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Examining influences on the decision-making process of Filipino students and parents in selecting a post-secondary institution

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Examining influences on the decision-making process of Filipino students and parents in selecting a post-secondary institution

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Content Examining Influences on the Decision-Making Process
of Filipino Students and Parents
in Selecting a Post-secondary Institution
Anna Nelizza Punla Tamayo
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2024

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© Copyright by Anna Nelizza Tamayo 2024
All Rights Reserved

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The Committee for Anna Nelizza Tamayo certifies the approval of this Dissertation:
Tracy Poon Tambascia, Committee Chair
Helena Seli
Kedra Ishop
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California 2024

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Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my son, Andrei. Thank you for being my unwavering source
of strength and inspiration. It is my hope that accompanying me on this academic journey will
further underscore the significance of education and its transformative influence, not only in our
own lives but also in the lives of others. I also dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Cadio
and Nini. Your enduring love and support have been my pillars throughout this journey, and for
that, I am eternally thankful. I hold each of you dear to my heart.

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Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all those who contributed to the
completion of this dissertation.
Praise be to you, Father God, for reminding me that all this has come to fruition through
Your Spirit and for Your greater glory.
I am profoundly grateful to my advisor, Dr. Tracy Poon Tambascia, whose expertise,
understanding, and patience guided me through my graduate experience. Her knowledge and
skills have been invaluable in guiding me through this dissertation process.
I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Helena Seli and Dr. Kedra Ishop,
for their insightful comments and challenging questions. Their feedback was instrumental in
refining my research and helping me expand my boundaries, thereby enhancing the quality of
this dissertation.
My sincere thanks go to the GEEdD program administrative team, Dr. Sabrina Chong,
Dr. Mark Robison, and Alondra Morales, for their invaluable support and for providing the
resources needed throughout my doctoral journey. I cannot express enough praise for the merits
of this program. My gratitude to my professors for the learning opportunities in Los Angeles,
Sao Paulo, Helsinki, and Doha. I am grateful to my cohort: every encounter with you has
inspired and strengthened my resolve these past two years; it was an amazing experience. Fight
on!
I am also indebted to the University of Perpetual Help System board of directors for
supporting me in this endeavor and to my colleagues at the Medical University for their
assistance in filling in and doing a fantastic job. Particular thanks to my friends for
decompression nights, encouragement, and moral support.

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Lastly, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family. To my parents, Dr.
Arcadio Tamayo and Nympha Tamayo, for their unwavering support and for making sure I did
not give up on the dream; my siblings, for their encouragement and patient reassurance; and my
son, Andrei, for cheering me on and for constantly reminding me of how proud he is of me.
Thank you all for your prayers, love, patience, and understanding these past two years, the many
late nights and long weekends dedicated to this work.
This dissertation is dedicated to all of you.
Thank you.

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Abstract
The World Bank (2023) has stated that education is a powerful driver of development and is one
of the most vital instruments for reducing poverty and improving equity. It does so by allowing
the development of a skilled workforce that contributes to the economic growth and stability of
the country (Orbeta et al., 2016). Accessible, quality education is the key to achieving equity.
Low-cost private schools and universities fulfill this need. This qualitative study investigates
how students and their parents decide when choosing a university in the Philippines and aims to
understand the influences on matriculation. Three themes developed from the analysis of the
findings examined within the perspective of Rational Choice Theory and Social Capital Theory.
This study found that the individual or individuals who finance the student’s education direct the
decision-making process, and not solely their parents. Findings underscore the influence of
economics as the primary driver of school and program choice. The study also found that student
retention depends mainly on peer influence and “good” faculty, regardless of cost. The study
provides recommendations on how policymakers need to consider the role of multiple
stakeholders in the decision-making process of each high school and university student, as well
as the value of thorough data collection and analysis in streamlining this process for all involved.

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Table of Contents
Dedication...................................................................................................................................... 4
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... 5
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... 7
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. 12
List of Tables............................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter One: Overview of the Study........................................................................................ 14
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 19
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 21
Definitions................................................................................................................................. 23
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 24
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ................................................................................... 25
The Philippine Education System............................................................................................. 25
Historical Influences on the Philippine Education System................................................... 26
The American Education Model........................................................................................... 28
Japanese Influences on Education ........................................................................................ 30
Role of Government in Education ........................................................................................ 31
Education System Reform ........................................................................................................ 33
Enrollment............................................................................................................................. 34
Current State of Philippine Education ...................................................................................... 35

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Number of Institutions.......................................................................................................... 37
Colonial Influences on Filipino Culture and the Family .......................................................... 38
Socioeconomic Context of Education in the Philippines.......................................................... 40
The Influence of Local and International Labor Markets on Migration............................... 41
Influences on Educational Decision-Making............................................................................ 43
Family ................................................................................................................................... 43
Peers...................................................................................................................................... 45
Very Important Non-Parental Adults (VINAs)..................................................................... 46
Rational Choice Theory and Social Capital Theory ................................................................. 47
Rational Choice Theory ........................................................................................................ 47
Social Capital Theory ........................................................................................................... 49
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 51
Chapter Three: Methodology .................................................................................................... 52
Site Overview............................................................................................................................ 53
Population and Sample ............................................................................................................. 54
Data Collection and Instrumentation ........................................................................................ 56
Survey ................................................................................................................................... 57
Interview ............................................................................................................................... 57
Data Analysis............................................................................................................................ 58
Credibility and Trustworthiness................................................................................................ 60

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Ethics......................................................................................................................................... 61
Role of Researcher.................................................................................................................... 63
Chapter Four: Findings.............................................................................................................. 64
Overview of Participants........................................................................................................... 64
Survey Participants ............................................................................................................... 65
Interview Participants ........................................................................................................... 66
Presentation of Findings and Emergent Themes ...................................................................... 68
Theme 1: The Individual or Individuals Who Finance the Student’s Education Direct the
Decision-Making Process ..................................................................................................... 69
Theme 2: Economics Is the Primary Driver of School and Program Choice. ...................... 73
Theme 3: Retention Depends Mainly on Peer Influence and “Good” Faculty, Regardless of
Cost. ...................................................................................................................................... 76
Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................................... 78
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations for Practice .............................................. 80
Discussion of Findings.............................................................................................................. 81
The Individual or Individuals Who Finance the Student’s Education Direct the DecisionMaking Process..................................................................................................................... 81
Economics is the Primary Driver of School and Program Choice........................................ 82
Recommendations for Practice ................................................................................................. 85
Recommendation 1: Junior and Senior High Schools Need to Establish an Inclusive and
Individualized Career Counseling Program.......................................................................... 85

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Recommendation 2: Universities Need to Improve Collection, Aggregation, and Analysis of
Student Demographic, Enrollment, Retention, and Graduate Employment Data ................ 86
Recommendation 3: Universities Need to Develop and Implement a Faculty-Student and
Peer Mentoring Program....................................................................................................... 88
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions........................................................................... 90
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................... 91
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 92
References.................................................................................................................................... 93
Appendix A: Information Sheet for Exempt Research ......................................................... 106
Appendix B: Survey Instrument ............................................................................................. 107
Appendix C: Interview Questions........................................................................................... 117
Appendix D: Interview Protocol.............................................................................................. 119
Appendix E: Recruitment Email............................................................................................. 120

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List of Figures
Figure 1. Comparative 2016 and 2022 Enrollment of UG Campus ............................................. 18
Figure 2. Education Governance: The Trifocal Education System .............................................. 33
Figure 3. Overview of the Philippine Education System.............................................................. 34
Figure 4. RC-SC Decision-making Framework for Influences on School Choice....................... 50
Figure 5. Level of External (Outside UGs Control) Influence on Preferred Institution............... 74
Figure 6. Influences on Preferred Program................................................................................... 76
Figure 7. Internal (Within UGs Control) Influences on Preferred Institution .............................. 78

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List of Tables
Table 1. Parent’s or Guardian’s Monthly Income ........................................................................ 66
Table 2. Interview Participant Demographics – Student (n=13) .................................................. 67
Table 3. Interview Participant Demographics – Parent (n=6) ...................................................... 68
Table 4. Thematic Research Findings........................................................................................... 69
Table 5. Development of Program Choice ................................................................................... 70

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Chapter One: Overview of the Study
“Education is a human right, a powerful driver of development, and one of the
strongest instruments for reducing poverty and improving health, gender equality,
peace, and stability. It delivers large, consistent returns in terms of income and is
the most important factor to ensure equity and inclusion." (World Bank, 2023)
Tertiary education can be a driver of growth in low and middle-earning countries such as
the Philippines and is essential in building a highly skilled workforce that contributes to the
economic development and stability of the country (Orbeta et al., 2016). It is the responsibility of
all – government and private institutions, and the individual – to put an end to Learning Poverty,
defined by the World Bank as the inability to read short, age-appropriate texts by age 10, and
provide young people with the means to acquire the skills they need to succeed (World Bank,
2019).
Filipino parents believe that investing in their children’s education is the key to a better
life and that private education provides better odds for economic success (Termes et al., 2020).
Because of this, many lower-income households rely on low-cost private schools to fill the gap.
The economics of education for low-cost private schools and universities (LCPSU) that are
tuition-dependent are driven by the same influences regardless of location. For primary
education institutions, the United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF) has cited that
LCPSUs are especially vulnerable to education market disruptions caused by student transfer to
public schools, delaying entry, or dropping out (Alam & Tiwari, 2021). LCPSUs rely heavily on
school fees and lack alternative sources of finance. Evidence shows that the same is true for
smaller mid-tier private colleges and universities that are tuition-dependent and have small to no

15
endowments (Eide, 2018). Although tuition is lower than the average, the students admitted are
less financially stable than those admitted to prestigious universities. Economic unpredictability
is the same for LCPSU households that are unprotected from economic shocks.
In this time of global unpredictable change, “tertiary education systems/institutions must
embrace agile frameworks that prepare for and use shocks as opportunities for reflection,
assessment, and evolution in order to maintain commitment to their essential function and
identity” (Bassett & Arnhold, 2021, p. 12). The Philippine Department of Education and
Commission on Higher Education announced that 425 private primary education schools and 100
post-secondary education institutions have permanently closed due to financial constraints
brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic (Mateo, 2020; Mendoza, 2022). The Philippine
Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) defines lower middle-class families as earning between
PHP21,194 and PHP43,828 per month, middle class between PHP43,828 and PHP76,669, uppermiddle-class families as between PHP76,669 and PHP131,484, high-income (but not rich) class
between PHP131,484 and PHP219,140. and rich families earn a monthly income of at least
PHP219,140 per month (Lu, 2024). The PIDS stated that 501,000 of the 4.3 million families in
the Philippines are classified as upper and middle class; roughly 12% of Filipinos can afford to
study in elite private institutions (Domingo, 2020). PIDS Data from the top five Philippine
universities' websites show that their average school fees are between PHP200,000 and
PHP300,000 per year, not including incidentals and the daily cost of living, which is nearly equal
to the annual tuition. These private schools primarily enroll children of the upper and middle
class and charge higher school fees that weather crises. The most identified reasons for school
and university closures are unmanageable debt, diminishing revenue, structural deficits, and
increasing doubt among students and their families about whether a college degree is worthwhile

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(Martin & Samels, 2017). The financial vulnerability of the institutions and their students makes
it difficult to sustain school operations when a crisis hits and will likely lead to school closure.
There are other influences on enrollment rates. The United Nations (UN) Population
Division indicates a 33% decline in fertility rates in the Philippines in the last 20 years (World
Bank, 2022), with families limiting themselves to an average of 2.7 children (Alvarez, 2022),
which decreases the overall college-age population (Eide, 2018). Research has found that higher
education in women correlates with lower fertility. Women with more education choose to have
fewer children or none at all, resulting in a decrease in the number of school-age children (HughJones & Abdellaoui, 2022). Another influence on enrollment rates is the effect of global
economic trends on higher education due to a shift in the labor market, resulting in an increase in
the enrollment of specific programs and a decrease in others (Orbeta et al., 2016). For example,
at one university system in the Philippines, teacher and business education had the highest
enrollment rates in 2015 and low rates for health education. After COVID-19, post-pandemic
enrollment in nursing and other health-related programs increased by 100% from pre-pandemic
rates (UG, 2022). School closures affected the students and their families and had a more
widespread effect across the community, disrupting the balance and quality of education in the
country.
Statement of the Problem
Education in the Philippines is considered an economic and human capital investment.
Human Capital Theory states that “the value of investment in education is defined by the lifetime
earnings of educated labor…,[and the] dominance of human capital theory in the economics of
education is matched by its authority in the public and policy domains” (Marginson, 2019,
p. 287, 288). Sustainable efforts through improving organizational resilience by employing

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strategies for response, recovery, development, prevention, and mitigation are needed if private
universities are to endure and overcome (Phillips & Chao, 2022). These actions have resulted in
strategies such as mergers and consolidation of institutions (Martin & Samels, 2017), deep
tuition fee discounts, revamping the board of trustees (Bills, 2020), cutting budgets, cutting
programs, or narrowing their niche. Historically, traditional economic drivers, such as student
and family demographics, global economic status, government policies, and other industrydependent influences, have been used in data-driven decision-making (Njenga et al., 2017) and
education policy implementation for education institutions. Data-driven decision-making is
critical to the optimal management of educational institutions.
Out of 2,396 higher education institutions (HEIs) in the Philippines, 1,729 (72%) are
private, and despite being the majority, only 49.97% of the 2 million tertiary level students are
enrolled in private HEIs (Second Congressional Commission on Education, 2024). Private
universities continue to experience a decline in enrollments, limiting options and educational
choices for Filipino families. At their peak in 2015, private university enrollments were at 2.2
million tertiary students; in 2019, they were at 1.8 million (Commission on Higher Education,
2020). However, little research in the Philippines sheds light on the influences on the decisionmaking processes of students and families and why students will decide to enroll in one LCPSU
and not another, if at all.
For example, the UG (a pseudonym) campus is a member of a family-owned, private,
non-sectarian university system (UJ) with nine other campus locations on the island clusters of
Luzon and Visayas in the Philippines. The UG campus was inaugurated in the late 90s and
operates primary and secondary education K-12. It is also authorized to offer undergraduate

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programs in business, hospitality, IT, education, engineering, and health care (UG, 2019). Figure
1 shows a decline in the total student population in grades K - 16 from 2016 to 2022.
Figure 1
Comparative 2016 and 2022 Enrollment of UG Campus
As a private non-sectarian university system, UJ campuses’ operations are wholly tuitiondependent, with little to no government-funded support and no endowment fund; institutions
such as these are exposed to significant risk if enrollment declines by just dozens of students
(Bills, 2020). In order to continue to operate, private schools must provide the services that
parents and students demand (Peterson, 2004). Once they have recruited a student, they aim to
keep that student enrolled for as many grades as possible. A study by Peterson (2004) showed
that private school students and parents exhibit higher satisfaction levels than public school
students. Students stay in the same school longer, regardless of income level. However, in 2022,
only 20% of UG graduating high school seniors enrolled in college programs at the UG campus
(UG, 2022).
2473
873 920
1076
610 705
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
K-16 SHS COLLEGE
UG CAMPUS STUDENT POPULATION
2016 2022

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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this inductive qualitative study is to examine students' and parents'
decision-making processes and understand the influences on their choice of a low-cost private
university (LCPSU). This research will afford a better perspective on school choice and provide
information for data-driven decisions and policymaking. It will assist in generating in- and outof-the-box strategies to improve enrollment rates that contribute to the strategic enrollment
management process for LCPSUs.
Strategic enrollment management (SEM) is a comprehensive process that aids
educational institutions in optimizing student enrollment, enabling both the attainment of its
mission and students’ educational goals (American Association of Collegiate Registrars and
Admissions Officers, 2023). SEM objectives for HEIs are to improve academic standards and
student success, increase enrollment to the ideal number possible, provide excellent service,
optimize financial opportunities, and foster campus collaboration (Ruger, 2020). It is a
framework for enabling student access to higher education, comprehensive HEI planning, and
business best practices (Bradshaw, 2023). Bradshaw (2023) further stated that building,
integrating, and utilizing data are steps toward ensuring data-driven decisions in developing
enrollment strategies and policies.
The term VUCA, which stands for volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity, has
been used in business contexts to describe turbulence and instability (Baran & Woznyj, 2021). In
this VUCA environment, resilience is a critical prerequisite for corporate performance (Natale et
al., 2022). Resilience is not merely surviving disruption; it is innovation and growth (Euchner,
2019). The inability of LCPSUs to respond and adapt to disruptions in their operations due to
financial constraints brought about by a decrease in enrollment is a problem because it affects the

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sustainability of these institutions and may lead to their dissolution and closure. This study may
help administrators understand the possible causes of the decline in enrollment at UG and similar
institutions and assist in formulating strategies to mitigate its effects. This study aims to
contribute to the organizational resilience of the low-cost private university system in the
Philippines. Understanding the status of this area of performance will enable organizations to
maintain their stability and thrive, regardless of socio-economic challenges, political factors,
environmental changes, and the effects of globalization.
A critical issue often overlooked in the process of university choice is the human or
behavioral aspect of decision-making. Two theories will frame this study to assist in the
examination of decision-making. Rational Choice Theory assumes that people know their
preferences and can evaluate their options thoroughly, even for goods and services they have
never experienced. The theory, based on writings of moral philosophers such as Adam Smith
(1776), suggests that individuals make decisions based on rational calculations of costs and
benefits that are most congruent to their personal preferences or self-interests and on outcomes
that are most favorable to them based on normative beliefs (Berends, 2019; Boudon, 2003;
Wittek, 2013). Individuals act rationally by ranking their choices methodically from most to least
desirable (Berends, 2019). The Social Capital Theory (SCT) of behavioral economics states that
choices often depend on their contexts or how they are framed (Jabbar, 2011). Applying SCT to
educational choice involves the influence of students’ and parents’ social networks and socioeconomic status on the educational decision-making process (Berends, 2019).
Two research questions have been developed to guide this study:
1. How do students enrolled in LCPSUs and their parents choose a college or university?
2. What are the issues that influence their decision to matriculate?

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Significance of the Study
Studies such as this provide data to inform decisions that lead to educational reform.
Legislators and policymakers base those decisions on internal enablers of education reform,
which include research findings, accreditation, evaluation, and funding, and the external -
legislation, technology, and societal and industry requirements (de Guzman, 2003). Reform
agendas include facility improvement, teacher professional development, equity and access, and
literacy. Its significance also lies in improving the economy by strengthening the Philippines’
response to the demands of the labor market through curricular and academic readiness and by
ensuring the alignment of graduate skills and employer demand (Asian Development Bank,
2019; Orbeta et al., 2016). There is a need for the government to design policies on how student
and parent employment and compensation expectations can be better informed and aligned with
the labor market trends of technological automation, innovation, and artificial intelligence (Asian
Development Bank, 2019).
The problem investigated may lead to solutions to the more significant problem of the
local and global need for a proficient workforce equipped to fulfill the needs of a fast-paced and
ever-changing economy (OECD, 2022). Globalization of education highlights the fact that
nothing occurs in isolation. Specific issues remain contextual, but there is a universality in the
realities that many education institutions face regardless of physical and virtual location,
ownership, and programs offered. The low-cost private university system and the government
must adapt quickly to changes in the environment - technological, natural, societal, and
individual (Tellis, 2013). The effect of technology on knowledge and idea transfer is almost
instantaneous, and institutions are easily overwhelmed. Organizations that maintain a leading

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position continuously innovate and explore new ways of doing things have more beneficial
solutions to challenges and successfully implement those solutions (Tellis, 2013).
Data from this study would enable LCPSUs like the UG campus implement enrollment
management practices and improve recruitment and retention policies and processes, allowing
the campus to improve enrollment rates, operate independently within the university system, and
avoid closure. The data from this study will also aid in the development of an information-driven
decision-making process, in that evidence-based planning and decision-making may lead to
improved competitiveness and quality (Njenga et al., 2017) and contribute to a sustainable
academic and administrative development plan for both the campus and LCPSUs in general.
The limited number of studies conducted in the Philippine context are on the factors
influencing school choice and are primarily quantitative (Asian Development Bank, 2019; Tan,
2009). A qualitative study provides a deeper understanding of participants’ beliefs, attitudes, and
motivations regarding the process of choice. It identifies significant influences that lead to
matriculation in LCPSUs. Qualitative research can help better understand or explain the data
generated by quantitative studies and benefit students, parents, school administrators, and
policymakers.
This study did not directly benefit the participants, but understanding the decisionmaking process and the role of the stakeholders involved will help high schools guide students
and their parents in making better-informed choices and improve LCPSU retention and
completion rates. Educational investment and career planning considerations are sound when
expectations are managed and the decision-making process is understood (Asian Development
Bank, 2019). As a primary source of information when making educational decisions, higher
education institutions can make available the information that students and parents require.

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Secondary and higher education institutions will become better equipped to incorporate
strategies in providing career guidance, improving the availability of educational options,
making the required financial aid available, and communicating comprehensive information on
labor market trends and shifts in employment demands. HEI deans and academic administrators
may be guided in their review of curricula and instruction, taking into consideration student and
parent expectations, which will also aid in improving retention and completion rates.
Definitions
Decision-Making Process refers to when decisions are made throughout the child’s
educational career and consider costs, the likelihood of success, and the value attached to the
outcome (Breen & Goldthorpe, 1997).
Enrollment Management is a set of activities that furthers an institution’s goals and
assures its sustainability through the coordination of its marketing, admissions, retention, and
financial practices (Ruger, 2020).
Guardian / Financer is a non-parent primary decision maker on matters of education;
they may or may not be a family member.
Parent refers to the primary parental decision-maker on matters of education.
Post-secondary Institution is used to refer to a college or university.
Rational Choice states that individuals make decisions based on rational calculations of
costs and benefits that are most congruent to their personal preferences or self-interests and on
outcomes that are most favorable to them based on normative beliefs (Berends, 2019; Boudon,
2003).
School or University Choice refers to the choice of program and post-secondary
institution.

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Social Capital refers to the relationships between people, institutions, and the associated
norms that affect the quality and quantity of social interactions and sanctions that provide
resources for achieving specific goals (Berends, 2019).
Supportive Non-Parental Adults (SNPAs) or Very Important Non-Parental Adults
(VINAs) refer to non-parental adults who provide social support to youth and are present in the
lives of many adolescents, such as teachers, natural mentors, and extended family members
(Sterrett et al., 2011).
Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic caused unprecedented disruption in the education sector. The
term VUCA has been used to describe turbulence caused by frequent or sudden changes (Baran
& Woznyj, 2021). The VUCA concept guides organizations on how to deal with the impact of
disruption with agility. Baran and Woznyj (2021) describe agility as constantly being aware of
the organization’s environment and its stakeholders, enabling swift identification and resolution
of possible risks or opportunities. Education institutions require accurate and timely information
for agile, data-driven decisions and solution generation.
Research on post-secondary school choice has been quantitative and focused on the
United States and European countries. This study attempts to provide in-depth information on the
post-secondary school choice process of Filipino students and their parents or guardians. The
next chapter will discuss the relevant literature on influences on students' and their parents'
decision-making process and school choice. It will explain the historical and cultural influences
of the Philippine education system, the current state of the education system's influences on the
educational decision-making process, and the theoretical framework for this study.

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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This chapter will introduce the Philippines and explain the historical influences of
colonization by the Spanish, Americans, and Japanese. The nearly 400 years of colonization left
a lasting impact on Filipino culture and the present Philippine education system. These
characteristics of the culture and education system will provide insight into Filipino students'
mental process of university choice as influenced by their parents, peers, and non-parental adult
support system through the lenses of the Rational Choice Theory and Social Capital Theory.
Research on university choice in the Philippines is limited and is therefore supplemented by
international publications.
The Philippine Education System
The Philippines is a sovereign state located in Southeast Asia and was named after Prince
Philip of Spain by Roy Lopez de Villalobos during his expedition to the islands in the 1500s
(Republika ng Pilipinas, 2023). Lying on the western Pacific Ocean and bounded by the South
China Sea and the Pacific Ocean, it is in closest proximity to the countries of Taiwan, Vietnam,
and Indonesia. The archipelago comprises 7,641 islands scattered across the three main island
regions of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its capital, Manila, is located in the northernmost
region of Luzon and is the center of government and economy. The Philippines' strategic
location as an entry point from the Pacific to the rest of Asia and its coastal topography
facilitated established sea routes for commerce and migration (Zaide, G. F., 1949). However, the
fragmented nature of the island nation and its consequential geographic isolation resulted in a
regional mentality and multiple tribal, ethnic, and linguistic groups (Boquet, 2017). Boquet
(2017) also noted that the physical separation between the islands, the absence of a central
government, and its long coastline made it difficult to protect, and, as a result, it was easier for

26
the Spanish, American, and later the Japanese to take control of the Philippines. The Philippines'
unique location and geography and the influence of its three colonizers largely influenced
language, religion, government structures, and the education system.
Historical Influences on the Philippine Education System
According to the noted Filipino historian Gregorio Zaide, prior to the arrival of the
Spanish, who controlled the islands for 333 years, the islands were inhabited through waves of
migration by people of Malay, Indochina, and Austronesian descent (Zaide, G. F., 1949). Trade
was established with neighboring Arab, Chinese, and Malay countries. Their influences were
evident in the language, traditions, cuisine, documents, and household artifacts found throughout
the Philippines; new ideas, beliefs, and practices accompanied trade and commerce.
Geographical isolation hindered the development of a national language. Instead, regional
dialects developed and were influenced by migration and trade relations. Zaide (1949) noted that
about 25% of the Tagalog language, widely spoken in Luzon, is derived from Sanskrit words.
Tagalog is the foundation for Filipino, the Philippines' national language. Today, the Komisyon
sa Wikang Filipino (Commission on Filipino Language) identifies 137 languages spoken in the
Philippines through its Atlas Filipinas map (Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino, 1987). Philippine
society is patriarchal, and people were organized into government units called barangays, led by
chiefs or datus. These barangays were built on kinship ties and blood compacts. The kinship
system extended to education, where knowledge was passed on from generation to generation
(Rodriguez, 2022). Early in the Philippines' history, education was informal and unstructured,
and the responsibility of parents and assigned tribal tutors (Historical Perspective of the
Philippine Educational System, n.d.). Instruction was a mixture of academic and vocational
training, depending on the roles the children would assume in the community. For example, men

27
were trained as fighters, hunters, farmers, or sailors (Zaide, G. F., 1949). Cultural practices were
passed down from generation to generation through oral tradition and writing systems or
syllabaries unique to an area or locality (Francia, 2010).
Filipinos experienced a transition from predominantly Asian to a more Western or
European influence on their culture and traditions when Ferdinand Magellan claimed the "Islas
Filipinas'' as a colony of Spain in 1521. Spain's colonization of the Philippines brought about the
islands' unification and a shift to a more structured and centralized form of administration and
governance. Miguel Lopez de Legaspi established the first Spanish settlement in Cebu in 1565
and, after conquering neighboring islands, renamed it the Philippines in 1565. Manila was
established as the capital in 1571 (Boquet, 2017). Geography continued to influence the
administration of the colony, with Manila at the core of concentric circles of declining power
(Slack, 2014). The islands of Mindanao, furthest from the capital, remained largely autonomous
and retained their Muslim character. "Education was an essential component of the colonial
state's primary aim in the archipelago: the spread of Catholicism'' (Hardacker, 2012, p. 8).
Because of this, Catholic religious orders, the Jesuits, Dominicans, Augustinians, and Recollects,
were made responsible for the foundation and administration of schools. Hardacker (2012) stated
that by the end of the 16th century, these religious orders had built over 1000 schools and,
together with churches, were established alongside local governments. These schools were
central to community life and taught the four R's: religion, reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Although it was decreed that instruction be conducted in Spanish, friars found teaching in the
local dialect more effective. Zwaenepoel (1975) argued that this was a way for friars to maintain
their control over the masses by not teaching them how to speak or read in Spanish. Zwaenepoel
(1975) notes that when the Americans took over after 300 years of Spanish colonization, less

28
than 5% of the population spoke Spanish; they were mostly part of the Filipino elite and those
who lived in the major cities where Spanish government officials lived. The Educational Decree
of 1863 was passed, requiring the establishment of public schools in each municipality.
Education was not mandatory and was usually reserved for those who could afford school fees.
This law marked a shift from religious (unregulated) to public control of the education system.
Hardacker (2012) stated that the decree created the systemwide classification and administration
of schools, supervision and inspections, training, and qualifications of teachers, which was all
overseen by the Superior Commission of Primary (Public) Instruction. Once again, because of
the archipelagic nature of the Philippines and the lack of government resources, many of these
provisions were not enforced and remained only on paper. This law resulted in a growth in the
number of schools, over 2000 when the Americans arrived in 1898, but not in the quality of
instruction. Tertiary education expanded by the 1870s with the establishment of new colleges in
Manila for professions, such as medicine and pharmacy, albeit catering to the younger elite
population (Kramer, 2006). Many of these elite Principalia, the noble ruling class, had the
opportunity to study at European universities and "reimagine themselves and the Philippines in a
global context" (Kramer, 2006, p. 48). A significant outcome of Spanish education in the
Philippines was that the initial intent of education, that is, to be used as a tool for subjugation,
resulted in the unintentional creation of a group of empowered and enlightened individuals who
pioneered the nationalist movement (Molina, 1960; Zwaenepoel, 1975).
The American Education Model
The Spanish ruled the islands until the end of the Spanish-American war in 1898. The
United States (U.S.) took control of the government from 1898 to 1942. The U.S. set out to
counter the effects of the Spanish occupation and the Catholic Church by Americanizing

29
education, democratizing and secularizing public schools with American English as the language
of instruction, and adopting the benevolent assimilation policy (Rafael, 2018). Benevolent
assimilation was an attempt to win the confidence of the Filipino people by assuring them of
their rights once they allowed the United States to take power. In order to further this colonial
counterinsurgency, new private, parochial schools and the University of the Philippines were
established in 1908 under the watchful eye of the Americans. A guidepost in the first years of the
American occupation was the commitment to providing free and universal primary education
(Hunt & McHale, 1965). To address the shortage of teachers that followed, the Thomasites, a
group of 600 teachers, were brought to the Philippines from the United States by the Philippine
Commission. Many existing private and public tertiary-level institutions operating today were
founded during the American colonial period through the Education Act of 1901.
Standardization and systematization through education policies were accompanied by the
implementation of a bureaucratic structure reflecting the central tendencies of U.S. schools
(Estioko, 1994; McCoy & Scarano, 2009). Estoiko (1994) described a central office in Manila,
the Department of Public Instruction that set up a three-level system of schools: a seven-year
elementary division, a four-year high school, and a tertiary division. The department was in
charge of organizing and supervising all industrial training and assigning industrial supervisors
to visit schools in the provinces and instruct and assist teachers. This era was characterized by
the industrialization of education (McCoy & Scarano, 2009). Although the curriculum included
subjects for literary instruction, a large portion of daily lessons were dedicated to industrial or
vocational classes that taught pupils to do and make "serviceable and saleable things…(that
would) add to their future earning power" (p. 153). McCoy and Scarano further emphasized that
commercialization was the primary goal of the education system, and standardization (to ensure

30
quality control) was its mantra. During the first 25 years of American occupation, the number of
students enrolled in Philippine schools increased from 160,000 to 1,200,000. According to the
Survey of the Education System of the Philippine Islands conducted in 1925, the number of
teachers rose from 4,000 to 27,000. In 1925, the Monroe Commission was tasked to review the
Philippine education system (McCoy & Scarano, 2009; Rodriguez, 2022). It recommended a
curtailment of the industrial curriculum, eliminated the General Sales Department, and further
improved the education system when it created a policy to raise instruction to a more
pedagogical plane and adapt educational materials to Philippine life. The Western world was
now viewed as a center of prestige, and English was established as the principal language of
education, government, and commerce (Hunt & McHale, 1965). The effect of this American
influence on the Filipino mentality was so ingrained that the Philippines became the third-largest
English-speaking nation in the world (deGuzman, 2003). Filipinos were introduced to the idea of
educational achievement as a foundation for societal hierarchy, indicating that a college degree
was a necessary validation of rank for the rich and a means to access economic opportunities for
the poor. The downside to mass literacy and high rates of college attendance, according to Hunt
& McHale (1965), was the degradation of the quality of education and the weakening of
standards of instruction.
Japanese Influences on Education
The Japanese occupation of the Philippines during World War II, from 1942 to 1945, was
justified as a means to end Western colonialism in solidarity with Asian people (Abinales &
Amoroso, 2017). Propaganda was circulated with slogans such as "Asia for the Asiatics" or
"Philippines for the Filipinos" (Zaide, S. M., 2006). Education was used to achieve military
order, and the Japanese language, Nihongo, was required to be taught in schools (Rodriguez,

31
2022) and included in civil service examinations (Zaide, S. M., 2006). The Ministry of Education
was established in 1943 and instituted the teaching of Tagalog, Philippine History, and character
education. (Musa & Ziatdinov, 2012). The Spanish, American, and Japanese influence on the
Philippine education system is still evident in the practices and philosophical systems of one of
the largest school systems in the world (deGuzman, 2003).
Role of Government in Education
Building on these colonial legacies to meet society's needs, the government has made
great strides in education reform. This was evident in the 1987 Constitution, which declared
quality and accessible education a right for all Filipino citizens. The Constitution also established
a free public education system at the elementary and high school levels through the Department
of Education, Culture, and Sports (Official Gazette, 1987).
Governance, Regulatory Structure, and Accountability
Since colonization by the Americans, education governance has mainly remained
centralized, with a single department responsible for all levels of education. As shown in Figure
2, one of the most impactful changes by the government for education reform was the
trifocalization of the education system into three governing bodies in 1994, as recommended by
the Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) (Commission on Higher Education,
2023). Congress passed Republic Acts 7722 and 7796, establishing the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)
(Department of Education, 2023). The trifocal education system refocused the Department of
Education's mandate to elementary, secondary, and nonformal education. TESDA was
responsible for the post-secondary middle-level technical-vocational training and development,
and CHED for tertiary and graduate education (Estrada, 2000).

32
CHED's primary function is regulating private and public higher education institutions
(HEIs). The first regulatory responsibility assigned to CHED is to formulate the policies,
standards, and guidelines (PSGs) that direct HEIs to ensure compliance with the prescribed
minimum requirements set by the subject-matter experts on technical panels for each program.
Second, it is tasked with monitoring compliance with the PSGs. Third, it is the only authority to
grant government recognition of academic programs, the provision of which is based on
compliance with PSGs. CHED partners with the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC),
which monitors programs and grants professional licenses to tertiary education graduates and a
few non-baccalaureate programs upon passing a licensure examination.
Administration and management remain the responsibility of private HEIs. State
Universities and Colleges (SUCs), Local Universities and Colleges (LUCs), and CHED
Supervised Institutions (CSIs) represent the public higher education sector. They are supervised
by individual governing boards led by the CHED Chairman and are composed of congressional
representatives, regional technical representatives, faculty, students, and alumni. Governing
boards are given institutional autonomy to receive and appropriate all income, set school fees,
appoint staff and determine salaries, approve programs, and establish research centers.

33
Figure 2
Education Governance: The Trifocal Education System
Education System Reform
Before the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, the Philippines was the only ASEAN
country requiring only ten years of primary and secondary education. In anticipation of the
ASEAN Economic Integration 2015 (Department of Education, 2019) and its accompanying
ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework (AQRF), which sought to enable comparisons of
education qualifications across participating ASEAN Member States (ASEAN, 2015), and the
resulting Philippine Qualifications Framework, significant reforms to the Philippine education
system were introduced beginning with the Kindergarten Education Act of 2012, mandating
kindergarten for all learners. The Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 added two years of
senior high school (SHS) to the previous 10-year basic education cycle to prepare high school
students for college education, technical-vocational employment, careers in the creative arts, or
sports. Figure 3 provides an overview of how the current education system in the Philippines is

34
organized. These reforms now placed the Philippine education system at par with its ASEAN
neighbors (Alonzo, 2015).
Figure 3
Overview of the Philippine Education System
Enrollment
To support these initiatives, the World Bank (2020) reported that public investment in
primary education increased multifold by way of schools, classrooms, and teacher numbers. The
net effect of public spending and system reforms resulted in increased enrollment and nearuniversal completion rates (World Bank, 2020). The World Bank report further stated that more
than 80% of 5-year-old children attend kindergarten classes, enrollment in junior high school
(JHS) grades is above 90%, and enrollment in SHS grades is expected to increase from its 2019
rate of 64%. Enrollment rates in primary education grew from 23.5 million students in 2012 to
25 million in 2017 and 26.2 million in 2022 (Department of Education, 2022; Philippine

35
Statistics Authority, 2021). This increase was due primarily to the addition of senior high school
levels 11 and 12, with numbers for K-10 showing only slight changes year on year (Philippine
Statistics Authority, 2021). Data from the Philippine Statistical Yearbook 2021 showed an
increase in tertiary enrollment from 3.3 million students in 2012 to 3.6 million in 2020
(Philippine Statistics Authority, 2021). The top three disciplines with the highest number of
enrolled students and graduates were business administration, education and teacher training, and
engineering. Information technology and health allied sciences ranked fourth and fifth,
respectively. Despite these increases, the data indicates that only 68.3% of school-aged children
(three to 24 years), approximately 40 million, attended school (Philippine Statistics Authority,
2021). Of these, 76.2% were attending grades K-10, 11.8% were in senior high school, 0.5 some
post-secondary education, and 11.3% were enrolled in college (World Bank, 2019). The most
common reasons for not attending school were employment, marriage, and the high cost of
education.
Current State of Philippine Education
In 1994, the most common conclusions from multiple studies conducted on the state of
Philippine education were that education quality had decreased, the regulatory system was too
bureaucratic and corrupt, education had become a privilege and not a right, it reflected colonial
influences, and teachers must be better trained and paid more (Estioko, 1994). Estioko (1994)
further asserted that the state of Philippine education had stayed the same since the report
presented by Carlos P. Romulo, Pulitzer Prize winner for Peace and former president of the U.N.
General Assembly, at the 1976 Educators Congress. The present outlook of the education system
does not seem to have improved, as Reyes, Hamid, & Hardy (2022), examining the effect of
attempts at educational reform, state that the

36
Philippine education system is beleaguered by debilitating challenges, including rising
dropout rates and out-of-school rates, worsening teacher shortages, and a chronic lack of
resources..., the system is weighed down by an organizational structure that can be
described as a dysfunctional bureaucracy…, this situation is further exacerbated by
systemic corruption (Reyes et al., 2022, p. 331).
They further asserted that the current version of the revised education policy is, in reality, the
outcome of negotiations between various stakeholders advocating for their agendas.
In a 2022 report on learning poverty, an indicator launched by the World Bank and
UNESCO (World Bank, 2019) defined as the ability to read and understand age-appropriate text
by age 10; the Philippines scored 90.9% (World Bank, 2022). This score means nine out of 10
Filipino 10-year-olds cannot read simple texts. This extremely high learning poverty percentage
means that the education system has yet to produce learning despite improvements in learning
access. A World Bank (2018) report noted that the first step to improving learning is to provide
reliable indicators for monitoring whether or not learning is delivered. The Philippines has
exhibited the need to assess the outcome of its education systems. The assessment used as the
basis of the learning poverty score was the 2019 Southeast Asia Primary Learning Metrics (SEAPLM) regional assessment that tested grade 5 children in reading, writing, mathematics, and
global citizenship (UNICEF & SEAMEO, 2021). The Philippines scored among the lowest in
reading, 288 points, below the six-country average of 300 points. The country participated in the
Trends in International Mathematics Study (TIMSS), ranking among the lowest in 2003, and in
the 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where it scored the lowest in
reading among the 79 participating countries. The PISA report indicated that over 80% of
participants in the Philippines still need to reach the minimum proficiency in reading. Learning

37
outcomes, as measured by the National Achievement Test (NAT), were stagnant over time or, at
best, exhibited minor improvements despite advances in access and output. Critical thinking
appears to need the most improvement in primary and secondary levels of education. The
Philippines is in what is described by the World Bank as a learning crisis, where participation
rates are high, but learning and acquiring the foundational skills they need is poor (World Bank,
2019).
Number of Institutions
Data on the number of primary, secondary, and tertiary institutions was sourced from the
Philippine Statistical Yearbook 2021 (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2021). The total number of
public schools (elementary and secondary) increased by 18.4% from 2010 to 2017, primarily due
to the doubling of public secondary schools. Of the 77,196 primary and secondary schools in
2017, seventy percent were public. The increase in the number of schools in 2017 addressed the
lack of classrooms and school facilities and reduced the percentage of schools operating multiple
shifts. While average class sizes are within the generally accepted norm of 30-40 students per
class across the primary education system, many schools, especially in urban areas, continue to
have very large numbers of students in a class. The proportions of public versus private schools
remained the same in 2021, with the total increasing only by 1% to 78,316. Despite the 1.6
million increase in students from 2017 to 2022, only 1,120 net additional schools were available
to accommodate them; 2,122 new public schools were built or converted, while 1002 private
schools closed.
Higher education data presented by CHED (Commission on Higher Education, 2020)
from 2012 to 2019 shows an increase in HEIs from 2313 to 2396, to which 77 new private
schools contributed to the 3% increase. The sharp increase in the number of public schools from

38
607 in 2009 to a peak of 686 in 2016 is worth noting. The increase in the number of public
institutions results from the political influence on Congress and local governments, creating
SUCs and LUCs to provide their constituents access to local, degree-granting institutions for
very low or no fees heavily subsidized by the government (Macasaet, 2013). Macasaet (2013)
further noted that the quality of these institutions varied greatly. The lower end of the spectrum
were secondary schools that had been converted with little regard to what was needed to properly
equip them to operate as a proper college or university.
To address the access gaps in primary education and congestion due to the shortage of
public schools, classrooms, and facilities due to the enforcement of the additional two years of
senior high school, the government engaged the private sector through public-private partnership
programs such as the Educational Service Contracting (ESC) Program (World Bank, 2020). For
basic levels, programs such as the senior high school voucher program, in which the voucher
could be used in their senior high school of choice, were initiated. The Tertiary Education
Subsidy (TES) program was made available to college students.
Colonial Influences on Filipino Culture and the Family
The effects of the Spanish, American, and Japanese colonization on modern Filipino
culture were significant. Philippine nationalistic writings as early as the anti-Spanish revolution
and one well into the American Revolution discussed the manipulation and control of knowledge
and language and colonial exploitation, resulting in an ingrained Filipino colonial mindset
(Demeterio, 2008). Demetrio (2008) examined the work of Frantz Fanon, who wrote about the
inferiorization of the colonized psyche. Today, colonialism is covered up by modernity,
globalization, and global competitiveness (Rodriguez, 2022), but remains evident in higher
education and labor policy (Eder, 2016).

39
The colonial Spanish education system's primary purpose was "religious indoctrination
and the sanctification of the status quo" (Hunt & McHale, 1965, p.72). According to the 2020
Philippine census, 78.8% of Filipinos identify as Roman Catholic (Philippine Statistics
Authority, 2021). Catholicism emphasizes the importance of family relationships and respect for
authority and elders (Rubio, 2010). Religious orders or congregations established the first
schools and universities, deepening Christian doctrine and beliefs (Musa & Ziatdinov, 2012).
The religious and patriarchal education system institutionalized by the Spanish also taught
Filipinos that social mobility could be achieved through education and continues through to the
present. The Spanish indirectly espoused the Western world as a center of prestige (Hunt &
McHale, 1965).
The effects of American colonization are evidenced by the widespread use of the English
language in education, government, and industry, emulation of the Western lifestyle, and the
preference for Eurocentric features such as lighter skin (David & Nadal, 2013; Hunt & McHale,
1965). Of the three, Americans had the most significant influence on the present Philippine
education system, serving as its prototype (Musa & Ziatdinov, 2012). The attitude toward work
and its rewards were promoted (Hunt & McHale, 1965). In the early 1900s, a U.S. labor shortage
prompted the recruitment of Filipinos to its agricultural sector (Rafael, 2018). The present labor
migration system is rooted in this colonial system (Eder, 2016).
Finally, the Japanese stressed the importance of being dedicated to one's work and the
dignity of labor (Musa & Ziatdinov, 2012). This period was characterized by anti-Western
sentiment and love for country. This period furthered the proliferation of primary and vocational
education.

40
The overlapping histories of its three colonizers have made the Philippines a hybrid of
sorts. The effect of their cultures and their influences persist to this day. Applied to the context of
education, colonialism is a double-edged sword, bringing with it both progress and the
persistence of inequities (Rafael, 2018).
Socioeconomic Context of Education in the Philippines
In the Philippines, education is an essential validation of rank for the upper class and a
key access point to economic opportunities for Filipinos with less privileged backgrounds (Hunt
& McHale, 1965). In reviewing the data, however, it is evident that present education outcomes
reflect socioeconomic status instead of serving as an equalizer (Orbeta & Paqueo, 2022). The
disparity of educational attainment between each income class's proportion of Filipinos aged 24
or older is quite significant, as low-income households often have many children who are put to
work at an early age to supplement the family income (Albert et al., 2018). Higher education
levels are accompanied by higher opportunity costs, especially for people experiencing poverty,
who may need to spend their time providing for their families. Data from the 2018 Family
Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES) conducted by the Philippine Statistics Authority reported
that the bottom 30% of the population spends 1.5% of their income on education, compared to
2.8% for the upper 70%. Overall, there has been a decrease of 1.2% in spending on education
since the last report in 2015 (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2020).
In a paper prepared for the Philippine Institute for Developmental Studies (PIDS), Albert
et al. (2018) looked at the profile of middle-class families in the Philippines. The report
described the socioeconomic context of education in the Philippines and its role in
socioeconomic development. Countries with a larger middle class tend to have more significant
economic growth, foster new entrepreneurs, and value human capital highly. Middle-class status

41
is defined based on per capita income, reflecting those between two and twelve times the official
poverty line, who live in urban areas, are of working age, and are employed in stable jobs. The
PIDS report posits the following: (a) the middle class places a higher value on their children's
education, exhibited by higher attendance rates and higher educational expenditure; (b) as
income rises among Filipino families, the share of food to total expenditures declines, which
allows them to spend more on human capital development, (c) the higher educational attainment
of those from the middle-income families clearly explains the higher share of middle-income
workers in better quality jobs (Albert et al., 2018, pp. 20–21). It was also stated that Overseas
Filipino Workers (OFWs) predominantly belong to middle-income families (73%). The
relevance of labor migration to the Philippine education system is discussed in the subsequent
section.
The Influence of Local and International Labor Markets on Migration
In 1974, overseas employment was entered into the Labor Code of the Philippines as a
temporary measure to address rising unemployment and decreasing foreign reserves
(OECD/Scalabrini Migration Center, 2017). Since the deployment of 36,000 workers in 1975,
the Philippine Overseas Employment Agency recently estimated that in 2021, 1.83 million
Filipino workers were employed abroad (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2021). In a Philippine
Statistics Authority (PSA) survey of OFWs in 2021, most workers were women (64.8%)
employed in elementary occupations performing simple and routine tasks, and males employed
as machine operators (31.2%) (Mapa, 2022). Associate professionals, professionals, and
managers comprised 38% of total OFWs. Workers were primarily located in Asia (78.3%),
Europe (9.3%), and the Americas (8.9%). Total remittances sent back to the Philippines in 2021
reached 151.33 billion pesos or 2.9 billion dollars, a significant contribution to the economy

42
(OECD/Scalabrini Migration Center, 2017; Yang, 2008). These numbers resulted in and are a
result of one of the most advanced institutionalized procedures for worker out-migration (Eder,
2016).
The Philippine worker migration system has received both criticism and praise from
various sectors. The loss of skilled workers to overseas companies has raised concerns among
local industries as the Philippines has become the "trainer of the world," mainly focusing on the
export policy on health professionals' "brain drain" and the inadvertent role of the Commission
on Higher Education in perpetuating coloniality by articulating education policy and skills
development on international standards and producing well-trained and cheap labor for wealthier
countries (Eder, 2016). However, an OECD report countered this by stating that migration is
valued as a means of promoting family well-being and that brain drain can be countered by the
education system's ability to produce replacements for departing workers (OECD/Scalabrini
Migration Center, 2017). The primary reason cited by migrants for deciding to work overseas is
the lack of employment opportunities at home, with the top motivation being to send money back
to their families (OECD/Scalabrini Migration Center, 2017). According to the OECD, there is an
oversupply of workers with general skills, hinting at a mismatch between the labor market and
education that needs to be addressed. The IPPMD (Interrelations between Public Policies,
Migration, and Development) Philippines survey conducted by the OECD (2017) found that
individuals who are highly educated are more likely to emigrate; on school attendance, there is a
positive correlation between migration and the decision to seek education; and that remittances
provide a source of funding for investing in private education for their children.

43
Influences on Educational Decision-Making
Student college choice is a process that involves students first choosing to proceed with
post-secondary education and then deciding which college or university to attend (Hossler &
Stage, 1992). Hossler describes four models developed to explain the process: econometric,
consumer, sociological, and combined (Hossler & Stage, 1992). The econometric model
considers expected direct and indirect costs, the benefits of future income, and the characteristics
of student background, high school, and college. Consumer models view choice from the
perspective of risks and costs that include four stages: (a) the development of the initial interest
in college, (b) information gathering, (c) narrowing down the choices to a particular set, and (d)
the choice of one post-secondary institution over another. Sociological models are concerned
with status attainment and the desire to attend college. This process involves influences such as
academic performance, socioeconomic status, parental educational aspirations, and the influence
of significant others such as parents (family), peers, and teachers. The following section
examines the influence of significant others on college choice.
Family
The family is the most basic social unit, the center of an individual's social world
(Bartolome et al., 2017; Morillo et al., 2013). The Filipino family is unique in that it shares
common values such as being family and child-centric, reciprocal close ties, and the recognition
of a large extended family. A Filipino family consists of a household head, spouse, unmarried
children, ever-married children, son-in-law or daughter-in-law, parents of the head or spouse,
and other relatives who are members of the household (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2020).
Filipinos have a predominantly collectivist culture, exhibiting inseparable ties between the self
and the other in the concept of kapwa (Reyes & Resurrection, 2015). Kapwa are people with

44
whom one has forged meaningful links through blood, affinity, coexistence, and shared
experiences. Mag-anak is another Filipino concept of family that includes parents, children,
parental, conjugal, and affinal kin. The family is responsible for the young members'
socialization and thus plays a significant role in formation and education. Morillo (2013)
explained that when extra-familial social processes impact a member of the family, the entire
family is impacted as well, influenced by the dynamics of a group's relational system and other
influences such as migration and globalization. Filipino parenting is authoritarian, characterized
by respect for authority, obedience, family cohesion, and meeting familial obligations
(Bartolome et al., 2017). A study of family views and values posits absolute love for parents
despite their defects and that the demands parents place on them are for the benefit of themselves
and their families (Morillo et al., 2013; Reyes & Resurreccion, 2015).
As with other cultures, Filipino parents want the best for their children and believe that
education is crucial to their success, actively involving themselves in their child's schooling
(Bartolome et al., 2017). In a study on influences on post-secondary plans of a group of 9thgrade students in the United States, parents' expectations exerted the strongest influence, with
parents' education, gender, high school GPA, and high school experiences contributing
significantly (Hossler & Stage, 1992). In the Hossler (1992) consumer model, parental and peer
expectations are most influential in the non-monetary need arousal and information-gathering
stages. A Philippine Youth Education Investment and Labor Market Outcomes Survey
(YEILMOS) conducted in 2017 found that parents, guardians, and key family members were the
primary sources of information when making education and career investment decisions (Asian
Development Bank, 2019). In the survey, students and parents identify immediate family
members and social circles as primary influencers in educational decisions and career planning

45
discussions. Parents took into account the skills and interests of their children. The child’s
personal preference outweighed employment outcomes and the availability of external financial
aid. The wealth of literature on college or university access and choice supports the critical role
of parental involvement as an essential determinant of university attendance, retention, and
completion variation.
Peers
As noted above, both students and parents identify social circles as a primary influencer
in discussions of educational decisions and career planning (Asian Development Bank, 2019).
Studies conducted in the Netherlands, Russia, China, Sweden, and the Philippines confirmed a
strong peer influence on school choice, with differing outcomes. A study of Swedish primary
school students concluded that there is an inverse relationship with peers, wherein students with
high-achieving classmates were less likely to make a high-aspiring choice of a secondary school,
presenting a social-contrast effect in their depression of their own abilities in comparison to their
high-achieving peers (Jonsson & Mood, 2008). Research conducted by Mouganie & Wang
(2020) with high-performing female STEM students in China found that they were positively
affected by other high-performing female students, encouraged to pursue a science track in
college and are more likely to attend a 4-year university and a top-tier university, while a higher
number of top-performing male peers had the opposite effect. Negative gender stereotypes are
prevalent in Chinese culture, with the belief that men are better than women. Therefore, this
outcome may be explained by "exposure to high-performing peers of the same gender may
update girls' beliefs about their mathematical ability, mitigating the effects of negative gender
stereotypes" (Mouganie & Wang, 2020, p. 836). This study found that women, as a smaller
proportion of STEM students, were influenced by same-sex peers, strengthening the importance

46
of role models in eliminating stereotype bias. A study of Russian secondary-level students
viewed peers and teachers as sources of motivation, possibly because classes enrolled the same
students from primary to secondary school, producing long-term relationships (Hoferichter et al.,
2019). In comparison, Filipino students did not view teachers as a motivational source but were
motivated by their peer group (Hoferichter et al., 2019). True to their collectivist nature, students
learned to be selfless among their peers, put the group's needs before their own, and provide the
opportunity to achieve optimum development. As evidenced by these four cases, peer influence
is highly contextual. Each student is immersed in a social context and highlights the cultural
aspect that dictates the roles of peers, teachers, and parents for students (Hoferichter et al., 2019).
Very Important Non-Parental Adults (VINAs)
As children transition into adolescence, they seek out and develop deeper relationships
with their peers and other adults in their extended social network (Beam et al., 2002). These
Very Important Non-parental Adults (VINAs), sometimes kin and sometimes non-kin (i.e.,
teachers, counselors, school administrators, mentors, pastors, and friends of the family), are a
typically occurring component of adolescent development and are essential to their psychosocial
adjustment and can help adolescents in challenging conditions (Beam et al., 2002; Chang et al.,
2010). In a study by Chang et al. (2010), 56% of Asian Americans identified a kin VINA, similar
to 55% of Americans of European descent. Beam et al. (2002) reported that VINAs helped
participants by providing emotional support, showing them respect, supporting activities, and
having someone to talk to, which reflected activities or support not provided by parents or peers.
The Chang et al. (2010) study confirmed that most VINAs fostered social capital and
educational attainment, significantly influencing educational expectations and academic
achievement. Positive shifts in educational expectations were substantially correlated with the

47
non-kin VINAs' educational attainment. Adolescents with a VINA present in their lives have
higher levels of academic adjustment, including positive academic attitudes about school,
motivation, academic self-confidence, consistent school attendance, and higher academic
achievement (Sterrett et al., 2011). VINAs with higher educational attainment are more likely to
encourage and inspire their mentees to further their education, enabling a higher probability of
finishing high school, attending college, and staying employed (Chang et al., 2010).
Rational Choice Theory and Social Capital Theory
This study will be guided by the Rational Choice Theory (RCT) and Social Capital
Theory (SCT). Considerations of the costs and benefits, as well as socio-cultural elements, affect
a person's decision to enroll in an HEI (Perna & Titus, 2005). Rational Action Theory is
individualistic (Boudon, 2003; Wittek, 2013). Filipinos are individualistic collectivists, meaning
that they will put the needs of their family before the needs of others. Filipinos often exhibit crab
mentality, when envy of another person's success may lead to committing hostile acts to bring
them down, like crabs pulling other crabs back into a bucket as they attempt to escape (Billote et
al., 2021). Social Capital Theory recognizes race-dependent parental social networks as a
resource that furthers enrollment in post-secondary education (Perna & Titus, 2005) and are
“information channels that promote positive action” (Day & Dotterer, 2020, p. 817). In the
Philippines, where race is not a significant influence, race may be represented by a family’s
socioeconomic status.
Rational Choice Theory
The Rational Choice Theory (RCT) is also known as the Rational Action Theory and
Choice Theory. To be rational, as defined by the American Psychological Association dictionary,
is based on principles of reasoning or logic versus emotion (American Psychological

48
Association, 2023). Based on writings of moral philosophers such as Adam Smith, the theory
suggests that individuals make decisions based on rational calculations of costs and benefits that
are most congruent to their personal preferences or self-interests and on outcomes that are most
favorable to them based on normative beliefs (Berends, 2019; Boudon, 2003; Wittek, 2013).
Individuals act rationally by ranking their choices methodically from most to least desirable
(Berends, 2019). Boudon (2003) described RCT in general axioms, stating that it is individualist,
can be understood, rational, and a consequence of one's actions, and the action chosen brings the
most favorable balance. Critics of the more commonly known version of RCT argue that it
oversimplifies decision-making and does not consider real-world agents (Fumagalli, 2020).
Because of this, a version of RCT was developed that assumed that individual behavior is
motivated by social preferences or a concern for the well-being of others, a structural
individualism (Wittek, 2013).
Rational Choice Theory suggests that parents select an educational institution that will
provide their children with the best education; parents can demand quality education as they are
utility maximizers with specific value preferences (Berends, 2019). The RCT model presented by
Breen & Goldthorpe (1997) focused on the rational actions employed by students and parents by
evaluating the costs and benefits of educational options and the perceived probabilities of a
successful outcome (Breen & Goldthorpe, 1997). It does not consider cultural or normative
differences involved in the decision-making process. The model presented applies in principle to
the decisions made throughout the child's educational career and considers costs, the likelihood
of success, and the value attached to the outcome. Breen and Goldthorpe (1997) examined the
mechanisms of choice affecting class differentials in terms of maximizing social mobility or
acquiring a class position as advantageous or more from where they originate, student ability,

49
and resources available but can also be applied to other situations informing educational
decisions. Breen & Goldthorpe (1997) postulate that rational considerations are the main, but not
the only, common influence that affects educational choices.
Social Capital Theory
While RCT successfully explains choice, it does not explicitly consider external forces
acting upon an individual, such as family expectations, cultural beliefs, and social phenomena
(Boudon, 2003). Social capital refers to the relationships between people and institutions and the
associated norms that affect the quality and quantity of social interactions and sanctions that
provide resources for achieving specific goals (Berends, 2019). It revolves around the three
dimensions of social ties, the trust within them, and the benefits and resources resulting from
those ties that can be gained or transferred through social participation (britannica.com). There
are two schools of Social Capital Theory (SCT) postulated by Bourdieu and Coleman (Rogosic
& Baranovic, 2016). Bourdieu (as cited in Rogosic & Baranovic, 2016) suggested that an
individual can use their relationship with others to achieve a goal, focusing more on
socioeconomic status and cultural capital, which the family is a part of. Coleman specifically
defines social capital as the quality of the relationship in the family and the family in the
community, considering the family's structure (Coleman, 1988). The community includes social
networks accessible to the individual as part of an organization such as an educational institution.
Applying SCT to educational choice involves the influence of students' and parents'
social networks and socioeconomic status on the educational decision-making process (Berends,
2019). Families access information about educational institutions through informal sources and
rely on social capital (e.g. family members, VINAs, acquaintances working at or who have
children enrolled at the school) (Termes et al., 2020). Sociological theories in education are

50
derived from status attainment research (Hossler & Stage, 1992). They focus on the aspirational
influence of the desire to attend college and its accompanying prestige or status. In the
Philippines, academic performance and the family's socioeconomic status are typically predicted
to jointly positively affect aspirations to pursue post-secondary education (Orbeta & Paqueo,
2022), and the lack of economic and cultural capital contributes to the lack of college readiness
(Pagulayan et al., 2021). This study sought to understand students' and their parents' decisionmaking process or university choice through the lens of RCT and SCT. Figure 4 depicts the
decision-making framework used in this study, showing how the influences of rational choice
and social capital feed into the decision-making process of influencers and, ultimately, the
student. It operates under the assumption that parents and guardians, being the closest, have a
more substantial influence on the student than the other groups.
Figure 4
RC-SC Decision-making Framework for Influences on School Choice

51
Conclusion
The Philippines’ history of colonization has had a profound effect on the Filipino culture
and psyche. The Philippine education system is a product of Spanish, American, and Japanese
influences that have been adapted to suit the requirements of Filipinos. Eurocentricity, or the
need to live up to the standards of the Western world, may be aspirational if one possesses the
resources and discouraging if one does not. This colonial context of the family in society,
education, government, labor, and labor migration, in conjunction with the rational choice and
social capital theories, formed the framework for this study and was used to guide data collection
and interpretation in the succeeding chapters.

52
Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to examine the decision-making process of students and
parents and to understand the influences on their choice of a post-secondary institution in the
Philippines. Several publications both locally and internationally were written on the topic of
school choice and the influences that contribute to matriculation at all three levels of education
(Daniel & Watermann, 2018; Daway-Ducanes et al., 2022; Liu, 2019; Springer et al., 2019;
Zwier et al., 2022), as well as the influence parents had on that decision (Gao & Ng, 2017;
Hossler & Stage, 1992). In 2019, a survey was conducted on students and adults by the Asian
Development Bank with the support of the Philippine Department of Education to generate
baseline data on how primary students and their parents made educational decisions, what
information households and students needed, what they found the most influential, and which
were most frequently utilized (Asian Development Bank, 2019). These findings provided the
foundational knowledge for this study, which attempted to gain more insight into the university
choice process. The questions that guided this study were as follows:
1. How do students enrolled in LCPSUs and their parents choose a college or university?
2. What are the issues that influence their decision to matriculate?
A mixed-method constructivist approach was employed to gain an in-depth
understanding of participants’ actions. This approach aimed to understand how students’ and
parents’ context, experience, perceptions, and social constructs drove the decision-making
process (Lester & Lochmiller, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The intention was to gather data
to understand the influences on the university choice process. After the survey data was
collected, a purposeful maximum variation sample was identified, and qualitative data was
collected through interviews. Once collected, data analysis for the survey was conducted through

53
descriptive statistical analysis, and data analysis for the interviews involved finding recurring
themes and patterns to help make sense of the process and then comparing it with existing
literature. This chapter presents information on the research design, methods, participant
selection, data collection and analysis, ethical considerations, and limitations of this study.
Site Overview
The UG campus (a pseudonym) is a private educational institution established in the late
1990s. It operates primary education, grades K-12, and is authorized by the CHED to offer 25
undergraduate programs in the fields of business, criminology, hospitality, IT, education,
engineering, and health care (UG, 2019). Its total college student population in 2022 exhibited a
23% decline from 2016 (UG, 2022). For grades 11 and 12, senior high school, a 30% drop was
observed. Kindergarten to grade 10 enrollments declined only by 5%. No formal attempts were
made to determine the reason for this decline. Leadership pointed to higher tuition fees versus
competitors as the primary cause when asked.
UG is a member of UJS, a low-cost university system comprised of ten campuses located
on the island clusters of Luzon and Visayas in the Philippines and presented a total student
enrollment of approximately 20,000 in 2022. In addition to the programs offered at the UG
campus, UJS also offers undergraduate and graduate programs in marine transport, philosophy,
medicine, law, education, and the health sciences. As a private non-sectarian university system,
UJS campuses’ operations are wholly tuition-dependent, with little to no government-funded
support and no endowment fund. Institutions like these are exposed to significant risk if
enrollment declines by just dozens of students (Bills, 2020). The university system also operates
a medical center on its main campus, which serves as a training hospital for the medicine and

54
health allied programs. The UG campus was chosen for this study because of the significant
decline in enrollment compared to the other campuses.
UG is situated in an urban municipality to the south of Manila. As of the 2020 Census,
the municipality’s population was 172,400, divided among 34,000 households, with a median
age of 24. Of the total population, 31% are between zero and 14 years old, and 20% are between
15 and 24 years old. The population growth rate peaked at 5.7% in 2000 and has remained at
2.2% since 2015. There are approximately an equal number of males and females in the area.
The municipality is located in a province with a population of 4.3 million. The municipality's
economy is driven by manufacturing and agriculture. It is bounded by more developed cities
where several other, more well-known universities are based.
Population and Sample
The study participants were recruited from the UG campus's first- and second-year
college students and their parents or guardians. This population was selected because they
represented students and parents who had recently made the decision to pursue post-secondary
education and would, therefore, find it easier to recall the experience. At the same time, the
selected population was composed of students who graduated from the UG campus high school
and other high schools in the municipality. Because they were already enrolled in the UG
campus, these students and their parents had a higher probability of participation.
Separate approaches were used to sample students and parents. Student participants were
selected by purposive or convenience sampling by identifying inclusion criteria (Christensen &
Johnson, 2015). A student database was obtained from UG, and each student was assigned a
unique code, taking note of their year level, program, and gender preference. A recruitment
announcement was made to all first- and second-year college students through the school

55
director, program head, and faculty. Students were sent individual invitation emails through the
office of the school director to participate in a survey and interview. After completing the survey,
the student code was entered into a raffle for gift certificates. The first ten student volunteers
representing each sub-group were tagged as interview participants. To ensure that a
representative sample was selected from the population of interest, an equal number of males and
females from each class were selected, as much as possible, representing a proportionate number
of students from each program and year level. A one-hour in-person interview with the student
was requested. However, the school director strongly suggested convening a focus group instead
of conducting individual interviews because, from her experience, being in a group helps put
participants at ease. A student focus group was scheduled and conducted, participated in by
seven students. A second focus group of six students was convened to aid in the validity of
responses and determine if a saturation point had been reached. A third focus group was not
needed. A gift card was received through the school director's office as a token of appreciation
for their participation.
The parent or guardian participants identified were the primary decision-makers for
matters related to the student's education. Although identified by Johnson and Christensen (2015)
as least desirable, convenience sampling was conducted for parents. This method is preferred for
parents who are not active in the student’s academic life or are reluctant to participate. Two
approaches were applied for parent recruitment: students were requested to ask their parents to
volunteer as participants for the survey and interview, and parents or guardians of first- and
second-year students would be sent an invitation email and directly asked to participate. This
meant that parent participants were volunteers recruited by students who had already satisfied the
required criteria or characteristics. Six parent volunteers were recruited. Parents participated in a

56
one-hour focus group discussion via Zoom teleconferencing. A follow-up interview was not
necessary. A token of appreciation for their participation was given through the school director’s
office.
Merriam & Tisdell (2016) stated that the sample size for qualitative research may be
determined when a saturation point is reached. This means that no new insights from new
samples are obtained. A second focus group of six students was organized to verify interview
results, and it was determined that a saturation point had been reached. The one parent focus
group satisfied this criterion.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study used a fixed mixed method explanatory sequential design to collect data.
Mixed-method research studies a research topic by combining the strengths of qualitative and
quantitative research methodologies (Lester & Lochmiller, 2017). This quantitative-leading
research design utilized quantitative data to understand the research problem and qualitative data
to inform, guide, and explore concepts and concerns. After the survey results were analyzed, a
semi-structured interview was employed to gather data and obtain insights into the process of
choosing a post-secondary institution. Interviews with students and parents were used to
understand perspective, reconstruct past events, present experiences, and behavior questions, and
elicit knowledge of the activity or situation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002) and were
the ideal data collection tool for this study. Encouraging participants to tell their story is a
meaning-making process that was facilitated by establishing a social relationship with the
participants (Seidman, 2019).

57
Survey
Approximately 800 first- and second-year university students were enrolled at the UG
campus at the time of the survey. The target sample size for the survey was 10% of the
population of students and an equal number of parents. Surveys were sent to students and parents
using a Qualtrics survey link and included in the recruitment email sent through the school
director or representative. A follow-up email was sent after the second and third weeks.
Descriptive statistical analysis was applied to the data gathered, and the results were used to
guide the interview. To thank participants for their time, those who completed the survey were
entered into a raffle draw for gift certificates, where one student and one parent were selected as
recipients.
Interview
The target sample size for the interview was ten students and an equal number of parents.
There were 13 students and six parents interviewed. A combination interview approach was
applied; that is, an informal conversational strategy was followed by an interview guide with
specific key questions to allow an in-depth exploration of the process of school choice, then
closed with an open-ended question to elicit any additional information that may further develop
the existing questions or the study and a structured interview for demographic questions (Patton,
2002).
Focus group discussions lasted an hour and a half. Follow-up sessions were not required
to clarify responses for parents. Student interviews were conducted from one thirty in the
afternoon till three, in a dedicated room on the UG campus, free from distractions and with
minimal background noise to enable a clear recording of the conversation. The parent focus
group was conducted using Zoom teleconferencing from seven to eight-thirty in the evening. An

58
interview guide was prepared before the interview to ensure that the same fundamental lines of
inquiry were followed by each participant and that the time spent with the interviewee was
maximized (Patton, 2002). It listed the purpose of the study, research questions, and interview
questions. The interview guide included question prompts, probes, and phrases that helped guide
the conversation. Interviews were conducted primarily in English, and the main questions were
in English. Participants were allowed to answer in English, Filipino, or a mix of both languages.
Answers were transcribed in English. If there was no direct translation of the Filipino word, it
was kept as is, in quotation marks, followed by an explanation or meaning of the word or phrase.
The interview room for students was prepared 30 minutes prior to the start of the
interview. Drinks and snacks were provided to encourage an informal setting and to place the
participants at ease. An Information Sheet was read and presented to the participants containing
information such as the study's purpose, the participant's rights to confidentiality and data
security, and the request for permission to record and take notes. Any questions or concerns on
the interview process were addressed prior to the start of the interview. Each interview began
with an introduction of the interviewer, identification of the participants, time, location, purpose,
or subject, and it was indicated if it was the first or second interview with the participant
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). A digital electronic device was used to record the conversation. The
interview was concluded by thanking the participants for their time, and their email addresses
were recorded in case a follow-up interview was necessary and if clarifications needed to be
made.
Data Analysis
Lester and Lochmiller (2017) emphasized the following steps in completing a mixedmethod design: (1) narrowing quantitative results to link meaningfully to qualitative findings, (2)

59
employing content analysis to qualify how many times an item is referenced by participants, (3)
correlating quantitative with qualitative data, (4) data consolidation and comparison, (5) bridging
the data from both techniques into a coherent narrative, and (6) visually representing both
qualitative and quantitative results in a meaningful way. As Lester and Lochmiller (2017)
described, quantitative data analysis began with assigning numeric values to the data in
preparation for statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics and descriptive analysis were conducted
to understand the data and determine if relationships, patterns, and trends emerged. Results were
then represented as statements, depicted in tables or graphs, and used to guide the interviews.
Qualitative data analysis co-occurred with data collection; it was recursive and dynamic
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Data from the interview transcripts were interpreted to draw
conclusions and make meaning. At the end of each interview, analytic memos were written to
provide an initial analysis of the information collected. They served as an iterative guide for the
succeeding interviews, improving on or directing questions. Thoughts, concerns, and initial
conclusions about the data in relation to the conceptual framework and research questions were
documented. After leaving the site and after closing the Zoom room, interviews were transcribed
using the condensed method. A condensed transcript contained the participants' exact words but
did not include unnecessary words and phrases unrelated to the questions (Lester & Lochmiller,
2017). Each transcript was carefully reviewed, allowing familiarization with its content and the
application of thematic coding or thematic content analysis to aid in interpreting the narrative
data (Harding, 2013). Coding is a process of selecting, sorting, and separating data by drawing
emphasis on commonalities among a data set.
In the first analysis phase, open coding or initial coding was used on the raw qualitative
data, revealing empirical codes and a priori codes drawn from the conceptual framework. The

60
second analysis phase was category development or focused coding; it included the development
of categories such as decision influences and process stages. In the third data analysis phase,
empirical and a priori codes were aggregated into analytic/axial codes, and highly refined themes
were developed. In the fourth phase of data analysis, pattern codes and themes that emerged in
relation to the conceptual framework and study questions were identified. Interview
transcriptions were analyzed for evidence consistent with the concepts in the conceptual
framework. Findings were interpreted by checking for frequency, extrapolating deductions,
lessons, or conclusions from the organized data. These were revealed by comparing and
contrasting themes, identifying connections between themes, and reviewing the implications of
the framework or research questions.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Quantitative research emphasizes understanding reality through precise measurement and
structured analysis (Lester & Lochmiller, 2017). As mentioned previously, in qualitative studies,
the researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and analysis (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Therefore, qualitative data collection and analysis were subject to researcher bias and
reactivity (Maxwell, 2013). Reactivity is the effect or influence of the researcher on the setting
and participant behavior. Because of these two issues about qualitative studies, ensuring the
research's credibility, authenticity, and trustworthiness became more critical. Credibility is the
extent to which findings accurately represent participant perspectives. Trustworthiness ensures
that data collection, analysis, and presentation of findings are verifiable (Lester & Lochmiller,
2017). This section describes the strategies used to ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of
the study.

61
In the design phase of the study, triangulation and maximum variation by including
different types of sources or participants increased the credibility of the findings used (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). By ensuring the equal representation of gender, high school (graduates of and
outside of UG campus), and programs students were enrolled in, multiple points of view were
accounted for, leading to a more accurate representation of the population and potential
applicants. Using focus groups for students and parents decreased setting bias, and confirmation
of responses through probing by the interviewer reduced chance associations (Maxwell, 2013).
The influence on the setting was mitigated by introducing myself as an impartial recorder of
experiences with no influence over academics or administration for the UG campus. In data
collection, the assurance of a rich data source through electronically recorded data ensured the
accuracy of participant responses (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Conversations
with participants were audio recorded and transcribed using the condensed transcription method.
In the data analysis, strategies that were utilized were member checking or respondent validation
done by verifying responses and interpretation of the data with key participants during the
interview to elicit feedback (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017), and reflexivity, the process of selfreflection by the researcher to ensure that personal and professional bias, assumptions, and
orientation was minimized in the interpretation of the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
While the credibility of a study is dependent on the researcher's training, experience, and
intellectual rigor, the integrity of a study depends on the researcher’s values and ethics (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). The trustworthiness of a study is primarily dependent on the trustworthiness of
the researcher. While interacting with students and parents, ethical issues were considered
throughout the research process. The Belmont Report identified three ethical principles

62
researchers must never forget to minimize participant risk: respect for persons, beneficence or do
no harm, and justice (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical
and Behavioral Research, 1978). The researcher respected the “rights, needs, values, and desires”
of the participants (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 207). The researcher’s responsibility was to
implement these principles through the following applications. The invitation to participate in the
study was sent to students and their parents or guardians to obtain their consent. It informed
interviewees of the criteria for choosing participants, the purpose of the research, if it benefited
the students and parents, that participation was voluntary, that their responses were anonymous,
and that there would be no consequences if they declined to participate or withdrew from the
study. They were assured of the security of any data gathered through password protection of an
electronic database. Informed consent procedures are an essential ethical consideration in
research (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017), and participants were made aware of this through the
information in the email, as stated by Glesne (2011). A separate email was sent to parents who
agreed to participate in the interview, which included information on the interview process, data
security, and obtaining permission to record. These are important responsibilities in order for the
researcher to develop and maintain the trust and respect of participants (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Data was collected through surveys and voluntary participation in a semi-structured face-to-face
in-person or online interview. Pseudonyms were used during data collection and analysis to
protect the identity of participants who volunteered to be interviewed. Data was stored in a
password-protected storage device and folder to ensure participant confidentiality and data
security. Identifying data will be destroyed once it is coded and analyzed.

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Role of Researcher
The researcher is a senior leadership team member in charge of student services at a
different university campus than the organization of study. Although the potential respondents
are students enrolled in the university system, the researcher has no influence over their
academic standing or enrollment status. This process may serve as a pilot study for the university
system and aid in developing or improving system-wide recruitment, retention, and completion
policies. Participants were informed of this before the survey and interview commenced.
Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the school director, and communications sent
to students and parents were conducted through the school director’s office. This study
considered students' and their parents’ responses by initiating dialogue between students and the
administration. It will assist in fostering an open and collaborative relationship that benefits both
the researcher and participants (Glesne, 2011). In data collection and analysis, a conscious effort
was made to decrease the subjectivity of data interpretation as a school administrator and ensure
the accuracy of presenting the participant's views through peer review and participant validation.

64
Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this inductive qualitative study was to examine students' and parents'
decision-making processes and understand the influences on their choice of a post-secondary
institution in the Philippines. This research afforded a better perspective on university choice. It
provided insights for data-driven education policy decisions that promote economic progress and
stability at LCPSUs, which will benefit workforce development in the country.
This chapter presents the data gathered from the pre-interview survey and in-depth
interviews with first—and second-year college students enrolled in a Philippine university, as
well as data collected from their parents or guardians. It starts with an overview of the
participants' backgrounds and demographic information, which provides context and an
understanding of individual responses. The chapter then analyzes and reports the findings and
themes that emerged from the data guided by the following research questions:
1. How do students enrolled in LCPSUs and their parents choose a college or university?
2. What are the issues that influence their decision to matriculate?
Overview of Participants
Data for this study was collected utilizing a mixed-methods approach. A semi-structured
survey was used to gather data to guide the interviews. The survey link was emailed to all first—
and second-year college students and their parents enrolled in the first semester of the academic
year 2023-2034 at a university campus in GMA Cavite, Philippines. The student respondents'
programs included Nursing, Engineering, Internet and Computer Technology, Hospitality and
Tourism, Criminology, Psychology, Engineering, and Education.
Survey data was collected using Qualtrics, and the quantitative data was analyzed using
simple statistical tests. Frequency and percentage were used to describe the distribution of

65
respondents belonging to a particular demographic/characteristic and level of preference towards
a program and institution. Interview responses were subjected to thematic content analysis.
Although I asked the questions in English, the participants could respond in Filipino, English, or
Taglish, mixing Tagalog/Filipino and English. I transcribed and translated each interview,
necessitating manual a priori and thematic coding for data analysis.
Survey Participants
Of the 834 students who were sent the survey emails, 205 responses were received,
representing 25% of the total first- and second-year student population. Of the 205, the largest
percentage received were from students in the nursing program (30%), followed by information
technology (16%), criminology (10%), and psychology (10%). Most of the student respondents
were 19-year-old, first-year students (68%), and 32% were in their second year. Thirty-three
percent of students lived within a 2-kilometer radius of the campus, 49% lived in towns within
10 kilometers of the university, and 18% did not specify their place of residence. All students
who indicated their place of residence lived with either their parents or relatives.
Forty parent/guardian survey responses were received, 5% of 834. Seventy-three percent
of respondents were mothers, 66% were between the ages of 35 and 54, 38% held a bachelor’s
degree or higher, and 33% completed high school or some college. Parent/guardian monthly
income is shown in Table 1. Fifty-six pesos is roughly equivalent to USD1.00. Based on the
information presented in Chapter One that defined lower middle-class families as earning
between PHP21,194 and PHP43,828 per month, 80% of the 60 respondents that indicated their
parent or guardian’s monthly income live in households classified as lower middle-class and
below. The annual tuition at the university is between PHP65,000 and PHP120,000 compared to
between PHP200,000 and PHP300,000 at elite universities.

66
Table 1
Parent’s or Guardian’s Monthly Income
Monthly Income Percentage
Less than PHP15,000 15
Between PHP15,000 and PHP25,000 15
Between PHP26,000 and PHP35,000 10
Between PHP36,000 and PHP45,000 8
Between PHP56,000 and PHP65,000 5
Between PHP76,000 and PHP85,000 3
Between PHP86,000 and PHP95,000 3
More than PHP95,000 3
Did not indicate 40
100
Interview Participants
The school director recommended organizing focus groups for students and their parents
instead of one-on-one interviews as initially planned. The interviews took place in a meeting
room on campus. I provided snacks and drinks for the students and engaged them in conversation
to help put them at ease. I then explained the purpose of the focus group and its significance to
my research and guided the conversation toward the interview proper.
I interviewed a focus group of seven students enrolled in seven different programs. After
two weeks, I decided to convene a second focus group to verify the information gathered from
the first group and seek new insights. Six students agreed to participate in the second focus
group.
One focus group composed of six parents was conducted via Zoom videoconferencing.
The majority of parent respondents for both the survey (73%) and interview (83%) were

67
mothers. Although both parents are referenced in publications as influences on educational
choices, the predominance of the mother’s participation in this study may be attributed to their
role as nurturers primarily responsible for child development. The parents were eager to provide
the information I needed when I explained that I aimed to establish programs to assist high
school students and their parents in making informed decisions on program and school choice.
All participants agreed to be contacted individually by email should there be a need for
clarification or additional information.
The demographics of both the student and the parent interview participants reflected the
majority of survey respondents described in the previous paragraph. Each focus group discussion
lasted 1 and 1/2 hours. Student and parent participants were observed to become more at ease,
participative, and candid with their responses as the interviews progressed. They admitted that
they preferred focus groups to one-on-one interviews and would have hesitated to answer
questions otherwise. Tables 2 and 3 provide an overview of student and parent demographics.
Table 2
Interview Participant Demographics – Student (n=13)
Alias Age Year Level Program
Residence Proximity from
Campus (km)
A1 19 1 Computer Engineering 1 – 2
A2 19 1 Computer Science 1 – 2
A3 20 2 Nursing 1 – 2
A4 20 2 Criminology 1 – 2
A5 20 2 Psychology 5 – 10
A6 19 1 Accounting 1 – 2
A7 19 1 Hospitality Management 1 – 2
B1 20 2 Civil Engineering 1 – 2
B2 18 2 Nursing 1 – 2

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B3 18 1 Nursing 1 – 2
B4 19 1 Education 1 – 2
B5 18 1 Criminology 1 – 2
B6 18 1 Tourism Management 5 – 10
Table 3
Interview Participant Demographics – Parent (n=6)
Alias Role Age Student Program
Residence Proximity
From Campus (km)
Education Funding
Source
P1 Father 48 Business Administration 1 – 2 Own business
P2 Mother 43 Hospitality Management 1 – 2 Income (OFW)
P3 Mother 38 Criminology 1 – 2 Mother’s Siblings
P4 Mother 42 Nursing 1 – 2 Student’s Siblings
P5 Mother 42 Civil Engineering 5 – 10 Own business
P6 Mother 43 Education 1 – 2 Student
Presentation of Findings and Emergent Themes
The data gathered from first- and second-year students and their parents through the
survey and focus group discussions were analyzed. The research questions were utilized to guide
the development of emergent themes through the lenses of Rational Choice Theory and Social
Capital Theory. The first research question, asking students and parents in the GMA Cavite area
how they chose a college or university, relates to the process of school choice. Survey questions
were answered ahead of the interviews to serve as a prompt for the ensuing conversation. I asked
interview participants to narrate their experiences in choosing the program and institution they
were enrolled in, who influenced that decision and who ultimately made the final decision, how
and when it was made, and how they felt about it. The second research question sought to
identify the influences on students' decisions to enroll in their particular program and institution

69
and which was the most significant. Questions 2 and 3 of the survey asked participants to
identify the degree of influence of specific internal and external institutional influences on their
decision to matriculate. Interview participants recounted the influences on their choices and
identified which were the most influential and why.
Three thematic findings emerged from the analysis of the data. Table 4 outlines the
following themes that surfaced from conversations with students and parents. It also indicates the
corresponding research question each theme addresses.
Table 4
Thematic Research Findings
Theme Research Question
The individual or individuals who finance the student’s education
direct the decision-making process.
RQ 1
Economics is the primary driver of school and program choice. RQ 2
Retention depends mainly on peer influence and “good” faculty,
regardless of cost.
RQ 2
Theme 1: The Individual or Individuals Who Finance the Student’s Education Direct the
Decision-Making Process
Data collected in this study showed that the decision-making process involved gathering
information, analyzing options, considering potential outcomes, and ultimately selecting the best
course of action. Although parents, VINAs, and the student were all involved in the process, the
person financing the student’s education was the most influential. Their financial support made
them a key stakeholder in the student's education, and therefore, their decisions had to be
considered when making any significant academic choices.
Parent survey responses on the primary sources of funding for the student's education
showed that 50% indicated parent or primary guardian’s income, 22% of students were

70
sponsored by a relative not residing with the student, 10% were financed through a bank or credit
card loan, and 5% were awarded a grant or scholarship. The remaining 13% did not indicate a
funding source. Similar results were found in the student survey. These findings were supported
by student interview data shown in Table 5, where six out of 13 students cited that parents were
financing their education, four were supported by their sibling, and three by a close relative.
Parent interviews indicated that three of the six supported their child’s education financially,
relatives supported two, and one student was self-supporting.
Table 5
Development of Program Choice
Student
Alias
Program
Enrolled In
First
Choice
(Y/N)
Year Level
Consider
Influence on Final
Decision
Person
Financing
Education
A1 Computer Engineering N 11 Interest Father
A2 Computer Science N 8 Father Occupation Father – OFW*
A3 Nursing N 7 Sister Sister
A4 Criminology N 11 Uncle Occupation Grandmother
A5 Psychology N 10 Interest Aunt
A6 Accounting N 10 Mother Occupation Father & Mother
A7 Hospitality Management Y 8 Interest Father – OFW*
B1 Civil Engineering N 12 Mother Father & Mother
B2 Nursing N 10 Sister Occupation Sister – OFW*
B3 Nursing Y 7 Interest Father
B4 Education N 10 Parents/Sister Sister – OFW*
B5 Criminology N 8 Relatives Grandmother
B6 Tourism Management N 10 Parents Father – OFW*
*OFW – Overseas Filipino Worker

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The last two columns of Table 5 depict the relationship between the person financing the
student’s education and who directly influenced their final program choice. Students
participating in interviews were asked who helped them decide, how and when they came to a
final decision, and when they started considering which programs they were interested in for
college. All students interviewed stated that their future professional aspiration was initially
based on their interests and experiences. However, only two out of the thirteen students enrolled
in a program based on their own interests. One of the exceptions, student A7, stated,
I started dreaming about this course in high school…in grade 8…My hobby was
watching cooking shows…Gordon Ramsay influenced my passion for cooking…I want
to become the head chef of a famous restaurant. My mom wanted me to take tourism, but
I insisted, so she allowed me to enroll in CIHTM (College of International Hospitality
and Tourism Management).
Five out of 13 students interviewed began the program choice process in the 7th or 8th
grade, and five out of 13 students stated that they seriously considered their major at grade 10.
Ten of the thirteen students changed their minds in grade 10 and one in grade 12 after
considering the advice of a parent or relative.
Participant B2, a nursing student, said,
Nursing was really not my first choice. My first choice was engineering or architecture
because I excel in math over science…It was my sister who influenced me; she is also a
nurse, and I watched her struggle during the pandemic and take care of people, including
us...My sister is working in Australia; she pays for my tuition.
Interviews with the students presented clear evidence of the weight of relatives ‘opinions on
program choice. Student A4 shared,

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Just like the others, criminology was not my first choice…I wanted to take up tourism
because I dreamed of becoming a flight attendant…My parents kept telling me there
would be more opportunities if I took up Criminology, and I think it is because Tourism
is an expensive course…When I reached grade 10, I still wanted Tourism, but it changed
when I got to senior high school, and I saw the benefits of Crim...It is because of the
influence of my parents…and my uncle, who is a policeman…My grandmother will like
that [I chose Criminology].
Constant exposure to their parents’ profession due to the shift to work-from-home arrangements
during the pandemic influenced students’ decision-making. Student A2 wanted to be an artist,
I love to draw, so I wanted to be in the arts when I was younger, or
multimedia…Circumstances changed. My father is in IT, and my mother is a data
analyst. She works from home, so I see what she does every day…I tried programming in
grade 11…It was hard, but my friends helped me through it…They (my parents) were
happy when I majored in it.
Parent P5 stated, “My husband and my other children come together to support my son’s
nursing education. He is the 5th of six children…My third child is a registered nurse. He says he
really wanted to be a nurse.” Parent P1 shared, “I told my son, if you take psychology, who will I
pass my business on to, who will take over...I told him to enroll in a business course instead
because I am not getting any younger.” Table 5 shows an association between influence on final
decision and person financing education. The relationship between choice of major and financing
source was found in eight of the 13 participants, supporting the first theme.
In the Philippines, student loan programs, a common source of financing for school fees
in other countries, are not available to students. Education financing is dependent on the family's

73
support. It is essential to recognize that the person who finances the student’s education has the
power to determine the course of action for the student's academic pursuits.
Theme 2: Economics Is the Primary Driver of School and Program Choice.
Economics plays a crucial role in choosing schools and programs. The cost of tuition,
availability of financing, and potential return on investment are all critical influences that
students and their families consider when making decisions. Although not explicitly mentioned
in student and parent interviews, the proximity of a school to the family’s primary residence,
preference for public over private higher education institutions, and the preference for highincome degree programs imply this.
Survey results indicated that among parents/guardians, several issues influence the
preferred institution, including cost/affordability, course offerings coinciding with choices, and
proximity to a parent’s or relative’s home. Student survey results pointed to cost/affordability,
curriculum, employment outcome of graduates, location near parent’s or relative’s house, and
scholarships offered as having the most significant influence on decision making. Figure 5
displays the survey responses of students and parents to the question of the issues that are the
most influential on the choice of institution. Although survey results show that their present
university was the first choice for students (40%) and parents (30%), all 13 students interviewed
stated that the campus they were enrolled in was their last choice, not their first or second choice.
The institution was indicated as the second choice in the survey by students (27%), and parents
(20%) were identified by ten out of 13 interviewed students as their first choice. Student
interviews identified Cavite State University (CSU) as a first choice because (1) the government
subsidizes tuition and it is considered an adequate school, and (2) their high school friends also
applied to CSU. Ten of the thirteen students interviewed applied to CSU but were not accepted.

74
Since other options were too far away and “living in a dormitory is not practical because of the
cost,” they chose their present school because of its proximity to their primary residence. Student
considerations for selecting a school close to home were not having to spend time in traffic,
minimal cost of public transportation, and the ability to save money by eating lunch at home.
Parents preferred a school closer to home because they wanted to be able to check up on their
children when needed and avoid the added cost of transportation.
Figure 5
Level of External (Outside UGs Control) Influence on Preferred Institution
As depicted in Figure 6, survey results revealed that significant influences on the
preferred program among parents/guardians include the ability to work overseas, broad
employment opportunities, and the child's interest. Among the students, the critical influences
included their ability to work abroad, broad employment opportunities, interests, and potential
earnings. These indicate the importance of economic viability when choosing a program. Figure

75
2 shows that among the issues assessed as extremely influential, the highest proportion of
students and parents/guardians indicated that the ability to work overseas was the most
influential on a preferred program.
The influence of the opportunity to work overseas is further supported by data in Table 5,
where five out of 13 students’ parents or relatives were Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) who
provide financial support to their families and the student’s education. Among interview
participants, Student B2, when asked why he chose the nursing program, stated, “I liked the
uniform [doctor’s whites], and they told me the pay is high…I am considering my future and the
opportunities…My sister [a nurse working in Australia] is financially stable.” Student A3, a
nursing student, was also influenced by his sister to forego engineering for nursing and stated, “I
started watching medical dramas during the pandemic and saw my sister’s struggles and the
importance of healthcare professionals here and for the whole world…I’m not decided yet if I
will work here or go abroad.” Student A7 is enrolled in hospitality management, and his father
works on a cargo ship. He states that his options after graduation are to “…have his own
restaurant or work as a chef on a cruise ship.” The enrollment report submitted by the university
campus for the academic year 2023-2024 revealed that the top two programs with the highest
number of students enrolled are Nursing (25%) and Hospitality Management (11%).
Understanding the economic implications of their choices can help individuals make
informed decisions about their education and future career paths. Survey and interview results
expressed the significant weight of financial considerations on the school and program choice
process.

76
Figure 6
Influences on Preferred Program
Theme 3: Retention Depends Mainly on Peer Influence and “Good” Faculty, Regardless of
Cost.
Students and parents interviewed for this study said that the decision to matriculate
depended not only on the cost of education but also on the quality of faculty and the opinion and
encouragement of their peers. Data gathered indicated that a supportive student and parent peer
group and competent faculty played a significant role in retaining students and ensuring
academic success.
Ability to Work Overseas
Interest of Student
Potential Earnings of Student
Course Best Fits Students’ Skills

77
Figure 7 illustrates the internal influences on students’ and parents’ preferred institution.
The cost was still the most influential among the items assessed for students and
parents/guardians, one which they considered highly influential in selecting their preferred
institution. Teacher competency was the second most influential, and internships or on-the-job
training programs ranked third. Students were asked if they were planning to re-enroll in the next
academic year and their reasons for doing so. Student A3 stated,
I am enjoying the course now since we were exposed to different hospitals…The clinical
instructors have a lot of experience and have a lot to share. They let us experience how it
is like to be a nurse. I enjoy the clinical experience even if the hospital is far from the
campus. My friends are also the reason I stay. I considered changing schools because
studying here is more expensive, but students in the higher years convinced me to stay.
All students shared similar stories about professors and upper-level students as their
inspiration. One or two faculty members who were proficient and showed genuine interest in
their academic success were enough reasons for them to stay. Student A5 shared, “The tuition
here is expensive, so naturally, I expect quality teaching for me to stay…It is expensive, but we
will make it work.” Parent P2 stated, “I like that the school is close by; I know that he will get
home safe…So I told him that even if the tuition is expensive, we will go for it as long as he
studies well.”

78
Figure 7
Internal (Within UGs Control) Influences on Preferred Institution
Evidence showed that cost, although the most influential on school choice, is not the
primary influence on retention. Both parents and students pointed out that teacher competency
and peer influence are more significant.
Chapter Summary
The purpose of this study was to understand the process of choosing a program and a
post-secondary institution and examine the influences on their eventual decision. The data from
this study were gathered from over 200 surveys and 18 interview participants. The analysis of
this information provided valuable insight into how students and parents experience the process
of choosing a college or university and how decision-making influences matriculation. The
process involved several steps to assist in narrowing down their options. Ultimately, the decision
came down to a combination of influences and organized into three main themes: (1) The

79
individual or individuals who finance the student’s education direct the decision-making process,
(2) Economics is the primary driver of school and program choice, and (3) Retention depends
mainly on peer influence and “good” faculty, regardless of cost. The final chapter will use these
findings to present evidence-based recommendations to aid in developing relevant education
policies to positively impact the Philippine economy and its citizens.

80
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations for Practice
The World Bank (2023) has stated that education is a powerful driver of development and
is one of the most vital instruments for reducing poverty and improving equality. It does so by
allowing the development of a skilled workforce that contributes to the economic development
and stability of the country (Orbeta et al., 2016). Equitable access to quality education is
imperative. The contribution of LCPSUs to the economic development of a country where over
50 % of families belong to the low and lower-middle-income classes cannot be understated.
These LCPSUs are sensitive to education market disruptions and are prone to closure. This study
aims to understand the influences on the enrollment of students enrolled in an LCPSU and to
prevent the disruption of balanced and quality education in the country.
This qualitative study investigates how students and their parents decide when choosing a
university in the Philippines. This study will offer valuable insights into the influences on
university choice. The findings may benefit education policymakers seeking growth and stability
in university enrollments, ultimately advancing the country's workforce and economic
development.
In this chapter, themes will be explored in response to the research questions that guided
this study:
1. How do students enrolled in LCPSUs and their parents choose a college or university?
2. What are the issues that influence their decision to matriculate?
The evolution of the findings will be examined from the perspective of rational choice theory
and social capital theory, and recommendations for practice and future research will be
presented.

81
Discussion of Findings
In this section, the following key themes from Chapter Four are discussed: (a) the
individual or individuals who finance the student’s education direct the decision-making process,
(b) economics is the primary driver of university and program choice, and (c) student retention
depends mainly on peer influence and “good” faculty, regardless of cost. These themes were
developed through the lenses of Rational Choice Theory, which postulates that individuals make
decisions based on rational calculations of costs and benefits that are most congruent to their
personal preferences or self-interests and on outcomes that are most favorable to them based on
normative beliefs (Berends, 2019; Boudon, 2003; Wittek, 2013), and Social Capital Theory,
which describes the influence of students' and parents' social networks and socioeconomic status
on the educational decision-making process (Berends, 2019). The process is presented in the RCSC Decision-making Framework for Influences on University Choice in Figure 4 of Chapter
Two.
The Individual or Individuals Who Finance the Student’s Education Direct the DecisionMaking Process
Filipinos recognize the value of a large extended family. The family, not just the parents,
plays a significant role in their younger members’ formation and education. When extra-familial
social processes impact a family member, the entire family is also impacted (Morillo, 2013). A
Philippine Youth Education Investment and Labor Market Outcomes Survey (YEILMOS)
conducted in 2017 found that parents, guardians, and critical family members were the primary
sources of information when making education and career investment decisions (Asian
Development Bank, 2019). If a child’s parents cannot solely finance their child’s education,
other family members assume the role of provider and, consequently, primary decision-maker.

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This supports the first emergent theme from the findings that the individual or individuals who
finance the student’s education direct the decision-making process. Berends (2019) stated that
parents can demand quality education as they are utility maximizers with specific value
preferences. These are rational actions of evaluating the costs and benefits of educational options
and the perceived probabilities of a successful outcome (Breen & Goldthorpe, 1997).
In this study, the term “parents” becomes relative, expanding the circle of influence.
Students interviewed for this study referred to the person financing their education as the most
influential on program choice regardless of their position in the family hierarchy. Almost all
student participants decided to pursue a different career from the one they initially planned after
considering or being influenced by a parent's or relative's opinion. One parent interviewed for
this study, whose child was financing her own education, referenced her daughter as the
decision-maker during the entire interview. This is a striking departure from the predominantly
authoritarian and patriarchal Filipino family. Three things may have brought about this
transformation: (1) more liberal ideations from Western culture through traditional and social
media, (2) the shift in the roles of family members brought about by the migration of Overseas
Filipino Workers, and (3) the transformation in the labor market as a consequence of
globalization. Self-financing options, such as student loans, are unavailable to Filipino students.
While students in countries who can take out student loans have the option to “follow their
passions” and decide on their major, students who rely on family support are beholden to their
financers.
Economics is the Primary Driver of School and Program Choice
Data from the survey and interviews supported prior research that stated a large amount
of family resources are invested in educational services (Paloyo et al., 2022). Education in the

83
Philippines is primarily funded through a parent, family member, or guardian’s salary or
proprietary business income. The rational choice theory states that decisions are made based on
costs, the likelihood of success, and the value attached to the outcome (Breen & Goldthorpe,
1997), especially when parents view their children’s education as an “investment” in the family’s
future and the rate of return is calculated against expected future income (Paloyo et al., 2022).
Even though tuition at UG was a third of the cost of elite universities, almost all interview
participants said that UG was expensive. Survey results also indicated that cost or affordability
was the primary consideration when choosing a university. A university close to a parent or
relative’s home was the second most significant influence for students surveyed. Distance refers
to geographic proximity, social proximity (safety, taking meals at home, and parent monitoring),
and transportation costs (time and money) (Termes et al., 2020). This may also be attributed
indirectly to economics, as students and parents looked for other ways to reduce overall financial
outlay.
Social capital also played a role in the process of choosing a university. The opinions of
friends and relatives whose children were enrolled in UG, testimonies from UG professors or UG
employees, recommendations from acquaintances and neighbors who “knew people,” and the
encouragement of the family’s peers voicing their excitement at having a professional in uniform
amongst them (for the many who choose to study healthcare-related fields) reassured parents that
they were making the right decision.
A study conducted in the Philippines found a toxic trait of comparison that is prevalent
among Filipinos. (Billote et al., 2021). The study highlighted, however, that it is this trait that
drives parents and family members to want to provide the best for their children. There is a
tendency to value other trusted individuals or groups’ opinions on what programs and schools to

84
enroll in, and parents are not shy about asking for help. If it takes a village to raise a child, it also
takes a village to reassure the family that they are making the right choice; it is a personal
investment.
Student Retention Depends Mainly on Peer Influence and “Good” Faculty, Regardless of
Cost
Cost is no longer a primary concern once the student, through the family, has decided on
a program and university. Rational and social anxieties such as “I cannot get held back; I need to
finish with my class, so I do not waste money,” “I need to graduate on time, so transferring
schools is not an option,” and “All my friends are here; I am not going anywhere” come into play
at this stage. Interview participants referenced upper-level students who encouraged them to do
well and “good teachers” with practical experience guiding students through challenging tasks.
Peer and VINA influence was evidenced by the need of the students in this study to identify a
role model or mentor who could provide the support they needed to do well and graduate. This
finding aligns with research that found that positive shifts in educational expectations were
substantially correlated with the non-kin VINA’s educational attainment (Chang et al., 2010) and
that faculty-student mentoring helped establish rapport beyond the classroom and encouraged
students to continue the program (Mascarenhas et al., 2019). Research has reported that VINAs
provided support that parents could not (Beam et al., 2002).
The interviews showed that peers and VINAs played a significant role in college
retention and contributed to their academic success and personal and professional development.
Student social networks can provide emotional, instrumental, appraisal, and informational
support (Wittner et al., 2023). Wittner (2023) further stated that the size of the network
determined the type of support it provided; smaller networks focused on emotional support, such

85
as shared experiences and advice, and a more extensive network of more than 10 provided
mainly informational support. Socially connected students had a higher chance of success and
completing their degrees. However, they needed to be guided in developing their networks and
determining the type of support they needed.
Recommendations for Practice
This study produced several practice-related recommendations that can be proposed to
secondary and tertiary school administrators, guidance counselors, enrollment managers, college
professors, and policymakers. Understanding the influences on and process of school and
program choice can help educational institutions support students and stakeholders and guide
them toward making better-informed decisions and achieving their goals. This, reciprocally,
facilitates the resilience and financial stability of LCPSUs.
Recommendation 1: Junior and Senior High Schools Need to Establish an Inclusive and
Individualized Career Counseling Program
Career counseling is an integral part of the process of choosing a program and university.
In the case of the student interview participants, they started considering career choices in the 7th
or 8th grade. The Philippine government recognized the importance of career guidance for high
school students, exemplified by Republic Act No. 11206, which was signed into law in 2019,
mandating the establishment of a Career Guidance and Counseling Program for all public and
private secondary schools in the Philippines. Trained career guidance counselors and
standardized tests were to be made available to secondary students. The involvement of
government-identified stakeholders in the program was limited to the participation of labor and
professional organizations, post-secondary and higher education institutions, and departments of
education, who were tasked to develop and review instructional material for the students

86
(Galvez, 2019). This approach seemed to be a one-size-fits-all solution. Interestingly, the results
of the YEILMOS survey conducted on Filipino households referenced earlier in this chapter
found that out of the 11 choices given as sources of information in choosing a university,
guidance counselors ranked last (3%) (Asian Development Bank, 2019).
In the same YEILMOS study, parents (37.7%), peers (33.6%), and relatives (32.4%)
ranked in the top three, and teachers ranked sixth (13%) as sources of information in choosing a
university. A study on the effectiveness of the Senior High School Career Guidance Program on
grade 10 students at a public school found that parents' choice was the primary contributing
factor to student preference (Flores, 2023).
Findings from this study suggested that other than parents, the person who finances a
student’s college education has an equally significant role in the student's decision. The
involvement of these identified stakeholders in decision-making - parents, family, peers,
teachers, and VINAs - early in the career guidance process and the development of home-school
partnerships may improve the alignment of the child’s interests and that of the primary
financer/decision-makers expectations by providing a venue for dialogue and informed decisionmaking. This is important because early exposure to career counseling allows the student more
time to adapt to any changes, which paves the way for greater satisfaction and success in their
professional lives.
Recommendation 2: Universities Need to Improve Collection, Aggregation, and Analysis of
Student Demographic, Enrollment, Retention, and Graduate Employment Data
Deciding on an academic program and university is a complex process for students that
starts with the family at home and continues through middle and high school with peers,
teachers, VINAs, and other social and economic influences. In Chapter Four, Finding 2

87
discussed economics as the primary driver of school and program choice. The rational choice
theory states that decisions are made based on costs, the likelihood of success, and the value
attached to the outcome (Breen & Goldthorpe, 1997). The financial considerations influencing
decisions are university tuition, other educational expenditures, and potential future earnings.
Government-led data collection initiatives can provide a national or provincial snapshot
of the education landscape. These studies may serve as a jumping-off point but are not
sufficiently detailed. Individual educational institutions must collect and analyze this data in
greater detail. LCPSU administration require good data to effectively balance the quantity and
quality of their programs with operational efficiency, presenting students and parents with the
most favorable academic and financial options; better enrollments will aid in the sustainability of
these universities. Understanding the relationship between parent and student demographics,
university enrollment and retention, local and international career paths, current job
opportunities, and alumni career outcomes helps universities determine focus areas to facilitate
informed stakeholder decision-making. Financial stakeholder and student choice are supported
when data-driven costs (tuition) and benefits (career outcomes) are presented. LCPUs currently
lack data focus.
Although unrelated to the findings, this study identified several missed opportunities that
data may address. The large quantity of historical data and the collection of properly identified
potential data must be guided by a system to identify and address initiatives such as target market
location, internal marketing directed to primary and secondary students and their parents,
organized data collection, and interest-based program offerings determined by increased
participation in community outreach programs. Establishing a strategic enrollment management
(SEM) system, such as that used in the United States and other Western countries, may address

88
these opportunities and further inform parent choice. SEM is a comprehensive process that
assists educational institutions in optimizing student enrollment to increase enrollment to an ideal
number, optimize financial opportunities, and improve academic standards and student success
(Ruger, 2020). With SEM, building, integrating, and utilizing data are steps toward ensuring
data-driven decisions in developing enrollment strategies and policies (Bradshaw, 2023).
Recommendation 3: Universities Need to Develop and Implement a Faculty-Student and
Peer Mentoring Program
Filipino parenting is primarily traditional and authoritarian, with a strong emphasis on
obedience and conformity (Alampay & Jocson, 2011). The Alampay & Jocson (2011) article
further stated that successes and failures are reflections of the collective, in the context of this
study, the family, rather than the individual, the student. Ten of the thirteen students interviewed
in this study changed their career plans after considering the advice of a parent or the person
financing their education. It can be assumed that the motivation behind their matriculation was
obedience rather than personal interest or choice, an induced compliance.
When a person holds two contradictory thoughts or beliefs or if their decision or action is
inconsistent with their beliefs, it causes mental discomfort, which is identified as cognitive
dissonance (Cooper, 2007). Cooper (2007) explained that a person experiencing cognitive
dissonance is driven to reduce the tension by changing one's attitude, which increases the
attractiveness of the chosen and reduces that of the unchosen. Universities can provide a
mechanism for students to support them in reconciling with this decision to prevent academic
dissatisfaction leading to decreased academic interest, a lack of student agency, and mental
stress. It may also lead to issues with program completion and potential retention concerns for
the university.

89
As stated in Finding 3, most of the students interviewed referenced higher-level students
and clinical instructors (faculty) as having helped them through challenging situations and
motivated them to overcome academic difficulties. This study recognizes the importance of
motivation through academic and social support groups throughout a student’s academic life.
Formal student-faculty and student-student mentoring are recognized contributors to student
success, and a combination of both strategies may lead to timely degree completion (Collier,
2017), significantly higher student achievement (Dixon et al., 2023), and increased student
satisfaction (Collier, 2017). Dixon et al. (2023) stated that a reciprocal benefit to peer mentors
included increased academic self-efficacy, improved communication, leadership, and
interpersonal presence, and strengthened social and professional networks. The advantages to the
university of peer mentoring programs are cost, the availability of potential mentors, and an
increased mentee-mentor commonality (Collier, 2017).
Students interviewed in this study said they were inspired by clinical instructors who
employ practice-based experiential instruction. Most clinical instructors are part-time faculty
who do not spend as much time at the university, are focused on skill-building, and may be
unaware of their positive impact on their students. However, a study at a Canadian university
found that students perceived clinical instructors as more invested in the success and future
careers of their students when compared to didactic instructors (Khehra et al., 2022). A
mentoring development program for clinical instructors and didactic faculty is recommended.
In this study, the peer and faculty mentoring identified by the students was informal and
seemed to occur by happenstance. A formal program that includes trained mentors/motivators
may benefit more students and encourage those who are socially less inclined to seek out
mentors or are unaware of their advantages.

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Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions
Qualitative research has several limitations, which depend on the researcher's questioning
and interpretation of the data. This may introduce subjectivity and bias from personal
experiences and culture (Creswell & Creswell, 2018), which the researcher must consciously
minimize. In qualitative studies, the small sample size makes findings not generalizable (Lester
& Lochmiller, 2017). However, the purpose of this study is to understand the decision-making
process of students and parents in one particular context.
The study was conducted on first and second-year college students and their parents at
the UG campus, a private, for-profit education institution; therefore, the demographics of the
students and parents do not reflect those of the entire Philippines and cannot replicate the realworld population. By the very nature of a qualitative study, the small sample size, responses, and
analysis are inductive and cannot be generalized. This method depends on the researcher’s
questioning and interpretation of data, which may lead to researcher bias. The researcher has no
control over the truthfulness of the responses; however, the assurance of confidentiality and the
fact that the information has no academic or administrative consequences may assist in
mitigating this.
Delimitations of qualitative research are parameters set by the researcher to define the
scope and focus of the study. These are evident in the research methods and strategies employed
and their appropriateness for the study. The research questions are clearly defined to help keep
the entire study focused. The sampling strategy of first- and second-year college students and
their parents, data collection methods through surveys and interviews, and data analysis methods
were suitable for the purpose of the study. The researcher also presented with the appropriate
skills for conducting qualitative research.

91
Although previous studies on school choice were conducted on secondary students, this
population is not the focus of this study. First- and second-year college students have already
made their decision to matriculate. They can, therefore, provide a comprehensive account of the
process of school choice and are best situated to provide the information required for this
research. Participants were deliberately chosen from a low-cost private higher education
institution because it better represents the needs of most higher education students in the
Philippines. According to the Commission on Higher Education, of the 1,975 HEIs, 246 are
public, and 1,729 are private institutions (Commission on Higher Education, 2023).
Administrators and counselors were not interviewed to keep the focus on the experiences of
students and parents.
Lastly, the primary assumption of this study is that participants are truthful and that their
recollections of events and experiences are accurate. The sampling method is assumed to provide
an effective cross-section of the population.
Recommendations for Future Research
The UG campus is part of a university system with nine other campuses across the
Philippines. To better understand the dynamics of enrollment at LCPSUs in the Philippines, it is
recommended that this study be conducted at another university campus within the university
system and serve as a starting point for other LCPSUs. Multiple collaborative mixed-method
studies with a mechanism for data aggregation are recommended, resulting in an increased
sample size and improved reliability of the data collected to include a larger cross-section of the
nation. A larger sample size may also allow more specific research on the influences of student
and parent demographics and socioeconomic status on matriculation.

92
Attention should be given to other less-studied segments of the population. Research on
high school graduates who decide to pursue technical-vocational programs or careers is needed,
equally important but often overlooked. The significant number of overseas Filipino workers
who remotely support their children’s education necessitates a study specific to migrant workers
on what influences school and program choice.
Enrollment management is a set of activities that furthers an institution’s goals and
assures its sustainability by coordinating its marketing, admissions, retention, and financial
practices (Ruger, 2020). Research is needed on the use or application of strategic enrollment
management systems and concepts in the Philippine context. One university in the Philippines
advertises its use of the system on its website but does not offer any other information. Any data
gathered would benefit school administrators and policymakers and aid in legislation.
Conclusion
Universities can utilize data to improve enrollment, such as better understanding of
potential students, refining recruitment tactics, and customizing marketing efforts. Strategic
enrollment management allows for the seamless integration of data into relevant, manageable,
and understandable information. Qualitative studies such as this provide a deeper understanding
of the influences on the school and program selection process for students and parents, guiding
administrators to make well-informed decisions and implement targeted programs effectively. It
allows policymakers to make decisions based on the analysis and interpretation of data rather
than relying solely on intuition, personal experience, or observation, ensuring a more efficient
and effective outcome.

93
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Appendix A: Information Sheet for Exempt Research
University of Southern California Information Sheet
My name is Anna Nelizza Tamayo Baliza. I am a student at the University of Southern
California and the Director of Student Services at the UPH-Dr. Jose G. Tamayo Medical
University.
I am conducting a research study on the influences on students and parents in school choice. The
name of this study is Examining the Influences on the Decision-making Process of Filipino
Students and Parents In Selecting a Post-Secondary Institution. I am seeking your participation in
this study.
Your participation is completely voluntary, and I will address your questions or concerns at any
point before or during the study.
You may be eligible to participate in this study if you meet the following criteria:
1. If you are enrolled in the current school year (SY 2023-2024) as a first or second-year
college student at the UPH-GMA campus or are a parent or primary guardian of a first or
second-year college student currently enrolled at the UPH-GMA campus.
2. You are over 18 years old.
If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to do the following activities:
1. Answer a 15 to 20-minute online survey.
2. Participate in an in-person one-on-one interview for one hour (students and parents or
guardians) or an online one-on-one interview over Zoom for one hour (parent or guardian
only).
3. If necessary, participate in a one-on-one follow-up interview in person (students and
parents or guardians) or online (parent or guardian).
After you complete the survey, you will be entered into a raffle for a Php2,500.00 gift card; one
student and one parent winner will be drawn. The winner may claim the school director's or her
representative's gift card.
If you are selected to participate in the interview, you will receive a Php500.00 gift card to thank
you for your time. The winner may claim the school director's or her representative's gift card.
I will publish the results in my dissertation. Participants will not be identified in the results. I will
take reasonable measures to protect the security of all your personal information. All data will be
de-identified prior to any publication or presentation. I may share your data, de-identified with
other researchers in the future.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact me at annanelizza.baliza@usc.edu. If
you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the University
of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email irb@usc.edu.

107
Appendix B: Survey Instrument
Study Title: Examining the Influences on the Decision-making Process of Filipino Students and Parents In Selecting
a Post-Secondary Institution
Thank you for consenting to participate in this survey. The goal of this survey is to understand the influences on
students' and parents' decisions about choosing a course and a college or university.
This survey will be anonymous, and responses will be aggregated. No identifying information will be shared or
published. Aggregated information may be used by higher education institutions to improve their programs and
services and ensure the delivery of the best college experience for students.
This survey will take approximately 15-20 minutes to complete, but there is no time limit. Please read the
questions carefully and, if possible, answer all of them to the best of your knowledge. I am genuinely interested in
your thoughts and opinions.
If you would like to be included in a raffle to win gift certificates for a dinner for two as a way of saying thank you
for your participation, a link is provided at the end of the survey for you to enter your email address. Once again,
thank you for your time.
1. What course or program is your child enrolled in? Choose the program from the drop-down list. The
programs are listed in alphabetical order.

108
2. To what extent do the following considerations influence your decision in choosing a course/program for
you/your child? Please choose one rating per item.
Extremely
Influential (12)
Moderately
Influential (13)
Slightly Influential
(14)
Not At All
Influential (15)
Ability to Work
Abroad (1) o o o o
Broad Employment
Opportunities (2) o o o o
Cost of
Education/Financial
Considerations (3) o o o o
Course Best Fits
Child’s Skills (4) o o o o
Employment
Opportunities in
Manila (5) o o o o
Interest of Child (6) o o o o
Potential Earnings
of Child (7) o o o o
Recommendations
of Other Family
Members (8) o o o o
Recommendations
of Teachers or
Guidance Counselor
(9)
o o o o
Recommendation of
Your Friends (10) o o o o
Social Acceptability/
Expectations of
Others (11) o o o o
OTHER. Please type
NA if not applicable
and choose Not
Important (12)
o o o o

109
2.1 Among the influences you chose as Extremely Influential, which one is the most influential? Please
choose one.
oAbility to Work Abroad
oBroad Employment Opportunities
oCost of Education/Financial Considerations
oCourse Best Fits Child’s Skills
oEmployment Opportunities in Manila
oInterest of Child
oPotential Earnings of Child
oRecommendations of Other Family Members
oRecommendations of Teachers or Guidance Counselor
oRecommendations of Your Friends
oSocial Acceptability/ Expectations of Others
o OTHER __________________________________________________

110
3. To what extent do the following considerations influence your decision in choosing a college or university?
Please choose one rating per item.
Extremely
Influential (8)
Moderately
Influential (9)
Slightly Influential
(10)
Not At All
Influential (11)
Cost/Affordability
(1) o o o o
Course Offerings
Coincide with
Choices (2) o o o o
Curriculum (3) o o o o
Employment
Outcome of
Graduates (4) o o o o
Level of Parent or
Guardian
Engagement or
Communication (5)
o o o o
Near Parents’ or
Relatives’ Home (6) o o o o
Scholarships
Offered (7) o o o o
University
Quality/Reputation
(8) o o o o
University’s
Accreditation (9) o o o o
Sports Teams or
Extracurricular
Programs (10) o o o o
OTHER. Please type
NA if not applicable
and choose Not a
Consideration (11)
o o o o

111
4.1. Among those you chose as Extremely Influential, which one is the most influential? Please choose one.
oCost/Affordability (1)
oCourse Offerings Coincide with Choices (2)
oCurriculum (3)
oEmployment Outcome of Graduates (4)
oLevel of Parent or Guardian Engagement or Communication (5)
o Near Parents’ or Relatives’ Home (6)
oScholarships Offered (7)
o University’s Quality/Reputation (8)
o University’s Accreditation (9)
oSports Teams or Extracurricular Programs (10)
o OTHER (11) __________________________________________________

112
4. To what extent do the following aspects of a college or university influence your decision in choosing which
University or College your child will be enrolled in? Please choose one rating per item.
Extremely
Influential (8)
Moderately
Influential (9)
Slightly Influential
(10)
Not At All
Influential (11)
Competency of
Teachers (1) o o o o
Cost (2) o o o o
Extracurricular
Activities (3) o o o o
Feeling of
Belongingness (4) o o o o
Internship and On
the Job Training
Programs (5) o o o o
Quality of Facilities
(6) o o o o
Quality of Service of
Administrative
Offices (7) o o o o
Scholarships (8) o o o o
Government
Subsidies (9) o o o o
Student Support
and Guidance
Programs (10) o o o o
Transparency of
Fees (11) o o o o
OTHER. Please type
NA if not applicable
and choose Not a
Consideration (12)
o o o o

113
5.1 Among those you consider Extremely Influential, which one is the most influential? Please choose one.
oCompetency of Teachers (1)
oCost (2)
oExtracurricular Activities (3)
oFeeling of Belongingness (4)
oInternship and On the Job Training Programs (5)
o Quality of Facilities (6)
o Quality of Service of Administrative Offices (7)
oScholarships (8)
o Government Subsidies (9)
oStudent Support and Guidance Programs (10)
oTransparency of Fees (11)
o OTHER (12) __________________________________________________
5. Please answer a few questions about yourself. Your answers are anonymous and will only be used to help us
classify responses.
5.1. How are you related to the student?
oI am the student.
oFather
o Mother
oBrother or Sister
o Guardian - Other Relative
o Guardian - Non-relative
o Other __________________________________________________

114
5.2. What is your age?
o18-24 years old
o25-34 years old
o35-44 years old
o45-54 years old
o55-64 years old
o65+ years old
oPrefer not to say.
5.3. Please describe the location of your PRIMARY/PERMANENT residence
Name of City/Town __________________________________________________
Name of Province __________________________________________________
Name of Region __________________________________________________
5.4. What is the highest level of education you have completed?
oSome high school or less
o High school diploma
oSome college, but no degree
oAssociates or technical degree (TECHVOC)
oBachelor’s degree
o Graduate or professional degree (MA, MS, MBA, PhD, JD, MD, DDS etc.)
oPrefer not to say.

115
5.5. To the best of your knowledge, what is your estimated monthly household take-home pay (the combined
income of those who live in your household and contribute to monthly expenses)? Please round down to the
closest income bracket.
o None, I am a full-time student.
oLess than PHP15,000
oBetween PHP15,000 and PHP25,000
oBetween PHP26,000 and PHP35,000
oBetween PHP36,000 and PHP45,000
oBetween PHP46,000 and PHP55,000
oBetween PHP56,000 and PHP65,000
oBetween PHP 66,000 and PHP75,000
oBetween PHP76,000 and PHP85,000
oBetween PHP86,000 and PHP95,000
o More than PHP95,000
oPrefer not to say.
5.6. What would you say are the PRIMARY or MAIN SOURCES of funds for your/your child's educational costs in
college? Please choose up to two sources only.
oBank Loan or Credit Card
oExtended Family and Friends
oIncome - Household
oIncome - Student
oInformal Loan
oInsurance or Investment Income
oScholarship - from College or University (academic or non-academic)
oScholarship - external or government
o OTHER __________________________________________________
o Do not know.

116
7. Other than yourself or your child/ward, how many other children in your household do you support?
o No other child
o 1
o 2
o 3
o 4
o 5
o More than 5
Thank you for completing this survey. If you have any questions or concerns about this research, please feel
free to contact annanelizza.baliza@usc.edu.
As the next stage of our research, I will be conducting interviews with parents or guardians to help further the
study. I would like to invite you to participate in a one-on-one interview. If you agree to the interview or would
like to be entered into a raffle for gift certificates as a token of my appreciation, please click on the link below
to open a new browser tab that will take you to a separate survey to enter your email address and select how
you would like to proceed. This is to assure you that your responses will not and cannot be linked to your
identity in any way.
Thank you again for your time and support.
oYES, I WOULD LIKE TO PARTICIPATE FURTHER
o No, I prefer not to participate in the raffle or the interview. (END)
INTERVIEW LINK
Thank you for agreeing to help us further. Please choose one.
I would like to participate in the raffle only.
I would like to participate in the one-on-one interview only.
I would like to participate in both the raffle draw and one-on-one interview.
Please enter your valid email address below and you will receive an email from us with instructions on how to
move forward. Enjoy the rest of your day!

117
Appendix C: Interview Questions
TOPIC: Examining the Influences on the Decision-making Process of Filipino Students
and Parents In Selecting a Post-Secondary Institution
RESEARCH QUESTION/S
1. How do students and parents in the GMA Cavite area choose a college or university?
2. What are the issues that influence their decision to matriculate?
Opening question/s:
1. Can you tell me your/your child’s course and year level?
2. How are you related to the student? (if parent or guardian)
3. Who would you say helped you the most in deciding on a program and university or
college and why. (Determine if parent/guardian, family member, peer, VINA, Influence
of Social Media)
4. Do you live in the Cavite area? What made you decide on the area you live in now? Can
you tell me who, if any, made that decision with you?
5. Which high school did you/your child attend and why?
6. How are you related to the student? (if parent or guardian)
7. Do you have any other siblings/children? Can you tell me more about them?
8. May I ask about your/your parents’ livelihood? What type of work are you/they involved
in?
We are here to understand how you chose your course and the university you decided to enroll
in. Can you walk me through how you came to that decision?
GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. Do you think you/your child was ready for college?
2. How did you know which course you (your child) wanted to take up in college?
a. How did you decide? Can you tell me more? (Determine if easy or difficult
decision and how long it took)
b. Who helped you make that decision? Can you tell me how you decided and when
you came up with the final decision?
c. Can you tell me more about it / walk me through the decision process?
d. Is there anyone in your social circle or connections who helped you decide? How?
e. How do you feel about the decision? If you had a chance to change it, would you?
f. What can you say about social media? Did it play a role? If so how?
3. Why did you choose to enroll in UG?
a. Were there other choices?
b. In addition to what you mentioned, can you let me know if there are other
influences in your decision to enroll here?
c. How did others (family, friends, etc.) influence your decision and to what extent?
What percent out of 100? Why?

118
a. How did, if applicable, these groups influence your decision and to what extent?
What percent out of 100? Why?
● Recommendations of Other Family Members
● Recommendations of Teachers or Guidance Counselor
● Recommendation of Your Friends
● Social Acceptability/ Expectations of Others
● Others
*Use probes to allow more detailed responses
Closing:
Thank you for your time. Do you have any questions for me before we conclude? If I have any
details I need to clarify, may I contact you for another interview either in person or on zoom,
whichever is convenient for you. If you prefer, I can also send questions to your email.
To thank you for participating, I will be sending you a gift card through the School Director’s
office. Thank you very much.

119
Appendix D: Interview Protocol
Date:
Start Time/End Time:
Location:
Participant:
Notes to Interviewee:
- Invite participant to partake of snacks and drinks prior to sitting down for the interview.
I am Anna Nelizza Baliza, a doctoral student at the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education. I am conducting research on school choice and the influences on
the decision-making process of students and parents. Please ask me to stop if you have any
questions or clarifications as we go through the Information Sheet, and I will take time to
explain.
One of the biggest decisions a student will make is the choice of course or program and
which college or university they will attend. I would like to understand the steps in the decisionmaking process, the how and the why, to help guide future students and parents and possibly
simplify the process for them. It may also serve as a guide for colleges and universities on how
to help make this decision as easy as possible. You do not have to answer any question or take
part in the interview if you feel the question(s) are too personal or if talking about them makes
you uncomfortable.
This research will involve your participation in this interview which will last about an
hour. Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. You may change your mind later
and stop participating even if you agreed earlier. You will be asked questions on how you
decided on the course and university or college you / your child enrolled in for college. I may ask
you to elaborate or provide more information on some of your answers. If you do not wish to
answer any of the questions during the interview, you may say so and I will move on to the next
person or question. The information recorded is confidential, and no one else except me will
have access to the information documented during your interview. No one will be identified by
name on the recording. The recording will be kept on a hard drive in a locked cabinet in my
office and will be destroyed after it has been transcribed.
We will not be sharing information about you with anyone outside of the research team.
The information that we collect from this research project will be kept private. Any information
about you will have a number on it instead of your name. Only the researchers will know what
your number is. It will not be shared with or given to anyone.
Closing:
Thank you for your time. Do you have any questions for me before we conclude? If I have any
details I need to clarify, may I contact you for another interview either in person or on zoom,
whichever is convenient for you. I would like to present you with this gift card as a token of my
appreciation.

120
Appendix E: Recruitment Email
Dear PARTICIPANT,
My name is Anna Nelizza Baliza, and I am a doctoral student in the field of global
education at the University of Southern California. As part of my dissertation, I am conducting
research on school choice and the influences on the decision-making process of students and
parents.
I am reaching out to ask for your participation in an interview to help understand the
steps in the process of deciding, the how and the why, which course to take and which university
or college to enroll in. This study may help guide future college students and parents and
simplify the process for them. It may also serve as a guide to colleges and universities on how to
make this decision as easy as possible.
This study is being conducted for research purposes only and responses will not be shared
with any third party. Your participation is entirely voluntary and those who answer the survey
will be entered into a raffle to win gift certificates and participants who volunteer for the
interview will receive a gift card at the end of the interview to thank you for your time. Those
who withdraw at any time will not be penalized in any way. The survey should take 15 to 20
minutes and the interview about an hour. Audio and video will be recorded for accuracy of
transcription and all data will be kept secure.
If you would like to participate in the survey, please click on the following link:
If you consent to being interviewed, please reply to this email with the following
information:
• Full Name
• Year and Course or Program of student/child
• Preferred Day of Interview (Monday to Friday)
• Preferred Time of Interview (ideally between 10 am and 3 pm). Please indicate
your preferred time if these times do not work for you.
• Choose one interview method:
o In-person on-campus
o Zoom Video Conference
Thank you in advance for your consideration. This research will be meaningful only with
the participation of students and parents like you, who are willing to share their insights.
Finally, if you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to contact me at
annanelizza.baliza@usc.edu.
Sincerely,
Arni Baliza

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Asset Metadata

Creator Tamayo, Anna Nelizza Punla (author)

Core Title Examining influences on the decision-making process of Filipino students and parents in selecting a post-secondary institution

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 08/31/2024

Defense Date 07/17/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag decision-making framework,higher education institution,LCPSU,low-cost private schools and universities,parent,Philippines,post-secondary choice,rational choice theory,school choice,social capital theory,student

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambascia, Tracy Poon (committee chair), Ishop, Kedra (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email arni.tamayo.baliza@gmail.com,arni.tamayo.baliza@uphsl.edu.ph

Unique identifier UC11399A0AK

Identifier etd-TamayoAnna-13460.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-TamayoAnna-13460

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Tamayo, Anna Nelizza Punla

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240831-usctheses-batch-1205 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

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