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Embracing the intersection of giftedness and disability: examining a standalone school model for twice-exceptional learners

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Embracing the intersection of giftedness and disability: examining a standalone school model for twice-exceptional learners

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Content EMBRACING THE INTERSECTION OF GIFTEDNESS AND DISABILITY:
EXAMINING A STANDALONE SCHOOL MODEL FOR TWICE-EXCEPTIONAL LEARNERS
by
Alecia Steiner
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2024
Copyright 2024 Alecia Steiner

The Committee for Alecia Steiner certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Sandra Kaplan
Margo Pensavalle
Cathy Krop, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iii
Acknowledgements
I can now say from experience (as many who have come before me) that this has most
certainly been a long and difficult road. Yet somehow, as is my way, I managed to take the
scenic route, arriving at my destination late, but just in time. However, this is a road that I could
never have traveled alone, and I would like to take this opportunity to extend thanks to those who
have helped make this possible.
I would first like to thank my dissertation committee, Dr. Cathy Krop, Dr. Margo
Pensavalle, and Dr. Sandra Kaplan. I appreciate you all for contributing your expertise,
encouragement, and patience. I would especially like to thank Dr. Krop for the encouraging
words at every turn that helped motivate me to persevere.
No words can express the depth of my gratitude, respect, and appreciation for my mother,
Dorothy Grebner, and grandmother, Chrysolia Smith, who instilled their values, including a deep
regard for education, and built a legacy for each generation to reach higher than those who came
before. I also wish to thank my father, Robert Grebner, for his encouragement, humor, and
always believing in me.
I am deeply grateful to my husband, Tony, for bearing the greatest burden of all and
taking such great care of our family during my scholarly sabbatical over the course of so many
years. To my four children, who hold up a mirror, reminding me to check my own
incongruencies of exceptionality (and everything else), I thank you for the honor and privilege of
being your mom.
To Jeremy, thank you for helping me take an occasional break during this process and
keeping Tony company when I couldn’t. To Randy, thank you for offering to read my work.
Lastly and firstly, I give thanks to God, with whom all things are possible.

iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study .......................................................................................... 1
Organizational Context and Mission .................................................................................. 2
Organizational Performance Status ..................................................................................... 3
Related Literature................................................................................................................ 4
Importance of a Promising Practice Project ........................................................................ 8
Organizational Performance Goal ....................................................................................... 9
Description of Stakeholder Groups ................................................................................... 10
Stakeholder Group for the Study ...................................................................................... 10
Purpose of the Project and Questions ............................................................................... 11
Methodological Framework .............................................................................................. 11
Definitions......................................................................................................................... 12
Organization of the Project ............................................................................................... 12
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 14
Educating Twice Exceptional Students ............................................................................ 14
Historical Context of Twice Exceptionality in Education ................................................ 15
Challenges to 2e Success in the Educational System ....................................................... 21
Approaches to Educating 2e ............................................................................................. 31
Clark and Estes (2008) Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Framework ........................................................................................................................ 34

v
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences .............................. 35
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context ...................................................................... 49
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 53
Chapter Three: Methods ............................................................................................................... 54
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 54
Data Collection and Instrumentation ................................................................................ 56
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 59
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 60
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 61
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 63
Study Participants ............................................................................................................. 63
Findings............................................................................................................................. 65
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 98
Chapter Five: Recommendations ................................................................................................ 100
Purpose of the Project and Questions ............................................................................. 100
Discussion of Findings .................................................................................................... 101
Recommendation for Practice to Address KMO Influences ........................................... 111
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ............................................................. 127
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 144
Future Research .............................................................................................................. 145
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 146
References ................................................................................................................................... 150

vi
Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 168
Appendix A: Teacher Interview Protocol ....................................................................... 168
Appendix B: Administrator Interview Protocol .............................................................. 171
Appendix C: Immediate Evaluation Instrument ............................................................. 173
Appendix D: Blended Evaluation Instrument ................................................................. 174

vii
List of Tables
Table 1: Assumed Knowledge Assets, Types, and Assessments ................................................... 38
Table 2: Assumed Motivation Assets and Assessments ................................................................ 41
Table 3: Entrepreneurial Mindset Characteristics ......................................................................... 46
Table 4: Assumed Organizational Assets and Assessments .......................................................... 49
Table 5: Key Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Findings ........................................... 65
Table 6: Mechanisms for Embedding Culture .............................................................................. 90
Table 7: Summary of Knowledge Assets and Recommendations ...............................................112
Table 8: Summary of Motivation Assets and Recommendations ................................................118
Table 9: Summary of Organizational Assets and Recommendations ......................................... 122
Table 10: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ...................... 129
Table 11: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ............................. 132
Table 12: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ......................................................... 133
Table 13: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ...................................... 139
Table 14: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program .................................................... 140

viii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Relating Teacher Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organizational Influences to Performance .................................................................... 51
Figure 2: Teacher Professional Experience ................................................................................... 64
Figure 3: Organizational Influences on Teacher Knowledge and Motivation .............................110
Figure 4: Sample Program Progress Reporting Dashboard ........................................................ 142

ix
Abstract
Research on how to best meet the academic needs and potential of gifted students with
disabilities, known as twice-exceptional or 2e, has grown over the past 30 years. While
recognition of 2e learners is slowly extending to educational policy, there are few school
program options designed to accommodate 2e students and even fewer studies on the
organizational aspects of implementing such programs. This promising practice study sought to
understand the organizational performance dynamics influencing teacher success in a school for
2e students through the lens of the Clark and Estes gap analysis framework. Data were collected
using semi-structured interviews with middle-school teachers and a school administrator along
with school documents and artifacts to ascertain the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
assets contributing to success. The findings indicated that teacher performance was supported by
knowledge of 2e characteristics, instructional strategies, and individual social-emotional
competence. Teachers were motivated intrinsically and by self-efficacy. Organizational
contributing factors were widespread transmission of the school’s mission and vision,
entrepreneurial mindset values, and identification with a shared purpose. The highly autonomyoriented environment encouraged personal initiative and may have motivated teachers to seek
learning resources independently. A teacher community of shared purpose developed,
reinforcing collective knowledge and motivation systemically. Research-supported
recommendations were made to address organizational challenges associated with cultivating
successful 2e learning environments, followed by an implementation and evaluation plan guided
by the New World Kirkpatrick Model. This study offers insight into key components influencing
teacher performance within the dynamic and complex 2e learning environment.

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
This dissertation addresses the problem of the lack of access to an appropriate education
for twice-exceptional (2e) students in the United States’ public school system. 2e students are
defined as those who are exceptional due to high ability or giftedness while also having a
disability or condition that impedes learning (Baldwin, Baum, et al., 2015). Although the term
disability is ubiquitous in the literature describing 2e learners and carries legal and diagnostic
implications, it is important to note that viewing these differences through the lens of learning
characteristics offers a broader perspective that can be translated into opportunities and solutions.
Examples of 2e learners might include a student in the highly gifted I.Q. range with Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or one who reads well below grade level due to dyslexia
but is advanced in math and science. 2e students often face challenges because their advanced
abilities can mask deficits, and conversely, their disabilities can hide their giftedness. Both cases
prevent them from receiving appropriate educational support specific to their needs (Bianco &
Leech, 2010).
In some cases, learning differences and giftedness negate one another. For example, high
ability students may perform well below their cognitive abilities on standardized tests due to
learning differences (Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). As a result, teachers and school administrators
consider them average students who are neither gifted nor requiring additional support. When
students show signs of giftedness, but deficits become more salient, educators tend to focus
solely on referral for special education evaluations rather than also evaluating for giftedness. In
these cases, the academic, social, and behavioral challenges typical of the 2e population have
become their most striking attributes, overshadowing the positive qualities characteristic of
giftedness (Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). Even though researchers and practitioners first began to

2
recognize the potential for dual exceptionality 50 years ago, there is still no industry-wide
adoption of a research-based model to guide the identification and educational programming of
2e students (Baldwin, Baum, et al., 2015). This problem is important to address because 2e
students are at-risk for underachievement, low self-esteem, declining motivation, and a number
of related behavioral and social-emotional problems leading to academic failure (Leggett et al.,
2010).
Organizational Context and Mission
Bridges Academy has been selected as the focus of this study. It is a private,
nonsectarian school located in California's San Fernando Valley, for grades 4-12. The school,
founded in 1994, specializes in students who are considered 2e learners. It offers a college
preparatory program designed to serve those with a high-functioning 2e profile. According to its
website, the school reviews transcripts, teacher recommendations, and standardized test results
along with private assessments or other materials that will demonstrate the student’s talents and
needs (Bridges Academy, n.d.-a). Admissions decisions are based on an evaluation of the
documentation submitted, observations from a “visit day” the child spends at the school, and
interviews that help determine a student’s fit. Students are admitted if the admissions team
believes that the program is capable of supporting the student's needs.
Bridges Academy is registered as a non-profit organization (Internal Revenue Service,
2024) governed by a Board of Trustees (Bridges Academy: Board of Trustees, n.d.), and led by
the Head of School. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2023), there are
182 students and 48 full-time teachers, with a 3.8 student-to-teacher ratio. The demographic data
on race and ethnicity shows that 90% of the students are White, while 4% are Hispanic, 2% are
Asian, 1% are Black and 2% identify as two or more races.

3
According to the Bridges website, the school’s mission is to understand and educate
gifted students with learning differences using a strengths-based, talent-driven approach in order
to create a successful academic and social experience for the student and the larger community
(Bridges Academy, n.d.-c). The school focuses on providing an environment with a low studentto-teacher ratio where teachers can attune the school experience to the learner’s profile as closely
as possible and offer an opportunity for maximum academic and personal growth. The school’s
mission is framed as an answer to the need for specific supports unique to the 2e population.
Bridges’ website describes 2e students as those who may have been misdiagnosed or
misunderstood as lazy, incapable, or emotionally troubled (Bridges Academy, n.d.-c).
Bridges Academy has undergone significant growth in recent years and now falls under
the umbrella of the Bridges Education Group, with the school representing one part of the
organization’s multi-modal approach to addressing the problem of educating 2e students
(Bridges Education Group, n.d.-a). Bridges Education Group is comprised of Bridges Academy
(with the addition of an online high school program), the Bridges 2e Center for Research and
Professional Development (2e Center), and Bridges 2e Media. The 2e Center focuses on using
research, outreach, curriculum development, and teacher training to advance knowledge about 2e
issues in the education field and broader community and 2e Media publishes the 2e News online
journal and a semiannual print magazine. Most recently, in 2019, the Bridges Graduate School
for Cognitive Diversity in Education was launched, offering Master and Doctor of Education
programs in cognitive diversity along with a certificate program in 2e education.
Organizational Performance Status
Bridges Academy was identified as a promising practice for this study because it has set
itself apart as a leader in 2e education. Bridges was one of the first standalone schools for 2e

4
students, becoming accredited in 1999 (Bridges Education Group, n.d.-b), and has gained
recognition as a model school for teaching this population. A 2014 study following a cohort of
Bridges students from middle school to high school graduation showed that the school’s
strengths-based approach for 2e learners demonstrated impressive results, indicating growth
across cognitive, behavioral, and social-emotional domains, which contrasted with a collective
history of past negative school experiences reported by the same students and their families
(Baum et al., 2014). The school continues to draw praise anecdotally from families who share
stories of their child’s difficulties fitting in and experiencing academic success before coming to
Bridges. While reporting on private school performance is limited because independent schools
are not subject to government oversight (California Department of Education, n.d.), data
obtained from the Bridges website indicate that 96% of the high school students graduate within
four years (Bridges Academy, n.d.-b), as compared to the national average of 87% (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2024). It also states that 90% of alumni graduate from a college
or specialty school within six years of graduation and 95% continue to earn master or doctoral
degrees and/or professional certifications. Investigation of this promising practice can offer
insights at the school level that contribute to solving the larger problem of the lack of access to
an appropriate and equitable education that meets the needs of twice-exceptional students in the
U.S. public school system.
Related Literature
2e students are often misidentified in the public school system, which can impede access
to educational resources. School officials may only recognize the disability of a student with
pronounced difficulties, while overlooking signs of giftedness (King, 2022). Likewise, a gifted
student with average or better academic performance may not be identified for special education

5
services. For example, Besnoy et al. (2015) interviewed parents of 2e elementary students for a
study on their experiences advocating for their children. One family reported that school
officials would not refer their child for gifted identification because he was already due for
special education evaluations, and they did not find additional testing to be warranted.
Misidentification is even more salient in minority student populations, who are traditionally
over-represented in special education, yet under-identified as gifted (Katsiyannis et al., 2023;
Robinson, 2017). In other reports, schools failed to find 2e students eligible for special
education services, thus forcing their families to seek independent professional evaluations,
which, in one case, the school later refused as evidence of eligibility (Besnoy et al., 2015).
Researchers have found that teachers often have stereotypes of gifted children, such as
being high-achievers and compliant students (Baldwin, Omdal, et al., 2015; Carman, 2011).
Students identified as gifted, but who do not fit this perception of giftedness are often viewed as
being lazy or not trying hard enough (Beckmann & Minnaert, 2018). Consequently, the
possibility of disability is not considered. For example, in the Besnoy et al. (2015) study, a
parent reported that the school denied the family's request for a special education eligibility
assessment because the child was gifted and "not failing" (p. 108). In some cases, school
personnel do not believe that it is possible for a child with learning differences or a
developmental disability, such as autism, to also be gifted (Baldwin, Omdal, et al., 2015). In
these cases, the student’s educational program focuses entirely on their deficits while areas of
strength often go completely unnoticed.
Teacher perceptions of student abilities can be negatively influenced by disability labels
(Franz et al., 2023; Missett et al., 2016). Educators often have the misperception that giftedness
cannot coexist in a student with special needs (Bianco & Leech, 2010). These views influence

6
whether teachers consider a student appropriate for gifted referral. The misidentification of 2e
students prevents their access to an appropriate education (Piske et al., 2022). However, students
who are recognized for both giftedness and disability may still face challenges benefitting from
their educational program.
Teachers and other school personnel are often unfamiliar with teaching 2e students and
may not know how to support their educational needs. When students show both high ability
and academic performance problems, schools tend to focus solely on deficits rather than
attending to remediation and the enrichment of strengths (Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). Academic
programming to challenge or advance gifted students is often regarded as supplementary while
special education support is considered essential. For example, 2e students were barred from
advanced placement classes and other academic opportunities due to school policies restricting
participation for poor grades in weaker subject areas (Schultz, 2012). However, policies such as
these do not consider that uneven levels of ability are inherent characteristics for many 2e
learners and, therefore, prioritize the remediation of deficits over building areas of strength
(Rubenstein et al., 2015). This deficit-based approach can eventually affect students' selfperceptions as they come to identify themselves primarily as disabled rather than recognizing the
value of their abilities, as well (Bodfield et al., 2023; Nielsen & Higgins, 2005).
In addition, Willard-Holt et al. (2013) indicate that 2e learners benefit from nontraditional approaches to learning, which are often not available in general education. In their
study on 2e student perceptions of school experiences and the effectiveness of various learning
strategies, the authors found that the students most strongly preferred to have choice and
flexibility in content, learning methods, pacing, and in how they demonstrated knowledge. They
also responded best when being challenged by learning that required higher order thinking skills

7
rather than redundant or simplistic activities they were often given in school. However, nearly
all the students reported feeling that school had failed to help them learn to their potential
(Willard-Holt et al., 2013). This suggests that the lack of knowledge within the education system
about educating 2e learners impacts their ability to benefit from their educational experiences.
For educators and school districts to become more knowledgeable about this population, there
must be policies in place and funding to provide for the planning and implementation of
appropriate programs.
Lack of legislation presents an additional barrier to the advancement of program
development for 2e learners. Education policies put in place to comply with legislation drive
action at the school level (Roberts et al., 2015) These policies can provide protection for
marginalized student populations by allocating funding and resources, directing best practices,
and creating accountability. While special education students’ rights are protected by federal
law, 2e students may not fit eligibility criteria defined in special education law despite
experiencing learning difficulties (Gilman et al., 2013). Without legislation and policy to guide
2e student identification and allocate resources for program development and teacher education,
identification and programming decisions are made on a case-by-case basis (Roberts et al., 2015)
Existing literature on the problem of educating 2e students points to a widespread lack of
awareness and information about 2e learners, in general. As a result, these students tend to be
misidentified, misunderstood, and unable to access the programs and services they need to
succeed in school. With a lack of legislative support, it is difficult to effect changes that can
improve students’ access to an appropriate education in a public school setting.

8
Importance of a Promising Practice Project
It is important to address the lack of access to appropriate education for 2e students
because they represent a significantly underrepresented and underserved population that is at-risk
for academic failure (Barnard-Brak et al., 2015; Peters et al., 2019; Ralabate, 2006). According
to the U.S. Department of Education, data published from the most recent Civil Rights Data
Collection survey (2024) shows that 8.4 million students with disabilities were enrolled in public
schools, which represents 17% of overall student enrollment. At the same time, disabled
students represented only 3% of the 2.9 million students enrolled in gifted and talented programs.
Moreover, a nationally representative longitudinal study of elementary students with disabilities
suggested that about 9% of all disabled students could be considered gifted (Barnard-Brak et al.,
2015). However, only 11% of those found gifted received gifted programming, with female,
African American, and Hispanic students even less likely to participate in gifted programs. This
data demonstrates the overwhelming underrepresentation of 2e students in educational programs
supporting both their talents and areas of need.
Without access to appropriate supports and educational programs, 2e students may
increasingly suffer from feelings of failure, frustration, and isolation (Nielsen & Higgins, 2005).
The emotional and psychological harm they repeatedly experience in ill-fitting learning
environments may ultimately result in losses to their communities and society in general (Piske
et al., 2022; Ralabate, 2006). Studying Bridges Academy and the assets they have in serving 2e
students could help families and other educational institutions, particularly public schools, gain
the knowledge necessary for supporting these students. As awareness increases and precedents
are set, schools will need to know how to identify and educate 2e students. The literature on
twice-exceptionality has focused extensively on describing the phenomenon, identification and

9
instructional practices for teachers, and advocacy for families (Maddocks, 2018). Knowledge
derived from studying this promising practice could help inform educational providers on the
established practices of a 2e school that have proven successful from an organizational
perspective.
Organizational Performance Goal
Since 2006, Bridges Academy's organizational performance goal has been to provide a
differentiated educational program using a strengths-based, talent-focused school model for 2e
learners. The purpose of the organizational performance goal is to support the school’s mission
of educating 2e students using a research-based program model designed for their unique needs
that will promote academic and social-emotional success. This organizational goal was
developed as research across disciplines increasingly pointed to the benefits of an approach
grounded in positive psychology, where there is an emphasis on strengths and talent
development, contrary to the deficit-based models commonly found in programs where the focus
is on remediation (Immordino‐Yang & Damasio, 2007; Seligman et al., 2009; Terjesen et al.,
2004). In response to growing research supporting a strengths-based, talent-focused approach,
the school changed its program in 2006 from a more traditional approach emphasizing
remediation to its current practice. Baum, Schader, and Hébert (2014) published a study on the
parent and student experiences of the first cohort to complete the redesigned program from 4th
through 12th grade. The researchers found that the students demonstrated positive changes
cognitively, socially, behaviorally, and emotionally, and that all had shown personal growth
compared to when they began the program. The study further asserted that there were factors
specific to the school's philosophy and implementation of the new model which contributed to
the growth students experienced. The school continues to meet its goal by maintaining the

10
strengths and talents emphasis at the core of the program design while continually seeking
improvement through organizational self-evaluation, action research, and by incorporating best
practices as new research emerges.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The stakeholder groups related to this promising practice include the Board of Trustees,
school administrators, teachers, parents, and students. The Board of Trustees provides fiscal and
strategic oversight. The school administrators enact decisions from the Board and are actively
involved in supporting the teachers by guiding the methodology and direction of internal
processes to ensure that they advance the school’s mission. The teachers are primarily
responsible for delivering curricula and assessing student progress toward annual goals. Parents
are instrumental stakeholders both as advocates for their children and in supporting the school.
Finally, students play an active role in their own success, as one of Bridges’ major educational
philosophies is teaching self-reliance and developing responsibility as part of a larger
socioemotional curriculum embedded in the program.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Bridges Academy’s success in achieving its organizational goal of providing all students
with a strengths-based program promoting academic and social-emotional growth depends on the
actions of multiple stakeholders. However, it is important to evaluate the teachers’ contributions
to these outcomes, as the teachers are directly responsible for instruction and are held
accountable for student outcomes. Understanding the way that teachers contribute to these
outcomes can also help inform practice in the larger context of public and private schools that
support 2e students in the surrounding community. Therefore, this study focused on the Bridges
Academy teachers and their specific contribution to the school's mission. While administrators

11
were not the focus of this research, they were included in the study to provide context as a
supplement to teacher accounts.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to study Bridges Academy’s performance related to a
larger problem of practice: that of implementing educational programming that meets the needs
of 2e students. While a comprehensive study examining the contributions of all stakeholders
would be ideal, for practical purposes, the stakeholder of focus in this analysis is the teachers.
The analysis focused on the teachers’ assets in the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and
organizational resources.
As such, the questions that guided this study are the following:
1. What knowledge and motivation assets do the teachers have that contribute to Bridges
Academy’s successful implementation of a 2e school model?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation of teachers?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate for solving this problem of practice in other school
settings?
Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework was used to understand the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on the teachers at Bridges Academy. In
the context of a promising practice study, the framework was used to learn about the factors
contributing to the school’s successful outcomes in educating 2e students. Qualitative data was

12
collected using interviews with school teachers and an administrator. The results were analyzed
to generate research-based recommendations for practice.
Definitions
Gifted: Students with advanced intellectual ability significantly above the norm (National
Association for Gifted Children, 2019).
Twice-Exceptional: Gifted students with a co-occurring disability that causes learning difficulty
(National Association for Gifted Children, 2009).
FAPE: Acronym for the legal requirement that schools offer students with disabilities a free
appropriate public education that meets their specific needs and prepares them for further
education, employment, and independent living (Individuals with Disabilities Act [IDEA],
2004).
Least Restrictive Environment: The legal right for students in special education to be placed in
school environments with non-disabled peers to the greatest extent that is appropriate (IDEA,
2004).
Individualized Education Plan: A legally mandated document which determines special
education eligibility, program placement, and services developed by a multidisciplinary team at
the student’s local public school (IDEA, 2004).
Organization of the Project
This study is organized using five chapters. This chapter introduced the reader to the
concepts and terminology associated with educating 2e students. It also introduced the subject
organization's missions, goals, and stakeholders along with a description of the methodological
framework for the study. Chapter Two provides a review of the literature on 2e education,
including a discussion of the historical context, challenges to 2e academic success, and examples

13
of previously established 2e program models. Chapter Three describes the assumed influences
driving the study and provides details on the methodology of participant selection, data
collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the results of data analysis are presented. Finally,
Chapter Five closes the study with a discussion of the findings, recommendations for practice
derived from the findings and supporting literature, and an implementation and evaluation plan
demonstrating how these recommendations may be applied in other school contexts.

14
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review examines the lack of access to an appropriate education for
students who are twice exceptional (2e), that is, those who are both gifted intellectually and
challenged by learning differences. The chapter begins by presenting a historical perspective on
the development of knowledge pertaining to students demonstrating dual exceptionality. This
includes an overview of seminal research uncovering the possibility of an intersection between
giftedness and disability, the progression of perceptions toward exceptional students, and the
evolving definition of “twice exceptional.” Next, the discussion turns to current challenges 2e
students face within the existing educational system. The review also covers the literature on
approaches to educating 2e students and recommendations for practice. Finally, the chapter
presents an introduction to the Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Framework (2008) grounding this
study, which places a focus on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
corresponding to teachers’ ability to provide instruction benefitting 2e learners.
Educating Twice Exceptional Students
2e students are an underserved population due to a variety of reasons, including
educators' lack of familiarity with identifying 2e students and lack of knowledge on best
practices for educating them (Willard-Holt et al., 2013). The literature frequently refers to the
paradoxical nature of 2e exceptionalities, pointing out that 2e students are often misidentified
due to their exceptions masking one another (Baldwin, Baum, et al., 2015; King, 2022). In
addition, educators are inclined to recognize the most noticeable trait (gifted or disabled) and
categorize students into programming accordingly, to the exclusion of the student's other needs
(Baldwin, Omdal, et al., 2015). Researchers have identified common characteristics of 2e
children, some of which are predominantly exhibited by gifted children while others more typical

15
of those with learning challenges (Omdal, 2015). Researchers have also identified best practices
and proposed models for identification. However, schools are left to navigate identification
independently in the absence of guidelines regulated by policy. Without an understanding of the
unique profile of 2e students, schools often fail to provide the support and growth 2e students
need to be academically successful. Due to common 2e characteristics, such as asynchronous
socioemotional development, unrealistic self-expectations, frustration, and sensitivity, 2e
students can be harmed academically and psychologically by an inappropriate educational
environment (Baldwin, Omdal, et al., 2015; Leggett et al., 2010). While data isn’t readily
available on the number of existing programs for 2e students in the public school system, several
states have implemented programs to educate teachers about 2e students. Without legislation in
place to address the needs of 2e students and mobilize efforts to establish suitable educational
programming, these students are at the mercy of each school district or school (Roberts et al.,
2015).
Historical Context of Twice Exceptionality in Education
To better understand the current state of 2e education, it is important to provide context
by looking at the evolution of the 2e concept in education. While it is now known that children
can have high intelligence concurrently with disabilities related to learning, historical views on
education did not recognize the possibility that these characteristics could overlap (Bianco &
Leech, 2010). Cognitive ability was considered a continuum from superior intelligence to
intellectual disability. This ongoing misperception was often attributed to findings from Lewis
Terman’s foundational research in the early 1900s on the nature of gifted individuals, which
suggested that they exceeded norms in all areas of development (Bianco & Leech, 2010; Krausz,
2018).

16
In 1923, early seminal research by Leta Hollingworth described students with high
intellectual ability who also experienced difficulty learning (Baum & Schader, 2018). She noted
that several nonreaders with average to gifted intelligence had eventually learned to read only
through nonconventional methods. In 1944, Hans Asperger identified a disorder, later known as
Asperger’s Syndrome, which was characterized by impaired two-way interaction, isolated areas
of interest, pedantic speech, and ignorance of the environment. He suggested that the syndrome
was more prevalent in children with superior intelligence (Baum & Schader, 2018). During that
time, research on brain-injured children with emotional, behavioral, and perceptual difficulties
suggested that their learning deficits were not associated with low intelligence (Baldwin, Baum,
et al., 2015). These and later studies suggested that dual diagnosis as gifted and learning
disabled was possible (Cruickshank, 1977; Goertzel & Goertzel, 1962, as cited in Reis et al.,
2014). Despite the results of such studies, giftedness and special education remained separate
and distinct fields that were not considered to overlap.
Evolving Views Toward Educating Exceptional Students
Historically, public schools were not required to provide specialized programming for
gifted or disabled students (Baum & Schader, 2018). In 1975, the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act was passed, requiring school districts to provide a free, appropriate
public education (FAPE), due process rights for those covered by the act, an Individualized
Education Program (IEP), and placement in the least restrictive environment (LRE). Meanwhile,
in 1978, the Gifted and Talented Children's Education Act established a federal office for gifted
and talented, a National Training Institute, and provided a definition specifying areas of
giftedness. Although this legislation entitled gifted-identified students to specialized programs
and instruction, there was no mandate requiring schools to provide the services.

17
While both acts introduced guidelines for identifying and supporting their respective
student populations, neither addressed students who were both gifted and learning disabled
(Baum & Schader, 2018; Kaufman, 2018). Despite an increase in programs due to federal
funding, state policies would often not reimburse schools for students in more than one area,
creating a funding problem for schools with students falling in multiple categories (Baldwin,
Baum, et al., 2015; Baum & Schader, 2018).
Researchers and educators became increasingly aware that there was a need to support
high ability students with learning differences, particularly following publication of June Maker's
seminal work, Providing Programs for the Gifted Handicapped (1977), which was the first to
address programming for this population. As interest increased, a growing number of articles
were published on the characteristics and educational needs of those who were gifted and
disabled. A publication by Meisgeier, Meisgeier, and Warblo (1978) pointed out that students
who were gifted and learning disabled needed both advanced work and remediation. It also
raised the concern that such students often required counseling to address emotional difficulties
brought on by the discrepancy between their strengths and weaknesses. Renzulli (1978) argued
that students with attention, social, or academic challenges are capable of displaying traditionally
gifted behaviors when engaged in activities that involve areas of their interests and talents. The
concept of giftedness expanded to include challenges gifted students encountered academically,
socially, and in self-regulation.
As more research was published over the following 20 years, some of the first
educational programs addressing gifted students with learning disabilities became available
(Baldwin, Baum, et al., 2015). In 1979, the Southern and Northern Westchester Board of
Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES) in New York opened one of the first dedicated

18
gifted special education programs, which included one program for elementary and middle
school students and a second program serving high school students (Field, 1984). In Cupertino,
California, a successful public school program was developed for highly gifted underachievers
who were described as what we now know to be 2e students (Baldwin, Baum, et al., 2015).
Growing recognition in the field of 2e research among educators, researchers, and
advocates led to the establishment of some of the first organizations focused on gifted students
with learning challenges and disabilities (Baldwin, Omdal, et al., 2015). The Association for the
Education of Gifted Underachieving Students (AEGUS) was established in 1987, representing
the first advocacy group for gifted underachievers. The National Association for Gifted children
established a division to address the needs of special populations who are underrepresented in the
gifted community, including those who are disabled.
As funding for government grant programs became available, the number of public
school programs for gifted students with learning differences grew. Federal funding helped
establish large-scale projects for research, identification initiatives, and program planning, while
state grants supported local school efforts to provide resources for 2e learners. One of the most
significant of these programs, The Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act
(Javits Act) was established in 1988 through the U.S. Department of Education (Renzulli et al.,
2014). One major priority of the Javits Act was promoting identification and support for gifted
students from underrepresented groups who may not have been identified through standardized
assessment measures, such as those who are economically disadvantaged, English language
learners, or disabled. Due to Javits Act grant funds, several programs were created, including
The Twice Exceptional Child Project, which was a collaboration between the University of New
Mexico and Albuquerque Public Schools (Nielsen et al., 1993). School programs were also

19
established in Maryland, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. In Colorado, two school districts used
state funds for teacher training on identification and supporting 2e students.
Current Landscape of the 2e Movement
When the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) was reauthorized in 2004, its legally
mandated protections became available for more 2e students (Baum et al., 2017). New language
was added that included the disabled student who had “not failed or been retained in a course,
and is advancing from grade to grade” (Baum et al., 2017, p. 11). The addition of this language
is significant because it offered inclusion for students falling within the 2e population who may
have managed to pass, but still required special education supports to succeed. Another
important change to the act modified the criteria used to identify students as being learning
disabled (Baldwin, Baum, et al., 2015). Previously, the discrepancy model was the only factor
used to determine eligibility. The discrepancy formula identified a learning disability by the
existence of a significant gap between student achievement and ability (Maddocks, 2018).
However, this method overlooked students who had a learning disability but were performing at
a level that did not represent enough of a gap to be eligible. The updated language no longer
required use of the discrepancy model, although it was still an option at the state’s discretion
(Baldwin, Baum, et al., 2015). The use of a Response to Intervention (RtI) model was
encouraged as an alternative that proposed an analysis of performance through a comprehensive,
team-based approach. The potential benefit was that such a collaboration could bridge the gap
between general, gifted, and special education in program planning for 2e students.
More recently, various websites and publications have emerged focused on disseminating
information related to 2e students for families, teachers, and other professionals, including online
newsletters Smart Kids with Learning Disabilities and 2eNews (Baum et al., 2017). In addition,

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several states have published guidelines for 2e student identification, including Colorado, Idaho,
Maryland, Montana, Ohio, and Virginia. Meanwhile, research centers devoted to understanding
2e students, such as the Belin-Blanc Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development at the
University of Iowa have helped further research on the 2e population.
Although there has been advancement in the recognition of dual exceptionality as a
phenomenon, researchers have argued that there was not adequate research to substantiate its
existence. Critics have claimed that there was not enough empirical evidence that the 2e
population exists, that there was no research-based, operational definition for 2e, and that, within
the education field, there was limited agreement on 2e identification and best practices. FoleyNicpon et al. (2011) responded by publishing a literature review discussing characteristics,
identification, and best practices for 2e students, focusing on those with learning disability,
ADHD, and autism. The authors concluded that there was definitive empirical evidence that
dual exceptionalities exist.
Professionals working with the 2e population began to recognize the need for a unifying
vision and common language within the 2e field. In 2013, the National Twice-Exceptional
Community of Practice (2e CoP) was established to “provide a cross-stakeholder forum for
discussion of the issues related to the education of 2e students within a K-12 school
environment” (Baldwin, Baum, et al., 2015, p. 212). The 2e CoP was comprised of 26 national,
state, and local organizations from all areas of education, family advocacy, and clinical practice.
The CoP created an operational definition for 2e based on research and practice to guide
identification, intervention, and social emotional health. The final agreed-upon definition is as
follows:

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Twice-exceptional individuals evidence exceptional ability and disability, which results
in a unique set of circumstances. Their exceptional ability may dominate, hiding their
disability; their disability may dominate, hiding their exceptional ability; each may mask
the other so that neither is recognized or addressed. 2e students, who may perform below,
at, or above grade level, require the following:
 specialized methods of identification that consider the possible interaction of the
exceptionalities,
 enriched/advanced educational opportunities that develop the child’s interests,
gifts, and talents while also meeting the child’s learning needs,
 and simultaneous supports that ensure the child’s academic success and socialemotional well-being, such as accommodations, therapeutic interventions, and
specialized instruction.
Working successfully with this unique population requires specialized academic training
and ongoing professional development. (Baldwin, Baum, et al., 2015, p. 212)
Challenges to 2e Success in the Educational System
Although there have been advancements in the awareness of gifted and disabled students,
there is still a general lack of knowledge about dual exceptionality in the field of education
ranging from the lack of teacher education on working with cognitively diverse students to the
failure to recognize 2e characteristics at the school level. 2e children commonly exhibit certain
characteristic traits and behaviors (Baldwin, Omdal, et al., 2015). Without knowledge of 2e
characteristics and the best practices for supporting them, educators do not have the information
necessary to accurately identify 2e students and offer appropriate academic programming and
support.

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Lack of 2e Identification
2e learners are often not identified as such because their dual exceptionality is concealed
by the way their abilities and challenges present to others (Baum et al., 2017; Beckmann &
Minnaert, 2018; Maddocks, 2018). 2e students generally fall into one of three categories derived
from their most prominent features as a learner. The first group includes students who are
identified as gifted but have undiagnosed disabilities (Reis et al., 2014). These students tend to
demonstrate high academic achievement, but often struggle to compensate for areas of weakness
(Baum et al., 2017; Piske et al., 2022). The second group is identified for having a disability or
special education needs, leaving traits associated with giftedness unnoticed and overlooked
(Beljan et al., 2006; Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). Students in this group may present behaviors that
are impulsive or disruptive, demonstrate marked deficiencies in academic performance, or
exhibit immature social-emotional skills for their age (Baum et al., 2017). These students are
often referred for special education eligibility assessment. The third group of students does not
show evidence of difficulty in school or high ability (Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). The children in
this group are subject to what has been described as a masking effect, because their giftedness
and disability hide one another (Holmgren et al., 2023; Piske et al., 2022). Therefore, they are
generally seen as average students and are not referred for any support (Baum et al., 2017;
Beckmann & Minnaert, 2018; Nielsen, 2002).
Gifted students with unidentified disabilities or learning differences may impress others
with high grades and apparent potential, but discrepancies may appear in specific areas, such as
writing or math (Baum et al., 2017; Fugate et al., 2021). As the gifted-identified move toward
middle school, compensation strategies are no longer enough to produce continued high
achievement as the schoolwork relies less on memorization and external guidance and more on

23
self-management, working independently, and making inferences from more complex material
(Kaufman, 2018).
Students identified for special education with unrecognized giftedness are frequently seen
for what they cannot do before anything else (Baum et al., 2017; Cross & Cross, 2021). Efforts
focus strictly on remediation and meeting grade level requirements or behavioral goals before
there is any consideration of areas of strength, often causing low self-worth (Nielsen & Higgins,
2005). Students not identified for giftedness or areas of need present as a generally
unremarkable student because their high abilities hide their areas of weakness while areas of
need prevent giftedness from showing through. In certain cases, such students meet grade level
standards academically while internally struggling to manage learning, emotional, or behavioral
difficulties (Besnoy et al., 2015). These students occasionally show their ability in a particular
area of interest or under specific circumstances (e.g., responding well to a particular teacher's
style), but often do not become aware of having a disability until leaving K-12 (Baum et al.,
2017). For 2e students performing at or above grade level in specific domains, referrals for
special education evaluation can be hindered by the lack of evidence that they are struggling
(Fugate et al., 2021).
Cultural Influences
The intersection of cultural identity with giftedness and disability can further obscure
issues of identification for some 2e students. Historically, there has been a disproportionate
representation of racial minority students in special education (Morgan et al., 2018; Voulgarides
et al., 2017). African American, Hispanic, and Native American students have been
overrepresented in special education, yet underrepresented in gifted education (Katsiyannis et al.,
2023; National Education Association [NEA], 2008). With limited research on 2e students in

24
urban environments, there are still challenges to serving students equitably, despite district and
school policies in place to identify gifted students with disability (Mayes, 2016). In one study of
eight gifted-identified African American high school students in special education, the students
felt that the special education label carried a stigma suggesting that they were intellectually
inferior. They also feared it would reinforce the stereotype that African Americans have lower
intellect (Mayes & Moore, 2016). Further, all the students interviewed were identified gifted for
artistic ability, yet they felt that the arts classification was an inaccurate depiction. For example,
two students who were identified gifted in dance held contempt for the designation because they
had not participated in any dance activities nor demonstrated any dancing ability at school. The
implication was that their ability had been seen through a racially biased lens that harkens back
to Jim Crow era stereotypes depicting African Americans as dancing or singing caricatures
lacking intellectual ability (Mayes & Moore, 2016).
Contrary to the overrepresentation in special education that some minority groups
experience, Asian students are underrepresented in special education, yet overrepresented in
gifted and talented programs (Morgan et al., 2018; NEA, 2008). These students are subjected to
the “model minority” stereotype, which characterizes Asians as hardworking, well-behaved
students who are academically superior (Park et al., 2018). These expectations can influence
access to services when educators fail to refer Asian students for special education services, even
when it is warranted. Students may also struggle with cultural expectations within the Asian
American community, making it difficult for parents to accept school recommendations for
special education supports (Cormier, 2022). Although, more recently, the “model minority”
stereotype is losing favor, perceptions of Asians as “problem-free” continue to persist and can
create barriers (Kitano, 2011). Students within minoritized communities face barriers uniquely

25
related to their disabilities and race (Cormier, 2022; Hunter et al., 2024). Researchers have
argued that twice-exceptionality should be conceptualized within a broader framework that
considers the impact of sociocultural context, particularly in relation to the experiences of
minority 2e students (Owens et al., 2016; Robinson, 2017). Through this lens, race, disability,
and giftedness represent intersectional educational identities that may collectively shape
experience (Mayes & Moore, 2016).
Inappropriate Educational Programming
Many 2e students are placed in learning environments and programs that do not address
the breadth of their needs. This may be due to misidentification, a lack of teacher knowledge
about supporting 2e students, or limited program options within the school district (Leggett et al.,
2010; VanTassel-Baska & Stambaugh, 2005). Students with high ability who struggle in
advanced academic settings or those with unrecognized potential due to learning differences are
often overlooked or excluded from gifted programming within the school system (Piske et al.,
2022). Research has shown that strength-based educational approaches can broaden traditional
models of gifted education, making talent development more accessible to 2e students.
However, schools often maintain a singular focus on remediating deficits and, therefore, are less
likely to recognize or devote resources to developing student strengths (Baldwin, Baum, et al.,
2015; Baum et al., 2017; Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). Schultz (2012) described how 2e students
with learning disabilities were barred from participating in advanced placement classes for
failing to meet grade requirements in other classes. As a result, school policies like this prevent
access to more challenging academic activities in favor of prioritizing remediation in areas of
weakness. This example highlights one of many challenges 2e students face when schools are
unfamiliar with their learning needs.

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Influence of educator attitudes and perceptions
Teacher beliefs and views of 2e learners can become barriers to students accessing
appropriate services and placement. Teachers' perceptions of student ability are influenced by
labels designating students as being in special education (Bianco & Leech, 2010; Franz et al.,
2023). In one example, the case study of a third-grade teacher of a gifted student with emotional
disability demonstrated that the teacher’s expectations and instructional choices were influenced
by perceptions of his disability (Missett et al., 2016). The teacher’s beliefs about the student’s
weaknesses and anticipation of difficulty influenced her teaching behavior even when the student
did not demonstrate evidence of the problem behaviors.
In a study on access to AP classes for special education students, teachers’ beliefs
influenced the ability for students to participate in advanced classes and receive IEP
accommodations (Schultz, 2012). Several teachers in the study believed that the need for
accommodations implied an inherent inability to meet the academic demands of an AP course.
For example, one teacher stated, “If a student needs additional accommodations or
modifications, it is not the right place for him or her” (Schultz, 2012, p. 124). Interviews also
revealed that students had often been denied or discouraged from using their accommodations,
suggesting that teachers believed accommodations were unnecessary or offered an unfair
advantage. One student shared that some teachers would not allow him to use a test
accommodation for extended time, responding, “No, you get the same time as everybody else”
(Schultz, 2012, p. 124).
Bianco and Leech (2010) studied views on referral for gifted identification among
general education, special education, and gifted education teachers. The authors showed 277
teachers the same vignette describing a child with gifted characteristics and asked how likely

27
they were to refer the child for giftedness. The student was identified as either learning disabled
(LD), having an emotional or behavioral disorder (EBD), or with no label. Students labeled as
LD or EBD were significantly less likely to be referred for gifted identification than students
with an identical profile, but no disability label. Special education teachers were least likely to
refer students to a gifted education program, whether the child had a disability or not. However,
all teachers in the study were more likely to refer students for giftedness who were not described
as having a disability label than an identical student who did not (Bianco & Leech, 2010).
Due to educator perceptions of 2e students, parents must often learn advocacy skills to
obtain appropriate placement and supports (Besnoy et al., 2015; Luelmo et al., 2021). Parents of
2e children with special education services find resistance when requesting gifted identification
(Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). Conversely, parents of 2e children with average performance or a
gifted designation are often met with resistance when requesting special education services
because school representatives do not believe that it is necessary. In a study by Besnoy et al.
(2015), one mother shared that her son's school denied their request for an IEP, responding “He’s
not failing. He’s in advanced classes. He’s gifted. He doesn’t need anything…” (p. 108).
Parents in the study initially believed that the school administrators and teachers were
experienced with and trained to recognize and respond to learning differences, but eventually lost
faith in the school system when their efforts to get help for their child's (often hidden) struggles
were rejected (Besnoy et al., 2015). Professional development in schools is recommended to
help raise awareness of the needs of 2e students, which can help build collaborative parentschool relationships (Besnoy et al., 2015; Kaya, 2015).

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Lack of training in supporting 2e students
Education professionals are not given the training necessary to adequately teach and
support 2e students. For example, preservice teachers typically do not receive sufficient training
in special education to support inclusion of students with special needs (Harvey et al., 2010), nor
are they adequately prepared to identify or support gifted learners (Bianco & Leech, 2010).
Commonly, undergraduate education majors are only required to take one introductory course in
special education with a brief section covering gifted learners. Along the same lines, special
education teachers do not receive any training on recognizing and supporting gifted students.
This lack of cross-disciplinary training can influence teachers' perceptions of students,
instructional practices, and access to programming and services (Bianco & Leech, 2010). As a
result, general education teachers and other school staff may have inaccurate or incomplete
information about disability rights, such as awareness that IEPs must be followed by law,
causing failures in students’ access to education (Schultz, 2012).
Teacher training in giftedness may help teachers recognize areas of strength in students
(Bianco & Leech, 2010; VanTassel-Baska & Stambaugh, 2005). Omdal (2015) shared his
personal experiences as a teacher puzzled by his first exposure to what he later suspected was an
unidentified 2e student. He wanted to help a young student who was creative and bright but
difficult, as she rarely did as she was told and seemed inattentive much of the time. She was not
considered eligible for special education because she was not working below grade level. At the
same time, teachers at the school had no information on giftedness beyond a list that had been
distributed by the gifted coordinator to aid identification. However, the list was based on
stereotypical traits characterizing gifted students as well-behaved, motivated, and high achieving.
Without adequate training on how gifted students may present, he believed that the student was

29
being lazy and not trying (Omdal, 2015). Throughout the literature, there are similar accounts of
teachers who had not known 2e students or did not know about dual exceptionality and the
spectrum of related characteristics (Belanger, 2015; Coleman & Roberts, 2015; Fahey, 2015;
Ralabate, 2006). These challenges underscore the significance of specialized teacher training in
both gifted and special education.
Lack of Legislative Support
Currently, there is no legislation in place to address the needs of 2e students. Twiceexceptional learners are not addressed in most state mandates, policies, or definitions of gifted
and exceptional learners (Coleman & Roberts, 2015; Foley-Nicpon & Teriba, 2022). While
disabled students are protected by law, there are no federal protections or mandates related to
gifted education (Bell, 2020). Although support for talented students is made available through
various initiatives funded by legislation, such as the Javits Act (Renzulli et al., 2014),
programming is controlled at the state level; consequently, services and funding vary widely
(Bell, 2020). For example, state education support runs the gamut from fully funded and
mandated gifted programs to partially funded and/or mandated to neither funded nor mandated
(Foley-Nicpon & Teriba, 2022). However, there have been some promising changes. Four
states have specified 2e students in their education policies and identification practices. Some
school districts have also formally acknowledged 2e students in their education policies and
added dedicated programs.
Because states are mandated to develop special education policies and programming by
federal law, i.e., the IDEA and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, funding and accountability
measures are embedded in special education services and programs (Gilman et al., 2013). There
is no such protection for the needs of 2e students, which may fall outside the range of needs

30
typically addressed in special education. Schools are legally required to offer special education
services that allow the student to receive some educational benefit, which came to be interpreted
by several circuit courts as merely more than de minimis, or trivial benefit (Yell & Bateman,
2017). Therefore, if the student received adequate grades, the school district was not responsible
for examining the gap between performance and potential often seen in 2e students, where
abilities often far exceed work output and compensation strategies produce seemingly adequate
performance (Bell, 2020; Roberts et al., 2015). A later supreme court decision clarified the
definition and standards of meaningful benefit as an “IEP...reasonably calculated to enable the
child to make progress appropriate in light of his circumstances” (Endrew F. v. Douglas County
School District RE–1, 2017, p. 16). This new standard required students to be offered
programming and supports that measured progress according to the student’s own unique
circumstances and ability, which allows the flexibility for determination on a case-by-case basis
(Foley-Nicpon & Teriba, 2022; Yell & Bateman, 2017).
In the absence of legislation for 2e students specifically, IDEA provides protections for
special education students, such as the mandate that special education students must be provided
with a free appropriate public education (FAPE) (IDEA, 2004). Case law consisting of
published administrative hearings and court decisions has demonstrated that decisions on
whether 2e students were offered FAPE are generally in favor of the school district (Zirkel,
2016). In many of these decisions, giftedness was either not a factor in the decision or it
contributed to decisions in favor of the district because of the student's academic performance.
Before the IDEA was updated in 2004, students demonstrating a significant discrepancy
between their ability and level of performance were identified as at-risk and referred for
comprehensive special education eligibility assessments (Gilman et al., 2013; Milburn et al.,

31
2017). In contrast, the newer IDEA language promotes a response to intervention (RTI) model
for identification (King, 2022). In the RTI model, when students perform below grade level,
increasing levels of interventions are enacted for remediation based on classroom assessments.
However, the RTI model can be ineffective for 2e students in several ways. RTI may fail to
identify 2e students who produce grade level work using compensatory strategies which may not
be sustainable as work becomes more complex in higher grades (Foley-Nicpon & Teriba, 2022).
In addition, RTI support is withdrawn after students reach grade level performance. As a result,
students who need additional support may never gain the benefit of a comprehensive special
education evaluation (Gilman et al., 2013). The lack of legislation to support and protect the
rights of 2e students hinders their ability to obtain an appropriate education. For changes to take
place at the federal, state, and district levels, lawmakers and educational leaders must become
aware of the challenges 2e students face and recognize the consequences of failing to meet their
educational needs.
Approaches to Educating 2e
Although there is little empirical data on the most effective educational model for 2e
students that is broad enough to be generalized to all contexts, the existing literature
overwhelmingly points to a strengths-based approach (Baum et al., 2017; Josephson et al., 2018;
Reider Lewis, 2021). Grounded in positive psychology, a strengths-based philosophy focuses on
the positive aspects of performance and effort, emphasizing student strengths and talents (Lopez
& Louis, 2009). This often involves identifying areas of strength and developing a plan for
student talent development (Kettler & Sulak, 2022). Of particular importance is placing as much
or greater emphasis on strengths as areas for improvement and remediation.

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While a growing body of research points to using a strengths-based approach for all
students (Jones-Smith, 2011), this philosophy is especially pertinent for 2e learners because they
are particularly susceptible to feelings of failure, low self-esteem, and not fitting in, often related
to the inability to succeed academically despite their high abilities and high expectations for
themselves (Baum, 1994; Beckmann & Minnaert, 2018). An emphasis on strengths can help 2e
students experience success and gain academic self-efficacy.
In addition to a focus on strengths, 2e students have shown success when participating in
programs that engage their interests and develop areas of talent (Piske et al., 2022). Problemand project-based learning activities that capitalize on areas of personal interest may help
mitigate the effects of attentional dysregulation, such as is shown with ADHD. For example, one
study followed seven identified gifted learning-disabled students in general education classrooms
with resource support who were enrolled in a year-long weekly enrichment program (Baum,
1988). Results indicated that the students showed improved independent learning, selfregulation, attitudes about themselves and school, and production of creative work products
comparable to students without learning difficulties.
The Talent Beyond Words and New Horizons programs, which were both funded through
Javits program grants, provided talent development classes for students identified with abilities
in performance arts, most of whom were performing below grade-level and academically at-risk
due to family or socioeconomic factors (Baum et al., 1997). The Talent Beyond Words program
followed students through high school to study the effects of talent development and showed
growth in their abilities, skills, confidence, and independence (Oreck et al., 2000). The New
Horizons project used a strengths-based curriculum focused on reading and math along with
additional academic support for the at-risk students. Instruction for the experimental group

33
embedded arts within the curriculum while the control group was taught using only remediation.
Results showed that the at-risk students receiving arts integration made considerable gains
compared to those who only received remediation (Baum et al., 1997). Programs such as these
showed promise and demonstrated the benefits of emphasizing strengths and talent development
in academic environments, particularly for at-risk students.
As awareness has increased, programs designed to support 2e students have been
established in public school settings across the country. For example, the Twice-Exceptional
Project is a collaboration between the Colorado Offices of Gifted Education and Special
Education, created to provide professional learning on identification and support of 2e students
(Colorado Department of Education, n.d.). Colorado was noted as having been the only state
education agency to create and coordinate a series of on-site professional development
opportunities for this purpose (Lee & Ritchotte, 2019). In addition to developing 2e programs,
some state education agencies have published guides on how to identify and support 2e learners,
including Idaho, Maryland, Montana, Colorado, and Virginia (Baum et al., 2017).
Following adoption of a state law defining gifted and talented students, Maryland
established policies mandating 2e student identification and programming (Foley-Nicpon &
Teriba, 2022). Montgomery County Public Schools (MCPS) in Maryland became one of the
only school districts in the country to offer programs specifically accommodating students who
are gifted and learning disabled (Montgomery County Public Schools, 2004). The instructional
framework, which was designed based on educational programming recommended in the
literature, emphasizes accelerated and enriched instruction with a focus on strengths, gifts, and
interests (Weinfeld et al., 2002). This is undergirded by specialized instruction and/or

34
interventions, appropriately selected accommodations, and comprehensive case management
with social-emotional support. (Montgomery County Public Schools, 2015).
The Prince George’s County Public School program for Gifted Students with Learning
Needs (GSLN), also in Maryland, is another example of a strengths-based, talent-focused public
school program, which operates through a collaboration between the gifted and special education
departments (Baum et al., 2017). Since 1993, the program has offered K-12 students identified
as GSLN a service delivery model that is based on dual differentiation and addresses
development of strengths and talents while providing services and supports for learning needs
using a team-based approach (Baum et al., 2017; Blucher & Wayland, 2015). An instructional
specialist trained in special education and gifted education offers direct support to schools by
providing guidance on identification, programming strategies for 2e students, and collaboration
with teachers to support program implementation (Blucher & Wayland, 2015). Teachers are also
provided with targeted training on teaching 2e students, including dual differentiation, talent
development, and strength-based learning strategies.
Once a student is found eligible for GSLN, a collaborative team identifies the student’s
strengths, instructional needs, and supports necessary to succeed. Students may receive
advanced classes or coursework and enrichment/talent opportunities at a site school (gifted and
talented magnet) or in a regular school with advanced programming while at the same time
receiving specialized services (Blucher & Wayland, 2015; Dixon & Moon, 2021).
Clark and Estes (2008) Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Framework
The Clark and Estes (2008) conceptual framework employs a systematic, analytical
approach to evaluating stakeholder performance within an organization. The gap analysis
framework is a problem-solving process drawing from general theory, literature related to the

35
specific context, and existing knowledge of the organization to assess performance. First,
stakeholder goals are considered, as they relate to organizational goals, to determine whether a
gap exists between stakeholder performance goals and current performance. If a gap is found,
the second part of the analysis involves considering assumed influences on stakeholder
performance in three areas: knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational factors (Clark
& Estes, 2008). The gap analysis framework has been adapted for a promising practice study to
understand the stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets leading to goal
attainment in meeting the educational needs of 2e students. The following section will examine
the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets of the teachers at Bridges
Academy that enable them to educate 2e students effectively.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
This section will discuss each of the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
assets related to the achievement of middle school teachers at Bridges Academy in reaching their
stakeholder performance goal. Their goal is to deliver instruction that incorporates socialemotional learning and executive functioning skill development in a strengths-based,
differentiated program while maintaining a supportive, psychologically safe environment.
Following this discussion, the conceptual framework will be presented.
Knowledge and Skills
This section will review literature related to the assumed knowledge assets teachers
contribute to Bridges Academy’s success in teaching 2e students. Clark and Estes (2008) point
out that it is critical to consider knowledge and skills when analyzing factors influencing
performance. The knowledge of how to perform job tasks is directly tied to the achievement of
organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).

36
In order to discuss the knowledge dimension with a common vocabulary, knowledge
elements will be categorized using Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda,
2011). This system of classification categorizes knowledge into four types: factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive. Factual knowledge consists of basic, factual information, such as
definitions, terminology, or elements. Conceptual knowledge includes categories, principles,
and the knowledge of how elements relate to one another. Procedural knowledge represents an
understanding of the specific steps necessary to complete a task. Finally, metacognitive
knowledge is one’s understanding of his or her own thinking processes (Krathwohl, 2002). The
following sections present the assumed knowledge influences on teacher performance and the
corresponding knowledge types.
Knowledge of Typical Characteristics of 2e Students
To successfully teach a student population with unique learning, social, and behavioral
needs, Bridges teachers must understand those needs. This is considered conceptual knowledge
because it requires integrating and relating concepts associated with the characteristics of 2e
learners. The literature shows that 2e students are frequently misunderstood by teachers and
subject to academic and behavioral expectations in school that are outside of their capabilities
(Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). In the context of Bridges Academy, it is essential that all
practitioners have an acute awareness and understanding of the needs and behaviors of the 2e
students that comprise the school population. Without this knowledge, the school would fall
short in its mission to educate 2e students.
Knowledge of How to Use Instructional Practices That Promote 2e Learning
For Bridges Academy’s program design to be realized at the classroom level, teachers
must have the knowledge and skills to incorporate teaching practices that are effective for 2e

37
learners. This is considered procedural knowledge because it involves knowing specific methods
for performing tasks and knowledge of the criteria for determining which techniques to use and
when (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). In accordance with the school's educational philosophy,
teachers must demonstrate flexibility and know how to employ creative instructional strategies
that consider and support the unique needs of 2e learners (Kaufman, 2018). They must also
know how to use a strengths-based approach to their practice that is rigorous and challenging
while also providing remediation and social-emotional support as needed. Research has shown
that 2e learners prefer flexibility in teaching/learning methods, how knowledge is demonstrated,
and pace (Willard-Holt et al., 2013). They also feel more successful when able to be active
participants in their learning and prefer to be challenged by high-level concepts rather than
predetermined content that they could have learned independently. Researchers have also
indicated that 2e students require a whole-child approach that integrates support for both areas of
strength and need (Baldwin, Omdal, et al., 2015; Fugate et al., 2021). However, successful 2e
instructional strategies found in the literature do not work equally well for all 2e learners, as each
student has a unique learning profile (Coleman & Gallagher, 2015). Therefore, instructors need
to discern which strategies are appropriate based on each student’s specific strengths and
weaknesses.
Table 1 demonstrates how the knowledge influences described above, along with related
assessment measures, support the stakeholder and organizational goal.

38
Table 1
Assumed Knowledge Assets, Types, and Assessments
Organizational Mission
To understand and educate gifted students with learning differences using a strengths-based, talent-driven
approach to create a successful academic and social experience for students and to demonstrate their value and
human potential in the larger community.
Organizational Global Goal
To provide a differentiated educational program using a strengths-based, talent-focused school model for 2e
learners.
Assumed Knowledge Assets Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment
Teachers are familiar with typical
characteristics of 2e students.
Declarative
(conceptual)
Interview item:
What would you say are the most
important things to know to succeed
in this job?
Teachers know how to use
instructional practices that promote
2e student learning.
Procedural Interview item:
Overall, what factors have
contributed most to your knowledge
and understanding of 2e students,
(for example training, on-the-job
experience, mentorship, etc.)?
How have your teaching practices
or strategies changed since you
started working here, if at all?
Motivation
This section discusses the assumed motivation assets influencing teacher performance at
Bridges in relation to the relevant literature. Motivation is defined as “an internal state that
initiates and maintains goal directed behavior” (Mayer, 2011, p. 39). The three indicators of
motivation are active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Within an
organizational context, these are demonstrated by whether a person has made the choice to begin
a task, to persist despite distractions, and to apply the necessary amount of mental effort to
successfully complete the task. It is important to consider stakeholder motivational influences

39
because motivation is one of the three primary causes of performance gaps, along with
knowledge and organizational barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Valuing Work and Expecting Success
In the context of Bridges Academy, the teachers often express satisfaction in the work
that they are doing. Expectancy value theory postulates that achievement related behaviors are
correlated with a person’s expectation of success in performing a task and the value a person
places on completing the task (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). More specifically, expectancy
involves an individual's belief in whether it is possible to achieve a particular goal. The belief
that success is possible is a strong predictor of persistence and putting forth the necessary mental
effort once a choice has been made to begin a task. However, the value aspect of this theory is
related to the importance that achieving this goal has for the person. Having the desire to
perform a task or reach a goal is a strong predictor of active choice, i.e., beginning the task.
Expectancy value theory describes four related concepts that can determine value:
intrinsic value, attainment value, utility value, and perceived cost (Rueda, 2011; Wigfield &
Eccles, 2000). Intrinsic value is the personal enjoyment one derives from engaging in an
activity. Utility value is the importance attributed to a task because it is useful toward a future
goal. Attainment value is the importance placed on achieving a goal because of the relationship
between one's identity or self-concept and attainment of the goal. Finally, perceived cost relates
to the consideration of what may be lost or hurt by engaging in a task. For example, perceived
cost might be conceptualized in terms of considering the time or energy spent managing difficult
student behaviors (the task). Perceived cost might also be a factor in relation to internal
considerations, such as self-worth (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). The cost of possible failure may
not make it worthwhile for a teacher to take a chance working in an unpredictable environment.

40
Expectancy value theory also suggests that cultural and personal beliefs, values, and
norms are part of the meaning making contributing to one’s beliefs. Causal attributions are
shaped by the attitudes and beliefs of those in our cultural context and contribute to our own
expectancy beliefs (Rueda, 2011). As a result, personal motivation can be supported or
challenged by the context and views of those in the surrounding environment. In this sense, if a
student coming from a low socioeconomic background believed that people like themselves
never succeed in school, that student would likely experience reduced motivation to try to do
well.
Overall, expectancy value theory suggests that teachers will be more likely to persist
through challenges and apply mental effort toward their goals if they value the work they are
doing and believe that their efforts to teach 2e students will result in success. Each of these
characteristics helps foster motivation and, thus, performance.
Having Self-Efficacy in Job Performance
Teachers at Bridges Academy demonstrate confidence in their ability to support 2e
students in their daily activities, which suggests they have a high level of self-efficacy. Selfefficacy refers to one's beliefs about their own ability to perform a specific task at a certain level
of competence (Artino Jr., 2012). Based in social-cognitive theory, self-efficacy has an
important influence on motivation. Those who are confident that they can successfully navigate
tasks will persist through difficulty and put forth increased effort when challenged. Self-efficacy
can also influence the choices a person makes about what tasks he or she will pursue. People are
more likely to attempt tasks in which they feel efficacious as opposed to those they do not. In
addition, self-efficacy affects emotional response in that those who experience high self-efficacy
tend to have positive emotions in approaching tasks that may be challenging as opposed to

41
having low self-efficacy, which can make individuals perceive challenges as greater than they
are, causing stress, anxiety, or diminished cognitive flexibility in problem solving. The effects of
self-efficacy extend into self-regulatory behaviors. Those with high self-efficacy are more likely
to use metacognitive strategies to manage tasks than those who do not. Ultimately, self-efficacy
is correlated with both behavior and outcomes (Artino Jr., 2012). Therefore, self-efficacy theory
suggests that teachers will be more likely to make the active choice to initiate goal-directed
activities that will achieve their goals if they are confident in their ability to successfully teach 2e
students using appropriate strategies. This behavior will contribute to their overall motivation
and support their performance. Table 2 shows assumed motivation influences on teachers'
success in teaching 2e learners and methods for assessing these influences.
Table 2
Assumed Motivation Assets and Assessments
Organizational Mission
To understand and educate gifted students with learning differences using a strengths-based, talent-driven
approach to create a successful academic and social experience for students and to demonstrate their value and
human potential in the larger community.
Organizational Global Goal
To provide a differentiated educational program using a strengths-based, talent-focused school model for 2e
learners.
Assumed Motivation Assets Motivation Influence Assessment
Expectancy Value:
Teachers believe their work is rewarding, challenging,
and important.
Interview item:
What aspects of working at this school do you find
most satisfying?
What aspects of working here are most challenging?
Self-Efficacy:
Teachers believe they are capable of effectively
teaching 2e students.
Interview item:
To what degree do you feel confident in your ability to
teach 2e students effectively?

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Organization
This section discusses the organizational influences on stakeholder performance and,
specifically, the influence of organizational culture. Schein (2017) defines organizational culture
as the beliefs, values, and norms that develop within a group through shared learning over time.
These beliefs eventually become unconscious assumptions about the correct way to behave,
think, or feel and are taught to new group members.
Sociocultural theory posits that learning is not an individual, solitary process, but rather
knowledge is constructed as part of the interrelationship people have with one another and as
part of a social and cultural context (Scott & Palincsar, 2013). As such, it would be impossible
to understand knowledge and motivation influences within an organization without also
considering the influence of organizational culture and context. Following are the assumed
influences of culture and context as they relate to teacher performance at Bridges Academy.
Cultural Models and Settings
To concretize the concepts of culture and context, it is helpful to distinguish them using
the notions of cultural models and cultural settings. Cultural models are "the shared mental
schema or normative understandings of how the world works, or ought to work" (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001, p. 47). Cultural models consist of the values, beliefs, attitudes, and
unquestioned assumptions within a group that are so familiar as to have become invisible and
automated. While cultural models represent the underlying shared beliefs of what is acceptable,
appropriate, or correct, cultural settings represent the tangible or outward manifestations of these
beliefs that are played out as practices within specific settings (Rueda, 2011).
There is a reciprocal relationship between cultural models and cultural settings (Rueda,
2011). While behavior can be influenced in response to a cultural setting, the cultural setting is

43
also dynamically created by people acting under the influence of cultural models. Therefore,
cultural models and settings are always changing and evolving within individuals and groups
over time. By relating these concepts to organizational policies, procedures, and structure, it is
possible to better understand the dynamics contributing to performance (Rueda, 2011).
Valuing a Sense of Shared Purpose
The collective sense of being driven by a common cause is a cultural model that appears
deeply entrenched within the Bridges community as well as an espoused value. In the book
Twice Exceptional, a chapter about Bridges coauthored by the Head of School and High School
Director, states “Faculty members must share a sense of purpose, driven by a cause and common
goals” (Sabatino & Wiebe, 2018, p. 307). The subject of finding purpose and meaningfulness in
work has been explored across a broad array of research (Dik et al., 2015; Fouché et al., 2017;
Ryff, 1989). Steger and Dik (2009) define purpose as “people’s identification of, and intention
to pursue, particular highly valued, overarching life goals” (p. 133). Maslow’s seminal research
(as cited in M. Anderson, 2010) asserts that one of the most fundamental human needs is to have
a sense of significance. Steger et al. (2012) describe meaningful work in terms of psychological
meaningfulness, meaning making, and greater good motivations. Psychological meaningfulness
in work is the belief that one’s work is important and matters. Meaning making in work suggests
that work is a central place where one finds meaning in life. Finally, greater good motivations
mean the desire to have an impact on others and make a difference (Steger et al., 2012).
Organizations that cultivate a sense of purpose create positive outcomes for the
stakeholders and the organizations, as well. Experiencing a sense of purpose at work has
important implications in terms of human capital benefits, including increased motivation and
positive feelings toward work tasks (Fouché et al., 2017). Studies have shown that employees in

44
work cultures that promote a sense of purpose demonstrate higher job satisfaction, increased
performance, higher engagement, and shared commitment (Fouché et al., 2017; Lipton, 1996).
In addition, organizations driven by purpose have shown a higher bottom line when compared to
organizations that did not have a strong purpose-based culture (Deloitte, 2014). It can also
promote organizational flexibility to change (Lipton, 1996). A strong, guiding purpose can form
the basis of strategic plans, facilitate recruitment, and inform decision-making.
Numerous studies assert that creating a sense of shared purpose begins with the formation
of an organizational vision (Hallinger & Heck, 2002; Lipton, 1996, 2004). Lipton (1996) found
that companies rated best for their work environments shared three common themes in their
vision statements: their mission or purpose, the strategy for achieving their mission, and the
characteristics of the organizational culture necessary to achieve the purpose and support the
strategy or, more specifically, their values. The mission should cultivate employee commitment
and a shared sense of purpose (Lipton, 1996). Values define what an organization stands for and
how it is viewed by employees, clients, communities, and other stakeholders (Williams, 2016).
A shared vision based in values can make work meaningful and allow transformation to take
place (Hallinger & Heck, 2002). Corporate values and vision may positively influence employee
behavior provided that the espoused values align with actual practices (Bourne & Jenkins, 2013;
Khandelwal & Mohendra, 2010).
Promote an Entrepreneurial Mindset
School leaders at Bridges seek out teachers that demonstrate the characteristics of what is
known as an entrepreneurial mindset and expect that those behaviors are modeled and
encouraged in students. In another excerpt from Twice Exceptional, Sabatino and Wiebe (2018)
state that their goal when hiring is to reach a “critical mass of people with an orientation toward

45
flexibility, creative thinking, professional experience inside and outside their own field, and an
entrepreneurial perspective” (p. 309).
Entrepreneurial mindset refers to the state of mind characteristic of entrepreneurs that
allows a person to recognize and evaluate opportunity, take action quickly, and mobilize
resources, even in uncertain conditions (McGrath & MacMillan, 2000). The Network for
Teaching Entrepreneurship ([NFTE], 2017) identified the core domains of an entrepreneurial
mindset as future orientation, comfort with risk, opportunity recognition, initiative and selfreliance, communication and collaboration, creativity and innovation, and critical thinking and
problem solving. Table 3 (NFTE, 2017, p. 2) provides a description for each of these
characteristics.
Entrepreneurial thinking has been linked with benefits for organizations as well as for
workers. In today’s fast-paced and changing economic environment, employees who engage in
entrepreneurial behaviors can improve business performance as they are able to identify and act
upon opportunities to improve processes, products, and services (De Jong et al., 2015). A study
of over 400 employers showed that the most sought-after skills closely aligned with
entrepreneurial mindset behaviors, such as critical thinking, collaboration, and oral
communication (Garcia, 2014).
There is growing evidence in the education field suggesting that students need to develop
21st century skills in addition to traditional academic proficiency to compete in the global
economy (Nakamoto & Rice, 2017). 21st century skills have been described as non-cognitive
skills that can lead to academic and professional success, including teamwork/collaboration, oral
and written communication, critical thinking/problem solving, and professionalism/work ethic.
The notion of entrepreneurial mindset is closely aligned with such skills (Nakamoto & Rice,

46
2017). By promoting an entrepreneurial mindset as a cultural value, Bridges can add value by
hiring teachers that demonstrate and can model these skills.
Table 3
Entrepreneurial Mindset Characteristics
Domain Description
Future Orientation An optimistic disposition with a focus on obtaining the skills
and knowledge required to transition into a career.
Comfort with Risk The capacity to move forward with a decision despite
inevitable uncertainty and challenges.
Opportunity Recognition The practice of seeing and experiencing problems as
opportunities to create solutions.
Initiative and Self-Reliance The power to take ownership of a project without input or
guidance and work through obstacles independently.
Communication and Collaboration The ability to clearly express ideas to an intended audience,
including persuading others to work towards a common goal.
Creativity and Innovation The ability to think of ideas and create solutions to problems
without clearly defined structures.
Critical Thinking and Problem Solving The process of applying higher-level, process-oriented
thinking skills, and of transitioning that applied reasoning to
support the application of decision-making.
Flexibility and Adaptability The ability and willingness to change actions and plans to
overcome present and future challenges.
Note. Adapted from Entrepreneurial Mindset On Ramp to Opportunity (p. 2), by Network for
Teaching Entrepreneurship [NFTE], 2017. Copyright 2017 by NFTE.

47
Infuse Mission and Values Throughout
Campus imagery and symbols along with congruent behaviors and communications from
leaders at Bridges Academy reflect the school’s values in a tangible way by keeping its mission
and values prominently displayed and repeatedly communicated. For example, the school icons
are six prominent historical figures, considered geniuses in their disciplines, who may have been
twice exceptional (e.g., Charles Darwin was said to have suffered from mental illness). The
school icon images serve as symbols to students, teachers, staff, and parents and they are
displayed in posters on campus, the school website, and on cards and t-shirts that are distributed
during fundraising events. These cultural settings reinforce values and underscore what the
school leaders believe is important.
To foster a culture that values a sense of purpose in the work being done, the
environment must reflect tangible practices that support the shared value of purpose as a cultural
setting. Visions often fail to become manifest in practice because there is a critical gap between
belief in the idea of the vision and doing the work that must be done to enact it (Lipton, 2004).
In some cases, employees are unaware of the organization’s core values (Khandelwal &
Mohendra, 2010). Leadership approaches represent a critical dimension. Leaders must become
aware of the organizational processes and structures that confirm or disconfirm desired cultural
norms and continually modify and adjust processes to reconcile current and past practices with
the desired future (Lipton, 2004). Leaders must also invest emotionally and allow themselves to
become passionate about sharing the vision. However, a vision cannot become embedded in
culture unless leaders also visibly demonstrate living by the espoused values and standards each
day (Deloitte, 2014; Lipton, 2004).

48
It is essential that every function and role within an organization exemplifies and
represents organizational values (Casali & Day, 2010). The primary organizational purpose must
be placed at the center of any actions taken (Hannay & Earl, 2014). In the recruiting process,
consideration should be given to whether an applicant’s individual values align with the
organization’s shared values (Casali & Day, 2010). Employees can benefit from training on core
values to guide decision-making and behaviors within their roles (Casali & Day, 2010;
Khandelwal & Mohendra, 2010). It is an ongoing process to internalize and affirm values.
Organizational values should be embedded within performance appraisal systems. Positive
reinforcement practices should be employed and underscored by strong endorsement from the
leadership for behaviors that align with organizational values (Casali & Day, 2010).
In contrast to structural elements that convey cultural norms and values, symbols can
communicate and reveal organizational culture (Bolman & Deal, 2021). Just as the mission is a
symbolic statement of an organization’s values and purpose (Hallinger & Heck, 2002), an
organization’s values can be communicated symbolically through the use of metaphor (Abawi,
2013). Metaphors condense complex ideas and meanings into images that can be quickly
recognized or understood (Bolman & Deal, 2021). Shared metaphors can have a particularly
significant effect on their environment (Abawi, 2013). In an academic context, metaphors that
represent the school’s pedagogical philosophy may influence and align teacher beliefs and
attitudes. In addition, culturally specific metaphors can transmit school community values and
beliefs to those who are new, whether they are staff, students, or parents (Abawi, 2013).
Table 4 describes the assumed organizational influences that contribute to Bridges
Academy teachers successfully implementing a strengths-based, talent-focused educational
program for 2e students.

49
Table 4
Assumed Organizational Assets and Assessments
Organizational Mission
To understand and educate gifted students with learning differences using a strengths-based, talent-driven
approach to create a successful academic and social experience for students and to demonstrate their value and
human potential in the larger community.
Organizational Global Goal
To provide a differentiated educational program using a strengths-based, talent-focused school model for 2e
learners.
Assumed Organizational Assets Organizational Influence Assessment
(Cultural Models)
A shared sense of purpose is valued among teachers.
Interview items:
How would you describe the work culture at Bridges?
With regard to work culture, what values do you think
are most important?
(Cultural Settings)
The school mission and values are infused throughout
the environment and activities.
Interview items:
To what extent do you see the school’s mission or
vision reinforced or embedded within the day-to-day
working of the school (e.g., decision-making, planning,
or activities)?
Can you give me an example?
(Cultural Models)
School leaders value entrepreneurial mindset
characteristics.
Interview items:
As a teacher, what kind of personal qualities or mental
attitudes do you think are most valued by school
leaders?
How did you learn about these expectations or values?
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
The conceptual framework is a tentative theory that is constructed based on beliefs,
expectations, and assumptions that inform research (Maxwell, 2013). It provides a general
conception of what is being studied and the assumed relationships among the factors involved.
Conceptual frameworks may draw upon personal experience, existing theory and research,
personal pilot and exploratory research, and thought experiments. The conceptual framework

50
also presents a lens through which the study can be viewed, and the focus narrowed (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2015).
In the previous section, the assumed stakeholder knowledge and motivation influences
were presented along with assumed organizational influences. While each influence was
discussed independently, the Clark and Estes framework (2008) suggests that the three
influences should not be considered and analyzed as separate entities, as they each overlap and
influence one another as a whole. Clark and Estes (2008) use the metaphor of a car to describe
the interrelationship among knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors in analyzing
performance. In this metaphor, knowledge is represented as the car's engine and transmission,
motivation is the fuel and battery charge that gives the system its energy, and organizational
factors are the road conditions that can make it easier or more difficult to reach the destination.
While knowledge and motivation are the most influential in facilitating work performance, all
three influences must work together cooperatively for effectiveness. Drawing on the Clark and
Estes (2008) gap analysis model, this section will describe the assumed relationships and
interactions among the influences within Bridges Academy.

51
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework Relating Teacher Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational
Influences to Performance

52
Figure 1 is a graphical representation of the conceptual framework underlying this study.
The conceptual framework explains the relationship between the knowledge and motivation of
target stakeholders and organizational influences. The figure illustrates that teacher knowledge
and motivation exist within a larger framework of the school's culture and context, which is
represented as cultural models and settings. The relationship between these two systems
contributes to the achievement of the teachers’ goals. The assumed knowledge influences were
teacher knowledge of 2e student characteristics and how to use effective teaching practices for 2e
learners. Teacher social-emotional competence was later added following data analysis and is
discussed in the findings and recommendations. Assumed motivation influences identified were
teacher intrinsic value for their work and self-efficacy for teaching 2e students. Assumed
organizational influences included teacher value for shared purpose, infusing the school mission
and values throughout, and leadership value for entrepreneurial mindset characteristics.
A review of the literature shows that 2e students often face barriers when teachers do not
have awareness of or training related to their characteristics, needs, and how to best approach
educating them (Bianco & Leech, 2010; Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). Because Bridges Academy
places a high value on the purpose of the school and the meaningfulness of the work, teacher
knowledge about working with 2e students and how to apply best practices is given high priority
along with the communication of organizational values. Teacher motivation has been shown to
benefit from supportive leadership practices and a strong organizational culture (Eyal & Roth,
2011). Motivated teachers may be more likely to seek to improve their knowledge and
professional practices, thus creating positive expectancies and improving self-efficacy.
Increased motivation may also increase teachers' sense of purpose and enhance their commitment
to the school's values, thus reinforcing the cultural model.

53
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to understand the assets contributing to successful
implementation of a school model designed for 2e students. In this chapter, a literature review
was presented to provide a broader view of the issues surrounding 2e students and the challenges
they face in the school system. The chapter then introduced the Clark and Estes Gap Analysis
Framework (2008) guiding this study, which narrows the focus to the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational factors that influence teachers' ability to effectively support 2e students and
contribute to the school’s success. Finally, the assumed influences were introduced and placed
within the context of a conceptual framework for the study. Chapter Three follows with a
discussion of the study methodology.

54
Chapter Three: Methods
Students who are gifted yet have coexisting conditions that impair their ability to learn
are at risk of falling through the cracks in the educational system and failing to meet their
potential. The literature has shown that 2e students can thrive when provided with appropriate
supports and rigorous programming that draws upon their strengths and interests, yet offers the
remediation, socioemotional support, and program flexibility they require. Therefore, the
purpose of this study was to examine the stakeholder knowledge and motivation assets within a
successful program for 2e students and the organizational influences that promote their success.
This chapter presents the research design, including the data collection and analysis
methodology.
The questions guiding this study are the following:
1. What knowledge and motivation assets do the teachers have that contribute to Bridges
Academy’s successful implementation of a 2e school model?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation of teachers?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate for solving this problem of practice in other school
settings?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder population of focus was the Bridges Academy teachers. Out of the
42-member population of teaching staff, the scope of this study was limited to the middle school
teachers. This criterion was selected because middle school students are at a pivotal
developmental stage as they enter the teenage years (Graham, 2023; National Academies of

55
Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2021). The school’s website indicates that the middle
school program has been designed with consideration for these changes, such as emerging selfawareness, executive functioning, and identity formation, by embedding social-emotional and
life skills into the curriculum and culture. Because of the significance of these influences on 2e
students during this time, the middle school teachers’ skills and experiences may offer a
substantial level of depth in understanding the knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets
of this promising practice. In addition to middle school teachers, one school administrator was
included to gather additional information on organizational influences from the perspective of
those in leadership positions. This was expected to offer insight into whether leaders' views of
organizational influences align with teacher experiences.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1
The first criterion was to include teachers who taught in the middle school at Bridges
Academy. The sample was further limited to teachers who had been employed at the school for
at least one year. Establishing a minimum length of employment was intended to limit the
sample to those with sufficient time to become indoctrinated into the culture and practices of the
school.
Criterion 2
The second criterion was to include administrators who provide oversight for the middle
school at Bridges Academy. Administrators were included to represent the school leadership,
who have direct influence on the school’s culture, policies, and practices.

56
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
This study used a typical purposeful sample of Bridges Academy teachers and
administrators. A purposeful sampling is a deliberate selection of people, activities, or settings
for their unique ability to provide in-depth information that can inform research questions
(Maxwell, 2013). A typical sample is a type of purposeful sampling in which the sample is
selected because it represents average characteristics for the type of sample being studied
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). There are nine members of the middle school faculty and two
administrators with middle school oversight, the Middle School Director and the Head of School.
Each of the middle school teachers met the criterion for a minimum of one year of employment
at the school. Prospective participants were recruited by email using the school directory. One
teacher and one administrator were unable to participate in the study. The study sample included
eight middle school teachers employed with the school for at least one year and one
administrator. An adequate sample size has been reached when there is sufficient data to answer
the research questions and, preferably, there is evidence that the data is saturated and has become
redundant (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This sample size was deemed adequate because it
provided a representative sample of the teacher population that can shed light on the assumed
influences presented in the conceptual framework and help answer the study research questions.
Inclusion of only one administrator was also regarded as an adequate sample as administrators
were not part of the primary stakeholder group and their input was intended as a supplement to
teacher data for context and triangulation.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
To gain an understanding of the teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences at Bridges Academy, this study employed qualitative research methods. Qualitative

57
methods are best used for understanding how people construct their worlds and make meaning of
their experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Teacher interviews were used to collect data that
informed the teacher knowledge and motivation aspects of the research questions and to capture
their perceptions of organizational culture, practices, and resources. An administrator was
interviewed to better understand leader influence on the school culture and to examine the
relationship between their espoused values and teacher perceptions.
In addition to teacher and administrator interviews, document analysis was used to help
elucidate organizational influences and cultural settings. Document analysis took place prior to
conducting interviews to provide context that may guide the interview process. The following
sections describe the data collection processes for interviews and document review, respectively.
Interviews
Interview Protocol
Interview data was collected using a semi-structured format. This approach was
considered most appropriate because it allows the researcher to gather data that is guided by
participants’ unique perspectives and worldviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This format also
provides the flexibility to pursue new lines of questioning spontaneously during the interview as
new ideas about the topic emerge. By contrast, highly structured interviews may hinder data
collection by forcing the participants' narratives to conform to the researcher's preconceived
notions and suggested constructs (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Therefore, the interview protocol
consisted of a set of predetermined questions that could be expanded upon as necessary. The
teacher interview questions differed from those for the administrator. Teacher interview
questions focused on understanding their knowledge and motivation as well as organizational
influences. The administrator interview questions specifically targeted organizational factors

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because their responses could clarify the influence of leadership goals and practices on cultural
models and settings. Leaders’ responses can also be compared with teacher experiences of their
organizational context. For example, the teacher interview protocol consists of questions such
as, "What has had the greatest impact on your understanding of 2e students?" and "How did you
learn what was expected from you as a teacher in this environment?" The administrator protocol
includes questions like, "What kind of qualities or mental attitudes do you value most in
teachers?" and "How do you communicate your values and expectations to the teachers?"
Interview Procedures
Interviews were conducted online via Zoom video teleconference. This method was
chosen because the school campus was closed until further notice due to the Covid pandemic and
all teachers were working from home. Each participant was interviewed during one session
lasting approximately 45 minutes. Interviews were conducted in a combination of formal and
informal structure, using an interview guide to facilitate obtaining responses that addressed the
research questions while still allowing the ability to probe when participant responses warranted
further elaboration. An interview guide can help to keep the interview focused and systematic
while allowing exploratory probes (Patton & Patton, 2002). The Zoom meeting and transcript
were recorded via the Zoom platform and notes were taken to capture observations.
Documents and Artifacts
Documents were collected that describe Bridges Academy’s espoused values, educational
practices, and policies. This included content derived from the official school website,
marketing materials, handouts used for parent training events, and literature in print or online
that was published by the school or created by members of its leadership. Documents can be
used to provide contextual information surrounding study participants, evoke new questions that

59
should be asked, and to supplement other sources of data (Bowen, 2009). In addition to
providing context and promoting new lines of questioning, the document sources listed above
provided a basis for understanding how the school describes its pedagogy, which aspects of its
work are most valued, and what are the expectations for how teachers practice (as inferred from
descriptions of how students should be taught). Email communications sent to parents from
teachers and administrators were analyzed, as they may provide evidence of actual practices and
their implementation, which could then be compared against the organization’s stated
expectations.
Data Analysis
Following each interview, analytic memos were generated to capture initial impressions
and new insights connecting back to the conceptual framework and research questions.
Interview data was transcribed using Zoom’s transcription feature. Then, each interview
transcript was exported to a separate Microsoft Word document and cleaned to prepare for
analysis. Once transcriptions were cleaned, they were uploaded into the Atlas.ti qualitative
analysis software. Data analysis began while data collection from interviews was ongoing.
Open coding was used to develop empirical codes and apply a priori codes to the data based on
the conceptual framework. Next, concepts found in the empirical and a priori codes were
consolidated into axial codes. Patterns identified from axial coding were then developed into
categories and themes connecting back to the conceptual framework and research questions.
Documents and artifacts were also analyzed to provide triangulation with data obtained through
interviews.

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Credibility and Trustworthiness
This section describes strategies that were implemented to ensure the study's credibility
and trustworthiness. Trustworthiness in qualitative research refers to the extent to which a study
has been carried out with rigor and “the degree of confidence in data, interpretation, and methods
used to ensure the quality of a study” (Connelly, 2016, p. 435; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
Credibility is a measure of the truth of a study and whether the findings accurately capture and
represent what was studied (Johnson et al., 2020). First, multiple methods of data collection
were used for triangulation. Merriam and Tisdell (2015) recommend cross-checking data using
multiple methods, sources of data, investigators, or theories to help confirm the credibility of
perceived findings. For this study, data was collected through interviews, documents and
artifacts, and informal observations obtained when on-site at the school campus. The data
sources were also triangulated by gathering the perspectives of both teachers and an
administrator.
It is recommended that researchers acknowledge and explain their biases, perspectives,
and assumptions to help the reader understand how the researcher’s views and personal
experiences may influence their interpretations and narratives within the study (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). As such, it should be noted that I am the parent of three 2e students
who had attended Bridges Academy middle school and were still enrolled, though not in the
middle school, at the time of the study. In consideration of my position, reflexivity was used as a
strategy to promote credibility through a process of critical self-reflection and questioning in
relation to the influence of personal beliefs or biases on conclusions drawn from the data
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Olmos-Vega et al., 2023). I acknowledge that the personal
experience of engagement with this school as a parent presents the likelihood of subjectivity,

61
however extensive effort has been taken to apply personal and methodological reflexivity to the
structure of the study and interpretations of the data at all stages of the research process.
Member checks are used to confirm that preliminary findings have not been
misinterpreted, misunderstood, or influenced by researcher bias (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2015). As early findings emerged, several interview participants were asked for
feedback on my interpretation and understanding of their perspectives. Lastly, as the final
teacher interviews were being conducted, there was evidence from preliminary analysis that data
collection had reached a point of saturation. This further supports credibility by indicating that
enough data had been collected to the extent that there was repetition in the data and no new
information was being found (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
Ethics
As part of ensuring the trustworthiness and credibility of a study, it is important that the
researcher evaluate ethical considerations surrounding the study and attempt to carry out the
study in the most ethical manner possible (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). As mentioned above, I
had children who were students at the school where study participants worked. Consequently,
relational ethics were considered due to my status as a client of the business that employed the
teachers. In cases where the interviewer is perceived to be in a position of social, financial, or
bureaucratic power, potential interviewees may feel compelled to participate in the study (Rubin
& Rubin, 2012). To address power dynamics and assist potential interviewees in determining
whether to participate in the study, study details and informed consent protections were reviewed
with all participants in advance by describing the purpose of the study and indicating that their
participation is voluntary, their responses are confidential, and they may withdraw from the
study at any time. As part of the interview protocol, a statement explaining participant rights

62
was read at the start of each interview to confirm that the participants understood their
protections, had an opportunity to ask questions, and gave informed consent before proceeding.
To protect the privacy of participants, interviewee names were replaced with pseudonyms. In
certain circumstances, false names may not provide sufficient protection from identification
(Glesne, 2011). To prevent identification by gender due to a predominantly female sample,
participants were identified using number assignments, e.g., "Teacher 3", "Teacher 8", etc. Prior
to beginning the interview, permission was obtained from each participant to record the
interview in Zoom. Interview recordings were exported from Zoom, deleted from cloud storage,
and stored on secure drive to maintain confidentiality. The recordings were deleted from the
local storage location following completion of data transcription and analysis.

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Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to determine what knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences have contributed to the positive outcomes Bridges Academy has had in
teaching an exclusively 2e student population. The study design was based on the Clark and
Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, which evaluates performance based on three major factors:
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The authors metaphorically likened the
people in an organization to a car, where knowledge is the engine that makes it run, motivation is
the fuel that keeps it moving, and organizational factors are the road conditions that make a
smooth drive. To that end, this study sought to evaluate an organization that is performing well
using this framework to better understand the driving forces contributing to success. This
chapter presents findings derived from a set of assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences, discussed in Chapter Two, and analyzes their role in answering the
research questions driving the study:
1. What knowledge and motivation assets do the teachers have that contribute to Bridges
Academy’s successful implementation of a 2e school model?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation of teachers?
3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate for solving this problem of practice in other school
settings?
Study Participants
The primary stakeholder group for this study was comprised of teachers at Bridges
Academy. This group was chosen because teachers have the most direct impact on student

64
outcomes as they work the most closely with students delivering instruction each day. The
school contains three grade divisions: Phoenix (grades 4-6), Middle School (grades 7-8), and
High School (grades 9-12). A sample of middle school teachers was selected as the focus of the
study based on the rationale that middle school represents a pivotal time in childhood
development as students transition to early adolescence. The study included eight teachers, who
participated in semi-structured interviews. One school administrator was also interviewed in
order to gain insight on organizational influences from the perspective of school leadership.
Participants were given pseudonyms to protect confidentiality and referred to by number, e.g.,
“Teacher 3”. The participants’ experience working at the school ranged from 2 to 12 years.
Figure 2 presents anonymized demographic data for each teacher in the study indicating the total
number of years working in the education field and the length of employment at Bridges.
Figure 2
Teacher Professional Experience
0
5
10
15
20
25
Years
Teachers
Employed in Education Profession Employed at Bridges Academy

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Findings
The findings of this study are presented below in three sections. They discuss the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on teacher performance,
respectively, and present evidence to support whether each could be validated and why. Table 5
outlines the key findings that will be explored in each section. Finally, a closing summary
highlights the interrelationship of these influences and their combined effects on the school’s
cultural dynamics.
Table 5
Key Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Findings
Key Knowledge Findings  Teachers recognize common characteristics of 2e students.
 Teachers know effective approaches for teaching 2e
students.
 Teachers demonstrate social-emotional competence.
Key Motivation Findings  Teachers experience fulfillment and personal satisfaction
from their work.
 Teachers feel confident about their ability to teach 2e
students.
Key Organizational
Findings
 Shared sense of purpose is a unifying feature of the school
community.
 The school’s mission and values are effectively
communicated and reinforced through various mediums.
 Entrepreneurial mindset characteristics are valued in
teaching staff.

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Knowledge Findings
This section presents findings on teacher knowledge and skills that have contributed to
the successful outcomes at Bridges Academy. This study considered the potential influences of
teacher recognition and understanding of 2e student characteristics and their knowledge of
instructional practices that can benefit 2e students. The data showed that each of these
influences was validated and represented assets supporting positive outcomes at the school. Data
analysis also revealed that teacher performance was influenced by a strong degree of socialemotional competence, which bolstered their performance. This was included as an additional
knowledge influence for analysis.
Teachers Are Familiar With Typical Characteristics of 2e Students
All of the teachers interviewed demonstrated familiarity with various traits that are
commonly found in 2e students. The data pointed to three predominant features teachers
observed among their students: uneven ability or development, unexpected or unusual outward
expression, and unique ways of thinking and learning. Teacher knowledge of these
characteristics was validated based on alignment between their perception of typical traits and
the literature on 2e learners.
One of the most definitive 2e characteristics teachers noted was uneven ability (also
known as asynchronous development). This refers to the notion that students may have very
high ability in certain areas of development or cognition while also experiencing significant
challenges in others, such as academic capability or socioemotional development. The literature
indicates that uneven ability represents a common struggle for 2e students, particularly in terms
of inappropriate expectations from school personnel based on assumptions about students’
general ability (Baldwin, Omdal, et al., 2015; Besnoy et al., 2015). While few teachers in the

67
study explicitly specified uneven ability as a trait, it became clear that each of the teachers
recognized that individual students’ abilities can vary significantly across cognitive, social, and
emotional domains. This was evidenced through various anecdotes referring to the importance
of understanding their students and learning about their unique strengths, needs, and
idiosyncrasies. Teacher 6 pointed to understanding their students as “number one” and trying to
“get to know our students as best as possible.” Expanding on this, Teacher 6 explained that “not
only getting to know their personalities, but getting to know their strengths and their challenges
is probably the most important thing to help our students grow.” Moreover, most teachers
expressed an intentional focus on promoting individual areas of strength while also providing
accommodation for areas of need, which demonstrates an awareness that 2e students may have
varied levels of ability. Teacher 8, for example, explained the benefit of taking a sixth-grade
student in eighth grade math to hone their strengths while Teacher 5 noted that there is an
understanding that all of the students struggle despite the nature of their various strengths and
areas of weakness.
In addition to understanding that 2e students often have uneven cognitive profiles, the
teachers also noted that their students were distinct from other learners by the manner in which
they relate or present to others. The teachers frequently conveyed that 2e students tend to
express themselves in unexpected or atypical ways compared to neurotypical learners. They
described behaviors that are often misunderstood by school personnel in other settings who are
unfamiliar with 2e students. For example, a student may exhibit behavior that is inappropriate
for the context due to a lack of inhibitory control, e.g., blurting out thoughts. Where other
teachers assume “they’re being rude and interrupting,” Teacher 5 explained, “they’re just having
a hard time stopping the flow of words from their mouth.” The teachers listed a variety of other

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examples. They described students with strong personalities, who enjoyed argumentation and
frequently challenging others in classroom discussion. Some students were said to become
hyper-focused on areas of interest while others seemed not to be paying attention but could still
correctly answer questions on the topic being discussed.
While the students’ outward expression was noted, many of the teachers also described
2e characteristics related to their students’ internal experiences and needs, as well. These reports
suggested that 2e students may process learning and their environment differently than
neurotypical learners. Some of these characteristics included bouts of intense frustration,
difficulty with change, a strong desire to be heard, and deep intellectual curiosity. Teacher 2
mentioned that their 2e students often came from schools where they were ignored for not
“fitting a mold.” The students were reported to frequently comment that they needed teachers
that listened to them. Teacher 2 concluded, “If they feel unheard, it snowballs into bigger
problems.” Several teachers also pointed out that their students’ internal states and needs can
change from day to day, and that they required a greater focus on addressing their
socioemotional needs. According to Teacher 3, “Working with 2e students presents a lot of the
socioemotional side of things that doesn’t really get touched on in public schools or in a more
traditional school setting.”
Overwhelmingly, the teachers conveyed that they recognize 2e characteristics and view
their students’ attitudes and behaviors through the lens of their profiles as 2e learners, which has
helped to guide their actions. Further, the characteristics they described align with those detailed
in the literature (Beckmann & Minnaert, 2018). Therefore, the data has validated that the
teachers recognize and understand 2e characteristics.

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While knowledge of 2e characteristics has proven an important benefit in this context, it
is significantly more salient in the context of K-12 schools which may have little or no
experience with 2e students. At Bridges, nearly all teachers stated that they had been unfamiliar
with the term 2e and the existence of 2e students when they began working at the school.
Several noted that they had had some prior experience with what may have been unidentified 2e
students. From their reports, these students did not fare well in the schools, particularly those
who were unable to remain due to their difficulties. However, because the teachers became
aware of this school’s focus from the outset, they either sought out information on 2e students or
learned about them from on-the-job experience.
Teachers Know How to Use Instructional Practices That Promote 2e Student Learning
Bridges teachers were asked several questions pertaining to their teaching practices and
what made them most effective in working with 2e students. For example, “How have your
teaching practices or strategies changed since you started working here, if at all?” and “What
would you say are the most important things to know to succeed in this job?” The responses
overwhelmingly pointed to two essential practices guiding their approaches to instruction:
differentiation and responsiveness to their students’ challenges and changing needs. While the
latter may not fit the definition of an instructional practice, there was a significant group
adherence to the belief that a responsive approach was essential to address immediate barriers to
the learning experience for instruction to be effective. As such, this section will address both
components.
Differentiation is a core instructional practice that was cited by nearly all teachers.
Tomlinson (2004) defines differentiation as “ensuring that what a student learns, how he/she
learns it, and how the student demonstrates what he/she has learned is a match for that student's

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readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning” (p.188). This is generally
accomplished by modifying the content, lesson plan, how instruction is delivered, how
knowledge is demonstrated, and student grouping (Tomlinson, 2005). It is well documented in
the literature that differentiation is an approach that promotes learning for students with diverse
learning needs (Bajrami, 2013). Teacher interviews indicated that differentiated instruction is
used to address the wide range of abilities and needs they serve. Teacher 4 explained the
importance of recognizing that students may be working on different levels within a single class,
requiring flexibility and multiple approaches. Teacher 8 gave examples of taking a different
approach to explain a concept or modulating speech to speak more slowly, if needed. For some
groups, teachers described incorporating more hands-on activities to increase engagement or they
found that students responded better to fewer summative assessments and more daily takeaways
that were synthesized at the end of the term. Many of the teachers shared that they are
continuing to develop strategies to support their students. As Teacher 6 summarized, “I've had to
adapt my teaching style to meet the learning styles of the students. I've become a lot more
flexible with the way that I introduce information [and] a lot more versed in the multiple avenues
that we have to introduce information.”
According to teacher accounts, the other significant practice supporting their classroom
instructional effectiveness was responsiveness to students’ psychological and socioemotional
needs. On numerous occasions, the teachers referred to being flexible to accommodate their
students’ needs. Often, their examples of flexibility were in the context of helping students
overcome internal or external distractions and other barriers to actively engaging in learning
activities. Several teachers explained that it was important to help students regulate themselves,
when needed, by engaging in actions that might not typically be permissible in a traditional

71
classroom setting, such as getting up to walk about, playing with a fidget, or even sitting under a
desk. Teacher 1 recounted the early advice of a more senior teacher, “If some child is
experiencing difficulty in anything emotionally or at school and he wants to sit under the table in
a fetal position with his thumb in his mouth, you allow him to do that.” While not all requests
are permissible, the teachers conveyed an intention to consider the nature of the student’s needs
at that moment. Another important aspect of showing flexibility to support emotional regulation
surrounded the concept of exerting control over students. Several teachers pointed out that their
practice was to avoid unnecessary power struggles by finding alternative options to complete
tasks with a more positive outcome for the students. As Teacher 5 explained, “you don’t control
students, you control environments.”
Several teachers described offering alternative activities, when appropriate, to encourage
cooperation and engagement in non-preferred tasks. Many instructional practices employed
addressed the need to build engagement and maintain attention. Attention is known to be a
common challenge for 2e students. For some, it can be due to boredom caused by a lack of
intellectual stimulation while others may struggle with overexcitability or ADHD (Aziz, 2020;
Gyarmathy, 2022). Teacher 2 recounted compromising with students by offering an alternative
to warm-up activities to encourage better participation during the majority of class rather than
forcing students to do a non-essential planned activity, stating, “I feel like I saved a lot of the
kids that, if I had forced them to sit there and [complete the activity], it would have hindered me.
Within the first 15 minutes of class, I would have lost their interest.” Teacher 5 pointed out
another example of showing responsiveness by being flexible with students and taking a
different direction than what was planned, expressing, “Sometimes you have a plan A, but they
have a better plan and all you have to do is let go of your plan and go with their plan.”

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Ultimately, supporting students’ needs by practicing responsiveness may simply require listening
and being understanding. According to Teacher 3, “To be successful at this job, it's really a lot
of patience and empathy. Being able to work through some of the struggles our kids have and
then understanding what the causes of their struggles are and being able to work them through
those struggles.”
Beyond the practices teachers cited as the major contributing factors to effective 2e
instruction, other practices of note included incorporating social-emotional learning within the
academic learning context, learning more about students through their educational profiles and
observation to better understand them and their needs, teaching with high energy and affect, and
using metacognitive strategies to assess and improve personal performance. Based on many
examples presented corroborating teacher experiences that are aligned with the literature on 2e
learning, the data provided sufficient evidence to validate that teachers know how to use
instructional practices benefitting 2e students.
Teachers Demonstrate Social-Emotional Competence
Throughout teacher interviews, there were many comments and anecdotes describing
instances in which the teachers aptly leveraged their social-emotional skills to overcome
challenges and support their students. Data analysis strongly indicated that the effective use of
social and emotional skills represented an integral aspect of the teachers’ job function, leading to
the inclusion of this additional knowledge influence. Teacher interviews revealed a number of
insights into the social-emotional aspects of their job performance and how those may influence
teaching practice. This included the way they interacted with students individually and how they
managed group dynamics in the classroom. Additionally, it also influenced how they managed
their own emotions and behaviors in response to typical work challenges.

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Interpersonal relations and social structures are a consideration in analyzing any
organization. However, within the context of an educational program for neurodiverse students,
the socioemotional domain represents a critical component in program implementation. As
noted in the previous sections on teacher knowledge, Bridges teachers indicated that their
students have a complex and varied set of characteristics and needs that must be recognized and
accommodated appropriately for successful learning experiences. As such, teachers had to
recognize and respond to students’ social-emotional needs on a daily basis, both spontaneously
and through purposeful planning, as well as employ various methods to teach pro-social
behaviors. In addition to enacting these behaviors, teachers explicitly identified supportive
interpersonal characteristics and soft skills as important contributors to success at Bridges.
Based on their reports, it became clear that the teachers’ own social skills and emotional
competencies bolstered their effectiveness within this environment. As a result, these skills
warranted further analysis as an influence on teacher performance.
The data overwhelmingly showed that the teachers recognized and employed specific
socioemotional skills and strategies that they found positively influenced their students. These
skills included empathy, patience, flexibility, emotional resilience, and building positive
relationships with students. While some teachers noted that such skills are likely to be beneficial
in any school environment, it seemed to be of particular importance in this context working with
a 2e population. For example, Teacher 7 noted that “patience is probably the biggest thing that I
have had to develop more as a teacher” and elaborated “One of the things I had to relearn with
Bridges was that you have to be able to be flexible. You have to be patient with how they learn,
processing speed, all those kinds of things.” Teacher 4 described using patience to overcome
situations in which it is unclear what a student is experiencing internally or how to manage it, by

74
stopping to think, “I already know that I don’t know, so that already puts me at a neutral
position.” The teacher explained further that those times require withholding judgment and
avoiding assumptions to approach the situation with empathy and an open mind.
Part of the approach to support students’ emotional needs included a focus on teaching
socioemotional skills, such as adaptability and self-advocacy to manage their differences and
communicate their needs in the world. Teacher 5 shared that there is a range of interpersonal
skills taught, including how students can advocate for themselves in socially appropriate ways
and frame their needs in a manner that will get a more positive response from adults they
encounter. Teacher 5 gave the example of telling a student, “Find out if there’s a way to get
what you want done. What are the words I have to say to an adult to get that to happen?”
Taken as a whole, the data suggests that the teachers have a high degree of skill in areas
that fall within the domain of emotional intelligence. While there are several established models
describing the concept of emotional intelligence, it is broadly defined as the ability to recognize,
understand, and manage one’s own emotions as well as identify, understand, and respond to
those of others. The term was first introduced by researchers Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer
(1990). They proposed a four-branch model of emotional intelligence, which was comprised of
perceiving emotion, using emotion to facilitate thought, understanding emotion, and regulating
emotion (Mayer et al., 2004; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Psychologist Daniel Goleman (1995)
developed a similar model that included five domains (emotional self-awareness, self-regulation,
social skills, empathy, and motivation). It was later revised, placing specific social-emotional
competencies within four domains (self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and
relationship management) (Goleman et al., 2013). While researchers have acknowledged that
the development of emotional intelligence is influenced by a number of factors, including early

75
childhood experiences and genetics (Grossmann et al., 2006; Vernon et al., 2008), it is not fixed
and can undergo change and improvement (Kotsou et al., 2011). For example, some may have a
propensity for empathy naturally, but the practice of demonstrating empathy can also be
enhanced through experiential learning. Ultimately, the findings suggest that the teachers
demonstrate well-developed social-emotional skills and have learned to incorporate those skills
in their work, contributing to the positive impact of their performance.
Motivation Findings
This section presents findings on the motivation influences of middle school teachers at
Bridges Academy. While intrinsic motivation surfaced as the most influential type of
motivation, the data show that the teachers had also developed a sense of self-efficacy in their
ability to teach twice-exceptional students. In addition to these two assumed motivation assets,
the data also revealed that, as new teachers, some developed expectancies for success due to
experiences in this context. Further, many teachers conveyed the positive effects that they
experienced from the relationships they shared with other teachers.
Teachers Believe Their Work is Rewarding, Challenging, and Important
Throughout the interviews, teachers shared motivating factors about their work, but none
was expressed as frequently and visibly as the sense of personal fulfillment they experience in
their work with students. Intrinsic motivation is defined as engaging in a task or activity because
it provides some degree of personal satisfaction or enjoyment (Ryan & Deci, 2000). When a
person is intrinsically motivated, action is taken due to this personal enjoyment rather than
external factors, such as rewards or the threat of negative consequences. Motivated behavior is
demonstrated by making an active choice to initiate action toward a goal, sustaining persistence

76
to complete the task, and applying the mental effort necessary to do so (Pintrich & Schunk,
1996).
Teachers were asked to share what motivates them to give their best effort in this position
and, in a separate question, what helps them get through challenges in their role. Often, the
responses referred to the students being a primary factor motivating them to persist and exert the
necessary effort. For many, this was due to the satisfaction they enjoyed watching their students’
growth, particularly recognizing the academic and personal challenges they had experienced
previously. Overall, the teachers expressed a sense of pride observing their students’ growth
trajectories, including learning to advocate for themselves, becoming leaders in various areas,
building confidence, and moving on to graduation and higher education. For example, Teacher 1
shared that the most significant motivating influence was seeing students’ success and how “they
came from not even being able to be in the classroom for too long and… thriving in that
environment with all the extra help that we provide along the way.” Similarly, Teacher 3
responded that most important was “their growth, seeing them grow… seeing them come such a
long way.”
The teachers’ intrinsic motivation seemed to be enhanced by not only seeing their
students’ successes, but also in knowing that they had personally contributed to those successes.
Teachers demonstrated a clear relationship between personal commitment to their students and
the impact on intrinsic motivation. Such sentiments were echoed across various anecdotes. For
example, the experience of teaching students who, they believed, would not have had school
success in other environments, gave rise to a deep sense of pride. Teacher 7 referred to working
with these students as “by far the best part,” and elaborated on the connection to personal
motivation:

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I look at our student body… I see there are kids I can pick out that I just know wouldn’t
make it… wouldn’t be able to progress through their education if they weren’t at Bridges.
When graduation rolls around, you see these kids and how they bloomed.
In another example, Teacher 9 laid out a personal philosophy on teaching that highlights
an interconnectedness between having a personal investment in teaching and the sense of
satisfaction and reward:
I recognize my position, and my job is as much to teach them, as it's to motivate them
and to help them aspire for the greatness that they're capable of. So, every day, even on
the bad days, the days where we don't want to be there, the days that we don't feel good,
the reason why we are there is the kids. And that's really the main motivation for me.
Throughout the interviews, teachers mentioned the importance of building connections
with their students as a means to better understand their needs and promote engagement.
However, beyond this utility value, several teachers also indicated that a certain degree of their
work fulfillment was derived as a consequence of the relationships that developed with students.
This was due to several factors, including a sense of reciprocal learning opportunity and the
novelty that came from working with such a diverse group of students each year. Teacher 4
underscored that “these kids are teaching me something [emphasis added].” This teacher went
on to describe the loss of meaning and personal significance that would occur if the teaching
relationship with students were entirely one-sided, calling it “redundant.” A comparison could
be drawn between this “one-sided” teaching scenario and what Frei re (2000) describes as the
banking model of education, wherein traditional pedagogy treats students as empty vessels to be
filled with knowledge rather than what he establishes as the idealized view of teachers as cocreators.

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For some teachers, the daily change that comes with teaching neurodiverse students
brings a combination of interest and challenge to the job. Teacher 9 explained that each new
class presents a different set of strengths and challenges, yet the obstacles can connect teachers to
these students in a unique way, perhaps enhancing personal fulfillment:
That’s the fun of it because it’s never the same… There’s always something exciting you
can learn about. There's always going to be a challenge that you're going to have to
overcome. But that's what these students have been dealing with all their lives, and so
you're in that battle with them.
Throughout the many examples presented, the teachers provided evidence that they share
a strong sense of intrinsic motivation. The anecdotes provide validation that teachers found
working with their students rewarding, challenging, and important. While the data does not
indicate whether these teachers would have experienced a similar degree of intrinsic motivation
from working with a population of students who were not 2e, the fact remains that the
experiences described demonstrate a strong intrinsic motivational influence in this context.
Teachers Believe They Are Capable of Effectively Teaching 2e Students
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief about their ability to perform within a
specific domain and is a key motivational construct within Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive
theory. This notion differs from self-confidence or self-esteem in that these beliefs do not extend
to one’s overall sense of self, but rather, they are restricted to a particular area of knowledge or
ability. Self-efficacy beliefs exert an important influence on motivation, as those who believe
they are not capable of performing well in an area tend to avoid undertaking related tasks.
Conversely, those who are confident in their ability to perform are more likely to initiate the
necessary activities, persevere through challenges, and put forth sufficient mental effort to carry

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out those tasks. The literature shows that many in the educational community have little or no
awareness of 2e students, and even fewer have experience teaching them. In light of this fact,
understanding the self-efficacy of Bridges teachers and the role it plays in their motivation was
an important influence to explore.
Interview responses across the board indicated that the teachers had become confident
that they were capable of teaching 2e students. They provided examples of how they developed
confidence and an awareness of their competence over time. These examples included seeing
successful results from their work with students, developing a willingness to take risks and try
new ideas in situations that they would have avoided previously, requiring less support from
others when facing challenges, receiving positive feedback, and developing a sense of ease and
comfortableness in their everyday work. For example, Teacher 1 indicated both positive results
in the classroom and feedback from parents and administrators as gauges of success, leading to
increased self-efficacy:
That [competence] was sort of validated with the progress that I saw. If things aren't
going right, the parents kick in. Your administrators will speak to you… I taught [a
subject] a lot of kids don't like… So, it’s when you're able to bring them in and have them
be interested in what they're doing and participate and do well.
The teacher went on to recount how parents attending their child’s graduation at Bridges
would share work samples saved from middle school and express their appreciation for this
teacher’s efforts. In a similar vein, a few teachers indicated that their sense of self-efficacy was
boosted by receiving feedback from students years later. For example, when asked, “How
confident do you feel in your ability to teach 2e students?”, Teacher 2 responded:

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I would give myself a nine [out of 10] only because I've received emails from kids that
have graduated, explaining how much of a difference I've made. I think that if I had not received
those emails, I would have never felt that way. But I do feel like I've made a difference and I
feel confident in how I help them.
Teacher 3 pointed to the influence of student engagement on reinforcing teacher selfefficacy. In this account, growing confidence helped pave the way for moving past roadblocks
and, in turn, helped foster a mastery orientation:
Just seeing the students' participation or excitement for my class or excitement for the
subject, it's definitely given me the confidence to try new things even if they don't
work….I didn't want to try something that I doubted was going to work. There was a lot
of self-doubt in my first year, but now just having that confidence gives me a lot of
greater leeway so that, even if something doesn't work out, I can just brush it off and
never touch it again.
Several teachers responded that they felt a sense of ease and that they became
comfortable in performing their roles over time after having gained experience. This was echoed
in sentiments such as “the more years I’m there, the more confidence I get” and, in another
account, “I just felt more comfortable and saw through the years what worked and what didn’t.”
Teacher 2 indicated that the sense of confidence was evidenced by requiring less support when
facing difficulties:
Where in the past, I might have run to our counselor and said, "Oh my gosh, how do I
deal with this?" now I feel like I can go to her if I try X, Y, and Z, and then it doesn't
work. I give it my first trial and then I go to her if I need to, afterwards. In the

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beginning, it was much more that I really needed my support system, and I was relying
on them heavily.
While confident, the teachers were not over-confident, which can hinder performance
outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008). This point became quite evident by the manner in which
teachers responded to questions about their sense of self-efficacy. Some were careful to frame
their responses in the context that, although they feel confident, they recognize the importance of
continuing to learn and grow.
A few teachers were reluctant to supply a definitive answer, which could be interpreted
as avoidance (due to uncertainty of their own efficacy), or as simply exercising caution in
making broad assumptions. These participants pointed out some insightful considerations in
their self-assessment, which suggests that the latter interpretation is more likely in this case. For
example, they suggested that the sense of competence or success may not always be consistent.
Factors they cited that can cause fluctuating self-efficacy included dynamics in the day-to-day
teaching experience in a 2e classroom, as well as from one cohort of students to the next.
Teacher 7 explained the effect this can have:
I feel like it depends on the classroom environment we're talking about. The thing is with
Bridges... There isn't a concrete answer. No teacher would be able to give you a concrete
answer as far as this goes because it depends on the classrooms, the makeup of the
students in the classroom, and their dynamic with you and their dynamic with each other,
even. But there are classes where I feel like I'm close to a 10 as far as how things are
going and how effective I am as a teacher and there are classes where it could be as low
as a five or six because of the dynamic between the students.

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While all the teachers expressed a sense of self-efficacy in performing their jobs, their
responses varied regarding challenges they faced and the factors influencing how quickly their
self-efficacy developed. For example, several teachers struggled with classes that included a
broad spectrum of needs and abilities within one group. One teacher explained that, when the
spread of abilities in a class is wide, they still needed to cater to the students’ gifts while having
the capacity to manage their challenges. Consequently, depending on the mix of both in the
class, it can be challenging to keep everyone engaged and productive. In such cases, the teachers
developed more self-efficacy as they learned to navigate this balancing act through a
combination of developing more alternative teaching approaches, offering students greater
flexibility in approaching work, and leveraging school resources, such as teaching assistants, for
support.
Another challenge teachers reported was managing time for administrative tasks, such as
developing lesson plans, preparing class materials, and creating progress reports. These
difficulties were often addressed using metacognitive strategies for improving personal
efficiency and by delegating various tasks to teaching assistants. One teacher suggested that
assistants who experienced a mentee relationship with their lead teachers and received more
opportunities to participate in teaching activities may have been better prepared for promotion to
lead teacher than those who were used in more of an administrative capacity. While there was
not enough data to compare the self-efficacy of teachers who had previously been assistants to
those who had not, it is an interesting consideration regarding possible influences on teacher selfefficacy in this context.
In analyzing the teachers’ overall response to the question of their self-efficacy, it became
clear that they had developed a sense of self-efficacy and that it exerted a significant positive

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influence on motivation. They came to have these beliefs due to positive feedback from the
school administrators and from former students and families as well as from their own
experiences of success, indicated by better management of the class and requiring less external
support. While many felt strongly about their competence, there was generally some
acknowledgement that it is important to be mindful about continuing to hone their craft and
striving to improve.
Organizational Findings
This section will present findings addressing the second research question: What is the
interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge and motivation of
teachers? The following discussion examines the organizational culture at Bridges Academy
within the framework of Schein’s (2017) dynamic definition of culture:
The culture of a group can be defined as the accumulated shared learning of that group as
it solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration; which has worked
well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the
correct way to perceive, think, feel, and behave in relation to those problems.
This accumulated learning is a pattern or system of beliefs, values, and behavioral norms
that come to be taken for granted as basic assumptions and eventually drop out of
awareness.
The author further expands on the notion of culture by articulating categorical elements
that make up culture, ranging from observable artifacts to unseen expectations and beliefs.
These include the way people interact, the espoused values, implicit group norms, habits of
thinking or mental models, shared meanings, unspoken rules governing group assimilation, and
how the group views its own identity. Through this lens, we will examine each of the assumed

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organizational influences at Bridges and, finally, discuss how the interaction of these influences
impacts teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and ultimately, performance.
Valuing a Shared Sense of Purpose
If vision acts as a compass anchoring an organization to its values and goals, workers
who are inspired by a collective sense of purpose and meaning in their work are better able to
align with their organization’s mission. In other words, they experience an environment that
goes beyond the dynamics of team cohesion to a sense of community. McMillan and Chavis
(1986) offer a definition and theory of sense of community consisting of four components:
membership, influence, integration and fulfillment of needs, and shared emotional connections.
This definition of community is not only applied to territorial or geographical community, but
also to relational community, e.g., spiritual or professional affiliation. The Bridges teachers
indicated that there were many aspects of their roles that created a deep sense of personal
meaning and intrinsic value. They also revealed important interpersonal and group dynamics,
specific to the teaching staff, which conveyed a strong sense of community. Taken together,
their combined narratives pointed to evidence of a unifying group identity grounded in their
shared purpose.
Schein (2017) describes how a group’s shared cultural learning coalesces into a set of
beliefs forming the group identity and reason for being, or purpose. In a similar sense, the
teachers at Bridges had come to share a common set of mental models about their purpose, and
the duties and expectations surrounding their role related to the students and governing their
interactions with the other teachers. During interviews, the same views were echoed by many of
the teachers on numerous occasions. Broadly, these underlying assumptions could be sorted into

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two categories: (1) beliefs and attitudes that Bridges teachers should hold about their role, and
(2) teacher behaviors or conduct considered the correct way to act within this context.
The data suggest that teachers both personally held and expected other members of their
group to maintain the following beliefs:
 Teachers should place the students’ needs as their top priority;
 Making students feel supported and psychologically safe in the environment is a
crucial part of the teacher’s job;
 Teachers should take a genuine interest in their students’ well-being;
 Any member of school staff should be willing to spontaneously offer a student
support when challenges arise.
The shared beliefs about the role of a teacher at Bridges were often described in terms of
ways that they approached various challenges that may have fallen outside the role a teacher
typically plays in the confines of their classroom. Teacher 5 noted, “You have to make sure you
do whatever you need to do in order to be able to reach them,” and offered the following
example of supporting a student online during the pandemic:
This one kid is super intellectual, loves school, but being home alone [during the
pandemic] was so stressful to him. He almost couldn't function because of the level of
stress. So, what I eventually ended up doing with him is take him to a breakout room and
have a little ‘Hey, how are you feeling today. How's life going?’ Then he’d get to, for
four minutes, talk about how scared he was about the pandemic, how sick he was of
being home, how everything's weird. He’d have a little freak-out, but then he’d come
back and now he can work.

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The group also recounted similar stories surrounding beliefs about the importance of
personal connection and genuine interest in the students. Teacher 6 indicated the importance of
making every effort to learn about their students and taking an interest in their welfare in a
broader sense. Some of the efforts this teacher made included building profiles for each student,
reviewing their educational plans, and communicating with their current teachers in other
subjects or previous teachers in the lower division. Teacher 6 concluded that the goal is to “try
to figure out the student more on a holistic level than just dealing with them in my specific
curriculum class.” More to the point, the additional effort and concern suggests a degree of
personal investment and interest.
In contrast, those who failed to uphold the group’s shared value of taking genuine interest
in student welfare and growth were viewed with disapproval. Teacher 6 related the experience
of having seen the engagement of teachers who “get it” and are fully invested in their work with
the students, compared with some who had worked at the school previously and did not
demonstrate the expected level of interest and involvement, summarizing, “you can tell the
difference, when talking with the students, in how the environment and the feeling changes, and
how maybe there isn't so much focus on the [student’s] overall development, rather than just
specifically subject-wise.”
Teacher 2 commented on the importance of giving students a voice as a means of
providing emotional support:
The other thing that I really think matters, because the kids tell me quite often, is that
they need teachers that listen. So, you have to be listening 24/7. They are constantly
telling you what they need, and if the teacher is not there to actually hear them, then I
think that, if they feel unheard, it snowballs into bigger problems.

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The behaviors that were assumed to be correct in the context of being a Bridges teacher
included the following:
 Teachers should adapt their approach to students’ learning needs (classroom
management, teaching strategies, etc.) rather than expecting students to unilaterally
conform;
 Teachers should be responsive to the class dynamic at any moment and adjust;
 Teachers should not allow their personal emotions to compromise their work integrity
or their commitment to the students.
Several teachers offered similar descriptions of the characteristics of former teachers
who, ultimately, were not a good fit for the school’s environment. Their acceptance in the group
structure seems to have been determined by the fact that these teachers were unable to
adequately assimilate to the cultural norms at Bridges. Specific behaviors the group considered
unfit included rigidity, approaching the job with apathy or minimal effort, and showing an
inability to cope with circumstances intrinsic to the environment. In one example, Teacher 6
aptly characterized what is considered the appropriate response to teacher stress on the job:
Obviously, we try to stay as positive and light as possible. But the stresses of the job and
personal life and everything else that's going on, we can't always keep that positivity. But
from what I've seen, it never appears as though whatever frustrations are being had or
whatever challenges the teachers are encountering seem to affect their ability to work in a
classroom setting. It has come out during staff meetings. It has come out during private
talks. It's come out in conversations outside of school, things like that. But it's never
affected our students… We could be dealing with 1,001 things outside, but as soon as we

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get here, our main goal and our main focus is to help the students. I think that's an
important aspect that a majority, if not all of our staff, really uphold.
This teacher goes on to provide an example of former teachers whose behavior was
considered unacceptable, suggesting that subpar performance and a lack of interest is frowned
upon. In this example, the former teachers “weren't performing to the same standard as others”
in areas such as curriculum development, the implementation of lesson plans, or modifying
materials according to the students' individual needs. A concern was that “some of [those
teachers] haven’t had the students’ best interest in mind when they were teaching.” Teacher 5
also provided an example of the perception of a teacher who was not acceptable by the group
standards:
One thing that we all say when we speak amongst each other, like whenever there's
anybody who's an ill fit as an intern or a teacher is, there is not enough room for you to
have issues. We can [accept] for the children to have issues. You can’t be somebody
who gets insulted easily because there's not enough room for [that]. Your job is to be
okay so that you can deal with [the students]. And every now and then you'll get
somebody where they're more concerned about their own thoughts or their own feelings.
That’s not a good fit. That's not at Bridges. I don't know if it's a good thing with any
teaching, but it definitely is not good with Bridges. So, you have to be even-keeled
enough where it's not about you.
In another example, this teacher recounted how a former teacher was too entrenched in
their ways to become adequately responsive to the needs of the class:
We had a teacher who didn't last very long. The struggle was that all their energy was
put towards preparing. He prepared every night. He would read his little monologue to

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himself… He had written out all the words he was going to say and, the next day, he'd
read it. The kids got bored; he couldn't switch off. It's like, ‘Well, I'm supposed to say
this, and I have to say the whole thing.’ You can't be too attached to how you think it’s
going to go. So read the room and you go with what's going to work, but you cannot be
attached to the presentation. Your presentation might not be the way you thought it was
going to be, but all you [should be] concerned about is the end goal. Did they get it?
Were they engaged? That's where you're trying to go.
While many of the teachers’ beliefs about the approach to their jobs were discussed
previously in the sections on knowledge and motivation influences, the present analysis is
pertinent in that it demonstrates a reinforcing dynamic within the teacher culture that creates a
sense of community which, in turn, maintains and upholds the values rooted in their sense of
group purpose. This offers insight into the collective views and expectations of the group that
extended beyond the individual. In addition, the teachers acted as a resource and support system
to one another, thereby exerting a strong positive influence on their collective knowledge and
motivation. As a result, they experienced a supportive environment that benefitted performance
in both the knowledge and motivation dimensions.
The Mission and Values are Infused Throughout
Once an organization’s culture has become established, Schein (2017) asserts that its
leaders must manage the culture, either by maintaining it or, when needed, directing its evolution
and growth. He presents six primary and secondary mechanisms for embedding and transmitting
beliefs, values, and assumptions within an organization, shown in Table 6 (Schein, 2017, p. 183).
This section will discuss findings on the extent to which the leaders at Bridges Academy have

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communicated and embedded the school’s mission and values through the lens of teachers’
experiences.
Table 6
Mechanisms for Embedding Culture
Primary Embedding Mechanisms Secondary Mechanisms
(Reinforcement and Stabilizing)
What leaders pay attention to, measure,
and control on a regular basis
Organizational design and structure
How leaders react to critical incidents and
organizational crises
Organizational systems and procedures
How leaders allocate resources Rites and rituals of the organization
Deliberate role modeling, teaching, and
coaching
Design of physical space, façades, and
buildings
How leaders allocate rewards and status Stories about important events and people
How leaders recruit, select, promote, and
excommunicate
Formal statements of organizational
philosophy, creeds, and charters
Note. Adapted from Organizational Culture and Leadership (p. 183), by E. H. Schein, 2017,
John Wiley & Sons. Copyright 2017 by Edgar H. Schein.
It has been widely established in the organizational change and leadership literature that
organizations can obtain significant benefit from thoughtfully crafting and communicating their
mission and values. However, for this vision to take root and become embedded in the
organization’s culture, it is essential that the message is sufficiently repeated in an effective and
meaningful way. Burke (2002) describes it as a story that leaders must tell “time and again,
because people need to be reminded of what it is that we are doing – and why” (p. 264). When
asked about the school mission and to what degree it had been conveyed to them, Bridges
teachers noted that the administrators often referred to the school’s mission and purpose during

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meetings, events, and informal discussions. In fact, several teachers described the vision as
being “everywhere,” “throughout everything,” and “constant.” One teacher likened the mission
statement to a mantra. Teacher 1 shared that the mission was communicated in various ways:
We always discussed [the school mission] during meetings. We always had printed
media all over the school stating our mission and our goals. It was prevalent in the
school visually, and also reinforced when we spoke in a large group.
Interview data suggested that repeated communication of the school’s mission may have
contributed to teacher practices in tangible ways. For example, Teacher 4 described actively
referring to the mission statement in the process of developing lesson plans. Elaborating on this
comment, the teacher connected this practice to the school’s messaging:
We have monthly meetings and the mission statement, what we're trying to get to, is
reiterated a lot. And I see it again, from the ground up, and I see it in the lesson plans.
So, I think it's encouraged almost daily without even realizing it.
In addition to the influence of vision on teacher practice, teachers also reported seeing
evidence of the mission exemplified in school culture, classroom environments, and social
interactions. Teacher 6 summarized, “it’s embedded here and there, all throughout our facilities,
our staff, our students, our interactions.” In one example, Teacher 2 shared that there is an
emphasis placed on displaying visual representations and symbols embodying the school vision:
“I think we do a really good job putting that within our hallways and [the Head of School] has
asked us for feedback on what great quotes that we can pick from our 2e icons to incorporate in
our hallways.” The teacher then elaborated, “We have great icons that have really important
values or ways of thinking that we need to continuously remind the kids and having quotes
around is a great way, having our symbol around.” This example demonstrates the use of

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symbols in the environment as a means of reinforcing values and vision. It also suggests that
school leaders are embedding culture by paying attention to, thus valuing, the role of symbols
and incorporating a secondary, reinforcing embedding mechanism by using the design of spaces
to communicate their message.
Leaders have long been charged with guiding their organizations through unexpected
and, sometimes, devastating situations over which they may have little or no control. Yet they
are responsible for navigating through these obstacles toward what is, ideally, the best-case
scenario under the circumstances. The unprecedented societal impact of the Covid-19 pandemic
was no exception. As Schein (2017) indicated, the way leaders respond to organizational crisis
is one of the primary mechanisms responsible for embedding organizational culture. Bridges
teachers who were interviewed overwhelmingly reported that school leaders responded to this
potential organizational crisis proactively and with great foresight.
As the threat of a Covid-19 pandemic grew, the school began preparing teachers,
students, and their families for the possibility of an extended school closure. Prior to March
2020, the school had operated exclusively in a traditional, on-campus environment. However, by
the time that local and statewide government authorities mandated orders to stay at home in midMarch, the teachers had been prepared to immediately transition to a full-time, online program.
Through these actions, the administration reinforced the school’s mission and values by
communicating the importance placed on supporting their students, many of whom have
difficulty managing anxiety and change, through the distress of such a transition. This was
largely accomplished by the leadership mobilizing quickly and focusing their efforts on
developing and communicating a contingency plan, thus giving the teachers time to prepare.
This, in turn, positively influenced teacher motivation, as it reinforced morale and the teachers’

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confidence once the program eventually went online. As a result, teachers stated that they felt
better prepared to undertake their jobs, support their students, and face the uncertainty and
instability inherent in such a sudden, drastic change. One teacher was able to observe other
family members during online lessons through the public school system and remarked that the
difference in how public schools were teaching compared with Bridges was “palpable.” The
teacher noted where the public schools’ response to this educational crisis fell short:
They got about an hour of instruction a day and, even then, it was [not working]. I think
it's because they do rely on the structure, textbooks and all that stuff. Their structures are
so structured that they didn't have the ability to pivot very easily. Because we're more
flexible in general, our pivoting was much easier. We practiced for a week or two before
we even did it.
In addition to communicating values through operational changes, document analysis
shows that the Head of School and division administrators also sent email communications to
families, on several occasions over the previous month, regarding the possible impact of
changing conditions and to reassure all stakeholders that preparations were being made in
anticipation of a disruption to normal school activities.
In terms of embedding the school’s mission and values, these organizational actions also
symbolized the value leaders placed on adaptability, finding creative solutions, and perseverance
despite facing obstacles. The school’s visible representation of perseverance is particularly
salient because school staff have been observed on various occasions referring to “staying in the
struggle.” This phrase, suggesting that students must strive to persevere despite the obstacles
they may face, appears to be somewhat of a mantra in the school culture. Not only is the
expression used in conversation, but this value is also represented formally as a measure on the

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Phoenix and middle school report cards. Specifically, there is a section devoted to evaluating
various areas of socioemotional development. One grading criterion is labeled “Perseverance:
Able to stay in the struggle and persist in the face of difficulty.”
Based on the evidence presented, the school leadership successfully communicated the
school’s vision and mission through various modalities, including verbal and written
communication, signs and symbols displayed throughout the campus, and by example through
actions that supported their messages. In addition, teacher responses demonstrated that they
adequately understood the communications and the relationship to performing their roles within
the school community. As a result, this organizational influence helped shape the school culture
with a clear and unified vision.
Valuing an Entrepreneurial Mindset
Entrepreneurial mindset represents a set of personal qualities and characteristics that have
traditionally been associated with those who engage in some form of entrepreneurship. These
traits include future orientation, flexibility and adaptability, comfort with risk, self-reliance and
initiative, communication and collaboration, creativity and innovation, opportunity recognition,
and critical thinking (Nakamoto & Rice, 2017). In a chapter of Twice Exceptional contributed
by school leaders, the authors indicated their espoused value of hiring teachers with
characteristics closely aligned with an entrepreneurial mindset (Sabatino & Wiebe, 2018).
Specifically, the ideal qualities they sought included “an orientation toward flexibility, creative
thinking, professional experience inside and outside their own field, and an entrepreneurial
perspective” (p. 309). Denning (2005) points out the importance of distinguishing between an
organization’s espoused values (those that are professed) and operational values (those that are
enacted), particularly to evaluate whether a gap between the two exists. In this case, the data

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provided compelling evidence that the teachers demonstrated various traits associated with the
leaders’ espoused value of entrepreneurial mindset behaviors.
In order to evaluate the data related to leadership values, it was necessary to first
determine what constitutes evidence of a cultural setting exemplifying these values. The data
were analyzed in three areas by considering the following questions: Were teachers
demonstrating the desired characteristics? Had the leaders communicated these values? Did the
leaders promote an environment that was conducive to and in alignment with these values? It
could be argued that the only question that must be answered is whether the teachers were acting
out the desired behaviors. However, this only confirms that a behavior is occurring, but does not
clarify whether it was positively influenced by the leaders, which may not be a correct
assumption. Therefore, it is important to look further to understand whether these behaviors
were supported through actions of the administration.
Based on results from the analysis of teacher knowledge, the teachers exhibit many of the
behaviors related to entrepreneurial mindset characteristics. Most of the desired characteristics
that were not discussed in previous sections, such as opportunity recognition or creative thinking,
were validated in the data. For example, on several occasions, the teachers recounted instances
where they were able to reflect on challenges they encountered, particularly when first starting at
Bridges, and use those experiences to inform the way they approached similar situations in the
future. Some welcomed such opportunities as a means to grow, which aligns with the notion of
opportunity recognition, that is, experiencing problems as opportunities. As Teacher 5 explained
the strive to continuously improve, “Most of your successes come from accidents and when you
find an accident, you collect that accident. You write it down, and then when you get another
good accident, it becomes a strategy.”

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While most of the entrepreneurial mindset characteristics were represented within the
sample of Bridges teachers interviewed, several aspects could not be confirmed, e.g., future
orientation and comfort with risk. These concepts were not described by any of the participants
nor exemplified through anecdotes. Although they could not be validated, the entrepreneurial
traits that were validated aligned with the broader concept of an “entrepreneurial perspective”
indicated by Bridges administrators.
To determine whether the leaders at Bridges had communicated their value for the
behaviors characteristic of an entrepreneurial mindset, teachers were asked, “As a teacher, what
kind of personal qualities or mental attitudes do you think are most valued by your school
leaders? What do they want to see in their teachers?” The teachers echoed similar beliefs about
the expectations from their administration, although not all their responses were related to
entrepreneurial mindset traits, specifically. The most frequently cited characteristics were
flexibility and adaptability, autonomy, and initiative and self-reliance. Other traits they thought
were desired included having confidence and being approachable and engaging.
Teachers presented evidence that they had to take initiative and be self-reliant, often as a
by-product of the work environment. Working with autonomy was one of the most salient
features of the teachers’ mental models surrounding their work environment and employer
expectations. This suggests that school leaders contributed to a cultural setting that encourages
self-reliance. Teacher 4 explained, “Autonomy, for one, is definitely encouraged… out of
everybody, from the ground up.” Teacher 3 also indicated that autonomy was expected,
following the statement with an anecdote describing uncertainty as a new hire:
They definitely encourage autonomy, I would say, more than anything. I know in my
first year, I was really nervous because I wasn't getting a lot of feedback on my

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performance and so I was like, "Am I doing it right?" But they were very happy about it.
Even my observations as far as the other classes, just being given the classroom, being
given the students, then the subject you're teaching and you're pretty much given free rein
as far as what you want to teach, how you want to teach that, what you want your
culminating ideas and projects to be for given units. So, there is a lot of autonomy.
This response further supports the notion that teacher beliefs about the expectation of
self-reliance and working autonomously may have been a product of the administration’s
leadership style, as it may have required teachers to take initiative and leverage resources in
order to succeed. This teacher’s perception of having been given less feedback than desired and
the trepidation it caused might be interpreted as having a negative influence on self-efficacy.
While some teachers may have had lower self-efficacy initially, the data indicate that the current
incumbents clearly acquired the confidence and skills necessary to grow into the position.
Further, they came to thrive on the sense of working with autonomy. This, in turn, supported a
cultural setting that aligned with the leadership style.
While all the teachers interviewed practiced flexibility and conveyed their belief in the
importance of flexibility as a Bridges teacher, it was often not directly attributed to having been
communicated by the leaders. Despite this, the data suggest that the expectation had been
communicated implicitly. For instance, Teacher 4 and Teacher 7 both responded that flexibility
is one of the most important characteristics that the leaders wanted from teachers, that it was
“expected.”
Schein (2017) explained that cultural values are often transmitted by what leaders pay
attention to. In this setting, administrators placed more focus on outcomes, allowing the teachers
to use various methods at their disposal and explore new approaches to meet learning goals for

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each student. By contrast, several teachers recounted having worked at other schools where
there was an emphasis on conformity. In those schools, the focus was on following rigid
guidelines mandating how the students were taught and the structure of the curriculum. In this
setting, the culture of flexibility extends to the administration. Teacher 7 indicated that the
administrators model flexibility, indicating that they also communicated the value placed on
flexibility through their actions:
A lot of administrators that I have heard about or worked with, they want to do it their
way. And if you're not going to do it their way, your [work] product probably isn't going
to work out for you, as far as working at that school. So, flexibility as an administrator
is… a big key, especially at Bridges, where everything has to be flexible.
Overall, the data show that leaders demonstrated that they valued teachers having
entrepreneurial mindset traits. They communicated these values to the teachers and created an
environment aligned with their values. By modeling flexibility and offering teachers a large
degree of freedom to manage their classrooms and curriculum as needed, the leaders
demonstrated the value placed on flexibility and self-reliance. Further, the lack of rigidity and
micromanagement may have given the teachers a sense of freedom to find creative solutions and
try various approaches to teaching without fear of reproach. Therefore, based on the evidence
shown, entrepreneurial mindset value was validated as an organizational influence that aligns
with demonstrated knowledge and motivation outcomes.
Summary
This study examined knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences impacting the
success of a promising practice school for 2e students. Both assumed knowledge influences
were validated, indicating that the teachers in the study were familiar with common

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characteristics seen in 2e students and knew how to use instructional practices that have proven
effective for teaching these students. A new knowledge influence was added due to the
prevalence of teachers integrating social and emotional fluency in their work as a skillset,
particularly in an environment where such skills seem to play an integral role in teaching 2e
students. In addition, teachers confirmed that they derived an inherent sense of personal
satisfaction from the nature of the work they do and felt a strong sense of self-efficacy in their
ability to teach 2e students, thus validating the assumed motivation influences. Finally,
organizational influences were analyzed and validated. Analysis of the data confirmed that the
school’s mission and vision were broadly communicated, the culture embodied a sense of shared
purpose, and characteristics of an entrepreneurial mindset were valued personal traits.
Chapter Five discusses these findings and sets forth recommendations to enhance
performance in educational contexts that support 2e students, addressing the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational considerations detailed in this chapter. Further, Chapter Five
provides a plan for implementing the recommended solutions and evaluating the corresponding
program results.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
This study examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets that
contributed to Bridges Academy’s standing as a promising practice school for 2e students.
Chapter Four presented findings based on an analysis of interview data collected from a sample
of the school’s teachers and an administrator. Chapter Five will connect those findings to
research-based principles to promote learning, motivation, and organizational performance.
Finally, recommendations guided by these principles will be presented followed by a formal plan
to implement the recommendations and evaluate their effectiveness toward reaching the
organization’s desired outcomes.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to study Bridges Academy’s performance related to a
larger problem of practice: that of implementing an educational program that targets the needs of
2e students. While a comprehensive study would integrate data representing all stakeholders, for
practical purposes, the stakeholder of focus in this analysis was the teachers. The analysis
focused on the teachers’ assets in the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and
organizational resources.
As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What knowledge and motivation assets do the teachers have that contribute to Bridges
Academy’s successful implementation of a 2e school model?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation of teachers?

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3. What recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources may be appropriate for solving this problem of practice in other school
settings?
Discussion of Findings
This section reviews key findings drawn from the study and discusses each in relation to
relevant literature. The discussion will be followed by specific recommendations, supported by
research, that can be applied to this problem of practice in other school contexts.
Research Question 1
The findings of this study show that acquiring knowledge about how to teach 2e students
using evidence-based teaching strategies helped teachers instruct 2e learners effectively, thereby
allowing their students to experience school success. The literature on 2e education
overwhelmingly agrees that teachers generally lack knowledge in this area and would benefit
from training to build awareness and capacity for teaching 2e learners (Foley-Nicpon et al.,
2013; Gierczyk & Hornby, 2021). Lee and Ritchotte (2018) found that 2e professional
development programs that were introduced through state education agencies, albeit few, have
shown promising results. Although the learning model and program design may look very
different in the context of teacher training at a public school compared with a private school for
2e students, there may be parallels that can provide valuable information.
The findings also revealed that teachers most often attributed gaining their knowledge to
observation and consultation with other teachers, independent research, and trial-and-error. To a
lesser extent, teachers also sought guidance and received coaching from the administrator,
particularly as a new hire or following a promotion to lead teacher, which they found beneficial.
Notably, professional development was cited the least. This finding was unexpected because

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preservice teacher training and professional development were the primary learning methods
indicated in the literature on preparing teachers for 2e learners (Lee & Ritchotte, 2018). This
begs the question: How did the teachers achieve such a high degree of competency if
professional development, which is the predominant recommendation, seemingly had the least
significance? It is possible that on-the-job learning experiences may have been more personally
meaningful or helped teachers bridge any gaps in knowledge beyond the training that was
provided, as researchers have shown that informal learning can effectively supplement structured
learning programs when it fits the organization’s context and the nature of the skills involved
(Jurasaite-O’Keefe, 2021; Misko, 2008). Darling-Hammond et al. (2017) found that effective
teacher professional development incorporates seven key features: it is content-focused,
incorporates active learning, supports collaboration, uses models of effective practice, provides
coaching and expert support, offers feedback and reflection, and is of sustained duration.
Interestingly, the methods of acquiring knowledge that Bridges teachers described corresponded
with most of these features, even though they were not necessarily experienced through formal
professional development activities. For example, the teachers were able to access models of
effective practice by observing more experienced teachers, collaboration occurred as the teachers
shared ideas on-the-job, there was active learning as teachers designed and tried out new
teaching strategies, and the administrator provided opportunities for coaching and feedback.
More broadly, the success teachers experienced in gaining knowledge might have been
facilitated by conditions unique to an exclusively 2e school. Due to its inherently immersive
nature, this environment may have offered an increased potential for experiential and
collaborative learning about 2e students, thus requiring less reliance on training. However, it
should be noted that other schools serving a diverse population of learners would likely not have

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the same benefit of such an environment. This suggests that, even though the teachers
successfully acquired job knowledge and skills through the combined effect of multiple
evidence-based learning modalities, these methods should ideally be integrated with and
embedded in the structure of professional development to promote learning across varied school
contexts.
The findings also indicated that having knowledge about 2e learners influenced teacher
beliefs and attitudes toward students, which is consistent with the literature (Missett et al., 2016;
Schultz, 2012). Having a conceptual understanding of 2e learners and their needs allowed
teachers to view student behaviors through a different lens: one that was more inclusive of their
2e identity. This made a significant impact on how teachers related to their students, as it shaped
their expectations and assumptions. Teachers in the study expressed having feelings of empathy
and the importance of being more understanding and flexible. For example, some noted that
they knew “not to take things personally” from students, suggesting that they understood that 2e
students may communicate in atypical or less socially aware ways. Researchers agree that
teachers who have not been exposed to training on learning differences, such as giftedness or
special education, may have attitudes or make instructional choices influenced by misperceptions
and stereotypes (Missett et al., 2016; Plunkett & Kronborg, 2011). In contrast to previous
findings, one study found no significant change in teacher attitudes toward 2e learners following
training (Cody et al., 2022). However, the authors noted that this may have been caused by
social desirability bias or due to the sample of teachers, who may have had previous knowledge
or interest in learning about 2e students.
This study found that the teachers had learned to recognize many of the characteristics
common to 2e students. Due to the singular focus of the school, teachers were not responsible

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for the identification of 2e students, which was determined through the admissions process.
However, it should be noted that all teachers in the study reported that they had never known
about twice-exceptionality before working at this school. In fact, several indicated that they had
likely encountered 2e students previously but, along with their colleagues at the time, were not
aware of what that was. This aligns with research showing that teachers and school staff often
do not have the knowledge necessary to identify students who may fall within this category
(Gilman et al., 2013; Piske et al., 2022). Despite growing knowledge about 2e students, many
practitioners are still uninformed and believe that giftedness and learning deficits cannot coexist
(Firat & Bildiren, 2023; Reis et al., 2014). If fact, without adequate teacher preparation,
identification for gifted referrals can be negatively influenced by whether a student is labeled as
having a disability (Bianco & Leech, 2010). While this knowledge asset may have proven
helpful for teachers and administrators within the context of a 2e school, it is essential in other
school contexts, particularly public schools, where student supports and services are driven by
such recommendations (Lee & Ritchotte, 2018). For this reason, it is critical that teachers and
administrators develop an awareness of signs that may suggest that a student is a 2e learner.
With regard to motivation, the findings indicated that teacher self-efficacy evolved as
knowledge increased. This echoes the findings of previous studies, which have shown that
teachers demonstrated increased self-efficacy following the completion of professional training
courses relevant to their practice (Chao et al., 2017; Kormos & Nijakowska, 2017). As teachers
in the study learned more about the 2e student population, observed other teachers, and practiced
strategies for supporting 2e students, their self-efficacy increased. This aligns with studies
pointing to the added importance of field work and direct experience in developing teacher selfefficacy (Burton & Pace, 2009; Peebles & Mendaglio, 2014). As their confidence in teaching 2e

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students grew, the teachers tried new strategies through trial-and-error, and many reported using
metacognitive strategies to evaluate and adjust their approaches. Increased self-efficacy
continued to reinforce knowledge-building as teachers worked toward mastery. Thus, this
finding suggests that the teachers’ self-efficacy and knowledge formed a reciprocal and mutually
reinforcing relationship.
The findings further suggested that teacher knowledge may have influenced the
development of intrinsic motivation. The teachers reported that they found working with their 2e
students meaningful and derived deep satisfaction from helping contribute to their success. Lee
and Ritchotte (2019) also found that teachers experienced greater intrinsic motivation along with
other evolved attitudes following participation in a training program focused on 2e learners.
This also supports findings, discussed earlier, on the influence of knowledge about 2e students
on teacher attitudes. It is conceivable that, because of having knowledge about the challenges 2e
students face, teachers framed their experiences with students in that context, which may have
promoted a strong sense of personal fulfillment from participating in their success. This also
suggests that the teachers must have acquired the skills to successfully teach them. Therefore,
developing knowledge and proficiency in teaching 2e students allowed the teachers to enjoy their
students’ successes, leading to intrinsic motivation.
Study findings showed that social-emotional competence contributed to teacher
performance and represented an overlooked skillset for working with 2e learners. This finding
aligns with research touting the benefits of implementing adult social-emotional learning (SEL)
and other well-being interventions for teachers (Berger et al., 2022; Oliveira et al., 2021; Zarate
et al., 2019). Moreover, social-emotional competence can exert a positive influence on both
student and teacher experiences and outcomes (Schonert-Reichl, 2017). These skills played a

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pivotal role in fostering positive student-teacher relationships, mediating behavior challenges in
the classroom, and facilitating SEL for the students through behavioral modeling. Socialemotional competence may have also benefitted teachers in the study personally, as selfawareness, adaptability, and emotional regulation can contribute to teacher resilience in relation
to job stress and help prevent burnout (Collie & Martin, 2017). Researchers have indicated
various affective and social behaviors that teachers can embody to foster a more supportive
environment for 2e learners, e.g., empathy, flexibility, and patience (Nielsen & Higgins, 2005;
Piske et al., 2022). The findings of this study extend the literature by examining the collective
influence of these behaviors on performance, as part of a broader social-emotional skillset, in
relation to teaching the 2e student.
Research Question 2
From an organizational perspective, the study found that the teachers had become a
community, grounded in shared purpose, that inherently fostered learning and motivation.
Further, the connection to purpose was emphasized by school leaders and established as an
important part of cultural settings within the school. This aligns with research showing that
shared purpose within an organization helps employees feel a sense of community, through
which social support encourages collaboration and coordination with others (Florez-Jimenez et
al., 2023; Muavia et al., 2023). Sense of community responsibility is a separate, yet related,
construct representing feelings of responsibility for the well-being of a community and is a
strong predictor of leadership and higher-order engagement behavior within a collaborative
community (Nowell & Boyd, 2014). These community-oriented behaviors and beliefs
surrounding the teachers’ joint commitment to supporting the students were expressed repeatedly
in various ways throughout the data.

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Through the lens of shared purpose, the teachers collectively functioned as an informal
community of practice and peer support network. Communities of practice help to build
professional capacity through activities, such as knowledge sharing and collective problemsolving, that take place through collaboration, sharing, and mutual support (Hirsch et al., 2023).
By sharing expertise, exchanging ideas, and offering camaraderie, the teachers supported each
other in building work knowledge, self-efficacy, and morale. These findings agree with research
showing that learning communities focused on a shared purpose with a supportive environment,
safe but challenging spaces, and shared commitment facilitate collaboration and professional
learning (Hord, 2009; Patton & Patton, 2002). In this case, the teachers’ sense of shared purpose
as a community created momentum to achieve the school’s goals, reinforced by the
organizational focus on purpose and their intrinsic motivation to help the students. In the same
sense as the saying, “It takes a village to raise a child,” they became that village.
The findings showed that alignment between the autonomy-supportive leadership style
and the independent, self-reliant characteristics of the teachers created a complementary work
dynamic, which also supported learning and motivation. This finding agrees with the literature
on person-environment fit, which is defined as the compatibility that occurs when the
characteristics of individuals and their work environment match (De Cooman & Vleugels, 2022).
Expanding on fit theory, complementary fit occurs when relevant characteristics of an individual
and the environment offset one another, filling a gap where individual skills meet environmental
needs or individual needs are met by environmental supplies (Kristof‐Brown et al., 2005). In this
case, the school leaders proactively sought teachers with characteristics such as resourcefulness,
initiative, adaptability, opportunity recognition, and comfort with risk. The leadership also
established a culture of autonomy, wherein teachers enjoyed a sense of freedom in how they met

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work goals, but also relied on independently connecting with resources for knowledge and
support. Therefore, teachers who were hired presumably had a disposition congruent with
working autonomously and seeking necessary resources, thus meeting the environmental need
resulting in complementary fit. This also suggests that the school’s recruiting objectives aligned
with organizational needs.
Furthermore, the dynamic favoring certain teacher traits within the school environment
may have organically filtered out teachers who were a poor fit, leaving only those with the
desired characteristics. On several occasions, the teachers reported that new teachers who were
not a good fit and could not adapt well to the environment and expected behaviors did not remain
long at the school. This phenomenon can be explained by attraction-selection-attrition theory
(Schneider, 1987), which posits that people with certain attributes are attracted to particular
settings and that organizations hire those with characteristics that fit their culture, while those
who do not fit the culture tend to leave. Consequently, over time, those who remain in the
organization will be more similar to one another and exhibit similar behaviors. Therefore,
teacher turnover due to fit may have helped to shape and preserve the established culture.
The findings also indicated that the influence of entrepreneurial mindset as an
organizational value went beyond the relationship between teachers and the leadership; it
extended to the creation and sharing of job knowledge. Actions the teachers took to acquire
knowledge aligned with key constructs of the entrepreneurial mindset and related behaviors.
People with entrepreneurial mindset tend to mobilize resources, handle ambiguity, and navigate
well in uncertain conditions (Ireland, 2003). Learning from mistakes and failure competence are
also notable features (Dinh et al., 2022). This may explain why new teachers who found
themselves in an unfamiliar situation with teaching 2e students responded with cognitive

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flexibility and sought out new sources of information when faced with prior knowledge that no
longer served them in the new circumstances. Entrepreneurial mindset is also associated with
proactivity, initiative, opportunity recognition, and autonomy (Frese & Gielnik, 2014; Kouakou
et al., 2019; Schaefer & Minello, 2019). Qualities such as these may have led teachers to seek
out learning resources independently through research and by connecting with more experienced
teachers. Likewise, opportunity recognition may have encouraged forming collaborative
relationships, which fostered shared learning and, eventually, evolved into a support system
among teachers.
In summary, the organizational findings suggest that the interaction between school
leaders, teachers, and the teacher community created dynamics that reinforced learning and
motivation. The relationship between school leaders and individual teachers encouraged the use
of entrepreneurial mindset skills, embedding this value as a cultural model. The leadership style
encouraged autonomy, which aligned with the presumed strengths of teachers with an
entrepreneurial disposition. Those who leveraged these characteristics acquired the resources
they needed and adapted well to the environment. The interaction between teachers led to the
exchange of knowledge, resources, and social support. This also promoted motivation by
helping less experienced teachers gain self-efficacy and encouraging the development of
supportive relationships with colleagues. Lastly, interaction between the teacher community and
the leadership brought together a cooperative team of personally motivated teachers connected
by shared experiences with a larger purpose and vision that was valued and reinforced by school
leaders and echoed in cultural settings. The effects of this interaction deepened teachers’
commitment and guided performance expectations for themselves and each other, forming the
basis of the shared purpose cultural model. Figure 3 illustrates how dynamics of the separate

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relationships between school leaders, individual teachers, and the teacher community interacted,
creating a cycle of reinforcement promoting learning and motivation.
Figure 3
Organizational Influences on Teacher Knowledge and Motivation

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Recommendation for Practice to Address KMO Influences
This section will provide recommendations for knowledge, motivation, and
organizational supports that are intended to guide schools with similar goals toward educating 2e
students. While this study focused on an independent school specifically for 2e students, the
recommendations and principles guiding them can be extrapolated for use in other school
settings, as well. The subsections below set forth specific recommendations for each validated
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influence examined in Chapter Four and discuss
supporting principles found in the literature along with the rationale for their use. The
recommendations will then be followed by a detailed implementation and evaluation plan.
Knowledge Recommendations
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework described in Chapter Two establishes
the premise that knowledge is a critical component of organizational performance. Those who
work in an organization must have the requisite knowledge and skills to perform job duties
successfully. Therefore, homing in on key areas of knowledge and skill that have the greatest
impact on the organization’s functioning is essential in reaching performance goals.
Table 7 lists the assumed and newly added knowledge influences and indicates whether
each was validated as an asset by data analysis. It also specifies whether each influence was
designated as a priority. Drawing upon research-based principles in learning, recommendations
are provided to address each of the influences along with the related principles, also shown in
Table 7. The discussion of these knowledge influences, to follow, will be framed within the
context of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (Krathwohl, 2002), addressing declarative (D) and
procedural (P) knowledge within the cognitive domain and implications of the newly added
influence, which fall within the affective (A) domain.

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Table 7
Summary of Knowledge Assets and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Assets
Validated as
an Asset?
(Y, N)
Priority
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers are familiar
with typical
characteristics of 2e
students. (D)
Y Y The way that individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they learn
and apply what they know
(Schraw & McCrudden,
2006).
Provide training on how
to identify 2e students.
Provide a job aid that
connects typical
strengths and challenges
of 2e students with
related teaching
strategies.
Teachers know how to
use instructional
practices that promote
2e student learning. (P)
Y Y To develop mastery,
individuals must acquire
component skills, practice
integrating them, and know
when to apply what they
have learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Provide training on how
to apply best practices
and strategies for
teaching 2e students
using real world
scenarios with targeted
feedback.
Teachers demonstrate
social-emotional
competence. (A)
Y Y Modeling to-be-learned
strategies or behaviors
improves self-efficacy,
learning, and performance
(Denler et al., 2009).
Social interaction,
cooperative learning, and
cognitive apprenticeships
(such as reciprocal teaching)
facilitate construction of
new knowledge (Scott &
Palincsar, 2013).
Provide social-emotional
skills training for
teaching staff to promote
positive interactions,
build self-awareness,
workplace coping skills,
and develop the ability
to incorporate socialemotional learning in the
classroom.
Recommendation 1: Provide Training on 2e Learning and Teacher SEL
Study findings indicate that Bridges teachers possess instructional knowledge and
socioemotional skills that promote 2e student learning. A recommendation based in information
processing theory was chosen to address this knowledge gap in similar contexts. Schraw and
McCrudden (2006) asserted that, to develop mastery, individuals must acquire component skills,
practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned. This would suggest

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that teachers can be better prepared for working with 2e students by receiving instruction on
incorporating strategies that can help 2e students have meaningful and positive learning
experiences. Therefore, the recommendation is to provide teacher training on applying best
practices for teaching 2e students. Further, training should discuss incorporating collaborative,
cross-disciplinary, team-based approaches and include a focus on developing teacher socialemotional competence as an integral part of their skillset. Through integrating principles of SEL
within daily instruction and interactions, teachers can model these skills and more effectively
manage the classroom environment.
It has been well-established in the literature that there is a lack of teacher professional
development that addresses awareness or the needs of 2e students. Yet, recognizing giftedness
within diverse student populations is insufficient without the necessary instructional knowledge
to adapt teaching practices (Al‐Hroub & Whitebread, 2008). Researchers have called for
preservice and in-service training to help teachers develop awareness of the 2e population and
how to support them (Lee & Ritchotte, 2018). Further, it has been suggested that teacher
preparation programs should include mentorship opportunities for candidates to learn from
teachers experienced with 2e learners as well as provide opportunities to participate in fieldwork
experiences with professionals across disciplines (Lee & Ritchotte, 2018). Researchers have also
noted that general education teachers require sufficient knowledge about giftedness and learning
differences to adequately address the needs of students with exceptions (Harvey et al., 2010;
Rowan & Townend, 2016).
Studies have been conducted on several pilot and longstanding professional development
programs showing positive results. Teachers who received training for working with
neurodiverse learners showed an increase in positive attitudes and perceptions toward

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neurodiversity and were better able to serve those students’ needs (Jung, 2014). Lee and
Ritchotte (2018) studied the implementation of a pilot program for twice-exceptional
professional development in a Colorado school district. Educators who had participated in the
training program reported improved knowledge and skills related to recognizing 2e
characteristics and developing effective interventions. Participants also reported improved
student outcomes based on student progress and achievement scores as well as social and
behavioral improvements.
Research has shown that 2e students benefit from SEL. The results of the current study
suggest that teacher social-emotional competence may not only help support student SEL, but
also enhance their own social-emotional awareness and interactions in the classroom. Jennings
et al. (2017) studied the implementation of a teacher professional development program for
building social and emotional competence and promoting positive classroom interactions. From
a sample of 224 elementary school teachers, a test group receiving the intervention was
compared with a control group to determine whether the teachers experienced improvements in
adaptive emotion regulation, mindfulness, teaching efficacy, and response to job-related stress.
The study also examined whether there were improvements in the teachers’ classroom
interactions, specifically, demonstrating a higher degree of emotional support with students and
improved classroom management and productivity compared to those in the control group. The
authors found that the intervention showed significant improvement in helping teachers improve
the management their own emotions and stress responses during the school day. It further
demonstrated that the teachers exhibited better classroom management skills and were more
emotionally supportive with students, despite the fact that these skills were not explicitly taught
as part of the program. Taken together, these studies support the recommendation to provide

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training specific to teaching 2e students, including multi-disciplinary approaches and SEL for
teachers.
Recommendation 2: Provide Job Aids to Supplement Training
The results of this study suggest that teachers at Bridges Academy are familiar with the
complex and varied characteristics of 2e learners. However, research has shown that teachers in
the broader educational community lack declarative knowledge about the term “twice
exceptional” and what it means to be a 2e learner. A recommendation drawn from information
processing theory has been selected to address this knowledge gap in similar contexts. Schraw
and McCrudden (2006) explained that the way knowledge is organized influences how people
learn and apply what they know. This would suggest that providing reference materials will
improve the organization of newly acquired knowledge and allow more efficient retrieval of the
information. Therefore, the recommendation is to provide teachers with job aids that summarize
and illustrate relationships between key concepts. In addition to written materials that reiterate
the main points to be discussed in training, job aids should include a graphic organizer that lists
common 2e learner characteristics and relates them to student behaviors that may be observed.
This will help teachers connect how outward behaviors may signal overlapping areas of
giftedness and disability or other learning challenges. Job aids should also provide examples of
real-world teaching scenarios mapped to key strategies that can be implemented. By organizing
this information visually using text and images, job aids can clarify the dynamics of a 2e student
learning profile and improve the retention of essential information.
Knowledge and skill can be enhanced by providing information, job aids, training, or
formal education (Clark & Estes, 2008). Each method addresses a different type of learning
need; therefore, an approach should be selected in alignment with the type of knowledge that is

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required. Job aids provide information in a format that can be referenced for self-help on the job.
A job aid alone may be sufficient when employees need to learn a new approach in an area of
expertise and do not require practice and feedback that would necessitate training. For job tasks
requiring a new approach where there is not sufficient related expertise or past knowledge, job
aids can supplement training by summarizing and providing reminders of new information
(Clark & Estes, 2008). This suggests that a job aid for teachers learning about 2e students would
be most appropriate as a supplement to training, as the intended audience would not likely have
prior knowledge working with this population or the cross-disciplinary experience necessary to
derive a benefit from job aids alone.
For job aids to be effective, the type of job aid selected must be appropriate for the type
of information needed and how it will be used. Spaulding and Dwyer (1999) studied the effects
of providing different types of job aids following instruction. Each job aid type addressed
increasingly complex levels of knowledge (factual, conceptual, procedural, and problemsolving). The cueing job aid contained facts; the association job aid conveyed facts and
concepts; the procedural job aid included facts, concepts, and rules/procedures; and the analog
job aid included all previous types along with problem-solving information. The effectiveness
of job aids was measured by participant achievement on tests measuring different types of
knowledge. While all job aid treatments proved effective compared to the control treatment,
which provided instruction with no job aid, the association and procedural job aid types were
more effective than the control in facilitating student achievement on a terminology test. The
authors suggested that the association job aid may have shown more success because it required
more interactivity than cueing facts and drew upon elaboration strategies, which influence the
process of encoding memories. They further noted that the procedural job aid was the only type

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to provide cognitive organizing strategies, which assist in selecting relevant information and
making connections between ideas.
Mayer’s (2014) cognitive theory of multimedia learning describes specific cognitive
processes that occur when learners are presented with a multimedia document (i.e., one that
contains both words and pictures). For meaning-making to occur, learners must select the
relevant information, organize selected information into mental representations, and integrate
those representations into mental models that connect the new information with prior knowledge
(Fiorella & Mayer, 2016). Research has shown that graphic organizers help improve retention
and comprehension of the information they represent when presented simultaneously with a
multimedia document. A graphic organizer is defined as a matrix, hierarchy, or network that
uses a spatial layout to demonstrate key concepts and identifies “the key elements and their
relations for the learner” (Mayer, 2011, p. 78). This suggests that graphic organizers can support
the cognitive processes for multimedia learning by helping learners select relevant information,
form conceptual associations, and organize new knowledge. As such, this evidence supports the
recommendation to provide teachers with job aids that incorporate graphic organizers to enhance
declarative knowledge about 2e learners.
Motivation Recommendations
Chapter Two introduced the three indicators of motivation: choice, persistence, and
mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Choice is indicated by taking action to begin a task, moving
beyond the intention to do so. Persistence is adherence to the task despite competing
distractions. Mental effort is indicated by the application of new strategies or knowledge to
challenges that cannot be easily solved using past experiences. The Bridges teachers were
successfully working within a unique learning environment and with a student population

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presenting a variety of changing needs, which would suggest that they have made an active
choice to approach this challenge, are persevering through learning to meet the students’ needs,
and must use the necessary mental effort to navigate through new teaching challenges. The
study findings validated that the teachers were motivated by intrinsic value and a sense of selfefficacy in performing their jobs. Table 8 presents each assumed motivation influence,
identifying its validation and priority status, followed by a recommendation for practice in
similar contexts with supporting research-based principles drawn from motivation theory.
Table 8
Summary of Motivation Assets and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation Assets
Validated as
an Asset?
(Y/N)
Priority
(Y/N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers believe
their work is
rewarding,
challenging, and
important.
(intrinsic value)
Y Y Learning and motivation are
enhanced if the learner values
the task (Eccles, 2006).
Connecting performance goals
with peoples’ values can
improve work commitment
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
On an ongoing basis,
communicate the significance of
the work teachers are doing and
the positive outcomes they have
created. During faculty
meetings, invite teachers to share
their successes. Highlight the
benefits of persevering through
challenges and the risks of not
doing so. Reflect on what drives
them.
Teachers believe
they are capable of
effectively teaching
2e students.
(self-efficacy)
Y Y High self-efficacy can
positively influence
motivation (Pajares, 2006).
Set short-term, concrete, and
challenging, but achievable,
goals that allow teachers to
experience success.
When providing feedback, focus
positive feedback on effort, not
ability. Corrective feedback
should focus on the faulty
strategy, not the person.
Leaders need to project their
confidence that teachers are
capable of success.

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Recommendation 1: Reinforce Teachers’ Intrinsic Value for Work
The study findings showed that the Bridges teachers found their work meaningful and
derived personal satisfaction from it. To promote teacher intrinsic motivation in similar
educational contexts, a recommendation drawn from expectancy value theory has been chosen.
Learning and motivation are enhanced if an individual values the task (Eccles, 2006; Wigfield &
Eccles, 2000). Further, Clark and Estes (2008) assert that work commitment can be improved by
connecting performance goals with peoples’ values. This would suggest that motivation may be
strengthened by incorporating activities designed to increase the extent to which teachers
internalize the value of their work. The recommendation, therefore, is that school administrators
regularly reinforce the significance of the work teachers are doing, emphasizing the impact they
have had on their students’ school experience and academic outcomes as 2e learners.
Additionally, teachers should be provided with opportunities during staff meetings to share their
successes and discuss challenges among peers. By helping teachers connect their efforts to the
successes of their students, their work gains personal value by representing a meaningful, larger
purpose, thereby building intrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation refers to the personal sense of enjoyment or satisfaction one derives
from a task or activity (Eccles, 2006). Ryan and Deci (2000) introduced the self-determination
theory of motivation, which asserts that intrinsic motivation is driven by the individual need for
competence, autonomy, and relatedness. According to the authors, the relatedness dynamic
refers to the need for connection to others. Engaging in activities that evoke a sense of purpose
or meaning can help satisfy that need, which may generate intrinsic motivation for participating
in those activities. Lysova et al. (2023) studied the effects of awareness on the perception of
meaningfulness at work. They found that being in a state of intentional awareness helped people

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experience work as more meaningful each week (as opposed to a fluctuating experience), which
influenced their appraisal of events that might have not had significance as being meaningful
and, in some cases, caused events that had been negatively perceived to be reassessed as positive.
Additionally, with greater awareness, study participants showed more flexible thinking, which
impacted their ability to respond to challenges more creatively, in turn making them perceive
work as being more meaningful. The authors recommend activities to intentionally stimulate
awareness and promote reflection as well as providing opportunities for discussion that include
recognition and feedback that prompts metacognitive reflection on the past, present and future.
The evidence affirms that engaging teachers in activities that help them connect their work with
a sense of purpose and meaning through recognition and reflection can support intrinsic
motivation.
Recommendation 2: Build Teacher Self-Efficacy
The findings from this study indicated that the Bridges teachers were confident in their
ability to teach 2e students effectively. However, research suggests that teachers who do not
specialize in gifted or special education may feel unprepared to work with students who fall
outside of general education. Rowan and Townend (2016) found that early career teachers felt
under-prepared to teach gifted students as well as diverse learners and those with disabilities. A
recommendation rooted in self-efficacy theory has been selected to address this gap in similar
contexts. High self-efficacy can positively influence motivation (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 2006).
This would suggest that building self-efficacy would support teachers in working with the 2e
student population. Therefore, the recommendation is to create opportunities for teachers to
experience success by setting short-term, concrete, and challenging but achievable goals.
Further, feedback should be conveyed so that positive feedback focuses on effort rather than

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ability, while corrective feedback focuses on the faulty strategy, not the person. Finally,
administrators need to project their confidence that teachers are capable of success. By creating
experiences of success, attributing success or failure to effort, and reinforcing expectancies of
success, school leaders can help build teachers’ confidence in the ability to support 2e students.
While the majority of research on self-efficacy in education has focused on the effects of
student self-efficacy beliefs, research has increasingly shown that teacher self-efficacy plays an
important role in both their own performance as well as in their students’ outcomes (Klassen &
Chiu, 2010). Self-efficacy beliefs can influence teachers’ instructional choice and persistence in
response to their perceptions of what they are capable of accomplishing (Yoo, 2016). Teachers
with low self-efficacy also tend to have higher levels of job-related stress (Betoret, 2006;
Klassen & Chiu, 2010). Therefore, self-efficacy can impact student learning as a consequence of
burnout (Yoo, 2016). However, higher self-efficacy in classroom management and instructional
strategies was found to be directly related to job satisfaction (Klassen & Chiu, 2010). Further,
the literature has established that self-efficacy can be developed using various strategies, such as
by creating challenging, yet attainable goals that can allow experiences of success, conveying
confidence in a person’s capability, and providing effort-focused feedback (Pajares, 2006). As
such, the research on self-efficacy suggests that building teacher self-efficacy can improve
performance.
Organizational Recommendations
For each organizational influence examined in this study, a context-specific
recommendation has been developed to promote those assets in a similar context. The influences
represent either a cultural model or cultural setting (indicated by an “M” or “S,” respectively).
The organizational recommendations shown in Table 9 were drawn from organizational theory

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and a review of the literature describing best practices in similar contexts. The table also
indicates whether each influence is validated as an asset and considered a priority.
Table 9
Summary of Organizational Assets and Recommendations
Assumed Organizational
Assets
Validated as
an Asset?
(Y/N)
Priority
(Y/N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Administrators value
teachers with an
entrepreneurial mindset.
(M)
Y Y Leaders embed culture by
what they pay attention to,
measure, and control
(Schein, 2017).
Organizational effectiveness
increases when leaders are
trustworthy and, in turn,
trust their team. The most
visible demonstration of
trust by a leader is
accountable autonomy
(Starnes et al., 2010).
Communicate, model, and
reward behaviors that
align with entrepreneurial
mindset characteristics.
Create an environment of
empowerment, integrity,
and trust to cultivate
entrepreneurial thinking
and expression.
The organization’s
mission and values are
infused throughout all
decision-making, plans,
and activities. (S)
Y Y Organizational effectiveness
increases when leaders
identify, articulate, focus the
organization’s effort on and
reinforce the organization’s
vision; they lead from the
why (Knowles, 1980;
Waters et al., 2003).
Ensure all written and
verbal communications
are in alignment with and
represent the school’s
mission and values.
Use tangible elements as
symbols to represent and
transmit school identity
throughout the setting.
A shared sense of
purpose is valued. (M)
Y Y Organizational effectiveness
increases when leaders
identify, articulate, focus the
organization’s effort on and
reinforce the organization’s
vision; they lead from the
why (Knowles, 1980;
Waters et al., 2003).
Ensure that the
organization’s purpose
has been communicated
clearly, internalized by
teachers, and connected to
their own sense of
meaning and value
attributed to the work they
do and its relation to
group contribution.

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Recommendation 1: Build an Entrepreneurial Mindset Culture
Organizational culture is created through shared experience, shared learning, and stability
of membership, all of which must be learned (Schein, 2017). The attitudes and behaviors
associated with what is known as an “entrepreneurial mindset” (e.g., creativity, problem-solving,
collaboration, flexibility, initiative) constitute a critical part of the Bridges culture. A
recommendation rooted in organizational theory was selected to develop this cultural model in
other settings. According to Schein (2017), leaders embed culture by what they pay attention to,
measure, and control. This suggests that school leaders can help promote an entrepreneurial
mindset by articulating and encouraging attributes that are valued while embodying the preferred
traits themselves and creating an environment conducive to expression of the desired behaviors.
The recommendation, therefore, is for school leaders to communicate, model, and reward
behaviors that align with entrepreneurial mindset characteristics. For example, teachers and staff
who demonstrate the target behaviors (e.g., those who bring innovative, new ideas or find
creative ways to solve challenges) would be recognized both privately and before their peers
during meetings.
It is further recommended that leaders cultivate entrepreneurial thinking and expression
by creating an environment of empowerment, integrity, and trust. Research has shown that
organizational effectiveness increases when leaders are trustworthy and, in turn, trust their team.
The most visible demonstration of trust by a leader is accountable autonomy (Starnes et al.,
2010). To apply this principle, teachers should be given autonomy to determine how they reach
work goals while, simultaneously, interdependence should be encouraged by promoting the
value of relying on one another as shared resources and supports. In addition, leaders should
demonstrate trust that teachers will honor their commitments and show confidence in their ability

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to succeed. By avoiding micromanagement and allowing teachers to have a sense of personal
agency and creativity, they will be more likely to develop innovative solutions and take initiative
to seek out information and resources to achieve goals.
Kim and Beehr (2023) studied the influence of empowering leadership on employee
entrepreneurial behaviors to examine what factors can induce these behaviors. A sample of 200
employees working in a variety of industries participated in a set of surveys measuring leader
empowering behavior, person-job fit, role breadth self-efficacy (i.e., confidence in taking on a
broader, more proactive role), perception of having meaningful work, and entrepreneurial
behavior. The researchers found that empowering leadership can encourage employees’
entrepreneurial behaviors. In addition, the results showed that adoption of entrepreneurial
behaviors is facilitated when empowering leaders promote alignment and fit between employees’
work roles and their skills and abilities, which increases role-breadth self-efficacy and sense of
meaningful work. In combination, these mediating influences lead employees to engage in
entrepreneurial behaviors, such as being proactive, innovative, and willing to take risks.
Recommendation 2: Reflect and Reinforce the Organization’s Mission
Organizational culture may be seen in observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic
underlying assumptions (Schein, 2017). Observable artifacts refer to tangible or visible elements
that demonstrate the attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs considered important or meaningful.
Espoused values are what is expressed or advocated by the leadership, while underlying
assumptions refer to the deeply ingrained values and unspoken beliefs central to an
organization’s culture. Bridges has demonstrated consistent communication of the school's
mission and vision in verbal and written communications as well as through artifacts in the
school setting. A recommendation rooted in organizational theory has been selected to close this

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gap in similar contexts. Organizational effectiveness is positively influenced by leadership that
articulates, focuses the organization’s effort on, and reinforces its vision and purpose (Schein,
2017). This suggests that schools would benefit from ensuring that their purpose and vision are
expressed and exemplified consistently throughout the environment. The recommendation, then,
is for school leaders to ensure that all verbal and written communications are in alignment with
and represent the school’s mission and values and, in the same vein, consider placing signage,
imagery, or other symbols that represent and transmit school identity throughout the setting.
This approach would help reinforce the values and meaning behind their organization’s purpose.
Clark and Estes (2008) point out that organizational performance increases when an
organization’s messages, policies and procedures align with and support its goals and values.
However, when these are in conflict, performance suffers. Effective leaders recognize that there
are a variety of communication modes and strategies (e.g., non-verbal communication,
storytelling, etc.) that can be leveraged to influence the environment within an organization
(Conger, 1991; Denning, 2005; Lewis, 2011). This suggests that, by employing effective
communication approaches that reflect and align with organizational values and vision, leaders
can reinforce their organization’s mission. By extension, signs and symbols in the school setting
can also communicate messages and meaning. Bolman and Deal (2021) describe the power of
using symbols within an environment as a means to express the organization’s culture and to
define its values and beliefs. Within a school setting, these signs and symbols form a powerful
connection linking the school community with the school’s purpose and meaning (Deal &
Peterson, 2016). As such, the literature appears to support the recommendation to ensure that
leaders align school communication with its mission and values.

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Recommendation 3: Foster a Community of Shared Purpose
The study findings show that Bridges teachers experienced a strong sense of community
in their shared purpose of teaching and supporting 2e students. A recommendation drawn from
organizational theory was selected to promote this sense of community and shared purpose in
similar contexts. Organizational effectiveness increases when leaders identify, articulate, focus
the organization’s effort on, and reinforce the organization’s vision; they lead from the why
(Knowles, 1980; Waters et al., 2003). Further, Schein (2017) stated that organizational culture is
created through shared experience, shared learning, and stability of membership. This suggests
that shared purpose can be developed through communicating and strengthening the connection
teachers have with their organization’s purpose and how this aligns with their group membership
and connection to others within the organization. Based on these presuppositions, the
recommendation is to ensure that the organization’s purpose and its importance has been
communicated clearly, internalized by teachers, and connected to their own sense of meaning
and value attributed to the work they do and its relation to group contribution. By linking
organizational purpose to individual work identity and group identity, teachers can deepen
connections with peers in their shared experiences.
In a study of supervisors and employees across 31 companies, Florez-Jimenez et
al. (2023) sought to understand the influence of a healthy organizational culture on employee
well-being. Healthy culture was determined by the presence of a sense of shared purpose among
employees. A sense of community and organizational citizenship behavior toward other
individuals (OCBI) were considered manifestations of employee well-being. Using crosssectional surveys, supervisors answered questions about employee OCBI, and employees
responded to questions about shared purpose and sense of community. Using dyadic data

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analysis, they found that employees’ experience of a shared purpose led to feelings that they are
a part of community, where they find support. In addition, a sense of community influenced
employees’ OCBI, resulting in greater collaboration efforts. This suggests that a supportive
teacher community can be built from creating a climate that promotes the sense of a shared
purpose.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The integrated implementation and evaluation plan will provide a detailed roadmap for
implementing a learning program that will address the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational recommendations identified by this promising practice study that may be applied
in similar contexts. Program design, delivery, assessment, and accountability measures will be
presented followed by a description of the evaluation tools to be used following program
implementation and a methodology for data analysis and reporting.
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The framework for the implementation and evaluation plan is drawn from Kirkpatrick’s
New World Model (2016). The model consists of four levels used to evaluate the successful
implementation of a learning program. Level 1 measures initial reactions to the program, level 2
measures whether learning took place, level 3 measures whether the learning resulted in changes
to behavior on the job, and level 4 measures if the ultimate outcomes were achieved. The New
World Model differs from its predecessor by beginning with the desired end goal and working
backwards. By beginning with a focus on goals from level 4 and planning in reverse, the
program design and evaluation plan are developed in alignment with organizational goals.

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Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
Bridges Academy is a school devoted to fulfilling the educational needs of students who
are gifted with learning challenges. This school is unique in that it fills a void in the educational
community with regard to meeting the variety of support needs specific to this group as well as
meeting the need for an academically rigorous and challenging program that allows these
students, who often fall through the cracks, to meet their potential. The performance of the
school’s teachers, as a key stakeholder group, contributes to the school’s overall success in its
mission. The intention of the recommendations and implementation plan is to provide a
framework for solving knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps within a similar context.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Program planning and evaluation at Level 4 begins with the end goal in mind. Results
represent the outcomes of high-level organizational goals and demonstrate the degree to which
training achieved those goals (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Leading indicators are
intermediate, contributory outcomes used as a measure to confirm that critical behaviors are
aligned with and making progress toward organizational results. Leading indicators may
correspond to internal or external outcomes. Internal outcomes refer to those that occur within
the organization itself. External outcomes are those that relate to customers, clients, or other
external stakeholders (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 10 shows the proposed
evaluation for Level 4. It lists internal and external outcomes for improving school performance
in serving 2e students along with the metrics and methods for measuring success.

129
Table 10
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metrics Methods
External Outcomes
Increased 2e student
engagement
Number of instances contributing to
discussion, responding to prompts, or asking
questions
Number of redirections or reminders to stay
on-task during class
Complete student engagement
rubric based on classroom
observation
Increased parent satisfaction
with 2e support
Percentage of positive parent survey
responses
Positive parent perceptions
Parent satisfaction survey
Parent survey feedback
Increased 2e student
academic performance
Improved grades in core classes
Increase in achievement test scores
Progress toward IEP or Section 504 goals
(if applicable)
Progress report data, teacher report
School district records
School district IEP records
Internal Outcomes
Increased student referral for
a second identification
(gifted or special education)
Number of students identified as both gifted
and in special education
Track students with new dual
identification through school district
records
Increased teacher capacity
for supporting 2e learners
Number of teachers with increased
confidence in their ability to teach and
manage a classroom with 2e students
Teacher self-report via email survey
Establish program
coordination for 2e student
services and supports
Publication of school policy on program
coordination for 2e students
Compliance assessed according to
new policy

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Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors
To reach intended Level 4 results, the key stakeholders must demonstrate specific
behaviors on the job that apply what was learned during training. According to Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016), Level 3 Behavior is the most important, yet most often ignored or
overlooked phase. It addresses a part of the learning process that training alone cannot achieve,
which is to confirm that there has been a transfer of learning to work behavior and to then
solidify these changes with a system for post-training support and monitoring.
The first critical behavior is that teachers recognize and refer students who show
characteristics that they might potentially be 2e. Specifically, they should refer students who
show signs of giftedness or indicate unusual behavior or learning difficulties, regardless of their
current designation. For example, educators who have been sufficiently trained would be
expected to consider referring special education or below-average performing students who
display high levels of creativity, insight, or advanced knowledge in a particular content area as
potentially gifted.
The second critical behavior is that teachers should be actively using differentiation and
other strategies that have been shown to produce positive results with 2e students.
Differentiation may include integrating activities that capitalize on student strengths and areas of
interest and incorporating interest-based projects to increase engagement and promote
intellectual curiosity. Teachers would also need to incorporate methods for responding to
behavioral challenges, social-emotional support, and other characteristics of asynchronous
development.

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The third critical behavior is that teachers should coordinate with special education and
gifted program coordinators to collaborate on student’s program and needs. This behavior is
important to establish because research in the field shows that 2e students are best served using a
collaborative, multi-disciplinary, team-based approach. Ideally, the team would consist of the
student’s general education or homeroom teacher and any other teachers or points-of-contact
who specialize in gifted and/or special education. For students with special education IEPs, this
team is mandated to convene for program planning at the IEP meeting, except for gifted program
contacts, who are not generally included in the process. Coordination among team members
would allow the teachers to share timely information regarding the student’s progress and needs,
adjust programming as needed based on new information, and provide alignment among all
providers and across programs.
The fourth critical behavior is that teachers demonstrate social-emotional competence in
guiding their own behavior and in helping students improve social-emotional skills. This
behavior is essential because it encompasses many facets of the classroom experience, including
those which are of particular importance for 2e students, such as creating a psychologically safe
environment. Evidence of this critical behavior would be for teachers to demonstrate empathy
and understanding, have a keen awareness of how their students are managing their emotions or
responding to stimuli or “triggers,” intervening to help students navigate social situations, and
making adjustments to instruction or the classroom setting as needed to maintain a positive
environment for learning. Table 11 reflects the metrics, methods, and timing for each of the
critical behaviors.

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Table 11
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metrics Methods Timing
1. Refer students with 2e
characteristics for
gifted identification,
special education, or
both when indicated
Number of identified
gifted students referred
for special education
screening and vice versa
A school administrator will track
referrals received for gifted or
special education identification
for students already identified in
one of those categories
Review new
referrals each
semester
2. Employ teaching
strategies and best
practices for 2e
learners
Demonstration of
effective classroom
management, use of
differentiation and
accommodation strategies
as needed
Classroom observation by an
administrator
Discussion during faculty
meetings
Monthly
Weekly
3. Communicate and
collaborate with
students’ other gifted
or special education
teachers/providers
Team meetings scheduled Homeroom teacher and service
coordinators share updates on
student progress and any support
or service needs
Quarterly
4. Apply the skills and
attitudes of socialemotional competence
in teaching practice
Evidence of a safe,
supportive classroom
environment, teacher
facilitates and models
prosocial, self-aware
behaviors
Classroom observation by an
administrator
Discussion during faculty
meetings
Monthly
Weekly
Required Drivers
Required drivers are organizational systems put in place that reinforce, encourage,
reward, and monitor adoption of the critical behaviors leading to stakeholder and organizational
outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Approaches that reinforce, encourage, or reward
are used to support learning while monitoring addresses accountability. In this context, training
materials and follow-up activities reinforce what teachers learned during professional
development and encourage them to use new knowledge and skills in their daily work.
Rewarding in the form of acknowledgement and recognition helps teachers feel valued for
engaging in the desired behaviors. Finally, monitoring not only promotes adherence and

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accountability, but also conveys the importance that the school places on the critical behaviors.
Table 12 lists recommended methods for incorporating the required drivers, along with the
timing for each, as well as the specific critical behaviors to which they apply.
Table 12
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Methods Timing Critical Behaviors Supported
(1, 2, 3, etc.)
Reinforcing
Provide job aids describing 2e
characteristics, challenges, and
instructional best practices
Ongoing 1, 2
Discuss challenges and share
strategies during team meetings
Weekly 1, 2, 3, 4
Share links to articles with practical
strategies for supporting 2e students
Ongoing 2, 4
Encourage teachers to reflect on
their own emotions, reactions, and
interactions with others
Monthly 2, 4
Encouraging
Provide teachers with feedback and
coaching on classroom strategies and
encourage testing creative, new
solutions
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4
Create peer mentorships between
newer and more experienced
teachers. Encourage all teachers to
draw upon each other as resources
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4
Rewarding
Share the number of new referrals
that resulted from recognizing
neurodiverse gifted learners and
congratulate teacher efforts
Each semester 1
Recognize teachers who have taken
creative approaches to working with
2e students
Weekly 2, 3, 4

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Methods Timing Critical Behaviors Supported
(1, 2, 3, etc.)
Teachers who participate in an
ongoing mindfulness program are
entered into a drawing for gift cards
each month
Monthly 4
Monitoring
Send survey for teachers to report
self-efficacy in identifying and
working with 2e students following
training
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4
Assess teacher progress
incorporating new strategies through
classroom observation
Quarterly 2, 4
Teachers participate in peer
observation sessions and give
feedback on 2e teaching strategies
and SEL practices
Monthly 2, 4
Organizational Support
Organizational support and accountability processes following training are essential and
can make the difference between the success and failure of a training initiative (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Organizational support includes the policies, procedures, practices, and
resources that allow stakeholders to support learning and successfully implement required
drivers on a continuous basis as critical behaviors are established and become internalized.
School leaders will need to prioritize teacher training, which includes supplying the time and
resources necessary to provide ongoing professional development and job aids. Teachers and
support personnel will need to be given the time necessary to attend professional development
workshops and administrators will need to invest time in meeting with teachers to exchange
ideas, learn about their challenges, and provide encouragement to promote their success. In

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addition, school leaders may need to leverage their relationships at the school district level to
gain the support needed to drive these initiatives forward.
The organizational supports used to implement required drivers can also be leveraged to
communicate and underscore organizational culture. For example, faculty meetings can become
a hub of information gathering, sharing, recognition, and cooperation. In this conceptualization,
teachers and administrators come together to discuss challenges and strategies, peer mentor pairs
can share their insights and discoveries, the team is reminded of the school’s vision and values,
and recognition is given for using innovation and creativity to work toward that mission.
Approached like this, routine faculty meetings can incorporate elements of trust and
empowerment that promote an entrepreneurial mindset and help foster relationships that lead to a
community of shared purpose.
Level 2: Learning
Learning Goals
Following completion of the teacher professional development described in the
recommendations above, the stakeholders will be able to:
1. Describe common characteristics of 2e students (factual knowledge).
2. Identify learner profiles that may suggest a student is 2e (conceptual knowledge).
3. Explain how teaching practices may differ for 2e students compared with other
populations (conceptual knowledge).
4. Apply instructional strategies shown to support 2e students (procedural knowledge).
5. Integrate teaching practices that promote student SEL (procedural knowledge).
6. Explain how collaborative communication between teachers and program
coordinators can support teaching 2e students (conceptual knowledge).

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7. Reflect on how social-emotional competence influences personal teaching practices
(metacognitive knowledge).
8. Reflect on application of strategies for teaching 2e students (metacognitive
knowledge).
9. Describe the personal meaningfulness of creating positive interactions and classroom
experiences for 2e students (intrinsic value).
10. Express confidence in applying 2e teaching strategies effectively (self-efficacy).
Program
The learning goals listed above will be addressed through a series of professional
development workshops focused on building the knowledge and skills needed for supporting 2e
students. The workshops will cover awareness of the 2e student population, dispelling myths
about giftedness and disability stereotypes, identifying 2e students who may need referral to
appropriate programs and services, and instructional recommendations for teaching these
students using evidence-based best practices. The learners, consisting of teachers and
administrators, will be introduced to a breadth of topics requiring consideration, including
classroom management, support structures and services, and implementing multi-disciplinary,
team-based approaches. To further support building capacity, the series will also integrate
content devoted to developing teacher SEL and connecting that with the relevance for teaching
2e students.
During the first workshop, the focus will be on introducing what it means to be twiceexceptional and how students who fall within that category may present to educators and service
providers. Learners will be presented with examples and case studies demonstrating the
combination of behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs that often occur with 2e students along with

137
common challenges and needs, including misperceptions within the school system. In closing,
the learners will be asked to reflect on their past experiences with students and whether they may
have encountered those who exhibited similar characteristics.
The second workshop will focus on practical instructional strategies and tools to structure
the learning environment, inform learning activities, and promote learning in a variety of
circumstances. This workshop will help educators in the decision-making process in how to best
support the 2e students in their class based on the needs presented. The majority of the class will
be spent in group discussion and small group role-play activities to practice the strategies
learned.
The final workshop will cover interdepartmental collaboration and program design.
Participants will be given examples of program models that have proven successful in supporting
2e learners. Participants will be tasked with finding ways to use the examples to develop
collaborative, multi-disciplinary team approaches for supporting 2e students within their own
work environment. Administrators will work with teachers in breakout groups to brainstorm
ways to ensure inter-departmental communication, alignment, and accountability. At the end of
the program, learners will receive a job aid listing the various characteristics of 2e students and a
decision chart to help guide selection of appropriate strategies in the classroom.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
In order to determine that learning is taking place during instruction, it is important to
evaluate whether learners can demonstrate new declarative and procedural knowledge. The
learners’ attitude, confidence, and commitment must also be evaluated to ensure that they
demonstrate the necessary motivation to engage fully in the learning process (i.e., whether
participants value the learning, are confident that they will be able to use new skills on the job,

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and whether they are committed to doing so). To evaluate learning, the instructor will observe
participants working in small groups to develop solutions for handling several challenging, realworld scenarios. In addition, the participants will be quizzed on terms and concepts presented in
the class. Table 13 lists how these components of learning will be evaluated and the expected
timing.

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Table 13
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Methods or Activities Timing
Declarative Knowledge: “I know it.”
Knowledge checks as a group during discussion During the workshop
Knowledge checks in multiple choice and fill-in quiz
format
After the workshop
Procedural Skills: “I can do it right now.”
Breakout groups solving hypothetical scenarios During the second half of the second
workshop
Learners are given a hypothetical scenario of working
with a 2e student and asked to describe which new
strategies they would select, how they would apply
them, and why.
Learners are asked to explain how they use strategies
to regulate their emotions in the classroom.
After the course
After the course
Attitude: “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Instructor observation of participant engagement. During the workshop
Survey using scaled items. After the course
Confidence: “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussions following small group planning sessions,
role play practice, and feedback.
At the end of workshops
Survey using scaled items. After the course
Commitment: “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following small group planning sessions,
role play practice, and feedback
At the end of workshops
Create an individual action plan At the end of the last workshop
Survey using scaled items After the course

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Level 1: Reaction
Immediately following the learning program, participant response and reaction to the
program is measured to ensure that the program and instruction were adequate and relevant. To
evaluate reactions to the learning program, the instructor will have participants complete a course
evaluation about the organization and delivery of workshop content, whether they found the
content relevant to their work, and their overall satisfaction with the program. Table 14
demonstrates the way that engagement, relevance, and participant satisfaction will be measured.
Table 14
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Methods or Tools Timing
Engagement
Attendance During the workshop
Course evaluation At the end of the workshop series
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the workshop
Relevance
Course evaluation At the end of the workshop series
Pulse checks with participants During the workshop
Customer Satisfaction
Course evaluation At the end of the workshop series
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the workshop

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Evaluation Tools
Immediately Following the Program Implementation
Workshops will be evaluated for participant reaction (Level 1) and to determine if
learning has occurred (Level 2). Level 1 will measure participant engagement, relevance of the
content, and whether the participants were satisfied with the program. During workshops,
reactions will be evaluated by attendance, instructor observation, and pulse checks with
participants. Level 2 will measure knowledge along with participant attitude, confidence, and
commitment. The components of learning will be evaluated during each workshop using
knowledge checks, observation, group activities, and discussion. Following the last workshop, a
survey will be emailed to participants for immediate feedback on Level 1 and 2. An example of
this evaluation tool can be found in Appendix C.
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation
Three months following the training program, school administrators will send a survey to
participants as a follow-up to evaluate the program from their perspective across all levels. This
instrument will revisit Level 1 and 2 to gather current beliefs and attitudes toward the training. It
will also capture data on whether the teachers had applied what they learned about working with
2e students in their classroom practices (Level 3) and the impact this had on the expected
outcomes (Level 4). In addition to the survey, administrators will observe teachers in the
classroom periodically and meet with them to gather self-evaluative feedback. Data will also be
collected from parent satisfaction surveys and school records to track student performance and
referrals for gifted or special education support. An example of the delayed evaluation
instrument can be found in Appendix D.

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Data Analysis and Reporting
By the start of the following school year, results of data will be compiled by school
administrators and reported to the school district or other body providing oversight to
demonstrate that internal and external outcomes described in the implementation and evaluation
plan have been achieved. The external outcomes to be reported include increased academic
performance for identified 2e students, increased parent satisfaction with 2e support, and
increased 2e student engagement. Internal outcomes to be reported include increased
identification of 2e students and increased teacher capacity for supporting 2e learners. Data
collection and reporting should continue on an annual basis to ensure that teachers have the
knowledge and tools to support 2e learners. Figure 4 shows a sample dashboard summarizing
some of the internal and external results.
Figure 4
Sample Program Progress Reporting Dashboard

143
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) was used to develop recommendations for the
planning, implementation, and evaluation of a school plan targeting improved outcomes for 2e
students. First, theoretical evidence-based recommendations were developed to address the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Next, an implementation and
evaluation plan was developed in accordance with the Kirkpatrick New World Model, which
prescribes working in reverse order to identify outcomes and evaluation methods. The program
planning began with Level 4 (outcomes) first, then moved to Level 3 (behaviors), including the
required drivers and organizational supports influencing those behaviors, down to Level 2
(learning) and, lastly, Level 1 (reactions).
Another critical component of The New World Kirkpatrick Model is the notion that
evaluation should occur continuously alongside implementation at each level. Immediate and
delayed evaluation tools were designed to measure early indicators of improvement following
program implementation so that any adjustments could be made to course correct, if necessary,
thereby increasing the chances for later success. Finally, a data analysis and reporting plan was
provided to ensure that the program evaluation results were presented to stakeholders in a
meaningful way to support the implementation plan and provide ongoing accountability.
The expectation for this framework of evaluation is to gather data at each level in a way
that ensures alignment between the organization and stakeholders’ end goals, the
recommendations, and how they are implemented. The larger benefit of this data analysis
framework is that it allows stakeholders to understand not only whether the program worked, but
also the reason it worked or did not to either make corrections during the process before it is too
late or to provide further support for what made the program successful (Kirkpatrick &

144
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Ultimately, the end goal and expectation for this implementation and
evaluation plan is to provide an evidence-based program for improving teacher and school
support for 2e students upheld by relevant and meaningful data.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations of the study are factors that represent weaknesses within a research design
that are not under the control of the researcher, but may influence outcomes and conclusions
(Ross & Zaidi, 2019). Limitations within this study include response bias related to the use of
self-reported data and sample size. Response bias describes the tendency for research
participants to provide false or inaccurate answers for various reasons, such as to project a
positive image of themselves (Furnham, 1986). The truthfulness of participant responses may
have been compromised due to my relationship to participants as the parent of enrolled students
and, therefore, a client of the school. As a result, the teachers may have given answers that they
believed to be more socially desirable. Participants may have also had concerns that their
responses could be identified among the relatively small number of potential participants at the
school, although all participants were advised that their responses would remain confidential, and
that identifying information would be removed. Finally, due to the small size of the school and
the teacher sample, data are very specific to this context and cannot be generalized to the general
population.
Delimitations represent limitations due to choices made by the researcher that narrow the
scope of a study and influence the data collected (Ross & Zaidi, 2019). A delimitation of the
study is that the study sample was limited to middle school teachers and administrators, which
means that the results could not be generalized to teachers and school leaders across upper and
lower grade levels at the school. Also, the scope of this study was limited to one key stakeholder

145
group within the school, which may not have fully represented the combination of factors
contributing to the school’s success, such as family involvement or administrative governance
decisions. In addition, the school of study was a private school, which may limit applicability to
public school settings.
Future Research
This study examined factors influencing the success of a specialized school for 2e
students. While Bridges Academy is one of the first of its kind, several schools for 2e students
have been established in recent years. It would be beneficial for future studies to conduct a
comparative analysis across independent 2e schools to examine alternative approaches to the
development of a 2e school model. A comparative study would allow insight into the effects of
various approaches from a pedagogical or theoretical perspective as well as through an
organizational performance lens. This would also help to generalize results from the current
study regarding factors that influence outcomes for this student population in a standalone 2e
school context and what drives school success.
Future research should also be directed toward bridging the gap between the private
school model for 2e students and programs available through the public school system. While
research has shown no indication that public schools exclusively for 2e students exist, a small
number of programs for 2e students have been established on public school general education
campuses. Although there is growing awareness of this population in education, support within
the public school system still falls short. Future studies should compare the program design,
pedagogy, and outcomes of 2e programs from independent schools with those available from the
public school system to learn how best practices drawn from both contexts can expand access
and inform practice in public school settings that do not have programs for 2e students. This

146
knowledge may help schools adopt policies and practices that can be integrated within a typical
public school setting using the resources available without the need for specialized funding or
programs.
Finally, future studies could focus on the experiences of Bridges school administrators
and the leadership team as primary stakeholders, which would help contribute a broader
perspective on organizational factors influencing the school’s performance. This research would
examine leadership and the decision-making process that drives program planning, personnel,
and organizational strategy. The benefit of this approach is that it may offer new insights and
more context to explain the rationale behind key decisions, resource management, and school
culture.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to examine factors contributing to the success of an
independent school designated for 2e learners. Guided by the Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis framework, this qualitative study aimed to 1) identify the knowledge and motivation
assets that helped teachers contribute to the school’s success, 2) analyze the influence of
organizational factors, and 3) propose a set of recommendations from the results that could
benefit 2e learning in other school contexts.
It is well established in the literature that 2e students have struggled navigating through
the school system because of misperceptions about their needs and a general lack of knowledge
about dual exceptionality within the education field. The teachers at Bridges first became aware
of 2e students through the hiring process. Unfortunately, many educators in other school
contexts have not had this opportunity and would likely obtain a substantial benefit from learning
about 2e students, as this could lead to improved identification, services, and appropriate

147
placement and programming. Gifted identification is disproportionately low for students in
special education; underrepresentation is even greater for those who are culturally, linguistically,
or economically diverse (Cody et al., 2022). While Bridges Academy is a promising practice,
demographic data shows that it is still not reaching these populations. However, findings from
the study of this promising practice can be used to expand access to programming for 2e students
in these historically marginalized populations. Future research examining programs for 2e
students within and outside of the public school system (as mentioned above) may also help
improve identification of underrepresented groups.
While the practical implications of the study address solutions within the context of a
school, the findings also support recommendations that extend beyond the school level. To
address teacher knowledge, preservice teacher education should include content on teaching
learners with multiple exceptionalities, which could prepare new teachers for supporting 2e
students and improve identification for services. In addition, instructional strategies learned in
preservice and in-service teacher education can be applicable outside of gifted education, such as
to support advanced learners. Also, organizations responsible for implementing educational
programs, particularly for 2e learners, should consider expected or desired organizational
behaviors in the design of learning environments, including leadership influences and staff
interpersonal skills. Although specific factors vary across contexts, results of the study suggest
that these social features of the environment can shape student and teacher experiences and,
therefore, warrant consideration in optimizing organizational performance in schools.
Research on the issue of 2e education has primarily focused on understanding the nature
of the problem, its implications for 2e students, and how to integrate evidence-based teaching
practices. This study contributes to the literature by exploring the experiences of seasoned 2e

148
teachers through an organizational performance lens. By understanding how environmental
factors in a school influence and interact with teacher knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs, it
becomes possible to gain a more holistic understanding of how to foster positive educational
experiences for 2e students. Furthermore, this study sheds light on the professional journey
toward acquiring the requisite skills, as all teachers at Bridges began as novices in this area,
having had no prior experience teaching 2e students.
The development of an educational solution that meets the needs and addresses the
challenges of 2e students can be complex. The present study pointed to a systemic approach that
could not be reduced to analysis along one dimension. The findings revealed that teacher
success in working with 2e students was driven by a school cultural dynamic between teachers
and the leadership that created a self-perpetuating cycle of reinforcing influences. This cycle
was generated by a series of dependencies connecting leadership behavior, teacher behavior
individually, and teacher behavior as part of a community of shared purpose. By giving teachers
autonomy, school leaders promoted a sense of agency and created a condition which necessitated
that teachers apply entrepreneurial mindset traits like self-reliance, resilience, collaboration, and
problem solving. This drove new teachers to take steps to learn independently and appeal to
other teachers, who helped them learn how to do the job and what was expected. Also,
reinforcing the school’s purpose promoted work meaningfulness and a sense of shared purpose
and responsibility among teachers. Shared purpose helped teachers bond as a community which,
in turn, promoted knowledge sharing, emotional support, and a shared desire to uphold the
values and integrity of the school’s work. With this supportive structure, those who possessed
entrepreneurial mindset skills, developed competence teaching 2e students, demonstrated socialemotional competence, and adopted the values of the teacher community found success.

149
The findings of this study present a multi-dimensional perspective illustrating how
organizational health at the school level can directly impact the success of 2e student education.
Schools working with 2e students may benefit from an organizational approach that draws on
this model by 1) strengthening meaning and purpose for teachers by making the connection
between their work and its contribution to student experiences, 2) building community by
reinforcing teacher connection through shared values and goals, and 3) developing organizational
trust through accountable autonomy, conveying confidence in teachers, and exemplifying
integrity. These approaches do not represent a cure-all, as there are many variables influencing
whether schools can create conditions that are conducive to helping 2e students academically
thrive. However, they may help inform schools as to how a systemic approach can help build an
organizational support system through teacher community that sustains a purpose-driven culture
and strengthens teacher motivation and commitment to educating 2e students.

150
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Appendix A: Teacher Interview Protocol
Thank you for meeting with me today. I am conducting this interview to fulfill research
requirements for my doctoral program at the University of Southern California. The purpose of
this study is to understand what organizational influences have helped to bring about Bridges
Academy’s success in teaching 2e students and, specifically, I’ll be focusing on the contributions
that teachers make. Your input is extremely valuable to this process because you are directly
responsible for working with the students on a daily basis. I anticipate that this interview will
take less than 45 minutes to complete.
In order to maintain privacy, all responses will be confidential, and your name will not be
recorded. You will be identified by a number, such as Teacher 5. In addition, the narrative will
not include any potentially identifying information, such as subject area, length of tenure, etc.
You may choose not to answer any question and you have the right to withdraw from the study at
any time with no consequence. Do you have any questions for me before we begin?
I’m going to ask you some questions about your experiences as a teacher working with 2e
students in general and within this school context specifically.
1. How long have you been working as a teacher?
2. How long have you been teaching at Bridges?
3. Did you have any experience with 2e students before coming to Bridges?
4. What would you say are the most important things to know to succeed in this job?
a. How did you gain this knowledge?
5. How have your teaching practices or strategies changed since you started working here,
if at all?

169
a. What do you think brought about those changes, for example, were they things
you were taught or told to do, was it from trial-and-error, watching others, etc.?
6. Overall, what factors have contributed most to your knowledge and understanding of 2e
students, (for example training, on-the-job experience, mentorship, etc.)?
a. What about those factors made such an impact on your level of knowledge?
7. What aspects of working at this school do you find most satisfying?
8. Is there anything specific to this work environment or culture that motivates you to do
your best or try harder?
9. What aspects of working here are most challenging?
a. How do you overcome those challenges?
10. To what degree do you feel confident about your ability to teach 2e students effectively?
a. What contributed to your confidence?
b. How has your sense of confidence influenced your practice, if at all?
11. As a teacher, what kind of personal qualities or mental attitudes do you think are most
valued by school leaders? What do they want to see in their teachers?
a. Can you give me an example?
b. How did you learn about these expectations or values?
12. In terms of your role within Bridges as a work environment, how would you compare
your experience working here to your experiences at other schools?
13. How would you describe the work culture at Bridges?
a. With regard to work culture, what values do you think are most important?
14. What behaviors are encouraged in the teacher’s role, in terms of how much autonomy
you have, contributing ideas, feedback, etc.?

170
a. Can you give me an example?
15. To what extent do you see the school mission and vision reinforced or embedded within
the day-to-day working of the school (e.g., decision-making, planning, or activities)?
a. Can you give me an example?
Now we’re going to talk about the changes that occurred due to Covid-19.
16. What was involved in making the switch to asynchronous learning? How prepared did
you feel to make the switch?
17. What helped prepare you to make the switch? Did you have the knowledge needed?
18. What organizational supports were available to help you make the switch?
19. What have you learned in the process?
20. Where would you want to make improvements or what would you want to do differently
looking forward?

171
Appendix B: Administrator Interview Protocol
Thank you for meeting with me today. I am conducting this interview to fulfill research
requirements for my doctoral program at the University of Southern California. The purpose of
this study is to understand what organizational influences have helped to bring about Bridges
Academy’s success in teaching 2e students and, specifically, I’ll be focusing on the contributions
that teachers make. Your input is extremely valuable to this process because of your influence
on teacher policies, practices, and expectations. I anticipate that this interview will take less than
45 minutes to complete.
In order to maintain privacy, all responses will be confidential, and your name will not be
recorded. You will be identified by a number, such as Administrator 2. In addition, the narrative
will not include any potentially identifying information, such as position title, length of tenure,
etc. You may choose not to answer any question and you have the right to withdraw from the
study at any time with no consequence. Do you have any questions for me before we begin?
1. How long have you been working in education?
2. Have you ever worked as a teacher?
3. Did you have any experience with 2e students before coming to Bridges?
4. What knowledge and skills are most important for teachers to have in this job, working
with 2e students at Bridges?
5. What kind of qualities or mental attitudes do you value most in teachers?
6. How do you communicate your values and expectations to the teachers?
7. How do teachers gain the knowledge needed to reach performance goals?
8. What would you say motivates the teachers?
9. What would you say is most challenging for the teachers?

172
10. How would you compare your experience in this role working at Bridges to your
experience with other schools?
11. How would you describe the culture at Bridges?
12. How did you manage the transition to running school online during the pandemic?
13. Were there any additional organizational supports that you had to make available to
support the teachers during this time?

173
Appendix C: Immediate Evaluation Instrument
Place an X in the box to indicate the degree to which you agree with each statement:
Strongly
agree
Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
disagree
The training workshops kept
me engaged.
The content presented was
relevant to my work.
I got a lot out of attending this
training program.
I can identify 2e student
characteristics.
I can use instructional
strategies that help support 2e
students.
I understand how service
coordinator collaboration can
help 2e students.
I know how to integrate
social-emotional competence
within my teaching practice.
I believe that learning to
support 2e students is
valuable.
I am confident that I will be
prepared to support 2e
students.
I am committed to applying
new skills to support 2e
students.

174
Appendix D: Blended Evaluation Instrument
Place an X in the box to indicate the degree to which you agree with each statement:
Strongly
agree
Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
disagree
The training workshops were
presented effectively.
The training content has been
relevant to my work.
What I learned in the training
program has been useful.
I have learned to recognize
indications that students may
need 2e support.
I have incorporated
instructional strategies that
support 2e students.
I consistently collaborate with
service coordinators for my 2e
students.
I have applied knowledge of
social-emotional skills within
my teaching practice.
I believe that learning to
support 2e students has been
valuable.
I am confident that I have the
skills to support 2e students.
I plan to continue developing
skills to support 2e students.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Research on how to best meet the academic needs and potential of gifted students with disabilities, known as twice-exceptional or 2e, has grown over the past 30 years. While recognition of 2e learners is slowly extending to educational policy, there are few school program options designed to accommodate 2e students and even fewer studies on the organizational aspects of implementing such programs. This promising practice study sought to understand the organizational performance dynamics influencing teacher success in a school for 2e students through the lens of the Clark and Estes gap analysis framework. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews with middle-school teachers and a school administrator along with school documents and artifacts to ascertain the knowledge, motivation, and organizational assets contributing to success. The findings indicated that teacher performance was supported by knowledge of 2e characteristics, instructional strategies, and individual social-emotional competence. Teachers were motivated intrinsically and by self-efficacy. Organizational contributing factors were widespread transmission of the school’s mission and vision, entrepreneurial mindset values, and identification with a shared purpose. The highly autonomy-oriented environment encouraged personal initiative and may have motivated teachers to seek learning resources independently. A teacher community of shared purpose developed, reinforcing collective knowledge and motivation systemically. Research-supported recommendations were made to address organizational challenges associated with cultivating successful 2e learning environments, followed by an implementation and evaluation plan guided by the New World Kirkpatrick Model. This study offers insight into key components influencing teacher performance within the dynamic and complex 2e learning environment.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Steiner, Alecia (author)

Core Title Embracing the intersection of giftedness and disability: examining a standalone school model for twice-exceptional learners

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 09/06/2024

Defense Date 08/12/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,2E,disability,entrepreneurial mindset,Gifted Education,giftedness,neurodivergent,neurodiversity,OAI-PMH Harvest,school culture,sense of community,shared purpose,special education,teacher community,teacher experiences,twice-exceptional,workplace culture

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Krop, Cathy (committee chair), Kaplan, Sandra (committee member), Pensavalle, Margo (committee member)

Creator Email a2steiner@gmail.com,aleciast@usc.edu

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