University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Unlocking the potential: improving persistence and graduation of Black female students at select historically Black colleges and universities: a case study

(USC Thesis Other)

Unlocking the potential: improving persistence and graduation of Black female students at select historically Black colleges and universities: a case study

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Unlocking the Potential: Improving Persistence and Graduation of Black Female Students at
Select Historically Black Colleges and Universities: A Case Study
Jeanne K. Wardford
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August, 2024

2
© Copyright by Jeanne K. Wardford 2024
All Rights Reserved

3
The Committee for Jeanne K. Wardford certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Tracy Poon Tambascia, Committee Chair
Renee Smith-Maddox
Joseph Blasi
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

4
Dedication
First and foremost, I want to thank God for all the blessings and grace he has bestowed
upon me and my family. This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my parents, the late
Booker T. Goings and Blanche Goings, and my sister, Barbara E. Kyle. My mother, who always
encouraged me to be practical, was a woman who epitomized strength and determination. This
quiet strength and her gentleness have been my constant inspiration. She demonstrated for me
the essence of the quote, "Believe in yourself." She instilled in me the necessity to pursue the
highest tradition in scholarship. My mother attended The Alabama State Teachers College, now
known as Alabama State University, during a time when it was a distinct privilege. It is a
Historically Black College and University (HBCU) founded in 1867 by nine formerly enslaved
men, making it one of the oldest HBCUs in the United States. She led by example.
To my daughter, Eliza Lae, who always reminded me to breathe and stop overthinking
and, with love, finally told me to "Just do it." To my son, Damon, and his wife, Huda, for their
unconditional love and support, my son, Blue, for his intellectual prowess and willingness to
challenge me and provoke my thinking, and my son, Robert, who assumed all extra
responsibilities and literally propped me up and cared for me through the entire 25 months
without hesitation, with no complaints and his staunch support and love provided the necessary
cushioning from the wear and tear of pursuing a goal which often seemed impossible. To all of
you, your love and support have been invaluable, and I am deeply grateful for it.
In addition, I have one cousin who is always so excited to see me, who always asks deep
questions that show he cares (and, after all, laughter is the best reason): my cousin, Dr. Robert A.
Martin. Your insistence, continual prodding, and encouragement finally gave me the courage to
pursue my Global Doctorate and present this study. You continually reminded me that we must

5
do it, even if we are afraid. Without your understanding, continuing challenge, and the blend of
encouragement, patience, and support, I could not have begun this journey and completed this
dissertation.
Each member of my family has taught me something unique and special about life. My
family is a God-given source of strength and encouragement. I love them more than words can
tell. I especially want to thank my sister Carol and niece Anika for their unwavering support of
me. To my sisters Michele and Janet, brother Marty, and all my nephews, nieces, cousins, and
extended family about whom I care deeply, thanks for your understanding and encouragement in
my journey. Special thanks to my goddaughter, LaShelle Benjamin who always helped me make
the math work.
Friends have been essential to my existence all of my life. Dr. Walter Cheeks, thank you
for standing in the gap and being my spiritual leader throughout this process. I also would like to
dedicate this dissertation to the memory of three of my late friends, Cynthia Brown, Virginia
“Ginger” Rawls, and Terri Tabor Conerway, who have been such an important part of my life.
Although they will not be here to share in my future success, they are above proudly laughing
and boasting to whoever will listen to them. Their love and guidance were always given to me
freely and unconditionally. I will always thank them for the happiness they brought to me, and I
miss them every day for the amazing, smart, and beautiful Black women they were. They
continue to dwell in the hearts of everyone whose lives they have touched, and their memory is a
constant source of inspiration for me.
There are not enough words to express my gratitude for the ones on whose shoulders I
was carried and who did not complain. I dedicate this to Barbara, who fed me and listened to me
whine and grumble; Joia, my forever life coach; Denise, my prayer partner; my Delta Sigma

6
Theta line sisters Marcia, Vanessa, and Alicia, who cheered alongside me; and my lifelong friend
sister and Soror, Michelle, who did all of the above and more at a moment’s notice. It is always
dangerous to list names, so if I missed yours, fill in the blank ___________ and charge it to my
head and not my heart!
Finally, to my four precious granddaughters Amber, Anita, Bobbie, and Khamaria-Rae
and three grandsons Yasir, Ayman, and Ra-Erise, let the example of my life's pursuit be a source
of pride and an indication that if and only if you assert yourself, you can achieve. Your closeness
and love have tempered my spirit and given me a source of renewed hope and expectations.
Finally, this research represents my promise to myself to rewrite the next chapter in my
life and make up for lost time. It is also a testament to the pivotal role of family and dear friends
in my academic journey. This dedication reaffirms the source of strength and power that
continues to be transmitted from one generation to another.
While in South Africa, a Zulu warrior gave me my African name. I entered this journey
as Jeanne, and now I am concluding it as Nosipho, God’s Gift. This journey has been a walk of
faith. I stayed focused and connected to Christ during one of the most challenging,
transformative, and rewarding experiences of my academic and professional life. It's been a time
of deep reflection and growth.
I am immensely grateful to my village for your unwavering love and support throughout
this journey. Your encouragement has been invaluable.
Thank you!!
2 Corinthians 5:7 (KJV): "For we walk by faith, not by sight."

7
Acknowledgments
I express my profound gratitude to my dissertation chair, Dr. Tracy Tambascia. Your
exemplary leadership and unwavering support have been instrumental in helping me curate my
doctoral journey with the academic rigor that cultivates respect and credibility in this important
research. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Tambascia for her expert guidance, dedication, wisdom,
patience, grace, and understanding. Her support was exceptional, as she served as a thought
partner and extended her vast expertise and experience as this research case study evolved. I
immensely appreciate her guidance, enabling me to acquire the essential tools and knowledge to
complete my research.
I am deeply honored and fortunate to have had a committee comprised of esteemed
academicians dedicated to the field of education. Dr. Renee Smith-Maddox, USC, and Dr.
Joseph Blasi from Rutgers University have imparted unparalleled intellectual capital and
gravitas. Dr. Renee Smith-Maddox's brilliance was instrumental in refining my research focus to
the educational journey of Black females at HBCUs. Her insights were crucial in documenting
this work with the highest level of respect and an asset-based approach to addressing the
challenges Black females at HBCUs currently face. Dr. Joseph Blasi's exceptional research skills
and extensive knowledge of educational systems were essential in my doctoral journey. His
expertise in data analysis and uncovering the hidden links between cause and effect was
invaluable.
I extend my heartfelt gratitude to the faculty of the Global Education Executive at the
Rossier School of Education. Dr. Mark Robison not only helped me confront my imposter
syndrome but also encouraged me during our first intensive, expressing confidence in the
potential impact of my work on improving HBCU graduation rates. Dr. Anthony Maddox

8
provided a platform for innovative and creative thinking, reminding me of the importance of my
voice in these discussions. Dr. Ruth Chung imparted solid research skills, guiding me with
precision to acquire, analyze, and report data with academic rigor, validity, and reliability. Dr.
Alan Green dedicated considerable time to ensuring that my policy foundation was robust,
consistently encouraging a HEADSUP approach to age-old problems and fostering an
environment for systemic change and sustainability.
I am also grateful to Dr. Jamel Donnor of the William and Mary School of Education,
who devoted an afternoon to providing context, theoretical underpinnings, and transformative
ideas for shifting paradigms in underfunded and overburdened systems. Additionally, I thank Dr.
Yvonne Robinson for her thoughtful partnership at the onset of this journey. Erica Brice was
foundational in helping me understand the enormity of financial disenfranchisement and for
helping me think through real scenarios to help facilitate real “C” change beyond this case study
to create long-term sustainability and solvency. Jasmine Thomas was a co-conspirator and
thought partner with a plethora of ideas to ensure HBCUs' long-term success and resilience.
I extend my appreciation to my fellow Ed.D. candidate, Dr. Nara Topp, for her assistance
and encouragement. My gratitude also goes to Dr. Sakinah Harrison for her support and to the
Global Ed.D. cohort members for their fellowship and inspiring encouragement. The numerous
discussions and inspirational ideas have significantly contributed to the better framing of this
case study.
Lastly, I acknowledge the staff of the Global Ed.D. program, Dr. Sabrina Chung and
Alondra Morales, for coordinating travel across four continents. Their efforts alleviated much of
the stress and potential difficulties we might have encountered. Thank you.

9
Abstract
Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), established around 150 years ago, have
played a crucial role in advancing African American higher education, building a Black middle
class, and promoting racial equality and community empowerment through innovative teaching,
research, and mentoring. Despite their positive impact, HBCUs face low graduation rates,
averaging 35%, compared to the national rates of 42% for Black students and 62% for White
students. However, specific graduation rates for Black female students at HBCUs and PWIs are
not well-documented. A qualitative case study explored the academic journeys of fifteen Black
females formerly enrolled in select HBCUs, examining how socioeconomic and systemic
institutional challenges influenced their graduation outcomes using Critical Race Theory,
Yosso's Community Cultural Wealth framework, and Culturally Relevant Teaching pedagogy.
Key findings include the importance of belonging, enhanced financial aid, and academic and
mental health support services. Recommendations for practice include developing mentorship
programs, fostering faculty relationships, implementing CRP, strengthening mental health
services, and improving financial literacy to boost retention and graduation rates. HBCUs remain
vital for social mobility and community empowerment, underscoring the need for strategic
financial and policy support to ensure their ongoing relevance. This support is crucial in
addressing the challenges faced by Black female students and in improving the overall academic
outcomes at HBCUs.
Keywords: Black female students, HBCUs, persistence, graduation rates, student
retention, educational outcomes, support programs, mental health, culturally relevant teaching,
institutional strategies, barriers to success

10
Table of Contents
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... 7
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... 9
Table of Contents........................................................................................................................ 10
Chapter One: Introduction........................................................................................................ 17
Statement of the Problem....................................................................................................... 19
Purpose of the Study............................................................................................................... 20
Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 21
Definitions................................................................................................................................ 22
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 23
Chapter Two: Literature Review .............................................................................................. 24
Education and Black Social Mobility.................................................................................... 25
Impacts of Disparities in Educational Achievement............................................................ 27
Historically Black Colleges and Universities: The Historical Context .............................. 30
The Role of HBCUs in African American Student Enrollment ......................................... 32
Cultural Competency.............................................................................................................. 34
Professional & Civic Engagement............................................................................................. 36
Safe Environments.................................................................................................................. 36
Challenges Facing HBCUs..................................................................................................... 36

11
Inequitable Funding................................................................................................................ 37
Declining Public and Private Investment in Education ...................................................... 39
Declining Share of Black Enrollment in Higher Education................................................ 41
Systemic Racism...................................................................................................................... 43
Black College Student Experiences........................................................................................... 44
Lack of Institutional Supports................................................................................................. 46
Theoretical Frameworks........................................................................................................ 46
Chapter Three: Methods........................................................................................................... 52
Methodology ................................................................................................................................ 55
Organization Overview .......................................................................................................... 57
Population and Sample........................................................................................................... 58
Data Collection and Instrumentation ................................................................................... 59
Data Collection Instruments.................................................................................................. 60
Data Analysis........................................................................................................................... 62
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................... 63
Validity and Reliability........................................................................................................... 64
Ethics........................................................................................................................................ 65
Role of Researcher .................................................................................................................. 67
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 68
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS ......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

12
Introduction..................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Findings.................................................................................................................................... 71
Research Question 1: What socio-cultural academic and personal experiences and
challenges do Black female students face when attending HBCUs, and how do these
influence their decision to persist and successfully graduate from these institutions? .... 72
Finding 2: Mentorship and Faculty Relationships ................................................................ 75
Research Question 2: How do Black female students perceive and navigate the unique
support systems within HBCUs that contribute to their persistence and graduation
outcomes?................................................................................................................................. 79
Finding 1: Need for Improved Financial Aid and Academic Support Systems.................... 79
Finding 2: Mental Health Support Services........................................................................... 83
Finding 3: Culturally Relevant Teaching............................................................................... 86
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 90
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE......... 92
Discussion of Findings................................................................................................................ 93
Social Capital: Sense of Belonging and Mentoring.............................................................. 94
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy ............................................................................................... 95
Social Capital: Mental Health and Overall Sense of Belonging.......................................... 98
Navigational Capital: Financial Literacy for College Persistence...................................... 99
Recommendations for Practice ................................................................................................ 101

13
Recommendation 1: HBCUs Need to Develop a Comprehensive Program for Student
Retention and Graduation Focusing On a Sense of Belonging......................................... 103
Revisit and Reengineer Orientation and Welcoming Strategies...................................... 103
Formal Mentorship and Support Programs ......................................................................... 105
Professional Development Support for Faculty and Staff ................................................... 106
Cultural Relevant Teaching................................................................................................... 106
Recommendation 2: HBCUs Need to Develop a Comprehensive Mental Health Program
to address Student Needs ..................................................................................................... 107
Improve Access to Mental Health Services........................................................................... 107
Peer Support Programs.......................................................................................................... 109
Holistic Wellness Programs................................................................................................... 109
Collaborations with Community Organizations................................................................... 110
Mental Health Awareness Campaigns.................................................................................. 110
Direct Allocation for Mental Health Services................................................................... 112
Recommendation 3: HBCUs Need to Develop a Comprehensive Programs for Financial
Literacy ...................................................................................................................................... 113
Challenges Faced by Black Female College Students ......................................................... 113
Strategies to Improve Financial Literacy for Black Female College Students................... 115
Understanding Financial Aid................................................................................................ 116
Financial Mentors and Role Models..................................................................................... 117

14
Partnerships with Financial Organizations.......................................................................... 118
Peer Learning Communities.................................................................................................. 119
Training and Supporting Financial Aid Staff...................................................................... 119
Improving Technology Systems............................................................................................. 120
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................. 121
Recommendations for Further Research................................................................................ 122
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 123
References.................................................................................................................................. 128
Appendix A: HBCU Graduation Rates .................................................................................. 153
APPENDIX B: Information Sheet........................................................................................... 154
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH...................................................... 154
APPENDIX C: Recruitment Email......................................................................................... 156
APPENDIX D: Recruitment Flyer .......................................................................................... 157
APPENDIX E: Survey.............................................................................................................. 158
APPENDIX F: HEADSUP Framework.................................................................................. 160

15
List of Tables
Table 1: Adults with College Degrees ....................................................................................... 26
Table 2: Introduction of
Participants….……………………………...……………………….…………………………..67

16
List of Figures
Figure 1: Median Annual Earnings........................................................................................... 26
Figure 2: Educational Attainment and Earnings Ratio .......................................................... 29
Figure 3: Average Hourly Wages by Race and Education ..................................................... 28
Figure 4: HBCU Enrollment from 1980 – 2015 ....................................................................... 42
Figure 5: 2016 Enrollment at Select HBCUs............................................................................ 54

17
Chapter One: Introduction
Education plays a pivotal role in the abundant cultural wealth found within Black
communities. Educational achievement and success are of utmost importance for Black students,
as they provide opportunities for personal development and advancement and combat systemic
inequalities. By attaining higher levels of education, Black students can break down barriers,
empower their communities, and contribute to the reduction of racial disparities. A college
degree typically provides access to more political, social, and economic freedom in America
(Allen et al., 2020).
The majority of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) have been
dedicated to empowering communities and racial uplift (Albritton, 2012). These institutions,
beacons of hope, have assisted students who might otherwise face challenges in pursuing higher
education (Harmon, 2012). Although there are many educational options, HBCUs have provided
a successful path for many Black students, offering not just education, but a supportive
environment, culturally relevant education, and a strong alumni network, all of which contribute
to academic and professional successes (Arroyo & Gasman, 2014).
During the Reconstruction and the Jim Crow eras, HBCUs gave Black people a route to
higher education (Cantey et al., 2011), at a time when many schools and universities refused to
enroll Black men and women because of their perceived inferiority. HBCUs overcame the
obstacles that previously enslaved Americans encountered and helped to advance racial equity,
contributing to the creation of the Black middle class (Cantey, 2012). HBCUs continue to hold a
unique and significant role in American society because of their deep linkages to the country’s
complex racial and ethnic past.

18
These organizations have a history of assisting students who might otherwise face
challenges in pursuing higher education (Harmon, 2012). Because they are typically
geographically situated inside Black communities, the majority of HBCUs have historically been
dedicated to empowering communities and racial uplift (Albritton, 2012).
Today, 101 Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) consist of 47 fouryear private and 40 four-year public institutions, one 2-year private and 10 two-year public
institutions, and three post-baccalaureate private institutions (Bracey, 2017). Collectively, they
comprise 3% of the nation’s institutions of higher learning and serve roughly 300,000 students
each year (Brooks & Starks, 2011; Jackson & Nunn, 2003).
Although originally focused on Black Students, HBCUs have since evolved to attract
students from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds, with approximately 24% of enrolled students
at both public and private HBCUs being non-Black (Robinson-Spann, 2023). In addition, these
universities host a diverse staff who support students achievement via creative teaching, research
opportunities and mentorship (Ricard & Brown, 2023).
HBCUs are engines of upward mobility (Joo & Reeves, 2017) and job creation (Alcorn,
2021) for their graduates, and these recent investments are imperative if the United States is to
make progress in racial, social, and economic equity. Yet, many outside the Black community do
not know much about these institutions, how their existence has countered the narrative of White
supremacy, and how—despite the effects of discriminatory funding (Smith, 2021)—they have
continued to persist for over a century. HBCUs continue to persist despite the fact that some
scholars and political pundits doubt the ongoing relevance of HBCUs because of the low
graduation rates (Cook, 2022; Gasman & Hilton, 2016; Minor, 2008).

19
The National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) (2019) data on the college
completion rate of different racial groups and different types of institutions showed that the sixyear graduation rate for Black students at four-year institutions was approximately 45.7% in
2018. In comparison, approximately 66.8% of White students graduated within six years
(National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2019). The relatively low retention rates of
Black students across the nation provide evidence of the barriers they face in graduating from
college.
When considering students enrolled in four-year public institutions, only 45.9% of Black
students complete their degrees within six years, which is the lowest rate compared to other
racial and ethnic groups. Notably, Black men have the lowest completion rate at just 40%. This
high dropout rate can be attributed, at least partially, to 65% of Black college students being
independent. This means they must juggle pursuing a degree with full-time work and family
responsibilities. Consequently, they face significant challenges in balancing these competing
demands (Bridges, 2018).
Furthermore, data from the United Negro College Fund (UNCF) revealed that students at
HBCUs tend to borrow more than students attending non-HBCUs. This borrowing disparity can
be attributed to the fact that Black families generally possess lower assets and incomes, which
limit their ability to contribute toward college expenses. Consequently, Black students may have
to rely more heavily on loans to finance their education, potentially leading to higher debt levels
upon graduation (United Negro College Fund [UNCF], 2022).
Statement of the Problem
One of the most persistent features of the educational system in the United States is the
achievement gap between minority students and non-minority students. African American,

20
Latino, and Native-American students have substantially lower test scores, grades, high school
completion rates, college attendance rates, and college graduation rates than non-minority
students (Johnson & Winfield, 2022). HBCUs are currently confronting the critical challenge of
declining graduation rates, despite their historical significance in promoting higher education
among Blacks. HBCUs enroll significantly more first-generation college students and students
from low-income families than traditional colleges or universities. Nationwide, 75% of students
at HBCUs are Pell Grant recipients (The Hunt Institute, 2021). Despite the important role they
continue to play, many HBCUs struggle with a lack of investment, dwindling enrollment and —
most recently fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2022).
A college degree typically provides access to more political, social, and economic
freedom in America (Sawyers, 2011). Those with bachelor’s degrees earn about twice as much
as those with only a high school diploma, according to the Census Bureau (Albritton, 2012). The
significance of this cannot be overstated since college dropout rates contribute to Black families
mired in a cycle of poverty.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the influences that affect the persistence
and graduation outcomes of Black female students who attended select baccalaureate degreegranting Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). Data from this qualitative case
study will be examined through Yosso’s Cultural Community Wealth framework(CCW), Critical
Race Theory(CRT), and Culturally Relevant Teaching Pedagogy (CRP) of Gloria Ladson–
Billings, specifically relating to education. Discovering the various facets of cultural riches, such
as aspirational, directional, social, linguistic, family, and resistive capital, is a fascinating
possibility. Yosso’s (CCW) conceptual framework offers a thorough method for comprehending

21
and assessing wealth that goes beyond conventional financial metrics. It posits that a
community’s well-being spans the social, human, environmental, and cultural components in
addition to its financial resources, and connects well to CRT, which is focused on how racial
inequities persist within the educational systems and focuses on the role of race in society, and
everyday interactions that can affect student success. This concept is predicated on the notion
that the sustainable growth and exploitation of all these interrelated kinds of capital constitute
actual wealth.
The research questions for this study are:
1. What are the socio-cultural academic and personal experiences and
challenges faced by Black female students attending HBCUs and how do
these influence their decision to persist and successfully graduate from these
institutions?
2. How do Black female students perceive and navigate the unique support
systems within HBCUs that contribute to their persistence and graduation
outcomes?
My hope is that through conducting this research, I will discover how former Black
female students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) perceive the
availability and access to resources that are influences for success and persistence. In addition, it
will be important to learn how they grow, harness, and use their cultural riches as drivers for
success, resilience, and transformational educational journeys.
Significance of the Study
This study is important for several reasons. HBCUs hold a significant and unique position
in relation to the complex racial and ethnic history of the United States. Most HBCUs place a

22
high priority on racial and community empowerment because of their proximity to Black
communities. However, declining graduation rates at HBCUs raise serious concerns about their
effectiveness as educational institutions (Davis, 2009).
This research takes into account cultural assets in the Black community, including
HBCUs, as well as the impacts of systemic racism. The work of examining contributing issues to
low graduation rates is critical for elucidating the obstacles Black female college students
confront and devising strategies to overcome them. In addition, this qualitative study will be
helpful for educators, HBCUs, and policymakers design potential solutions for the persistence of
Black female students at HBCUs. This study is also timely and will add to an existing body of
research to create a road map for adopting targeted interventions to eliminate hurdles and support
student achievement and add to the larger discourse on educational justice.
Definitions
Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) - are broadly defined as
accredited institutions ‘‘established prior to 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the
education of Black Americans’’ (Higher Education Act 1965, sec. 1061). HBCUs continue to
provide educational access and inclusion for African Americans and other historically
marginalized populations, regardless of racial or ethnic origin (Bettez & Suggs, 2012).
Black students - refers to individuals enrolled in educational institutions who identify as
members of the Black or African diaspora. The term refers to pupils with African ancestry,
regardless of their nation of origin. Black students may have varying cultural backgrounds and
nationalities, but they share a racial or ethnic identity (Tauriac & Liem, 2012).
Socioeconomic status (SES) is a composite metric that considers a number of variables,
including wealth, social ties, income, employment, and education. It measures a person's or a

23
group's social standing based on their financial resources, standing in society, and level of
education (American Psychological Association, 2015a).
Conclusion
The findings of this study will provide important insight into the pressing problem of
low, Black female student retention and graduation rates at select HBCUs. The study will use a
qualitative case study method to dive into the relationship between staying in school and
graduating versus leaving school prior to graduation.
This study will explore the financial limitations, insufficient academic assistance,
restricted access to resources, and racial prejudice as just a few of the issues that influence the
retention and graduation rates of Black female students in HBCUs.
This study will add to the current literature on Black female students' persistence,
graduation, and social mobility at HBCUs. Findings may offer useful insights that can guide
educational policies, institutional practices, and future research endeavors aimed at promoting
the success and social mobility of Black female students in higher education by examining the
issue through the lenses of Yosso's Cultural Community Wealth Framework, Critical Race
Theory, and Ladson-Billings Culturally Relevant Teaching Pedagogy.

24
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Black Americans have a rich and diversified history, with figures such as Martin Luther
King Jr., Malcolm X, Shirley Chisholm, Fannie Lou Hamer, and Barack Obama influencing the
development of the nation, and particularly education. Education has long been regarded as a
pillar of African American advancement, with luminaries such as Booker T. Washington, W.E.B.
Du Bois, and Angela Davis highlighting its value in helping communities achieve civil rights and
equality. Despite systemic barriers and discrimination, African American communities have
prioritized education as a means of achieving success and breaking down barriers, as well as a
pathway to social and economic mobility.
Among the renowned educators of our time, figures such as W. E. Du Bois and Booker T.
Washington stand out, recognized for their visionary understanding of the necessity to bridge
cultural empowerment, economic development, and social mobility within the African American
community. Their legacies do not serve as historical relics, but rather, as the backbone for the
current and future leadership of HBCUs. Current leaders of these institutions, who steadfastly
uphold their heritage and retain the principles instilled by Du Bois and Washington, are poised to
navigate the challenges of this century and beyond. These leaders and the HBCUs they guide are
testaments to the enduring power of these educators' visions, proving that true progress thrives
where cultural wealth, history, economic growth, and social advancement intertwine.
In much of the published literature (McGill, 1965; The Thurgood Marshall Foundation,
2021), it appeared that Dubois and Washington were diametrically opposed in their thinking with
regard to the role of educating Black people; however, according to Dubois, the differences were
more among their supporters than the two leaders themselves. Both Washington and DuBois
recognized that education was vital for the future of Black people. Moreover, each advocated for

25
Black-controlled higher education institutions. HBCUs were needed to educate students, train
teachers and professionals, generate research, raise up leaders, and build the community wealth
essential for Black progress. Washington opined, “The work of civilization must begin at the
bottom instead of the top […] The great medium for bringing about these changes is the school.”
On the other hand, DuBois asserted, “The college today among Negroes is, just as truly as it was
yesterday among Whites, the beginning and not the end of human training” (Washington & Park,
1912, p. 384).
The following literature review will provide a foundation for exploring the issues
influencing low graduation rates of Black students at HBCUs, along with the history and role of
HBCUs in educating Black Americans. The literature then examines the challenges facing
HBCUs, their students, and potential resources for meeting challenges. It also addresses the
impact of policy, the financial ramifications of systemically racist policies, and resources for
students and institutions. Literature sources include scholarly peer-reviewed journals,
periodicals, books, and dissertations.
Education and Black Social Mobility
The National Center for Education Statistics (2022) shows that African American student
enrollments in higher education have climbed steadily over the past several decades and
increased by 14% between 1976 and 2021. The total number of Black students enrolled in all
degree-granting postsecondary institutions (both HBCUs and non-HBCUs) more than doubled
during this period.
Despite the increase in the number of Black students enrolled in higher education, a
history of bias and segregated education has resulted in lower rates of postsecondary
educational attainment. Lower levels of educational attainment are reflected in relative rates of

26
wealth and poverty in Black communities. For example, in 2020, the employment-topopulation ratio (the percentage of the population that is employed) for 25- to 34-year-olds
was generally higher for those with higher levels of educational attainment (Figure 1). The
employment-to-population ratio for those who had not completed high school was 53%,
compared with 68% for those who had completed high school only, 75% for those with some
college but no bachelor's degree, and 86% for those with a bachelor's or higher degree
(National center for education statistics [NCES], 2020).
Figure 1
Median annual earnings of full-time, year-round workers ages 25-34 by educational attainment:
2020
(National center for education statistics [NCES], 2020)

27
Impacts of Disparities in Educational Achievement
Dubois’ (1935) insights about the unholy trinity of race, education, and social inequality
provide context for the assessment of Black progress in higher education. He predicted an
America where Black educational disadvantage was linked intergenerationally to diminished life
chances and quality of life, writing in his book Black Reconstruction in America, 1860-1880,
“We are deliberately rearing millions of our citizens in ignorance, and at the same time, limiting
the rights of citizenship by educational qualifications” (Allen et al., 2020).
Blacks lag behind Whites in all age groups in percentage of adults with college degrees
(Espinosa et al., 2019), impacting life opportunities and outcomes as well as intergenerational
wealth. College graduates have higher lifetime earnings, and degrees from more prestigious
institutions or in highly competitive fields pay even higher premiums (Allen et al., 2020).
Individuals with college degrees also reap more personal nonmonetary benefits than
those without degrees, including improved health and life expectancy, improved quality of life
for their children and increased time for hobbies and leisure activities (Baum & Payea, 2005).
Furthermore, individuals with degrees are more likely to engage in civic activities than those
without degrees (Bowen, 1977). The economic advantages conferred by a college degree,
though frequently regarded as a personal benefit, also result in broader societal benefits. These
include an increase in tax revenue because of wage increases and a decrease in reliance on public
assistance programs. In addition, higher educational attainment is associated with a variety of
social benefits, such as lower crime and incarceration rates, better health outcomes, increased
volunteerism and political engagement, and greater philanthropic contributions. Consequently,
the implications of the transition toward a more knowledge-based economy extend well beyond
individual benefits of a college degree to include substantial societal benefits (Trostel, 2015).

28
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, (2022), from 2011 to 2021, the percentage of adults age
25 and older with a bachelor’s degree or higher increased. Table 1 shows racial disparities in
educational attainment by race.
Table 1
Percentage of Adults in the United States with College Degrees by Race
YEAR ASIAN BLACK HISPANIC WHITE
2011 50.3% 19.9% 14.1% 34.0%
2021 61.0% 28.1% 20.6% 41.9%
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2022)
Carnevale (2011) noted that racial and gender disparities in lifetime earnings become
larger as the level of educational attainment increases. There is a similar widening in race and
gender gaps in income as educational attainment increases (US Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2015). Figure 2 shows the 2014 ratio of median weekly earnings by Black men, Black women,
and White women ages 25 and over, relative to those of White men in the same age group, by
educational attainment. All groups earn significantly less than White men at every educational
level.

29
Figure 2
Educational Attainment & Earnings Ratio Relative to White Men of US Civilians Aged 25 and
over, by Race and Gender
(U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015)

30
Figure 3
Average Hourly Wages by Race and Education
(Shambaugh et al., 2017)
Researchers at the National Center for Higher Education Management Systems
(NCHEMS) have asserted that, if unchanged, persisting high post-secondary education departure
rates, particularly among racial minority subpopulations, are projected to result in an overall
decline in the average annual income over the next two decades threatening to weaken the
nation’s tax base and economic well-being (Kelly, 2005).
Historically Black Colleges and Universities: The Historical Context
When the “separate but equal” clause in the Constitution ended with the victory of Brown
v Board of Education, the light in the tunnel for Black education began to flicker (Rollins, 1975).
Academic freedom for Blacks, according to Rollins (1975), came from Black colleges and
universities because that was the place that gave them “posture” in the face of segregation. These
colleges gave them safe havens wherein they could co-mingle with other ethnicities and

31
nationalities, such as Indians, Chinese, Vietnamese, Jamaicans, Africans, and Middle Easterners,
without thinking about race (Prince, 2016).
HBCUs are essential for African Americans' higher education. HBCUs in the United
States date back to 1837 and pioneered the concept of today’s Minority Serving Institutions. The
United States has long made education a priority, not only as a means of individual opportunity
but also as a pathway for the economic and social stability of the nation; however, it is essential
to note that not all individuals and groups have had equal access to and opportunities within the
education system in America, and there is still work to be done to address issues of inequity and
inequality (Betsey, 2008).
Black people have historically faced barriers and systemic discrimination that limited
their opportunities and enforced racial separation in the United States, requiring the vast majority
to receive their post-secondary education at HBCUs (Harmon, 2012). Many of these institutions
were established during the mid and late 1800s. The first HBCUs, however, were founded in the
pre–Civil War years. The Institute for Colored Youth (later renamed Cheyney State University)
was founded in Pennsylvania in 1837, followed by the Ashmun Institute (now known as Lincoln
University of Pennsylvania) in 1854, and Wilberforce University in Ohio in 1856. These
institutions, which White philanthropists established, provided religious education, and limited
training in basic skills to African American youth. The educational success of these institutions
was limited during the Civil War years because they were poorly financed, and most Black
people were enslaved during that time (Harmon, 2012).
After the Civil War, more HBCUs were established to provide for the education of the
newly freed enslaved people. Most of these institutions were established in the southern states
under the auspices of the federal Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (more

32
commonly known as the Freedmen’s Bureau), Black churches, and White philanthropies
(Gasman, 2009). The Freedmen’s Bureau helped to establish several colleges, including Howard
University (Washington, D.C.), Atlanta University (now known as Clark Atlanta University in
Atlanta, Georgia), St. Augustine’s University (formerly St. Augustine’s College in North
Carolina), Fisk University (Nashville, Tennessee), and Johnson C. Smith University (Charlotte,
North Carolina), (Redd, 1998). Churches, such as the American Missionary Association, the
Disciples of Christ, and the Methodist Episcopal Church, founded colleges for religious
education and training, including Tougaloo College (Tougaloo, Mississippi), Dillard University
(New Orleans, Louisiana), and Talladega College (Talladega, Alabama). Beginning in the 1830s,
HBCUs opened in border states, first Pennsylvania and then Ohio (Betsey, 2008).
The Role of HBCUs in African American Student Enrollment
HBCUs provide a crucial source of access to higher education for lower socioeconomic
classes. From the late nineteenth century through the mid-twentieth century, HBCUs enrolled
more than 90% of African American postsecondary students educated in this country (Betsey,
2017). From their humble origins through the 1950s and 1960s following the Brown v. Board of
Education desegregation decision, HBCUs served as an access point for African Americans who
sought to achieve political and social mobility through education (Harper, 2007).
A new report from UNCF found that HBCUs had positive impacts on African Americans
in their respective states, despite their small average size and limited resources (UNCF, 2021).
UNCF president and CEO Michael L. Lomax stated: “The impact of HBCUs has been
collectively downplayed, overlooked, and undervalued, and HBCUs Punching Above Their
Weight illustrates what everyone who has graduated from or taught at an HBCU has long known
– that for students in search of higher education and for a country in urgent need of college-

33
educated workers, a country rapidly becoming a majority-minority workforce, there is no better
choice than a HBCU” (UNCF, 2021, p. 2).
The simultaneous positive and negative performance indicators of HBCUs present a
paradox: how can HBCUs impressively advance the social mobility of disadvantaged citizens
and still be regarded as inferior institutions? One potential explanation may lie in the fact that
HBCUs serve a more low-income student population when compared to Predominantly White
Institutions (PWIs) (Nichols et al., 2017). Low-income students may experience a range of
disadvantages in higher education (Richards et al., 2012). HBCU student outcomes might be less
favorable than those of PWIs because of the income inequality experienced by the student
population served rather than the quality of the education (Hardy et al., 2019).
HBCUs exert societal influence through producing notable Black scholars, political
leaders, professionals, and media stars. In addition, Ricard and Brown (2023) maintained that
many view HBCUs as instrumental agents in preserving components of African American ethnic
identity. However, anti-Black racism and White supremacist attitudes minimize or dismiss these
important contributions (Gilbert et al., 2022).
HBCUs function to support academic excellence and upward mobility for Black
Americans through familial and communal settings since their inception (Albritton, 2012;
Bracey, 2017; Gordon et al., 2020; Nixon & Henry, 2012). Despite setbacks and being barred
from education both during and after the enslavement period, African Americans soon embraced
educational opportunities and excelled in research, professionalism, and innovations. Throughout
their history, HBCUs have maintained a positive impact on multiple levels within the individual,
communal, local, national, and global arenas.

34
Based on a report from the U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights (1991),
two HBCUs alone produced more than 80% of all degreed Black professionals in medicine and
dentistry. As of 1991, those two institutions, Howard University and Meharry Medical College,
were still responsible for awarding nearly 20% of all current medical and dental degrees to Black
students (U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, 1991). Moreover, HBCUs were
responsible for educating 75% of "Black persons holding doctorate degrees, and they are the
leading institutional type to award science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)
degrees (U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, 1991).
HBCUs represent just 3% of all higher education institutions in the United States, but
10% of all Black students matriculating through US colleges are enrolled at HBCUs. (Perry &
Barr, 2022). In addition, 17% of all bachelor’s degrees and 24% of all STEM-related bachelor’s
degrees earned by Black students in the United States were from HBCUs (Toldson, 2019).
HBCUs also supply more Black applicants to medical schools than non-HBCU institutions, and
HBCUs have graduated 40% of all Black engineers, 40% of all Black US Congress members,
50% of all Black lawyers, and 80% of all Black judges (Smith, 2021).
Cultural Competency
Although a great deal is known about the role of higher education in economic
development, educators and policy makers know considerably less about the role of higher
education in cultural wealth and empowerment, particularly as it relates to the role that HBCUs
have played and continue to play in empowering Blacks. Even less is discussed or written about
the role of HBCUs in bridging the gap between economic development and cultural
empowerment of Blacks and why this linkage is important (Boland et al., 2019).

35
Cultural empowerment for Blacks means being nurtured and groomed in the traditions
that constitute Black ancestry. In many African traditions, the placenta and umbilical cord, or
nave, are buried in or near one’s village to help ground individuals in their history, culture, and
community life. The educational nurturing of Blacks is analogous to discovering the land where
one’s navel was buried, thereby activating a primordial affinity with one’s roots (Freeman &
Cohen, 2001).
The significance of this cultural grooming is similar to holding the mirror before the
hidden scars of stress and distress emanating from years of deliberate miseducation and working
to reverse the damage. Researchers Berger and Milem (2000) and Cantey et al., (2011) express
the view that the original aim of HBCUs was to cultivate the spirit of self-consciousness and
awareness, primarily among Blacks, who were reeling from Jim Crow and other forms of
segregation. That aim continues to be a central purpose and accomplishment of HBCUs (Allen
et al., 2020). Cultural grooming at HBCUs endeavors to avoid many forms of damaging
miseducation created by segregationists and other White supremacists. The deliberate
miseducation of Blacks started from the time when it was a crime for enslaved people to read in
the United States (Allen & Jewell, 2002; Harrold, 2004), and continues to impact students,
whether they are Black, White, Latino, or Native American.
The U.S. Department of Education (2010) asserted that HBCUs have and should continue
to reverse remaining vestiges of miseducation that made their way into their curricula, through a
carefully selected curriculum and the selection of faculty that can impart meaningful knowledge
to the students. HBCUs will fulfill their missions when they fully endorse Black history as an
ongoing mission of the institutions (Prince, 2016).

36
Professional & Civic Engagement
HBCUs exert an outsized influence, producing notable Black scholars, political leaders,
professionals, and media stars. Several studies reveal that HBCUs have a history of graduating
strong students who go on to change the world (Albritton, 2012). Examples include media mogul
and multi-billionaire, Oprah Winfrey (Tennessee State University), Nobel Prize-winning author,
Toni Morrison (Howard University), Microsoft Corporation Chairman, John W. Thompson
(Florida A&M University), heart surgeon and medical researcher, Dr. Levi Watkins (Tennessee
State University), Vice President of the United States and 2024 Democratic presidential
candidate, Kamala Harris (Howard University), and other notable congresspersons. In the 21st
century, HBCUs fight for financing equity, despite maintaining a high degree of productivity and
worldwide contributions (Smith, 2021).
Safe Environments
According to Rollins (1975), academic freedom for Blacks historically came from
HBCUS because that was the place that gave them “posture” in the face of segregation. These
colleges gave them safe havens wherein they could co-mingle with other ethnicities and
nationalities, such as Indians, Chinese, Vietnamese, Jamaicans, Africans, and Middle Easterners,
without thinking about race (Prince, 2016). A critical and often celebrated aspect of HBCUs is
their ability to provide a safe environment for all students. HBCUs continue to provide a model
for institutions serious about promoting an inclusive campus environment (Startz, 2021).
Challenges Facing HBCUs
Despite the important role they continue to play, many HBCUs struggle with a lack of
investment, dwindling enrollment and, most recently, fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic
(Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2022).

37
Inequitable Funding
HBCUs have been woefully underfunded since their inception (Brady, 2001). The first
HBCUs were private, nonprofit institutions established and funded without state government
support but with the support of wealthy White philanthropic investors and organizations, for the
sole purpose of educating newly freed slaves. Others were developed and maintained due to the
benevolence of Black philanthropists (Smith, 2021). Among this group are Bethune-Cookman
College, Talladega College, and Jackson State University. This generosity allowed many of these
schools to cultivate beautiful campuses, acquire valuable literary collections, and secure
accreditation.
Two federal laws helped establish and finance publicly funded Black colleges. The first,
the National Land-Grant Colleges Act of 1862, or the First Morrill Act, provided land and
federal dollars to the states for the establishment of colleges that would provide higher education
to lower—and middle-income, mostly White—Americans (Redd, 1998).
The first Black public college established with Morrill Act funds was Alcorn Agricultural
& Mechanical College (later renamed Alcorn State University), founded in Mississippi in 1871.
The Second Morrill Act, passed in 1890 required all states that maintained segregated higher
education systems to provide at least one land-grant college for African Americans, with equal
funding to that of the White land-grant college (Allen & Esters, 2018). Under the 1890 Morrill
Act, states received “an annual appropriation of $15,000 which, after 10 years, would grow to
$25,000” (Wennersten, 1991, p. 55). A total of 19 Black colleges were established under this
provision, including Southern University and A&M College (Louisiana), North Carolina
Agricultural & Technical State University, and the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff (Redd,
1998).

38
Even in their attempt to ensure that Blacks received an education, sponsors of the Second
Morrill Act adopted a contradictory stance, which ensured that new land-grant HBCUs would in
no way be on equal footing with their White counterparts, which has had major long-term
consequences. Execution and resource allocation were difficult and unequal. The South's racial
segregation prevented Black students from receiving money. African Americans had separate,
poorer schools compared to Whites, restricting their education (Gasman & Tudico, 2011).
Moreover, the insufficient financial support offered by individual states further hampered
the institutional capacity for long-term financial solvency and the acquisition of physical
resources on par with their predominantly White counterparts (Albritton, 2012). These
institutions' expansions were hampered by financial inequality. African Americans were refused
property or given less attractive sites, making campus and infrastructure expansion difficult. This
caused resource shortages that hampered Black institutions. HBCUs also lacked faculty and staff
development, making it difficult to recruit and retain talented teachers and harming the quality of
education for African American students. Despite the act's funding, segregation and institutional
racism hampered Black students' access to higher education (Gasman, 2009).
In addition, by the 1920s, many early non-governmental benefactors withdrew previously
offered support, leading to the closing of almost 100 HBCUs throughout the country (Harper,
2007). The Great Depression in the 1930s provided yet another formidable obstacle to growth
and development, with diminishing tuition dollars and a dearth of private donor contributions.
Institutions that remained open depended heavily upon the determination of faculty and staff to
creatively cut costs to stay afloat (Harper, 2007). Underfunding of HBCUs continued through
recent decades, with the nation’s 18 Black land-grant institutions losing out on $12.8 billion
since 1987 (Allen et al., 2020).

39
Declining Public and Private Investment in Education
Despite the demonstrated positive economic and social impacts of higher education,
government funding for post-secondary institutions has decreased across the board. Walker and
Goings (2018) reported that, as of 2011, 20 states had planned substantial cuts in postsecondary
education funding for all institutions, in addition to those enacted by 43 states since the
beginning of the 2007 recession.
Overall, government funding has not kept pace with the soaring costs of higher
education, further widening longstanding gaps between HBCUs and PWIs (Minor, 2008).
According to documents provided by the Department of Education to the HBCU Digest (2022)
funding over the last three US Presidential administrations has been cyclical. Throughout the
Barack Obama administration, funding for Historically Black Colleges and Universities
(HBCUs) saw an increase, including $250 million annually through the Title III, Part B program
and an additional $100 million from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. During
President Donald Trump’s administration, there was a $9.2 billion cut to the Department of
Education in 2017, impacting HBCUs. Later in this administration, the FUTURE Act in 2019
provided $85 million annually for HBCUs; however, despite these efforts, the funding remained
below the levels provided during the Obama administration (U.S. Department of Education,
2023). Under President Joseph (Joe) Biden, the American Rescue Plan provided nearly $3.7
billion in relief funding specifically for HBCUs, with additional proposals including $45 billion
for HBCUs and other minority-serving institutions and a $600 million request in the FY 2022
Budget Proposal to support HBCUs directly. For fiscal year 2024, the Administration
requested $20.8 million for the HBCU Capital Financing Program account – $72 million higher
than the fiscal year 2023 appropriation (U. S. Department of Education, 2023).

40
Private investment in HBCUs is also lacking. The vast endowment gulf between HBCUs
and PWIs doubled over the past 20 years (Allen et al., 2020). . Harvard University’s $41 billion
endowment dwarfs the largest HBCU endowment: Howard University’s $693 million
(Rosenberg, 2019; HBCU Money, 2021). In fact, Harvard’s endowment is 20 times the
combined $2.1B in total endowments for all 102 HBCUs (HBCU Money, 2021).
Declining Graduation Rates
One of the most significant student-focused issues facing higher education institutions
today is retaining students and ensuring they graduate in a timely fashion (Dumbrigue et al.,
2002). Among Black students enrolled in four-year public institutions, 45.9% complete their
degrees in six years. This is the lowest rate when compared to other races and ethnicities. African
American men have the lowest completion rate at 40%, while 33% of White Americans aged 25
and older have at least a bachelor’s degree, compared to 19% of Black Americans (Albritton,
2012).
Alarmingly, the six-year graduation rates for HBCUs tend to lag significantly behind the
aggregated average of their peer institutions, making these institutions vulnerable with respect to
their ongoing ability to secure critical funding (Kim, 2007).

41
Declining Share of Black Enrollment in Higher Education
A dramatic shift in the proportion of African Americans enrolled in higher education
occurred after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which opened the door for Black
students to attend formerly all-White institutions. The percentage of bachelor’s and master’s
degrees conferred by HBCUs has decreased over time. For example, HBCUs conferred 35% of
the bachelor’s degrees, and 21% of the master’s degrees that Black students earned in 1976–77,
compared with 13% and 5%, respectively, in 2020–21. Additionally, the percentage of Black
doctoral degree recipients who received their degrees from HBCUs decreased from 14% in
1976–77 to 10% in 2020–21.
Overall enrollment at HBCUs, including non-Black students, has risen over the past
several decades, albeit at a much slower rate than at universities overall (Anderson, 2017). While
the number of African Americans enrolled in college has increased over the last few decades,
going from 10% in 1976 to 12.7% in 2019, African American enrollment at the nation’s
most elite colleges (often toting the biggest price tags) has remained mostly the same. According
to a Pew Research Center analysis of data from the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES, 2016), in the fall 2015, the combined total enrollment of all HBCUs was
293,000, compared with 234,000 in 1980. Figure 4 shows HBCU enrollment from 1980 to 2015
(in thousands).

42
Figure 3
Total Enrollment at Historically Black Universities and Colleges from 1980 – 2015
(Anderson, 2017)

43
Systemic Racism
For decades, assorted critics in academia, government, media, and business have called
the mission of HBCUs into question. Anti-Black racism and White supremacist attitudes
minimize or dismiss the contributions and relevance of HBCUs (Gilbert et al., 2022). They view
HBCUs as anachronistic appendages of a racist past.
Those seeking to close HBCUs fail to recognize their vast potential for the future—not
just for students, but for the country. HBCUs serve as a direct pipeline to the middle class and
must continue to serve this purpose (Boland et al., 2019). “Black Americans have leveraged
unique forms of social capital to work toward closing the persistent gaps in education, health,
and economic mobility; however, these contributions have not been sufficiently recognized or
appreciated in the social capital literature” (Boland et al., 2019).
The Black experience in America chronicles the nation’s history of oppression and
deliberate attempts to defeat the Black community’s efforts to resist, repair, and heal—the very
essence of the Black American Freedom Struggle (Gasman et al., 2017). One of the most
poignant examples of how structural racism has a direct effect in thwarting social mobility
among Black people in ways that have led to intergenerational suffering and poverty is the
decimation of Black Wall Street, where 300 people died after 35 city blocks were burned by a
White mob in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The Greenwood neighborhood was once the beacon for Black
social mobility in the United States (Library of Congress, 1980).
What is the relevance of Black Wall Street in this discussion of Black education and
social mobility? It is one story in a long history of the many ways that systemic oppression
intended to destroy attempts by the Black community to organize and develop strategies to resist
injustice and to thrive. On the 100-year anniversary of the destruction of Black Wall Street, the

44
main culprits of the massacre and destruction of Black businesses have still not been brought to
justice, and Black families have not received any compensation for the damages. Records of this
event have been destroyed intentionally, many Black bodies were buried in mass graves, and the
story of Black Wall Street has not been taught in classrooms locally or nationally, a function that
HBCUs take up in their work to correct miseducation of Blacks (Library of Congress, 1980).
The fact that a major tragedy like this remains unresolved is eloquently summed up by
W.E.B. Du Bois:
The most difficult social problem in the matter of Negro health is the peculiar
attitude of the nation toward the well-being of the race. There have been few other
cases in the history of civilized peoples. . .where human suffering has been
viewed with such peculiar indifference (Gilbert et al. 2022, 173-191).
In addition to questioning the continued relevancy of HBCUs in a falsely labeled “postracial world,” HBCU critics point to undergraduate completion statistics as evidence of these
institutions’ inability to educate students (Boland et al., 2019). Such a critique fails to consider
issues that may contribute to lower graduation rates. Many (though not all) HBCU students come
from low-income backgrounds, and such students tend to grapple with financial problems and
other life stressors that have a negative impact on their academic success. Students with these
characteristics demonstrate similar completion rates at all institutions, not just HBCUs.
Black College Student Experiences
HBCUs are home to a diverse student body, faculty, and staff, representing a wide range
of racial and cultural backgrounds. This exemplifies the value of Black students' relationships
with HBCU academics and campus administrators, and their exposure to culturally centered
curricula (Merisotis & McCarthy, 2005).

45
HBCUs provide a supportive learning environment for all students, especially Black
students. Well-deserved praise is given to the faculty and staff,such as student affairs
professionals, who offer an educational approach that is substantively different from many
Historically White Institutions (HWIs) (Hirt et al., 2006).This educational approach includes
working with students for increased academic achievement, as well as Afrocentric identity
formation and values cultivation (Arroyo et al., 2014).
Often overlooked by HBCU researchers and practitioners is a deep appreciation and
understanding of the complementary role students themselves can play in the holistic educational
process. The focus tends to be on the actions of faculty and staff on behalf of students, with little
acknowledgment of students’ actions on behalf of themselves.That is, little attention is paid to the
valuable work students do to co-create and take sustainable action to maintain their own
supportive HBCU spaces. Due to this lack of understanding, those on the front lines of working
on behalf of HBCU students, such as student affairs professionals, lack established best practices
for working closely with HBCU students as co-equal partners (Gasman et al., 2018).
Student experiences at HBCUs involve the intersection of circumstances and identities,
such as socioeconomic status, social pressures, and being first-generation college students. These
issues present unique challenges that often require consistent forecasting of barriers and intrusive
interventions (Pascarella et al., 2004; Johnson & Winfield, 2022).

46
Challenges Faced by Black Students at HBCUs
Significantly more first-generation college students and students from low-income
families attend HBCUs than traditional colleges or universities (Boland et al., 2019).
Nationwide, 75% of students at HBCUs are Pell Grant recipients and 72% of Black students take
on debt as they seek their degrees, as opposed to 56% of their White peers (The Hunt Institute,
2020).
Lack of Institutional Support
Richardson (2018) stated that programs such as TRIO and GEAR UP have historically
provided the additional support needed for students typically served at HBCUs. However,
despite the success of such programs, many have been eliminated due to a lack of financial
resources, further compounding the problem of low graduation rates.
Enhancing faculty capacity and support and developing improved strategies to ensure
effective student support and retention should be a priority of all higher education presidents and
administrations. Strengthening the capacity of HBCU faculty to teach at both the undergraduate
and graduate levels, facilitating advising and mentoring programs, and conducting a search is
essential to meeting the needs of 21st-century higher education (Hilton & Felder, 2014).
Theoretical Frameworks
The theoretical frameworks chosen for this qualitative study are Yosso’s Community
Cultural Wealth Framework (CCW), Critical Race Theory (CRT) based on Bell (2023),
Crenshaw, Gotanda, Peller, and Thomas (1995), Delgado & Stefanic (1993) and Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) based on Ladson-Billings & Tate (1995). These frameworks address
the interplay of social capital, social mobility, and institutional racism. Social capital has yet to
occupy a prominent role in the debate about the drivers of racial disparities in socioeconomic

47
well-being and mobility. Few studies have examined the role of social capital as a mechanism to
redistribute power from the macro level (e.g., labor markets, housing, institutions of justice) to
the micro-community level (Gilbert et al., 2022).
The Community Cultural Wealth (CCW) framework and Critical Race Theory (CRT)
(which also includes Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) intersection provides a valuable lens
through which to examine and comprehend the experiences of students at Historically Black
Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). CRT explores how racial oppression interacts with other
types of oppression and recognizes that racism is deeply rooted in societal structures and
organizations. The CCW framework, on the other hand, values and acknowledges the cultural
characteristics and contributions that disadvantaged people provide to educational environments.
These frameworks draw attention to the rich cultural legacy, resiliency, and intellectual traditions
that have defined HBCUs when they are applied to those schools (Yosso, 2005).
The historical and modern causes of racial inequality in educational opportunities and
results are analyzed by the critical race theory. It clarifies the historical racism and structural
difficulties that HBCUs and their students have experienced. The intersection of the Community
Cultural Wealth (CCW) framework, Critical Race Theory (CRT), and Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy (CRP) is crucial because it enables a nuanced understanding of students' experiences
at HBCUs. Each of these theoretical frameworks acknowledges the distinct cultural attributes
that minority students bring to the educational setting. By considering this intersection, we can
gain a more inclusive, comprehensive perspective on how students navigate their academic
journeys at HBCUs, recognizing the rich cultural wealth they bring to these institutions, which
often goes unnoticed in more traditional educational settings.

48
The CCW framework, in particular, recognizes that students from marginalized
communities bring an array of valuable cultural resources, or "capital." This capital, including
aspirational, linguistic, familial, social, navigational, and resistant capital, represents a form of
wealth that can be used to negotiate and navigate through educational systems, often designed
without these students in mind. This underscores the importance of HBCUs, which provide an
environment where this wealth is recognized and nurtured, leading to more empowering and
enriching educational experiences for these students.
CRT, on the other hand, draws attention to the systemic injustices and prejudices
embedded within social and educational structures that disproportionately affect students of
color. CRT can help identify and challenge these systems of oppression within higher education,
providing a necessary framework to address racial inequalities. When applied to HBCUs, CRT
can help reveal how these institutions function as both a response to and a bulwark against
systemic racism, emphasizing their unique role in promoting racial equity in education.
Lastly, Culturally Relevant teaching pedagogy emphasizes the importance of educators
recognizing and integrating students' cultural backgrounds into the teaching process. This
approach allows students' experiences and knowledge to be validated and expanded upon in the
classroom. In the context of HBCUs, CRP allows for a more inclusive educational experience in
which students' cultural backgrounds and experiences are not just recognized but also serve as a
foundation for their academic development. Together, these three frameworks underscore the
important role that HBCUs play in supporting the academic success of Black students and other
students of color.
The CCW framework further enhances CRT by emphasizing the many types of cultural
riches found at HBCUs. Included in this are the social networks, cultural capital, and shared and

49
generational knowledge that students bring to the classroom. HBCUs may create a culture that
supports academic performance and whole-person development by appreciating and
acknowledging these cultural strengths (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995).
The relationship between CRT, CCW, and HBCUs is vital because it emphasizes how
critical it is to comprehend and confront the complicated issues that Black students in higher
education experience (Cooper et al., 2017). These frameworks assist in dispelling narratives that
emphasize deficiencies and frequently stigmatize and exclude Black students in favor of
emphasizing their abilities, resiliency, and cultural resources. By accepting these principles,
HBCUs may develop diverse and transformational learning environments that not only provide
their students the capacity to succeed but also confront and eliminate structural racism in society
at large. A potent weapon for advancing social justice, equity, and the emancipation of Black
communities via education is the convergence of CRT and CCW in the setting of HBCUs
(Knight et al., 2012).
There is no denying that we live in a fast-changing world on all levels. How we
communicate, how we travel, how we work, how we define social institutions such as the family,
how we understand health and wellbeing, how we learn – all these have changed dramatically
over recent years and naturally will continue to change going forward. Yet, the way we do
education, particularly schooling and higher education, does not seem to have undergone the
same rapid transformation (Wood, 2019). CCW, CRT and CRP will help to navigate pathways to
transform and update education at HBCUs to adequately prepare students to succeed on campus
and beyond.

50
Conclusion
Historically Black Colleges and Universities have played a significant role in educating
Black students who have become scholars and contributed greatly to the cultural wealth of their
communities and society at large. Despite this, HBCU graduation rates have been a source of
concern. Multiple studies have found that graduation rates at HBCUs are lower than those of
PWIs, particularly for Black students. Understanding the issues that contribute to low graduation
rates for Black students at HBCUs is crucial for increasing their chances of success.
Research indicates that HBCUs generate more Black graduates than PWIs in disciplines
such as engineering, mathematics, and physics. However, low graduation rates limit the capacity
of HBCUs to function as avenues for Black persistence and graduation, limiting students’
employment opportunities and earnings, as well as social standing and engagement. In addition,
low graduation rates can hinder the ability of HBCUs to attract funding and support from
external sources, thereby limiting the resources available to students.
This study seeks to identify issues that influence graduation rates for Black female
students at HBCUs, in order to aid in the development of strategies to increase student
persistence. Studies have shown that Historically Black Colleges and Universities with higher
graduation rates tend to have stronger support systems, such as academic and social support, and
more robust financial aid programs. In addition, increasing graduation rates is crucial to ongoing
funding of HBCUs, as recent trends tie funding to student outcomes. The aim of increasing
Black female graduation rates at HBCUs is to create a more equitable society in which all
members have the opportunity to reach their maximum potential.
Studying what influences persistence and graduation rates for Black female students at
select HBCUs is crucial because it highlights the need for HBCUs to receive more funding.

51
Historically, HBCUs have been neglected and undervalued, and addressing the issue of
graduation rates is only one aspect of the broader need for these institutions to receive more
resources and support.
In conclusion, researching the influence of graduation rates on social mobility for Black
female HBCU students is crucial for enhancing achievement opportunities and addressing racial
inequality-related societal issues. By identifying effective strategies to increase graduation rates,
we can create a more equitable society in which all students can reach their maximum potential.

52
Chapter Three: Methods
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine the influences on persistence
and graduation outcomes of Black female college students who either graduated from or attended
and dropped out after their second year from the following southern HBCUs: Sadie College,
Mossell University, and Alexander University.
The problem of declining graduation rates is related to the more significant issue of
national student success rates at HBCUs. Throughout the nation, Black enrollments in higher
education have reached an all-time high. However, a more critical statistical measure of the
performance of Blacks in higher education is completion rates. According to the most recent
statistics, the 42% college graduation rate for Black students nationwide is appallingly low. The
comparable figure for White students (62%) is a full 20 percentage points higher (Cross et al.,
1999). While the high graduation rates of Black female students at the most elite HBCUs make
them a clear exception, many observers question the continued relevance of many of the nation’s
other HBCUs as effective in enhancing the academic achievements of Black students. If
graduation is a proxy for success, then HBCUs face serious challenges (Davis, 2009).
Considering the problem of declining graduation rates at a specific HBCU within the context of
more significant economic and educational trends will inform reasonable, nuanced, and creative
recommendations for improvement.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2022), the graduation
rates for the cohort of three schools are listed below.
Sadie College’s 4-year graduation in 2020 was 11%, well below the national average for
four-year institutions. However, it is worth noting that this rate has been steadily increasing over

53
the past few years with a 19% - 6-year graduation rate for 2022, indicating that with longer
retention periods the school is making strides in helping more students complete their degrees.
Mossell University's graduation rate was 35% in 2020, which is also below the national
average. However, the school has significantly improved this rate with longer retention periods
2022 rates were 46%, including implementing retention programs and offering academic support
services. Additionally, Mossell University strongly focuses on student success and builds a
foundation for academic and personal success.
Alexander University's graduation rate was 34% in 2020, below the national average.
However, the school has made impressive strides in recent years, increasing its six-year
graduation rate by over ten percentage points to 57% in 2022. They have implemented several
programs to support student success, including the Academic Success Center, which provides
tutoring and other resources to help students excel academically, and the First-Year Experience
program, which aims to help new students acclimate to college life and build strong academic
and personal habits. Figure 5 provides a comparative look at this cohort of three colleges.

54
Figure 4
2016 Enrollment and Graduation Rates for Students at select HBCUs starting in 2016 and
graduating 2020 through 2022
(NCES, 2022)
To guide the collection and analysis of data, this study draws from CRT and CRP
(Ladson‐Billings, 2005) as well as Yosso's CCW Framework (Yosso, 2005). Ultimately, CRT,
CRP and the CCW framework centers on the perspectives and experiences of underrepresented
groups by providing a lens through which to observe the rich and varied cultural resources
present within communities and people.
School Sadie College Mossell
University
Alexander
University
Campus Setting City, Large City: Large City: Large
Retention and graduation Rates
Retention rates for first-time students who began the program in 2021
Full time 92% 71% 74%
Part time 100% 47% 43%
4year schools report retention for first-time bachelor degree-seeking students only.
Graduate rates for full-time, first-time
undergraduates who began the program
in
2016 2016 2016
Percentage of entering students counted
in calculating graduation rate
83% 87% 78%
Overall graduation rate 19% 46% 57%
Transfer out rate 58% 18% 22%
Bachelor's Degree Rate 4-year 11% 35% 34%
Bachelor's Degree Rate 5-year 17% 44% 52%
Bachelor's Degree Rate 6-year 19% 46% 57%

55
Methodology
Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people construct
about their experiences and the world around them (Creswell, 2014). This qualitative study was
informed by the constructivist paradigm, where the underlying assumption is that our reality, or
the meaning we make of our experiences, reflects the social, historical, and/or cultural context in
which they occur (Broido & Manning, 2002; Jones et al., 2014). Broido and Manning (2002)
noted three additional philosophical assumptions that shape the constructivist paradigm: (1) the
researcher-participant relationship is subjective and interactive; (2) the values of the researcher,
participants, the setting, and theory influence all aspects of the research process; and (3)
interpretations of the research are context-specific interpretations of the research findings.
Consequently, these assumptions impacted all methodological decisions, from the selection of
the topic, data collection, and analysis procedures to the reporting of findings.
This study focused on the former Black female students' perceptions of issues that have
influenced their graduation outcomes. I extracted potential meanings from the data through
interactions between the participants and myself. I was interested in understanding the influences
perceived by Black female students’ relationships and interactions within the context of the
HBCU they attended through phenomenological semi-structured interviews (Bhattacharya, 2017;
Jones et al., 2014).
The research questions for this study are:
1. How do Black female students perceive and navigate the unique support
systems within HBCUs that contribute to their persistence and
graduation outcomes?

56
2. What are the socio-cultural academic and personal experiences and
challenges faced by Black female students attending HBCUs and how
do these influence their decision to persist and successfully graduate
from these institutions?
The research case study was designated as inductive because I gathered data by
conducting screening surveys and interviews to identify themes and/or hypotheses (Merriam,
2014).
In addition, I identified and documented my biases because it was crucial in conducting
qualitative case studies to ensure the integrity and validity of the research findings. Documenting
my reflections and biases also allowed me to maintain transparency, enhance credibility, engage
in reflexivity, ensure methodological rigor, and facilitate reflexive analysis. By doing so, I
mitigated the influence of biases and produced more robust research outcomes (Creswell &
Creswell, 2020).
The CRT, CRP, and CCW frameworks support the findings to emphasize the positive
attributes of the community or individual in the study. CRT provided an important analysis of the
historical and contemporary issues that have contributed to the racial disparities in educational
opportunities and outcomes. It helped shed light on the systemic barriers and racism that HBCUs
and their students have faced throughout history. Moreover, the CCW framework complemented
CRT by highlighting the various forms of cultural wealth that existed within HBCUs. My
fascination was with investigating the valuable assets inherent in HBCUs and the students who
flourished as part of my exploration of the CCW proposed by Yosso (2005).
By exploring the narratives, experiences, and perspectives of Black female HBCU
students, I cast a light on the distinctive ways in which their cultural wealth is cultivated,

57
harnessed, and utilized as a catalyst for success, resiliency, and transformative educational
journeys. While a plethora of theories, best practices, and other lessons were learned regarding
Black female student persistence and graduation at these select HBCUs, specifically, this
additional research increased the robustness of the existing data, including a more in-depth
understanding of the assumed needs (Prince, 2016).
Organization Overview
My goal was to study the issues related to the influence of persistence and graduation
rates of Black female students. To conduct a comprehensive study, data was collected from a
diverse pool of participants who graduated or did not graduate from the following: Sadie
College, Mossell University, and Alexander University who began their college journey between
2014 and 2016 and left the university during the time period from 2020 to 2022. I included both
graduate and non-graduate participants and examined the various issues that contributed to the
differential outcomes among Black female students in higher education. (See Appendix B).
This approach allowed for a comparative analysis of the issues that contribute to Black
female persistence and graduation rates. By studying the experiences of both graduates and nongraduates, I identified potential barriers, challenges, and support systems that affected Black
female students' academic journeys. The data collected provided valuable insights into the
multifaceted issues that influenced the persistence and graduation rates of Black female students
at these selected HBCUs. I explored various aspects, including academic support systems,
financial aid availability, campus resources, mentoring programs, and extracurricular
involvement.

58
By analyzing this data, specific patterns and trends emerged that shed light on the unique
challenges faced by Black female students. As a result, this study proposes targeted
interventions to enhance their success and improve graduation rates at these select HBCUs.
Population and Sample
I intentionally selected the population sample that was essential to conduct a thorough
investigation of issues that influence graduation rates of Black female students at select HBCUs.
While attempting to understand phenomena occurring in a particular community, purposeful
sampling was performed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Purposeful sampling is a non-probability,
deliberate, and strategic method for selecting participants. It involved selecting participants
based on a specific purpose and set of criteria, as opposed to selecting them at random (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2015). Additionally, snowball sampling was utilized to expand the sample size by
encouraging participants to suggest their acquaintances. I conducted 15 interviews. This sample
size was manageable for data collection and analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
I utilized a screening survey tool to gather specific standardized information, including
demographic details (age, gender, ethnicity), educational background, and relevant prior
experience, which will aid in participant selection for the study.
To comprehensively examine the issues impacting the persistence and graduation
outcomes of Black college students at HBCUs, I conducted interviews with HBCU students who
successfully graduated and those who attended for a minimum of two years but did not graduate.
By gathering insights from both, I gained a deeper understanding of the issues that contribute to
persistence and graduation among Black female college students at select HBCUs. I specifically
focused on individuals who self-identified as African, Black, or African American females
between 18 and 27 years of age and completed at least two academic years of college at the

59
selected HBCUs. By conducting interviews, I obtained comprehensive and detailed data to
comprehend the relationship issues that exist between those who persisted and graduated and
those who did not graduate.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Information about the study was posted publicly via social media (e.g., Facebook and
Twitter) and emailed to key informants (e.g., HBCU alumni, Jack and Jill of America, Inc., Delta
Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc., Divine Nine Greek organizations and Save a Girl, Save a World). I
interviewed 10 graduates and five non-graduates. I focused on contacting female participants in
the identified age range. I asked those I contacted to share information about the study within
their networks. These snowball sampling strategies were utilized to recruit additional participants
affiliated with various HBCUs and continued until data saturation was reached (Bhattacharya,
2017).
In order to encourage participants to “tell their story” with as much detail as possible,
emphasis was focused on obtaining narratives of participants’ experiences through the
phenomenological interview approach (Grbich, 2013). Each interview averaged approximately
45 minutes to one hour. Interviewees were asked to share stories about memorable collegiate
experiences, relationships with peers and campus staff, professional aspirations, and transitions
to careers/graduate education. Consistent with the phenomenological interview approach, as
participants responded to questions in the preconstructed protocol, they were asked probes to
provide more context or offer clarification about their experiences (Jones et al., 2014). All 15 of
the interviews were conducted over Zoom and Otter AI was used to record the conversations and
provide transcripts.

60
Data Collection Instruments
Data collection was an important step in qualitative research that necessitated meticulous
planning and execution to ensure the validity and reliability of the data collected. To ensure
credibility. I acquired data using in-depth interviews.
Screening Surveys
Screening surveys were used to gather standardized data and assess participant fit
quickly. These surveys were not used for systematic data analysis but as screening and
descriptive material to select participants for the study. The survey was delivered online through
the USC evaluation system, Qualtrics. Some questions were structured with a Likert scale
format, and others asked nominal and demographic questions. Data from screening surveys
helped to select the 15 participants for the study.
Interviews
To gain a deeper understanding of the participants' experiences, perspectives, and
attitudes toward the investigated phenomenon, I conducted in-depth interviews with them. The
interviews were approximately 45 minutes to one hour. The goal of these interviews was to
collect detailed information on how former HBCU Black female students feel about issues that
influenced their graduation status at the selected HBCUs. The structure of my interviews was
designed to travel along a spectrum. My interviews employed a semi-structured interview
technique that allowed me to utilize a guide with a variety of different types of questions, some
of which were more structured than others.
The foundation of the protocol was the CCW framework, which evaluated community
cultural wealth in various communities. The community cultural wealth framework encompasses
aspirational, family, linguistic, navigational, social, and resistance capital as its primary themes.

61
By utilizing this framework, I posed questions that delved into the graduates' access to and
utilization of different forms of capital in their persistence and graduation outcomes. I embraced
improvisation during these interviews, as it allowed for the incorporation of CRT lenses and
enabled counter-storytelling, thereby providing additional insights into their perspectives. The
interviews were semi-structured, and the queries were open-ended, so participants freely
expressed their opinions. In addition, I used inquiry techniques to elucidate the participants’
responses and encouraged them to elaborate on their experiences and perspectives.
Below are examples of questions that were asked to participants, divided into two sets
based on whether they have graduated or not. These questions explored the cultural wealth
present in their communities. Cultural wealth refers to the diverse and valuable aspects that
distinguish each culture and add to the overall fabric of communities. The following questions
are specifically for students who have graduated:
1. Community Cultural Wealth: Looking back on your time at [HBCU], how do you believe
the institution's support and resources contributed to your academic outcomes and
progress toward graduation?
2. Critical Race Theory: Were there any specific programs or initiatives at your HBCU that
you found particularly impactful in terms of supporting your academic journey and
helping you achieve your goals?
3. Critical Race Theory: How did the overall environment and cultural context of your
HBCU influence your academic journey and shape your understanding of race and social
issues?

62
Each question was developed using the CCW, CRT and CRP frameworks, and I took
extra care to ensure that I asked them in a way that would allow me to get the information I
needed from as many people as possible (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
My interviews were structured around a specific set of questions and topics. These
questions were open-ended, which allowed me to get more highly organized information, like
social and demographic data; it was important to cultivate a setting that was both conversational
and had some flexibility in the structure that ensured I obtained the information needed for the
study (Maxwell, 2013). This method was ideal for gathering information about how participants
felt, their perceptions about issues that have influenced their graduation outcomes, and how their
own educational background influenced their chances of success in the workforce and in life.
I conducted 15 interviews (10 graduates and five non-graduates) in total. Each participant
had one interview, and the tone of the interviews was professional and relaxed. The participants
were very open and shared a range of experiences. All interviews were conducted in English.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was a key phase of qualitative research that necessitated meticulous
preparation. I coded, categorized, and interpreted the data using a systematic approach to data
analysis. Open coding was used to identify and classify themes and patterns that emerged from
the data. This helped me identify the most important issues and themes pertinent to the research
query. Using the research literature on Black students' persistence and graduation outcomes, I
developed an initial listing of issues and themes that influence persistence and graduation.
I categorized the identified themes and patterns by coding the conceptual framework
using the investigated phenomenon. It helped me identify the relationships between the themes
and patterns and gain a deeper comprehension of the investigated phenomenon. I interpreted the

63
findings to ensure that they faithfully reflected the perspectives and experiences of the
participants.
For interviews, data analysis began during data collection. I wrote analytic memos after
each interview and observation, documenting my thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions
about the data in relation to my conceptual framework and research questions. The interviews
were transcribed using artificial intelligence software, Otter AI.
Upon completion of all the interviews, I used Otter AI for final coding and analysis. In
the first phase of analysis, I used open coding, looking for empirical codes and applying priori
codes from the conceptual framework. The second phase of analysis was conducted, where
empirical and prior codes were aggregated into analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data
analysis, I identified pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the conceptual
framework and study questions.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
It was important to ensure the credibility and veracity of the research case study. Scholars
have suggested that it is essential to preserve the research integrity and the researcher's reputation
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In this regard, several strategies were implemented to increase/maintain
credibility and dependability. The methods employed during the study’s design, data acquisition,
and data analysis phases.
Triangulation was one of the most frequently employed strategies used for ensuring the
credibility and reliability of qualitative research. I used a process of collecting data from multiple
sources or methods to enhance the validity and reliability of research findings (Denzin, 1970). I
also used member checking as another method for assuring the credibility and reliability of my
qualitative research. I contacted study participants to confirm the accuracy of the collected data

64
and solicit their input on the interpretation of the data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Member
checking increased the validity of the collected data and ensured that the results accurately
reflected the experiences of the participants.
Reflexivity was an additional strategy to ensure my qualitative research's credibility and
reliability. Reflecting on my role in the research process, including my prejudices, assumptions,
and preconceptions, constitutes reflexivity (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). I acknowledged my
biases and was transparent about my positionality so that the validity and reliability of the
collected data increased. Reflexivity aided in addressing subjectivity concerns in the research
process.
I used quotes from the actual interviews, screening surveys with descriptive information,
and analytical memos that I drafted to discover cross-cutting themes from all of the interviews in
order to cross-check the collected information to ensure its consistency and accuracy.
Validity and Reliability
While conducting qualitative research with a small sample size, I used a well-defined
sampling strategy and recruited participants according to criteria that were directly related to the
subject at hand, as I described above. Member checks, in which participants are given a chance
to assess the results and provide input, are another important component that I incorporated to
ensure a high-quality study. I also used peer debriefing with peers in the educational sector, both
PWI and HBCUs, to discuss my findings, themes, and data collection methods to ensure the
accuracy, credibility, and validity of my qualitative research. This helped to identify any biases,
assumptions, or potential issues in my research and provided an external perspective to enhance
the overall rigor of the study.

65
I used a methodical and organized approach to gather information and developed a script
to ensure that each respondent was given consistent information. This helped guarantee more
accurate and trustworthy results and ensured that the information gathered was pertinent to the
study's objectives.
Ethics
As a Black woman and a child of the Civil Rights movement, I acknowledge the
historical exploitation of people of color, especially the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in
the Black Male (Wimberly, 2012), which has contributed to Black Americans' ongoing mistrust
of medical care. I also acknowledge the significance of transparency, honesty, and consistency in
establishing trust with individuals who have consented to take part in their research study on
boosting retention and graduation rates at HBCUs. I planned to form an advisory committee
comprised of reputable leaders; however, this did not happen. A small group of peers and
confidants in higher education provided me with support through this process.
I recognized the need to address the trauma and peripheral trauma experienced by people
of color as a result of racially or ethnically targeted events such as mass incarceration, police
brutality, immigration actions, and medical exploitation. The objective of my research on
increasing retention and graduation rates for Black females at HBCUs was to demonstrate the
significance of these institutions and the cultural wealth that they provide in communities by
educating Black students. This study contributes to an expanding body of research aimed at
developing a strategic playbook to effectively address and enhance persistency and graduation
rates at HBCUs, ultimately helping Black female students overcome challenges and succeed
academically.

66
Recognizing the historical exploitation of people of color and the need to develop trust
through transparency, honesty, and consistency, I took the responsibilities regarding human
participants in my research extremely seriously. I utilized respect for persons, beneficence, and
Justice, which are enumerated in the Belmont Report, to ensure that the research study adhered
to these standards. In addition, reflections from Rubin and Rubin (2012) emphasized my moral
and ethical obligation to safeguard the participants' data and confidentiality.
I used a recruitment strategy suggested by Mustaffa (2021) to call for advocates to
highlight what college campuses can do to center their students’ human needs. I have no formal
relationships or conflicts of interest with any of the Black female participants who participated in
the study. My potential interest was that I could demonstrate the importance that HBCUs play in
improving persistence and develop a strategic playbook to support those institutions that may be
struggling to maximize their graduation rates.
None of the participants in my investigation were in a subordinate role, and they all were
informed of their voluntary participation. They deposited a part of themselves, an image of who
they are, into my safekeeping, and in doing so, they may end up feeling vulnerable. I, in turn, had
a moral and ethical obligation to protect what they have shared. To mitigate this, I showed
empathy and exposed a bit of myself in turn (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
I have ensured the confidentiality of their data. I informed them that I deleted the scripts
on the Internet and maintained them in a file that was password-protected so that each of them
felt comfortable sharing. I also let them select their own pseudonym so that they were confident
that their identity would be protected using specific protocols as recommended by the IRB and
Belmont Report.

67
Role of Researcher
My topic of interest is how to improve persistence and graduation rates for Black females
at select HBCUs. This topic evolved, and the research regarding ethics has me pondering some
possible tweaks and adjustments to my topic. Currently, I am involved in several initiatives
throughout 13 southern states, and this has allowed me to build a network in communities where
HBCUs exist. I was keenly aware of the connections between myself and the participants and
was careful that I did not let this unduly influence my interpretations. This is called “Backyard
research” (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, p. 194), by studying HBCUs that I may be familiar with
through other work environments.
As reflected upon earlier, as a researcher, I was slightly vulnerable to the effect of my
own biases and assumptions. I worked with peers and confirmed several times with a few of the
participants to ensure that these biases and preconceptions did not influence the study's
credibility, trustworthiness, reliability, and validity. Extra steps, such as consulting with each of
my dissertation committee members and professors, were taken to recognize and address them to
control subjectivity and ensure the quality of the research.
Confirmation bias is a form of prejudice or preconception that researchers may exhibit. It
involves a tendency for individuals to actively seek, analyze, and remember information that
aligns with their existing beliefs or hypotheses while disregarding or minimizing data that
contradicts them. In my research, I consciously sought supporting evidence for my assumptions
and study questions while disregarding contradictory evidence. As stated above, I used methods
to mitigate my own subjectivity by employing systematic and rigorous approaches to data
collection, analysis, and interpretation. Evident throughout this process, I adopted the practices

68
of triangulation, member checking, and reflexivity to ensure a more objective and comprehensive
study (Maxwell, 2013).
As I indicated earlier, as a child of the Civil Rights Movement, I remembered to proceed
with caution in my role as a researcher. It was important to recognize that I could be influenced
by my own cultural biases and assumptions. The term "cultural bias" describes the human
propensity to ignore the richness and complexity of other cultures in favor of their own when
interpreting and evaluating occurrences. Lastly, proceeding with caution, having probing
discussions, and sharing my interpretations with other peer researchers helped to reduce any
possible presumptions or connections between the variables being studied without validation.
Conclusion
Careful planning and execution were essential throughout the research process to ensure
the credibility and trustworthiness of a qualitative case study. I employed purposeful sampling,
multiple data collection methods, and a systematic approach to data analysis to accurately
represent the participants' perspectives and experiences. Additionally, member checking was
utilized to validate the findings with the participants and ensured the accuracy of my
interpretations.
In general, participants were able to ask questions of me or the point of contact of the
referring organization if they had questions after the fact. The data has been saved on a
password-protected computer that is not connected to the HBCU, referring organization, or the
University of Southern California (USC). The data will be erased two years after the dissertation
has been published.

69
By analyzing these issues, I collaborated with academics to discuss and formulated an
implementation and evaluation plan that has the potential to increase the likelihood of
persistence and improved graduation rates at HBCUs.

70
Chapter Four: Findings
This qualitative case study focused on the asset-based insights into the community
cultural wealth framework that influences the successful retention and matriculation of select
Black female students who were at one time enrolled at HBCUs that offer bachelors’ degrees.
This study utilized purposeful and snowball sampling to interview 15 former Black female
HBCU students and graduates from three HBCUs in the South. The data was analyzed for
thematic content emphasizing the strategies participants used to navigate their educational
journey and their challenges.
The interviews of 15 Black female students and graduates, each with an individual
trajectory, provide a specific perspective on the intersection of race, cultural wealth, and
education. The study explores how unique cultural and racial identities impacted their
educational experiences and journeys.
This study addressed two key research questions:
1. What socio-cultural academic and personal experiences and challenges do
Black female students face when attending HBCUs, and how do these
influence their decision to persist and successfully graduate from these
institutions?
2. How do Black female students perceive and navigate the unique support
systems within HBCUs that contribute to their persistence and graduation
outcomes?
Overview of Participants
The participants are Black female students who either graduated from or dropped out
after their second year at one of three HBCUs located in the South.

71
Table 2:
Introduction of Participants
Participant
(Pseudonym)
College Years Attended Graduate
Jackie Sadie College 4 Yes
Nicole Sadie College 4 Yes
Tiffany Sadie College 4 Yes
Renee Sadie College 4 Yes
LaLa Sadie College 6 Yes
Jane Mossell University 4 Yes
Sarah Mossell University 5 Yes
Lila Mossell University 4 Yes
Angel Mossell University 5 Yes
Blue Mossell University 2 No
Lori Alexander University 3 No
Brandy Alexander University 2 No
Lenora Alexander University 2 No
Shirley Alexander University 5 No
Linda Alexander University 6 Yes
Findings
This qualitative case study reports the findings and delineates the thematic insights
derived from participant interviews. Five central themes emerged in this study: a) Sense of

72
Belonging at HBCUs, b) Mentorship and Faculty Relationships, c) Need for Improved Financial
Aid and Academic Support Systems, d) Mental and Physical Health Support Services and e)
Culturally Relevant Teaching.
Research Question 1: What socio-cultural academic and personal experiences and
challenges do Black female students face when attending HBCUs, and how do these
influence their decision to persist and successfully graduate from these institutions?
Finding 1: Sense of Belonging at HBCUs
This study found that HBCUs were necessary in creating an environment that fosters a
sense of belonging for interviewed Black females. The faculty and staff employed culturally
accepting educational techniques and strong community networks to boost intellectual and
personal growth. These environments challenged the prevalent racial narratives in higher
education. They offered a space where they could be instrumental in the participant's academic
and personal success, allowing them to capitalize on their cultural assets to achieve academic and
personal success in this study. Jane shared, “Mossell University gave me the skills and
knowledge and growth in perspective that I would need to actually thrive in society with other
Black women." Lori also stated, “I felt a strong sense of belonging and inclusivity at Mossell
University, with both professors and peers showing genuine interest in my well-being. They
really cared about me, and it felt like family.”
Participants expressed their comfort and sense of belonging at HBCUs. For example,
Nicole shared, "It was really comfortable because it's like we were all experiencing the same
thing and going through the same stuff at the same time." Tiffany added, "Going to Sadie
College, I was finally a majority... My classmates looked like me, and most of my teachers
looked like me. And everybody wanted to see you succeed and get to know you." Another

73
participant, Jackie, stated, "What you find is, your family, it is kind of like, we all have our own
stuff going on back at home...the family has to sacrifice these four years for me." As participants
shared their feelings of family and belonging, Lila offered an additional perspective:
As a new faculty member, it's my duty to make sure other young women have this
instilled in them so they don't have to figure it out alone. I want them to understand that
they are here because they belong here. Also, we care about what happens to them; they
are now part of our family.
These statements underscore the empowerment through community cultural wealth and
the nurturing of social and familial capital within HBCUs and creating a sense of belonging.
These findings suggest that a sense of belonging is linked to the increased persistence,
engagement, and achievement of two-thirds of the participants. Two-thirds of the participants
described the spirit of camaraderie and inclusion at their HBCUs. The participants described a
loving and supportive environment, enhanced by strong alumni networks, as a solid basis for
developing a deep sense of belonging. Renee expressed the impact of the HBCU community by
stating, "The alumni network is incredibly influential... it almost instantly ensures success in
whatever goal you set out to achieve." Jane reflected, “It felt like family. I went to an all-White
high school, which was a departure from all my high school experiences.”
Ten participants also shared that this sense of belonging was tied to a direct connection
that led to their higher levels of persistence, engagement, and academic success. Their narratives
described a bond and assistance they encountered and emphasized a sense of belonging and
encouragement. “The faculty and staff really pushed me to excel," Jackie reflected. "The tapestry
is woven with threads of resilience, community, and relentless pursuit of excellence. At Sadie

74
College, they ingrained in us that we are on a collective journey and with our own individual
agency as Black female students.”
Participants like Nicole highlighted the importance of building strong, supportive
relationships on campus: "I made it my mission to have relationships on campus. My proactive
engagement with faculty, staff, and peers was pivotal for my academic and personal growth. It
transformed my college experience.” Participants like Tiffany and Lila exemplified personal
agency through active involvement in student government and sorority life. Their stories reflect
the agency of Black students navigating higher education and using counter-narratives as tools to
challenge dominant narratives. Tiffany shared, "I made it my mission to have relationships on
campus," capturing her proactive approach to building a supportive community. Lila added:
Being a part of all of these organizations changed my campus life... It helped me get
around people with similar values, characteristics, you know, similar principles. In my
opinion, this is what makes an HBCU beautiful. It is the interpersonal relationships that
exist within those schools. It's not just a transaction, and it's not just a business.
Ten of the participants described their experiences at institutions like Mossell University
and Sadie College, which illustrated how HBCUs provide a supportive cultural environment that
values and promotes students' success, fostering a sense of community and belonging essential
for retention and eventual graduation.
All of the participants stated that there was extensive outreach prior to enrolling at their
respective HBCUs. One-third of the participants expressed concern that once you reached
campus, you could get lost and blend into the background if you were an introvert and did not
seek out these relationships. Lila shared, “I am now a staff member on campus, and my
reflection and experience is that we do a great job of bringing Black females to our school;

75
however, we have to do a better job of helping them to complete their academic journey and
graduate.” Blue shared:
I was so excited about attending Alexander University. They hyped me up and talked
about all the wonderful experiences I would have once I enrolled. I am an introvert, and
so I had difficulty making friends and connections. I felt like I was all alone. No one
reached out to check on me. Ultimately, I struggled with some classes and financial aid. I
decided to focus on work. I eventually dropped out.
The four participants who did not graduate shared similar stories of feeling disconnected once
they were enrolled and on campus.
These findings suggest that the nurturing environment that HBCUs provide can foster
rich cultural diversity, encourage black female students to succeed, and promote a sense of
belonging crucial for student success and resilience. It's important to acknowledge that some
participants struggled and did not find the same nurturing environment, which impacted their
educational outcomes.
Finding 2: Mentorship and Faculty Relationships
The data from this study suggests that the impact of mentorship and healthy interactions
between faculty and students may be related to the educational experience and journey.
Mentorship inside HBCUs, particularly from Black teachers and alumni, offers a counternarrative that is empowering to the frequently negative ideas that society has about Black
women. Mentorship, particularly by Black female mentors, was highlighted as a transformative
aspect of 10 participants' HBCU experience. It provided these students with a model for
guidance, inspiration, and practical advice, contributing significantly to their academic and
personal development. The findings suggest that this mentorship, often grounded in CRP, reflects

76
the broader pedagogical frameworks that advocate for teaching practices aligned with the
participants' cultural backgrounds, further emphasizing the role of mentorship in navigating
academic and personal challenges.
Students said they felt mentorship was instrumental in guiding them through their
academic journeys, offering inspiration and practical advice. The findings also suggested that
mentoring can play a vital role in promoting academic and professional progress. Sarah
expressed the enduring influence of these connections, stating, “The connections I have
established here are not temporary; they are lifelong, revealing opportunities that were
previously unknown to me." The advantages of these robust social networks are apparent in
participants' accounts, emphasizing the contribution of HBCUs in facilitating access to
internships, employment, and mentorship prospects that result in improved career prospects and
professional contentment. Lala shared, "What makes our HBCU beautiful is the interpersonal
relationships that exist within our school. It's not just a transaction; it's not just a business. My
mentor was supportive and challenging at the same time. She saw something in me that I had
not actually realized in myself." Linda also shared:
Every Black person is not the same. Having a mentor helped me set myself apart from
that knowledge and also encouraged and taught me how to be more personable. This was
important. I think many people don't understand the value of mentors, particularly as you
enter college.
Jackie stated, "Having the assistance and mentorship of one of my faculty...was very
instrumental for me." Jane stated:
They provided a very nuanced understanding of my journey. They provided me with a
structured approach to succeeding in my major. They helped me locate internships,

77
cultivated relationships with potential employers, and shaped my thinking about what
success looked like for Black females in the STEM field.
The findings highlight the aspects of mentorship and positive faculty-student
relationships. The acknowledgment and significance of this type of cultural resource within the
HBCU setting promoted a feeling of involvement and inclusion of most participants, resulting in
noteworthy enhancements in their academic achievement. Ten of the participants shared that
mentorship played a crucial role in student success, as characterized by the experiences of
students like Renee at Sadie College. Renee stated:
Throughout my academic journey, I received invaluable support and guidance from Dr.
Black and Dr. Barnett, which was instrumental in helping me figure out the complicated
system of switching majors so that I could ultimately complete my degree. Their
mentorship extended beyond academic support; they provided me with practical
assistance in finding the right contacts and completing the necessary paperwork for
certification while ensuring a smooth transition during my academic transition from
school to work.
According to Jackie, a STEM student, her professors' recognition and direct involvement
made her feel empowered and appreciated. She stated, “Their support motivated me and three
fellow students, not in this case study but in my major, to strive for and complete our STEM
degrees.” Participants like Tiffany and Lori also mentioned the significant impact of supportive
faculty and mentors, which resonate with culturally responsive teaching practices and the
broader aspirations of community cultural wealth. Angel shared:
I was so happy I stayed, but that thought [of transferring] to a larger majority-White
university came through my mind. I was internally conflicted about whether this was the

78
right fit for me. My mentor helped me develop resilience and the ability to deal with the
ambiguity and lack of clarity we often face as we try to figure out educational spaces that
may not always meet our expectations or needs.
Several of the participants shared their experiences and the importance of using their
cultural knowledge and insights to navigate academic environments. The participants described
changing possible problems into chances for growth as a crucial factor that shaped their
academic achievement. Jackie shared:
A lot of people struggle and when they realize that this is not an extension of high school,
we have to use what we learned from our experiences and seek advice from mentors and
older students in our major. We are exposed to a lot of hard things, and being able to rely
on my major sisters was extremely important to my success in school.
This adaptive method coincides with culturally relevant pedagogical practices that
incorporate a variety of cultural backgrounds into the learning process. It also provides a unique
viewpoint on overcoming educational obstacles, which supports the concepts of critical race
theory. The findings suggest that there is an influence in the sense of community and belonging
and the importance of supportive professors, mentors, and community, highlighting the tenets of
aspirational, navigational, and social capital and the pivotal role played in the majority of the
participants' success.

79
Research Question 2: How do Black female students perceive and navigate the unique
support systems within HBCUs that contribute to their persistence and graduation
outcomes?
Finding 1: Need for Improved Financial Aid and Academic Support Systems
All of the study participants discussed substantial financial aid challenges rooted in their
limited economic resources, severely affecting their college preparation. Participants pointed out
significant issues such as poor administrative practices, lack of understanding of the terms and
conditions associated with financial aid, and financial aid staffing and responsiveness. Three
students specifically discussed their lack of financial literacy, which made it difficult for them to
understand the terms and conditions associated with financial aid. Five of the students shared
that this combination of insufficient funding and systemic administrative failures hindered their
educational pursuits and posed long-term impediments to their overall persistence in college.
Linda stated, “Because of financial mismanagement at my college, I had to attend another
university if I wanted my parents to support and pay for my education.”
Understanding Financial Aid. Understanding the terms and conditions associated with
financial aid is crucial for students to ensure they meet the requirements for receiving and
maintaining their aid. These conditions typically outline eligibility criteria, repayment
obligations, and academic performance standards that must be adhered to in order to continue
receiving financial support. By comprehending these terms, students can effectively manage their
financial aid and avoid potential issues such as loss of funding or repayment penalties. Shirley
shared her experience with financial aid at Alexander University:
I was clearly confused about my scholarship and exactly what it provided. What I thought
was a full ride was only for tuition. Immediately, I was faced with an unexpected

80
financial burden. Once I got a clear understanding, I could plan. But it really was
unsettling as I started my college journey. The financial aid staff was very abrupt, telling
me to go back and review my paperwork. My mother and I reread and reviewed the
original paperwork, clearly stating a full ride. However, this term meant something
different to my financial aid office.
The lack of clarity around financial aid and scholarships, coupled with the burdens of
debt, directly impacted five of the participants ' ability to persist and graduate. Linda reflected on
her personal experience, stating, “My parents were increasingly alarmed at the reports of
financial mismanagement at my school. There was a problem with financial aid and the amount
of money I needed to register every semester.” Several other students shared that there was an
issue that needed to be resolved with financial aid every semester.
Financial Aid Staffing and Responsiveness. Financial aid challenges also impacted
other participants in this study. Every person interviewed experienced a financial aid encounter
that was overwhelming to them. One participant, Jackie, touched on the broader issues of
educational equity and access, from the financial burdens African American families face to the
systemic challenges within HBCUs. She highlighted the necessity of both determination and
elevated self-esteem to deal with these issues. She shared, “I had to call and email the financial
aid office consistently. One time, I sat for two days in a row until they helped me with my
problem.” Jackie shared additional thoughts that pointed to a notable disjunction:
Upon arrival on campus, we are abruptly treated as autonomous adults, expected to
comprehend and manage intricate financial aid documentation. Yet clearly, we don’t even
know what questions to ask and are expected to interpret all the information as though we
have had financial literacy training.

81
The participants in the study expressed frustration with the expectation that they should
understand all of the financial aid processes and procedures. Lori shared, “Despite the fact that I
did not come to college with a solid understanding of financial aid and how the system worked, it
didn’t seem to matter to the staff that I worked with at Alexander University.” According to
Sarah, “I managed to navigate this system, but it took every ounce of strength and the strength of
my ancestors to not just give up.”
Poor Administrative Practices. Another interview participant experienced difficulty
with a school's financial accountability for funds deposited for tuition. Brandy reported that her
father transferred $35,000 to the school's financial department by bank wire. However, due to the
institution's inability to verify the transaction promptly, they suspended her enrollment, citing a
lack of evidence for the transaction. The participant reported experiencing disbelief and anxiety.
She stated:
I was so anxious, and they told me they did not believe that the funds had been sent.
Basically, they thought I was lying. My father was so angry that he made me return home
the very next day and withdraw from school. My father said that even though the school
managed to trace the wire transfer, their offer to let me register was too late. I cried.
Brandy eventually transferred to a predominately White institution to complete her degree. Three
other interview participants reported that they obtained loans, while two worked three different
jobs to finance their educational expenses.
Another interview participant, Ashley, encountered systemic challenges, including
financial aid issues and institutional accreditation concerns. Ashley stated,
It was a nightmare. Our school was threatened with accreditation issues, and the
financial aid that we were expecting was unavailable. To make matters worse, there was

82
no transparency around these issues. We learned about what was happening through the
news, grapevine, and unofficial sources on campus. This made us all very nervous.
According to three participants, there were occasions when they considered these
challenges as overwhelming and almost impossible to overcome. Blue stated:
I received a notification from the financial aid office stating that my scholarship had been
decreased. In order to enroll in the following semesters' classes, I needed to come up with
$12,000 within 24 hours. My parents lacked the necessary resources, so I had to
discontinue my education and quit school. I am employed; however, I don’t know when I
can eventually return to school.
This type of occurrence was not a singular event among the participants. Two-thirds of
the participants expressed their ability to bounce back and their strong resolve to overcome these
barriers. While the vast majority of interview participants felt that HBCUs excelled at creating
welcoming environments, all the participants agreed that HBCUs must offer more
comprehensive support and flexibility to better support these students' educational journeys.
Sarah, now an employee at her alumnus, shared, “We do a great job of attracting and enrolling
our Black females. Now, we must focus on and do a better job of retaining and helping them to
graduate particularly as it relates to the need for financial clarity and academic support.”
Shirley's experience at Sadie College and Rebecca’s at Mossell College illustrated the
systemic barriers to education faced by students of color, emphasizing the challenges of financial
aid, scholarships, and understanding to overcome these obstacles. Nicole's college journey,
marked by active engagement, challenges overcome, and a critical eye on institutional practices,
offered valuable insights into higher education dynamics, especially for first-generation students.
Her experience calls for reevaluating how colleges and universities can better serve their student

83
populations, fostering environments where relationships thrive, challenges are navigated with
robust support systems, and institutions uphold their commitments to student success,
particularly in the area of financial aid.
The five participants who encountered these circumstances expressed that they
experienced a delay in realizing their aspirations. LaLa stated, “I switched my major on five
occasions to complete my degree within the self-directed six-year timetable I set for myself.”
These participant experiences highlight the paramount importance of financial support and
understanding for Black female students at HBCUs. The challenges associated with financial aid,
scholarships, and debt for five of the participants proved to be significant barriers to their
education. Overall, these findings underscore the need for systemic changes.
Finding 2: Mental Health Support Services
Another significant finding from this study illustrated the dual reality of Black female
students at HBCUs—empowered yet challenged. The vital importance of mental health services
and adaptable support systems, especially for individuals experiencing major life events such as
pregnancy, aligns closely with critical race theory's call for institutional reforms that cater to the
distinct requirements of minority students. Data from this study found that the stigma
surrounding mental health support for Black females is deeply entrenched in a complex web of
cultural, societal, and historical factors. Historically, Black females have been portrayed as
needing to be exceptionally strong and resilient, often referred to as the "Strong Black Woman"
archetype (Subhan & Johnson, 2023). This stereotype perpetuates the notion that they are
impervious to emotional pain or mental fatigue, which can discourage them from seeking help
for mental health issues.

84
Additionally, the findings suggest that the fear of being judged or misunderstood by
others, including healthcare providers who may not be culturally competent, further exacerbated
this stigma. The lack of open conversations about mental health in some Black communities can
result in a feeling of isolation for those who do seek support. According to the findings, resources
at these three HBCUs that cater specifically to the mental health needs of Black females were
significantly lacking in resources.
According to the participants, their lived experiences have led them to believe that they
were immune to experiencing mental or emotional exhaustion, which may deter them from
seeking assistance for concerns related to their mental health. Half of the participants expressed
fear of being judged or misunderstood by other peers. The five participants who did not graduate
spoke freely about feelings of isolation and hopelessness because of the lack of open
conversations and availability of mental health services. Blue shared, “Eventually, I was at the
end of my rope. I was mentally exhausted and emotionally overwhelmed. I felt that if I went to
get help, people would think I was crazy. I wasn’t crazy, just confused, lonely and
overwhelmed. Blue also added, “I wanted someone to come find me and help me.” Participants
described the glaring deficiency in staffing, overwhelming caseloads, and lack of availability of
health services that are aware of and responsive to the unique experiences of Black females,
including the racial and gender-specific traumas they face. Lenora stated, “By the time I got up
the nerve to seek counseling, they only had 30-minute slots and a line outside of the counselor's
office…no privacy at all.” Shirley reflected, "I wish they stressed more about mental health.
Because if I had someone to really talk to or offer me a solution at that time, I probably would
have stayed in college. I felt so overwhelmed and inadequate. I was very insecure and afraid to
talk about these feelings."

85
Additional challenges Black females face surfaced in the findings, including feelings of
imposter syndrome and pressure to balance academic and personal responsibilities such as
supporting family at home or childcare. LaLa discussed her experiences with academic
counseling, mental health services, and financial support during their time at Alexander
University. LaLa emphasized the importance of determination and setting goals and expressed
gratitude for the encouragement and offered to continue seeking support. LaLa stated, “It's never
too late to get back into education, and I plan to return to school.”
Sarah’s journey to school from her small hometown underscored the transformative
power of higher education on individual growth and societal contribution. Sarah reflected, “I am
the first in my family to graduate from college. I am an immigrant, and my focus was on
academic success and overcoming barriers. In my role as a Resident Aide at Mossell University,
I saw the need to foster community support for mental health.” She continued, “There were girls
on my floor and in our resident hall who needed counseling and mental health support but were
afraid or embarrassed to seek help. When the girls came to me, I was not equipped to handle
some of the emotional and mental health needs that the girls shared with me. To be very honest,
at times it was very scary. Recognizing the lack of available services on campus and inspired by
her aspirations and inspired by her godmother’s guidance, Sarah was motivated to create a
campus organization dedicated to mental health advocacy. This initiative highlighted the critical
need for mental health resources in educational settings, reflecting on how integral mental wellbeing is to achieving one's career goals. Through this organization, Sarah provided a platform
that challenged the stigma of seeking help and stressed that mental health is as crucial as physical
health in nurturing one's potential.

86
Physical health services also surfaced in the findings, specifically as they relate to
sexually transmitted diseases. All of the participants raised this as a concern and expressed
feelings that there was insufficient education regarding STD prevention and treatment available
to them. While none of the participants wanted to discuss their sexual health concerns
specifically, all of the participants raised this as a concern.
Finding 3: Culturally Relevant Teaching
The findings reveal a complex landscape with a mix of challenges and successes that
impact the participants' experiences with their college professors. Ten of the interview
participants said the presence of Black mentors and role models at HBCUs was instrumental in
guiding them through their academic journey, offering both inspiration and practical advice.
Nicole stated, “For the first time, I felt seen in the classroom.” Students reflected on events that
suggested evidence of nurturing behavior in the classroom. Nicole continued, “She really
listened to my goals and dreams. She took me seriously and remembered them throughout the
semester as she adjusted her teaching strategies to accommodate my learning style. She checked
to make sure I understood, often asking my opinion and thoughts…her level of questioning also
helped me develop a curiousness about the future of my work in human resources.” Tiffany
stated:
I had good relationships with most teachers, including a sociology teacher named Mr.
Lockwood. He was an important role model, and he would take several of us out to
lunch regularly. He supported us with tutoring, writing, and thinking more critically
about our college journey. We looked forward to these impromptu sessions; we were
challenged to think deeper, and it kept us continually thinking about the intentionality of
why we were at Sadie College.

87
Six participants emphasized the importance of including Black stories and role models in
the curriculum, as it helped establish a strong connection between their academic pursuits and
their sense of self, particularly in STEM. The findings suggest that professors were seasoned and
could detect insecurities in smart and competent students. The participants shared that their
professors saw the possibilities in them to be highly competent in their chosen fields. Renee
remarked,
I had a serious case of imposter syndrome. I did not think I belonged and that it was even
more far-fetched that I wanted to be a scientist. I wanted to help send astronauts to space.
I am a serious Star Trek fan and believe that all kinds of possibilities exist for space
travel. When I shared this with Dr. Edelson, I thought he would not take me seriously. I
was so surprised when he asked me questions and suggested that I could really do this if I
took my studies seriously. He helped me switch majors, and together, we worked to
complete supplemental activities and get internships that would help me acquire the
knowledge and help me build a competent skill set. With his assistance, I secured an
internship at NASA. I am so thankful for the challenge of thinking critically about
unfamiliar topics and for helping me have a positive learning experience. Today, I build
training curriculums for NASA.
Additional findings revealed that professors encouraged students to engage with
individuals from diverse backgrounds and utilize cultural tools to supplement their education.
Jane attributes her confidence and ability to pursue goals because she felt supported and
empowered by the entire campus community. Jane emphasized, “There was plenty of access and
availability of academic resources at Mossell University. My professors gave me personalized
attention. Not just for academics but the attention that allowed me to show up differently as a

88
student focused on my future. This left a profound impact on my mindset and approach to my
education.” Lori highlighted an experience, “There is nothing more serious than knowing your
professor is looking for you because you missed class… the dedication of the professors at
Mossell University, who provided various avenues for success, including study sessions, study
guides, and real-time classroom improvements. They challenged me and my beliefs. They made
a real difference in my life.”
Sadie College provided unique research opportunities for chemistry major Jackie
Johnson, including exposure to government and corporate programs, which she described as a
positive experience. Yet, she also described experiences that were difficult and left her feeling
distant and dejected. She shared, “The isolation and disconnect had me considering a switch to
another college.” Jackie described a situation with the way information on lynching was
presented and felt it was a misrepresentation of Black people and their history. She mused,
When I asserted my agency to discuss this situation, there was a backlash from my
standing up for what I believed in and what I have been taught through my experiences in
high school with the African diaspora. The instructor immediately expressed concern and
stated it felt as if I was trying to condemn her. When I asked the students, ‘Do you feel
uncomfortable with this lesson? The entire class raised their hand. I was removed from
the class, and I felt that this was a direct affront to my agency as a black female. I was
disappointed that this would happen to me at my HBCU. I was placed in another class
with a Black teacher. I felt I was being disciplined for attempting to educate the teachers
and students on information regarding her Black heritage.
The lack of cultural sensitivity and support, as experienced by Jackie, underscored the
need for cultural sensitivity for instructors who recognize and value students' cultural

89
backgrounds and experiences. reveals a disconnect between female students and professors.
Linda stated:
I felt a lack of understanding because I was having difficulty concentrating in class
because of my unique life challenges, such as the financial struggles I was facing, in
some regards their fault, or the extremely high pressure from family being the first in my
family to attend college. A few faculty members prioritized just lecturing vs. teaching. I
felt that I was disrespected when professors often repeated complaints about me (not
mentioning my name directly) to other students’ regarding struggles with the subject
matter on a daily basis.
Eight students voiced concerns similar to those of Jackie regarding White professors.
Seven of the eight participants stated that their teachers were in STEM classes critical to their
major. Tiffany reflected on an incident in their first year with a White professor teaching a
biology class, “I really didn’t understand, and I kept asking questions… I felt that the incident
was viewed as confrontational instead of the intellectual curiosity or inquiry in which the
conversation was intended.” Five students stated they felt misunderstood when there were
differences of opinion between White professors and the students, and it affected their
willingness to participate actively in these classes.
These findings underscore the transformative power of culturally relevant teaching at
HBCUs, revealing both the strides made and the ongoing hurdles. The inclusion of diverse
faculty members can enrich the academic milieu but also profoundly transform the student
experience. Creating an inclusive and supportive educational environment was crucial to
successful outcomes for two-thirds of these participants.

90
Conclusion
It is crucial to incorporate relevant theoretical frameworks to bolster the academic rigor
of the study on Black female students at HBCUs. The use of CCW, CRT, and CRP provided a
robust foundation for understanding the roles of social networks and racial identity in shaping
educational outcomes. These frameworks provide a lens through which to understand how
mentorship and supportive networks within HBCUs intersect with racial identity to influence
educational outcomes. This nuanced understanding enriches the analysis of the mentorship and
supportive relationships observed at three select HBCUs in the South.
The study employed qualitative methods of interviews to collect data from participants.
This methodological approach bolstered the reliability of the findings, using the participants'
stories to highlight how a supportive educational environment fostered a profound sense of
community and belonging among the Black female students participants in this study.
Findings suggest that mentorship and robust interpersonal relationships are pivotal in
cultivating a sense of belonging at HBCUs. However, the findings also underscored the
pervasive influence of structural obstacles that all participants in the study encountered at some
point, which impeded the educational achievement of one-third of the students.
The findings of this study have significant implications for educational policy and
practice within HBCUs. In Chapter Five, the recommendations for targeted interventions to
strengthen existing support systems and mitigate the impacts of structural barriers will be
discussed, along with areas for further research, such as longitudinal studies, to assess the longterm effects of such supportive environments on career success.
Despite its limitations in sample size and geographical scope, this research contributes to
the existing literature. It delves into the distinctive role of HBCUs in supporting Black female

91
students, providing a foundation for strategies to enhance their educational achievements. This
case study also underscores the need for ongoing research and policy refinement to fully support
the educational trajectories of Black female students in higher education.
In conclusion, the research findings should be contextualized within the broader sociocultural and educational landscapes, underscoring their significance in contributing to existing
literature and informing future strategies to enhance Black female students' educational
experiences and success in higher education. This comprehensive approach will ensure the study
reflects the real-world complexities these students face and is pivotal in shaping educational
practices and policies conducive to their success.

92
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations for Practice
This qualitative case study illuminates the resilience and strength of 15 Black female
students, as evidenced by the asset-based aspects of the community cultural wealth framework
that contributed to their educational journey at three HBCUs. The interviews of 15 Black female
former students and graduates, each with an individual trajectory, provided a specific perspective
on the intersection of race, cultural wealth, and education.
This chapter discusses findings and offers recommendations to improve Black female
student experience and persistence at HBCUs. This study’s sample included those who did not
complete a degree—purposefully, to understand the range of influences on persistence. In the
sections that follow, the components of the theory of community cultural capital: social and
navigational capital, and culturally relevant teaching will first be revisited and then applied to the
following two research questions:
1. What socio-cultural academic and personal experiences and challenges do
Black female students face when attending HBCUs, and how do these
influence their decision to persist and successfully graduate from these
institutions?
2. How do Black female students perceive and navigate the unique support
systems within HBCUs that contribute to their persistence and graduation
outcomes?
The chapter will conclude with recommendations for targeted interventions to strengthen
existing support systems and mitigate the impacts of structural and institutional obstacles and
barriers at select HBCUs.

93
Discussion of Findings
This case study brings to light the day-to-day lived experiences of Black students,
particularly Black females, who are often marginalized and face academic disadvantages. The
academic journey for Black females is a complex and underexplored terrain marked by
significant challenges (Robinson & Franklin, 2011). While a number of studies have examined
student retention and graduation practices in general, there remains a dearth of research
exploring the day-to-day lived experiences of Black students, especially females, who are often
viewed at the bottom of the social order and continue to remain at a disadvantage in the
academic arena. The academic journey for these Black women is neither easy nor well
understood (Robinson & Franklin, 2011).
Cultural capital, in the form of linguistic styles, cultural knowledge, and social practices
endemic to Black communities, plays a pivotal role in the academic journey of Black females at
HBCUs. When recognized and valorized within the HBCU context, these cultural assets enhance
students' engagement, belonging, and academic performance (Banks, 2009). Research indicates
that when educational environments affirm and integrate students' cultural wealth, it leads to
higher academic achievement and satisfaction (Garriott, 2019). Many students who attend
HBCUs experience a greater sense of community among Black students, maintain positive
relationships with faculty, and are more involved socially (Broussard, 2023; Conrad & Gasman,
2015; Outcalt & Skewes-Cox, 2002; Palmer & Gasman, 2008). The sense of community and
belonging at HBCUs is vital for the cultivation of cultural capital among Black female students,
providing a supportive environment that fosters academic success. This sense of belonging is
linked to increased persistence, engagement, and achievement. Research emphasizes the role of

94
HBCUs in creating empowering social environments that celebrate cultural heritage and promote
collective success.
Consistent with research and this study's findings, culturally sustaining offerings include
a combination of proactive and holistic academic, financial, and nonacademic services
(Braithwaite et al., 2021). Different aspects of each framework discussed in Chapter Four are
connected to each of the findings.
While there were three individual themes, each one underscored the importance of a
sense of belonging, mental health, and financial literacy as forms of social and navigational
capital. Each of these findings has the potential to facilitate positive educational outcomes and
graduation for Black female students, thereby enlightening the academic community about
effective strategies for improved student educational outcomes.
These findings also provide a strong foundation for understanding the roles of community
cultural wealth, particularly social capital, and pedagogical teaching shaped educational
outcomes for these participants.
Social Capital: Sense of Belonging and Mentoring
In the literature review, the CCW framework (Yosso, 2005) described the sense of
belonging, and mentoring can indeed be considered a component of social capital. Social
capital encompasses the networks of relationships and resources that individuals can draw
upon for support and opportunities. A sense of belonging and mentoring contribute to and
are reinforced by these networks in several ways: it fosters trust and reciprocity within a
community. The participants in this study described those sentiments.
The participants in the study suggested that when they felt they belonged, they
were more likely to trust others and engage in reciprocal relationships, key elements of

95
social capital. Additionally, belongingness strengthens social networks by encouraging
participation and engagement. Two-thirds of the participants who felt this strong sense of
belonging were more inclined to participate in school-sponsored activities and social
organizations, support others, and utilize available resources, enhancing overall social
capital. For example, Sarah, Tiffany, and Renee were involved in student government.
Tiffany was the President of the Student Government organization during her junior year.
Several other participants became sorority members and were involved in organizations
related to their specific majors.
Two-thirds of the participants also shared that this was their first time being away
from home, and this sense of belonging provided emotional support, which is an aspect of
social capital. For example, study participants Nicole, Jackie, and LaLa described feeling
connected to others at their HBCU was like family. They felt they were in a school that
helped them cope with challenges and reinforced their ability to navigate social and
institutional structures. These three participants graduated within four years. Moreover,
particularly among the participants who were STEM majors, they felt this sense of
belonging facilitated access to resources. They described relationships with professors who
helped to embed them within supportive networks. The participants described
opportunities for paid internships, exposure to networks in their specific field, and
opportunities and assistance, all vital social capital components.
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
The participants discussed their feelings about leaving home and their families. They
emphasized the importance of cultural connections with the faculty and staff. Jackie shared, “I
was so far away from home that when I got here, I realized that this was going to be my family

96
now. Several of my professors really showed that they valued and respected my background,
making me feel more seen and understood.” Several other participants shared similar feelings.
Nicole shared that she felt scared when she left home to attend school in the South. She stated,
“I was the only girl, the baby girl, living in a very privileged and blessed way with a loving,
nurturing family. I really was scared because this was a big deal for me. My family had very
high expectations. The faculty and staff made me feel as though this was my family also.” Jane
also shared that being surrounded by peers and mentors who shared similar experiences has
provided her with a strong support system, helping her grow personally and academically while
feeling connected and understood.
Leaving one's family, community, and familiar cultural environment is a difficult
transition for many first-year college students. Culturally relevant teaching helps to ease the
transition by acknowledging and incorporating students' existing knowledge, prior experiences,
and cultural references into the curriculum (Ladson-Billings, 2014). This teaching approach
validated students' identities and helps increase their sense of belonging, which research suggests
is important for student retention. The findings from this study reflect that one-third of the
participants who did not feel this type of connection did not graduate. When students feel a part
of the college community, they are more likely to stay enrolled and ultimately graduate (Golden
et al., 2017).
HBCUs are highly effective in supporting and nurturing student and faculty dialogues
that lead to developing deeper understanding and more complex knowledge (Brown & SaccoBene, 2018). It is not accurate to state that all positive student-faculty relationships will result
in Black females graduating from college within a six-year period. However, for this study, ten
of the fifteen participants who planned to graduate within six years stated that their

97
relationships with faculty and mentors established a positive culture and sense of belonging and
support during their college journey. For example, study participants Nicole, Tiffany, Renee,
and Jane expressed that their faculty’s support for education contributed to their persistence, in
addition, study participants Jackie and Lila discussed how their faculty were highly involved
with their education – attending various school-sponsored sporting events or conferences
related to their major.
Study participants said that mentoring took place in, outside, and after class
through formal and informal channels. The structures include classes where interactive
lecturing took place, faculty office hours, tutoring services, and study groups. Two-thirds
of the participants expressed that they felt comfortable going to the faculty to discuss their
academic work either inside or outside of class, given the supportive stance of the faculty.
HBCU faculty often mentor their students, helping them grow academically and
personally as they move toward graduation (Golden et al., 2017). Study participants said
the faculty also tended to be involved in other parts of campus life, such as advising
student clubs, and this involvement reinforced the supportive student-faculty relationship.
While several participants shared less than positive experiences with the pedagogical
teaching of White professors, it was mostly in the STEM classes. These interactions did
not deter their educational journey.
A detailed examination of the findings suggests that there are significant differences in
educational outcomes between the two-thirds of students who reported benefits from
mentoring and a sense of belonging and those who did not. The HBCU’s they attended helped
to develop a positive educational outcome for these study participants, ultimately promoting
persistence and graduation.

98
Social Capital: Mental Health and Overall Sense of Belonging
The findings in Chapter Four reveal a significant lack of mental health services at these
HBCUs, underscoring the necessity for focused attention. Examining how mental health services
intersect with students' sense of belonging is crucial to ensure they feel supported and valued.
The importance of having a sense of belonging cannot be understated. It is a factor that
costs nothing to include and, at the same time, can greatly impact the mental health and
educational achievements of our Black female college students. Consequently, their college
years may sometimes become stressful as they find ways to cope and navigate the college
experience.
Participants described the glaring deficiency in staffing, overwhelming caseloads or
mental health providers, and lack of availability of health services that were responsive to the
unique experiences of Black females, including the interpersonal and gender-specific traumas
they face. As discussed in Chapter Four, Shirley reminded us that "One common stigma related
to mental health involves the belief that discussing mental health issues is something that must
be hidden." This is a major challenge for female students at Black colleges when searching for
mental health services on campus. For young women on HBCU campuses, the stigma of mental
health needs also impacts the way they respond to anxiety and the way they deal with the signs
(Johnson & Williams, 2019). Stigma has frequently been identified as a barrier affecting the
Black community’s willingness to seek professional counseling (Avent et al., 2023; Colvin et al.,
2016; James, 2015). Mental health stigma is identified and described as a barrier to service that
includes shame and fear of being seen as weak or being labeled in some way. According to
Shirley, “When I thought others knew about the fact that I was seeking help, it became difficult

99
for me to feel comfortable talking about my own mental health because I felt ashamed of others'
perceptions and reactions."
Over half of the participants said they experienced some level of concern about the lack
of anonymity when it came to seeking help. For one-third of the participants in the study, this
proved to be a significant barrier. One participant said that by the time that she got up the nerve
to seek help, there was no system for privacy. She felt exposed and judged. As a result, those
interested in seeking mental health help from HBCUs may feel afraid that once other people find
out about it, they would be discriminated against (Jones & Campbell, 2020). For certain, stresses
associated with the stigma of mental health and barriers to availability are among the obstacles
discussed by this study’s participants, including limited-service hours and lengthy waiting times.
Navigational Capital: Financial Literacy for College Persistence
The findings suggest that social capital, reflected through mentorship, robust
interpersonal relationships, and mental health, was pivotal in cultivating a sense of belonging for
these study participants who attended HBCUs. Navigational capital refers to the skills and
abilities to maneuver through social institutions, including educational settings and financial
systems (Yosso, 2005). This form of capital includes knowledge about accessing and utilizing
resources effectively, which inherently involves understanding financial systems, financial
literacy, and securing financial stability.
However, the findings also underscored the pervasive influence of structural obstacles
that all participants in the study encountered at some point. These obstacles impeded the
educational achievement and graduation of one-third of the students, specifically as it relates to
navigating institutional systems.

100
The participants were asked to reflect upon their relationships with non-faculty staff and
departments and how these relationships impacted their graduation outcomes. Consistent with
published research (Banks, 2009; Brathwaite, 2021; OVW: Office on Violence Against Women
U.S. Department of Justice [OVW], 2017), the participants’ ability to use navigational capital to
maneuver through HBCUs directly impacted their educational outcomes. Strategies to navigate
through complicated institutional systems are important for student success. In this case study,
understanding the complexities of financial aid was an issue for all the participants.
Black female college students make many financial decisions at college. Collectively, the
use of financial aid, the desire to manage money, financial and student expectations, the fear of
financial aid and future finances, lack of sufficient knowledge, and the wish for information
suggest that a major part of a student's financial aid program should encompass both education
on financial aid and money management (Al-Bahrani, et al., 2020). Jackie, a participant in the
study said, “Upon arrival on campus, we are abruptly treated as autonomous adults, expected to
comprehend and manage intricate financial aid documentation. Yet clearly, we don’t even know
what questions to ask and are expected to interpret all the information as though we have had
financial literacy training.”
Some examples of systemic institutional problems that ultimately impacted one-third of
the participants' educational outcomes were related to what the participants described as HBCUs,
inefficient financial aid services, outdated technology for class registrations (in some instances
outdated technology for class registrations, and in others no technology for online registration),
lack of automated systems, and accreditation issues.
As previously noted, 10 of the 15 participants (66%) who completed a bachelor's degree
reported experiencing positive student-faculty relationships, which they referenced as beneficial

101
to their educational experience and provided support to help them navigate the institutional
obstacles they encountered. Conversely, five students (33%) indicated a lack of positive studentfaculty relationships, coupled with difficulties in navigating institutional systems, they were
unable to graduate. Programs and systems that promote the ability to navigate complex
institutional systems and policies are much needed to support student achievement. The gap
between Black graduates of HBCUs and Black graduates of other schools is the largest in terms
of financial well-being, gauging how effectively people manage their economic lives to reduce
stress and increase security (Seymour & Ray, 2015).
Recommendations for Practice
The following recommendations are informed by three theoretical frameworks:
Community Cultural Wealth (Yosso, 2005), Critical Race Theory (Lynn et al., 2013), and
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (Ladson‐Billings & Tate, 1995). The final component of the
recommendations also provides an evaluation feedback tool in the appendix that explains all of
the evaluation components and utilizes the principles of HEADSUP (Oliverias-Androti, 2012) to
support their efforts in addressing systemic problems through a new approach to ensure
sustainable results.
Before discussing recommendations, it is important to note that research suggests that
successful program implementation in higher education begins with effective institutional
leadership (Wilson, 2017). Participants in this study did not emphasize concerns about leadership
within their respective HBCUs but highlighted the adverse effects of failed systems and policies
on their educational experiences. These represented significant barriers, with one-third of
participants unable to graduate, underscoring the need for policy reform driven by effective
leaders to enhance educational outcomes.

102
The Center for the Study of HBCUs found that leadership at HBCUs is facing its own
challenges, with the current average tenure of 2.1 years; leadership must catalyze systemic
change by addressing root causes (Douglas-Gabrielle, 2023). These recommendations focus on
the impact of change at these particular HBCUs, concluding that effective leadership is crucial
for driving change. The primary responsibility for this engagement lies with the senior leaders at
these institutions, including the President/Chancellor, Provost/Vice President for Academic
Affairs, Deans, Vice President for Student Affairs, and Chief Financial Officer (CFO)/Vice
President for Finance. These administrative leaders are responsible for fostering an environment
that supports student success and academic excellence and are pivotal in shaping the vision,
setting strategic priorities, and fostering an environment conducive to innovation and
improvement. It is also important to recognize that organizational leadership has become
increasingly vital and is considered a critical success factor for improving organizational change
(Korejan & Shahbazi, 2016).
In addition, research recommends that staff and faculty at every level must be willing to
cooperate, influence, and motivate others, taking responsibility for outcomes to achieve desired
results (Fullan, 2002). Moreover, prioritizing professional development, providing resources, and
actionable steps found in the recommendations create a robust foundation for program success
(Bryman, 2007).

103
Recommendation 1: HBCUs Need to Develop a Comprehensive Program for Student
Retention and Graduation Focusing On a Sense of Belonging.
HBCUs in the U.S. are battling a number of challenges, including declining enrollment
numbers and lower-than-average graduation and retention rates. Despite these challenges,
Seymour & Rey (2015) revealed that Black graduates of HBCUs are more likely than Black
graduates of other institutions to be thriving – strong, consistent, and progressing – in a number
of areas of their lives. While the facts indicate that some students do not graduate, HBCUs have
managed to graduate students who have contributed significantly to society and are thriving. This
recommendation calls for HBCUs to develop comprehensive programs along with institutional
change to address major policy issues and foundational areas that can begin to move the needle
on improving retention and graduation rates for Black females at these select HBCUs. A
program that focuses on a sense of belonging would address the unique challenges Black female
students face, fostering a sense of belonging that supports their academic and personal growth.
Revisit and Reengineer Orientation and Welcoming Strategies
Participants in the study shared that HBCUs do an excellent job with marketing and
recruitment strategies. Participants suggested that they focus on retention using a similar set of
strategies. They have the opportunity to link their pre-enrollment welcome strategies from the
very beginning of a student's experience to their entire educational journey. For example, a
bridge program can provide them with fundamentals and help them transition from high school
to college or new student orientation programs are best structured as navigational experiences
that map out for newcomers the location of key support services (e.g., library, financial aid,
counseling center) and identity of key staff members (e.g., resident assistant, academic advisor)
who can get to know them personally and serve as “go to persons” when they have questions.

104
Even after that, student support services should be integrated well enough that the student knows
whom to go to for support or timely advice since “how things get done” might be different from
their high school or hometown (Johnson & Winfield, 2022). By easing their adjustment,
smoothing their path, and reducing stress caused by culture shock, students will feel a sense of
belonging, which, in turn, positively impacts their achievement. It is also important for new
students to connect with peers with similar backgrounds and academic interests.
Higher education operates like a separate culture—that is, a distinct social group marked
off from others by its own customs, language(s), practices, traditions, and values (Strayhorn,
2016). One study participant, Jackie, shared, “Everything here is siloed. We have to know how
to navigate the system to connect the dots. It can be overwhelming, but I learned from my
momma how to work these systems.” Higher education has its own language and depends on a
shared understanding of terms like prerequisite, Provost, bursar, registrar, syllabus, and office
hours (which rarely take place in an office and usually do not last an hour) (Strayhorn, 2020).
Participants in the study found particular value in their relationships with a professor who held
office hours with them at dinner and often used this time to assist them in navigating systems.
Higher education employs these words as if they are universally understood, although we
know that they may hold different meanings in certain contexts (e.g., registrar in support
services) and may be unfamiliar to first-generation students and new students (Strayhorn, 2016).
Higher education also has unique practices and traditions like convocation, commencement,(e.g.
and even course registration that is still done by standing in line on some Black campuses, by
phone, or online. Students have to make many decisions within the first few months of college—
whether to accept admission offers, where to live on- or off-campus, whom to live with, what to
major/minor in, what courses to take, and whom to ask for help, to name a few. These decisions

105
can be daunting, especially with no script for working through such issues. When HBCUs use
this understanding to help students and families decode privileged language, break down degree
requirements into simple semester plans, and connect college to career goals, it helps them find a
sense of belonging and achieve success (Johnson & Winfield, 2022). For example, Janelle
described short semesters vs. long semesters. “It was all very confusing and inconsistent. “I saw
my roommate struggle with this because, for her major, she had no guidance on how to make this
system work for her.”
Formal Mentorship and Support Programs
Central to this program is developing a robust mentoring system, which seeks to connect
students with experienced mentors who can provide guidance, support, and inspiration. These
mentors, often faculty, alumni, or professionals with similar backgrounds, can play a pivotal role
in helping students navigate the academic landscape, set career goals, develop a strong sense of
self-efficacy, and hold the potential to enhance the academic experiences of Black female
students significantly.
Developing peer-to-peer reflective and welcoming campus exchanges, organically
established with strong role models at new student welcome events or a more carefully structured
approach, can also create a formal connection where older students are prepared and celebrated
as new students receive them and realize that these peer-to-peer connections reflect their status
within the campus community. These formal mentorship programs support navigational skills by
helping individuals leverage community cultural wealth to navigate educational and professional
environments effectively (Yosso, 2005).
These various forms of capital are not mutually exclusive or static, but rather are dynamic
processes that build on one another as part of community cultural wealth” (Yosso, 2005, p.

106
77). Mentoring can help new students learn about history and expectations of the institution, its
mission, and the campus experience including athletics, entertainment, recruits, and campus
work requirements (Montagnino-Fiske, 2022). It is also important to inform new students which
groups are membership-only. Two of the students who did not graduate expressed concern and
stated they had bouts of depression because they were not selected for membership into their
desired sorority.
Professional Development Support for Faculty and Staff
This part of the recommendation incorporates various professional development models
and activities implemented to improve the social and academic environments of HBCUs by
training college employees on the needs of Black female students (Montagnino-Fiske, 2022).
Administration, faculty, and staff should be encouraged to attend workshops and training to
increase awareness of how cultural competence contributes to individual and institutional
achievement. The training could focus on providing participants with information, activities, and
exercises designed to increase their capacity for working with the needs of Black female
students. The intent is to increase their comfort level and develop new skills to indicate the
interest, respect, and emotional sensitivity that students need in an inclusive classroom
environment (Henry, 2021).
Cultural Relevant Teaching
Promoting the use of culturally relevant teaching is important for diverse experiences and
economic backgrounds (Ladson-Billings , 2005). Each Black female student brings with them an
array of interpretive lenses that make their classroom interactions and educational experiences
unique. Faculty who practice culturally relevant teaching can help promote student achievement
by teaching students to approach the discomfort and dissonance they will encounter in their

107
personal and professional relationships with less fear and more critical reflection (Johnson &
Winfield, 2022). These activities will add to the capacity of the institution as a whole and lead to
broader systemic change.
This recommendation aligns with the findings presented in Chapter Four, emphasizing
the importance of fostering a sense of belonging. This, in turn, contributes to increased
persistence and improved academic outcomes, as experienced by two-thirds of the Black female
participants in the study.
Recommendation 2: HBCUs Need to Develop a Comprehensive Mental Health Program to
address Student Needs
The stigma surrounding mental health and the pursuit of counseling among Black women
is a multifaceted issue rooted in historical, cultural, and socio-economic factors. Mental health is
closely tied to an individual's overall sense of belonging. This lack of services described by
participants in Chapter Four underscores the importance of addressing mental health needs to
ensure students feel supported and valued. Accordingly, this study aims to offer a set of
recommendations designed to expand and enhance mental health services. By implementing
these recommendations, HBCUs can create a more inclusive and supportive environment,
ultimately fostering better mental well-being and improved student academic outcomes.
Improve Access to Mental Health Services
Stigma has frequently been identified as a barrier affecting the Black community’s
willingness to seek professional counseling (Avent et al., 2018; Colvin et al., 2016; James,
2015). The literature indicates that Black Americans feel stigmatized for seeking counseling and
face additional stigma for belonging to a racial or ethnic minority group (James, 2015; Kwun et
al., 2020). The sociocultural perspective on stigma suggests that “Stigma develops as a means to

108
support and promote social injustices, thus serving as a way for society to identify those with
mental illness as inferior” (Ahmediani, 2011, p. 4).
Several participants in the study worried that being labeled as an individual with a mental
health concern may impact their personal, social, and professional lives. College students are
generally at the start of their professional careers, and such a label could negatively impact their
professional trajectory (Cornwell, 2009; National Association of Mental Illness [NAMI], 2018).
Study participants reported that although mental health disorders were prevalent, limited
resources and services were available for individuals in need of treatment with the right
counselor. This was particularly the case when considering the resources and services available
from HBCUs. Study participants said that the inability to identify trusted mental health
professionals who are available and can ensure that care is both culturally sensitive and focused
increased the stigma of mental health treatment. Furthermore, the stigma of mental health service
treatment needs to be reduced to encourage appropriate and timely help-seeking to utilize the
academic, mental health, and sexual and reproductive health services. By participating in
programs housed within women's centers and multicultural centers, culturally specific feminist
services could be the beginning of success stories about women of color and mental health. This
can involve providing a range of options, such as online resources, mobile apps, and teletherapy
services, making it convenient for students to seek help whenever they need it. Accessibility is
particularly important for students with demanding schedules or who feel uncomfortable seeking
in-person counseling. By offering flexible and varied resources, institutions can reach a broader
student population and ensure that everyone has the opportunity to access mental health support.
Additionally, promoting these resources widely on campus can help raise awareness and
encourage more students to take advantage of the available services (Sue & Sue, 2019).

109
Peer Support Programs
Developing peer support programs is another effective strategy to enhance mental health
services at HBCUs. Peer support networks provide a platform where students can share their
experiences, offer mutual support, and reduce feelings of isolation. These programs can include
peer mentoring, support groups, and student-led mental health initiatives, all of which foster a
sense of community and belonging. When students see their peers actively engaged in supporting
each other, it can normalize seeking help and reduce the stigma associated with mental health
issues. Additionally, peer support programs can empower students to take an active role in their
mental health journey, providing leadership opportunities and fostering a supportive campus
environment.
Holistic Wellness Programs
Introducing holistic wellness programs at HBCUs addresses the mental health needs of
Black students by considering their physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being. Workshops on
mindfulness, stress management, yoga, and other wellness activities promote overall mental
health by teaching students how to manage stress and maintain balance in their lives (Johnson, et
al., 2019). These programs can be particularly beneficial in helping students develop healthy
coping mechanisms and resilience against the pressures of academic and social life. By
addressing the whole person, holistic wellness programs help students not only survive but thrive
in their college environment, contributing to their long-term mental and emotional health.

110
Collaborations with Community Organizations
Partnering with local and national organizations that focus on mental health and wellness
in the Black community can greatly enhance the mental health services provided at HBCUs.
These collaborations can bring additional resources, expertise, and support to campus mental
health initiatives. Community organizations often deeply understand the cultural and social
factors affecting Black mental health and can provide valuable insights and programs tailored to
these needs. By working together, HBCUs and community organizations can create a more
comprehensive support system for students, offering everything from workshops and seminars to
individual counseling and community outreach programs (Nguyen & Bowman, 2021). These
partnerships can also help bridge the gap between campus resources and the broader community,
creating a network of support that extends beyond the college years.
Furthermore, the role of religious institutions in this context cannot be overstated for
those who find it meaningful. Churches often serve as pivotal community support systems,
offering spaces conducive to support and healing for various mental health issues. By leveraging
the support and perspectives of church communities, HBCUs can further reduce the stigma
surrounding mental health help-seeking behaviors ((Livingston et al., 2021)). This dual
approach, integrating both institutional and community resources, promises a more
comprehensive support network that addresses the unique needs of Black women students,
fostering an environment that encourages mental well-being and resilience.
Mental Health Awareness Campaigns
To help further reduce the stigma associated with mental health disorders, awareness
campaigns could be organized as part of larger university programs that focus on healthy living,
stress management, time management, and other best practices that support mental health (Avent

111
Harris et al., 2021). According to the study participants, positive message framing and the timing
of the delivery of these messages are also particularly important when raising awareness about
mental health issues.
To this end, mental health experts, celebrity personalities or professionals, peer
educators, and student support services personnel can play a very important role in these
awareness campaigns. Service providers can utilize a variety of campaigns to impact the diverse
population of their schools. Small group workshops, speakers, and forums can be components of
awareness campaigns. Religious counselors affiliated with HBCUs can also be used. These
campaigns would provide a positive message about the importance of strong mental health.
Mental Health Awareness campaigns are a very important strategy for improving the
mental health of Black students to combat the stigma associated with mental health (Gipson &
Lee, et al., 2017). Research suggests that these campaigns would be particularly effective when
organized around personal stories that focus on descriptions, symptoms, and the challenges of
mental health disorders on campus and with family and friends (Nguyen & Bowman, 2021).
A significant aspect of HBCU Black female student development is mental health
awareness and the implementation of prevention ideas that strengthen students' self-image and
counter the debilitating marginalization experienced by negative experiences and trauma.
Finally, student opinions and feedback should be collected often to continually check the pulse
of the student population and its changing needs.
This recommendation aligns with the findings presented in Chapter Four, which
highlighted the significant influence of the historical context of Black women’s experiences in
providing and receiving mental health services and support. Based on these insights, it is
imperative for the HBCUs in this study to prioritize the development and provision of targeted

112
interventions, outreach programs, awareness campaigns, and supportive services. Such initiatives
should incorporate innovative strategies designed to enhance access to mental health services
while actively working to dismantle the stigma associated with seeking help (Sue & Sue, 2019).
Empirical research supports the efficacy of such multifaceted approaches, emphasizing
the importance of culturally competent care and community involvement in mental health
interventions (Holton et al., 2023; Williams et al., 2018). By embedding these strategies within
their institutional frameworks, HBCUs can enhance their support systems, ultimately
contributing to their students' overall well-being and sense of belonging.
Direct Allocation for Mental Health Services
The Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act provided $2.2 trillion
in economic stimulus, including $14 billion to colleges, with a portion dedicated to student
mental health services. The American Rescue Plan and other COVID-19 relief legislations have
significantly increased funding to support these services, with nearly $4 billion invested in
HBCUs. This funding aims to enhance campus mental health resources, ensuring students access
to necessary support systems. The allocation formula for these funds considers factors such as
Pell Grant enrollment, total student enrollment, and institutional need, thereby directing
resources to where they are most needed (Hoa Nguyen et al., 2022).
These investments were designed to reduce stigma, improve access to mental health services,
and integrate mental health care into the broader educational experience. This funding allocation
is currently included in the line item for student support services in the HBCU budgets. To
improve the implementation of this funding, a direct line item for essential mental health services
such as counseling, psychotherapy, psychiatric care, and crisis intervention, which are vital in
addressing the psychological needs of students, would improve the implementation of services

113
and play a crucial role in ensuring the overall well-being and academic success of students,
particularly at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs).
Recommendation 3: HBCUs Need to Develop a Comprehensive Programs for Financial
Literacy
Financial literacy is essential for empowering students to manage their finances
effectively, make informed decisions about student loans, understand the scope of scholarships
and budgeting, and ultimately achieve financial independence (Lusardi & Mitchell, 2014). By
equipping Black female students with the knowledge and skills necessary to handle their
financial responsibilities, the program aims to reduce the economic barriers that often hinder
educational pursuits (Shim et al., 2009). Focusing on financial literacy also prepares students for
long-term financial stability, contributing to their educational journey and well-being beyond
college (Fernandes et al., 2021).
Challenges Faced by Black Female College Students
Financial literacy is an increasingly important part of a college education. Research
suggests that students who receive some financial literacy education know more about personal
finance topics at graduation, including managing finances, student loans, credit cards, and credit
reports. Literacy education may lead to reduced delinquency, debt, and financial stress down the
road. Research was not available on how many HBCUs actually provide financial literacy.
While the findings did not indicate a direct correlation between retention and graduation,
According to the participants, the three HBCUs in this study do not offer financial literacy
education; if they do, the participants were unaware of those services. There is a need for
financial literacy resources that can be utilized early in the process for potential college students

114
to establish a baseline for targeted financial literacy education. This could be done as a part of
the orientation program.
The available research, however, is more focused on confronting systemic inequalities
rather than eliminating them (Khan, et al., 2022). As the number of Black female college
students increases, this matter becomes more critically pertinent. According to the U. S. Census
Bureau (2022), the Black population in the US will grow to 207.3 million by 2060 from 42.8
million in 2011, with the majority, at 57%, attributed to women. Meeting the financial needs of
Black female college students is an important barrier, challenge, and solution problem that
requires exploration. Data from the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) found
that Black full-time students receive the most financial support from a combination of grants,
scholarships, and student loans (Burns et al., 2022).
The participants in the study highly recommended that their respective schools invest in
financial capability enhancements, particularly those at financial aid offices. Three of the
participants in the study faced challenges because they were confused about financial aid. All the
participants shared their encounters with the financial aid services. They shared that this was
definitely an area of concern on their part, as well as the college. In the findings, Jackie shared
that she observed new students without a grasp on financial obligations and spending money on
things unrelated to their education needs. Research shows a correlation between poor financial
literacy and increased borrowing for Black students who experience larger levels of debt and
have difficulty satisfying their financial obligations (Clark, et al., 2021). Research also suggests
that as a result of the additional funds, students use 28% to purchase items such as clothing,
entertainment, and dining out. Another 3% used student aid to buy personal consumables like
computers, cars, and other gadgets (LeBaron-Black et al., 2023).

115
Even for vulnerable populations such as Black women, education has the potential to
improve financial decision-making. Both gender-specific and ethnically tailored financial
literacy programs can improve financial knowledge and scores in the long term (Bottazzi &
Lusardi, 2021). Females demonstrate higher elements of numeracy and general financial literacy
than males. The high relative importance of financially knowledgeable women, in combination
with the great variation in both economic outcomes and levels of financial knowledge,
underscores the need for more targeted financial literacy measurements (Sunderaraman et al.,
2020).
Strategies to Improve Financial Literacy for Black Female College Students
Financial literacy programs should be expanded on HBCUs to teach students how to
access available financial aid by refining the FAFSA submission process and understanding that
"free college" actually requires students to leverage aid from multiple sources to meet the cost of
attendance (Strayhorn, 2016). Financial literacy should also extend to the campus level because
it will enable students' participation and understanding of the financial resources made accessible
to them. Understanding will allow students to plan financial actions strategically, borrow merely
what is needed, and have the physical capability to budget, save, and manage student loans
throughout their educational career. All financial aid tasks mentioned are necessary for academic
achievement and prevent students from obtaining the education needed to fill the leadership
positions of color monopolized by non-minorities.

116
Understanding Financial Aid
The source of funds going to college is as important as the sources of money going to any
other life venture; this source, in this instance, is called financial aid. Financial aid comes in
many forms and is intended to make up the difference between what the student and family can
demonstrate they can afford to pay for college (estimated family contribution) and the total cost
of attendance. The total cost of attendance includes tuition and fees, room and board, books,
supplies, transportation, and personal and incidental expenses, among other things.
An efficient and adequate financial aid system is crucial since a significant number of
low-income families and minority students attend HBCUs. Moreover, the increasing cost of
education and the inadequacy of financial aid packages force many students to choose other
educational and career routes. A better understanding of the financial aid packaging process,
including improved technology systems) may result in a higher number of satisfied financial aid
customers (Lyn & Winfield, 2021). These customers include both the college students who
receive assistance and the financial aid professionals who help deliver the aid.
The program content should also include the type of financial aid available as a key
element. In general, financial aid can be classified as one of the following three types and may
come from a variety of sources, including federal and state governments, colleges and
universities, private industry, existing alumni, or private grants and scholarships. This type of
financial aid is in the form of loans, grants, work-study, and scholarships. The first three are
generally thought to be geared toward the needy and are most often used as a supplement to meet
most or all of the financial aid needs of students and their families. There are specific
scholarships and grants available to all students through a number of organizations with diverse
qualifying criteria. Sarah shared:

117
It is so important for students to understand their financial aid. They should be asking
questions about their source of aid and what are the stipulations, if any, attached to this
aid. They should also ask the presenters if there is anything else I need to know that I
haven’t asked. Sometimes, if you don’t know, you have no idea you should be asking
certain questions.
Financial Mentors and Role Models
Higher educational institutions should encourage mentorship for Black female college
students to improve financial literacy since, unlike peers from other racial groups, these students
have unique financial constraints requiring customized solutions (Khan et al., 2022). For
example, Sadie College hosts a national program, Save a Girl, Save a World (SAGSAW), every
year. They serve students at five different HBCUs, two of the HBCUs are represented in this
study. This program matches Black female students with high net-worth women as mentors.
This program serves approximately 150-200 students every year. Several of their former students
are Black females from two of the HBCUs who participated in the study. This program boasts a
95% retention and graduation rate. The mentor benefits from the esteem of assisting others,
whereas those who benefit from mentorship eventually replace mentors in continually mentoring
growing cohorts of mentees (Patton et al., 2023). Mentees benefit from the input they receive
from mentors, which is personal. This relationship significantly benefits mentees, particularly
college students (Patton et al., 2023). Providing mentorship as a form of assisting Black female
college students in understanding the effects of their financial decisions on their future, where
extremely strong links exist between the way that students are taught, how they understand
scientific information, and maturity, influencing mentoring success. As Black female college
students' financial capabilities can be improved with appropriate mentorship and guidance,

118
colleges should promote peer mentorship in the sense of belonging strategies, as suggested
earlier. Mentorship can be used to encourage involvement where students impart their
knowledge to one another, discussing the importance of improving financial decision-making,
sharing their information, and discussing credible assets compared to non-credible sources.
There are several programs like SAGSAW and partnering with them would be mutually
beneficial to both parties in their investment and scaling.
Partnerships with Financial Organizations
HBCUs do not have to do this alone. They should consider partnering with financial
institutions to provide real-time, tailored support to help students make important financial
decisions instead of being more informational. These services are offered by local banks, Federal
Reserve Banks, and national associations like the Black MBAs and the National Association of
Black Security Professionals. To ensure the success of these programs in improving college
students' financial behaviors, students' needs for financial education ought to be assessed first. A
well-designed survey would allow them to develop a baseline. This would provide data for welldefined match programs. Well-resourced HBCUs should consider working with these
organizations to develop their own tailored curriculum and financial resources.
The entities discussed above have a broad range of financial empowerment programs and
initiatives that have been developed to help low-wealth, low-income individuals make more
informed decisions and to influence the banks, credit unions, and other institutional
intermediaries that serve this population. These initiatives range from providing low-income
learners with basic banking services and educating them about those services to conducting
intensive savings and asset accumulation programs, which help learners develop durable
personal connections to banks. While some programs have reported great success, HBCUs

119
should curate these partnerships and scaffold participation on the data gathered in the survey.
They may want to initially steer away from programs for students that are savings and asset
accumulation programs that require multiple, lengthy interactions educating learners about the
value of developing a savings habit and building assets beyond modest checking account
balances.
Peer Learning Communities
Establishing peer learning communities is a strategy that student affairs educators have
effectively utilized to help college students succeed (Brown, et al., 2020). Peer learning
communities allow students to share their experiences, knowledge, and talents with each other
and support themselves toward common objectives. They create an environment conducive to
thinking about and articulating learning issues and boosting problem-solving, critical thinking,
and productive struggle. The sense of shared obligation and collective accountability fostered by
a community allows students the freedom to comfortably be who they are while receiving
support and challenge from peers who care about them and share similar aspirations. For the
Black female college students that are the focus of this paper, facilitated peer learning
communities provide a critical space within which to address self-authorship and issues of
identity development, promote agency and engagement in learning, improve financial literacy,
and prepare for life after college (Patton et al., 2023).
Training and Supporting Financial Aid Staff
The findings in Chapter Four revealed that every participant in the study had an
interaction with the financial aid office that left them very frustrated. Jackie shared her story of
sitting in the financial aid office for two days straight after receiving no response through email

120
or phone calls. Finally, someone met with her, but she reported that she was frustrated, and it still
took a while for her problem to be solved.
The study suggests that staff need support and training. Financial aid professionals and
staff would benefit from ongoing training and best practices in financial education for managing
financial relationships with students, particularly freshmen (Hunt, 2020). When HBCUs invest in
the professional development of staff, everyone benefits. This investment will ensure that staff is
knowledgeable about the latest updates and policies. Also, it helps to prepare staff for
developmental opportunities and creates a supportive work environment (Brown et al., 2020).
This training support, coupled with the baseline assessment data, can also help financial
aid staff better understand the students' needs. In many situations, staff is dealing with variables
such as rapidly changing federal rules and regulations. Often, the systems or notices of these
changes are not received in a timely fashion, which also interferes with their ability to serve
students properly.
Lastly, mentoring within the department also benefits in building stronger systems and
relationships with students. When HBCUs foster a culture of continuous support and learning,
the staff will be well prepared to meet the evolving needs of students.
Improving Technology Systems
The findings show that financial systems failed at two of the HBCUs, negatively
impacting enrollment for three of the study participants. Brandy shared that her HBCU could not
locate a significant wire transfer from her father and discussed concerns about the school's
response to her regarding the transaction. She expressed that she felt that they did not believe her
and would allow her to register for her next semester's classes. This was the result of a failed
system and technology. The school eventually tracked the wire transfer, but it was too late.

121
This is a new day and age for technology. HBCUs should consider jointly purchasing
cloud-based AI systems to support and enhance their financial aid technology systems with other
HBCUs. In a pilot project funded by the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, Community Development
Financial Institutions (CDFIs) are currently working on a tech modernization project in the
Southeast (W. K. Kellogg Foundation (WKKF), 2023). The CDFIs are using their purchasing
power to receive significant discounts on cloud-based software licensing to improve their
operations. Philanthropy and private corporations might be receptive to supporting an effort that
represents joining forces with similar type colleges to upgrade and improve institutional
streamlining of consortia and centralized assessment, technology, and campus technical
resources. These upgrades will improve the services they provide students and assist with their
federal and state compliance requirements.
This recommendation connects to the finding in Chapter Four, which underscored the
pervasive influence of trying to navigate structural obstacles that all participants in the study
encountered at some point and the need for targeted interventions to strengthen existing financial
literacy and financial aid support systems to mitigate the impacts of structural barriers that
impeded the educational achievement of HBCU students.
Limitations and Delimitations
To better comprehend social phenomena, I used qualitative approaches to compile data. I
was aware of the caveats inherent in this methodology (Maxwell, 2013). One potential weakness
of qualitative research was the reliability of the information gathered, which could be limited if
interview participants did not share detailed responses. I tried to overcome this constraint by
employing strategies such as establishing rapport with respondents, guaranteeing their anonymity

122
and confidentiality, and asking open-ended questions to elicit more in-depth replies (Maxwell,
2013).
Another limitation was the potential for misinterpreting the data. There was a risk of
interpretative bias when I brought my own experiences and preconceptions to bear on this study.
I was acutely aware of the potential impact of delimitation decisions on the results. For instance,
the answers I received might be influenced by the questions I asked. Therefore, crafting
unambiguous, concise, and neutral questions was crucial.
Additionally, the smaller sample size inherent in qualitative research limits the extent to
which the findings could be applied to a broader population. Recognizing this constraint, I aimed
to provide a rich, detailed understanding of the specific context studied rather than broad
generalizations.
Recommendations for Further Research
Although student achievement is an individual and contextual concept, it is imperative to
consider diverse and cross-contextual perspectives when investigating and discussing the
concept. Research notes the cultural connections between HBCU campuses and the Black
community and how that impacts Black students’ college choice process (Freeman, 1999;
Johnson, 2017; Johnson & McGowan, 2017) and their experiences while on campus (Douglas,
2012). However, less is known about strategies and approaches to promote Black female student
achievement from the lens of HBCU faculty. In particular, there remains a need to understand
better how aspects of Black culture are centered in HBCU environments as articulated via the
pedagogy and practices of these campus representatives. Douglas (2012) noted, “The
perspectives and narratives of HBCU stakeholders on issues of cultural identity and spirituality
are far more limited in the literature” (p. 385).

123
As identified through the interviews, another emerging area for future research pertains to
the influence of White faculty at HBCUs on Black student graduation rates, particularly
regarding students' choice of majors. While it is noted that both White and Black faculty
similarly impact Black students' academic decisions, a distinction surfaced in this study: The
students expressed that they felt White faculty members at their HBCUs lacked flexibility in
their communication methods with them. This observation suggests a nuanced dynamic in
faculty-student interactions that warrants further scholarly investigation to fully understand its
implications and explore its potential influence on educational outcomes.
Finally, all the participants expressed significant concerns regarding the availability and
quality of healthcare options on campus, particularly in addressing physical health needs related
to sexuality. This apprehension underscores the need for additional research to identify gaps in
comprehensive, safe, and accessible healthcare services that cater to the diverse needs of Black
female students. Ensuring robust healthcare provisions in this domain is paramount, as it directly
influences individuals' well-being and overall quality of life. More research is needed to
understand how HBCU leaders think about equity inside and outside the classroom. Community
colleges may be able to learn from these institutions, given that they also serve a large proportion
of underrepresented minorities and are among the least well-funded institutions in higher
education.
Conclusion
So often, the problems of Black communities are addressed without building upon and
establishing ownership of their existing strengths, our community's cultural wealth. One such
underused strength within the Black community is the role and potential of HBCUs. The unique
strengths of an institution that has provided education, leadership, and economic opportunities

124
for thousands of people of African descent for over 100 years have been systematically
disenfranchised. Everything that I have written in this chapter about Black students’ achievement
at HBCUs is far easier to write than to do, especially all at once. There can be significant
financial costs associated with mounting a few of these solutions on campus.
There will also be complex educational questions to be addressed. Included in the
Appendix is a recommended model for Integrating the HEADSUP approach. It offers a vital
entry point for addressing these questions, suggesting that individuals are prepared for this
approach's intricacies, diversity, inequality, and uncertainties and expanding the legacy of
inherited possibilities (Oliverias-Androti, 2012). This necessitates understanding and learning
from historical patterns of mistakes to pave the way for new learning opportunities and
developing more nuanced social analyses to avoid oversimplifying problems and inadvertently
causing greater harm. It also implores leadership at HBCUs to recognize their roles in
perpetuating the issues they seek to resolve because they are all simultaneously part of the
problem and the solution in various ways.
The systematic disenfranchisement of HBCUs over the past century can be traced back to
the enduring legacy of racial segregation and discriminatory policies in the United States.
HBCUs were established during a period when African Americans were largely excluded from
mainstream higher education institutions due to Jim Crow laws and pervasive racial prejudice.
Despite their critical role in providing education and opportunities to African American students,
HBCUs have historically been underfunded compared to predominantly white institutions
(PWIs). Federal and state funding formulas have often been inequitable, with HBCUs receiving
significantly less financial support. This funding disparity has had long-term consequences,
limiting the resources available for faculty salaries, research opportunities, infrastructure, and

125
student services, thereby perpetuating a cycle of underinvestment and reduced educational
outcomes.
Additionally, HBCUs have faced institutional barriers and policy decisions that have
further marginalized them. During the mid-20th century, the integration of higher education was
met with resistance, and many state governments continued to prioritize funding for PWIs even
as Black students began attending these institutions. This dual system of higher education
maintained de facto segregation and reinforced the inequitable distribution of resources. More
recently, challenges such as declining enrollment, increased competition for students, and rising
higher education costs have disproportionately impacted HBCUs. Despite these challenges,
HBCUs have continued to produce a significant proportion of Black graduates in essential fields
such as STEM, highlighting their resilience and enduring importance in the American
educational landscape. Nonetheless, addressing the systemic disenfranchisement of HBCUs
requires targeted policies and increased investment to ensure these institutions can continue to
fulfill their vital mission
In contrast to predominantly White colleges, HBCUs appeared to experience internal
controversies that often escalate into public scandals, ultimately affecting their ability to function
effectively as educational institutions. Different observers attribute the problems to a variety of
causes. Racism is often identified. Many Blacks hold that there is sabotage. Essentialism,
mismanagement, and the de facto assumption by the predominantly white foundation boards and
accrediting associations are other causes suggested. HBCUs' unique and vital role in preserving
and promoting traditional African cultural values amidst mainstream culture's ever-changing and
often conflicting influences.

126
These institutions serve as anchors, maintaining a connection to African heritage even as
they navigate the complex dynamics of broader societal trends. For a variety of reasons, the
operational environment of almost every HBCU is replete with problems. On most campuses, the
issues are mostly common problems that occur at many colleges. Shifting demographics,
meeting the increasing need for student aid, and staying competitive are certainly issues. Couple
these with concerns about attracting and retaining good faculty and the increasing costs of
running a college, and some real tension is discernible.
This study sought to better understand practices and environmental characteristics at
HBCUs that help to foster student achievement for Black female students. Research notes the
cultural connections between HBCU campuses and the Black community and how that impacts
Black students’ college choice process (Freeman, 1999; Johnson, 2017; Johnson & McGowan,
2017) and their experiences while on campus (Douglas, 2012). Less is known about strategies
and approaches to promote Black female student achievement from the lens of HBCU students
and faculty. In particular, there remains a need to understand better how aspects of Black culture
are centered in HBCU environments as articulated via the pedagogy and practices of these
campus representatives. Douglas (2012) noted, “The perspectives and narratives of HBCU
stakeholders on issues of cultural identity and spirituality are far more limited in the literature”
(p. 385).
Improving graduation rates for Black females at HBCUs is important not only for the
individual achievement of these students but also for the broader societal impact. These
institutions serve as vital pillars in the education of Black children, offering an environment that
nurtures their academic and personal growth in ways that other institutions often cannot. By
ensuring higher graduation rates, we affirm the importance of HBCUs in fostering leadership,

127
empowering communities, and promoting social equity. The sustained support and development
of HBCUs are essential to continue their legacy of excellence and build a future where every
Black child can thrive academically and professionally.
This research contributes to the existing literature and delves into the distinctive role of
HBCUs in supporting Black female students, providing a foundation for strategies to enhance
their educational achievements. It also underscores the need for ongoing research and policy
refinement to fully support the educational trajectories of Black female students in higher
education.

128
References
Ahmedani, B. K. (2011). Mental health stigma: Society, individuals, and the profession. Journal
of Social Work Values and Ethics, 8(2), 1–16.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3248273/
Al-Bahrani, A., Buser, W., & Patel, D. (2020). Early causes of financial disquiet and the gender
gap in financial literacy: Evidence from college students in the Southeastern United
States. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 41(2), 558–571.
Albritton, T. J. (2012a). Educating our own: The historical legacy of HBCUs and their relevance
for educating a new generation of leaders. The Urban Review, 44(3), 311–331.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-012-0202-9
Alcorn, C. (2021, August 12). Major companies are recruiting more HBCU grads than ever
before, administrators say. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2021/08/12/business/hbcurecruitment-corporate-america/index.html
Allen, B. C., & Esters, L. T. (2018). Historically Black land-grant universities: Overcoming
barriers and achieving success..
https://cmsi.gse.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/HBLGUs_0.pdf
Allen, W. R., & Jewel, J. O. (2002). A backward glance forward: Past, present and future
perspectives on historically black colleges and universities. The Review of Higher
Education, 25(3), 241-261.
Allen, W. R., Devost, A., & Mack, C. (2020). Hidden in plain sight: Historically black colleges
and universities in America. Quaderni di Sociologia, LXIV (83), 25–46.
https://doi.org/10.4000/qds.4044

129
American Psychological Association. (2015, May 26). Measuring socioeconomic status and
subjective social status. https://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/class/measuring-status
Anderson, M. (2017, February 28). A look at historically black colleges and universities as
Howard turns 150. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/shortreads/2017/02/28/a-look-at-historically-black-colleges-and-universities-as-howard-turns150/
Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2022, February 6). Report details barriers faced by students at
HBCUs. The Annie E. Casey Foundation. https://www.aecf.org/blog/report-detailsbarriers-faced-by-students-at-hbcus
Arroyo, A. T., & Gasman, M. (2014). An HBCU-based educational approach for Black college
student success: Toward a framework with implications for all institutions. American
Journal of Education, 121(1), 57–85. https://doi.org/10.1086/678112
Avent, C. M., Reid, A., Moller, J., Adetogun, A., Hooks Singletary, B., & Boyce, A. S.
(2023). Navigating the field while black: A critical race analysis of peer and elder advice
to and from black evaluators. American Journal of Evaluation
https://doi.org/10.1177/10982140231184902">https://doi.org/10.1177/109821402311849
02
Avent Harris, J. R., & Wong, C. (2018). African American college students, the Black church
and counseling. Journal of College Counseling, 21(1), 15–28. doi:10.1002/jocc.12084
Avent Harris, J. R., Haskins, N., Parker, J., & Lee, A. (2021). Womanist theology and relational
cultural theory: Counseling religious Black women. Journal of Creativity in Mental
Health, 18(4), 458–476. https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2021.1999359

130
Banks, C. A. (2009). Black women undergraduates, cultural capital, and college success. Peter
Lang Publishing.
Baoku, H. (2018, July 27). Challenging mental health stigma in the Black community. National
Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). https://www.nami.org/african-american/challengingmental-health-stigma-in-the-black-community/
Baum, S., & Payea, K. (2005). Education pays, 2004: The benefits of higher education for
individuals and society. New York: The College Board.
Bell, D. A. (2023). Who's afraid of critical race theory? In Foundations of critical race theory in
education (pp. 30–41). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/b23210-4
Berger, J. B., & Milem, J. F. (2000). Exploring the impact of historically black colleges in
promoting the development of undergraduate self-concept. Journal of College Student
Development, 41(4), 381-394.
Betsey, C. (2008). Historically black colleges and universities. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction
Publishers.
Betsey, C. L. (2017). Historically black colleges and universities (1st ed.). Taylor & Francis.
Bettez, S. C., & Suggs, V. L. (2012). Centering the educational and social significance of
HBCUs: A focus on the educational journeys and thoughts of African American scholars.
Journal of Higher Education, 83(4), 421-445. https://doi.org/10.1353/jhe.2012.0028
Bhattacharya, S. (2017). Reimagining social capital among students in HBCUs. Journal of Negro
Education, 86(3), 215-231. https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.86.3.0215
Boland, W., Gasman, M., Samayoa, A., & Bennett, D. (2019). The effect of enrolling in minority
serving institutions on earnings compared to non-minority serving institutions: A college

131
scorecard analysis. Research in Higher Education, 62(2), 121–150.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-019-09580-w
Bowen, H. (1977). Investing in learning: The individual and social value of American higher
education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bottazzi, L., & Lusardi, A. (2021). Stereotypes in financial literacy: Evidence from pisa. Journal
of Corporate Finance, 71, 101831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2020.101831
Bracey, E. N. (2017). The significance of historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) in
the 21st century: Will such institutions of higher learning survive? American Journal of
Economics and Sociology, 76(3), 670–696. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajes.12191
Brady, K. P. (2001). From isolation to ambiguity: Fiscal equity, the perpetuation of past
discrimination and the status of the public historically Black college and university
(HBCU) [Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign].
https://www.proquest.com/openview/c8f3004d9c26b88e4fe1b695ae1d02de/1?pqorigsite=gscholar%26cbl=18750&diss=y
Brathwaite, J., Raufman, J., Mateo, A., & Edgecombe, N. (2021, August 17). What HBCUs can
teach us about culturally sustaining practices. Community College Research Center.
https://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/easyblog/hbcus-culturally-sustaining-practices.html
Bridges, Ph.D., B. (2018, November 29). African Americans and college education by the
numbers - UNCF. UNCF. https://uncf.org/the-latest/african-americans-and-collegeeducation-by-the-numbers
Brooks, F., & Starks, G. (2011). Historically Black colleges and universities: An encyclopedia.
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

132
Broido, E. M., & Manning, K. (2002). Philosophical foundations and current theoretical
perspectives in qualitative research. Journal of College Student Development, 43(4), 434-
445. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ650160
Broussard, W. (2023, August 17). Back to abnormal: HBCU executive leadership turnover in
2022–23 returns to crisis level. Medium.
Brown, D., Smith, K., & Williams, J. (2020). Peer support programs in higher education. Journal
of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 57(2), 167-182.
Brown, H. R., & Sacco-Bene, C. (2018). Path to success: Shared wisdom of how HBCU
institutional agents support African American men matriculate. Journal of African
American Males in Education, 9(2).
https://jaamejournal.scholasticahq.com/article/18104-path-to-success-shared-wisdom-ofhow-hbcu-institutional-agents-support-african-american-men-matriculate
Bryman, A. (2007). Barriers to integrating quantitative and qualitative research. Journal of
Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 8-22.
Bunch, W. (2015, August 12). Why historically Black colleges and universities matter in today's
America. The Conversation. Retrieved from The Conversation.
Burns, R., Johnson, R., Lacy, T. A., Cameron, M., Holley, J., Lew, S., Wu, J., Siegel, P., &
Wine, J. (2022). 2017-18 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS),
administrative collection (npsas:18-ac): First look at student financial aid estimates for
2017-18. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 2021-476rev (ED619354).
ERIC. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED619354

133
Cantey, N., Bland, R., Mack, L. R., & Joy-Davis, D. (2011). Historically Black colleges and
universities: Sustaining a culture of excellence in the twenty-first century. Journal of
African American Studies, 17(2), 142–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-011-9191-0
Cantey, N. I. (2012). Historically Black colleges and universities: Sustaining a culture of
excellence in the 21st century. Digital Scholarship @ Tennessee State University.
http://digitalscholarship.tnstate.edu/sswandurbanp_fac/1
Cantey, N. I., Bland, R., Mack, L., & Joy-Davis, D. (2013). Historically Black colleges and
universities: Sustaining a culture of excellence in the twenty-first century. Journal of
African American Studies, 17. 142–153. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257770448
Clark, R., Lusardi, A., Mitchell, O. S., & Davis, H. (2021). Factors contributing to financial well
being among Black and Hispanic women. The Journal of Retirement, 9(1), 71-97.
Colvin, A., Bullock, A. N., & George, T. (2016). Factors associated with college students
propensity toward mental health service utilization on historically Black college and
university campuses. Journal of Sociology and Social Work, 4(1), 10–19.
doi:10.15640/jssw.v4n1a2
Conrad, C. F., & Gasman, M. (2015). Educating a Diverse Nation: Lessons from Minority
Serving Institutions. Harvard University Press.
Cook, B. J. (2022, February 8). Black students find greater satisfaction attending historically
Black colleges and universities. Urban Institute. https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/blackstudents-find-greater-satisfaction-attending-historically-black-colleges-and-universities
Cooper, J. N., Porter, C. J., & Davis, T. J. (2017). Success through community cultural wealth:
Reflections from Black female college athletes at a historically Black college/university

134
(HBCU) and a historically white institution (HWI). Journal of Intercollegiate Sport,
10(2), 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1123/jis.2017-0006
Cornwell, B. (2009). Good health and the bridging of structural holes. Social Networks, 31(1),
92–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2008.10.005
Crenshaw, K., Gotanda, N., Peller, G., & Thomas, K. (Eds.). (1995). Critical race theory: The
key writings that formed the movement. The New Press.
Cross, T., Slater, R. B., Conway Jr., C. R., Jacobs, L., & Dursch, E. (1999). A comprehensive
guide to black student college graduation rates. The Journal of Blacks in Higher
Education, (23), 10. https://doi.org/10.2307/2999280
Creswell, J. W. (2014). A concise introduction to mixed methods research (1st ed.). SAGE
Publications, Inc.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2020). 30 essential skills for the qualitative researcher. Sage
Publications. Inc..
Davis, J. E. (2009). A proxy for success: assessing Black student graduation rates across the
nation and the barriers facing Black student graduation rates at historically Black colleges
and universities. [Thesis, Georgetown University]. ProQuest Publishing.
Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (1993). Critical race theory: An annotated bibliography. Virginia
Law Review, 79(2), 461. https://doi.org/10.2307/1073418
De Oliverias-Androti, V. (2012). Heads up checklist. In V. de Oliveira and L.M.T.M. de Souza
(Eds). Postcolonial perspectives on global citizenship education (p. 156). Routledge.

135
Douglas, T. R. M. (2012). HBCUs as sites of resistance: The malignity of materialism, western
masculinity, and spiritual malefaction. The Urban Review, 44(3), 378–400.
Douglas-Gabriel, D. (September 5, 2023). The wave of college presidential departures hits
HBCUs. The Washington Post.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2023/09/02/hbcu-president-departures/
Du Bois, W. E. B. (1935). Does the Negro need separate schools? The Journal of Negro
Education, 4(3), 328-335.
Dumbrigue, C., Moxley, D., & Najor-Durack, A. (2002). Keeping students in higher education:
Successful practices and strategies for retention. Routledge.
Fernandes, M., Mendonça, C., da Silva, T., & Noll, M. (2021). The relationship between
depression and quality of life in students and the academic consequences: Protocol for a
systematic review with meta-analysis. International Journal of Educational Research,
109, 101812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2021.101812
Freeman, K. (1999). HBCs or PWIs? African American high school students’ consideration of
higher education institution types. The Review of Higher Education, 23(1), 91–106.
Freeman, K., & Cohen, R. T. (2001). Bridging the gap between economic development and
cultural empowerment. Urban Education, 36(5), 585–596.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085901365004
Fullan, M. (2002, May). The change leader. Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
https://people.uncw.edu/wetherillk/wetherill/EDN513/edn_513_week3/The Change
Leader_article.pdf

136
Garriott, P. O. (2019). A critical cultural wealth model of first-generation and economically
marginalized college students' academic and career development. Journal of Career
Development, 47(1), 80-95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845319826266
Gasman, M. (2009). Historically Black colleges and universities in a time of economic crisis.
Scholarly Commons. The University of Pennsylvania.
https://repository.upenn.edu/gse_pubs/349/?utm_source=repository.upenn.edu%2Fgse_p
ubs%2F349%26utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
Gasman, M., & Castro Samayoa, A. (2017). HBCUs matter: An examination of factors that
influence enrollment in HBCUs. Higher Education Today. American Council on
Education (ACE). Retrieved from
https://www.higheredtoday.org/2017/10/04/historically-Black-colleges-universitiesfostering-familial-learning-environments-student-success/
Gasman, M., & Tudico, C. (2011). Opportunities and challenges at Historically Black Colleges
and Universities. Palgrave Macmillan.
Gasman, M., & Hilton, A. A. (2016). Is separate unequal?: Black colleges and the challenge to
desegregation. Princeton University Press. Retrieved from Google Books.
Gasman, M., Nguyen, T. H., & Commodore, F. (2018). Path to success: Shared wisdom of how
HBCU institutional agents promote educational excellence to African American students.
Journal of African American Males in Education, 9(2), 94 - 107. Retrieved from
https://jaamejournal.scholasticahq.com/article/18104.pdf
Gilbert, K. L., Ransome, Y., Dean, L. T., DeCaille, J., & Kawachi, I. (2022). Social capital,
Black social mobility, and health disparities. Annual Review of Public Health, 43(1),
173–191. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-052020-112623

137
Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction. White
Plains, NY: Longman. https://sedl.org/pubs/pic02/picbib-output.cgi?searchuniqueid=16
Golden, A. A., Bogan, Y., Brown, L., Onwukwe, O., & Stewart, S. (2017). Faculty mentoring:
Applying ecological theory to practice at historically Black colleges or universities.
Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2017.1279097
Gordon, E. K., Hawley, Z. B., Kobler, R., & Rork, J. C. (2020). The paradox of HBCU
graduation rates. Research in Higher Education, 62(3), 332–358.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-020-09598-5
Grant, C. & Osanloo, A. (2015). Understanding, selecting, and integrating a theoretical
framework in dissertation research: Creating the blueprint for your “house.”
Administrative Issues Journal: Connecting Education, Practice, and Research 4(2), 12–
26 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1058505.pdf
Grbich, C. (2013). Qualitative data analysis: An introduction. Sage Publications, Ltd.
https://methods.sagepub.com/book/qualitative-data-analysis-an-introduction-2e
Han, K. T. & Laughter, J. (Eds). (2019). Critical race theory in teacher education: Informing
classroom culture and practice (Reprint ed.). Teachers College Press.
Harmon, N. (2012). The role of minority-serving institutions in national college completion
goals. Institute for Higher Education Policy.
Harper, B. E. (2007). African American access to higher education. American Academic, 3. 109–
128. http://co.aft.org/files/article_assets/F3AFCF46-AB7A-29CFCA9E1AEAC8FA4F78.pdf

138
Harrold, S. (2004). The rise and fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian politics and the
onset of the Civil War. Oxford University Press.
HBCU Money. (2021, March 19). HBCU money’s 2020 top 10 HBCU endowments.
https://hbcumoney.com/2021/03/19/hbcu-moneys-2020-top-10-hbcu-endowments/
Henry, F. D. (2021). Persistence and retention strategies implemented at HBCUs that support
successful degree attainment of African American men. [Dissertation, Abilene Christian
University].
https://digitalcommons.acu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1314&context=etd
Hernandez Kent, A., Rickets, L., & Boshara, R. (2019, August 14). What wealth inequality in
America looks like: Key facts & figures. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.
https://www.stlouisfed.org/open-vault/2019/august/wealth-inequality-in-america-factsfigures#:~:text=Wealth%20inequality%20in%20America%20has,worth)%20own%20onl
y%201%25%20of
Hilton, A., & Felder, P. (2014). Why HBCU Graduate persistence is important.
http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/magazines/why-hbcugraduate-persistence-is-important/docview/1635265920/se-2
Hinton, S. (2014). Factors that affect retention among freshman students at historically black
colleges and universities. [Dissertation, Argosy University].
http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=https://www-proquestcom.libproxy2.usc.edu/dissertations-theses/factors-that-affect-retention-amongfreshman/docview/1649253127/se-2

139
Hirt, J. B., Amelink, C. T., McFeeters, B. B., & Strayhorn, T. L. (2006). The nature of student
affairs work in historically Black colleges and universities. Journal of College Student
Development, 47(6), 661-676. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2006.0069
Hoa Nguyen, M., Laderman, S., Duncan, B., Montelibano, M., & Maramba, D. C. (2022).
Covid-19, Asian American and Native American-serving institutions, and minorityserving institutions. UCLA AAPI Nexus Journal, 19(1&2).
https://www.aapinexus.org/wpcontent/uploads/2022/04/Nexus_19_1_2_Nguyen_etal.pdf
Holton, C., Banerjee, S., Morgan, P., McCune, N. M., Cook, A., Thomas, J., & Vesey, A. (2023).
Centering health equity through the social determinants of health, interprofessional
education, and sustainable partnerships with historically black colleges and universities:
Envisioning upstream and downstream impacts. Creative Nursing, 29(4), 343–353.
https://doi.org/10.1177/10784535231212477
Hunt, A. Y. (2020). Development and evaluation of a study measuring financial knowledge,
behaviors, skills, attitudes, and desires of economically disadvantaged first. [Dissertation,
Wilmington University]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2469531128?pqorigsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses
The Hunt Institute. (2021). The history of HBCUs. The Hunt Institute. Retrieved from
https://hunt-institute.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/HI-NC10-IB-112021.pdf
Jackson, C. L., & Nunn, E. F. (2003). Historically Black colleges and universities. Bloomsbury
Publishing.

140
James, E. L. (2015). The superwoman schema and the mediating factors of coping strategies and
help-seeking attitudes for depression in African American women. [Dissertation,
University of Georgia]. https://getd.libs.uga.edu/pdfs/james_erica_l_201508_phd.pdf
Johnson, E., Taylor, L., & Williams, S. (2019). Addressing mental health needs of Black female
students. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(4), 510–525.
Johnson, J. M. (2017). Choosing HBCUs: Why African Americans choose HBCUs in the
twenty-first century. In M.C. Brown and T.E. Dancy (Eds.). Black colleges across the
diaspora: Global perspectives on race and stratification in postsecondary education (pp.
151–169). Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds. https://doi.org/10.1108/s1479-
358x20160000014008
Johnson, J. M., & McGowan, B. L. (2017). Untold stories: The gendered experiences of high
achieving African American male alumni of historically Black colleges and universities.
Journal of African American Males in Education, 8(1) 23–44.
https://jaamejournal.scholasticahq.com/article/18484.pdf
Johnson, J. M., & Winfield, J. D. (2022). Institutionalizing success: Practices and policies at
HBCUs that promote student development and degree attainment. The Journal of Higher
Education, 93(7), 989–1011. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2022.2082759
Jones, G. M., Davenport, E. K., & Walker, K. L. (2014). Historically Black Colleges and
Universities' faculty experiences with cross-racial interactions. Journal of Negro
Education, 83(4), 453-468. https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.83.4.0453
Jones, M., & Campbell, C. (2020). Culturally competent care in mental health services.
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 90(2).

141
Joo, N., & Reeves, R. V. (2017, January 19). The contribution of historically black colleges and
universities to upward mobility. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/socialmobility-memos/2017/01/19/the-contribution-of-historically-black-colleges-anduniversities-to-upward-mobility/
Kelly, P. (2005). As America becomes more diverse: The impact of state higher education
inequality. National Center for Higher Education Management Systems. Boulder, CO.
Khan, F., Siddiqui, M. A., & Imtiaz, S. (2022). Role of financial literacy in achieving financial
inclusion: A review, synthesis and research agenda. Cogent Business & Management,
9(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2022.2034236
Kim, D. (2007). The effect of loans on students' degree attainment: Differences by student and
institutional characteristics. Harvard Educational Review, 77(1), 64–100.
https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.77.1.n14t69l0q8292784
Knight, L., Davenport, E., Green-Powell, P., & Hilton, A. (2012). The role of historically Black
colleges or universities in today's higher education landscape. International Journal of
Education, 4(2), 223. https://doi.org/10.5296/ije.v4i2.1650
Korejan, M. M., & Shahbazi, H. (2016). An Analysis of the Transformational Leadership
Theory. Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, 8, 452–461.
Kwun, O., Alijani, G., & Johnson, R. (2020). Barriers that affect HBCU students’ help-seeking
behavior. International Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 7(2), 40–47.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2014). Culturally relevant pedagogy 2.0: A.K.A. the remix. Harvard
Educational Review, 84(1), 74–84. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.84.1.p2rj131485484751

142
Ladson‐Billings, G. (2005). The evolving role of critical race theory in educational scholarship.
Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 115–119.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1361332052000341024
Ladson‐Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. Teachers
College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 97(1), 47–68.
https://doi.org/10.1177/016146819509700104
LeBaron-Black, A. B., Kelley, H. H., Hill, E. J., Jorgensen, B. L., & Jensen, J. F. (2023).
Financial socialization agents and spending behavior of emerging adults: Do parents,
peers, employment, and media matter? Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning,
34(1), 6–19. ERIC. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1383278
Library of Congress. (1980, June 1). This month in business history: Black wall street in Tulsa,
OK destroyed on 6/1/1921. https://guides.loc.gov/this-month-in-businesshistory/june/black-wall-street-destroyed
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry (1st ed.). Sage Publications, Inc.
Livingston, V., Chung, I., Davis-Wagner, D., Ericksen, K. S., Jenkins, V., Nevels, B., & NeelyGoodwin, S. (2021). An examination of the help-seeking behaviors of HBCU students by
gender, classification, referral source, and mental health concerns. Social Work in Mental
Health, 20(3), 334–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332985.2021.2011823
Lusardi, A., & Mitchell, O. S. (2014). The economic importance of financial literacy: Theory
and evidence. Journal of Economic Literature, 52(1), 1–40.
https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jel.52.1.5

143
Lyn, J. S., & Winfield, J. K. (2021). The heavy lift: An approach to retention for HBCUs. New
Directions for Higher Education, 2021(195-196), 77–89.
https://doi.org/10.1002/he.20410
Lynn, M., Jennings, M. E., & Hughes, S. (2013). Critical race pedagogy 2.0: Lessons from
Derrick Bell. Race Ethnicity and Education, 16(4), 603–628.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2013.817776
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Sage
Publishing.
Maxwell, J. T. (2023). Historically Black colleges and university graduates transitioning to
predominantly White institutions for graduate school: A phenomenological study.
[Dissertation, Liberty University].
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5418&context=doctoral
McGill, D. M. (1965). The predominantly Negro colleges and universities in transition. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Merisotis, J. P., & McCarthy, K. (2005). Minority-serving institutions: Distinct purposes,
common goals. New Directions for Higher Education, 2005(129), 45-57.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.138
Merriam, S. B. (2014). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Minor, J. T. (2008). Groundwork for studying governance at historically Black colleges and
universities. Understanding minority-serving institutions. In M. Gasman, B. Baez, & C.S.
Viernes Turner (Eds). Understanding minority-serving institutions (pp). 169-182.

144
Montagnino - Fiske, G. (2022). How organizations can utilize to increase the return on
investment from employee retention dissertation in practice [Dissertation, Barry
University].
https://www.proquest.com/openview/a0d3e4a52c3cf434245a37d31acecd80/1?pqorigsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
Mustaffa, J. (2021). Racial justice beyond credentials: The radical politic of a Black college
dropout. The Urban Review, 54(2), 318–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-021-00612-
3
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2016). Table 306.10, Total fall enrollment in
degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by level of enrollment, sex, attendance status,
and race/ethnicity of student, selected years, 1976 through 2015. U.S. Department of
Education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d16/tables/dt16_306.10.asp?current=yes.
.National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2017). Table 322.20. Bachelor’s degrees
conferred by postsecondary institutions, by race/ethnicity and sex of student, selected
years, 1976-77 through 2015-16. U.S. Department of
Education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_322.20.asp?current=yes.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2019, February). Status and trends in the education of
racial and ethnic groups: Postsecondary graduation rates. U.S. Department of
Education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/raceindicators/indicator_red.asp
National Center for Education Statistics. (2021). Fast facts: Historically Black colleges and
universities. U.S. Department of Education.
https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=667

145
National Center for Education Statistics. (2022). College navigator - Clark Atlanta University.
U.S. Department of Education.
https://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/?q=Clark+Atlanta+University&s=all&id=138947ret
grad
National Center for Education Statistics. (2022). Total fall enrollment in degree-granting
postsecondary institutions, by level and control of institution and race/ethnicity or
nonresident status of student: Selected years, 1976 through 2021. U.S. Department of
Education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d22/tables/dt22_306.20.asp
Nguyen, T. & Bowman, N. (2021). Enhancing mental health outreach programs. Journal of
College Student Psychotherapy, 35(1).
Nixon, H. L., & Henry, W. J. (2012). An analysis of white student engagement at public HBCUs.
Educational Research and Reviews. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2016-
26501-001
Oliverias-Androti, V. D. (2012). "Heads Up Checklist." In Postcolonial perspectives on global
citizenship education (p. 156). Routledge.
Outcalt, C. L., & Skewes-Cox, T. (2002). Involvement, interaction, and satisfaction: The human
environment at HBCUs. The Review of Higher Education, 25(3), 331–347.
https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2002.0015
Office on Violence Against Women (OVW). (2017). A culturally specific perspective: The
HBCU story. U.S. Department of Justice. https://changingourcampus.org/wpcontent/uploads/2017/02/HBCU-Story-Final-2-21-17.pdf

146
Palmer, R., & Gasman, M. (2008). “It takes a village to raise a child”: The role of social capital
in promoting academic success for African American men at a Black college. Journal of
College Student Development, 49(1), 52–70. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2008.0002
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2004). How college affects students: A third decade of
research. Jossey-Bass.
Patton, L. D., Evans-Winters, V., & Jacobs, C. (Eds). (2023). Investing in the educational
success of Black women and girls. Routledge.
Perry, A., & Barr, A. (2022). A call to action for HBCU investment [PDF]. Brookings Metro.
https://www.reinvestment.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/HBCU-Pathways_final.pdf
Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
Prince, C. B. W. & Ford, R. L. (2016). Administrative challenges and organizational leadership
in historically Black colleges and universities. I.G.I. Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-
1-5225-0311-8
Redd, K. E. (1998). Historically Black colleges and universities: Making a comeback. New
Directions for Higher Education, 1998(102), 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/he.10203
Ricard, R. B., & Brown II, M. C. (2023). Ebony towers in higher education: the evolution,
mission, and presidency of historically Black colleges and universities. Taylor & Francis.
Richards, D. A. R., & Awokoya, J. T. (2012). Understanding HBCU retention and workforce
success: A look at student engagement. The Education Trust. Retrieved from
https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6177&context=etd
Richardson, A. (2018). A study of the relationship among revenue sources and retention rates at
private historically black colleges and universities. [Dissertation, North Carolina
Agricultural and Technical State University].

147
http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=https://www-proquestcom.libproxy2.usc.edu/dissertations-theses/study-relationship-among-revenuesources/docview/2050757834/se-2
Robinson, S., & Franklin, V. (2011). Working against the odds: The undergraduate support
needs of African American women. In Diversity in higher education (pp. 21–41).
https://doi.org/10.1108/s1479-3644(2011)0000008005
Robinson-Spann, A. (2023). Institutional factors and practices that influence the graduation rates
of Black students attending four-year public and private nonprofit predominantly White
institutions and other non historically Black colleges and universities. [Dissertation,
Hampton University].
https://www.proquest.com/openview/7dac4f9994bc8df83df657090a6df8aa/1?pqorigsite=gscholar%26cbl=18750&diss=y
Rollins, R. (1975). Statewide planning in an effort to provide equal educational opportunity in
higher education. In P. Mohr (Ed.), Black colleges and equal opportunity in higher
education (pp. 2–10). Chicago, IL: Chicago-Southern Network.
Rosenberg J.S. (2019), Harvard Endowment Increases 4.3 Per Cent to $40.9 Billion. Harvard
Magazine. https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2019/09/harvard-endowment-increases-4-
3-percent-to-40-9-billion
Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2012). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data (3rd ed.).
Sage Publications, Inc.
Sawyers, D. E. (2011, October 24). The relationship between a retention program and the
persistence and graduation rates of first-generation low-income students at an urban,
public university. FIU Digital Commons. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/532/

148
Seymour, S., & Ray, J. (2015, October 27). Grads of historically black colleges have well-being
edge. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/186362/grads-historically-Black-collegesedge.aspx
Shambaugh, J., Nunn, R. Liu, P. & Nantz, G. (2016). The state of American wages 2016. The
Hamilton Project. Retrieved from
https://www.hamiltonproject.org/assets/files/thirteen_facts_wage_growth.pdf
Shim, S., Barber, B. L., Card, N. A., Xiao, J., & Serido, J. (2009). Financial socialization of firstyear college students: The roles of parents, work, and education. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 39(12), 1457-1470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9432-x
Smith, D. A. (2021, September 13). Achieving financial equity and justice for HBCUs. The
Century Foundation. https://tcf.org/content/report/achieving-financial-equity-justicehbcus/
Smith, K., Williams, J., & Justice, C. (2021). The role of peer support in mental health services.
Psychiatric Services, 72(3), 341–348.
Strayhorn, T. (2016). A return on investment analysis for Black graduates of historically Black
colleges and universities: Insights from three studies. Center for Higher Education
Enterprise. The Ohio State University.
(https://cmsi.gse.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/HBCU.final%20paper.pdf)
Strayhorn, T. L. (2020). Measuring the relation between sense of belonging, campus leadership,
and academic achievement for African American students at historically Black colleges
and universities (HBCUs): A “gender equity” analysis. Journal of Minority Achievement,
Creativity, and Leadership, 1(1), 94-118.
https://doi.org/10.5325/minoachicrealead.1.1.0094

149
Startz, D. (2021, January 18). When it comes to student success, HBCUs do more with less.
Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2021/01/18/whenit-comes-to-student-success-hbcus-do-more-with-less/
Subhan, B. A., & Johnson, V. E. (2023). The strong Black woman archetype and therapeutic
outcomes: Examining relationships among women with childhood sexual abuse histories.
Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 10(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-
022-01472-7
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2019). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice. Wiley.
Sunderaraman, P., Barker, M., Chapman, S., & Cosentino, S. (2020). Assessing numerical
reasoning provides insight into financial literacy. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 29(4),
710–717. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2020.1805745
Tauriac, J. J., & Liem, J. H. (2012). Exploring the divergent academic outcomes of U.S.-origin
and immigrant-origin black undergraduates. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education,
5(4), 244–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030181
The Thurgood Marshall Foundation. (2021). About HBCUs. Thurgood Marshall College Fund.
https://www.tmcf.org/about-us/member-schools/about-hbcus/
Toldson, I. A. (2019). Cultivating STEM talent at minority serving institutions: Challenges and
opportunities to broaden participation in STEM at historically Black colleges and
universities. In L.L. Winfield, G. Thomas, L.M. Watkins, & Z.S. Wilson-Kennedy (Eds).
Growing diverse STEM communities: Methodology, impact, and evidence (pp. 1–8).
American Chemical Society Publications.
Trostel, P. (2015). It's not just the money: The benefits of college education to individuals and to
society. Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center & School of Economics, University of

150
Maine. Lumina Issue Papers. https://www.luminafoundation.org/files/resources/its-notjust-the-money.pdf
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2015). Household data – Tables from Employment and
Earnings, 2015 Annual Averages. https://www.bls.gov/cps/cps_aa2015.htm
U.S. Census Bureau. (2022, February 24). Census bureau releases new educational attainment
data. U.S. Department of Commerce. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/pressreleases/2022/educational-attainment.html#:~:text=the%20Hispanic%20population.-
,From%202011%20to%202021%2C%20the%20percentage%20of%20adults%20age%20
25,20.6%25%20for%20the%20Hispanic%20population.
U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights. (1991). Historically Black colleges and
universities and higher education desegregation. Retrieved from
http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices
U.S. Department of Education. (2010). The educational effectiveness of historically Black
colleges and universities: A briefing before the United States Commission on Civil
Rights held in Washington, D.C. briefing report (ED513988). ERIC.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED513988.pdf
U. S. Department of Education. (2022). What is an HBCU? https://sites.ed.gov/whhbcu/onehundred-and-five-historically-black-colleges-and-universities/
U. S. Department of Education. (2023). U.S. department of education fiscal year 2023 budget
summary [PDF].
https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/budget/budget23/summary/23summary.pdf
United Negro College Fund (2019, July 10). By the numbers: How HBCUs stack up.
https://uncf.org/the-latest/by-the-numbers-how-hbcus-stack-up

151
United Negro College Fund. (2021). HBCUs make America strong: The positive economic
impact of historically black colleges and universities. https://cdn.uncf.org/wpcontent/uploads/HBCU_Consumer_Brochure_FINAL_APPROVED.pdf?_ga=2.2053831
20.1140156010.1610915594-751381617.1610915594
United Negro College Fund. (2022, February 8). The numbers don’t lie: HBCUs are changing
the college landscape. https://uncf.org/the-latest/the-numbers-dont-lie-hbcus-arechanging-the-college-landscape
Walker, L. J., & Goings, R. B. (2018). Historically Black colleges’ and universities’ role in
preparing professional students for the global workforce. In Professional education at
historically black colleges and universities (pp. 13–27). Routledge.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315389165-2
Vien, C. L. (2011). Black student college graduation rates inch higher but a large racial gap
persists. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 54, 58-66.
Washington, B. T., & Park, R. E. (1912). The man farthest down: A record of observation and
study in Europe. Doubleday, Page & Company.
Wennersten, J. R. (1991). Anacostia: The death and rebirth of a community. Smithsonian
Institution Press, p. 55.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315389165-2
Williams, J. L., & Palmer, R. T. (2018). A response to racism; how HBCU enrollment grew in
the face of racism. CSMI Research Brief. Rutgers Graduate School of Education.
Wilson, A. B. (2017). Black students: Stereotypes and educational opportunities [Dissertation,
California State University, East Bay].
https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/downloads/th83m0448

152
Wimberly, E. P. (2012). Ethical responsibility in healing and protecting the families of the U.S.
public health service syphilis study in African American men at Tuskegee: An
intergenerational storytelling approach. Ethics & Behavior, 22(6), 475–481.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2012.730007
W. K. Kellogg Foundation (WKKF). (2023, July 1). African American alliance of CEOs.
Awarded grants. https://www.wkkf.org/awarded-grants/
Wood, L. (2019). Participatory action learning and action research: Theory, practice and
process. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429441318
Yosso, T. J. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community
cultural wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69–91.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1361332052000341006

153
Appendix A: HBCU Graduation Rates
Graduation Rates of 68 of the 107 Historically Black Colleges and Universities for 2022

Name Graduation
Rate Name Graduation
Rate
Spelman
College 76%
Fort Valley
State
University 45%
American Baptist
College 33%
Kentucky State
University 27%
Howard
University 69% Fisk University 44% Norfolk State University 33%
Livingstone
College 27%
Talladega
College 65%
Prairie View A
& M University 43%
Saint Augustine's
University 33% Rust College 27%
Tuskegee
University 57%
Morgan State
University 42%
Tennessee State
University 33%
Central State
University 26%
Hampton
University 56%
Stillman
College 41%
Grambling State
University 32%
Coppin State
University 26%
North Carolina A
& T State
University 55%
Virginia State
University 41%
Jackson State
University 32% Miles College 26%
Morehouse
College 53%
Virginia Union
University 41%
Philander Smith
University 32%
University of the
District of
Columbia 26%
Florida
Agricultural and
Mechanical
University 52%
University of
Arkansas at
Pine Bluff 40% Tougaloo College 32%
Virginia University
of Lynchburg 26%
Lincoln
University 52%
Delaware
State
University 39%
Alabama State
University 30%
Le Moyne-Owen
College 25%
Xavier University
of Louisiana 50%
Bowie State
University 38%
Florida Memorial
University 30%
Savannah State
University 25%
Claflin University 49%
Paul Quinn
College 38%
Alabama A & M
University 29% Selma University 24%
Oakwood
University 49%
Voorhees
University 38%
South Carolina State
University 29%
Albany State
University 23%
Southwestern
Christian
College 49%
HustonTillotson
University 36%
University of the Virgin
Islands 29% Lincoln University 22%
Winston-Salem
State University 49%
Bluefield State
University 35%
Bethune-Cookman
University 28%
Mississippi Valley
State University 22%
Clark Atlanta
University 48%
Fayetteville
State
University 35%
Edward Waters
University 28% Paine College 22%
Elizabeth City
State University 48%
University of
Maryland
Eastern Shore 35%
Southern University and
A & M College 28% Benedict College 21%
Alcorn State
University 46%
Johnson C
Smith
University 34%
Harris-Stowe State
University 27% Bennett College 21%
North Carolina
Central
University 46%
Simmons
College of
Kentucky 34% Morris College 20%
Dillard
University 45%
West Virginia
State
University 34% Shaw University 20%
Texas Southern
University 20%

154
APPENDIX B: Information Sheet
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH
STUDY TITLE: Improving Persistence and Graduation of Black Female Students at
Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Jeanne K. Wardford
FACULTY ADVISOR: Tracy Poon Tambascia, Ed.D.
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the influences that affect the persistence
and graduation outcomes of Black female students who either graduated from or attended and
dropped out after their second year from the following HBCUs:
• Sadie College
• Mossell University
• Alexander University
We would like to hear your story about what influenced your decision-making process.
Your story may serve as a guide to colleges and universities on how to influence persistence and
graduation. You are invited as a possible participant because you attended an HBCU for at least
two years or graduated from an HBCU.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you decide to participate in this study, we will ask you to take a short survey about your
educational background, how long you attended an HBCU, and if you wish to participate. If you
agree to participate, you will be asked to answer questions in a one-on-one interview about your
attending an HBCU and the influences on your graduation outcomes. The interview will take
approximately 45 minutes to one hour and will be held online via Zoom video conferencing or in
person. You may be scheduled for a follow-up interview to confirm your responses. Audio or

155
video recordings will be used to ensure the accuracy of the transcription of your responses. You
cannot participate in this study if you decline to be recorded.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed at conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential.
Your responses will be coded with a pseudonym and kept in a password-protected external hard
drive. The audio and video recordings will be destroyed once the information is transcribed.
Interview transcriptions will be destroyed as soon as the study is completed.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Jeanne K. Wardford via email at
wardford@usc.edu or Faculty Advisor Dr. Tracy Tambascia at tpoon@rossier.usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

156
APPENDIX C: Recruitment Email
Dear [Name],
I am Jeanne K. Wardford, a doctoral student at the Rossier School of Education, University of
Southern California. I am conducting research on issues influencing persistence and graduation
rates among Black students and the role of community cultural capital. As a former Black female
student of a Historically Black College and University (HBCU), your unique perspective can
greatly contribute to this study.
I invite you to participate by sharing your experiences, including the resources and supports that
benefited you, the barriers you faced, and any insights on strategies to enhance college
graduation rates. Your input will help create a more supportive educational environment for
future students.
To begin, please complete a brief questionnaire that will take about 10 minutes. Your responses
will help identify participants for further interviews (20-30 individuals).
If you meet the study requirements, I will contact you to schedule an interview at your
convenience. Your participation is voluntary, and all personal information will remain
confidential.
For any questions or clarifications, please email me at wardford@usc.edu or call (313) 715-
8955.
Thank you for considering this opportunity to contribute to the future of higher education.
Best Regards,
Jeanne K. Wardford

157
APPENDIX D: Recruitment Flyer

158
APPENDIX E: Survey
Improving Persistence and Graduation Rates of Black Female Students from
Historically Black College and Universities
This survey can be taken electronically on a laptop, iPad, or Mobile Phone.
Ethnicity: Is your ethnicity Black or African American:
o Yes
o No
Gender: To which gender do you identify?
o Female
o Male
o Transgender Feale
o Transgender Female
o Gender Variant/Non-Conforming
o Not Listed __________________
o Prefer Not to Answer
o No
This question would qualify them for the survey—or not. A yes response allows the survey to
continue; a no response ends it and thanks them for participating.
Age 2: What is your age?
________________________________________________________________
COLLEGE EXPERIENCE
The following questions ask about your college experience. Please respond to each using a brief
answer or the scale below for each question. Select the answer that best reflects your response.
Please answer openly and honestly. There are no right or wrong answers.
Q 3. Which Historically Black College or University did you attend? ________________
Q 4. What semester did you first begin your undergraduate degree program? (Ex: Fall 2015)
________________________________________________________________
Q 5. How long did it take you to graduate?
o 4 years (1)
o 5 years (2)
o 6 years (3)
o Did not graduate (4)

159
Q 6. What was your major?
________________________________________________________________
Q 7. Are you willing to participate in a 45–60-minute interview about student success at
HBCU’s?
Yes – please provide contact info here _______
No.

160
APPENDIX F: HEADSUP Framework

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Addressing the education debt: how community college educators utilize culturally relevant pedagogy to support Black and Latinx student success

PDF

Advancing Black identity and culture in predominantly White colleges and universities: a promising practice study

PDF

The Relationship Between Institutional Marketing and Communications and Black Student Intent to Persist in Private Universities

PDF

Beyond deficit thinking: highlighting the strengths and resilience of Black indigenous and people of color students thriving in higher education

PDF

Factors affecting the success of older community college students

PDF

Examining the influence of project-based learning programs on the academic and non-academic development of Chinese students applying for admission to colleges in the United States

PDF

Advancing retention strategies at a historically Black university

PDF

Exploring mental health care utilization and academic persistence among college students: evaluating racial and stigma-related disparities

PDF

A different world: exploring how Black students facilitate their own success at a public, 4-year institution

PDF

Attaining success: how African American college students persist, engage and graduate from a moderately selective institution: a case study

PDF

And yet, still, they rise: a qualitative study on the persistence of Black undergraduate women at a predominantly White institution

PDF

First-generation college students and persistence to a degree: an evaluation study

PDF

Closing the achievement gap for marginalized students using the college-going culture: a promising practices study

PDF

When parents become students: An examination of experiences, needs, and opportunities which contribute to student parent engagement in community college

PDF

Persistence of first-generation Latinx engineering students: developing a better understanding of STEM classroom experiences and faculty interactions

PDF

Career development of Black male revenue generating student-athletes within an environment of anti-Black racism

PDF

Equity-enhancing strategies for African American students in higher education

PDF

Changing pedagogy to promote the success of international students

PDF

Acceptance, belonging, and capital: the impact of socioeconomic status at a highly selective, private, university

PDF

Navigating the unknown: uplifting the experiences of mixed-status families in higher education

Asset Metadata

Creator Wardford, Jeanne Karen (author)

Core Title Unlocking the potential: improving persistence and graduation of Black female students at select historically Black colleges and universities: a case study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 08/26/2024

Defense Date 08/23/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag barriers to success,Black female students,community cultural wealth,critical race theory,culturally relevant teaching,educational outcomes,graduation rates,Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs),institutional strategies,mental health,OAI-PMH Harvest,persistence,student retention,support programs

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Poon Tambascia, Tracy (committee chair), Blasi, Joseph (committee member), Smith-Maddox, Renee (committee member)

Creator Email wardford@usc.edu;jeanne.wardford@gmail.com

Unique identifier UC113999JNG

Identifier etd-WardfordJe-13427.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-WardfordJe-13427

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Wardford, Jeanne Karen

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240827-usctheses-batch-1202 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu