to recruit applicants, especially those
from underrepresented populations. The Los Angeles Police Department is offering a $1,000
monthly housing allowance, and the city council of Phoenix recently approved a $20,000 pay
bump for new recruits (Barrett, 2022). The Greensboro, North Carolina police department is
offering a vehicle the officer can use to commute in and recently spent $1.1 million to make sure
they have enough vehicles for any officer who wants to take a car home (Rodgerson, 2021).
Other agencies are offering a wide variety of different incentives and seeing a climb in their
application numbers. Some of the incentives offered include childcare options, relocation
30
assistance, student loan forgiveness, health club memberships, and flexible hours to attend
college with subsidized tuition payments (PERF, 2018)
Other Recruitment Reforms
Studies have shown that policing cultures that embrace the necessity of work–life balance
are essential for recruiting and retaining female staff (British Broadcasting Corporation [BBC],
2019). If law enforcement agencies are to succeed in attracting those seeking employment in this
type of ever-changing and evolving
society, efforts to understand and reform the recruitment process are critical (Jolicoeur & Grant,
2018). According to Jolicoeur and Grant (2018), such reforms can result in law enforcement
agencies becoming better able to identify the proper types of applicants necessary to support
their individualized missions and broader orientations toward the law enforcement function, thus
increasing the likelihood that these individuals will demonstrate an interest in seeking
employment in the law enforcement profession.
Theoretical Framework: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecology of Human Development
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecology of human development outlines several important
factors. The environmental events that are the most immediate and potent in affecting a person’s
development are activities that are engaged in by others with that person or in their presence
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Salazar and Beaton (2000), in their review of the Bronfenbrenner
model, describe the activities involved with the person as the microsystem (immediate setting of
the person), mesosystem (major settings containing the person), exosystem (social structures),
macrosystem (culture and subcultures) and the chronosystem (environmental changes that occur
over the life course).
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Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model of change explores all facets of the
environments that surround a person (Guy-Evans, 2020). In the microsystem, the contact the
affected subject has with relationships in their immediate environment is explored. The
mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the subject’s microsystems, such as the
interactions between the subject and their extended family or neighbors. Examples of the
exosystem include entities not in direct contact with the subject, such as mass media. In the
macrosystem, the subject is affected by the culture and society within which the subject exists.
The chronosystem is where the subject is affected by the environmental change that occurs over
their life. The basic premise of the model is that systems are dynamic, change is constant, and
everything connects to everything else (Salazar & Beaton, 2000).
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory is one of the most accepted
explanations regarding the influence of social environments on human development. This theory
allows for a review of all the different factors that might affect a female applicant who has a
desire to apply to a law enforcement agency and the difficulties that she may experience in the
hiring process.
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is commonly described as a specific set of concepts related to a
topic and the ability to explain how those concepts are in relation to each other and a study
(Hinga, 2022). The development of themes and categories into patterns, theories, or
generalizations suggests varied endpoints for qualitative studies (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
There is a natural flow through the various systems outlined in Bronfenbrenner’s model.
From the individual to the microsystem, to the mesosystem, to the exosystem, to the
macrosystem, and to the chronosystem, some connections could influence a female applicant to
32
law enforcement. However, the systems can also overlap. Each system can have an effect on
another system from any direction. Figure 1 highlights the conceptual framework for this study.
Figure 1
Study’s Conceptual Framework
33
Summary
This literature review supports the theory that law enforcement agencies struggle to
recruit and retain peace officers. To the next level, underrepresented employees, especially
women, make for excellent peace officers, but they are not drawn to the profession in large
numbers. That could be due to many different factors, including law enforcement’s maledominated culture, physical fitness requirements, and recruiting materials that focus on a
watchman/legalistic style of policing vs. a service style. As the population grows and the number
of peace officers shrinks, law enforcement leaders should be focusing on how to close the
underrepresentation of females in law enforcement, perhaps something similar to the 30x30
recruiting program.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
This study explored the challenges female peace officers have experienced entering the
law enforcement profession. This study’s results provide law enforcement leaders with the
knowledge necessary to improve female representation in their agencies if that is what they
desire. The focus of this part of the study includes the research design, data-collection methods,
and an analysis plan for the collected data.
Research Questions
Three research questions guided this study:
1. What reasons do female peace officers provide for being drawn to law enforcement as
a profession?
2. What environmental influences do female peace officers report as barriers to women
entering the profession?
3. What environmental influences do female peace officers report as supporting their
success in the application process?
Overview of Methodology
A quantitative study involves the collection of data so that information can be quantified
and subjected to statistical treatment to support or refute alternate knowledge claims (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). As outlined by Creswell and Creswell (2018), a quantitative approach is
appropriate when a researcher seeks to understand relationships between variables. Because the
purpose of this study was to examine women’s experiences and perceptions and the challenges
they faced becoming peace officers, a quantitative approach was originally the most appropriate
choice. However, to solicit more information, questions were asked in two forms: closed, Likerttype, and open-ended follow-up questions, yielding both qualitative and quantitative data.
35
Because the survey was truly a mixed methods approach to collecting information, quantitative
data was analyzed via Qualtrics’ Stats IQ and for the qualitative data, I conducted a pattern
analysis looking for recurring themes in the findings.
The data used for this study came from surveys of female members of the California
Peace Officers Association (CPOA). I distributed a survey to all the members of the CPOA. The
CPOA has approximately 24,000 members, of whom approximately 10% are female. The board
of directors approved the surveying of the organization’s members. The goal of the data
collection was to receive data from over 200 (~10% of the CPOA female membership) women
who have entered the law enforcement profession.
The Researcher
As the researcher, I received training in the skills necessary to carry out the designed
study. I hold a Bachelor of Science degree in Business Administration and a Master of Science
degree in Public Safety Leadership. I am mindful that although I am a long-time California peace
officer in my 34th year of full-time service, my experiences are not the same as others, especially
women. As a man, I recognize through training and experience that my journey as a law
enforcement officer has not been the same as a woman’s. Through my leadership experiences at
two different law enforcement agencies, I have had the opportunity to recruit, train, supervise,
lead, and mentor women who wanted to become peace officers.
Morgan (2018) discussed intersectionality and the spiral chart of intersecting axes of
privilege, domination, and oppression. As the researcher, I recognized that I assimilate with 11 of
the 14 social identities that are not oppressed. In contrast, I only identify with one social identity
that is oppressed, and even that depends on what “old” means.
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In this study, I strived to be a researcher, not stand in judgment of what happened or how
it happened to any one individual. The bulk of the data came from the CPOA. I collected the data
electronically, and as a result, I had no direct or ongoing contact with the CPOA survey
participants. I also provided an introduction to participants that would explain who I am, the
voluntary nature of the data collection, and what I was trying to study.
I had no influence over the participants and I did not include anyone I supervise in the
study. I added my sample group other female peace officers not affiliated with the CPOA. I
personally contacted these officers. I asked them to help complete the survey and to distribute the
survey to other full-time female peace officers. I provided the same introduction and was
mindful that although some of these contacts would be made in person, uninfluenced responses
would provide the best results for the study.
Data Source: Survey
This study used a survey method of data collection. Johnson and Christensen (2014)
examined questionnaires and the value they bring to research studies. They stated that a
questionnaire is a self-report data-collection instrument that each research participant completes
as part of a research study. Researchers use surveys and questionnaires to pose predetermined
questions to an entire group or sample of individuals (Blackstone, 2012). According to
Blackstone, surveys are an especially useful approach when the researcher aims to describe or
explain the features of a very large group.
Full-time active-duty female peace officers provided data for this study. These female
peace officers were the target sampling group since they had navigated the peace officer hiring
process. Whether solely of their own doing or with the help of others, the goal was to learn what
37
worked for them and what they believed may work for others. The survey used clearly stated
who had access to the data (Rosenberg, 2017).
Participants
This study used a purposeful (Nikolopoulou, 2022) convenience sample, meaning a
sample drawn from a source that is conveniently accessible to a researcher (Andrade, 2020). The
criteria for participation for this survey was that participants were full-time, active-duty, female
police officers working in the United States. This pool consisted of individuals who navigated
the peace officer hiring, background, and field training process. All participants were over the
age of 18, and their participation was voluntary. Participation was not restricted based on agency
of employment, and it is possible that the participants either worked for a police department,
sheriff’s office, or a regional or state law enforcement agency.
Approval was received to distribute the survey to an organization of 24,000 peace
officers in California. The association’s executive director estimated that approximately 2,400 of
the members were female (S. Rundle, personal communication, April 4, 2022). They agreed to
help distribute the survey via their master email list. The goal was to obtain a response from 10%
of those female officers, approximately 240. A response rate of 240 respondents provided a
reasonable representation of participants out of a pool of 2,400 female CPOA members.
Although a larger sample may provide more accurate results, Kelley et al. (2003) described the
three main factors that dictate sample size. Those factors are the resources available, the aim of
the study, and the statistical quality needed for the survey. Salkind and Frey (2020) defined a
confidence interval as the best estimate of the range of a population value that can be determined
given the sample value. With a sample of 240 respondents, I was able to see patterns emerge in
38
answers that identified the challenges the women faced becoming peace officers and what may
have worked to promote their success becoming peace officers.
Instrumentation
The core concepts of this survey evaluated the thoughts and experiences working female
peace officers had regarding the hiring process. They also evaluated the experiences the female
officers had upon being hired and how those might be preventing women from becoming peace
officers. Appendix A provides a complete list of the questions. The questions provided an
understanding from the participants as to what they believed were reasons women were
underrepresented in law enforcement, focusing on the barriers they may have experienced during
their hiring process. This survey was specifically designed and reviewed to solicit specific
responses and assure validity and reliability by measuring responses consistently and staying
within the confines of the responses.
I adapted some questions from a survey developed by Dr. Kimberly Dodson from
Western Illinois University (Dodson, n.d.). I created other questions. The focus of the Dodson
survey was to solicit information on the recruitment and retention of female officers. Female
peace officers working in Illinois were the target survey respondents. The survey consisted of 48
questions that sought information regarding the personal information of the respondent,
department support for females, recruitment information, promotional opportunities, benefits
women bring to law enforcement, sexual harassment, pregnancy, and childcare opportunities.
The reliability of this quantitative survey measured the same responses to the fixed set of
questions provided at the time the survey was active. The validity of this survey was clear in that
the responses fairly assessed the respondent’s answers to the questions. The questions were
39
multiple choice and 25% did offer the choice of “other, please specify.” The questions asked in
this survey strongly compared to the information I tried to solicit from my sample group.
Data-Collection Procedures
After receiving USC Institutional Review Board approval, the CPOA distributed the final
survey in the summer of 2023 via its master email list. Through professional relationships, I also
emailed the survey to full-time female peace officers known to me. All surveys were accessed
electronically through a Qualtrics link contained in the email. The survey was expected to take
approximately 15 minutes to complete.
I did not offer incentives for completing the survey. The survey was open for responses
beginning on September 28, 2023, and closed on November 10, 2023. I had originally
envisioned a 2-week distribution period, but a delay in the CPOA distribution caused me to have
a limited number of responses in that time frame. Once the CPOA distribution occurred, I kept
the survey open as long as the volume of responses was high on a daily basis. Once the responses
slowed, I closed the survey. To eliminate any possible influence, I specifically instructed female
peace officers working for me not to participate in the survey.
Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of making meaning from the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The goal is to summarize the data so it is easily understood and provides the answers to the
research questions (Kelley et al., 2003). For this study, I conducted a quantitative data analysis at
the conclusion of the survey collection process. For qualitative responses to the open-ended
questions, I evaluated all responses and categorized them into themes. I did not rush the data
review in an effort to prevent coming to inaccurate or misleading conclusions, as recommended
by Kelley et al. (2013). I did conduct a descriptive analysis of the survey data, including
40
calculated measures of response percentages and central tendencies for the ratio data (Salkind &
Frey, 2020). The quantitative survey analysis was conducted using Qualtrics, which is supported
by the data management program Stats IQ. Survey results are presented in narrative form,
visualizations, and tables in Chapter Four.
Validity and Reliability
Validity is defined as the property of an assessment tool that indicates that the tool does
what it says it does (Salkind & Frey, 2020). Salkind and Frey (2020) identified reliability as
determining whether a test or measurement tool measures something consistently. I understood
that if the tools I used for this survey were not valid and reliable, then the results of any test of
the hypothesis and the conclusions I may have reached based on those results would be
necessarily inconclusive (Salkind & Frey, 2020). In addition, a dissertation committee reviewed
this study. The committee consisted of three faculty members within the Organizational Change
and Leadership program at the University of Southern California.
An additional strategy to confirm this study’s validity study included careful design of
the study, applying standards well-developed and accepted by the scientific community
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I adapted the questions used for my survey project from another
survey used statewide in Illinois that looked at the recruiting and retention of female peace
officers. Through the survey process, my goal was to discover a valid path to success for women
who wish to become peace officers (Salkind, 2014).
Ethics
I ensured ethics remained a top priority throughout this study. Rubin and Rubin (2012)
stress three broad principles to be used in research studies. Those principles were to respect the
participants, not to pressure the participants, and to do no harm to the participants. These
41
principles were respected and implemented here. Only voluntary participation was asked of
respondents; within the survey instructions, respondents were advised that their responses were
anonymous. No data was gathered prior to institutional review board approval.
This research will primarily serve the law enforcement community and those who choose
to apply for a law enforcement position. Beneficiaries would include women interested in
becoming peace officers, communities who desire more gender diversity in law enforcement, and
police chiefs and sheriffs who want to learn how to increase the presence of women in their
ranks. No one was harmed in this research, as the aim was to fact-find and provide information.
The results evaluated successes and failures participants stated affected women interested
in becoming peace officers. The study was designed and built to look for patterns reflecting
success. The study also looked for unique techniques used to recruit women to law enforcement.
In the end, results will be shared within law enforcement information-sharing sites and
periodicals in an effort to share knowledge with the law enforcement community.
42
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of the study was to examine the challenges women face in becoming peace
officers. These challenges, based on previous literature, could include physical fitness
requirements, mentorship opportunities, department culture, and personal and societal influences.
This chapter outlines the quantitative survey results and findings, including information on the
participating stakeholders and the influences that affected their respective paths to becoming fulltime peace officers.
I collected data in a survey form in Qualtrics. The questions were qualitative and
quantitative. Qualitative questions were open-ended. Qualitative questions listed answer options
using a Likert scale. I analyzed the data in Qualtrics’ Stats IQ, evaluating results and findings as
they relate to the research questions and theoretical framework. I conducted a pattern analysis
looking for recurring themes in the findings related to the qualitative questions. The survey was
distributed to full-time female peace officers and was open for responses from September 18,
2023, through November 10, 2023. I conducted data analysis after the survey response
opportunity concluded. Three research questions guided this study:
1. What reasons do female peace officers provide for being drawn to law enforcement as
a profession?
2. What environmental influences do female peace officers report as barriers to women
entering the profession?
3. What environmental influences do female peace officers report as supporting their
success in the application process?
The study involved a theoretical framework based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological
model. This framework describes how an individual’s social surroundings frame a person’s
43
decision-making and behavior. The model looks at the systems at work around an individual and
how those different systems interact with the individual. Within the systems are an individual’s
family and friends, media, politics, government, and social norms. This chapter will look at the
research questions and the related survey responses in segments. The research questions will be
presented, and two related themes will follow, outlining the findings and results in each section.
A summary of the findings will conclude at the end of each section. The end of the chapter will
provide an overall summary.
Survey Participants
Potential participants received the survey electronically through a variety of methods. I
contacted survey respondents in person, through professional relationships, via an email from a
professional organization, and an online forum. During the survey collection period, I
encountered qualified participants during the course of professional business. These potential
participants were informed of the survey and then asked if they would like to participate. When
responses were positive, I provided a link to the survey via email or QR code. Participants who
were known to me were contacted and asked if they would voluntarily take the survey. Those
who responded with their desire to participate were also sent the survey link via email. The
CPOA sent the survey out to their members. I provided instructions regarding the desired
participants. Members of the CPOA contacted the researcher and requested permission to send
the survey to other organizations, and subsequently, a professional magazine published it via an
online forum.
At the conclusion of the survey collection timeline, I collected 637 surveys. Of those, 45
participants answered that they were not full-time working female peace officers, which was a
requirement of participation. I excluded those survey responses from the final data analysis and
44
used 592 (n = 592) survey responses from individuals who met the participation criteria. Not
every participant answered every question. As I present the data analysis in the following
sections, I also provide the number of responses.
Descriptive data related to each survey participant was not required to complete the
survey; however, I provided an email address for participants to seek more information from me.
Several participants contacted me separately from the survey. The survey responses remained
completely anonymous. Those emails and other methods of contact resulted in determining that I
received responses from all over the United States, including New York, Florida, Texas,
Colorado, Washington, California, and the United States Marshal Service.
There were no questions that asked for age, race, type of law enforcement agency, marital
status, or location. Anonymity was important to the research to ensure a broad range of
responses. The survey asked for the tenure of time each participant had been working in law
enforcement, and more than half (53%) of the 592 participants reported that they had over 15
years of experience, 13% had between 11 and 15 years of experience, 24% were between 5
and10 years of experience and 10% had less than five years of full-time law enforcement
experience. This result does indicate there was a great deal of full-time law enforcement
experience among more than half of the participants. That provided rich detail throughout the
answers and responses. The overall results are in Figure 2.
45
Figure 2
Survey Item: How Long Have You Been in Law Enforcement as a Peace Officer?
Note. N = 592
Research Question 1: What Reasons Do Female Peace Officers Provide for Being Drawn to
Law Enforcement as a Profession?
This section of Chapter Four discusses factors that participating female peace officers
reported as drawing women to law enforcement. Participants offered different reasons they
entered law enforcement and how they felt law enforcement as a profession was doing to recruit
women to the profession. In addition, a review of what programs agencies are using to attract
recruits and how hiring brochures reflect peace officer responsibilities.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Less than 5 years Between 5-10 years Between 10-15 years More than 15 years
Participant Time in Law Enforcement
46
Theme 1: Desiring to Change the Status Quo in Law Enforcement
The survey asked participants if they felt women were being drawn to law enforcement as
a profession. There was an overwhelmingly negative response among participants, indicating that
they felt law enforcement agencies were not performing well in trying to attract women to law
enforcement. Participants indicated that they felt law enforcement leaders were not creating
environments that drew women into becoming peace officers. One participant stated, “My
department is not very welcoming for women. It still feels like a good old boys’ club and choice
assignments are given to the male officers who do not seem concerned about family life and
raising children.”
Despite the fact that all participants began a career in law enforcement, only 18% of the
participants agreed with the idea that women are drawn to law enforcement. A total of 51% of the
participants responded that they strongly disagreed and disagreed that women are being drawn to
law enforcement. Thirty-one percent, or 182 participants, neither agreed nor disagreed. These
results indicate that the participants felt females are not being drawn to the profession. Figure 3
shows the responses to the question, “Women are drawn to law enforcement as a profession.”
47
Figure 3
Survey Item: Women Are Drawn to Law Enforcement as a Profession
Participants selected the reasons that drew them to a career in law enforcement.
Participants gave responses that varied among 15 different themes. Many responses were multipart and addressed multiple themes. The main themes ranged from participants wanting to make
a difference, a desire to challenge the notion that someone told them they could not do the job,
family, and friends encouraging them to apply, and the challenge of being a peace officer. Table 1
lists all the themes.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly agree
Women are Drawn to Law Enforcement as a Profession
48
Table 1
Themes Participants Reported as Drawing Them to Law Enforcement as a Profession
Themes participants gave for becoming a peace officer Number of responses
Family encouragement 82
The desire to see more women in law enforcement 80
Personal challenge 78
Wanted to make a difference 76
Encouragement by a mentor 67
Someone thought they could not do the job 63
No answer provided 59
Help others 48
Job stability and benefits 48
Provide service to community 6
Physicality of the job 6
I worked in a related field to law enforcement 5
Childhood dream 5
Exciting career 4
Teamwork mentality 3
To change media opinions of law enforcement 2
No higher degree required 1
The challenges of the job duties 1
Note. N = 592
Participants offered a wide variety of statements related to why they became peace
officers. There was a common theme related to the challenge of increasing the number of women
in law enforcement and making a difference. The following sections present direct quotes from
the participants that address some of the main themes presented in Table 1.
One participant addressed a personal challenge she wanted to overcome and stated, “I
was told I could not do it and I was also drawn to the idea of helping the community and making
sure that people that did harm to others were arrested.” Reflecting a similar motive, another
participant said,
49
I am a woman of color and raised in a high crime neighborhood. I was constantly pulled
over by officers for vehicle infractions and treated like a criminal. I decided to represent
my community and try to change the organization from within.
Another participant discussed being a mentor. She explained, “I wanted to show other
women that there are career options in law enforcement and that being a woman should not limit
their choices.” Lastly, in reflecting on why women are drawn to law enforcement, another
participant stated, “I had friends and family in law enforcement and once I went on my first ridealong, I was hooked. It was so exciting.”
Participants had a positive response to the agency’s practice of using and attending job
fairs to attract female applicants to the profession and their specific agency. Only four percent
strongly disagreed, and 14% disagreed. Another 36% neither agreed nor disagreed. Participants
who agreed or strongly agreed totaled 46%. Figure 4 displays the participants’ opinions about
whether job fairs help women enter law enforcement.
50
Figure 4
Survey Item: Job Fairs Help Women Enter Law Enforcement
Theme 2: Effective Use of Programs and Hiring Brochures to Attract Female Peace
Officers
One of the survey questions asked participants whether they felt it was important to
encourage formal interaction with law enforcement at an early age, such as becoming an
Explorer, a youth program designed to familiarize young people, generally aged 15 to 21, with a
career in law enforcement, or similar program. A large number of the participants were neutral on
this concept (40%). A smaller percentage, 18%, disagreed, but 43% agreed or strongly agreed
that the idea is helpful for female success and should be adopted where possible. Figure 5
outlines the responses.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Disagree Neutral Agree
Job Fairs Help Women Enter Law Enforcement
51
Figure 5
Survey Item: Participating in an Explorer or Similar Program Before Becoming a Peace Officer
Is Important
Note. N = 592
Participants felt that programs that exposed applicants to female peace officers during the
hiring process were very beneficial. Table 2 reveals that 86% of the respondents thought being
exposed to a female peace officer during the application process was beneficial to helping the
applicant navigate the process and could lead to success in becoming a peace officer. Only four
percent thought it was not helpful and disagreed with the clear positive implications of having
female officers be part of the hiring and recruiting process.
52
Table 2
Survey Item: Being Exposed to a Female Peace Officer During the Application and Hiring
Process Is Helpful
Answer Number of participants % of participants
Strongly Agree 262 45%
Agree 245 41%
Neither agree nor disagree 58 10%
Strongly disagree 14 2%
Disagree 13 2%
Note. N = 592
In assessing law enforcement marketing efforts, the survey asked participants whether
they felt the job brochures accurately reflect a career in law enforcement. Brochures commonly
show the attractive elements of the job, such as pay rates, benefits, and qualifications. Pictures
represent the different job assignments available to agency staff. The brochures are a sample of
law enforcement recruitment brochures and provide a sampling of what exists in the field of law
enforcement today. Not normally shown are the possible negative aspects of a job in law
enforcement, such as working long hours, the difficulty balancing work and family, and the
dangers of the job. Figure 6 is the hiring brochure for the Tom’s River Police Department.
53
Figure 6
Toms River Police Department
The Toms River Police Department brochure provides a better cross-section of many of
the responsibilities a peace officer might perform, including identifying all the physical demands
of the job and the different assignments possible. Figure 7 from the Stephenville Police
Department shows a different perspective of policing. The community, including children, is
included in some of the pictures, as well as images of male and female peace officers.
54
Figure 7
Stephenville Police Department
More than half of the participants disagreed (44%) or strongly disagreed (10%) that
hiring brochures do not accurately reflect a career in law enforcement. Only 16% of the
participants agreed or strongly agreed that hiring brochures are accurate in their depiction of a
career in law enforcement. There could be individual differences that are independent to each
55
agency, but a small minority of participants felt that the hiring brochures were reflective of a law
enforcement career. Figure 8 reflects a breakdown of participant answers.
Figure 8
Survey Item: Job Brochures Accurately Reflect a Career in Law Enforcement
Note. N = 592
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly Agree
Job Brochures Accurately Reflect a Career in Law
Enforcement
56
Research Question 2: What Environmental Influences Do Female Peace Officers Report as
Barriers to Women Entering the Profession?
This section of Chapter Four discusses factors that the participants indicated are in the
environment of women that might be preventing them from becoming peace officers.
Participants offered various reasons why they believe women are not applying for peace officer
positions. Two key themes emerged: work–life balance and negative hiring practices. Both will
be discussed and supported with quotes from the participants as evidence.
Theme 3: Concerns About Work–Life Balance
Participants described influences in society or the environment that initially prevented
their desire to become a peace officer. Although all the participants eventually became peace
officers, the study sought to establish which factors might have initially prevented women from
applying for a peace officer position in a law enforcement agency. Participants were more
inclined to disagree that there was an external influence affecting them from applying to become
peace officers, with 13% strongly disagreeing and 38% disagreeing. Only 14% neither agreed
nor disagreed, 25% agreed, and 10% strongly agreed that there were external influences that
affected their desire to become a peace officer. Figure 9 outlines the responses.
57
Figure 9
Survey Item: There Were Societal Influences That Initially Prevented Me from Being Drawn to
Law Enforcement as a Profession
Note. N = 592
In presenting the findings related to the influences that initially prevented participants
from becoming peace officers, participants provided examples of what environmental influences
initially may have prevented them from being drawn to law enforcement. Only those who
answered “strongly agree” or “agree” were asked to respond. The respondents provided
numerous different answers, and I categorized those answers as shown in Figure 10.
58
Figure 10
Survey Item: Common Environmental Influences Preventing Women from Becoming Peace
Officers
Note. N = 208
Participants provided written statements that explained some of the environmental
influences that had initially prevented them from applying to become peace officers. Some of
those statements included, “My mother told me she would disown me if I became a cop.”
Another survey participant stated, “The schedule is not ideal for a single mom. Since policing is
a 24/7 operation and your work schedule is based on seniority, rookie officers generally get the
overnight shifts which are not ideal for raising a family.” Another participant wrote, “People
were telling me I could not do it because I was small and a female, but I always thought a
woman’s outlook and experience with life could be a useful tool on the street.”
59
Participants described the challenges women who are interested in entering law
enforcement face today. The responses were numerous (n = 412) and revolved around many
different categories. Table 3 presents the common themes.
Table 3
The Challenges Women Face Today Becoming Peace Officers
Answer Number of responses Percentage
Man’s world 85 21%
Work–life balance/schedule 55 13%
Prove to men women can 48 12%
Not physically fit enough 46 11%
Family life 39 9%
Society’s negative perception of law enforcement 32 8%
Lack of support 32 8%
Standards not the same 30 7%
Not enough women mentors 15 4%
Negative social perception 11 3%
Only hired for stat 7 2%
Sexual harassment 5 1%
Women working against women 4 .05%
Lack of promotion opportunities 3 .05%
Note. N = 412. Percentages were rounded up to the nearest decimal place.
60
Participants provided rich information in response to the question of what they felt were
the challenges women face today becoming peace officers. They elaborated on the question in
the form of a written response. The survey allowed for an unlimited response length to the
question. One participant stated,
Being accused of sleeping with the entire department. Having to prove ourselves more
than the men. We have to work harder and show the guys that we can do this job. There
are two types of women in law enforcement, the ones who wear full make-up, nails are
done, and have fake eye lashes. Those women do not belong in law enforcement and give
the rest of us a bad name. These women only do the job for the badge. The second type
are the ones who bust their ass and work hard. They get in the fights and prove to
themselves that they deserve to be there. They do not wear make-up or get their nails
done. Sure, these women want to look nice on their off days but work is not a beauty
pageant. We also get criminals flirting with us more and some female officers accept that
treatment instead of stopping it. This is dangerous. Also, some of us are put through the
wringer in Field Training while others have their handheld which does not make it fair.
So, the hard-working females have to carry them and then resentment between the
females start and that is not okay. We are more sexualized and it does not help that those
badge bunnies post sexual pictures of themselves online in their uniform. These women
do not belong in the profession!!
Another participant stated,
There is a push to increase the number of women in LE, but changes to things such as
maternity leave are not occurring. However, I do believe that many agencies are hiring
candidates simply because they are women and relaxing the hiring and academy
61
standards for women (or making exceptions anywhere they can). This is doing women
(and all of law enforcement) a disservice. I feel this is a challenge because some women
are not as prepared as they should be when they graduate from the academy.
A third participant said the following:
The standards appear to be lowering (like physical testing and Field Training process)
and departments not acknowledging the change. Also, what happens to female officers
when they start a family? Are they met with major “Mom guilt?” I would be interested in
a department that offered part-time officer or per diem roles so that I could be home with
my family more. Shift work has to be one of the worst things about this job.
These detailed responses reflect that participants felt many distinct aspects of women in
law were of concern to them. Whether it be unprofessional behavior or standards being altered, it
was clear that participants felt the challenges would continue to exist if change did not occur.
Responses also reflected the needs women desire to balance work with family and maternal
needs.
The survey asked if participants perceived that their department actively sought to recruit
female officers, especially with the desire to balance their gender ranks and the large adoption of
the 30x30 initiative with a focus on having 30% of peace officer recruits be female by the year
2030 (NIJ, 2019). The survey asked participants if they thought their agency was trying to
accomplish these goals. Only six percent of the participants strongly disagreed, and another 13%
disagreed. Another 24%, or 144 of the 592 participants, were neutral on the question, but over
57% thought that their agency was actively seeking to recruit female peace officers. Figure 11
represents these results.
62
Figure 11
Survey Item: My Department Actively Seeks to Recruit Female Officers
Note. N = 592
Participants were nearly evenly divided on whether their department promoted work–life
balance. Participants disagreed to a sum of 40% (n = 238) and agreed to a sum of 42% (n = 248).
Only 18% neither agreed nor disagreed (n = 106). Work–life balance was a common theme
expressed by participants who stated that was one of the main reasons they believed women are
avoiding a career in law enforcement. According to the survey data, the difficulties of being a
mother and spouse while dealing with unusual workdays and work hours do not make law
enforcement the ideal profession for a woman with a family or hoping to start a family. The
survey asked if the participants’ department promoted a work–life balance. Figure 12 breaks
down the responses.
0 50 100 150 200 250
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly agree
My Department Actively Seeks to Recruit Female Officers
63
Figure 12
Survey Item: My Department Promotes a Work–Life Balance
Note. N = 592
Theme 4: Negative Impact of Hiring Practices
The survey asked for participants’ perceptions about the hiring process. The hiring
process often includes interviews, a physical agility test, a polygraph examination, a
psychological written exercise, an oral examination, and a medical assessment. All of the steps
occur before a final job offer is made. Participants mentioned the physical agility portion of the
hiring process several times. Many cited that the physical agility portion of the hiring process
was preventing women from becoming peace officers. Regarding the difficulty of the physical
agility portion, one participant stated,
I think there are still roadblocks in the testing process (i.e., getting over a wall and doing
a dummy drag, etc.). I do not think these particular tests really help determine whether or
0 50 100 150 200 250
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
My Department Promotes a Work-Life Balance
64
not you can do the job. I have never, in 20 years, had to drag 160 pounds of deadweight
by myself and now we would not climb over a solid wall without knowing what was on
the other side due to officer safety concerns. You might need to get over a chain link
fence, but not a solid wall. I know some of this is Peace Officer Standards and Training
(POST) requirements, so in my opinion, POST needs to adapt with the times.
Participants noted whether they had difficulty completing the physical agility test.
Despite participant comments, 73% (n = 430) of participants disagreed with the notion that they
found it difficult to complete the physical agility test. Only 11% (n = 63) remained neutral on the
question, and 16% (n = 97) either agreed or strongly agreed. Figure 13 displays all the results.
Figure 13
Survey Item: I Found It Difficult to Complete the Physical Agility Test
Note. N = 590
0 50 100 150 200 250
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly agree
I Found It Difficult to Complete the Physical Agility Test
65
The survey asked participants if they believed that the physical agility test prevented
women from entering law enforcement. One participant noted the physical difference between
men and women. She commented,
Men are naturally stronger than women. The standards should not be lowered for women.
Women are going to encounter the same combative subject men will and they need the
strength and endurance to win the battle. Knowing what the physical agility consists of
means women need to train sooner and in some cases harder.
Another participant stated,
Physical fitness is a challenge, but women are capable of meeting the same standards
(which is good and unlike the military where there are different male/female standards)
given enough preparation and knowledge of what to expect.
Overwhelmingly, participants did not believe that the physical agility tests prevented women
from entering law enforcement. In fact, 72% either strongly disagreed or disagreed with that
statement. Only 10% were neutral, and 18% agreed or strongly agreed. Figure 14 reflects the
participants’ answers by the size of the block image.
66
Figure 14
Survey Item: I Believe That the Physical Agility Test Prevents Qualified Women from Entering
Law Enforcement
Note. N = 591
The survey also asked about the oral board exam as a potential challenge for women
entering law enforcement. It is common for agencies to conduct an oral board exam before
progressing with an applicant into the background process. The oral exam is an important step in
the application process and can often determine the suitability of the applicant for a position as a
peace officer. The oral board can vary from agency to agency, but it is common to have a small
panel of law enforcement staff and community members asking a variety of questions that
evaluate decision-making, judgment, and problem-solving capabilities. Participants were
0 50 100 150 200 250
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly agree
I Believe that the Physical Agility Test Prevents Qualified
Women from Entering Law Enforcement
67
specifically asked if they thought the oral board exam was difficult. The participants
overwhelmingly were in disagreement with the thought that the oral board exam was preventing
women from entering law enforcement. Only 10% of the participants thought the oral board
exam was a difficult part of the hiring process. Another 17% neither agreed nor disagreed, and
73% did not think the oral exam was difficult. Figure 15 shows the individual results.
Figure 15
Survey Item: I Believe the Oral Exam Was Difficult
Note. N = 592
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly agree
I Believe the Oral Board Exam was Difficult
68
The survey asked about the application and hiring process and what factors might have
made the respondents want to stop in the middle of the process. In presenting the findings,
participants noted that the process is difficult and sometimes lacks information on the best ways
to proceed and be successful. The question asked what reasons, if any, made them not want to
continue the application or hiring process at any point. Table 4 lists the most common responses.
Table 4
Survey Item: What Reasons, if Any, Made You Not Want to Continue the Application or Hiring
Process at Any Point
Reasons Number of Responses Percentage
Length of the process 24 7%
Poor interactions with recruiters and backgrounders 20 6%
No encouragement 19 5%
Mistreatment by psychological and polygraph staff 19 5%
Being less strong than male candidates 12 3%
Lack of confidence 11 3%
Background concerns 5 1%
Being a mom 5 1%
Male-dominated field 3 .08%
Not selected 3 .08%
Felt like agency did not care 2 .05%
Lack of positions 2 .05%
Other opinions 2 .03%
Other opportunities 1 .03%
Dangerous job 1 .03%
Fear of the unknown 1 .03%
Finish college 1 .03%
Recession 1 .03%
Did not answer 232 64%
Note. N = 364. Negative influences in the hiring process. Percentages rounded up as needed.
69
Research Question 3: What Environmental Influences Do Female Peace Officers Report as
Supporting Their Success in the Application Process?
This section of Chapter Four discusses the influences mentorship has on female
applicants and other environmental influences that may have positively impacted females
wanting to become peace officers. Survey questions revolved around the participants’
perceptions about mentor support, mentorship programs, and mentor gender. Participants also
answered regarding the support they received before and during the application process and their
thoughts on recommending a peace officer position to other women.
Theme 5: Mentorship as a Positive Influence on Hiring Female Peace Officers
The survey included a variety of questions related to how mentorship affected their
success in applying to become a peace officer. In addition, it asked how that relationship evolved
over their career. This section of the survey explored these questions, and the results are
described here.
The survey asked participants if they had a mentor who helped them navigate the
application and hiring process when they were seeking to become a peace officer. This was a
yes/no question, and of the 592 responses, two-thirds said they did not have a mentor. Figure 16
displays the breakdown of the responses.
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Figure 16
Survey Item: I Had a Mentor Who Helped Me to Navigate the Application and Hiring Process
When I Was Seeking to Become a Peace Officer
Note. N = 592
Participants indicated their agreement that having a mentor would help more women
navigate the application and hiring process. Only 12% remained neutral, and 7% disagreed. Of
all the questions in the survey, this question had the most decisive answer in one specific
direction. What emerges here is that 81% of the participants felt having a mentor would have
helped them during the application and hiring process. Figure 17 shows the breakdown by
participants.
I Had a Mentor Who Helped Me to Navigate the
Application and Hiring Process When I was Seeking to
Become a Peace Officer
Yes No
393
199
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Figure 17
Survey Item: Having a Law Enforcement Mentor Would Help More Women Successfully
Navigate the Application and Hiring Process
Note. N = 589
Participants evaluated whether they thought their department offered the same kind of
formal mentoring program to applicants of either gender. The results were fairly balanced, with
24% (n =144) strongly disagreeing or disagreeing, 39% (n = 228) being neutral, and 37% (n
= 215) agreeing that their department does offer the same level of mentorship regardless of the
gender of the recruit. These results indicate that 63% of the participants were neutral or disagreed
that their department offered the same kind of mentoring program to female applicants as they do
to male applicants. Figure 18 shows this information.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly agree
Having a Law Enforcement Mentor Would Help More Women
Successfully Navigate the Application and Hiring Process
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Figure 18
Survey Item: My Department Offers the Same Formal Mentoring Program to Female Applicants
as They Do Male Applicants
Note. N = 587
Most participants neither agreed nor disagreed on whether their mentor continued to
support them after they were hired by a law enforcement agency. The highest percentage of
participants, 49%, stated they neither agreed nor disagreed with this statement in the survey.
Only 9% of participants strongly disagreed with this statement. Another 12% disagreed that their
mentor supported them after being hired. Meanwhile, 16% of participants agreed, and an
additional 14% strongly agreed. What emerges as a concern is that only 30% of the participants
felt support from their mentor after completing the hiring process. Figure 19 shows these results.
0 50 100 150 200 250
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly agree
My Department Offers the Same Formal Mentoring Program
to Female Applicants as They do for Male Applicants
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Figure 19
Survey Item: My Mentor Continued to Support Me After I Was Hired
Note. N = 532
The survey asked participants whether they felt male officers could mentor female
applicants just as effectively as female officers. The majority of participants either agreed (n =
230) or strongly agreed (n = 107), totaling 57% of the study sample. Only 15% (n = 89)
remained neutral on the question by answering that they neither agreed nor disagreed. Those
participants who disagreed made up 23% (n = 136) of the total participants, and those who
strongly disagreed totaled 5% (n = 28). The finding that emerges here is that the majority of the
participants felt that the gender of the mentor was not an issue in mentoring effectiveness. Figure
20 shows participants’ responses by raw number.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly agree
My Mentor Continued to Support Me after I was Hired
74
Figure 20
Survey Item: Male Officers Can Mentor Female Applicants Just as Effectively as Female
Officers Can Mentor Them
Note. N = 590
Theme 6: Impact of Significant Others on Women Interested in Becoming Peace Officers
Participants answered a question about the support they received from their spouse or
significant other while trying to become a peace officer. In some cases, participants indicated
that the question did not apply to them, inferring they did not have a significant other or spouse
at the time of the decision. Additional questions concerned the participants’ thoughts about
recommending law enforcement to others.
One question asked if the spouse or significant other supported their desire to become a
peace officer. Only five percent stated that their significant other or spouse strongly disagreed
0 50 100 150 200 250
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly agree
Male Officers can Mentor Female Applicants just as Effectively
as Female Officers can Mentor Them
75
with their desire to become a peace officer. Another seven percent said their partner disagreed,
while only 10% neither agreed nor disagreed. The majority of participants reported that they felt
supported by their significant other or spouse. Participants who felt they had support from their
spouse or significant other totaled 57%. Table 5 shows a breakdown of the responses.
Table 5
Survey Item: My Spouse or Significant Other Supported my Desire to Become a Peace Officer
Answer Number or responses Percentage of responses
Does not apply 123 21%
Strongly disagree 29 5%
Disagree 44 7%
Neither agree or disagree 59 10%
Agree 165 28%
Strongly agree 172 29%
Note. N = 592. Percentages rounded up as needed.
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The survey asked participants a question to determine if they would recommend a career
in law enforcement to a female friend or relative. The results were mixed, with 21% (n = 66)
strongly disagreeing, 20% (n = 117) disagreeing, 19% (n = 114) neither agreeing nor
disagreeing, and 33% (n = 195) agreeing and 17% (n = 100) strongly agreeing. Figure 21
outlines these results.
Figure 21
Survey Item: I Would Recommend Law Enforcement to a Female Friend or Relative
Note. N = 592
0 50 100 150 200 250
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither disagree or agree
Agree
Strongly agree
I Would Recommend Law Enforcement to a Female Friend or
Relative
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As a follow-up to the previous question, participants answered an open-ended question
on why they would or would not recommend law enforcement to a female friend or relative. The
responses presented a wide range of answers analyzed (Table 6). Of the 511 responses to this
question (n = 511), 153 participants (30%), the largest common response, stated they thought the
job was “great” and they would recommend it.
Table 6
Why or Why Would You Not Recommend Law Enforcement to a Female Friend or Relative
Answer Number of responses Percentage of responses
The job is great 153 30%
Depends on the person 109 21%
Social media criticism 68 13%
I would never recommend 54 11%
Need more women 52 10%
Expectations are changing 26 5%
Job is not for women 13 3%
Unsure 13 3%
Mental physical concerns 10 2%
Work/life balance 8 2%
Dangerous 3 1%
Low pay 1 1%
Stress 1 1%
Note. N = 511. Percentages were rounded up.
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Summary of Results and Findings
Participants in the survey provided a great deal of beneficial information related to the
challenges women specifically face. The majority of participants agreed that success can be
achieved using mentorship programs and job fairs. Youth programs, such as a formal Explorer
program, were also identified as helpful in attracting women to law enforcement. The survey
participants stated that during the hiring process, there were negative experiences that made them
consider if this was really a path they wanted to follow, but 86% of those surveyed thought being
exposed to a female peace officer during the hiring and application process was helpful. Many
survey respondents indicated that hiring brochures are not accurate in representing a law
enforcement career to a prospective applicant. Other factors that might be preventing females
from becoming peace officers were also reported.
More than half of the respondents stated that there were not any societal influences
preventing them from becoming a peace officer. The other half shared comments that included
that they were told they could not do the job, “it is a man’s job,” or experienced some resistance.
Most participants felt that their agency was trying to hire female peace officers, but they were
evenly divided on whether their agency promoted a work–life balance. Over 70% of participants
stated they did not think the physical agility test was holding women back. In addition, the
survey participants did not find the oral board examination to be difficult. Other factors that
participants felt supported their desire to become a peace officer were also evaluated.
Female applicants reported mentorship to be a strong support mechanism. Almost twothirds of survey respondents stated they had a mentor. An overwhelming number of survey
respondents stated that they thought having a mentor would help women navigate the hiring
process. It appears, based on the responses, that after the hiring process, the mentor stayed
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involved a little more than half of the time. Overall, survey respondents also indicated the gender
of the mentor was not a critical factor. The majority of participants indicated that they had a
supportive spouse or significant other during the application process. In addition, only about
50% stated they would recommend a career to their female friends or relatives. Most of the
positive responses thought the job was “great,” but another 21% thought it would depend on the
person. The next chapter will discuss overall finding from this study and provide some
recommendations to increase the number of female peace officers.
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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
This chapter discusses the different key findings and presents recommendations for
practice garnered from the study. These recommendations include an evaluation of the law
enforcement environment related to women, an exploration of the physical fitness testing and
standards, mentorship programs, and hiring practices appealing to women. The chapter will
conclude with limitations and delimitations, recommendations for future research, and
implications for equity.
The purpose of this study was to examine the challenges women face in becoming peace
officers. The study used a conceptual framework that revolved around Bronfenbrenner’s (1979)
ecological model. The model looks at how an individual’s development is influenced by
interconnected environmental systems, ranging from the immediate surroundings, such as
family, to the broad societal structures, such as culture. The following research questions guided
this study:
1. What reasons do female peace officers provide for being drawn to law enforcement as
a profession?
2. What environmental influences do female peace officers report as barriers to women
entering the profession?
3. What environmental influences do female peace officers report as supporting their
success in the application process?
Discussion of Results and Findings
All participants navigated the hiring process to become full-time peace officers. The
following sections explore the key findings that emerged from the study, emphasizing the factors
that participants identified as contributing to their success, as well as those they discussed that
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may have hindered their progress in becoming peace officers. These findings address the role of
the law enforcement environment, physical fitness standards, mentorship programs, and hiring
practices.
Environmental Challenges Women Face Becoming Peace Officers
The study’s data suggest there are several environmental challenges women face in
becoming peace officers. Participants indicated that they felt that law enforcement leaders
generally do not create environments that draw women into becoming peace officers. In an
environment that is not welcoming, women who express or feel this sentiment would not be
likely to apply for a position with a law enforcement agency.
Survey participants offered several factors as environmental influences that may have
deterred them from a career in law enforcement. The study revealed that the two most significant
challenges women faced in trying to enter law enforcement were the perception that it is a man’s
world and women cannot succeed in that environment and the difficulty of balancing work
against family life. A close third was the perceived difficulty of proving to men that a woman
could be a peace officer. Archbold and Schulz (2012) highlighted this same finding in their study
reviewing policing and describing it as a male-dominated profession.
A majority of participants indicated that their department actively seeks to recruit
women. I consider this a positive result, proving that there is an effort to recruit females into the
profession. Several of the recommendations provided will aid in this outcome.
Outdated Physical Fitness Testing and Standards
Survey results indicated that 73% of the participants did not feel it was difficult to
complete the physical agility test during the application process. This finding was unexpected
and was contrary to what many of the participants stated was an initial challenge for women who
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were considering becoming peace officers. These statements came from participants answering
an open-ended question related to the extent they thought the components of the physical agility
test measure the physical abilities needed for a career in law enforcement.
Participants did comment that the physical fitness testing requirements may be out of date
related to the current job duties of a peace officer and changes in law enforcement procedures.
Participants stated that the solid wall jump, which results in a high failure rate for women, is not
considered best practice in current law enforcement related to chasing after a suspect. Officers
are now taught to surround the area and do a systematic yard search. Participants suggested
reevaluating the solid wall jump requirement should be in an effort to test for job fitness
preparedness. The research did find that physical fitness tests are a consistent block for female
applicants (Daflos, 2019). Daflos found that 20% of all applicants failed the fitness test,
including 55% of female applicants. During the study, mentorship emerged as contributing to
female applicants’ success in all aspects of the hiring process (PERF, 2018). Research and
participant responses indicate mentors help applicants succeed in becoming peace officers.
The Value of Mentorship Programs
The study revealed that participants felt strongly about the positive value a mentor brings
to a female applicant interested in law enforcement. Over 81% of the participants believed
having a law enforcement mentor would help more women navigate the hiring process. This
mentorship finding is consistent with a Police Executive Research Forum (2018) survey that
indicated approximately 70% of the respondents agreed that having a mentor would make a
difference in helping them choose a career in policing. The lack of women in law enforcement
makes it difficult, by default, to have a female mentor, and it is possible that not all female peace
officers would choose to be mentors or should be mentors. Not every officer has the desire, time,
83
or suitability to be a mentor. Law enforcement leaders should consider only those best suited to
mentor applicants. Over 57% of the participants did state that the gender of the mentor was not
important. With the 30x30 hiring initiative and the desire to bring more women into law
enforcement, applicants may require different levels of mentorship, but a department should be
balanced in its mentorship programs to provide the applicant with as much guidance as possible.
Hiring Practices Attractive to Female Applicants
Results from the participants clearly indicated that law enforcement leaders may want to
focus on expanding Explorer or similar programs such as high school justice classes, police
athletic sports programs, and youth law enforcement academies. These programs introduce
women to law enforcement as a possible profession at an early age. Even more so, based on the
study’s data, being exposed to a female peace officer during the application and hiring process is
beneficial to increasing the number of women in an agency and decreasing the challenge women
face becoming peace officers.
The study further revealed that 57% of the participants did not think job brochures
accurately reflected a career in law enforcement. Many brochures reflect the exciting and
dynamic parts of law enforcement, but not necessarily the rigors of shiftwork, the job stress,
family strain, and sacrifices that need to be made. Even at a basic level, some representation of
female officers would help to entice women to join an agency.
As a specific hiring procedure, participants thought job fairs staffed by peace officers
were a beneficial tool and felt that attendance should be widely encouraged for agencies that
would like to attract female applicants. Only 18% of the participants did not agree with this idea.
Jarin (2021) stated job fairs increase exposure to the staff and culture of a department. Executed
effectively, job fairs could be an excellent source of preparation for the process of becoming a
84
peace officer. These fairs could offer sample physical agility tests, oral board preparation, and
application and background assistance. Many agencies often think their best recruiters for the
organization are their own members. At some agencies, there are hiring incentives for the current
employees to recruit new employees. There is no better person to speak about the pros and cons
of the agency than current staff.
Recommendations for Practice
The participants provided insight into the profession of law enforcement, specifically
related to women. This section provides recommendations for law enforcement agencies
interested in adding more women to their ranks and helping them overcome the challenges
women face entering law enforcement. The recommendations are drawn from the findings and
offer six specific actions for consideration by law enforcement leaders and hiring professionals.
Evaluate the Law Enforcement Environment Toward Female Applicants
Fifty-seven percent of the participants stated their department actively seeks to recruit
female officers. That result identifies a certain culture of some departments and shows a lack of
female inclusion for those agencies not working to bring more women into their ranks. The
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model discusses the macrosystem as how the attitudes and
ideologies of a culture can affect its desire to change. Donohue (2020) stated the value women
bring to law enforcement organizations and how department diversity positively impacts the
communities served.
If an agency is not seeing women applying for their department but wishes to change
their representation in the department, the recommendation is to work toward creating a positive
working environment to entice more women to law enforcement. That includes evaluating the
entire hiring process and identifying where actions could be taken to create more female
85
inclusion. In addition, staff should look at who is contacting the applicants and how that
relationship is supporting the female applicant’s progression through the hiring process.
Re-evaluate Physical Fitness Standards and Testing
Seventy-three percent of the survey respondents indicated they did not find it difficult to
complete the physical agility test. They also indicated with 72% in agreement, that the physical
agility test does not prevent women from entering law enforcement. These results seem to
indicate no real issues with the physical agility test. However, when asked a follow-up openended question related to the physical agility testing process, numerous participants stated
concerns with the wall jump and that the test should be more realistic.
Daflos (2019) stated that physical agility tests have been a consistent struggle for female
applicants to law enforcement. The recommendation is to thoroughly review the standards for a
proper work-skill physical fitness standard and develop a career-oriented fitness program
stretching beyond just the hiring process. This could involve including other entities that have
expertise in this area or regulate testing standards. Jarin (2021) states some agencies have added
pre-employment physical fitness programs to improve female success with the physical fitness
portion of the testing process. These programs provide instructor-led pre-hire physical fitness
sessions designed to help applicants prepare for the physical fitness testing process.
Increase and Enhance Mentorship Programs
Two-thirds of the participants stated they did not have a mentor in the hiring process.
Eighty-one percent of the participants stated they thought having a mentor would help more
women navigate the application process. The PERF (2018) study found that mentorship
programs were strongly desired, and respondents felt they could have a very positive outcome
related to bringing more women into law enforcement.
86
In an effort to support the ongoing success and well-being of new female peace officers, a
recommendation is to create a positive ongoing mentorship program for the formative years of a
peace officer’s career. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model would include this
recommendation in the mesosystem which is where non-familial relations with co-workers could
exist. This effort should include pre- and post-hiring. The majority of participants, 57%, felt a
male mentor could be as effective as a female mentor. This finding indicated the value added
was having a mentor and not specifically the gender of the mentor.
Develop Hiring Practices Attractive to Female Applicants
The majority of participants indicated that being involved in a program that offered
contact between a peace officer and a person interested in law enforcement was a positive
recruiting method. In the Bishop (2022) study, this same outcome was discussed. The study
found that these contacts helped to increase applicant numbers. It allowed for information
sharing regarding a career in law enforcement and allowed the possible applicant to get their
questions answered. The recommendation is to develop and encourage the participation of
women in Explorer or similar programs as a pathway to peace officer employment.
Only 18% of the participants felt that job fairs felt that job fairs were not beneficial. Jarin
(2021) outlined the benefits of job fairs to possible applicants. They are very similar to the
benefits offered to applicants who participate in some form of a law enforcement orientation
program. A recommendation is for agencies to continue or begin to participate in job fairs and
promote the benefits of a career in law enforcement to interested women. This occurs in the
exosystem of the Bronfenbrenner ecological model and is identified as the area where
government agencies influence changes in a person. In addition, agencies may want to consider
87
regional job fairs that could allow for multiple agencies to recruit at the same time in the same
location.
Only 16% of the participants felt that law enforcement job brochures accurately reflect a
career in law enforcement. My final recommendation is to revise job brochures and ensure that
they show a well-balanced perspective of policing. Brochures that highlight the agency’s goals,
explain the work and life balance, and feature a diverse staff present a transparent perspective of
a given agency to a potential applicant.
Limitations and Delimitations
As with any study, there are limitations and delimitations. Limitations are factors that are
not in the researcher’s control (Theofanidis & Fountouki, 2019). Some limitations that existed
for this study include the dependence on the truthfulness of the participants, including the
possibility that a male rather than the intended female peace officers responded to the survey
distributed to the CPOA. Another limitation was the collection of only a small number of
participants compared to the overall amount of female peace officers currently employed in a
full-time capacity. To mitigate the limitations, I worked with CPOA staff to make sure there was
an emphasis on who should participate in the survey and how their truthful response could help
the profession. Upon receiving approval to move forward with the data collection, I began to
work with other law enforcement agencies and female peace officers to work toward achieving
and surpassing my sample size numbers. I did believe the more responses I received the more
valuable the responses would be. In the end, that goal was realized.
Delimitations are the decisions the researcher makes that may have implications for the
study (Theofanidis & Fountouki, 2019). The delimitations that affected this study included that
no survey question asked for a reason women were staying away from law enforcement, that the
88
majority of survey questions did not allow for further explanation, and respondents could have
included CPOA members who were not women despite the instructions provided. This was
mitigated by criterion questions provided at the beginning of the survey to help ensure that only
female peace officers participated in the survey. Additional delimitations included only
surveying full-time female law enforcement officers, not including male or part-time law
enforcement officers as participants, and only using CPOA members as the pool to draw
participants from. Other delimitations include only focusing on participants from one state and
the choice of my conceptual framework. Fortunately, the survey was distributed beyond the one
state, and participants throughout the country answered it.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study’s findings identified topics worthy of future research consideration. As the
majority of participants indicated, interactions with a peace officer through formal or informal
interactions create encounters that can lead to exposing possible applicants to law enforcement at
an early stage. Future research could include an exploration of the value of youth sports
programs, high school justice programs, and law enforcement explorer programs in attracting
female applicants. Ride-alongs are a standard program in law enforcement that provides
community members with the opportunity to accompany a peace officer in the front seat of a
patrol vehicle, allowing them to observe first-hand the officer’s duties and responsibilities. Ridealongs with a peace officer are a popular tool used by agencies to expose possible candidates to
the profession. Future research could also include an evaluation of positive and negative
experiences and how that affected the female applicant participating in the ride-along and if it led
to a career in law enforcement.
89
Law enforcement recruiting methods were a topic of constant discussion during the
research. Nationally, law enforcement agencies are concerned about the recruiting of all genders.
Future research should encompass a comprehensive analysis of the effectiveness and
shortcomings within the specific domain of law enforcement recruitment. This study should
cover recruitment efforts across all neighborhoods, including those often deemed challenging or
high-risk.
Another future area of research could be exploring where female peace officers were
employed prior to beginning their career in law enforcement. This finding could expose where
recruiting efforts should focus on additional recruiting opportunities. There could be emerging
connections that lead to applicant pools desirable for agencies looking to hire female peace
officers. Researching this topic could expose otherwise unknown opportunities identifying where
women are working that could lead to supporting agency recruiting goals toward women.
Physical fitness requirements have remained constant for many years (Donohue, 2020).
In California, the Work Skills Test Battery dates to the early 1990s. Researching the current
physical fitness requirements for a peace officer should be reviewed for practicality and
reasonableness. Law enforcement practices have changed over the years regarding wellness and
safety (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 2021). An up-to-date study could find that
current physical fitness standards may no longer be relevant, especially in the context of
recruiting women and the challenges they face in becoming peace officers.
This study explored mentorship practices, and the results reflected that mentorship before
and after the application process was considered beneficial. Results indicated that the gender of
the mentor was not a factor, but the gender of the mentor could be an interesting topic for a
future study. Sebire (2020) discussed the success agencies have had with mentor programs.
90
Research exploring the value of mentoring programs, including their short and long-term results,
could be beneficial for agencies that do not have these programs in place.
Additional research topics could include a review and analysis of hiring brochures to
determine their effectiveness and reflection on current job requirements. The balance between
work and life was also a recurring theme during this study. Future research exploring work
schedules and how schedules affect female workers with children could provide additional
solutions important to women in the workforce and those interested in law enforcement.
Implications for Equity
This study focused on providing information to law enforcement hiring professionals and
agency leaders as to the challenges women face in becoming peace officers. The
underrepresentation of female peace officers is a disparity that cannot and should not be ignored.
Women continue to be the most unrepresentative population in law enforcement, with only 12%
of all law enforcement officers being female, but research shows the value female peace officers
add to an agency. These values include community representation, emotional intelligence,
investigative skills, and conflict resolution. This study outlines several different concepts that
could change the equity imbalance that exists in law enforcement.
Conclusion
Agencies seeking to enhance the representation of women will greatly benefit from the
research recommendations provided in this study. Relying on past approaches will only
perpetuate the current underrepresentation of women in the field. It is clear that without adopting
new strategies, the disparity in female representation in policing will not improve. A
representative law enforcement agency that incorporates high levels of gender equality in all
ranks and throughout the organization will gain the trust of victims and the community (Sebire,
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2020). Law enforcement leaders seeking change with the greater inclusion of females in law
enforcement will recognize that the recommendations provided here could help them achieve
their goals. Several recommendations came out of the study that could increase the number of
women in law enforcement and help agencies interested in achieving the 30x30 goal of having
30% of peace officers be women by the year 2030. Having almost 600 participants respond to the
study provided valuable information sharing and led to the recommendations for change.
The ability to understand and reform the recruitment process is critical to law
enforcement agencies desiring to hire women. Changing applicants’ environmental belief about
an organization and reviewing the physical fitness standards required for applicants could result
in female applicants expressing more interest in a peace officer position and being more
successful in the hiring process. This study identified several key findings that served as a
foundation for recommendations that could demonstrate transformational practices law
enforcement agencies could utilize to reduce the challenges women face becoming peace officers
and aid in increasing diversity in their ranks.
Change is possible and achievable. Given the right mindset and the authority and tools to
make a positive impact eliminating the challenges women face becoming peace officers is only a
matter of the desire to do so. The value of female peace officers is clear, their addition to a
department is positive, and their desire to do the job is evident. The time to eliminate the
challenges is now.
92
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Appendix A: Survey Questions
My name is Chris Monahan. I am a captain with the Piedmont Police Department, but I
am completing this research in my capacity as a doctoral student at USC doing research related
to women in law enforcement. This survey is designed to solicit feedback from full-time female
peace officers, whether working for a city, county, state, or federal law enforcement agency.
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. Your individual responses will provide
valuable feedback and will not be shared with anyone outside the survey process. Please answer
the questions to the best of your ability. The open-ended questions provide writing space for as
much feedback as you would like to offer. The survey should take approximately 15 minutes to
complete, but take the time you need. The accuracy of your responses is what is most important.
You have the option of providing your law enforcement agency in the space provided. For
additional information, I can be contacted at cjmonaha@usc.edu.
Table A1
Survey
Survey questions Open or closed?
Level of
measurement.
(nominal, ordinal,
interval, ratio)
Response options
(if close-ended) RQ
Concept being
measured
(from conceptual
framework)
Are you a full-time law enforcement
officer working in the state of
California who identifies as a
woman?
Closed Nominal Yes
No
Criteria
How long have you been in Law
Enforcement?
Closed Ratio Less than 5 years
Between 5 and 10
years
Between 11 and
15 years
More than 15
years
1 Individual
For the following questions, identify the extent to which you agree or disagree with the statement.
Women are drawn to law enforcement
as a profession.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
1 Macrosystem
What drew you to a profession in law
enforcement?
Open 1 Individual
Participating in an Explorer or similar
programs before becoming a peace
officer is important.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
1 Individual
105
Strongly agree
Do law enforcement job fairs help
women trying to enter law
enforcement?
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
1,3 Microsystem
Would working with female officers
during the application process be
helpful?
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
1, 3 Individual
Do law enforcement job brochures
accurately reflect a career in law
enforcement?
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
1, 2 Mesosystem
There were societal influences that
initially prevented me from being
drawn to law enforcement as a
profession.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
1 Macrosystem
If you responded Agree or Strongly
Agree, what influences were present
that influenced your desire to join
law enforcement as a profession?
Open
2 Individual
What do you believe are the
challenges, if any, women are facing
today entering law enforcement?
Open
2 Individual
106
My department actively seek
s to
recruit female officers
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
3 Exosystem
My department promotes a work/life
balance.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
1,2 Microsystem
I found it difficult to complete the
physical agility test.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
2 Individual
I believe the oral board exam was
difficult.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
2 Individual
I believe that the physical agility test
prevents qualified women from
entering law enforcement
.
Closed Nominal Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neither Agree or
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
2 Exosystem
If you answered strongly agree or
agree, to what extent do you think
the components of the physical
Open
2 Individual
107
agility test measure the physical
abilities needed for your career?
I had a mentor who helped me to
navigate the application process
when I was seeking to become a
peace officer.
Closed Nominal Yes
No
3 Microsystem
My mentor continued to support me
after I was hired.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
1, 3 Microsystem
Having a law enforcement mentor
would help more women
successfully navigate the application
process.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
3 Microsystem
My department offers the same formal
mentoring program to female
applicants as they do male officers
.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
2 Exosystem
Male officers can mentor female
applicants just as effectively as
female officers can mentor them.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
3 Microsystem
Does not apply
108
My spouse or significant other
supported my desire to become a
peace officer when I was going
through the application process.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
2, 3 Microsystem
What reasons, if any, made you not
want to continue at the application
process at any point?
Open 1, 2, 3 Individual
I would recommend law enforcement
to a female friend or relative.
Closed Nominal Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
1 Individual
Based on your answer to the previous
question, why or why not?
Open 1 Individual
109
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study evaluated the challenges women face in becoming peace officers. The participants were full-time female peace officers. Their first-hand knowledge of the peace officer application and hiring process was obtained to provide insight for future female peace officer applicants. This study examined the different reasons female peace officers were drawn to law enforcement, the environmental influences they reported as barriers to women entering the profession, and the environmental influences that supported their success in the application process. A survey was distributed seeking full-time female peace officers. Participants responded to Likert-type and open-ended questions. The final number of participants who responded to the survey was 592. This study identified key findings that included the importance of creating an environment that is welcoming to female applicants, including demonstrating equal opportunities for men and women. Another finding that came out of the study identified that the current physical fitness requirements may be out of date and not consistent with current job practices. Two additional findings revealed the value participants felt mentorship programs offered to women seeking employment as a peace officer and the need to ensure hiring practices are geared toward enticing interested applicants to apply to law enforcement as a profession. The recommendations coming from this study include law enforcement agencies creating a positive working environment for all, conducting a thorough review of physical fitness requirements for law enforcement applicants, creating positive mentorship programs, and encouraging involvement in Explorer or similar programs for those interested in a career in law enforcement.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Monahan, Christopher Joseph
(author)
Core Title
The challenges women face becoming peace officers
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Degree Conferral Date
2024-12
Publication Date
09/16/2024
Defense Date
09/16/2024
Publisher
Los Angeles, California
(original),
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
challenges,Law enforcement,OAI-PMH Harvest,peace officers,Women
Format
theses
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Seli, Helena (
committee chair
), Datta, Monique (
committee member
), Phillips, Jennifer (
committee member
), Regur, Carey (
committee member
)
Creator Email
cjmonaha@usc.edu;cmonahan@piedmont.ca.gov
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11399AT0F
Unique identifier
UC11399AT0F
Identifier
etd-MonahanChr-13530.pdf (filename)
Legacy Identifier
etd-MonahanChr-13530
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
theses (aat)
Rights
Monahan, Christopher Joseph
Internet Media Type
application/pdf
Type
texts
Source
20240918-usctheses-batch-1212
(batch),
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
challenges
peace officers