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Belonging matters: exploring the impact of social connectedness on the academic success of immigrant and refugee children in the American school system

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Belonging matters: exploring the impact of social connectedness on the academic success of immigrant and refugee children in the American school system

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Content Belonging Matters: Exploring the Impact of Social Connectedness on the Academic Success
of Immigrant and Refugee Children in the American School System
Sommer Jabbar
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2024

© Copyright by Sommer Jabbar 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Sommer Jabbar certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Rudolph Franklin Crew
R. (Thea) Miller-Smith
Frederick William Freking, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
This study explored the role of belonging in the academic success and overall well-being of
immigrant and refugee students in the American school system. Drawing on data collected from
newcomer high-school students, this research examined how caring relationships, supportive
environments, and engagement opportunities contribute to their sense of belonging. The findings
underscore the necessity of fostering relationships that are both trusted and supported,
particularly through culturally responsive teaching practices. The study identified several key
factors that influence the sense of belonging. First, caring relationships between students and
school staff are essential. When students perceive that educators genuinely care about their wellbeing and success, they are more likely to engage with their learning environments. Second,
supportive and inclusive school environments where students feel safe and respected
significantly enhance their sense of belonging. Lastly, opportunities for engagement provide
students with additional avenues to connect with peers and the school community, further
reinforcing their sense of belonging. The results indicate that educational institutions must
prioritize these factors to support immigrant and refugee students’ academic and emotional
needs. Schools can better meet these students’ needs by adopting culturally responsive teaching
practices and fostering an inclusive school culture, leading to improved academic outcomes and
overall well-being. This research contributes to the literature on immigrant and refugee students’
educational experiences and provides practical recommendations for schools seeking to enhance
these students’ sense of belonging and success.
Keywords: Immigrant, refugee, culturally responsive teaching, belonging.

v
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to all those who have never felt like they belong. May this research
help create spaces where everyone can find acceptance and a true sense of belonging. I also pay
homage to my heritage and the resilient spirit of Palestinians, hoping this work honors the pursuit
of belonging and justice that deeply resonates with our shared experiences and aspirations.
You belong.

vi
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my mother and father for their unwavering
support, love, and encouragement throughout my academic journey. Their constant belief in me
and their sacrifices have been instrumental to my success. I am also profoundly grateful to my
brothers, Khader and Sami, whose support has been invaluable every step of the way. Without
my family, this dissertation would not have been possible.
Next, I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to my husband, Branden. Your steadfast
support, understanding, and encouragement have been crucial to completing this dissertation.
Your enduring faith in my abilities and constant companionship have been invaluable throughout
this endeavor. I love you.
I am forever grateful to my biggest cheerleader, K’Sandra, for her encouragement and belief in
my dreams. Her support and motivation inspired me to pursue and achieve this academic goal.
As your #5, I hope I can now claim to be your favorite!
I would like to express my deep gratitude to my best friend, Ashley, who spoke with me every
morning and encouraged me daily. Your unwavering support and encouragement have been a
constant source of strength throughout this journey.
I extend my heartfelt thanks to my incredible friends Jen , Erica, Addison, and JaneAnn for their
unwavering support and encouragement. Your belief in me and your constant companionship
have been a vital source of strength and motivation.
I am deeply grateful to my dissertation chair, Dr. Freking, and my committee members, Dr. Crew
and Dr. Miller-Smith. Your guidance, expertise, and support have been essential in shaping and
ensuring the success of this dissertation.

vii
To my OCL cohort, I am profoundly thankful for your support throughout this journey; I
couldn’t have achieved this without you. A special shout-out to Kristina, Mel, Zack, Virginia,
and Stef—truly the finest Saturday crew I could have asked for!
Lastly, I extend my sincere appreciation to Kentwood Public Schools and its students. Your
engagement and participation have been crucial to this research, and your experiences have
profoundly enriched this work.

viii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ xi
Context and Background of the Problem.........................................................................................1
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions...............................................................................2
Importance of the Study...................................................................................................................3
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................................3
Literature Review.............................................................................................................................4
Immigrant and Refugee Students in America ......................................................................4
Challenges of Immigrant and Refugee Students in the American School System ..............5
Importance of Sense of Belonging.......................................................................................5
Belonging and Student Academic Success..........................................................................6
Conceptual Framework....................................................................................................................7
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs .............................................................................................7
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems Theory .......................................................................7
Methodology ....................................................................................................................................8
Research Setting...................................................................................................................9
The Researcher...................................................................................................................10
Data Collection ..............................................................................................................................11
Survey ................................................................................................................................11
Interview ............................................................................................................................13
Findings..........................................................................................................................................19

ix
Research Question 1: What Factors Contribute to Developing a Sense of Belonging for
Immigrant and Refugee Children in American Schools? ..................................................20
Research Question 2: How Can Schools and Educators Better Support Immigrant and
Refugee Children to Develop a Sense of Belonging in American Schools? .....................25
Research Question 3: How Does a Sense of Belonging Impact Students’ Academic
Success? .............................................................................................................................29
Summary ........................................................................................................................................34
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................................34
Recommendation 1: Enhancing English Language Proficiency, a Sense of Belonging, and
Academic Success Through Structured Support Programs ...............................................36
Recommendation 2: Advancing Student Success and Belonging Through the
Implementation of Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices..........................................43
Recommendation 3: Policy and Administrative Support...................................................46
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................................49
Recommendations for Future Research .........................................................................................50
Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................51
References......................................................................................................................................52
Appendix A: Definitions................................................................................................................61
Appendix B: The Researcher.........................................................................................................62
Appendix C: Protocols...................................................................................................................64
Appendix D: Ethics........................................................................................................................66

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources......................................................................................................................9
Table 2: Sample Survey .................................................................................................................12
Table 3: Participant Demographics................................................................................................14
Table C1: Sample Survey ..............................................................................................................64
Table C2: Sample Interview Questions .........................................................................................65

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Sense of Being an Important Part of Their Classroom Community...............................21
Figure 2: School Offers a Large Number of Clubs or Activities...................................................24
Figure 3: I Feel Like I Can Be Myself at School...........................................................................27
Figure 4: Feel Proud to Belong and Attend Their School .............................................................30
Figure 5: My Teachers Help Me Understand What I Need to Learn in Order to Be Successful ..32
Figure 6: Word Cloud ....................................................................................................................33

1
Belonging Matters: Exploring the Impact of Social Connectedness on the Academic Success
of Immigrant and Refugee Children in the American School System
Since the year 1975, America has gained nearly 2 million refugees and immigrants,
nearly half of whom are children (McBrien, 2005). Refugee or immigrant youth who have
relocated to America have traumatic experiences in multiple categories, including war, rape,
becoming child soldiers, and separation from their families. Due to these experiences, many
cannot access or continue access to education throughout the relocation period (Boyden et al.,
2002; Tollefson, 1989).
Upon arrival to the United States, research indicates that education is a key component of
social and emotional healing for immigrant and refugee students (Eisenbruch, 1988; Huyck &
Fields, 1981; Sinclair, 2001). However, discrimination as a barrier blocks the ability to feel a
sense of belonging. Portes and Rumbaut (2001) found that discrimination was the greatest barrier
to adaptation for these students. This study focused specifically on the impact of belongingness
on these students’ academic performance and success.
Context and Background of the Problem
Research has previously established that immigrant youth of color, especially English
language learners, are on the lower end of the achievement gap regarding success in education
(García et al., 2009; Reardon & Galindo, 2009). Murphy (2009) completed research on
narrowing the achievement gap for students of color and provided principles deemed essential to
closing the gap. These principles include focusing on internal and external factors to determine
academic success, recognizing the differentiation among similar but different sub-groups of
children, and remembering that equity looks different for every student. However, there remain
numerous gaps in research on the impact belongingness plays in achieving educational success

2
for immigrants. The literature on belonging has supported successful outcomes in the realm of
immigrants’ integration into schools.
Current research has found that intentionally integrating immigrant youths can benefit the
school as a whole. This is because, by mid-century, nearly half of the American school system
will be comprised of immigrants (Reynolds & Crea, 2017). Therefore, it is important to
understand how belongingness affects academic success. Booker (2006) stated that a sense of
belonging can influence a student’s learning, motivation, and engagement. Without a sense of
belonging, a student feels no desire to achieve academic or social success (Booker, 2006).
However, the literature is still limited on how belonging can support immigrant youth in
academic success in the American school system. This study shifts the research focus from the
implications of the school system to the implications of academic success influenced by
belonging.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
According to research by New American Economy (2018), in 2016, over 50,000
immigrants lived in Kent County, comprising 15% of the total population. Of these 50,000
immigrants, 3.6% were considered students under age 18 who attended a public school in Kent
County. This study aimed to measure the impact of belongingness on the academic performance
of immigrant youth of color in the Kent County public school system. The following research
questions guided this study:
1. What factors contribute to developing a sense of belonging for immigrant and refugee
children in American schools?
2. How can schools and educators better support immigrant and refugee children to
develop a sense of belonging in American schools?
3. How does a sense of belonging impact students’ academic success?

3
Importance of the Study
Research conducted between 2016 and 2019 indicates that approximately 320,000
immigrant and refugee children enrolled in public schools across the United States (Napolitano,
2021). This number will continue to grow as more families relocate or find refuge in the United
States. The information gathered from this study aids in understanding how belonging
contributes to this student community. This research benefits students and the educators who
facilitate and shape the education system. The overarching goal of this study was to understand
the effect of belonging on academic performance for immigrant and refugee students. The
findings can be used to continue to close the educational equity gap for marginalized students
and prepare districts to support all their students.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The theoretical frameworks used to guide this research are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of change. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs states that
human beings need their basic needs met before they can thrive and reach their full potential
(McLeod, 2020). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory that conceptualizes the
human need for connection. Applying this theory to the problem outlined previously
demonstrates that an immigrant or refugee child of color must feel a sense of belonging to thrive
academically. A sense of belonging can not be achieved if the needs lower in the hierarchy have
not been addressed (Poston, 2009).
The Bronfenbrenner ecological model of change states that five systems of interaction
influence individuals’ learning and development. These five systems are microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem (Zhang, 2018). Each of these systems
is dependent on the others and contributes to the sense of belonging for an individual. When the

4
systems are cohesively being utilized, optimal learning occurs (Zhang, 2018). Optimal learning
will only take place when belonging is present.
Literature Review
The following literature review will cover who immigrant and refugee students are in the
context of American schools, the different struggles they face, and the importance of both
belonging and safety in the overarching context of their academic success.
Immigrant and Refugee Students in America
Engaging the work needed to ensure immigrant and refugee student success requires
familiarization with the terms “immigrant” and “refugee.” This paper uses the term “immigrant,”
to mean a noncitizen who has voluntarily moved from one society to another and intends to stay
in the new society long-term (Rong & Preissle, 2008). According to the Organization of African
Unity (1969), a refugee is a person who, due to “external aggression, occupation, foreign
domination, or events seriously disturbing public order in either part of the whole of their
country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave their place of habitual residence” to seek
refuge outside their country of birth (as cited in Gunning, 1989, p. 37).
School systems are among the largest entities to integrate immigrants as they enter the
United States. Research found that in the year 2005, there were an estimated 11 million schoolaged children identified as children of immigrants, accounting for one-fifth of the total number
of school-aged children in the United States. Furthermore, an estimated 17 million school-aged
children spoke languages other than English in their homes (Rong & Preissle, 2008).
Data reported in 2023 showed that, thus far, there has been a 30% increase in the number
of immigrants and refugees in America since 2021 U.S. Census Bureau. (2021).Refugees and
Asylees Annual Flow Report. https://ohss.dhs.gov/topics/immigration/refugees-andasylees/refugees-and-asylees-annual-flow-report . Furthermore, 23% of students in the American

5
public school system identify as immigrants. This is considerable growth since 1990, when only
11% of students did so (Camarota et al., 2023). As the number of immigrant and refugee students
in the American school system grows, so will the challenges this population faces.
Challenges of Immigrant and Refugee Students in the American School System
As a result of the increased number of immigrant and refugee children in the American
school system, there has been an increase in the number of challenges these students face
(Derderian-Aghajanian & Wang, 2012). Some challenges are linguistic barriers, more school
absences than their peers, and a lack of teacher understanding (Hilburn, 2014). Other challenges
are adapting to a new schooling system and learning a new language of instruction while
balancing the family’s traditional culture, values, and traditions (McBrien, 2005). Furthermore,
immigrant and refugee students are aware that they have access to fewer resources when it
comes to education, receive less attention from educators, are placed in specialized learning
environments, and have a higher chance of exclusion (Peguero & Bondy, 2015). This is
concerning, as McBrien (2005) found that discriminatory practices, both within society and in
the educational setting, exacerbate the limitations students face. McBrien (2005) stated that
discrimination in the educational setting is the single greatest detriment to refugee students’
academic success and social adaptation.
The remainder of this section will focus on the challenges immigrant and refugee
students face around feeling a sense of belonging and obtaining academic success.
Importance of Sense of Belonging
As Yuval-Davis (2006) defined, belonging is the sense of safety, a feeling of being at
home, and emotional attachment. However, belonging is not binary, meaning there is a
continuum in which one feels as if one does or does not belong, and this is closely tied to one’s
understanding of their identity (Zehr, 2012). Traditionally, the American school system’s

6
greatest intention with this population of students was to integrate and assimilate them as quickly
as possible into American society (Montero‐Sieburth & LaCelle‐Peterson, 1991).
Since immigrant and refugee students belong to a stigmatized group, they may feel a
declined sense of belonging at school because of the stereotyping in that setting (Froehlich et al.,
2023). The stereotyping and stigma surrounding these students can lower their sense of
belonging and academic success. Cartmell and Bond (2015) stated that a sense of belonging
enhances young people’s emotional well-being and academic success. When a sense of
belonging is not present for students in the school setting, the student’s motivation, engagement,
attendance, and academic success are in jeopardy (Cartmell & Bond, 2015).
Belonging and Student Academic Success
The literature defines belonging in schools in various ways. The definition used most
frequently, as Goodenow and Grady (1993) stated, refers to belonging as “the extent to which
students feel personally accepted, respected, included, and supported by others in the school
social environment” (p. 529). Good social relationships support emotional well-being and
success in school (Allen et al., 2021). However, a sense of belonging will not occur only from
pro-social relationships in school. Aside from pro-social relationships, a student must also have
social skills and positive interactions with others to contribute to developing a sense of belonging
(Allen et al., 2020). Current literature also suggests that school belonging benefits young
people’s psychological development, and schools could also positively benefit from promoting
belonging among students (Allen et al., 2020).
Conceptual Framework
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow categorized human needs into three broad categories: basic needs, psychological
needs, and self-fulfillment needs. The most fundamental of these are physiological and safety

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needs. According to Maslow and Lewis (1987), individuals can only pursue higher-level
psychological needs once these basic needs are satisfied. The hierarchy posits that one cannot
reach higher levels until the lower, more fundamental needs are met (Burleson & Thoron, 2014).
After fulfilling psychological needs, the final category comprises self-fulfillment needs
(McLeod, 2020).
Poston (2009) emphasized that without establishing a sense of belonging, a student’s selfesteem may suffer, potentially leading to social anxiety and withdrawal from peers and hindering
their progression through the hierarchy of needs. Burleson and Thoron (2014) asserted that to
achieve the sense of belonging necessary for success in life and school, students must feel loved
and be encouraged to participate in clubs, sports, and other group activities. However, the need
for belonging is often overlooked, creating additional barriers to student success (Burleson &
Thoron, 2014). Applying Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to understand the need for belonging for
the academic achievement of immigrant and refugee students will help elucidate why belonging
is central to their well-being.
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems Theory
Analyzing the lack of belonging through Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory
allows for a comprehensive understanding of the influence that family, schooling, educators, and
the broader environment have on students and their sense of belonging (Elliott & Davis, 2020).
Elliott and Davis (2020) highlighted that Bronfenbrenner’s model demonstrates how individuals
are influenced by their environment and, in turn, they influence their surroundings. Furthermore,
Allen and Bowles (2013) asserted that educational institutions are central to fostering belonging,
as schools are among the first places students can establish social networks. I applied this theory
to the problem of practice examined in this study due to a lack of research-based evidence

8
showing the correlation between student belonging and academic success (Allen & Bowles,
2013).
Belonging is a multi-layered socio-ecological phenomenon (Allen et al., 2020).
Bronfenbrenner (1979) suggested that students’ initial sense of belonging originates within their
first societal unit: the family. This foundation is followed by school and community influences.
Each student’s various societal units illustrate how that student is embedded in a diverse array of
groups and systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Applying the Bronfenbrenner model to the problem
of practice will facilitate an understanding of the various factors contributing to a student’s sense
of belonging.
Methodology
This study employed a mixed-methods research approach (Table 1). I collected data
through a survey and a structured focus group. This combination of quantitative and qualitative
data provided a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing the sense of belonging
among immigrant and refugee students.

9
Table 1
Data Sources
Research questions Method 1 Method 2 Method 3
What factors contribute to developing
a sense of belonging for immigrant
and refugee children in American
schools?
X
How can schools and educators better
support immigrant and refugee
children to develop a sense of
belonging in American schools?
X X
How does a sense of belonging
impact students’ academic success? X
Research Setting
The site for this study was a homogenous group of high-school-aged immigrant or
refugee students in Kentwood Public Schools, located in Grand Rapids, Michigan. During this
study, Kentwood Public Schools served elementary-aged students at 10 schools, middle schoolaged students at three schools, and high school students at two schools. Kentwood Public
Schools serve over 9,000 students annually through these schools. Nearly half of the students are
considered economically disadvantaged (U.S. News & World Report, n.d.). Additionally,
approximately 33% of them identified as Black or African American, followed by 28% White,
15% Hispanic/Latino, and 15% Asian or Middle Eastern, making Kentwood Public Schools the
number one diverse district in Michigan (Niche, n.d.).

10
The Researcher
Per Merriam and Tisdell (2016),
Validity is never something that can be proved or taken for granted. Validity is also
relative: It has to be assessed in relation to the purposes and circumstances of the
research, rather than being a context-independent property of methods or conclusions. (p.
243)
As a first-generation American, I have many biases, assumptions, and identities that can
influence the data analysis. I have my own experiences as a child of immigrant parents, but their
stories differ from those that make up this study’s focus. I work in the education field, have my
own experiences in the American school system, and have a different position of power, given
that I have worked with districts in my county before this work. To mitigate these influences, I
checked my bias by following a community guideline for conversations. Merriam and Tisdell
stated,
Rather than trying to eliminate these biases or subjectivities, it is important to identify
them and monitor them about the theoretical framework and in light of the researcher’s
own interests to make clear how they may be shaking the collection and interpretation of
data. (p. 16)
I also planned to check in with the interviewees to not sway their answers.
Furthermore, my positionality influences this study as well. Positionality, as Villaverde
(2008) defined, is “how one is situated through the intersection of power and the politics of
gender, race, class, sexuality, ethnicity, culture, language, and other social factors” (p. 10). While
examining the problem of how sense of belonging for newcomer students of color in the
American school system, I faced overlap and the intersections of my positionality, problem of
practice, and power dynamic.

11
Though I was not a newcomer to this country, I am a student of color, an English
language learner, and a first-generation student in the American school system. Having
graduated from a traditional public school, I drew on past experiences to support this research.
Being both a student and educator for the American school system allows me to understand both
sides of the story and gain a greater understanding of the need for a sense of belonging among
newcomer students of color.
Data Collection
Survey
The first data source was a survey asking participants about their experience with
belonging in their Kentwood Public Schools. Table 2 presents the survey questions and response
options.

12
Table 2
Sample Survey
Survey question Available responses
My school is a place where people care
about each other
Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree nor agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
I feel that I belong in my school and
classroom.
Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree nor agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
My teachers help me understand what I need
to learn in order to be successful.
Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree nor agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
My school and classroom feel like a big
happy family.
Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree nor agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
I feel like I am an important part of my
classroom.
Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree nor agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
My school has a large number of
clubs/activities that I feel comfortable
participating in.
Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree nor agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
I feel supported and respected in my
classroom and school.
Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree nor agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
I have trusted adults whom I can go to if I
need support in school.
Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree nor agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
I feel like I can be myself at school. Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
I feel proud to belong and attend my school. Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree nor agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
What does belonging mean to you? Open-ended

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Interview
The following are sample interview questions:
● How has your experience in school been since coming to America?
● Do you have a trusted adult in school who makes you feel like you belong?
● What does belonging look like, feel like, and sound like to you?
● Did you feel a sense of belonging in the school you previously attended in your home
country?
● What would you suggest schools/teachers do to make students feel like they belong?
● What differences, if any, have you noticed between schooling in America vs. your
home country?
● At school, how often do you see students from diverse backgrounds hanging out?
● How often do you have classes with students similar to you? (age, background,
ethnicity)
● Have you interacted with school rules that are difficult for you to follow because of
your background?
● What advantages do you think come from having a sense of belonging?
● What struggles, if any, have you had to feel a sense of belonging in school?
● Before we finish, do you have anything else you think would be helpful for me to
know about how the school has made you feel like you fit in or what they could do to
make you feel more comfortable?
Participants
The participants were immigrants and refugees from various countries. They were high
school students. They were also dual language learners, and English was not their first language
(Table 3).

14
Table 3
Participant Demographics
Name Grade Sex Time in the
United States
Home language
P1 10th M 2.5 Years Kinyerwanden
P2 10th M 4 Years Kinyerwanden
P3 11th F 2 Years Kinyerwanden
P4 10th F 6 Months Kinyerwanden
P5 11th M 5 Months Kinyerwanden
P6 12th M 2 Years Kinyerwanden
P7 11th F 4 Years Kinyerwanden
P8 ninth F 3 Years Kinyerwanden

15
Data Sources
I obtained data from two sources. First, I administered a survey using Qualtrics, an
electronic survey platform. Participants received the survey electronically, facilitated by a
translator who orally presented the questionnaire in the participants’ native language. The survey
consisted of 12 inquiries, with 11 questions employing a Likert scale response format, and the
12th question provided was open-ended. Secondly, I conducted a focus group wherein
participants convened with the translator and me in a secure environment. The focus group
session extended for approximately 45 minutes, during which I asked the participants 12
questions. To ensure confidentiality, participants maintained anonymity throughout the
discussion, and I assigned each a numerical identifier for voice recognition purposes as the
session was recorded.
Data Collection Procedures
I collected data in a face-to-face setting at the school the students attend. Surveys were
distributed electronically, in both English and the students’ native language, and took
approximately 10 minutes to complete. The focus group was held face-to-face in a designated
room on school grounds. The focus group was confidential, and only audio was recorded through
Zoom with participants’ consent. The focus group lasted approximately 45 minutes. Along with
audio recordings, I took field notes of common themes mentioned.
Data Analysis
In the process of coding the research, I devoted meticulous attention to the systematic
analysis of Zoom audio recordings. Through a comprehensive review of these recordings, I
discerned recurring patterns in participant responses, facilitating the identification of key themes
and concepts central to the study’s objectives. The organization of the audio data into coherent
segments further aided in categorizing and interpreting the findings. This methodical approach to

16
coding ensured the rigorous examination of the research material and provided a robust
foundation for subsequent analysis and discussion in the scholarly discourse.
Comparative Analysis Approach
The research adopted a case study comparative analysis approach, selected for its
aptitude in scrutinizing the distinctions and resemblances among participants’ experiences.
Research by Yin (2018) supports this methodological choice, asserting that case study research is
particularly effective in situations requiring an in-depth understanding of complex phenomena
within their real-life contexts. The rationale behind employing this approach was particularly
significant given the highly specific criteria delineating the participant cohort. Case study
comparative analysis allows for a detailed exploration of each case while facilitating cross-case
comparisons that highlight patterns and themes (Stake, 2006). By employing a case study
comparative framework, the study aimed to assess variations and commonalities among the
participants, enriching the depth of analysis and yielding insights germane to the research
objectives. This approach aligns with Creswell’s (2013) emphasis on the value of comparing
multiple cases to gain a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena under investigation.
Validity and Reliability
To ensure the validity and reliability of this study, I used both a survey and a focus group
to explore the participating students’ sense of belonging in an American school. I employed
several strategies across various stages of the research. First, I used the following research
questions to ground and guide the study, along with a specific conceptual framework (Creswell
& Creswell, 2018). I regularly referred back to research questions during the development of the
research instruments, data collection process, and analysis:
1. What factors contribute to developing a sense of belonging for immigrant and refugee
children in American schools?

17
2. How can schools and educators better support immigrant and refugee children to
develop a sense of belonging in American schools?
3. How does a sense of belonging impact students’ academic success?
Secondly, I considered numerous factors when selecting the participants and school site.
To ensure the research was authentic, factors such as socioeconomic status, I considered
urban/rural location, and school size to ensure data were well-rounded and comprehensive. I
chose the Kentwood Public school district because it is the most racially diverse district in
Michigan and reflects a diverse demographic of immigrant and refugee students.
Thirdly, the sampling criteria were simple yet effective. The research sample consisted of
male and female high school students who arrived in the United States and the district at varying
times. This allowed for purposeful sampling to occur, ensuring the representation of students
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Lastly, the development of instruments and data collection strategies were deliberately
curated to ensure reliability and validity. I based the development of the survey questions on
established scales measured with demonstrated reliability and validity (Salkind, 2014).
Furthermore, I specifically designed the instruments to ensure cultural sensitivity and relevance
to the target population (Salkind, 2014).
As for data collection strategies, the combination of surveys and focus groups served to
triangulate data and understand the participants’ sense of belonging (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). These strategies enhanced the findings’ validity and reliability, providing insight into
these students’ sense of belonging in the American school system.
Limitations and Delimitations
As anticipated, when collecting research for any endeavor, it is imperative to
acknowledge the limitations and delimitations that affect the findings. The first limitation that

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was apparent was representation in participant sampling. The sample is not representative of all
immigrant and refugee students due to the constraints in representation and participation at the
school district. A delimitation for participant sampling was that this study focused specifically on
one specific subgroup of students, limiting the generalizability of findings to larger immigrant
populations.
Another limitation of this study revolves around participants’ response bias. Participants’
responses, especially during the focus group, may have been provided to be more socially
desirable or acceptable responses. This limitation can interfere with the authenticity of answers
given by participants. A delimitation with participant responses was establishing trust with
participants. Prior to distributing the survey and beginning the focus group, I met with
participants to explain the study and process of data collection.
A significant consideration of this study centered around language and cultural factors.
The limitation of language barriers and cultural differences may have lowered the accuracy and
influenced the interpretation of participants’ responses in the focus group and survey.
Delimitations for this predicament were highly considered. To ensure the validity of the research,
translation and interpretation services were available for participants. The translator was an
employee of the school district who once was an immigrant and refugee student there. This
translator’s native language mirrored that of the students in the focus group. The translator was
fluent in both that language and English. I adapted the survey and focus group questions for
cultural and linguistic challenges. The translator reviewed the questionnaire prior to the student
focus group to ensure its validity.
By acknowledging the limitations and delimitations of this study, I maintained
transparency and rigor aligned with the methodology, interpretation, and implications, enhancing
the credibility and trustworthiness of the study’s findings.

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Findings
For immigrant and refugee students, navigating the American educational landscape can
involve numerous challenges and opportunities. A key piece of their experience centers around
the concept of belonging. Although belonging is a multifaceted construct, the hope for a sense of
belonging is to feel a sense of connection, acceptance, and inclusion with the community with
which one interacts. Understanding the factors that contribute to developing a sense of belonging
and exploring how schools and educators can better support these students aids in fostering
equitable and inclusive educational environments where all students achieve academic and social
success.
This section presents the survey and focus group findings. These offer insights into the
participants’ lived experiences, shedding light on the challenges they face and their resilience.
Ultimately, this research sought to serve as a testament to the transformative power of education.
Through education, we can foster belonging, which will have everlasting positive effects on the
lives of students and the community as a whole.
Research Question 1: What Factors Contribute to Developing a Sense of Belonging for
Immigrant and Refugee Children in American Schools?
Survey data indicate that multiple factors contribute to a sense of belonging for the
participants. Of these factors, three consistent themes emerged from the data analysis. The
following sections present these themes.
Positive Perceptions of Caring Relationships
Students who positively perceived caring relationships in the school community were
more likely to feel a sense of belonging. These can be relationships between students and staff or
students and their peers. According to the survey results, eight students believed that their school
is a place where people care about each other. As Allen et al. (2021) discussed, the sense of

20
belonging or lack thereof directly influences students’ psychological and emotional well-being.
Students must feel accepted and respected in an inclusive environment to flourish. One student
mentioned, “I feel like you can’t belong if you don’t get along with your teachers. They are there
all the time, and if they don’t like me, how could I ever belong here?” Another added,
I had no friends for, like, the [1st] year here. No one spoke my language and I didn’t
know English yet. I never felt like I belonged [because] I can’t speak like them. I don’t
like the same food as them, I don’t even like the same music. But then, … I think my
[2nd] year, more like me came. I didn’t know them, but we got out the car at the same
time, and I heard them speaking my language. So, I looked over, and he looked like me! I
walked up to him, and we talk every day still.
Feeling Supported and Respected by School Staff and Peers
According to the survey results, all participants indicated that they felt supported and
respected in their classrooms and school. However, their responses varied regarding their sense
of being an important part of their classroom community. Specifically, one student strongly
disagreed with this sentiment, four somewhat agreed, and the remaining neither agreed nor
disagreed (Figure 1). This finding is particularly concerning given that fostering a sense of
belonging requires feeling supported and respected. Lander (2022) underscored the significance
of recognizing and valuing the cultural and linguistic contributions of immigrant and refugee
students. The author asserted that educators should actively create opportunities for these
students to share their experiences and backgrounds, as such practices are instrumental in
nurturing a sense of belonging and respect (Lander, 2022).
Figure 1
Sense of Being an Important Part of Their Classroom Community

21

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One student stated, “I never think like, this teacher don’t like me, but I do sometimes
think, like, what if they spoke the same language as me? They would get me so much better.”
Another student mentioned, “It’s hard to be friends with the other kids [because] we’re always in
a group classroom with only us. It would be cool to have classes with the other kids so we can
meet them.” This reflection illustrated the challenges and complexities of language barriers and
social connectedness in the school environment. It underscores the intrinsic desire for mutual
understanding and the role of language in fostering a deeper understanding and connection
between teachers and students. While this student does not perceive acceptance from their
teacher, there is an implicit yearning for enhanced communication that could facilitate better
comprehension and rapport.
The second student participant’s comment highlighted the unintended consequences of
segregated learning environments for dual language learners. While these group classrooms are
designed to provide targeted language support, they can inadvertently create social isolation for
students due to the limited opportunities for cross-cultural interactions. The unintended isolation
can hinder the formation of friendships with native English-speaking students, thereby affecting
the students’ sense of belonging.
In summary, these reflections emphasize the need for educational strategies that balance
linguistic support and meaningful, inclusive mainstream classes. Integrating dual language
learners into the broader classroom settings while providing necessary language support can
assist in bridging the social divide students feel, creating a more inclusive school community.
This approach would benefit newcomer students by expanding their social networks and
enriching the entire student body by promoting more cultural diversity, awareness, and
understanding.

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Longing for Opportunities for Engagement and Socialization Through Extracurricular
Activities
Research collected by Cambridge Core (2021) highlighted engagement in extracurricular
activities in students’ perception of belonging and well-being. Extracurricular activities allow
students to interact with their peers in a non-academic setting, which fosters social connections
and supportive networks. This is necessary for students’ adjustment and integration into the
American school systems. Survey data indicate that over 70% of students feel that their school
offers a large number of clubs or activities in which they feel comfortable participating (Figure
2). Moreover, schools that promote inclusivity through these extracurricular programs create a
more welcoming environment, which lends to a stronger sense of belonging, respect, and value
for immigrant and refugee students (U.S. News and World Report, 2024).

24
Figure 2
School Offers a Large Number of Clubs or Activities
One student stated, “I play soccer here. I was never able to play at home [because] girls
couldn’t. But here my parents see that girls can play and they let me. I love it.” This quote
highlights the American school system’s inclusive approach to extracurricular activities. The
student’s ability to participate in soccer, a privilege previously denied due to gender restrictions
in her country of origin, exemplifies the broader opportunities afforded by a more equitable and
supportive environment.
This newfound freedom enriches her personal development and signifies a positive shift
in her parents’ perceptions of gender roles. Consequently, this experience underscores the
importance of providing diverse and inclusive extracurricular options, as they foster a sense of
belonging and empowerment among immigrant students. Such opportunities can significantly

25
enhance their overall academic and social integration, ultimately contributing to their long-term
success and well-being.
One student stated,
Oh yeah! My boys and I play soccer together. We did a soccer camp last year with
Dreams Take Work, here in the city. It was the best camp I ever been to! I really like
playing soccer here. I know that I have to do my work to play so my parents like that I
play.
Another student mentioned, “I feel like there’s a club for everyone. Whatever you can think of,
you can join it.”
In summary, extracurricular activities are key to improving students’ sense of belonging.
They build supportive peer relationships and ease integration into the school community.
Students’ comprehension of extracurricular activity options is important. Recognizing that there
is a club for everyone underscores the inclusivity of the school’s environment.
Research Question 2: How Can Schools and Educators Better Support Immigrant and
Refugee Children to Develop a Sense of Belonging in American Schools?
Research shows that building an inclusive school culture begins with implementing
policies and procedures that promote a sense of belonging for all students (Emerald Insight,
2019). Research demonstrates that schools should ensure an inclusive school culture. The
strategies that best support the integration of all students include culturally responsive teaching,
social-emotional support, family and community engagement, and professional development for
all staff (Emerald Insight, 2019).
Data analysis revealed four patterns. The patterns are as follows: the importance of
fostering a supportive and inclusive school climate, providing opportunities for student

26
engagement and involvement, implementing culturally responsive teaching practices, and
ensuring access to trusted adults.
Fostering Supportive and Inclusive School Climate
When I asked students if they felt they belonged in their school and classroom, seven
indicated that they strongly or somewhat agreed with this statement. This high response rate,
with nearly 80% of the student focus group affirming a sense of belonging, prompted further
inquiry into their perceptions of the school environment. Responses were notably diverse when
asked whether their classroom and school felt like one big happy family. Specifically, 22% of
students strongly disagreed with this statement, another 22% somewhat disagreed, 33%
somewhat agreed, and 33% strongly agreed. These varied responses highlight the complexity of
students’ experiences and perceptions of their school community.
Additionally, the statement “I feel like I can be myself at school” assessed students’ true
level of belonging. The results for this question were almost evenly divided; 55% of students
surveyed agreed or strongly agreed with this statement, whereas 44% disagreed (Figure 3). This
finding is concerning, given that a foundational sense of belonging is essential for students to
thrive academically and socially. The dichotomy in responses suggests that while some students
feel accepted and authentic in the school environment, a significant portion do not, highlighting
the need for targeted interventions to foster inclusivity and support.

27
Figure 3
I Feel Like I Can Be Myself at School
One of the questions asked during the student focus group was, “What does belonging
mean to you?” One student stated, “Welcomed. I think it means you feel welcomed to come in
and be yourself.” A second one mentioned, “Belonging means you’re at home. Not at home with
your family, but, like, at school you feel at home.” A third student added, “Belonging to me it
means like where you feel welcomed and comfortable.” Other words and phrases they mentioned
were “proud,” “that is the most important,” and “feeling like home maybe.”
Research shows that a strong sense of belonging benefits students’ academic success and
social well-being. Students who feel they belong are more likely to be motivated, achieve higher
academic achievement, and exhibit more positive social behaviors (Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2019). Society will continue to prosper and thrive as
more people feel a sense of belonging.

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Implement Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices
Focus group data on recognizing and valuing students’ cultural experiences and identities
revealed a division in students’ perceptions of their ability to be themselves at school. As
identified earlier, 22% of students strongly disagreed with the statement that they could be
themselves at school, while another 22% neither agreed nor disagreed. Further, 33% of students
somewhat agreed, and 22% strongly agreed with the statement. This distribution indicates a
significant variance in students’ experiences and highlights the need for schools to address
cultural inclusivity more effectively.
During thefocus groupone student said, “The teachers are nice ya know, but I couldn’t
understand them for a long time. It was hard to understand them when I didn’t speak English.”
Another student added, “I wish they knew more about me. We learn history here about America
but they don’t know nothing about me or my home.”
To engage students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, we must see them
as capable learners (Villegas & Lucas, 2007). Culturally responsive teaching practices utilize the
cultural wealth and knowledge students come to educators with and view these attributes as an
assist rather than a deficit. The framework for culturally responsive teaching can be simplified
into the following: understanding how learners gain knowledge, taking time to learn about
students’ lived experiences, being socioculturally conscious, holding affirming views about
diversity and equity, using developmentally appropriate instructional strategies, and lastly,
advocating for all students (Villegas & Lucas, 2007).
Utilizing the culturally responsive teaching practices model ensures students feel a sense
of belonging and that all they bring to the classroom is a valuable asset.

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Ensure Access to Trusted Adults
Pringle et al. (2018) discussed the impact of a trusted adult on adolescent outcomes in
their scoping review. Their research demonstrates that adolescents who have a trusted adult are
more likely to have positive social, personal, and academic outcomes. As used in this study, the
definition of a trusted adult was adapted from Bankole’s (2011) definition. A trusted adult is a
non-parental adult whom adolescents perceive as reliable, supportive, and protective. According
to the research collected for this study, seven out of nine (75%) students agree with the statement
that they have a trusted adult they can go to if they need support at school.
In the student focus group, one student said, “I love [my teacher]! He always makes sure
I’m okay.” Another student stated, “I didn’t know [my trusted adult] my [1st] year, but they are
my favorite now. They help me with everything.” Ensuring students and educators create trusted
relationships is a key part of success for the individual student and the community as a whole.
Research Question 3: How Does a Sense of Belonging Impact Students’ Academic Success?
A sense of belonging greatly influences student success across numerous contexts.
Research has found that a sense of belonging connects directly to positive outcomes both in
school and out of school. Positive outcomes from a sense of belonging can include positive
academic outcomes, improved mental health, and easier integration into the American culture
(Allen, 2022). Below are the identified themes around immigrant and refugee student belonging
and how it impacts their academic success.
Feeling a Sense of Pride and Affiliation
During the student focus group, I asked participants if they felt proud to belong and
attend their school. A significant majority, seven of them, affirmed this statement (Figure 4).
Research by Hernández et al. (2017) indicated that students’ ethnic pride and self-esteem
significantly influence their sense of belonging. When these factors are robust, students’ sense of

30
belonging is correspondingly enhanced. Thus, it is important to cultivate a sense of belonging
and pride through strong relationships with staff and peers. Students are unlikely to develop a
strong sense of pride or belonging without these relationships.
Figure 4
Feel Proud to Belong and Attend Their School

31
The focus group responses underscore that a supportive and inclusive school environment
is key. One student said, “I am proud to go here. Some of my friends don’t, and they hate their
school. They get jealous for me.” Another mentioned, “I feel proud being here [because] my
friends’ are here with me. My [1st] year, maybe not proud, but now I am.”
The findings indicate that ethnic pride and self-esteem enhance students’ sense of
belonging. The personal testimonies of the students illustrate how strong interpersonal
relationships with peers and staff can transform their school experience. Therefore, to promote a
sense of pride and belonging among students, educational institutions must prioritize building
and maintaining these essential relationships. This approach improves individual student
outcomes and cultivates a more cohesive and positive school community.
Students’ Feeling Supported and Respected by Staff and Peers
Positive relationships with staff and peers enhance students’ sense of belonging. The
results varied regarding whether the students believed their teachers helped them understand
what they needed to learn to succeed (Figure 5). One student disagreed with this statement, and
another neither agreed nor disagreed, while four students somewhat agreed. Lastly, three
students strongly agreed with the statement.

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Figure 5
My Teachers Help Me Understand What I Need to Learn in Order to Be Successful
Positive Perceptions of Belongingness Are Associated With Greater Engagement in Learning
and Academic Success
Belongingness is closely aligned and associated with greater engagement and success in
academics. Baumeister and Leary (1995) stated that a strong sense of belonging can positively
influence students’ emotional well-being, motivation, and school experience as a whole.
Regarding sense of belonging in school, one focus group participant said,
I’m not gonna lie. I would skip school when I first got here [because] I didn’t have no
friends or nothing. I didn’t know what anyone was talking about, so I said why would I
go? But then I saw someone, and I said he looks like me. I said whats up to him and we
became friends. We talk to each other every day, so then I came to school every day.

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The word cloud in Figure 6 illustrates the responses to an open-ended survey question
posed to the student participant group. The question asked, “What does belonging mean to you?”
The predominant response was “feels like home.” Additional responses included terms such as
comfortable, welcome, proud, and important. These responses underscore the need for a sense of
belonging in various facets of students’ lives.
Figure 6
Word Cloud

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Summary
In conclusion, the data highlights fostering caring relationships, providing supportive and
inclusive environments, and offering engagement opportunities through extracurricular activities.
School staff and environments should implement culturally responsive teaching practices to
ensure that relationships with immigrant and refugee students and adults are trusted and
supported. This will encourage a strong sense of belonging and increase students’ academic
success and overall well-being, making it a necessary focus for educational institutions.
Recommendations for Practice
Discussion of Findings
Alignment with Literature
Through completing this research, it has become more evident that the critical role of
belonging and the academic success of immigrant and refugee students are profoundly
intertwined. Foundational scholars like Maslow (1943) have long since provided a basis for
understanding how belonging impacts students’ academic performance and overall well-being.
The findings from this study contribute to the belief that students who feel a sense of belonging
are more likely to engage in school activities, perform better academically, engage more socially,
and exhibit higher levels of psychological well-being. This research reinforces the existing
literature that asserts belonging is a fundamental psychological need influencing educational
outcomes.
Prior research conducted by Ladson-Billings (1995) and Gay (2000) on culturally
responsive teaching practices and educational equity highlights the need for inclusive practices
that center diverse student populations. Findings from this study indicate that students longed to
be understood culturally by their educators. They stated that the lack of understanding between

35
educators and students was a significant barrier to feeling a sense of belonging. These findings
underscore the importance of diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives in school districts for
creating an inclusive educational environment that fosters belonging for all students.
Alignment with Conceptual Framework
Applying Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (1979) to this research
underscores the impact of various environmental systems on individual development. Coupled
with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs framework, this theory emphasizes the importance of social
interactions, supportive systems, and a strong sense of belonging to achieve fulfillment and
success in life.
The research gathered in this study demonstrates how different levels of the school
environment, such as school policies, peer interactions, and student-teacher relationships,
influence the sense of belonging for immigrant and refugee students. Understanding these
connections reinforces the validity of Bronfenbrenner’s theory in comprehending the dynamics
of belonging among immigrant and refugee students in the American school system. This
alignment underscores the necessity of considering multiple environmental factors to address the
needs of these students effectively.
Addressing the Problem of Practice
Addressing the Problem of Practice
The identified problem of practice was to examine how belonging affects the academic
success of immigrant and refugee students and to identify strategies to enhance their sense of
belonging in schools. Findings from this study reveal specific barriers that these students face,

36
including language barriers, cultural dissonance, discrimination, and othering. The research also
identifies effective strategies to mitigate these barriers, such as targeted support programs,
culturally responsive teaching practices, and inclusive school policies.
The outlined findings provide actionable recommendations for educators, policymakers,
and school administrators to create more inclusive and supportive learning environments for
immigrant and refugee students, thereby addressing the core problem of practice centered around
belonging. These recommendations are designed to foster a sense of belonging among these
students, which is crucial for their academic success and overall well-being. By implementing
these strategies, schools can better support the diverse needs of their student populations,
promoting equity and inclusion in the educational system.
Recommendation 1: Enhancing English Language Proficiency, a Sense of Belonging, and
Academic Success Through Structured Support Programs
Structured support programs play a critical role in enhancing English language
proficiency, fostering a sense of belonging, and improving academic success for students from
immigrant and refugee backgrounds. These programs, designed to provide comprehensive
language support, promote students’ holistic success by addressing both their linguistic needs
and overall well-being within the educational system.
Language Support Programs to Support Holistic Success of Student
Structured English immersion programs are strategically designed to teach English
language learners (ELLs) predominantly in English, focusing on rapid language acquisition.
Rapid language acquisition in this model occurs through intentional instruction and the
environment. The environment is not composed solely of ELLs. Students who are proficient in

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English are also encompassed in the environment, allowing for organic interactions to occur.
According to Clark (2009), implementing SEI programs can lead to faster English language
proficiency and improved academic performance. Additionally, SEI programs have been credited
with enhancing both academic and social skills in students (Clark, 2009). A significant
contributor to student success using the SEI model is the measurable success that students often
experience, which boosts their motivation and self-esteem. Increased motivation and self-esteem
help students build academic and social confidence, leading to overall better outcomes (Clark,
2009; George Washington Elementary, 2017; Yuba City High School, 2017).
By strategically focusing on these areas, SEI programs can provide ELL students with the
necessary skills and confidence to succeed in an English-dominated academic environment.
However, it is important to note that SEI programs’ success depends on various factors,
including the quality of instruction and the support systems in place (Rios-Aguilar et al., 2010).
Language support programs enable students to align and address their needs in various
ways. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs categorizes a human’s needs into physiological, safety, love
and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization (McLeod, 2020). Language support programs can
aid in meeting immigrant and refugee students’ needs in the American educational setting.
Physiological Needs
Physiological needs form the base of Maslow’s hierarchy. This refers to the basic human
necessities, including food, water, and shelter. Language support programs in schools can
provide resources for students and their families in their native languages by referring them to
support. Supports can include food banks, housing assistance, and health care services.
Additionally, research has found that language proficiency connects closely to a sense of
belonging in the educational setting. Furthermore, students who feel a strong sense of language
support in instruction are more likely to participate in the classroom and engage with peers and

38
staff (Suárez-Orozco et al., 2008). Students’ academic and social success depends largely on
language support to meet their psychological needs.
Safety and Security
The second level of Maslow’s hierarchy involves safety and security. Osterman (2000)
discussed that creating a sense of safety and security for immigrant and refugee students in the
American school system is key to their well-being. Language support programs support students’
safety needs by creating a welcoming environment and providing clear communication. A
welcoming environment involves providing translated materials to students in their native
language and hiring multilingual staff. These supports lend to students’ safety and security by
allowing them to be authentically themselves while learning English. Furthermore, clear
communication ensures that students and their families understand school processes, procedures,
emergency protocols, and available support. This level of understanding can alleviate anxiety
and assist in building trust.
Love and Belonging Needs
The next level of Maslow’s pyramid focuses on love and belonging needs. Language
support programs can foster a sense of love and belonging among students by promoting
inclusivity. They should promote the celebration of cultural diversity and encourage crosscultural peer relationships. Also, for students to feel an authentic sense of love and belonging,
these programs must include parents and caregivers. Encouraging parents and caregivers to
become involved in language programs will encourage students to fully engage in the language
support offered in schools. Schools can support the overall goal of love and belonging by
extending the support of language services to families, translating paperwork into home
languages, and providing time for families and students to receive 1:1 support for languagespecific needs (Osterman, 2000).

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Esteem
The fourth level of Maslow’s hierarchy is esteem. Esteem includes self-respect and
recognition from others. Language programs can enhance students’ esteem by providing tailored
academic support to students in their native language. Providing needed support in students’
native language can allow for a higher sense of esteem, confidence, and belonging.
Acknowledging students’ success inside and outside the classroom will also increase their level
of esteem. (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).
Self-Actualization
The highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is self-actualization. This level
represents the fulfillment of one’s potential and self-realization. To reach this stage, individuals
must have their preceding needs met adequately. In an educational context, robust language
programs that incorporate diverse perspectives can facilitate self-actualization. Such programs
ensure that students are exposed to a variety of viewpoints, enriching their cognitive and
emotional development. Additionally, fostering creative and critical thinking skills is essential in
helping students solve complex problems and achieve self-actualization. Educational institutions
can help students reach the pinnacle of Maslow’s hierarchy by encouraging them to engage with
diverse ideas and innovative solutions (McLeod, 2020).
Holistic Support Programs
Recognizing that immigrant and refugee students, along with their families, benefit
significantly from holistic support programs underscores the need to address their needs
comprehensively. By adopting a multi-generational approach to fostering a sense of belonging,
educational institutions can enhance their support for these students and their families.
Immigrant and refugee students frequently arrive in the United States with limited family
networks and face numerous challenges in adapting to a new environment. Therefore, involving

40
and supporting their families throughout this transition aids in ensuring the students’ success.
Integrating family support into educational practices helps create a more inclusive and supportive
environment that strengthens the overall sense of belonging for students and their families. The
following recommendations outline strategies for providing holistic support to these students and
their families, promoting a more cohesive and supportive educational experience.
Community Partnerships
Community partnerships are essential for fostering a strong sense of belonging among
immigrant and refugee students and their families, which increases their academic success.
Effective partnerships typically involve collaboration between schools, community
organizations, local non-profits, businesses, and cultural institutions. Research by Kirova (2011)
highlighted that these community partnerships significantly enhance the support networks for
immigrant families. Schools can access additional resources by engaging with community
partners, such as mentorship programs, academic support, and social services to help students
navigate their new educational environment.
The strong correlation between students’ sense of belonging and their academic success
underscores the need for such partnerships. Kirova (2011) found that community organizations
often offer culturally responsive and relevant support tailored to the needs of immigrant and
refugee students. These organizations bridge the gap between the resources at schools and the
additional support provided by the community. This alignment fosters a sense of belonging and
enhances academic achievement.
Moreover, community partnerships facilitate cultural integration opportunities for
students. According to Li and Kaye (2013), these partnerships enable students to engage with
their cultural heritage while exploring and participating in the diverse cultural landscapes of their

41
new community. This engagement helps students maintain their cultural identity and promotes
intercultural understanding and inclusion.
Additionally, research by Jeynes (2017) indicated that community partnerships can
significantly improve academic and social support for immigrant students. To effectively
increase a sense of belonging and academic success for this group, it is essential to have a
comprehensive understanding of what community support entails. Community partnerships
contribute to better mental well-being, enhanced academic support, and stronger relationships
with peers and educators. These partnerships help create a more inclusive and supportive
educational environment by providing a holistic approach to support.
Peer Mentoring Programs
Applying Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory framework to the recommendation
of peer mentoring groups provides insight into how a complex system of relationships forms an
individual’s environment (Sanders et al., 2005). This research indicates that collaboration
between schools and families improves student outcomes. Because positive student outcomes are
central to fostering a sense of belonging, the strategies below outline how the different levels of
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory contribute to this success.
Microsystem: Direct Interactions
Direct interactions between peers offering support and guidance create a nurturing and
supportive relationship at school. These interactions enhance social-emotional skills, which are
foundational for student success (Bukowski et al., 2018). Through regular engagement with
peers, newcomer students develop essential skills such as communication, conflict resolution,
and empathy. These interactions foster a sense of belonging and contribute to overall academic
and social success.
Mesosystem: Interconnections Between Microsystems

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The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between different microsystems, such as
the relationship between a student’s school and home. Peer mentoring programs can strengthen
the mesosystem by facilitating communication and engaging families. These programs create a
platform for open communication among the student mentee, the student mentor, and the teacher,
integrating the support students receive at school with their home experiences. This integration
fosters a deeper sense of community and belonging (Sheldon & Epstein, 2005).
Engaging families is essential for student belonging and academic success. Involving
families in peer mentoring programs provides opportunities for them to support and encourage
their children’s progress. This involvement bridges the gap between home and school, promoting
a cohesive support system (Lippman et al., 2014).
Exosystem: Indirect Influences
The exosystem includes settings that indirectly impact an individual, such as community
resources, school policies, and parental decisions. Peer mentoring programs can positively
influence the exosystem by leveraging community resources and impacting school policies.
These programs provide additional support and opportunities for mentors and mentees by
utilizing community organizations.
Moreover, factors such as the nature of parental employment, including work hours and
job stability, indirectly affect student development and success (Kalil & Ziol-Guest, 2008).
Recognizing these influences underscores the need for robust community support through peer
mentoring programs.
Macrosystem: Broader Societal and Cultural Influences
The macrosystem refers to broader cultural and societal influences that shape an
individual’s development. Peer mentoring programs can promote inclusivity and equity in the

43
school system. These programs enhance cultural understanding and adaptability to different
societal norms by fostering trust and relationships between peers from diverse backgrounds.
Chao (2001) highlighted how cultural values and practices shape child development.
Understanding this underscores the importance of providing students with experiences that allow
them to interact with peers from diverse backgrounds, contributing to their overall success and
sense of belonging.
By applying Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, peer mentoring programs can
address the multifaceted influences on student development, fostering a supportive environment
that enhances academic and social outcomes.
Recommendation 2: Advancing Student Success and Belonging Through the
Implementation of Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices
The second recommendation for ensuring that students are effectively integrated into the
American school system while receiving adequate support for success is to implement culturally
responsive teaching (CRT) practices. As Gay (2000) defined, CRT involves using all students’
cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives to inform teaching practices. This
approach allows ethnically diverse students to take an active role in their own learning
experiences. In surveys conducted for this research, students consistently expressed a desire for
such practices. They indicated feeling that the burden of learning was placed solely on them,
with little shared responsibility from educators. Culturally responsive teaching addresses this
issue by ensuring that the responsibility for learning and teaching is more equitably distributed
(Bondy et al., 2007).
One focus group participant noted, “I wish they knew more about me. We learn history
here about America but they don’t know nothing about me or my home.” Similarly, students
expressed a strong desire to connect with and be understood by their peers and school staff.

44
Culturally responsive teaching serves as a bridge, fostering the development of meaningful
relationships. Implementing this strategy effectively involves three key components: cultural
awareness, intentional CRT practices, and student-centered culturally relevant instruction,
Cultural Awareness
First, cultural awareness is essential to strengthen sense of belonging by applying cultural
competency. Second, student-centered, culturally relevant instruction is necessary to engage
students meaningfully. Finally, critical consciousness is required to create an environment where
students feel a sense of belonging and inclusion (Bondy et al., 2007). When everyday
interactions and instruction implement all components, students will feel a secure sense of
belonging, allowing them to succeed both academically and socially.
Cultural awareness is a multifaceted concept that requires educators to have a deep
understanding of their own cultural backgrounds and those of their students. According to Gay
(2000), CRT involves recognizing and respecting the diverse cultural backgrounds that students
and staff members bring into the educational environment. This understanding is the foundation
for intentionally integrating cultural elements into everyday teaching practices.
Enhancing learning outcomes is closely linked to cultural awareness. Banks (2006)
indicated that culturally aware educators are better equipped to design and deliver instruction
that meets a diverse student population’s needs and prioritizes historically marginalized students.
Educators who understand, appreciate, and uplift cultural differences foster a more inclusive
classroom environment, promote a stronger sense of belonging for students, and enhance
academic success.
Strategies to enhance educators’ cultural awareness are extensive and continually
evolving. Recognizing that cultural awareness is an ongoing journey, it is important to
understand that each individual’s starting point is unique, and there is no definitive endpoint.

45
Ladson-Billings (2001) argued that effective professional development opportunities focused on
cultural competency can significantly enhance educators’ cultural awareness. Such professional
development opportunities include implicit or unconscious bias training, cultural competency
training, and multipartiality training. These training sessions aid in shaping educators’ cultural
awareness and informing their teaching strategies.
These professional development opportunities will equip educators with the skills to
internally reflect and understand how their own culture influences the classroom environment.
When educators comprehend their positionality, privilege, power, and cultural dynamics in the
classroom, they can begin to dismantle harmful practices that may have negatively impacted
students’ sense of belonging and academic success. This self-awareness and commitment to
change are essential in fostering an inclusive and supportive educational environment for all
students.
Culturally relevant pedagogy has been demonstrated to improve students’ academic
success, particularly students of color (Jeynes, 2015). The goal of culturally relevant instruction
is to bridge the gap between students’ home cultures and their school environment, resulting in
improved academic outcomes.
Equally important is the intentional implementation of student-centered instruction. This
approach places students and their lived experiences at the forefront of their learning. Educators
who integrate culturally relevant pedagogy within a student-centered framework enhance student
engagement and motivation. Aligning instruction with students’ lived experiences fosters a
stronger sense of belonging and makes learning more meaningful (Sleeter, 2011).
Focus group data indicate that students long to feel a sense of belonging and respect in
the classroom. Ladson-Billings (1995) argued that students who learn through culturally relevant

46
teaching practices report an increased sense of belonging. This heightened sense stems from
feeling respected and understood in the classroom.
Intentional Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices
Utilizing CRT practices can assist in ensuring students’ belonging and academic success.
Culturally responsive teaching practices are an innovative approach that uplifts a diverse array of
students’ cultural wealth. Students’ cultural wealth can include their cultural experiences being
newcomers to America, past lived experiences,
Recommendation 3: Policy and Administrative Support
The student focus groups revealed a significant desire among students for more organic
opportunities to connect with peers outside their immediate classes. This need is particularly
pronounced among students with emerging English language skills, who often feel isolated due
to limited interactions with students from other classes. To address this issue, I propose the
following recommendations for inclusive school policies and support. These policies and
supports will promote student integration and support the development of a strong sense of
belonging while addressing overall well-being.
Mental Health Support
Immigrant and refugee students arrive in the United States with a multitude of lived
traumas and past experiences that significantly impact their mental health. The challenges of
adjusting to a new country further exacerbate their risk of developing mental health issues, such
as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Pumariega et al., 2005). Tailored
mental health support for this population enhances their well-being and academic success.
Pumariega et al. (2005) emphasized mental health services as helping immigrant and
refugee students thrive and adjust to their new environments. Their research highlights that
school environments can proactively address these mental health issues by integrating mental

47
health services into the educational system. This integration is particularly beneficial as it
removes various barriers to accessing mental health care, such as transportation, financial
constraints, and stigma associated with seeking help.
Schools that offer on-site mental health programs can provide immediate and culturally
sensitive support, ensuring that students receive the help they need in a familiar and accessible
setting. This approach addresses these students’ immediate psychological needs and fosters a
stronger sense of belonging and acclimation to their new environment. By embedding mental
health services in the school system, educational institutions can create a supportive and
inclusive atmosphere that promotes immigrant and refugee students’ overall well-being and
academic success.
In addition to direct mental health services, schools can implement comprehensive
support systems that include trauma-informed care practices, peer support groups, and parental
involvement programs. Trauma-informed care practices help educators understand and address
the specific needs of students who have experienced significant pre-migration trauma. Peer
support groups provide a sense of community and reduce feelings of isolation, while parental
involvement programs help parents support their children’s mental health needs.
By adopting these comprehensive strategies, schools can mitigate students’ mental health
challenges, ultimately improving academic performance and creating a more inclusive school
environment.
Inclusive School Policies and Procedures
Numerous insights gathered from the student focus groups in this study revealed the
considerable number of difficulties students face in navigating the complexities of the American
school system. These students face myriad new experiences, including unfamiliar cultural norms,

48
a new language, different rules, and varying academic expectations. Adapting to these changes
can be overwhelming and contribute to disconnection and isolation.
Research highlights that immigrant and refugee students often struggle with the nuances
of their new educational environments, which can impact their overall sense of belonging and
academic success. For instance, Suárez-Orozco and Suárez-Orozco (2001) found that
unfamiliarity with school norms and expectations can create significant barriers to academic
achievement and social integration. The educational system’s complexity, coupled with language
barriers and cultural differences, can exacerbate feelings of alienation and hinder their ability to
fully engage with their education.
To address these challenges, schools must implement inclusive policies and procedures
that facilitate students’ integration and actively promote their sense of belonging. According to
Banks (2006), inclusive school policies that embrace cultural diversity and provide tailored
support can help bridge the gap between students’ prior experiences and their new educational
context. Such policies might include comprehensive orientation programs, CRT practices, and
dedicated support services for students and their families. Furthermore, schools must ensure that
these supports are offered in the students’ native language, delivered in a format the student
understands, and presented in a culturally appropriate manner.
Intentional efforts to create an inclusive environment demonstrate a commitment to
addressing these students’ needs and fostering their engagement and success. Research by Gay
(2006) suggested that schools that adopt inclusive practices are better equipped to support
diverse student populations, leading to improved academic outcomes and a stronger sense of
community. Schools can cultivate a more supportive and equitable educational environment by
recognizing and addressing immigrant and refugee students’ challenges.

49
Limitations and Delimitations
Understanding the limitations and delimitations of the recommendations based on
gathered research is crucial for implementing meaningful change. A prominent limitation in the
education sector is the frequent resource constraints schools face. Implementing holistic
supports, comprehensive professional development, and hiring diverse staff to meet student
needs can be challenging (McIntosh et al., 2018). Additionally, the scalability of holistic
programs and robust professional development can vary significantly across districts due to
differing local contexts and needs (Juvonen et al., 2012). Another limitation involves measuring
the impact of CRT practices. This measurement is complex due to numerous confounding factors
(Banks, 2006). Furthermore, many teacher training programs do not provide extensive training
on cultural competency, meaning staff may only be beginning their cultural competency journey
(Ladson-Billings, 2001). Despite these limitations, collaborative efforts among all stakeholders
can help overcome these barriers.
A key delimitation is the focus on a target population and scaling efforts thereafter. This
approach can also be applied to the scope of services. Understanding what is feasible for the
school district, given its structure and resources, helps ensure that diverse groups of students and
necessary services are not overlooked (Roffey, 2012). Delimitations around CRT also exist.
Typically, CRT focuses on the most represented cultures within student populations, which may
limit its relevance to students from less represented backgrounds (Sleeter, 2011).
Recognizing the limitations and delimitations of recommendations is essential for
effective implementation. Despite resource constraints and the complexity of measuring impact,
focusing efforts and collaborating with stakeholders can enhance the effectiveness of holistic
support, professional development, and CRT.

50
Recommendations for Future Research
Recommendations for future research on student belonging highlight this concept for
both students and schools. A deeper understanding of the relationship between school climate
and student belonging can offer insights for educators and administrators. By identifying specific
components of a positive school climate that directly impact student belonging, researchers can
provide actionable data to support targeted interventions. Such research could guide educators
and administrators to allocate resources more effectively.
Further recommended research on this topic includes long-term longitudinal studies on
immigrant and refugee students. These studies would provide a comprehensive understanding of
the sustained impact of a sense of belonging on the academic performance of these students. By
tracking their academic and psychological progress over several years, researchers can identify
key factors contributing to a strong sense of belonging and its long-term benefits. Such research
would offer insights into how schools can create more inclusive and supportive environments,
ultimately leading to improved educational outcomes and overall well-being for these students.
Furthermore, these studies could uncover new opportunities for intervention and support,
ensuring that educational policies and practices effectively address these students’ needs.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the study’s findings emphasize that a sense of belonging is not a peripheral
aspect of education but a fundamental component that significantly influences academic success.
By prioritizing belonging, schools can create an environment where all students, regardless of
their background, can thrive and reach their full potential, becoming positively contributing
members of society. The implications of this research are far-reaching, calling for a concerted
effort from educators, policymakers, and communities to ensure that immigrant and refugee
students are supported and valued within the educational system. These students’ future success

51
and, indeed, society at large hinges on our commitment to fostering inclusive and supportive
learning environments.

52
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Appendix A: Definitions
Below are definitions to aid in understanding the research presented. These definitions
have been compiled from previous studies on related topics, providing a comprehensive
foundation for the terminology used in this dissertation.
Immigrant: An immigrant, as be used in this paper, is defined as a noncitizen who has
voluntarily moved from one society to another and intends to stay in the new society long-term
(Rong & Preissle, 2009).
Refugee: According to the Organization of African Unity (1969 as cited in Gunning,
1989), a refugee is defined as a person who, due to “external aggression, occupation, foreign
domination, or events seriously disturbing public order in either part of the whole of their
country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave their place of habitual residence” in order
to seek refuge in another place outside their country of birth (p. 37).
Belonging: As Goodenow and Grady (1993) stated, this term refers to belonging as “the
extent to which students feel personally accepted, respected, included, and supported by others in
the school social environment” (p. 80).

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Appendix B: The Researcher
As a first-generation American, English language learner, and Palestinian American
Muslim with a background in teaching and diversity, equity, and inclusion work, my unique
experiences and identity significantly shape my approach to researching the sense of belonging
among newcomer students. My personal journey as a daughter of immigrants and an advocate
for ELLs provides me with a deep cultural sensitivity and a nuanced understanding of the
challenges these students face. This background enhances my credibility and trustworthiness as a
researcher, particularly in studies focused on immigrant and refugee students’ experiences in the
educational system.
My direct experiences as an English language learner and a first-generation American
afford me a rich perspective on the complexities of navigating a new educational environment.
This firsthand understanding allows me to approach this research with empathy and a genuine
appreciation for the cultural and linguistic challenges newcomer students face. My background
as a teacher and diversity, equity, and inclusion advocate further informed this research,
providing insights into effective practices for fostering a sense of belonging and addressing these
students’ diverse needs. For example, my experiences align with findings by Gay (2000), who
emphasized culturally responsive teaching practices in supporting student success.
Despite the strengths of my positionality, it is essential to acknowledge potential biases
that may arise from my identity and experiences. As a Palestinian American Muslim and a firstgeneration student, I may have inherent biases related to race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic
status that could influence my interpretations and interactions. Additionally, my role as an
advocate and former teacher may affect how I perceive and analyze data related to educational
practices and student experiences.

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To address and mitigate these potential biases, I will employ several strategies, one being
reflexivity. I maintained a reflexive journal to regularly reflect on how my background and
experiences may influence the research process and findings. This practice aligns with Creswell
and Poth’s (2018) recommendations for enhancing research transparency and rigor. Secondly,
diverse perspectives will be sought out and utilized. I will seek input from colleagues and peers
with diverse backgrounds to review and critique the research methods and interpretations. This
collaborative approach helps ensure a more balanced perspective and reduces the likelihood of
unacknowledged biases influencing the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2014). Thirdly, I will use
multiple data sources and methods to cross-verify findings and reduce the impact of individual
biases. Triangulation, as outlined by Denzin (1978), strengthens the validity and reliability of the
research outcomes. Lastly, engaging with participants throughout the research and soliciting their
feedback will help ensure that their voices and perspectives are accurately represented and that
my interpretations align with their experiences (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
By recognizing and addressing these potential biases, I aim to conduct research that is
both credible and reflective of the diverse experiences of immigrant and refugee students. My
commitment to cultural sensitivity and rigorous methodological practices will contribute to a
more comprehensive understanding of how to support these students in achieving a strong sense
of belonging in their educational settings.

64
Appendix C: Protocols
Table C1
Sample Survey
Survey question Available responses
1. My school is a place where people care
about each other
Strong disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
2. I feel that I belong in my school and
classroom
Strong disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
3.My teachers help me understand what I
need to learn in order to be successful
Strong disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
4.My school and classroom feel like a big
happy family
Strong disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
5. I feel like I am an important part of my
classroom
Strong disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
6. My school has a large number of
clubs/activities that I feel comfortable
participating in
Strong disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
7. I feel supported and respected in my
classroom and school
Strong disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
8. I have trusted adults whom I can go to if I
need support in school
Strong disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
9.I feel like I can be myself at school Strong disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
10. I feel proud to belong and attend my
school
Strong disagree, somewhat disagree, neither
disagree or agree, somewhat agree, strongly
agree
11. What does belonging mean to you? Open ended

65
Table C2
Sample Interview Questions
1. How has your experience in school been since coming to America?
2. Do you have a trusted adult in school who makes you feel like you belong?
3.What does belonging look like, feel like, and sound like to you?
4. Did you feel a sense of belonging in the school you previously attended in your home country?
5.What would you suggest schools/teachers do to make students feel like they belong?
6. What differences, if any, have you noticed between schooling in America vs. your home
country?
7. At school, how often do you see students from diverse backgrounds hanging out?
8. How often do you have classes with students similar to you? (age, background, ethnicity)
9. Have you interacted with school rules that are difficult for you to follow because of your
background?
10. What advantages do you think come from having a sense of belonging?
11. What struggles, if any, have you had to feel a sense of belonging in school?
12. Before we finish, do you have anything else you think would be helpful for me to know about
how the school has made you feel like you fit in or what they could do to make you feel more
comfortable?

66
Appendix D: Ethics
In conducting research involving human participants, it is crucial to adhere to ethical
standards that protect the rights and well-being of participants. My approach to managing these
responsibilities encompasses informed consent of both the student and their legal guardian,
ensuring voluntary participation, confidentiality, permission to record, and secure data storage.
A fundamental ethical requirement in research involving human participants is informed
consent. Ensuring participants and their legal guardians are fully aware of the nature, purpose,
risks, and benefits of the study before agreeing to participate is essential to remaining ethical. To
do this, clear information will be provided in both English and the native language of the student
and their families. Participants will receive a detailed consent form that outlines the study’s
objectives, procedures, risks, benefits, and information about the researcher. The form was
accessible in both languages to ensure complete understanding (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
Additionally, all participants will have the opportunity to ask questions to seek clarification prior
to consenting to ensure consent was truly informed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2014).
All participation in the study is completely voluntary. Students will be informed that
participating is entirely voluntary and that there will be no negative consequences if they choose
not to or withdraw from the study (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
I removed all identifiable data gathered to ensure that participants could be easily
identified (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Additionally, I secured all data with restricted access to
outside personnel (Merriam & Tisdell, 2014).
Lastly, recording the student focus group discussion will require explicit consent from
participants. My approach to gathering explicit consent involves asking each individual if they
agree to be recorded, audio only, no video. The consent will also be given in writing, indicating
how the recordings will be completed and stored (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

67
By adhering to these ethical practices, I aim to conduct research that respects and protects
the rights of participants while simultaneously ensuring the integrity of the study is being upheld.

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Creator Jabbar, Sommer (author)

Core Title Belonging matters: exploring the impact of social connectedness on the academic success of immigrant and refugee children in the American school system

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 09/03/2024

Defense Date 08/16/2024

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