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Leadership of ports and terminals in the global south and Oceania and the use of technological innovation during the crisis

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Leadership of ports and terminals in the global south and Oceania and the use of technological innovation during the crisis

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Content Leadership of Ports and Terminals in the Global South and Oceania and the Use of
Technological Innovation During the Crisis
Frances Andrea Yeo
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2024

© Copyright by Frances Andrea Yeo 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Frances Andrea Yeo certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Anthony Maddox
Eric Canny
Patricia E. Tobey, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
This study applied Cortes and Herrmann’s strategic leadership of innovation framework to
analyze leadership practices and technological innovation adoption in small and medium-sized
multipurpose and transshipment ports and terminals in Oceania and the Global South during the
COVID-19 pandemic. The study explored leaders’ attributes and how they utilized technology to
sustain operations and promote economic growth amidst crises. The insights of C-suite
executives and top management from ports in Australia, New Zealand, Panama, the Dominican
Republic, Chile, Colombia, Kenya, and South Africa were instrumental in this research.
Seventeen interviews were conducted, and the responses were coded based on three main
research questions and the conceptual framework. Findings underscored the significance of agile,
ethical, empathetic leadership, demonstrated in transformational and adaptive leadership styles,
and the role in navigating industry complexities during crises. Automation, digitalization, and
predictive analytics are pivotal for operational resilience and efficiency. The study’s findings,
which provide a comprehensive understanding of the port industry’s leadership and
technological strategies, emphasized innovation’s role in maintaining competitive advantage
through continuous learning and problem-solving. Recommendations included investing in
creating a future-ready workforce, centering workforce engagement and upskilling, fostering an
innovative culture, enhancing stakeholder relationships, and establishing clear performance
metrics to ensure adaptability and sustained success in the increasingly dynamic global trade
sector.
Keywords: adaptive, ethical, empathetic leadership, leadership communication,
workforce engagement in crisis, technological innovation adoption in ports, COVID-19
pandemic, ports in Oceania and the Global South

v
Acknowledgments
I give glory to God, who inspired me to make this journey and led me through it from
start to finish. I look forward to the next phase: I can do all things through Christ, who
strengthens me.
I acknowledge my cheerleaders, sister Caroline, brother Hugh, and friends and readers
Sharon, Jean, and Loraine.
I sincerely thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Patricia Tobey, for challenging, supporting,
and guiding me throughout the process. I have and will continue to treasure your wisdom and
your encouraging, affirming words.
I thank my dissertation committee, Dr. Anthony Maddox and Dr. Eric Canny. Your
insight and ideas have encouraged and affirmed my research.
I acknowledge all the participants in the study. I appreciate your openness in sharing your
experiences and perspectives, which reflect great optimism for the future.
I want to acknowledge all who introduced me to prospective participants. I appreciate
every email, phone call, and referral, whether they resulted in interviews or not. Your willingness
to help me is appreciated.
I acknowledge those who traveled this route before me and encouraged me along the
way, always expressing confidence in my abilities and reassuring me that I have a voice that
needs to be heard and a place of influence at the table.

vi
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures..................................................................................................................................x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study...............................................................................................1
Background and Context of the Problem.............................................................................3
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................5
Research Questions..............................................................................................................5
Importance of the Study.......................................................................................................6
Theoretical Framework........................................................................................................7
Justification..........................................................................................................................7
Methodology........................................................................................................................8
Definitions............................................................................................................................8
Organization of the Dissertation ..........................................................................................9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .........................................................................................11
Background and Context....................................................................................................11
The External Environment.................................................................................................12
Internal Environment: Ports and Terminals Sector in Shipping and Logistics..................17
Leadership..........................................................................................................................20
Crisis Leadership ...............................................................................................................23
Organizational Culture and Climate ..................................................................................27
Innovation ..........................................................................................................................30
COVID-19 and Technological Innovation.........................................................................36
Technology Innovation on Container Ports and Terminals...............................................37

vii
Company Performance: Ports and Terminals....................................................................39
Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................40
Summary............................................................................................................................44
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................46
Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................46
Research Questions............................................................................................................46
Overview of Design ...........................................................................................................47
Research Setting.................................................................................................................48
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria........................................................................................55
The Researcher...................................................................................................................56
Data Sources ......................................................................................................................58
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................60
Data Collection Procedures................................................................................................61
Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................63
Credibility and Trustworthiness.........................................................................................63
Ethics..................................................................................................................................64
Limitations and Delimitations............................................................................................65
Chapter Four: Findings..................................................................................................................67
Purpose of Study................................................................................................................67
Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................68
Research Questions............................................................................................................68
Demographics....................................................................................................................69
Demographics: Observations.............................................................................................71
Participant Profiles.............................................................................................................73
Findings for Research Question 1......................................................................................78

viii
Summary of Findings RQ1 ..............................................................................................103
Research Question 2 ........................................................................................................103
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2...............................................................129
Findings for Research Question 3....................................................................................130
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3...............................................................142
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................143
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations........................................................................144
Research Questions..........................................................................................................145
Discussion of Findings.....................................................................................................146
Recommendations for Practice ........................................................................................159
Organizational Change Model .........................................................................................168
Implementation Recommendations .................................................................................177
Recommendations for Future Research ...........................................................................194
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................195
References....................................................................................................................................197
Appendix A: Interview Protocol..................................................................................................249
Research Questions..........................................................................................................249
Introduction to the Interview ...........................................................................................249
Conclusion to the Interview.............................................................................................252
Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Email ...............................................................................254
Appendix C: Coding Table ..........................................................................................................256

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources 48
Table 2: Economic Statistics 2022 49
Table 3: Trade Statistics 2022 50
Table 4: Container Port Throughput (TEU) 51
Table 5: Demographic/Informational Table 69
Table 6: Demographics: Gender and Origin 72
Table 7: Participant Location, Type of Operation, and Ownership Structure 77
Table 8: Research Question 1: Summary of Findings 79
Table 9: Research Question 2: Summary of Findings 104
Table 10: Research Question 3: Summary of Findings 130
Table 11: Communication Plan 174
Table 12: Implementation Plan: Strategy to Enhance Leadership and Management
Capabilities 178
Table 13: Summary Implementation Plan: Adaptability, Resilience, and Sustainability in
Practice 180
Table 14: Summary Implementation Strategy: Innovation and Technological Adoption 182
Table 15: Summary Implementation Plan: Proactive, Transparent Communication 185
Table 16: Summary Implementation Plan: Future-Ready Workforce 187
Table 17: Summary Implementation Plan: Workforce Engagement 190
Table 18: Summary Implementation Plan: Engagement With External Stakeholders 193
Table A1: Interview Protocol 250

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Cortes and Herrmann’s Strategic Leadership of Innovation Framework 41
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework for Leadership and Innovation in Crisis 43
Figure 3: Burke-Litwin Causal Model for Organizational Performance and Change 170
Appendix C: Coding Table 256

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Global crises can have a crippling effect on companies in emerging and developing
economies (Ghecham, 2022; International Monetary Fund [IMF], 2022). The global economic
crisis in 2008–2009, the COVID pandemic, and geo-political conflicts like the ongoing war in
Ukraine have affected trade, the availability of raw materials, the cost of energy, the movement
of people, demand for goods and services, access to financing, inflation, and employment;
factors that influence the sustainability of companies (Bidzinashvili, 2022; Dubey et al., 2022;
Frešer, B, 2022; Nayyar, 2011). There were already uncertainties in the global economy, which
were exacerbated when COVID-19 broke out worldwide in 2020, creating an unprecedented
health crisis in the 21st century (L. Song & Zhou, 2020). Prolonged disruptions due to the shock
of COVID-19 led to unstable business environments (Agarwal & Gupta, 2021; AmankwahAmoah, 2021). Governments decided to combat the spread of the disease by closing borders,
imposing lockdowns, and enforcing restrictions on movement within countries, disrupting value
and supply chains (Nayak et al., 2022).
The human and economic costs of global crises are significant, especially for financially
vulnerable economies of middle-income and developing countries and, by extension, the
commercial entities within the countries (Berkmen et al., 2012; Loayza & Pennings, 2020; Peric
& Vitezic, 2016; G. D. Sharma et al., 2020). According to the World Bank, global poverty
increased for the first time in a generation because of the COVID-19 pandemic. There was a
global collapse in per capita incomes by 2021, yet in 2022, 40 % of advanced economies had
recovered as opposed to 27 % of middle-income countries and 21 % of low-income countries
(The World Bank, 2023). The global debt crisis rose to a 50-year high during the COVID-19
pandemic (Estevão, 2022; Gaspar et al., 2023). The total debt stood at 258% of global gross

2
domestic product in 2021 and 238% in 2022, still above pre-COVID-19 levels of 229% (Gaspar
et al., 2023). Governments in highly indebted developing nations have been forced to choose
between debt servicing and protecting their populations and economies (Laskaridis, 2021).
Therefore, lenders face the possibility of default and debt cancelation (Laskaridis, 2021).
Notably, emerging economies returned to pre-crisis growth rates at a pace comparable to
developed countries (Berkmen et al., 2012). In contrast, post-crisis, Gurtner (2010) indicated that
economic developmental gains in developing countries may be erased, and the most vulnerable
populations worldwide might be forced back into poverty. Gupta et al. (2021) recorded an 88%
reduction in weekly household income in rural poor and vulnerable households in India a week
after the introduction of lockdowns in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, Sen
(2011) stated that in the medium term, the impacts of global crises in developing countries
include a reduction in literacy levels, a decrease in the health of mothers, a decline in child
nutrition, and increased infant mortality. The long-term effects of global crises will reflect in the
negative impact on labor markets (Sen, 2011). Through the lens of the Global South and the
international development agencies, inequalities within and between countries have intensified
during the global COVID-19 pandemic (Stevano et al., 2021; The World Bank, 2023). While
government policies are important in mitigating the effects of crises (Nayyar, 2011), industry and
business leaders in emerging and developing countries are forced to adapt quickly to new
economic environments, seize opportunities that arise, and employ innovation as a means of
growing their industries, organizations, and supporting the growth and recovery of national
economies (Katsamba & Pellissier, 2021).
Innovation is touted as a tool to emerge from tumultuous economic situations and sustain
economic growth (Hausman & Johnston, 2014). Innovation occurs when new ideas are applied

3
to products and processes (Greenhalgh & Rogers, 2018). The resilience and growth of innovative
companies benefit shareholders and contribute to the economic growth and welfare of a wide
cross-section of stakeholders, including individual employees and the macroeconomy (Boons et
al., 2013). There is an interrelationship between leadership and innovation: leaders can facilitate
or limit innovation (Agarwal & Gupta, 2021). Mahmoud et al. (2016) found that the learning
orientation of a firm impacts innovation; furthermore, innovation is linked with the market
orientation and production of the firm (Cai et al., 2023). During the global financial crisis (GFC)
of 2008 and COVID-19, some organizations adapted and changed, while others crumbled under
the pressures of increased trade costs, supply chain disruptions, and closed borders (Handoyo,
2020). Global crises force change: COVID-19 has driven a digital transformation in societies
worldwide (Handoyo, 2020; Soto-Acosta, 2020). Nevertheless, transformational leadership and
innovation are not necessarily the default response to major unexpected disruptions.
Background and Context of the Problem
Some industries show resilience in the face of crises due to proactive crisis management,
agility, and innovation (Guckenbiehl & Corral de Zubielqui, 2022). Innovation is important to a
company’s sustainability in the face of exogenous shocks and may take several forms (Slimane,
2015). Before the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the global supply chain, the levels of
disruptions experienced in the supply chains were localized (Dirzka & Acciaro, 2022; Panwar et
al., 2022). Globalization and the increased connectivity that it facilitates have enabled formerly
local crises to spread globally at unprecedented rates (Biggs et al., 2011). Leslie (2022) stated
that 640 billion microchips are manufactured annually worldwide in the semiconductor industry.
During COVID-19, the movement of raw material globally was blocked (X. Li et al., 2023), and
there were disruptions in the semiconductor supply chain that resulted in shutdowns in

4
manufacturing plants of cars, electronics, and appliances for weeks and months worldwide
(Leslie, 2022). Disruption in supply chains has a direct impact on employment. Loss of
employment was experienced globally in the wake of COVID-19; millions of female workers in
the Southeast Asian garment industry and other developing and emerging economies were
displaced without a social safety net or paid leave and faced uncertain futures (Crayne, 2020;
Majumdar et al., 2020; Sajjad & Eweje, 2021; van Barneveld et al., 2020). In the United States,
the unemployment rate, which was 3.5% in February 2020, rose to 15% by April 2020 (Ferreira
et al., 2021). As governments worldwide decided to close borders during the pandemic, all
segments of societies endured shocks (X. Li et al., 2023). Consumers in the United States
hoarded food and select commodities while the demand for motor vehicles plunged, all
impacting the supply and demand patterns (Moosavi et al., 2022). Essential services like the
shipping and maritime industry continued to operate, delivering at sub-optimal levels due to port
congestion, delays, and uncertain cargo delivery time (Deeb & Leonardo, 2023).
Management agility in the different supply chain sectors prevented the total collapse of
global transportation networks during the pandemic (Dirzka & Acciaro, 2022). Ports are a
pivotal component of the global supply chain, delivering services to importers, exporters, liners,
and third-party service providers while generating economic activity which contributes to the
competitiveness and growth of economies (Dwarakish & Salim, 2015; Kosiek et al., 2021;
Robinson, 2002; Sarkar et al., 2023). The impact of global crises has challenged port enterprises,
which have had to rely on innovative solutions to maintain competitiveness and economic
growth (Kosiek et al., 2021).
The advantages gained through innovation in the port entities in developed and emerging
nations, specifically European countries, China, and other select countries in Asia, show that

5
innovation enhances competitiveness and can improve port performance (De Martino et al.,
2013; Zhu et al., 2006). However, innovation has been thought to stagnate in middle-income
countries (Agénor et al., 2017) without government policies crafted to enhance innovative
initiatives. This applies significantly to technological innovation as developing countries face
social, economic, and political limitations (Sahraoui et al., 2023).
Purpose of the Study
This study aimed to ascertain how the leaders of small and medium-sized multipurpose
and transshipment ports and terminals have used technological innovation in their operations to
sustain the business and achieve economic growth in times of crisis. The study examined the
limiting factors port operators faced in creating an environment of innovation and the leadership
approaches used to counter the limitations.
Research Questions
Three main research questions guided the study:
1. How has the leadership of ports and terminals employed technology in response to
crises, especially the COVID-19 pandemic?
2. What are the impacts and benefits of an innovative port operation?
• How are the benefits of technological innovation related to company
performance?
• What are the challenges in establishing a culture of innovation?
• What are the challenges in introducing new technologies in port operations?
3. What types of leadership styles are demonstrated by C-suite executives, and which
attributes favor a climate of technological innovation and change in a time of
unprecedented crisis?

6
Importance of the Study
Exploring this topic can provide a guide for future responses to crises and recovery for
firms in the global economy. Globalization is seen as a factor that facilitated the spread of
COVID-19 (Shrestha et al., 2020) and will also be a route to revive a slowed global economy.
Ports and terminals are critical nodes in the global supply chain, serving as an intersection and
hub for varied industries, crucial to the growth of emerging and developing economies, and a
platform for global trade valued at US$32 trillion in 2022 (Humphery, 2023; United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD], 2023). The study is important to help
identify which strategies and technologies mitigate loss of productivity, ensuring resilience,
continuity efficiency, and growth (Sahraoui et al., 2023). Resilience and sustainability are key
areas of exploration as the pandemic has pointed to the failure of neoliberalism and heightened
global inequalities (Moosavi et al., 2022; van Barneveld et al., 2020).
Both social and economic considerations drive the importance of this study. The extreme
conditions experienced in the supply chain affected business entities and all societies (Sodhi &
Tang, 2021). The study sought to unearth the best practices in managing people to minimize job
losses and the effect on the marginalized and poor. The large-scale supply chain disruption
resulted in the loss of jobs, cuts in hours, and food insecurity (Crayne, 2020; Ferreira et al., 2021;
Sajjad & Eweje, 2021). A difference between the GFC of 2008 and the health and economic
crisis of COVID-19 is the degree to which the disruptions of the magnitude of COVID-19 are
projected to affect the future in the realm of technology, business, and operations (Notteboom et
al., 2021). The study is important as it will seek to unearth the leadership attributes and
experiences facilitating a quick response to change (X. Li et al., 2023), preparing leaders for
future crises and change management. Given the important role of ports and terminals in

7
economies, it would be imprudent not to explore and apply the lessons learned during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Theoretical Framework
The study is underpinned by the theoretical framework of Cortes and Herrmann’s (2020)
strategic leadership of innovation. This framework is a fitting model for examining the problem
of practice, as it addresses the influence of the environment on the organization and leadership.
Cortes and Herrmann’s framework, which emerged from a research synthesis on how leaders
influence organizational innovation, categorizes the influence of leaders as discretional and
architectural. Discretional influence is based on the premise that innovation is a key
responsibility of a strategic leader. Architectural influence is based on the organizational context
shaped by the leader’s decisions and, as a result, shapes opportunities and constraints regarding
innovation. The influence of leaders affects the stages of the innovation process, including idea
generation, idea elaboration, idea championing, and idea implementation. Characteristics of the
external and internal environment, constructs of diversity, and changes from demographic
characteristics and leadership styles to personality and cognitive influences either enhance or
hinder innovation based on leaders’ responses.
Justification
The theoretical framework of Cortes and Herrmann’s (2020) strategic leadership of
innovation allows for the examination of the environment, individual leadership approaches, and
the relationship to the stages of the innovation process. This study considered the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic on the shipping and maritime industry, specifically ports and terminals.
There was an examination of the external and internal environment of the port sector, the
leadership at the C-suite and top management levels, and technological innovation in the ports.

8
Cortes and Herrmann’s (2020) strategic leadership of innovation theory underscores the
importance of the internal and external environment and the influence that can be exerted on
leadership decisions. This aligns with the impact of crises, the environment, on leadership
decisions, and the ensuing response. The framework divides leadership styles into discretional
and architectural approaches, providing a model to dissect the leadership style of the ports’ top
management. Examining the stages of innovation provided an opportunity to explore how,
where, when, and what type of technological innovation was introduced during the crisis.
Methodology
The study employed a qualitative approach, which was deemed most suitable for the
research objectives. A semi-structured open-ended interview protocol was administered using
web-based platforms that facilitated access to participants. The participants, who were C-suite
executives and top management of ports and terminals in the shipping and logistics industry in
Australia, New Zealand, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Chile, Colombia, Kenya, and South
Africa, held leadership positions in the port community before and during the COVID-19
pandemic. The interviews allowed the participants to share their perspectives based on their lived
experiences. Patton (2002) recommended a semi-structured interview design for efficient use of
the interview time. This design facilitated analysis as responses can be reliably identified for
comparison. All responses for each question were coded, grouped, and compared.
Definitions
The following terms are defined to facilitate comprehension of the study. Each term is
defined in the context of the study; extended definitions may not be included.
Global value chain: The network of value added by all countries in product production
(Los et al., 2015).

9
Innovation: A new concept and process that is intended to result in competitive
advantage, efficiencies, and improved performance in a firm (Souto, 2015).
Leadership: A multidimensional concept whereby an individual or group demonstrates
styles, approaches, and characteristics learned or innate, resulting in a process that influences
followers to achieve common goals (Eddy & VanDerLinden, 2006; Northouse, 2018).
Ports and terminals: A facility built to manage the transfer of cargo between ship and
shore, whether containerized or bulk (Haralambides, 2019).
Organizational climate: The employees’ perception of the work environment is
influenced by company policies, communication protocol, and culture (Sopow, 2007).
Organizational culture: Traditions, values, and beliefs in an organization (Sopow, 2007).
Reefer container: Refrigerated containers are insulated intermodal containers equipped
with refrigeration units and climate control capabilities that are used to transport temperaturesensitive products (Castelein et al., 2020).
Shipping and logistics industry: A global service industry that facilitates international
trade. (Haralambides, 2019).
Terminal operating system (TOS): A central, multifaceted coordination platform that can
collect, manage, and disseminate data and information in real time across various stakeholders
and operational units (Gekara & Thanh Nguyen, 2018).
Organization of the Dissertation
My dissertation consists of five chapters. The first serves as an introduction to the
problem of practice and the purpose of the study. The chapter provides a background, sets the
context, poses the research questions, and summarizes the research approach. Chapter 2 provides
a review of the literature as it relates to the external and internal environment of multipurpose

10
ports and terminals and the operations of ports and terminals. There is also a review of the
literature on leadership, change, innovation, and the process of innovation as it relates to the
maritime sector, specifically about technology. Chapter 3 addresses the research approach,
details the interview instrument that was used, and provides a profile of participants in the
sample. Chapter 4 outlines my findings on the problem as guided by the research questions.
Chapter 5 provides recommendations on leadership strategies that foster innovation, approaches
to empowering leadership and stakeholders, and recommendations on adopting technologies in a
climate of unexpected change and concatenated global crises.

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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The literature review presented in this paper creates a foundation for the research,
demonstrates how this study contributes to the body of work on the leadership of ports and
innovation and provides a reference point for the study’s findings (Rocco & Plakhotnik, 2009). A
review of literature about the environment, leadership, technological innovation in ports, and
change helps establish the level and nature of prior research on areas that feed into the problem
of practice (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Rocco & Plakhotnik, 2009). The literature review first
covers the nature and structure of the environment. The environment is divided between the
external and the internal. The external environment focuses specifically on global crises, and the
internal relates to the environment of multipurpose ports and terminals, shipping, logistics, and
the significance of the industries in global and local economies and development. The literature
on leadership is extensive; hence, in keeping with the focus of this study, a review was
concentrated on select leadership attributes and attitudes that relate to innovation and change. A
natural progression in reviewing the literature generally leads to a deeper exploration of change
and innovation and a more in-depth exploration of technological innovation on ports and
terminals. This is followed by examining the literature related to the links between technological
innovation and company performance.
Background and Context
As countries emerge from the global COVID-19 pandemic, there have been studies on
the economic performance of industries during the crisis. The near collapse of the global supply
chain during the pandemic and the impact on the consumer’s everyday experience have drawn
attention far and wide. As the importance of the global supply chain has come to the forefront,
the importance of ports and terminals, their role in the consistent and timely flow of goods, and

12
how leadership has sustained business using technology and innovation are areas that are open
for further exploration. The elements that contribute to an understanding of the problem of
practice require an examination of the literature.
The External Environment
A broad examination of the external environment encompasses a review of elements that
could influence an industry’s operations and the companies that function in the ecosystem. By
choosing to narrow observations of the environment to explore selected crises that have occurred
in the last 2 decades, we can observe elements of the macro environment, including geo-political,
political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental factors. These factors point to
opportunities and threats and provide context for the study.
Global Crises
This study considers global crises a dominant factor in the external environment. Biggs et
al. (2011) proposed that the world had entered an era when global crises would be linked,
occurring increasingly and in instances simultaneously. Crises are unexpected and occur
infrequently, disrupting the norm and ushering in unfamiliar territory for those in leadership to
manage (Wu et al., 2021). A global crisis is described as an environmental crisis that is fueled by
human-induced global change, facilitated by the growing connectivity in the world, and most
often, which impacts the poor negatively (Biggs et al., 2011). Financial and health crises have
been two categories of crises over the past 2 decades that started locally and then spread globally.
Each category has had a similar impact internationally, and inevitably, there is an enduring
impact on developing nations (Berkmen et al., 2012; Loayza & Pennings, 2020; Peric & Vitezic,
2016).

13
Financial Crises
The GFC of 2008 started with questionable subprime loans in the housing market in the
United States and resulted in a worldwide economic recession (Berkmen et al., 2012; Blanchard
et al., 2010; Hausman & Johnston, 2014; Slack, 2010). The early stages of the GFC 2009 took
the form of banking crises in the advanced economies of North America and Europe (Barrell, &
Davis, 2008). The literature indicates that financial and trade linkages facilitated the spread of
financial crises globally (Jiang et al., 2022; Sen, 2011). The general impact of the GFC 2009 on
emerging and developing nations occurred later in the cycle, marked by varying levels of
collapse of trade, which is closely tied to food security, and the sharp decline in financial flows
ranging from foreign direct investment to remittances (Blanchard et al., 2010; Kabir et al., 2018;
Nicola et al., 2020; Sen, 2011). The impact on growth in developing nations varied in response to
the GFC 2009; some developing nations in Asia, including China, experienced positive growth
based on domestic demand growth; in contrast, developing nations in the western hemisphere
experienced an economic decline (Kshetri, 2011; Sen, 2011). There were hardships, but global
pointers show that there was a muted impact on poverty levels (Sen, 2011).
The GFC 2009 resulted in changes in global trade flows and agreements, overall market
decline, and a readjustment phase in the maritime and port sectors, which had experienced
phenomenal growth in the proceeding years (Kalgora & Christian, 2016; Notteboom, 2021;
Slack, 2010). Kalgora and Christian (2016) stated that the shipping industry declined by 16%
during the first 6 months of the crisis. World trade fell an estimated 13% in 2009 (UNCTAD,
2012). Financial factors fueled the crisis in shipping. Pre-crisis, cash was available at low
interest, non-shipping institutions had invested in ports, and the shipping business was receiving
unsustainable returns (Slack, 2010). Orders for new ship builds were expected to increase the

14
worldwide container fleet capacity by 50%; however, with the crisis and decline in demand for
transportation, the volume of new ship orders fell after August 2008 (Kalgora & Christian, 2016;
Xu & Yip, 2012). There was a fall in demand for maritime transport due to the decline in
economic activity and consumption. Freight rates plummeted, ports saw a decline in traffic and
were forced to halt expansion plans, all as a response to the decline in demand due to the fall in
consumption in the West and production in the East (Kalgora & Christian, 2016; Slack, 2010).
Container ports and terminals were filled with empty containers on shore, as container vessels
were pulled from service or anchored in ports awaiting contracts (Hung & Chuang, 2011;
Kalgora & Christian, 2016; Slack, 2010).
Health Crisis: COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic emerged when uncertainties in the global economy were
highly interconnected (Jiang et al., 2022; G. D. Sharma et al., 2020; L. Song & Zhou, 2020). The
shock of the COVID-19 pandemic perpetuated the first major global crisis since the GFC 2009
(Notteboom et al., 2021). Advanced, emerging, and developing economies experienced recession
concurrently; this was the first time since the Great Depression (L. Song & Zhou, 2020). This
health crisis, which started in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, spread throughout Asia and to
the Western Hemisphere by the first quarter of 2020, negatively impacting global healthcare,
economies, financial markets, and social systems (Ciotti et al., 2020; Nicola et al., 2020; L. Song
& Zhou, 2020). The World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic in
March 2020. In July 2024, WHO reported over 775 million cases of COVID-19 and more than 7
million deaths globally (WHO, 2024).
As in the GFC 2009, there was a sudden fall in consumer demand for durable goods and a
disruption in global trade during the COVID-19 pandemic, intensifying socio-inequalities

15
globally (Trommer, 2022). The demand shock immediately impacted the global supply chain,
including ports and the extended shipping industry (Netteboom et al., 2021). There was a
resilience in demand for foodstuff and medical supplies, which are basic goods and necessities,
but a breakdown in globalized production and global food systems as lockdowns of communities
and entire countries were imposed, resulting in cases of hoarding and a range of socioeconomic
pressures (Nicola et al., 2020; Trommer, 2022).
Impact of Crisis and Recovery
In the wake of the disruptions in the global supply chain, Sharfuddin (2020) predicted
that post-COVID-19, there would be greater protectionism and a thrust to develop the production
of local and regional suppliers. Nationalism may neutralize globalization as countries strive to
secure their economies, weakening, for example, the West’s dependence on East Asia for
semiconductors and other products. However, there would be consequences (Allen et al., 2020;
Anwar, 2022; Sharfuddin, 2020). Traditionally, low-cost labor markets could see a loss of jobs,
and there could be an increase in the cost of production of goods due to higher labor costs in
developed countries (Sharfuddin, 2020).
Despite this perspective, the literature promotes strategies for global economic recovery
and, by extension, recovery for nations and companies (L. Song & Zhou, 2020). The recovery of
economies post-pandemic will depend on public policies and initiatives at the enterprise level to
facilitate structural reform to boost productivity re-globalization, which would strengthen trade
and the development and implementation of technology (L. Song & Zhou, 2020). The
information technology sector grew during the pandemic as there was a heavy reliance on the
internet, a trend that moved services and communication into cyberspace and will support the
development and use of artificial intelligence in all sectors (Anwar, 2022; Sharfuddin, 2020).

16
Changes in the realms of trade and information technology in the form of a digital revolution
started in the 1980s in the logistics industry, resulting in new business models in the maritime
industry, including the port and terminal sector (Acciaro & Sys, 2020; Jović et al., 2022). Port
digitalization serves as a strategy to improve productivity and operational efficiency and generate
additional revenues (Heilig et al., 2017; Jović et al., 2022; Paulauskas, 2021).
Post-COVID-19 Economic Recovery
Economic recovery from COVID-19 will require government intervention and not rely
solely on market forces (Stiglitz, 2021). The capacity to implement strategies aimed at generating
economic recovery in developed nations and emerging markets compared to developing
economies varies and is also related to the degree of damage experienced during the pandemic
(G. D. Sharma et al., 2020; Stiglitz, 2021). The fiscal capacity of governments in developing
countries is limited based on weak tax revenue and high public debt. They are unable to respond
to a crisis by implementing safety nets in the form of grants and loans, relief packages equivalent
to or exceeding 1% of GDP that the developed countries of North America and Europe, and
emerging nations like India, introduced in response to the economic downturn caused by
COVID-19 (Caballero-Morales, 2021; G. D. Sharma et al., 2020). Policies that create better
private and public entities and that support innovation, employment, and reforms in taxation,
finance, infrastructure, and education boost economic growth and can be employed in varying
measures to strengthen economies (Caballero-Morales, 2021; G. D. Sharma et al., 2020; Stiglitz,
2021). These policies, coupled with investments in research and development, especially in ICT,
and the introduction of digital technologies, create a climate for increased productivity,
efficiency, and innovation at the global, national, and organizational levels (Mugume & Bulime,

17
2022; Soto-Acosta, 2020). However, the economic resilience of developed nations compared to
developing nations can determine these measures’ implementation levels (Lee et al., 2022).
Internal Environment: Ports and Terminals Sector in Shipping and Logistics
The introduction of containerized shipping was a major technological advancement that
revolutionized the maritime industry and sea trade, impacting manufacturing in the economies of
major world centers (Bernhofen et al., 2016; Coşar & Demir, 2018; Levinson, 2006). Containers
were introduced commercially in the 1950s and were adopted on a wide scale by the end of the
1960s, affecting the relocation of ports, increasing shipping cost and capacity, and reducing
delivery times (Bernhofen et al., 2016; Coşar & Demir, 2018; Notteboom, 2004). The adoption
of this new technology reinforced the role of ports and terminals as the hub of global trade and
the shipping and logistics industry.
Ports and Terminals
Port and terminals are multimodal distribution hubs in the global value chain, offering the
service of cargo handling and delivering value to a range of stakeholders (Kuźmicz, 2022;
Robinson, 2010; Y. Wang & Wang, 2019). Alliances between shipping lines to contain costs and
increase profitability exerted pressures on ports and terminals to compete in terms of location,
productivity, and infrastructure and against new entrants into the sector by the container lines
developing dedicated terminals, especially in Asia, North America, and Europe (Heaver et al.,
2000; Jaffee, 2010; Notteboom, 2004). At the turn of the 21st century, the port management
sector was fragmented. The industry changed with the expansion of the terminal beyond home
ports to form global terminal operators to fulfill the demand carriers for single sourcing of
services across ports. Of note, shipping companies established global terminal operating

18
companies, increasing port capacity and reducing delay costs (Mangan et al., 2008; S. Zhu et al.,
2019).
In the early 2000s, the investment of transnational firms transformed the port and
terminal industry. Port operators expanded horizontally controlled multiple berths, and shipping
lines sought to integrate business through vertical integration, increasing competitiveness
(Álvarez-San Jaime et al., 2013; Baştuğ et al., 2022; Slack & Frémont, 2005). Ports are
increasingly operated under a landlord model: the land is owned by the government and leased
by port authorities under long-term arrangements of 50 years and more to terminal operators.
(González Laxe et al., 2016; Notteboom, 2004; Tijan et al., 2021). Port governance has evolved
concomitantly with the rise of global terminal management companies: port devolution strategies
have been adopted on a large scale, increasing participation of the private sector and reducing the
involvement of governments, the aim being greater efficiency and competitiveness (Brooks &
Cullinane, 2007; Notteboom, 2004; D. Song & Lee, 2017; Verhoeven & Vanoutrive, 2012).
Turkey, for example, initiated a strategy of port devolution over the past 20 years, allowing
private global terminal operators to establish new ports, with considerable capital outlay, and
operate existing ports to scale operations (Esmer & Duru, 2017; Esmer & Sigali, 2022).
The top 10 container terminals are in Asia, and China is the global leader in container
transport, with imports accounting for an estimated quarter of world trade (Kuźmicz, 2022; Li et
al., 2022; Mangan et al., 2008; World Shipping Council, n.d.). Chinese ports have experienced
long-term growth since the late 1970s and have moved through stages of competition to
overcapacity to cooperation (Huo et al., 2018; Notteboom & Yang, 2017; D. Song, 2002). Three
of the most prominent private transnational port corporations in the western Pacific Basin

19
successfully negotiated joint venture agreements to operate ports in Mainland China from as
early as the turn of the 20th century (Airriess, 2001; D. Song, 2002).
Ports operations are an important economic activity connecting inland and maritime
transportation, facilitating import and export trade, providing direct employment, and spurring
infrastructure development (Carbone & Martino, 2003; Dwarakish & Salim, 2015). Carbone and
Martino (2003) proposed that ports can be considered a cluster operation with a range of service
providers; terminal operators play a specialist role in the global supply and value chain servicing
shipping lines and consignees (Feng et al., 2012). Globally, in 2020, 939 ports received regular
liner services. The World Shipping Council reported that in 2021, 4.2 million persons were
employed directly in the shipping industry, and the industry’s direct contribution to the global
GDP was $183.3 billion, with direct capital expenditure of $29.4 billion. The management
structure of terminals on site comprises C-suite executives, top management, middle managers,
and supervisory staff who oversee line staff and contract workers with cross-functional skill sets
ranging from business management, logistics management, engineering, information, and
communication, and labor management, complemented by the soft skills of adaptability,
communications, problem-solving and teamwork (Chala & Bouranta, 2021; Chen et al., 2018;
Thai & Yeo, 2015).
Ports and COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic impacted the maritime industry, creating global challenges in
port operations (Kuźmicz, 2022; Mańkowska et al., 2021). There was a decline in the volume of
cargo, port calls, and a low level of activity in the shipping sector during the early months of the
pandemic; however, transshipment volumes recorded an increase in break bulk cargo, and
consumer demand juxtaposed with the reduction in the number of working vessels, port workers

20
inability to report for work, and a shortage of truckers led to congestion as the pandemic
unfolded (Kuźmicz, 2022; Liu et al., 2023; Vukić & Lai, 2022). Leadership at the port was
required to draw on new strategies and be adaptive to continue operations in the face of
lockdown, the decline in volumes, and the health risks posed by the pandemic to the labor force.
Leadership
Leadership, a multidimensional concept, has been researched increasingly in Western
societies since the 20th century (Fry, 2003). The outcome has been the development of a range of
definitions and perspectives centered around relationships, cognitive interactions between leaders
and followers, collaboration for the achievement of a common goal, and leadership as a trait or
learned behavior (Kirkpatick & Locke, 1991; Konrad, 2000; McDermott et al., 2011; Swanwick,
2019; Zaccaro, 2007). Despite the decades of research on leadership, there remains a gap
between theory and practice and ongoing discussion on the differentiation and overlapping
concepts between leadership and management (Kotterman, 2006; Zaccaro & Horn, 2003).
Leadership requires vision and creates change by motivating and inspiring followers, whereas
management can be equated with control and short-term achievement: in the everyday
experience, senior leadership is expected to perform both roles (Kotterman, 2006; Swanwick,
2019). Universally, drawing on a complementary set of skills positions the executive to establish
coherence in environments of uncertainty and simultaneously drive performance, delivering
positive results for the organization (Swanwick, 2019).
Leadership, Culture, and Context
Leadership theories and models developed in one culture may not necessarily apply to all
national cultures, creating a need for the researcher to avoid assuming the generalizability of
leadership theories as they are reviewed and applied (Barkema et al., 2015; Crede et al., 2019).

21
Cross-cultural research has found that leadership concepts and experiences differ in
individualistic societies of North America compared to collectivistic societies on the African
continent, China, and other nations in the East which share similar cultural values: culture and
context influence leadership (Barkema et al., 2015; Chin et al., 2017; Crede et al., 2019; Dickson
et al., 2012; Filatotchev et al., 2020; Hofstede, n.d.; Takeuchi et al., 2020). Western leadership
styles were imposed through colonialism and were still influential in the post-colonial era (Blunt
& Jones, 1997).
Non-Western Leadership Theories
Leadership theories have emerged globally, although there is a gap in the research related
to non-Western theories (Barkema et al., 2015; Chin et al., 2017). Ancient texts like The Art of
War by Chinese philosopher Sun Tzu, dating to the 5th century B.C.E, have been a resource on
strategic management and leadership for executives and leaders in the East and the West
(Barkema et al., 2015; Dimovski et al., 2012; Goldenberg, 1997; Sai On Ko, 2003). Filatotchev
et al. (2020) stated that varied leadership approaches are applied universally. However, followers’
perceptions and leadership behaviors’ effectiveness are assessed based on cultural, political, and
institutional contexts (Popper & Druyan, 2001; Rahmadani & Schaufeli, 2022).
Paternalistic Leadership
H.-Y. Chen and Kao (2009) found that the Chinese Paternalistic leadership style, a model
accepted in Chinese culture that is suffused in a moral code and authoritarian leadership, impacts
the psychological health of non-Chinese subordinates from multicultural backgrounds. The
paternalistic styles of leadership are demonstrated across non-Eurocentric cultures (Erden &
Otken, 2019; Pellegrini & Scandura, 2008; Sposato, 2019). Paternalistic leadership, which
combines paternal benevolence with strict discipline and authority, is viewed negatively in

22
Western management writings as it is closely tied to nepotism (Erden & Otken, 2019; Pellegrini
& Scandura, 2008).
African Leadership: From Colonial Perceptions to Ubuntu
Masango (2002) stated that through a Western lens, leadership approaches on the African
continent were viewed as barbaric. However, after years of colonialization and strife, in the era
of globalization, there has been a return in some measure to the traditional leadership
approaches, which promote unity, life-giving leadership, and the concept of Ubuntu, which is
similar to transformational leadership but differs from anglo-centric thinking (Chin et al., 2017;
Eyong et al., 2017; Masango, 2002; Msila, 2015).
Cultural and Historical Considerations: Individualism and Collectivism
According to Barkema et al. (2015), Western individualism and Eastern collectivism
dictate the type of relationship with peers, while power distance relates to vertical relationships,
the unequal distribution of power, and the level of acceptance of authoritarian leadership styles.
Communication styles and trust levels are also influenced by culture (Barkema et al., 2015;
Hofstede, n.d.; Holtbrügge et al., 2013). As this study explored leadership attributes and behavior
in eight different sites globally, the context of culture must be considered, especially as all sites
have Indigenous communities that form part of the workforce. Researchers have examined
Indigenous leadership models and have shown that Indigenous attitudes, perceptions, and
insights provide an antecedent to leadership theories, for example, the Māori leaders’ values that
provide a deeper understanding of ethical and relational leadership (Haar et al., 2019; Henry &
Wolfgramm, 2018). Kawharu et al. (2017) examined the relationship between entrepreneurship,
community sustainability, and resilience from a New Zealand Indigenous perspective and found
that an understanding of the sociocultural context is required based on a careful examination of

23
history. The findings revealed how ancestral approaches to confronting challenges and crises
serve as reference points and guides for contemporary behavior and action. The strategies the kin
community entrepreneurs adopt to address external and internal confrontations are culturally
framed. Four central leadership roles form a cohesive leadership team: at the center of this team
is an individual who possesses oversight and vision for entrepreneurship and holds primary
accountability in service to the community. Different cultures are likely to have different
interpretations and expectations of leadership influenced by context, history, and the level of
individualism in the society (Barkema et al., 2015; Den Hartog et al., 1999).
Crisis Leadership
Leaders utilize different approaches and demonstrate a range of attributes when required
to lead organizations through challenging seasons (Swanwick, 2019; Wu et al., 2021). Problemsolving and social skills are two key skills found at the higher levels of leadership and are
essential skills in crises when leaders must recognize threats, mitigate the risk, employ strategies
to prevent reoccurrence if possible, and prepare the team to cope and thrive in the unexpected
(Mumford et al., 2000; Wu et al., 2021). Research in crisis leadership specifically remains
fragmented (Wu et al., 2021), and the unprecedented circumstances of COVID-19 created a crisis
of leadership as top management was tested beyond expectations and did not have the benefit of
hindsight (Tourish, 2020). The literature considers strategic, transformational, and adaptive
leadership as approaches used in times of change and crisis, offering varying ranges of
effectiveness (de Bussy & Paterson, 2012; Dirani et al., 2020; Hernández-Santiago & PérezRivera, 2022; Schaedler et al., 2022). Executives operating on the global leadership stage in a
variety of environments employ transformational, strategic, and adaptive leadership approaches

24
to shape organizations, transformational leadership being the frequently recommended approach
(Kanungo, 1998; Štreimikienė et al., 2021)
Leadership Theories
As previously indicated, there are multiple definitions of leadership, and no one theory or
model can be employed to achieve effective leadership (Silva, 2016). There are common
components of the theories and common themes fundamental to effective leadership (Cacioppe,
1997). Followers look to leaders in times of crisis (Dirani et al., 2020). Leaders must be selfaware and create inclusive, safe environments for followers where they are empowered to
accomplish tasks, and a leader, having established a vision, ought not to lose sight of the goals
and objectives. Of interest to this study are three leadership approaches: strategic,
transformational, and adaptive. The literature shows that a combination of these leadership styles
and attributes contributes to the resilience of an organization and is appropriate when innovation
is a strategy employed to mitigate unexpected change and crises (de Bussy & Paterson, 2012;
Hernández-Santiago & Pérez-Rivera, 2022; Madi Odeh et al., 2023; Schaedler et al., 2022).
Strategic Leadership
There is a lack of consensus on the definition of strategic leadership, evidenced by the
wide range of theories that have emerged through research since the 1960s; however, the theory
essentially incorporates the capacity to learn, change, create meaning for the organization, and
incorporate management wisdom (Boal & Hooijberg, 2000; Samimi et al., 2022). Strategic
Leadership is a relational and symbolic style of leadership, grounded in the attributes and
behavior of top-level leadership that includes chief executives and top management; it is also a
means of identifying executives in the upper echelons of management (Boal & Hooijberg, 2000;
Vera & Crossan, 2004). Upper echelons theory, which states the outcome of an organization and

25
the strategic processes are predicted in part by the characteristics of top management, is
considered the antecedent of strategic leadership theory (Boal & Hooijberg, 2000; Carpenter et
al., 2004; DeChurch et al., 2010; Hambrick & Mason, 1984). Strategic leadership theories
provide a framework to explore the functions and attributes of strategic leaders, the how, what,
and why they operate, and the outcomes of the functions (Samimi et al., 2022). The theory
examines the thought processes of the leader and how they influence decision-making making,
information processing, and communicating vision to followers, motivating innovative action
(Boal & Hooijberg, 2000; Elenkov et al., 2005a). Of note is the applicability of strategic
leadership across cultures, especially as it relates to innovation performance (Maziti et al., 2018).
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership, one of the new theories that emerged from strategic
leadership theory, is a universally recognized concept that is most effective in developed
countries (Bass, 1999; Boal & Hooijberg, 2000; Poturak et al., 2020). Den Hartog et al. (1999)
proposed that transformational leadership attributes are employed in countries globally.
Transformational leadership emphasizes the alignment of an organization around a shared vision
and is linked empirically to follower work engagement (Bakker et al., 2022; Bass, 1999).
Transformational leaders focus on organizational goals and inspire followers to achieve the
extraordinary through efforts that transcend self-interest (Boehnke et al., 2003; Cacioppe, 1997;
Fry, 2003). According to Bakker et al. (2022), transactional leaders use rewards and recognition
to influence followers. In contrast, transformational leaders demonstrate genuine concern for
followers’ welfare and developmental needs, helping followers appreciate new perspectives
when facing challenges and develop as leaders (Bakker et al., 2022; Stone et al., 2004).
Transformational leadership can positively affect innovation, job satisfaction, proactivity, and

26
self-efficacy among followers given the right environment in an organization (Al-edenat, 2018;
Choi et al., 2016; Den Hartog & Belschak, 2012; Prasad & Junni, 2016; Tims et al., 2011).
Transformational qualities in a leader can enhance the organization’s adaptive culture and
organizational resilience (Madi Odeh et al., 2023)
Adaptive Leadership
Adaptive leadership acknowledges that problems can emerge from different contexts, and
organizations must adapt to unexpected external and internal changes (Akkaya, 2020; R. A.
Anderson et al., 2015). The literature has indicated that adaptive leadership has a mediating
effect between leaders who explore leadership ambidexterity and employees with similar
attitudes and mindsets, resulting in an environment of innovation necessary in dynamic
conditions (R. A. Anderson et al., 2015; Tri Kurniawati et al., 2022). The Heifetz adaptive
leadership model prescribes specific interactive processes of leading and following in a dynamic
climate: all stakeholders participate in the change process (De Rue, 2011; Heifetz & Heifetz,
1994; Randall & Coakley, 2007). The leader and stakeholders must do the adaptive work: work
that is stressful and preferably avoided (Heifetz, 1995). Following the processes enables the
leader to assess the challenge and assist the followers in accomplishing the work required to
respond to change.
Concurrently, the leader creates a safe space for the follower and a shield from undue
external stressors (Heifetz & Heifetz, 1994). Adaptive leadership theory reinforces the need to
step back from problems to understand the issues at play better and determine the best approach
to resolving a problem (Northouse, 2018). This concept promotes the need for pause and
reflection before action. It also underscores the importance of empowering followers to take
ownership of the task while receiving support from the leader (Heifetz & Heifetz, 1994). Of note

27
is how adaptive leadership is demonstrated in Japanese quality control circles, which were
considered to be at the root of the transformation of Japanese industry starting in the 1950s,
demonstrated during the fuel crises of the 1970s, and proven to phenomenal improve in
efficiency, innovation, and improved international competitiveness, especially the automobile
industry in the years that followed (Bank & Wilpert, 1983; Watanabe, 1991). Japanese quality
control circles emphasize a voluntary small group collective approach to improving products and
services, unlike the more silo-based short-term approach to quality control in North America,
which resulted in even greater gains in efficiency in Japan’s industries using technological
innovation such as robotics (Schonberger, 1983; Watanabe, 1991).
Organizational Culture and Climate
Organizational culture is rooted in a group of persons’ traditions, shared experiences, and
learning as they navigate the environment over time (Schein, 1990). Culture consists of basic
assumptions held by the group, shared cognition and mental models for success, and proven
strategies resulting from the need to adapt to external influences, integrate internally, and solve
problems as a unit. (Kwantes & Boglarsky, 2007; Schein, 1990; Sopow, 2007). The assumptions
and coping strategies based on anxiety reduction are sustained by leaders and taught to new
group members (Schein, 1990). Culture is deeply rooted and influences organizational climate,
which relates to everyday policies, procedures, and the experience and perceptions of employees,
including the interaction between team members, psychological safety, and an environment that
promotes learning (Schein, 1990; Sopow, 2007). Sopow (2007) found that healthy organizational
cultures steeped in trust and effective communication promote a positive organizational climate.
Organizational climate emphasizes the perceptions and feelings of the team (Agarwal & Gupta,
2021).

28
Leadership and Organizational Culture, Climate, and Change
Leadership reinforces organizational culture, foundational values, and beliefs by how
they react to change and crises. Organizational culture is correlated with organizational
effectiveness and can either be a barrier or stimulus to learning, creativity, and innovation.
(Abdul-Halim et al., 2019; Fey & Denison, 2003; Kwantes & Boglarsky, 2007). How resources
are allocated and what is modeled and rewarded are elements that establish and reinforce culture:
strong cultures may resist change and be less adaptable in dynamic situations if a culture of
exploration has not been developed (Schein, 1990; Sørensen, 2002).
Change initiatives fail when there is a disconnect between organizational culture and
climate (Sopow, 2007). Corporate culture has been found to drive innovation (Tejeiro Koller et
al., 2017). An innovation culture in an organization is defined by the organization’s propensity to
experiment and explore, creating new products and services to improve performance and
empowering teams to act creatively (Duane Ireland et al., 2006). Resources, processes, values,
behavior, climate, and success drive an innovative culture (Dobni et al., 2022). The concept of a
learning organization that encapsulates elements of the adaptive capabilities of a culture of
innovation and the willingness of the organization to allow for experimentation and failure (Hitt,
1995; Reese, 2020). Leadership can create and nurture an environment that encourages change
and innovation where the team perceives that the organization encourages and enables
innovation: a climate of innovation (Agarwal & Gupta, 2021; Alblooshi et al., 2021; Sui et al.,
2013).
Crisis Management
Uncertainty, disruptive, and harmful are characteristics of a crisis; a threat to goals and
routine, a problem that can fundamentally alter the structure or future of an entity if it is not

29
defeated (Bundy et al., 2017; James et al., 2011; Reynolds & Seeger, 2005; Wut et al., 2021).
Crisis management encompasses disaster management and risk management whereby steps are
taken to counter the problem, be it an event or threat, limit the damage exacted, and seize
opportunities that could result in renewal (Coombs, 1995; Coombs, 2013; Reynolds & Seeger,
2005; Wut et al., 2021). There are studies in several disciplines, multiple perspectives on the
topic, and a small measure of interdisciplinary research around crisis management (Bundy et al.,
2017; Ha & Riffe, 2015). It is generally agreed that there are different methods to manage a
crisis. Context matters, and the role of leadership in the process begins with identifying and
differentiating between crises and disturbing events and applying the correct action (Bhaduri,
2019; James & Wooten, 2010).
Societal and organizational crises cover a wide gamut, and crisis management strategies
may overlap in certain phases (Olsson, 2014). Research on crisis management in organizations
and multinational firms is distinct from management employed by governments in national and
global crises; however, trust and transparency are elements that are required as a part of any
crisis management strategy (Enria et al., 2021; James et al., 2011; Kye & Hwang, 2020).
Additionally, Western-based frameworks of crisis management do not necessarily apply to
cultures in other hemispheres, as demonstrated in crisis management in multinational
organizations: strategies that work well in the home country do not necessarily work in other
locations (Bundy et al., 2017; Y. Wang & Laufer, 2020). Evidence shows that culture influences
crisis management. For example, the management approach of leaders in China differed from the
approach of Western leaders, as the government in China subscribes to the concept of Guanxi.
Even when the organization is exposed for wrongdoing, an apology from leadership is highly
unlikely (Y. Wang & Laufer, 2020).

30
An organizational crisis is perceived as an event that is unexpected and disruptive,
threatening organizational goals and impacting internal and external stakeholders (Bundy et al.,
2017). The literature examines crisis management at the level of the organization, creating
frameworks for crisis management that are adapted from frameworks of strategy, organizational
theory, organizational behavior, and corporate relations and communications (Bundy et al.,
2017). Management of crises through to recovery involves managing internal and external
dynamics, managing messaging, and the phases, which include detection, prevention,
preparation, response or damage control, containment, business recovery, and reflection or
revision (Coombs, 1995; James & Wooten, 2010). Through the process, a crisis can become a
positive force for learning, change, innovation, and renewal. If managed well and supported by a
carefully crafted strategy, it can help prepare a company or government for future crises (Boin et
al., 2020; Y. Chen & Biswas, 2021; Reynolds & Seeger, 2005).
Innovation
Research on innovation, a multidimensional concept, has been conducted across several
disciplines, is of interest to scholars and practitioners alike, and was considered in the 1960s to
relate only to manufacturing and technology in developed countries (Martin, 2015; EdwardsSchachater, 2018). Innovation spans sectors and is considered both a process and an outcome, a
necessity for sustainability, economic growth, and socioeconomic development (Chin et al.,
2018; Edwards-Schachater, 2018). Innovation is demonstrated by new, creative ways of thought,
which lead to the development of new products and services, resulting in technological, cultural,
and social change (N. Anderson et al., 2014; Edwards-Schachater, 2018). Innovation is a driver
of competition in advanced economies and is of critical importance to all economies as it results
in the improvement of the standard of living of populations, thriving companies, and

31
macroeconomic growth, which occur with the implementation and diffusion of new or
significantly enhanced products, services, and processes (De Martino et al., 2013; Hausman &
Johnston, 2014).
Organizational Innovation
Organizational innovation is a company’s ability to generate new ideas, create or upgrade
products and services, and implement the new ideas or bring products and services to the market
(Agarwal & Gupta, 2021; Gumusluoğlu & Ilsev, 2009). The literature indicates that innovation is
necessary for an organization’s long-term success (Lin et al., 2013; Szczepańska-Woszczyna,
2015). Crisis and change create the need for innovation; concurrently, innovation is required to
create change in an organization and is, therefore, an important strategy to promote growth,
enhance company performance, and increase chances of survival in a challenging environment
(Lin et al., 2013; Tri Kurniawati et al., 2022). Leadership is an essential factor affecting
innovation (Demircioglu & Van der Wal, 2022; Elenkov et al., 2005b; Friedrich et al., 2010;
Gumusluoğlu & Ilsev, 2009; Prasad & Junni, 2016). In an empirical study, Gumusluoğlu and
Ilsev (2009) found that transformational leadership is an important contributing element to
organizational innovation, especially when there is a supportive external and internal
environment.
Innovative Climate
Researchers have developed a range of scales of measures of an innovation climate,
which depend on the perception of team members. Earlier studies divided the measures into subdivisions: participative safety, support for innovation, vision, and task orientation. Models that
emerged thereafter focused on two areas: support for innovation, which incorporates items that
address diversity inclusion and psychological safety, and resource supply, which refers to the

32
adequacy of resources devoted to innovation (Newman et al., 2020). Researchers have found that
transformational leadership fosters a climate of innovation due to leaders being visionary, setting
challenging goals, and offering support to the team. As an innovative climate develops, there is
greater authenticity in leadership approaches (Kang et al., 2015; Kinnunen et al., 2016; Sarros et
al., 2008).
Innovation and Crises
Crises are threats to organizational survival, yet they provide opportunities for innovation
and change through proactive drivers based on needs in the environment and reactive drivers due
to threats (Acevedo et al., 2023; Kovoor-Misra, 2019; Tourish, 2020). Rapid innovation and
adaptability are required during crises to sustain the organization and meet goals (Piccialli et al.,
2021; Reupert, 2020; Von Krough et al., 2020). The extent to which an organization can
implement innovation during a crisis depends on financial resources that allow for investment;
sound processes, established systems including leadership and technology; stakeholder
relationships that afford collaboration and information-sharing; and the adaptability of the
organization’s services and products (Kovoor-Misra, 2019; Von Krough et al., 2020).
Types of Innovation
Innovation theory has its roots in manufacturing, with 20th-century economist Joseph
Schumpeter contributing and expanding the field by exploring entrepreneurship, innovation,
economic development, and technological change (Lai & Lorne,2014; McCraw, 2010;
Michaelides et al., 2010; Moss, 1996; Swedberg, 2015). Developments in research have extended
beyond the manufacturing field, generating studies highlighting interrelated innovation types,
including technological, product, process, market/marketing, organizational, service, business
model, radical, design, social, and boundary management (Aldieri et al., 2021; Edwards-

33
Schachater, 2018; Ganter & Hecker, 2013; Manimala, 1992; Varis & Littunen, 2010). It is
acknowledged that no type of innovation operates independently, as all are interrelated and
evolving. For example, introducing a new product to the market requires marketing innovation to
optimize productivity and revenues (Aldieri et al., 2021; Edwards-Schachater, 2018).
Technological innovation is applicable to this research, with an emphasis on adopting new
technological innovation. Anticipated is the interconnection with other forms of innovation.
Technological Innovation
The classic concept of technological innovation is still applicable as it is a process of
industrial transformation that revolutionizes organizations, industries, and countries, a
perspective that is credited to Schumpeter, whose writings established a link between innovation
and economic development (Döner, 2017; Edwards-Schachater, 2018). The literature suggests
technological change is a function of the internal and external environment of a firm and
communication (Utterback, 1971; K. Zhu et al., 2006). Developments in technological
innovation are closely related to the digitally driven fourth industrial revolution, Industry 4.0,
considered an important socioeconomic trend characterized by the implementation of advanced
technologies starting in the late 1990s and escalating in the 2000s and beyond (EdwardsSchachater, 2018; Rymarczyk, 2020; Sony & Naik, 2019).
Industry 4.0
Industry 4.0 was driven by globalization and competitiveness and is marked by the
digitalization of big data, cloud computing, information and communication technology
networking, the internet of things (IoT), blockchain, nanotechnologies, artificial intelligence, and
augmented reality (Dean & Spoehr, 2018; Krafft et al., 2020; Madhavan et al., 2022; Rymarczyk,
2020; Sony & Naik, 2019). Industry 4.0 has been the key driver of digital transformation (Yaqub

34
& Alsabban, 2023). Companies are forced to rethink all aspects of their operation to benefit from
the opportunities presented by Industry 4.0, resulting in more agile and efficient responses to the
changing environment (Yaqub & Alsabban, 2023). Investment is required in smart integrated
systems, with keen attention paid to knowledge management and equipping the workforce to
function in an atmosphere of automation and digitization, as there are major structural changes in
the world of work (Anshari et al., 2022; Arntz et al., 2016; Braganza et al., 2021; Hirschi, 2018).
Industry 4.0 is seen as increasingly important in the shipping and logistics industry as it has been
proven to improve operational efficiency and responsiveness (Aiello et al., 2020; Yaqub &
Alsabban, 2023).
Organizational technology, which encompasses values promoting innovation, a learning
environment, and an organization’s capacity to change, is also proposed as a necessary condition
for the adoption of technological innovation (Dongling & Lam, 2019; A. Lam, 2004; L. Lam et
al., 2021; Morris et al., 2023). Technology adoption in the era of the fourth industrial revolution
is viewed as being more complex than in prior times due to the pace of development, the birth of
connected technologies, and the readjustments required in the work process. In sum, the process
creates a great level of disruption (Molino et al., 2020; Sony & Naik, 2019). Critical success
factors which have been identified for the successful implementation of Industry 4.0, a complex
process that involves horizontal, vertical, and end-to-end integration, also apply to the
implementation and diffusion of technology innovation within an organization and wider
industries (Barasti et al., 2021; Sony & Naik, 2019; S. Wang et al., 2016; Zheng et al., 2018).
Technological Innovation Gap
The preexisting gaps in innovative activity between developed and developing nations
may increase as technological innovation requires financial resources, and these resources are in

35
the hands of developed and, to a lesser extent, emerging nations (Edwards-Schachater, 2018;
Gibbert et al., 2014). Developed countries and select emerging nations have the resources to
invest in technological innovation. In developing countries and resource-poor contexts, there is
the adoption of new ideas and technologies, tapping into existing technological innovation that
helps to accelerate development and growth and exploit the creativity and innovation that can
arise even with scarcity (Cunha et al., 2014; Mansano & Pereira, 2016; Oke & Arowoiya, 2021;
Rathore & Agrawal, 2021; Zanello et al., 2016). Technological entrepreneurship can be
complemented by the drive to create incubators and foster collaboration to strengthen
technological innovation in developed and emerging nations observed, for example, in the areas
of information and communication technologies and software development (Dongling & Lam,
2019; Lalkaka, 2002; Morris et al., 2023; M. Wang et al., 2021).
Managing the Process of Innovation
The literature addresses the management of the process of innovation, exploring the
industrial innovation processes in the 1970s, sector-specific and technological innovation in
recent times, and the factors that result in innovative products and services (Utterback, 1971;
Volberda et al., 2013). Studies are industry-specific, segregating for example, manufacturing
from service industries, health from e-commerce, and corporations from small and medium
enterprises (SMEs), which underscores the diversity in approaches to innovation and the
influence of the external and internal environment (Jawabreh, 2020; Mao et al., 2020;
Ottenbacher, 2007; Saidi & Žaldokas., 2021; S. Zhu et al., 2019). Originating, developing, and
implementing technological innovation is an overarching description of the multi-dimensional
process, while idea generation, idea championing, idea elaboration, and idea implementation

36
provide a greater perspective (Černe et al., 2024; Cortes & Herrmann, 2020; Friedrich et al.,
2010; Perry-Smith & Mannucci, 2017; Utterback, 1971).
COVID-19 and Technological Innovation
The COVID-19 pandemic caused unprecedented changes and disruption in economic
development in the world, altering the international business environment across sectors and
challenging all who operate in the business realm to change processes and, quite possibly,
product lines in response to the global crisis and the dislocations that ensued (Angelidou et al.,
2022; El Baz & Ruel, 2021; Linton & Vakil, 2020; Pereira et al., 2022). Identifying and adopting
technologies occurs in companies with a culture and climate that promote innovation. Being
conscious of competition and maintaining a competitive edge is a driver that stimulates
innovative thought and activity in organizations (Laosirihongthong et al., 2014). The crisis
became a main driver of innovation during the COVID-19 pandemic, as firms responded to the
environmental shock of uncertainty and unpredictability (Angelidou et al., 2022).
The pandemic stimulated innovation across industries: technological transformation in
the form of digital transformation helped organizations navigate the new environment,
countering the disruptions and aiding business continuity (Y. Chen & Biswas, 2021; Pereira et
al., 2022; Piccialli et al., 2021). Digital transformation extends beyond adopting new digital
technologies. It requires strategically leveraging the company’s resources to propel the business
forward (Pereira et al., 2022). During the COVID-19 pandemic, technological advancement,
adoption, and adaptation were accelerated (Piccialli et al., 2021). Investments in big-data
analytics, automation, artificial intelligence, IoT, and Fifth Generation (5G) telecommunication
networks helped companies monitor and assess information vital to operations, create a
competitive advantage and develop practices that would sustain and even grow their business as

37
new products and services were created and existing products and services were introduced to
new markets (Alsunaidi et al., 2021; Pereira et al., 2022; Ting et al., 2020). The transformation in
the labor market regarding teleworking was facilitated by technology and was considered
beneficial to workers and companies, as worker well-being was addressed and companies
continued to function, making economic gains (Peláez et al., 2021; Robu et al., 2023).
Technology Innovation on Container Ports and Terminals
Organizations need to be aware of changes in the environment and position to respond
quickly to optimize the benefits of the opportunities and mitigate the threats (Ali, 2021;
Angelidou et al., 2022; Shin & Shin, 2022). Digital technology and smart applications are being
adopted in the leading container ports of the world as they aim to improve efficiency and
competitiveness, reduce costs, and provide seamless communication between vessels and shore
facilities (Gharehgozli et al., 2016; Heikkilä et al., 2022; Paulauskas et al., 2021).
Adoption of New Technologies
New technology has been shaping innovation in ports, even as the adoption of new
technologies in the port and terminal sector appeared to lag other sectors (Gekara & Thanh
Nguyen, 2018; Sánchez-González et al., 2019). The advent of Industry 4.0 saw numerous
technological advancements in ports and terminals, automation, and digitization of the industry,
including the introduction of autonomous vehicles and equipment, cyber-physical systems,
artificial intelligence (AI), IoT, cloud computing, and cognitive computing (Sánchez-González et
al., 2019). Smart ports featured the use of wireless devices, smart sensors, actuators, data centers,
and integrated systems exchanging information. Terminal operating systems, for example, are
one form of technological innovation that has become a standard in container ports that receive
calls from the major cargo lines. However, the level of digitalization of a port depends on the

38
operators, the size, volumes, and types of cargo handled, as well as financial resources, the
education and skill level of employees, and traditions: there are, therefore, simple technological
systems that may not be integrated or networked (Paulauskas et al., 2021).
Technological Integration With Stakeholders
Technological innovation must be integrated with stakeholders in the shipping and
maritime community to harness the benefits of cargo handling efficiency and document flow
(González-Cancela et al., 2020; Iman et al., 2022; De Martino et al., 2013). Improving
information flow and reducing paper documents has been a drive that has promoted the
introduction of port community systems. Inter-organizational platforms facilitating data
exchange and transactions between stakeholders is one form of technological innovation that has
helped port and port communities in the move to achieve paperless transactions, including the
release of containers to the owners of the cargo, and improve port performance (Caldeirinha et
al., 2020; Moros-Daza et al., 2020). Blockchain technology, an encrypted repository of
information, has been introduced as a tool to guarantee accountability and transparency;
however, its adoption is slow (Paulauskas et al., 2021; J. Wang et al., 2021).
Technological Innovation and Human Capital
The introduction of major innovation has affected employment relations, how people
learn and work, and labor organization. In ports and terminals, for example, the introduction of
containerized cargo affected the workforce (Bottalico, 2022; El-Sahli & Upward, 2017; Molino
et al., 2020). The discussion regarding automation and job loss is a concern in port communities,
which are highly unionized with a historically unstable labor climate (Gekara & Thanh Nguyen,
2018); however, current research seems to indicate that technological innovation does not result
in the disappearance of work (Bottalico, 2022; Dosi & Mohnen, 2019; Gekara & Thanh Nguyen,

39
2018; Goos et al., 2019; Li, 2022). There has been a contraction of workers since the 1960s,
which is attributed to the automation of the ports. This results in pushback from the labor force
and unions; however, Bottalico (2022) suggested that there will be a transition from strength to
skill. New capabilities will be required of port workers in the future: the job and skill profile of a
port worker is being transformed (Gekara & Thanh Nguyen, 2018).
Company Performance: Ports and Terminals
Assessing company performance relies on a range of measures as companies have varied
and conflicting goals and objectives (Feng et al., 2012). There ought to be an alignment between
the performance measures and conditions being assessed, especially where there are multiple
stakeholders (Brooks & Pallis, 2008; Tangen, 2003). The port community has multiple
stakeholders, and port performance measurement is an important element of stakeholder
engagement and may be considered from a range of perspectives, such as port choice, an
evaluation of port attractiveness based on related costs, and qualitative criteria like reputation
(Bichou and Gray (2004); Rezaei et al., 2019). The review of the literature shows that port
performance is influenced by multiple factors and components that must be defined before
evaluating the performance of a port or terminal (Brooks & Pallis, 2008; Feng et al., 2012).
The analysis of port performance metrics assists in the decision-making of port
management, which can influence the planning and strategy of both the operator and port
authority, operational matters, purchasing decisions, and the service provided to stakeholders
(Chen et al., 2016; da Costa et al., 2021; Ha et al., 2017; D. Song & Lee, 2017). Container
throughput, a measure in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs) of container handling or tonnage,
are two key metrics that are available publicly and published by port authorities and international
agencies. However, research indicates that both quantitative and qualitative measures encourage

40
continual improvement and contribute to greater agility in operations (Chen et al., 2016; Feng et
al., 2012; Marlow & Paixão Casaca, 2003).
Financial information that is used as a standard in analyzing companies may not be
available depending on the structure of the company, whether public, private, public-private
partnership, or publicly listed on stock exchanges. In assessing the efficiency of ports in northern
Brazil, researchers used the inputs of ship call, delay time, and loading and unloading to
determine efficiency and areas for improvement in the operations of the terminals (da Costa et
al., 2021). The World Bank Container Port Performance Index Report identified multiple indices
used in the performance measurement for container ports and terminals, including gross crane
hours: the total working time for cranes; gross crane productivity; container moves, discharge,
load, and stowage; moves per cranes; port berth hours; and waiting time.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this research has been adapted from Cortes and
Herrmann’s (2020) strategic leadership of innovation framework referenced in Figure 1.

Figure 1
Cortes and Herrmann’s Strategic Leadership of Innovation Framework
Note. From “Strategic Leadership of Innovation: A Framework for Future Research” by A. F. Cortes & P. Herrmann, 2020.
International Journal of Management Reviews: IJMR, 23(2), 224–243. (https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12246). Copyright 2020 by
British Academy of Management and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
41

42
Cortes and Herrmann’s Strategic Leadership of Innovation Framework
Cortes and Herrmann’s (2020) strategic leadership of innovation model is a reference
point for developing the conceptual framework for this study. Cortes and Herrmann’s framework
emerged from research on leadership, its influence on innovation, and the overarching effect of
the environment on the organization. The study, which was the basis for the development of the
framework, provided a review and synthesis of research on concepts of leadership and
innovation and recommended further research in the field in areas such as the measurement of
innovation, the complexity of employing different leadership styles, and the effect of rapid
changing technology on the activation and strength of the influence of a leader (Cortes &
Herrmann, 2020).
Discretional and Architectural Leadership Influence
Cortes and Herrmann (2020) suggested two categories to define leaders’ influence:
discretional or architectural. Discretional influence is based on the premise that innovation is a
key responsibility of a strategic leader. Hence, decisions on which projects to pursue and the
allocation of resources depend on the leader’s knowledge. Architectural influence is based on the
organizational context, which the leader’s decisions have shaped and, as a result, shapes
opportunities and constraints regarding innovation. The influence of leaders affects the stages of
the innovation process, including idea generation, idea elaboration, idea championing, and idea
implementation. The framework stresses the internal and external environment and the influence
that the environment exerts on leadership and decisions (Cortes & Herrmann, 2020). The
external moderates the response to changing technologies and competition, while the internal
moderates risk aversion, addresses inertia, and promotes change.

43
Conceptual Framework: Leadership and Innovation in Crisis
The leadership and innovation in crisis framework (Figure 2) draws on three elements of
Cortes and Herrmann’s (2020) framework: environment, strategic leaders, and organizational
technology.
Figure 2
Conceptual Framework for Leadership and Innovation in Crisis

44
The framework outlines interrelated and significant elements in an organization during a
crisis. The impact of the environment on leadership and organizational culture and climate
provides a lens to examine global crises as the external environment, the shipping industry, a
collection of firms and organizations, and the internal environment. The leadership element of
the framework facilitates the exploration of leadership styles employed in crises. Cortes and
Herrmann’s model examined the role of strategic leaders. The leadership and innovation in crisis
conceptual framework extends the exploration of leadership styles employed during a crisis.
There is a reciprocal influence between leadership and organizational culture and climate. The
framework addresses this relationship and the influence of both leadership and organizational
culture and climate on innovation, specifically technological innovation. Environment exerts
influence on leadership and organizational culture and climate. Leadership attributes and the
leadership’s concept and attitudes toward innovation align with approaches that promote
transformation and change. An organizational culture and climate can foster and hinder
innovation. As the research examined innovation as a strategy for organizational transformation,
the output in the form of company performance is the final element of the framework. For the
purpose of this research, the focus was on port and terminal performance metrics and indices.
Summary
This study contributes to the body of knowledge on the leadership of shipping ports and
terminals and the use of technological innovation during the unprecedented global crisis of
COVID-19. Several scholars have considered the pandemic’s implications and impact on the
operations of the shipping and maritime trade that undergirds global trade. There has been
extensive research on the give-and-take influence and impact of leadership on organizational
culture and climate. Previous studies have demonstrated that both leadership and organizational

45
culture and climate can foster innovative initiatives in an entity which potentially can lead to
growth, and in the face of crisis sustainability, the performance of the organization, the final
output of the aforementioned drivers (Agarwal & Gupta, 2021; N. Anderson et al., 2014;
Demircioglu & Van der Wal, 2022; Gumusluoğlu & Ilsev, 2009; Newman et al., 2020;
Szczepańska-Woszczyna, 2015).

46
Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter details the approach to gathering and analyzing data. The process leading to
the gathering of the data started with clearly defined research questions. The research questions
guided the approach to the study, the sample’s identification, and the tool’s development. This
chapter outlines the methodological approach taken. In addition, the following sections discuss
areas of positionality, credibility, trustworthiness of the study, and ethical considerations.
This study’s purpose was to ascertain how the leaders of multipurpose and transshipment
ports used technological innovation in their operations to sustain business during global crises
and achieve economic growth. The study examined limiting factors port operators faced in
creating an environment of innovation and introducing new technology. The leadership
approaches used to counter the limitations were also explored.
Conceptual Framework
Key concepts included in the emerging leadership and innovation in crisis conceptual
framework are environmental drivers, leadership attributes and approaches, organizational
climate, technological innovation on ports, and port performance. The external and internal
environmental drivers help set the context for the study. Leadership attributes and the
leadership’s concept and attitudes toward technological innovation align with approaches that
promote transformation and change utilizing technology. The use of technological innovation as
a strategy also sustained business in a time of crisis and boosted organizational performance.
Research Questions
Three main research questions guided the study:
1. How has the leadership of ports and terminals employed technology in response to
global crises?

47
2. What are the impacts and benefits of an innovative port operation?
• How are the benefits of technological innovation related to company
performance?
• What are the challenges in establishing a culture of innovation?
• What are the challenges in introducing new technologies in port operations?
3. What types of leadership styles are demonstrated by C-suite executives, and which
attributes favor a climate of technological innovation and change in a time of
unprecedented crisis?
Overview of Design
The methodological design was qualitative, comprising a semi-structured open-ended
interview administered to executives of ports and terminals (Table 1). Interviews provided the
opportunity for insight into the actions and attitudes of the leaders, which may not be readily
observable (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). There has been research on the COVID-19 pandemic and
the socioeconomic impact of the crisis globally. Few studies have investigated the experience of
leaders in shipping and logistics, specifically the port and terminal sector. Interviews provided
the opportunity to explore in depth the feelings, thought processes, and perceptions of the
leadership during an unprecedented crisis, which could have led to a range of hardships. The
interview protocol was designed to include main questions and probes, which allowed the
participants to share information at a deeper level. Additional probes were required based on the
participants’ responses.

48
Table 1
Data Sources
Research questions Interview
How has the leadership of ports and terminals employed technology in
response to Crises, especially the COVID-19 pandemic? How did
the experience of COVID-19 on the ports and terminals in
developed nations compare to emerging nations and developing
nations?
X
What are the impacts and benefits of an innovative port operation?
• How are the benefits of technological innovation related to
company performance?
• What are the challenges in establishing a culture of innovation?
• What are the challenges in introducing new technologies in
port operations?
X
What types of leadership styles are demonstrated by C-suite
executives, and which attributes favor a climate of technological
innovation and change in a time of unprecedented crisis?
X
The sampling of participants was purposeful. Participants were employed at the top
management level for at least 5 years on a multipurpose port or terminal. These persons
experienced the greatest crisis of the decade in the form of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Responding to the conditions of the external environment in their operation challenged them as
leaders to approach business in new ways. Leaders had the opportunity to reflect on their lived
experiences.
Research Setting
The research setting was ports and terminals in eight countries. Australia and New
Zealand are economically developed nations. Chile and South Africa are developing countries
that are considered emerging nations. Kenya, The Republic of Panama, Colombia, and the

49
Dominican Republic are developing countries. Two countries are in Oceania, two in Africa, two
in South America, one in the Caribbean, and one in Central America. The diverse settings allow
for insight into experiences in different markets in the global supply chain.
Country Overview
The following tables provide insight into the trade and social conditions in the countries
included as study sites. They also provide brief observations regarding distinctive features.
Economic Statistics
Table 2 provides economic country profiles, including population and GDP statistics.
Table 2
Economic Statistics 2022
Country Population (m) GDP USD
2022
GDP growth %
2022
GDP per capita
USD 2022
Australia 26.1 1,776,577 3.02 67,867
Chile 19.6 300,686 2.44 15,338
Colombia 51.9 343,939 7.26 6,630
Dominican Republic 11.2 113,537 4.81 10,111
Kenya 54.0 113,420 4.85 2,099
New Zealand 5.2 245,845 2.85 47,413
Panama 4.4 76,523 10.81 7,358
South Africa 59.9 405,271 1.19 6,766
Note. Adapted from Statistics and Data by United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development, n.d. (https://unctad.org/statistics). In the public domain.

50
Trade Data
Table 3 shows select trade data, including trade balances and major trading partners.
Only one country has a positive merchandise trade balance, and three have positive service trade
balances. China is the major trading partner for five of the eight countries, and the United States
is the main trading partner for Colombia and the Dominican Republic. Kenya has the lowest
export earnings but a positive service trade balance. Their major trade partner is Uganda.
Table 3
Trade Statistics 2022
Country Merchandise
export
(US$m)
Merchandise
import
(US$m)
Merchandis
e trade
balance
Services
trade
balance
Top
trade
partner
Export to
top
partner
(US$m)
Australia 412,683 309,189 103,495 –13,077* China 130,722
Chile 98,549 104,529 –5,980 –14,380* China 38,477
Colombia 56,999 77,413 –20,414 –5,290* United
States
15,862
Dominican
Republic
13,777 30,743 –16,966 5,709 United
States
7,479
Kenya 7,411 21,166 –13,755 1,927* Uganda 924
New
Zealand
45,102 54,219 –9,117 –5,392* China 13,278
Panama 15,278 29,249 –13,972 9,996* China 3,371
South Africa 122,901 136,207* –13,306* –5,503 China 18,507
Note. * denotes estimates. Adapted from Statistics and Data by United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development, n.d. (https://unctad.org/statistics). In the public domain.

51
Country: Container Throughput
Table 4 shows the container port output for each country in 2015 and 2022. The data is
shown in TEUs, a standard port throughput measurement.
Table 4
Container Port Throughput (TEU)
Container port throughput (TEU)
Country 2015 2022
Australia 7,731,627 9,375,992
Chile 3,956,842 4,158,260*
Colombia 3,843,103 4,480,670
Dominican Republic 1,367,055 2,043,326
Kenya 1,076,118 1,450,000
New Zealand 2,930,886 3,426,030
Panama 6,893,886 8,518,425
South Africa 4,662,479 4,053,350
Note. * denotes estimates. From Statistics and Data by United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development, n.d. (https://unctad.org/statistics). In the public domain.

52
Overview Oceania: Australia and New Zealand
Australia and New Zealand’s developed nations are trading partners and share their major
trading partners in Oceania and Asia. China is the primary trading partner for Australia and New
Zealand (World Trade Organization [WTO], 2022a, 2022b). New Zealand exports primarily
agrarian products, while Australia’s top exports are coal, iron ore, and precious metals (WTO,
2023a). Both depend on the imports of refined petroleum and vehicles to sustain production.
Both countries implemented lockdowns during COVID-19, New Zealand’s regulations being
among the most stringent in the world, leading to economic losses with questionable health
benefits (Gibson, 2022; Stobart & Duckett, 2022). There was slack in the Australian economy
before the pandemic which was expected to continue post-pandemic despite measures that were
taken by the government to stimulate the economy (Lim et al., 2021).
Overview South America: Chile and Colombia
Chile and Colombia are two developing nations located in South America. Chile is listed
as an emerging nation by the WTO. According to UNCTAD, Chile trades principally with
China. Ores and metals represent 50% of the country’s exports, and the second highest exports
are food items, at 22 %. Chile is the world’s largest copper producer and the second-largest
lithium producer. According to the IMF, government policies have reduced inflation, and the
social benefits have reduced the protests about inequity. The population of Chile is mainly urban,
88%, and the economy is considered stable, but growth is slow coming out of the COVID-19
pandemic. There were stringent lockdowns in Chile during the COVID-19 pandemic. Colombia
is considered to have a stable economy where inflation post-COVID-19 is on a downward
trajectory. As in the case of Chile, growth has slowed, and social inequities will only be closed
through greater productivity and diversifying and expanding exports. Sixty percent of exports in

53
2002 were fuels. Food items and manufactured goods were second and third at 17% and 15%,
respectively, as reported by UNCTAD. The population is predominantly urban. Colombia has
one of the largest populations in South America. According to the World Bank, 1.25 million poor
families receive preferred access to social services. Improvements in infrastructure and education
will lead to greater economic growth.
Overview Africa: South Africa and Kenya
South Africa is an emerging nation that exports mostly ores and manufactured goods,
33% and 32% of exports, respectively. Fuels account for 13 % of exports and food items 9%.
The United States is its second-largest trading partner behind China, the Number 1 trading
partner. The top five trading partners are Germany, Japan, and India. South Africa’s GDP growth
has returned to its pre-pandemic levels. It is projected to rise to an average of 1.5% from 2024 to
2026. South Africa’s growth has slowed in recent years, and there are challenges with a steady
supply of electricity and utilities, which is hindering the manufacturing sector. There has been an
easing of electricity supply constraints and structural reforms, which are expected to enhance
South Africa’s growth potential.
Kenya is in East Africa. Its major trading partner is Uganda, and the United States is the
second-largest trading partner. Food and agricultural items account for 55% of Kenya’s exports.
The ports in Kenya serve as transshipment ports utilizing rail to landlocked neighbors to the
West, including Uganda and Rwanda. Kenya is a developing nation with a stable democracy.
71% of the population resides in rural communities. According to the World Bank, Kenya’s
growth performance over the past 2 decades has been robust. The economy achieved broadbased growth, averaging 4.8% per annum between 2015 and 2019. The COVID-19 pandemic
severely impacted the economy, disrupting international trade, transport, tourism, and urban

54
services. However, the agricultural sector remained resilient. In 2021, the economy showed a
recovery of over 7% growth, although service sectors, such as tourism, continued to face
challenges.
Overview Central America: Panama
The developing nation of Panama is a key intersection in international trade due to its
geographical location, which facilitates trade between high-density markets in the Americas and
Asia via the Panama Canal (Mendez & Alden, 2021). The Panama Canal, which connects the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans, was constructed over 100 years ago and expanded in 2016 to now
accommodate vessels carrying 13,200 TEU up from 5,100 TEU. The waterway has facilitated
trade, cutting transit times from the Americas to Asia, therefore opening new opportunities,
reducing costs, and increasing profitability for stakeholders in global shipping (Mendez & Alden,
2021; Pagano et al., 2016). There are plans to add additional locks in the canal for the transit of
vessels carrying close to 20,000 TEU (Pagano et al., 2016; Park et al., 2020). Importantly, the
expanded waterway has resulted in increased toll revenues for Panama and benefits ship owners
who can deploy larger vessels and gain from the economies of scale (Wang, 2017). The
expansion has prompted development and investment in ports and terminals in the Canal Zone,
Central America, Latin American, and the Caribbean region and has influenced port
development on the East and Gulf coasts but resulted in the declining importance of ports on the
West Cost in California, Oregon and Washington (Miller & Hyodo, 2021; Pagano et al., 2016;
Park et al., 2020). China has become a major investor and trade partner in Panama and the
surrounding region, with better access provided by the canal.
Panama, considered to be a middle-income country with high income inequality, had one
of the highest testing rates for COVID–19 and the highest incidence of COVID-19 in Central

55
America (Loaiza et al., 2020; Pearson et al., 2021; The World Bank, 2023). Given the economy’s
heavy dependence on trade, finance, and tourism, the government acknowledged that the novel
coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID-19, would enter the country, but no doubt
weighed the risks and did not introduce prolonged lockdowns (Loaiza et al., 2020). Economic
recovery from the pandemic was strong in 2021, with a growth rate of 15.3%; however, the
challenge of income inequality and poverty persists (The World Bank, 2023).
Overview: Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic has been one of the fastest-growing economies in the Caribbean
and Latin America. According to UNCTAD, the United States was by far the largest trading
partner. The Dominican Republic exported 7,479 million U.S. dollars’ worth of goods to the
United States in 2022, followed by 1,171 million dollars’ worth to Switzerland. Haiti was the
third most important partner, followed by the Netherlands and China, which were in fifth place.
There was a 10.3% growth in merchandise exports in 2022. However, this growth can be
hindered. There is a shortage of human capital to meet the demands of the manufacturing and
business sectors, and several sectors have not generated quality jobs. The inflation rates have
trended downward from 2022 to 2023, falling from a high of 8.8% to 4.8%. As in the case of
many developing countries, improved access to quality education, healthcare, water, and
electricity, along with economic and social reforms, are needed to achieve economic growth,
increase economic mobility, and protect vulnerable populations.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The inclusion criteria for participants are related to their roles on ports and terminals
before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were expected to hold or have held Csuite and/or top management positions at a shipping port or terminal. The nomenclature differs

56
by region and would include chief executive officers, chief financial officers, chief operation
officers, chief information officers, general managers, presidents, and vice presidents in
comparable positions. The sample will include top information technology, operations, human
resources, and customer and commercial relations management.
The Researcher
Positionality, which can be defined as the social and political environment that influences
the researcher’s identity, impacts all aspects of the research (Deutsch, 2004; Reich, 2021). As a
Caribbean woman living and working in the shipping and logistics industry in my country of
origin for close to 20 years, I am situated at the intersection of being a well-educated, middleclass woman in an industry that men predominantly lead. I lead two entities that are not
mainstream shipping or port companies, but that simultaneously support and depend on port
operations. The principal entity of which I am the chief executive provides ICT support to port
authorities, port operators, and stakeholders in the shipping and logistics industry.
As a leader in the shipping industry, I have experiences and relationships at all echelons
of business, which have allowed me to listen, observe, and seek to understand the problem of
innovation and sustainability, building on prior knowledge. I am also privy to the inner workings
and how industry leaders make decisions in the industry, given the relationships and access I
have to executives in the shipping and logistics industry. My experience of operating companies
in an environment where economic crises have threatened sustainability and have limited growth
has pushed me to examine the elements of leadership that best result in continuity and expansion
for corporate entities.
For nearly 20 years, I have observed the changing landscape globally and its impact on
the local and regional shipping sector. Leading a firm that has developed software and delivered

57
services to ports and related entities has given me insight into the process of implementing new
technologies. I have also observed first-hand developments in the shipping and maritime
industry, such as the introduction of a port community system, which seeks to transform the
industry into a paperless environment. I have seen resistance to and the adoption of new
technologies and engaged in discussions that have influenced my perceptions of leaders in the
industry.
My experiences, relationships, and prior knowledge of the industry can lead to
assumptions and biases on my part and that of the participants: rigorous efforts must be made to
mitigate the effects on the study. These experiences could result in a biased opinion on the
importance of technological innovation in the industry. In approaching the interviews, I am
conscious that I may have made assumptions about the participants’ views. This could have led
to biases and even affected how I analyzed data. I consciously needed to guard against biases and
my opinions on leadership and innovation on ports, allowing the data to dictate the findings.
Reflexivity was the key strategy in mitigating bias and influencing the direction of the study
based on my positionality (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Establishing a
system of peer review would also assist in mitigating the influence of my positionality (Creswell
& Creswell, 2018).
I assume that there has been some technological innovation in ports, but despite
assertions by industry leaders, the long-established procedures of port operations are still
prevalent. The COVID-19 pandemic forced companies to operate differently, but I anticipate that
research will show a level of resistance.
The study sites were in Oceania and the Global South. All countries except one were in
different hemispheres and time zones to where I operate. Colombia shares the same time zone,

58
and there is a 1-hour difference with the other countries in the Americas and the Caribbean. I
interviewed participants operating beyond my immediate market, and confidentiality was
paramount. Informed consent to participate, the right to withdraw from the study, confidentiality,
and security of the data were areas that were covered in the pre-interview briefing with all
participants. On my part, a reflexive posture throughout the study was necessary, and the input
from independent parties provided peer review as the study proceeded (Reich, 2021).
Data Sources
The principal data source was the responses to interview questions. Once IRD approval
was confirmed, I conducted interviews using a web-based platform with participants in Australia,
New Zealand, Colombia, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Chile, Kenya, and South Africa.
Methodology
This study used qualitative methods to address the problem of practice. I developed a
semi-structured questionnaire consisting of 17 questions, and I conducted interviews online with
participants in Oceania, Central America, South America, the Caribbean, and Africa. I cleaned,
coded, and analyzed the transcripts using Otter.ai, Chat GPT, and Atlas.ti. I drew themes from
the codes based on the research questions and key quotations from participants. I collated the
responses and presented them in support of the findings.
Interviews
Interviews provide information and insights into what cannot be observed, including
thoughts and intentions (Patton, 2002). Interviews are a foundational tool in qualitative research.
As the researcher, I was required to create an environment where participants were comfortable
sharing thoughts as I guided them using a prepared interview protocol, listened actively, and
made field notes. Using a standard open-ended interview helped ensure that I asked the

59
participants the same questions, thereby enabling comparison of the responses. This was
beneficial when coding the data.
Participants
C-suite executives in the shipping and logistics industry were the target population for
this study. These executives held their leadership positions in a port or a stakeholder entity,
including port authorities operating ports, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The
participants’ experience at the top management level of organizations before and during the
pandemic provided insight into the thought processes, feelings, actions, and decision-making
during a crisis. The participants were and continue to be integrally involved in the decisions on
technological innovation in the port operations. Interviewing these participants provided an
outlook for the future based on the lessons learned during the pandemic. The lessons can serve to
guide how top management may operate during crises in the future, adding to the
recommendations made as a result of the study.
Snowball Sampling
A purposeful sampling approach was employed for the study, complemented by a
snowballing technique. Purposeful sampling was necessary to gain a deep level of insight that
comes from the first-hand experience of experts in the field (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
sample was recruited principally through industry-related professional organizations and
associations, including port management associations, The Inter-American Committee on Ports
for the Organization of American States, and shipping and port management associations in
select regions. I also used LinkedIn and organizations’ websites to identify prospective
participants. I placed telephone calls directly to prospective participants or to intermediaries who
provided email introductions to prospective participants. I then recruited participants by email

60
correspondence and scheduled the interviews once I secured consent. I invited C-suite executives
who worked on ports and terminals during the COVID-19 pandemic and who speak and read
English to participate. I also invited C-suite executives of port-related entities, such as port
authorities.
The snowball approach involves asking the interviewee to identify other potential
participants and, at the end of the interview, requesting an introduction to them (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Once interviews commenced, I employed snowball sampling for the study. This
referral-based system garnered the assistance of each participant in introducing other potential
participants. Participants included chief executive officers, general managers, vice presidents of
commercial, human resources, and operations, directors of information and communication
technology, and a director of research. All participants worked in the port sector during the
COVID-19 pandemic. I did not specifically determine the number of participants in the sample at
the outset of the study, but the goal was to interview a minimum of 15 persons. In conducting
interviews, the aim was to reach a level of saturation or redundancy. Saturation was achieved
after 17 interviews when the data provided no significant new insights or new information that
helped answer the research question (Burkholder et al., 2020; Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Instrumentation
I used a semi-structured open-ended interview protocol for the study, allowing the
participants to share their perspectives based on their lived experiences (Patton, 2002). The semistructured interview consisted of 17 questions and probes. I used the probes to gather added
depth of information based on the initial response to the question: probes were used when
necessary and not with all participants (Burkholder et al., 2020; Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

61
New probes were used based on the participant’s response. Only one researcher interviewed the
participants.
The study examined leadership and innovation during a period of crisis. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) underscored that a variety of questions generates different types of responses. I
designed the interview questions to elicit the participants’ opinions, values, feelings, and
knowledge, as they are experts in their fields. I crafted the sequencing to ask participants to think
back to the time of the event, facilitating the recollection and sharing of their experiences. I
designed the questions to allow the participants the latitude to draw on their extensive and
diverse experiences and prompt reflection regarding their leadership styles.
Five questions addressed the leaders’ experience during COVID-19 and the leadership
styles they used to sustain operations. Six questions addressed the role of technological
innovation, the existing technologies, and those that were introduced at the ports during the crisis
period. I used six questions to unearth the attitudes and feelings regarding innovation and
technology. Appendix A provides the interview protocol.
Data Collection Procedures
I used a qualitative semi-structured interview protocol to conduct interviews lasting
between 40 and 80 minutes via Zoom or Microsoft Teams. I conducted 17 interviews over 8
months. with executives in eight countries in the Global South and Oceania. The countries were
two developed, two emerging, and four developing nations. Participants came from Australia,
Panama, the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Chile, New Zealand, South Africa and Kenya. I
conducted the interviews in English and recorded and transcribed them using Otter.ai. Only five
participants were native English speakers. All others spoke English as a second or third
language. I did not make corrections to the syntax of non-native English speakers in the

62
transcripts, but this did not hinder comprehension and interpretation of their thoughts and ideas. I
used pseudonyms to protect the participants’ identities. I conducted all interviews except one on
a one-on-one basis. One interview consisted of three executives, two serving as interpreters of
responses from Spanish to English, as the principal, who understood English, was not
comfortable expressing his thoughts in English only. The executives also shared their
perspectives and responded to the questions.
I shared the interview protocol ahead of the interview with two participants based on their
request. I secured verbal permission to record the interviews via the web-based platform. I used a
separate audio recording device during each interview. Note-taking was important as the
transcription tool did not capture the participants’ varied accents.
I provided an introduction at the beginning of each interview and outlined salient points,
securing the participant’s informed consent. I committed to confidentiality and the use of
pseudonyms in reporting. I also informed the participants of the right not to answer questions or
stop the interview at any time. I invited questions from the participant and secured verbal
confirmation of the participant’s consent to being interviewed.
A reliable internet connection was required. There were challenges in connectivity at the
beginning of four interviews. A switch had to be made from Zoom to Microsoft Teams for three
interviews. I used Otter.ai to transcribe the recording of the interviews conducted via Microsoft
Teams, as they were not recorded on the platform. One participant could not turn on the video
camera because of an unstable connection. A failed connection disrupted two interviews, but the
interviews continued after reconnection.

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Data Analysis
Twenty-five a priori codes were initially established based on the research questions and
conceptual framework. I then used Atlas.ti used as a coding tool. I identified additional codes
based on the participants’ responses. I noted 41 codes, and themes were established based on the
codes. De-identified transcripts were uploaded to Chat GPT with a request to identify themes
from the interviews that were pertinent to a qualitative study. I compared the themes generated
by Chat GPT to themes deduced from the codes to ensure that no themes were left unexplored.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Credibility and trustworthiness require a concerted effort on the part of the researcher that
entails being vigilant in employing strategies to ensure the accuracy of the findings (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). Reliability and validity in qualitative research are essential in completing a
sound study in which the findings can be considered credible and trustworthy. According to
Creswell and Miller (2000), validity addresses the accuracy with which the researcher captures
the participant’s account of their experience. I employed three strategies to ensure the credibility
and trustworthiness of this study’s findings: rich thick descriptions, member checks, and
triangulation. Rich thick descriptions were the detailed accounts of the participants’ experiences,
member checks involved consultations with the participants to ensure that the recordings were a
true representation of their perspectives, and triangulation related to the use of data from diverse
sources and study sites (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The purposeful
sampling approach provided diversity in the research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Examples of
varied perspectives enhanced the validity of the research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

64
Ethics
Ethical considerations in conducting the study required reflection on the relationship
between the researcher and the participants (Glesne, 1999). The questions considered were who
would benefit or be harmed by this study and where the seat of power lies. This study serves the
interest of port and terminal leadership and management. Their collective voices have been
represented in the data gathered and formed the basis of analysis and recommendations.
Including port and terminal operators from the developed and developing world provided varied
perspectives that will be relatable for top management of ports that have experienced the
COVID-19 pandemic and other shocks. They will benefit from the study as findings have led to
recommendations on leadership, workforce engagement and development, and technological
innovation.
I balanced the voices of the larger and more wealthy and powerful states alongside the
voices of the leadership of smaller operations. I valued and gave importance to the experiences
and opinions of all participants. The multicultural context of the research due to data collected
from developed and developing countries in different hemispheres and continents resulted in
different perspectives born of varied economic, geo-political, and sociocultural experiences.
Participants established early in the research whether they wished to remain anonymous or
preferred to be recognized. Three participants indicated that I could reveal their identities. I
decided to keep all identities confidential. The participants shared views that, if revealed or not
carefully reported, could have repercussions for their entities, industry, or governments. Ongoing
reflection by the researcher on these and other matters about ethicality before, during, and in
presenting the research helps to maintain appropriate relationships between the researcher and
participants, resulting in benefits to all engaged in the research.

65
Limitations and Delimitations
Consideration must be given to limitations and delimitations in a study. These concepts
form part of the reflexivity necessary for a researcher in the design, implementation, and
outcome of the research.
Limitations are failings in the study’s design that could influence the research findings
(Ross & Zaidi, 2019). Limitations of the study relate to the mode of data collection and the
diverse subject matter explored. I conducted the interviews virtually over a web-based platform.
This limited the observation of body language and other cues that can be observed in physical
face-to-face interviews. I relied on what the participants described as accurate representations of
events and experiences during the period under review. The participants might have held biases
that cannot be eliminated. The study did not examine economic, financial, environmental, and
other elements in-depth, yet these areas influence leadership attitudes, attributes, decisions, and
approaches. Leadership, innovation, and technology are immense and rapidly changing
phenomena. This study explored a small subset related to leadership and technological
innovation on ports.
Delimitations are the boundaries a researcher sets for a study to focus on a defined topic.
Delimitations of this study include site selection, participants, the nature of the global crises
explored, and the focus on one area of innovation. The site selection included developing and
developed nations; however, the countries selected did not represent all countries globally. These
countries are a small subset, including developed nations, emerging nations, and low-income
developing nations. Asia, for example, is not represented. Similarly, I recruited the participants
from top management of ports and terminals. This study did not include the voices and
perceptions of most port employees. Despite global shocks that coincide and have lasting effects,

66
such as financial and economic crises, geo-political conflicts, and the impact of decade-long
conflicts that have sparked an ongoing migrant crisis, this study was limited to the impacts of the
global COVID-19 pandemic and other crises the participants experienced. Consideration is also
given to innovation, which covers a wide breadth; the study focused on technological innovation,
which in itself is a vast area. Therefore, many facets were beyond the scope of this study.

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Chapter Four: Findings
Terminals and ports have been central to the sustainability and growth of the economies
of nations large and small alike. Terminal and port operations serve as critical links in the global
supply and logistics chain. They facilitate the export of goods and services to earn revenue for
companies and countries and enable imports of consumables and resources for manufacturing
industries. Ports and terminals provide direct employment and jobs for entities engaged in marine
and logistic operations. Any activity affecting a port’s operation will be far-reaching, impacting
entities directly engaged in shipping, affecting the commercial and manufacturing operations
within the country, and affecting the socioeconomic environment. The development and
sustainability of a country’s economy are affected by the vibrancy and efficiency of ports and
terminals; growth in this aspect of the transport sector can auger well for growth in the economy
of a nation.
Purpose of Study
The environment is a factor that influences port performance. Crises are influential
factors in the external environment that can stymie the operation of ports and terminals. The
COVID-19 pandemic was a tipping point for the global logistics industry. This crisis and other
global and local crises have molded the port and terminal landscape over time. Ports and
terminals are nodes in the shipping industry that have played an instrumental and essential role in
the economic and social development of people globally. Weathering crises and being able to
emerge in a strengthened position are critical to leading in the logistics and maritime industry. It
is, therefore, imperative that leadership makes every effort to establish and maintain a vibrant
port and terminal sector in the face of ongoing crises, using all the available technological tools
and creating a climate of innovation. The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences

68
and perspectives of leaders of shipping terminals, their use of technology in times of crisis, and
the impact on sustainability and growth of the business.
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework forms a guide providing key concepts explored in the study. I
developed the framework using Cortes and Herrmann’s (2020) theoretical framework for
strategic management as a point of reference. Concepts that guide the study are environmental
drivers, leadership attributes and approaches, organizational culture, technological innovation,
and port performance. The external and internal environmental drivers help set the context for
the study. Leadership attributes and the leadership’s concept and attitudes toward technological
innovation align with approaches that promote transformation and change, utilizing technology.
The use of technological innovation as a strategy may sustain business in a time of crisis and
boost organizational performance.
Research Questions
Three research questions guided the study.
1. How has the leadership of ports and terminals employed technology in response to
Crises, especially the COVID-19 pandemic?
2. What are the impacts and benefits of an innovative port operation?
• How are the benefits of technological innovation related to company
performance?
• What are the challenges in establishing a culture of innovation?
• What are the challenges in introducing new technologies in port operations?

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3. What types of leadership styles are demonstrated by C-suite executives, and which
attributes favor a climate of technological innovation and change in a time of
unprecedented crisis?
Demographics
Seventeen executives participated in the study. Their years of experience on the port and
terminals ranged from 4 to 45 years. Fourteen participants started in entry-level managerial
positions and were promoted throughout their careers to positions of seniority. Two started at
entry-level operational positions and worked through all departments on the port. All participants
have attained tertiary-level education, including postgraduate degrees and/or professional
certification. Engineering and business administration are the dominant disciplines. Table 5
provides demographic details on each participant.
Table 5
Demographic/Informational Table
Participant Current role Years in
port
operations
Entry-level to
ports
Highest level
of education
Area of study
Alex General
manager
20 Middle
management
Bachelors Human resource
management
Ana Chief executive
officer
27 Middle
management
Professional
qualification
Legal
Andres General
manager
27 Management Masters Engineering,
business
administration
Antonio President 45 Engineer Bachelors Industrial
engineering
Arturo Vice president
of business
development
19 Analyst Masters Business
administration
and port
management

70
Participant Current role Years in
port
operations
Entry-level to
ports
Highest level
of education
Area of study
Camilia Vice president 26 Finance Masters Business
administration,
marketing and
finance
Diego Director 34 Entry-level
management
Professional
certification
Industrial
engineering
Felix Chief executive
officer
30 Management Professional
certification
Engineering
Henry Terminal
manager
38 Lawyer Masters Law, maritime
studies, and
logistics
management
Luis Vice president 16 Entry-level
operations
Masters Port
management
Maritime
transport
Manuel Director
information
technology
4 Senior
management
Bachelors Information
technology
Marco Vice president
planning and
development
15 Entry-level
planning and
management
Masters Engineering,
business
administration,
maritime and
port
administration
Miguel Chief executive
officer
24 Mid-level
operations
Masters Engineering
Business
administration
Neil General
manager
commercial
17 Senior
management
Professional
certification
Company
direction
Nicholas General
manager -
commercial
4 Senior
management
Bachelors Finance and
accounting
Paul Director
competitiveness
and
sustainability
11 Middle
management
Masters Engineering
Thomas Principal
economist
planning &
policy
20 Management Masters International
trade

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Demographics: Observations
The area of study, entry-level position, length, and type of experience on the port provide
a general profile of the participants. Of note is that all participants have attained tertiary-level
education. The 10 participants who hold master’s degrees also hold bachelor’s degrees. Two
participants hold degrees in law and jurisprudence. Of note, only two participants hold tertiary
qualifications in port management. Engineering and business disciplines are the primary areas of
study. This could point to the availability of training in port management at the tertiary level and
indicates that specialized study in port management is not a prerequisite to ascending the ranks in
a port organization. The knowledge gained in other disciplines, experience in other industries,
and operational experience build port and terminal management skills.
Participants with decades of experience started working on the port in entry-level or
junior to middle management positions. Nine of the 17 participants have over 20 years of
experience in port and shipping-related industries. They started in the industry at entry-level
positions. Two participants entered the industry less than 10 years ago, and their areas of
expertise are finance, logistics, and information technology. Participants who have professional
qualifications such as accounting, finance, and legal training entered the industry at a managerial
level, having gained experience working in other industries.
Before participants held their current posts, their port experience varied. Port operations
is the area where participants have the greatest amount of experience. Port operations include
engineering, yard planning, and vessel management and planning. Commercial and
administrative work experience is the second category of skill. Two participants hold law
degrees. One participant each had experience in accounting, finance, and information
technology.

72
Table 6 illustrates the distribution of participants by gender and origins, distinguishing
between those native to the country in which they operate and immigrants. Two of the 17
participants are female. One occupies the role of chief executive officer (CEO) for the port, and
the other serves as vice president of human resources for a port group of companies. As indicated
earlier, both female participants studied disciplines that were not directly related to port
management: law and finance. They entered the industry 26 and 27 years ago at the managerial
level in their respective disciplines and were promoted to current positions. All except one
participant were native to the country where they worked. One participant immigrated from a
neighboring country more than 15 years ago, having worked with the same group of companies
in his country of origin.
Table 6
Demographics: Gender and Origin
Participant Gender Origin
Alex M Native
Ana F Native
Andres M Native
Antonio M Native
Arturo M Native
Camilia F Native
Diego M Native
Felix M Immigrant
Henry M Native
Luis M Native
Manuel M Native
Marco M Native
Miguel M Native
Neil. M Native
Nicholas M Native
Paul M Native
Thomas M Native

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Participant Profiles
Alex has spent his working career in the shipping industry, starting in a shipping line. His
current role spans customer relations and supply chain management at the terminal. He has
functioned in multiple roles spanning the commercial and operational areas of port management
during his 16 years working on the terminal. He has faced multiple crises during his career and
has honed his leadership skills during his experiences.
Ana is one of the few female CEOs of a terminal. Globally, the sector is traditionally a
male-dominated industry. Her society also subscribes to traditional roles for men and women, yet
she has stated that she has met minimal resistance on her journey to the senior position of CEO.
Some questioned whether a legal background was adequate preparation for someone to lead a
port. The skeptics had not considered her attention to contract details and the operational matters
that lead to claims, which she managed when starting in the industry.
Andres has distinguished himself as a leader by driving the development and
implementation of a regional port community project. He began his career in logistics, working
to transform the operations of the port. He has worked in the development and administration of
port concession. For 4 years, he has worked as the head of the organization, a public sector
maritime entity that administers port concessions and plans for the development and expansion
of the shipping and maritime industry in his region.
Antonio has had a distinguished career in his home country and globally. He started
working in the ports after graduating as an industrial systems engineer. His career spanned
engineering, port administration, management and marketing. He has chaired boards and served
as president of local and regional professional organizations. In his current role, he has direct
oversight of a transshipment terminal in Latin America and serves as president of a U.S.-owned

74
terminal operating company that manages concessions globally in Asia, Oceania, and Latin
America.
Arturo has worked on the port since 2005. He started his career as an analyst and has
worked subsequently in customer service, operations, yard planning, and vessel planning. Now a
member of the C-suite, he is responsible for key accounts and business development for the
terminal. He has taken on the responsibility of seeking to enrich his job. He believes in growing
whatever job has been assigned as a way of finding fulfillment.
Camilia is one of the two female participants. She started her career in banking as a part
of the commercial team, then moved to a second financial firm. After taking a break to prioritize
her family, she re-entered the workforce, and the port recruited her for a new role. She started
working in finance and eventually in human resources. She currently leads the human resources
department for the terminal and other companies that are part of the group. Her team members
are mainly women in a male-dominated environment. She also spearheads initiatives related to
technology, a personal interest.
Diego is a trained industrial engineer and holds certification in business from an Ivy
League university in the United States. His extended career has brought him experience working
in mining and on the port. He has served as a consultant in change management and has worked
in both the public and private sectors. He currently holds directorship in companies but has
worked in port operations and has consistently and intentionally engaged port workers, building
enduring relationships over this 34-year career.
Felix started his 30-year career as a technical manager for a group of companies in a
neighboring nation. The company had multiple sites, which helped prepare him for his current
role as the chief executive of multiple terminals with specific oversight for one terminal. He is

75
supported by a small team, which includes women and young adults, the upcoming generation of
managers.
Henry has worked in the shipping industry since 1986. He worked as a lawyer
representing stakeholders in industrial relations. He joined his current company and rose through
the ranks to his current position of terminal manager. He led the automation process of port one
in a group of companies. He had served in different capacities in the group.
Luis was first employed on the port in yard operations, manually locating and
documenting containers on the terminal. He is now part of the terminal’s leadership team and has
served as president of regional professional organizations. He is one of two participants whose
studies were specifically in port management.
Manuel returned to his country of origin and entered the port industry a mere 4 years ago
in the middle of the COVID-19 pandemic. He had spent decades in North America working in
the medical device manufacturing industry. His area of specialty is information technology, and
he was required to learn port operations quickly. For the first 6 months, he rotated through all
departments in the organization. Concurrently, he continued to work on certification in eight
areas, connecting the theory to his practical experience on the terminal. He has reshaped and now
leads the information technology team for the port, managing four major systems and providing
back-office support 24 hours, 7 days per week to all business units.
Marco worked in port operations as the deputy manager of a concession operating
terminal during the COVID-19 pandemic. Since then, he has changed his role and is now
responsible for the development of the port as the vice president of development for the port
authority.

76
Miguel is currently the CEO of a port, having started operations in a shipping company in
the year 2000. He worked on a tender for a port concession and worked on the port before
moving to the current port to work in operations. He progressed through the ranks, first being
promoted to deputy operations manager, operations manager, chief operations officer, and
commercial director. He was further promoted and now has 7 years of experience as CEO.
Neil is responsible for the port’s commercial relationships. He has 40 years of experience
in shipping, principally with shipping lines. He has worked in sales and commercial roles during
the last 16 and a half years on the port. He is a member of the executive team and is required to
engage both external and internal stakeholders daily. He participated in the introduction of a
maritime single window and sits on the entity’s board.
Nicholas has a background in finance and accounts. He worked for 14 years in
accountancy before working for one of the world’s leading fruit suppliers. He now works with
the port, heading the commercial team. The team is responsible for the customers and the
operations, both the container operations and the bulk shipping.
Paul has 30 years of experience in general logistics. He has worked with international
courier companies and entered the port sector 11 years ago. He now works in the area of
sustainability, an area which has grown in importance due in part to strict governmental policies
and requirements.
Thomas has worked in the port sector for over 20 years, specifically in research. He is
currently employed by the port authority, which owns and operates terminals. His role
encompasses planning and policy. His research requires him to work closely with the operations
teams to identify trends and issues that affect the business. He is an economist with qualifications
and experience in international trade.

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Table 7 presents the operational context of each participant. This includes their
geographical location by region and the type of entity they represent. The regional location is
used to protect the identity of the participant.
Table 7
Participant Location, Type of Operation, and Ownership Structure
Participant Location Type of entity Ownership
Alex Oceania Port Public
Ana South America Refrigerated container
(reefer) terminal
Public/private
concession
Andres South America Port authority Public
Antonio Central America Terminal/group Private
Arturo South America Terminal/group Private
Camilia South America Terminal/group Private
Diego South America Port authority Public
Felix Africa Bulk terminal/group Private
Henry Oceania Terminal Private
Luis Central America Multipurpose terminal
and logistics center
Private
Manuel The Caribbean Multipurpose terminal
and logistics center
Private
Marco South America Port authority Public
Miguel South America Multipurpose terminal Public/private
concession
Neil Oceania Port Public
Nicholas Oceania Port Private
Paul South America Port authority Public
Thomas Africa Port Public

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Eight participants are located in South America, four in Oceania, two in Africa, two in
Central America, and one in the Caribbean. Four port authorities are represented in the sample.
Three of them are multipurpose terminals, two of which also operate logistics centers. Four are
ports. One is a bulk terminal that belongs to a group of terminals. One refrigerated terminal is
included. Four terminals are a part of a group of terminals and related entities, and one is a standalone terminal. Both private and public sector entities are represented in the sample; two of the
ports are publicly owned and operated under private concession agreements. The highest
throughput of all the terminals represented in the study is 3.5 million. The average TEU
throughput capacity of the terminals is 1 million. The terminals in the sample are small to
medium-sized based on the World Bank’s Container Port Performance Index report. The World
Bank’s defined range for the throughput of a large port is over 4 million TEUs per annum. For
medium ports, it is between 0.5 and 4 million TEUs, and small ports have throughput of below
500 thousand TEUs per annum. The diversity of the sample allowed for a range of perspectives
and experiences across cultures, organizations, and operations. This adds to the depth and
richness of the findings.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 sought to ascertain how leaders of ports and terminals in the Global
South and Oceania use technology to mitigate the effects of the crisis. Specific attention is paid
to the COVID-19 experience, given the gap in the literature regarding leaders’ experiences in
regions outside of North America and Europe during the pandemic. The themes that emerged in
response to Research Question 1 were centered on the environment as it relates to crises and
external influences on crisis management, the COVID-19 pandemic, technology, innovation, and
team engagement (Table 8).

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Table 8
Research Question 1: Summary of Findings
Theme Subthemes Quotations
Environment The key function for me was trying to
keep trade going.
The role, response, and
responsibilities of
government.
You have the council, which is local, not
central government; they are regulator
as well as an owner of the port … But
we are tasked under the port companies
act as a commercial entity and needing
to operate as a commercial entity.
Crises I think that the crises let leaders shine or
let leaders guide these organizations
through the difficult times. So, I’m not
saying that I welcome this crisis. But I
think that’s what we get paid for, right?
We get paid to lead through these
changes.
Social disruptions We had a very big situation in 2018. As I
said, when the workers there it was a bit
of unrest. Okay. Casual workers at the
port, and they ended up blocking up the
port. For a few days, we couldn’t go
inside or outside of the port.
Climate change This year the mango harvest is forecast to
be half of what it used to be … because
of El Niño.
COVID-19 We’ve never worked as hard. … We don’t
make too much in this country. We rely
very heavily on imported products from
Asia and export of our agricultural
products. … So, we have to keep going
to avoid shortages … you went through
that stage where it was something new,
something different. But after a while, it
became, you know, you know, quite
onerous.
The early stages We didn’t have any idea what we were
dealing with. Anybody that say he was
prepared for this … is a liar, or it could
be a Monday morning quarterback. …
We were on uncharted water.
Team health and
welfare
The well-being and health of our
employees was on top.

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Theme Subthemes Quotations
Port operations as an
essential service
During the pandemic, the greatest
challenge was to keep the port working
and have no COVID infections, no
serious COVID infections. How we
dealt with that? Keep it operating with
the support of the authorities, with all
the measures, with all the safety
measures here.
Organizational change One thing that he has actually bought into
the businesses is a lot of governance
discipline, and our culture has changed
in our workforce, our engagement with
our people, is a lot stronger as a
consequence of the changes.
Positive outcomes I look at it the positive way, you know. I
get more time to spend with my kids,
more with my family, and be able to get
the work done, you know, so you can be
negative about it or take the positive
side.
Technology integration
and impact in a crisis
Automated straddles in one part, but
interfacing with manual straddles that
are driven by person to complete the
task. And that level of integration had
never happened before.
Technology initiatives
during the COVID19 pandemic
What did we implement … work from
home on the administrative side. We
sent everybody home, so we had to do
some changes there, getting to know
Zoom meetings, etc. But that’s what
everybody had to do in worldwide.
The Environment
The environment influences entities. Two environmental drivers are government policies
and crises. Government policies and enforcement depend on political will but are also related to
situational awareness. Crises and unplanned catastrophic events can disrupt a community, a
nation, or even the globe.

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Government Role, Response, and Responsibilities
There was consensus on the importance of ports and terminals in a nation’s economy. In
developing nations and emerging economies, ports remain promising hubs for growth. The
predominant ownership and operations structure was through concessions. The landlord is
responsible for creating an environment that facilitates to operation of the concession. Diego
explained,
I had two roles one role in the port as a landlord. In that role, I … support the operator …
as landlord … if you start to interrupt the decisions of the of the operator of the
concession at the end you are not helping you’re not supporting you’re disturbing you are
sending a confused message.
Manuel stated,
We have 10 port authorities like us. … We have three concessions. Two operating our
terminals … and a third one, located 11 kilometers from the port, … and they receive the
trucks at the logistics support area for the port.
The level of support received from the landlord and the length of time remaining on a
concession influences the level of investment made by the concessionaire in the port. Miguel
stated,
We are a small terminal. We are a concession. … We have 6 more years to go after 2030,
which is when we finish the concession. … If we are awarded, … we will have a big
innovation … investment.
Yet, the port’s contribution to the economy was not always acknowledged. According to Felix,
“One main driver of your economy is your port because it enables your export and import,
especially … needs to export to earn money.” The ports are shareholders, regulators, and, as in

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the case of Thomas, operators. Thomas stated “Our mandate is dealing with a infrastructure as
well as the operation. So, we combine the two unlike in other countries, they are they are
separate their ownership and operations.” The structure of Neil’s port is also not a concession
rather fully owned by local government which results in tensions. Neil shared, “They are
regulator as well as an owner of the port. … We are tasked under the port companies [to] act as a
commercial entity and needing to operate as a commercial entity.” There is a constant tension
working with the shareholder to get the best outcome. When a port is government-owned and
operated, the tension between various interests can lead to delays in decision-making and
approvals, which can negatively impact production and investment. These delays are often
influenced by political considerations and competing priorities.
There was a view shared by 11 of the 17 that governments did not readily acknowledge
the importance of ports. Miguel explained “I had to do lots of work with the authorities for them
to understand that we are still an activity that continue operating. If we shut down the whole
country shuts down.” According to Manuel, “The government is another challenge because every
four months we need to negotiate with the local government, new contracts, new license etc.”
Antonio stated, “We wanted to do was to change some bureaucratic steps with the government.”
In sum, as expressed by Neil,
The government ignores supply chain. … when the supply chain is hampered, …
governments seem to step up and take notice of and say, “Hey, this thing called supply
chain imports are really important economies. … And what I’ve seen … too quickly, it
goes off the agenda and forgotten about.”
Eleven of the 17 participants acknowledge that responsiveness from the government
improved during COVID 19. Ana stated, “We had a very good vice minister of commerce …

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meetings every 2 days with everybody. … She managed to have everything going fine in 20
days, everybody changing … decrees were issued, everything.” Ana and Antonio agreed that the
speed and responsiveness of governments in their respective countries and countries where they
operated were exceptional. Antonio expressed surprise at the cooperation received from
government entities in the region early in the pandemic, as previously, change required extensive
lobbying. Antonio said,
The government decided to do things online. … A lot of changes in innovation. … some
sort of automatization. … We just push a little bit, and … they decided they’re gonna
cooperate. … that was one of the biggest surprises in what happened in the COVID
times.
Yet, one participant stated with regret, “Already, you know, not that long after COVID,
we’re sitting in an environment where the political environment has completely forgotten about
the supply chain … and everyone’s left to their own device.”
These experiences indicate that even though ports and terminals are of importance to
economies, a sustained effort is required to establish recognition of that importance. Port
authorities develop the shipping and maritime sector as landlords or operators and in lobbying
central and local government authorities. To succeed, their development plans must incorporate
all stakeholders within and external to the shipping and maritime community. The importance
becomes more apparent during crises, and governments may be more responsive. Persistent
lobbying is still required in some regions, as the status of the industry, post-crisis, can quickly be
reduced and relegated to the sidelines. Ports and logistics are a necessity but are relatively
invisible contributors to countries’ economies, except in times of crisis.

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Crises
All participants had experienced leading organizations during times of crisis. Crises
included geo-political crises, natural disasters, environmental crises, fatal accidents, and
lockdowns due to general strikes.
Social Disruptions. Participants who operated in five of the eight countries in the sample
spoke about their experience of protests and lockdowns. Historically, industrial action in the
form of strikes and blockages related to discord between workers and management was common
in the shipping and maritime industry. Henry pointed out that the perception of the industry
lingers, but there has been change:
In this country, the general public occasionally have a fairly negative view of people who
work on the waterfront. Okay, they are seen as being on strike all the time. … None of it
is accurate. … It’s working on old stereotypes and tropes of what waterside working was
like 50 years ago.
Notwithstanding the decline in protest due to industrial action, disturbances resulting from strike
action still occur. Diego stated,
I had many crisis experience. For instance, when … all the ports are blocking, lock out
because of the Union things and so I at that time I lead the … the only port in … that
continued to work nonstop.
Miguel recalled, “We have had big demonstrations … blocking the port for 5 weeks … very
violent activities … the port … was almost on fire.” He continued, “Casual workers at the port
… ended up blocking up the port. For a few days, we couldn’t go inside or outside of the port. In
fact, I was living inside of my office for the first 5 days.” Neil shared an experience: “The first
action that the union took was to issue a strike notice, and that created tension. … We ultimately

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had a 6-week industrial dispute here.” Participants report that social protests are equally
disruptive to port activities. Ana reported a country-wide general strike protesting economic
conditions. She stated, “During that period facing the end of the Pandemia, we had a general
strike in the country for 1 month.” Luis also shared his experience as a port executive in the face
of nationwide protests against a new government policy:
We have had this road blockade of 12 hours every day. … They announced that they’re
gonna have 1 day of 24 hours. We said … with 12 hours, we can manage the ships
because people come in just before they block the roads, and they leave afterwards … for
24 hours, we’re gonna have a hard time getting our people in to work the ships.
Crises resulting from an acrimonious relationship between stakeholders caused grave disruption
for ports. There seems to be a decline in disruption caused by industrial action that could be due
to a more collaborative approach between workers and management. In contrast, social unrest is
always probable when driven by the political and socioeconomic factors at play in a country. Not
every solution that is presented to mitigate the effects of social unrest is viable, and overreacting
without careful deliberation can lead to over-expenditure and wasted resources.
Climate Change. One of the fundamental concerns that led to the protest was the
concern for the natural environment and the resulting climate change. Eight of 17 participants
addressed different aspects of environmental awareness and its impact on decision-making,
development projects, and business operations. Serious consideration is given to the impact of
port development on the environment which affects the time and process required to secure
approvals for projects. Marco said, “The environmental permits that in … you maybe three
maybe four years you can have on time and getting those permits.” In fact, environmental
concerns can lock down a project even with the requisite permits. “We had the environmental

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permits to build that solution. But we had a strong opposition from the city. … someone sued us
because it was not the right solution, and … our environmental permits had to be done again.”
Alex supported the impact that can arise from the community concerned for the environment
“from … an environmental point of view. … Our indigenous people … need to make sure that
any cultural impacts of any infrastructure are fully considered and taken into account.” The
concerns are valid as the impact of climate change affects the operations of the port and the
supply chain. Luis spoke about an environmental crisis in his region that had rippling effects on
the transportation of goods to and from a free zone located on the Amazon River:
The water crisis for the region is not only a water crisis; it’s a climate crisis for the
region. … a fully free area, and a lot of car companies have put production in that area for
that reason. … The Amazon water level is half of what it … the ships that have to take
the cargo to that port can only take about half. … So, you have the normal flow of cargo
coming from Asia, … but you only get half of it coming out. … So, you are having a
backlog of containers building up.
Changes in the natural and social environment result in similar disruption. Those in leadership
need to be aware of what is occurring in the external environment socially, politically, and
environmentally to mitigate the effect of these types of crises, which emerge slowly and result in
persistent challenges.
COVID-19 Pandemic
Although participants have experienced varied crises, all agreed that the COVID-19
experience was unmatched. Loss of business is an experience that is the norm in any operation
but the loss of life of employees is incomparable, as illustrated by the following quote:

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There was a time we lose some business … We think we have to close the company. …
We need to get rid of 150 people. But, … later, we rehired. … But when we lose 20
persons by COVID, there was no way to rehire them.
The Early Stages.
Leading in a port and terminal during the global COVID-19 pandemic was a crisis
experience all participants shared. Each recalled the time vividly. The emotional impact of the
experience was evident as participants appeared to relive their experiences while sharing them.
Diego recalled,
Government … decide to block the people in their house. … We stopped the activities in
the cities. … We are close to the mountains. … Some Pumas … the South American tiger
… arrived to the city. Because the city were silent.
During the interviews, each participant re-lived and processed how they had responded to the
pandemic and the changes that occurred personally, in their organizations, industries, nation, and
the world. Arturo explained, “I think, at the beginning, it was a state of denial. Nobody really
believed it. … They said it’s just, you know, another flu.” Miguel stated, “In the industry at the
beginning, nobody knew what this was. It was completely new. It’s a Chinese virus, at the
beginning.” Eleven of the 17 participants agreed that the initial response to the pandemic was
one of uncertainty which was exacerbated when participants compared their experience to what
occurred in North America. Ana stated,
COVID was something that no one expected … the lockdown started in March … we
didn’t have time to prepare … all the time. We were hearing that the U.S. people could
go out. It was not mandatory to use the mascara, but here, it was difficult for everyone.

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The uncertainty fueled by rumors influences the attitudes of workers and management on the
ports. Miguel, located in Latin America, recalled the response to that of the stevedores in the
early stages of the pandemic. He said, “I was very worried. … On the berth … I saw the workers,
and we said, there is COVID, and they said, no, it won’t happen, it is just a cold, nothing will
happen.” Some thought the pandemic was a hoax, and this in itself proved challenging,
according to Henry, “There were some people who thought it was a hoax. … We had conspiracy
theorists who didn’t necessarily agree with the gravity of the situation. My biggest challenge was
to get people to adhere to the safety arrangements.”
When people started to die, the uncertainty evolved into fear. Four of the participants
operating on four different continents recalled that fear was evident among team members and in
the community after the initial uncertainty. Team members feared interacting in public spaces
and going to work, which was required of essential workers. Anna recalled, “There was all kind
of interpretations of who at the port was who. Who could go to the port, and who couldn’t go to
work. Everybody was very scared.” Thomas recalled, “People fear … contact … you don’t know
is who is having COVID. … So, people tend to segregate themselves and also to avoid places
with public contacts.”
A range of perspectives, including unbelief and fear, influenced the interaction between
team members and customers. Although workers were cognizant of the importance of the port
operation, the natural emotion of self-preservation had to be tempered. Achieving equilibrium
involves implementing strategies that enable the acknowledgment and handling of fear while
encouraging diverse perspectives and promptly implementing protocols to safeguard lives.

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Team Health and Welfare
Thirteen participants recalled their concern for the workforce as emotionally draining.
They recalled and communicated their concerns. According to Antonio, “Keeping our people
alive, that was really the biggest challenge.” Felix supported this posture. He said, “I stopped my
focus on the actual operational items and efficiency but made sure that we had healthy people
running and the operation was going.” The effort to keep staff alive involved monitoring the
health of those who contracted the disease, including those who had been hospitalized. There
was also a concern for mental health as the pandemic took an emotional toll throughout the
population. One participant shared,
I felt like I worked 10 years in 1. … You’re trying to keep your people’s morale up in a
very depressing environment because everybody, somebody’s got somebody sick in the
family or somebody in hospital. We lost a few staff, even though you’re trying to keep up,
everything pushes you down, it’s trying to push you down.
Maintaining contact and checking in with employees systematically formed part of one of
the key functions of Camilia’s unit. Each team member with the human resources department
was required to make a set number of calls each morning to employees. Camilia joined the team
in the employee telephone check-ins. This was supported by a leaders’ mentorship program to
reinforce healthy habits through the cadre of employees. Camilia spoke to support in the form of
monitoring and health care that was extended to employees and their households. If cohabitants
of their employees worked in the medical field, their health was a priority. Educating the
workforce on protocols and how to weather the social disruption was critical. Camilia
spearheaded an educational program with a theme touting the importance of knowledge to life:

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We developed several podcasts, webinars, videos. … The program was a spiritual and
emotional system that looked for to be part of every collaborator and their families in
order to help them to go through that COVID situation and feel that they were supported
by the organization and finding more interior peace, peace, and working capacity. … We
communicated by the app and by our internal communication methodology …
The early stages of the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic were marked by fear and
uncertainty. The concern for workers was evident in the interviews. The participants’ body
language and how they relayed the experience reflected the emotional upheaval that had
occurred during this period. Managing uncertainty and fear individually and in the workforce
was critical as port operations were considered essential. Timely, open communication of
accurate information, reinforcement of protocols, and education of the team can prove to be key
in the management process.
Port Operations As Essential Services
All participants reported that ports never closed during the pandemic, as port operations
are considered an essential service in their countries. Juantia shared “The sustainability of the
operation, were very important. We never stop one day. … We were there pandemic time.” Ana
stated, “I never stopped coming to the port during [the pandemic]. We had the protocol that at
least one of the managers had to be here.” The challenge was to keep the operations going as
demonstrated by the following quote:
The greatest challenge was to keep the port working and have no COVID infections. …
How we dealt with that? … With the support of the authorities, with … all the safety
measures. … All the good recommendations we got we always implemented them before
they were even implemented by the government.

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Proactivity was critical in keeping the ports operational. Leadership needed to quickly seek out
and implement applicable measures.
Decisions prioritized the safety of the team. All participants agreed that team safety was
priority. Work bubbles, dedicated teams, and gangs were created, and physical spaces were
modified to stymie the spread of the virus as the port continued to operate. One participant
reported that they had to reconfigure the common meal room breaking it into multiple dining
areas, “We have to avoid at all costs … an outbreak of the disease going through the place,
effectively rendering us in operative.”
This strategy of segregation applied to all levels of interaction One resulted in the same
strategy being used by two terminals on two different continents to provide transportation for
lower-level workers to and from work. One participant, located in South America, and a second,
operating in Africa, provided a taxi service for team members out of concern for their health and
to ease the financial burden for those earning the lowest wages. Ana reported, “There were no,
there was no public transportation so … hire busses, so we could have people come into the
port.” This measure allayed the fears of catching the virus during the daily commute. Felix
explained,
We created … our own taxi system. … We have what is called a taxi. A taxi is a little
minibus that carries about 20 people … we hired permanent taxis for us, that would only
transport our staff so that they don’t get together with other people on the taxi … It cost
us a fortune. … to minimize the impact on the lowest staff, we took that all the way to his
door so that he didn’t have additional costs or anything.
This initiative was one of the creative strategies that emerged in the face of the crisis. COVID-19
was unprecedented, so the response to keep operations going and maintain the workforce

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required both proven and creative strategies. Creativity does not only reside with leadership;
engaging the workforce builds trust and gives the opportunity for different perspectives to be
shared and for ideas to surface.
Protocols on Terminals
Participants indicated that a key function of port leaders during the pandemic was to
enforce COVID-19 protocols that governments developed or that they found through their
research on actions being taken in other jurisdictions. Alex stated, “It became very much just
keep the doors open while working through the COVID restrictions.” Nicholas emphasized,
“Bubbles and segregation and strict hygiene rules around the business really come to the fore …
absolutely mandatory use of protective clothing.” The rules and restrictions were necessary but
overwhelming. One participant acknowledged, “The staff were just overwhelmed. So that that
was a massive challenge.” Seven participants stated that they researched and tried to implement
pandemic best practices even before government directives. The protocols and practices changed
regularly and did not necessarily transfer smoothly to the port environment – managing
equipment that was used and shared by multiple workers across shifts was one of the many
systems that had to be implemented to meet sanitizing requirements. Felix stated,
I had to clean 120 forklifts every shift. … It was, it was a bit of a nightmare during the
process, but at the end of it, … for me, was making sure that we had all the regulations in
place on a daily basis, on a shift basis to make sure we don’t close the office.
Nicholas, operating in Oceania, said, “If someone in a certain team got COVID, that were not
going to cross-infect everyone right across the port, and we’d have to shut down.”
In several jurisdictions, if there was an outbreak in one department or sector all persons
had to be quarantined. This would have hampered or shut down operations completely—the

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responsibility rested with the leaders to work with the team to implement processes and
procedures to maintain team health and welfare. Not implementing the rules, regulations, and
protocols would have had a deleterious effect. Participants also had to create their own policies
to enforce government regulations but also to safeguard their people and operation. Company
policies surrounding vaccinations had to be implemented as COVID-19 vaccinations were not
mandated by the government. There were contrasting experiences. One participant stated, “There
was a lot of emotion at the time … companies were also deciding whether they brought in …
mandating that everyone needed to be vaccinated.” Camilia stated, “The company bought the
first doses … not just for the employees, but also for the whole community.” In the case of
Miguel, vaccines were approved early in his country, and he lobbied the government to secure
vaccines for his workers. He stated, “Just as the healthcare worker, we also need to be vaccinated
...we were part of the first groups that were had access to the vaccine and with that we could
continue operation.” A participant reported that his company instituted a mandatory vaccination
policy after significant consultation with the workforce:
We have quite an old workforce. And there was concern from some of those older people
around not wanting to work with unvaccinated people and then going home … and
putting their families at risk. So, … you had people that were wanting to be vaccinated,
not wanting to work with people that didn’t want to be vaccinated...we had to force the
mandating of everyone to get vaccinated … a couple of people left because they weren’t
prepared to get vaccinated … largely, … and the whole workforce got vaccinated.
The decision was taken based on consideration for a vulnerable population within the workforce,
even at the risk of losing efficiency. Thomas shared that special attention was paid to workers in
the high-risk categories:

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We allowed people with medical conditions to be off duty. … Then, we also allowed the
ages before people from 55 and about to be off duty. … What it means that it affected our
day-to-day work … we have a shortage of staffing by more than half.
Participants faced staff shortages caused by people being out sick or members of a highrisk group. The government-run vaccine program sought to allay fears and address the labor
shortage. Participants operating terminals reported compliance with vaccination requirements
although there were conscientious objectors. One participant on a terminal operating in Oceania
made a comparison between his port and another terminal operator’s vaccination policy. His
company did not institute a mandatory vaccination policy which was in contrast to other
terminals where employees faced dismissal if they refused to be vaccinated, “I’m pleased … we
didn’t take punitive action against people … our approach to getting through the pandemic was
an empathetic approach.”
While there was concern for the health and safety of workers, keeping the operations
going was paramount. In sum, the terminals adopted vaccination protocols, which were a matter
of contention in several countries globally. One participant reported their port supported the citywide vaccination campaign financially and purchased ventilators for hospitals. The overarching
philosophy of that port during the pandemic was “First, … taking care of the health and the wellbeing of each of our collaborators and their families. … The second principle [was] … the
sustainability of the operation. … We want to be a stronger company.”
The health and well-being of the workforce were prioritized. Strategies were employed
and extended to all facets of the operations, beyond the port and to related parties. The costs
associated with initiatives and the inconveniences seemed to be secondary to the attempts to
preserve life. Beyond vaccination protocols and work bubbles, companies introduced systems to

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safeguard employees in their interactions with external stakeholders. There was also extended
support for staff beyond the port into the home. Participants facilitated the set-up of home offices
for staff required to work remotely, which included financing the purchase of office equipment.
These initiatives would no doubt send a message to the employees regarding their importance
and value to the organizations.
Operating a port during any crisis required a careful balance of keeping the operations
going while ensuring that government regulations were met to secure the health of the workforce
and the community. The actions required due to the regulations were costly. However, it is of
note that all the sites introduced measures, irrespective of the economic standing of the
participants’ countries. In sum, participants were determined that the workforce and the company
would emerge stronger, and they provided the tools and environment to achieve success despite
the attendant costs.
Organizational Change
There is a shift in the culture and climate of organizations during times of crisis. Nine
participants noted this: To illustrate, Antonio stated, “I think companies got, were able to get
more humane, and also, they were able to share more.” Participants agreed that in operating a
business there would always be crises. The response to the crisis and the change that ensues
determines the outcome for the organization. Arturo observed,
I think the pandemic is just one of the many examples that you can face because it’s just
the order of magnitude of that crisis. … If you see it as a crisis, or as an opportunity to
grow, … it’s just a change.

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This acknowledges that crises are inevitable and that in our current reality, they reoccur and can
even happen simultaneously. By identifying opportunities within a crisis, a leader can
successfully navigate through it and better prepare for future challenges.
During crisis, the participants reported that their perspectives changed in several facets.
They prioritized family, relationships, and self-care. Marco shared,
I was living in … apartment, on an eighth floor. Now, I have a house with a big backyard.
… Quarantine … was driving me crazy. … I started doing yoga, … a way to relieve all
the stress that you had been on quarantine … It is a strong, yes. It is change. Your mind
changed.
Eight participants spoke of family, indicating that they prioritized family, yet they did not neglect
work. Participants became more attuned to their individual needs and those of their employees.
Felix admitted, “I got a lot closer to the people. … A lot of people approached me for counseling
for advice for whatever reason.” Participants acknowledged the importance of willingness to
change, also acknowledging that what they experienced emotionally and relationally was also the
experience of team members. Arturo stated,
I look at it the positive way, you know, I get more time to spend with my kids more with
my family, and be able to get the work done, … I think all team did well, on that side.
The changing of the mindset of leaders was reflected in the organization’s climate and
culture. Four participants used the terms “nimble” and “adapt” to describe how the culture had
shifted and the type of mentality that was required. Leaders were required to balance family life
and relationships more adeptly with the demands of the changing environment and the unknown.
Attention was required to address mental health; this took an investment of time on the part of
participants to have honest, open, sensitive conversations.

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Positive Outcomes
Ten participants identified positive experiences and outcomes of crises, specifically
COVID-19. Perspectives and attitudes changed in personal lives, in the workplace, and in the
community. It was not possible to control the environment and circumstances. Only the response
could be controlled. Arturo reflected on the experience and surmised,
Everybody changed. … I think the pandemic actually taught us … that you need to adapt
to a new reality … You need to be in control yourself and say, … this is the reality. How
can I adapt the best way possible in order to get things done?
In fact, opportunities were identified both at the personal level and within the
organization. Values influenced perceptions and the ability to see opportunities during and after a
crisis. The pandemic, which caused people to face their mortality, impacted their values. One
participant explained how he identified opportunities during the pandemic, acknowledging a
change in values. He stated,
The pandemic, for us, was a very big opportunity to adapt, to grow, to keep people
together. … Valuing all the things that you didn’t value, such as your health, … staying
alive. So, you start to value other things and being grateful for many things that makes
you think differently about life.
Although there was resistance to the change that came with COVID-19, in time, persons began
to appreciate the positive outcomes in the workplace, as Thomas expressed, “It was positive also,
in one sense, although it took us some time also to accept the change. And also, to realize that
things can work in the new technological approach … which was not there before.”
The majority of participants agreed that COVID-19 was one of the worst experiences in
their lives, yet they emerged stronger individually, leading stronger and more resilient

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organizations. Three participants spoke about the record profit and growth in the shipping
industry, and as companies emerged from the pandemic. One participant stated, “The shipping
lines … made massive profits during the pandemic, because freight rates just went through the
roof, … the classic supply and demand profile.” Felix explained, “We grew our profitability
about 70%. It is not a joke. It’s a big number.” Improved profitability may be the result of supply
and demand but that may not be necessarily the only factor. Improved team dynamic contributes
to company performance and success. Nine participants agree that better teams are forged during
the crisis. During the pandemic there was a strengthening of positive team dynamics built on the
elements of trust, and greater consciousness of the needs of the workforce. A participant shared,
“It was a matter of you also regain faith in people that was most interested thing, you were not
close to the people, but you regain faith in people. So that’s a very interesting phenomenon.”
This faith in people can be seen as a building of trust. A participant explained: “We built a much
better team now after COVID than what we had before.” This was supported by Marco who
stated, “You’re more worried more conscious about how the people feel.” The concern for coworkers grew exponentially at a time when the reality showed that no one was indispensable, and
the support that was extended became the support that was needed as the pandemic endured.
Crises are perceived as being inevitable, as is change. Participants were unable to
conceive of the magnitude and duration of the disruption of the pandemic. They were, however,
able to realize that flexibility would be required. Flexibility was required in their personal lives
as well as in the organizational context as they related to stakeholders. Adapting to the new
environment, circumstances, and restrictions determined how successfully leaders would cope
with the COVID-19 pandemic. Critical in this process was how they used technology.

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Technology Integration and Impact in a Crisis
Technology is seen as essential to improving port operations, all 17 participants agreed
that technologies introduced before the crisis facilitated continuous operations. This included
technologies which were not used heavily before the crisis. In the first months of the COVID-19
crisis, all participants implemented a work-from-home policy for the team. This required a
change in information and communication systems which resulted in the overall upgrade of preexisting technologies. The shift could be considered tantamount to the upskilling of the entire
workforce and the shipping community as they transitioned. The investment in hardware and
software undoubtedly repositioned companies and increased capacities and mobility. Feliz P
explained,
We converted the entire computer systems in our company to laptops. We don’t have a
single desktop. … We took that decision the moment that COVID hit us, and we started
that because I’m a believer that if tomorrow there is something people are mobile, we’re
not going back to any more desktop computers.
Training the workforce in using mobile and other technologies would enhance efficiency and
communication, laying groundwork for the future. One participant shared: “We use technology
to strengthen educational process in our people, because at the end if you use technology, the
education process will be a better process.” Camilia agreed and saw that playing out in her
organization. She stated, “From pandemic today we have this technology platform training elearning platform for all the community, and they are using them.” Installations, training, and
adaptation were rapid. Ana said, “We managed to install computers from the office to everybody
in a weekend.”

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Video-conferencing and virtual meetings existed pre-pandemic but became standard
practice during the COVID-19 pandemic. All participants used this type of technology
throughout their operation during the pandemic. Eight participants participated in daily virtual
meetings related to crisis management during the pandemic. These meetings provided a forum to
share knowledge and experiences from a diverse group of industries and regions. The value of
diverse thought and experiences yielded positive results and served as an opportunity for leaders
to support each other. Antonio recalled,
When our CEO decided that it was the time to talk every day. Initially, we thought he
was a waste of time. Because we figured, alright, we can do it, … and all the meetings
were not more than half an hour or 45 minutes max. So, that was a lot of support.
Video-conferencing and technologies that facilitated remote work existed pre-pandemic but were
used by few. Their preference was to meet face-to-face in an industry that Antonio described as
highly relational. The shipping industry adapted quickly. Although there has been a return to the
office, the technologies are still used in operation and commercially in port, as all participants
confirmed.
During the crisis, all participants depended heavily on existing technology, significantly
including the terminal operating systems and systems introduced to create paperless transactions.
These technologies allowed for operations and transactions to be conducted across entities with
minimal human contact or interaction, which was necessary at that time. Andres had led the
implementation of a port community system before the pandemic. He said,
Today, the port is operating since 2008 with a port community system. … Today we’re in
the third version of the system … That really helps us to be very well prepared for the
restrictions of the [pandemic] in terms of people being not able to move freely.

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Leaders who encourage the use of existing technology in new ways help to foster creativity. One
participant stated, “We could do … in a different way, using the system … what I tend to ask all
the times, what can we still change in what you do to do it more efficient.” Improving systems
with a focus on seamless communication serves to improve efficiency. This perspective was
demonstrated in the following quote: “We really focused in connecting all those systems
connecting them to the TOS … We were so lucky that we already had this working.” Participants
admitted that no major new technologies were successfully implemented during the pandemic.
This could be due to a possibly challenging change management process. Existing technologies
were used more extensively and in new ways. This is an indicator that innovative thought and
action can surface in the face of hardship and a restrictive environment.
Technology Initiatives During the COVID-19 Pandemic
During the COVID-19 pandemic, companies used tried and proven technologies to gather
data, monitor, and communicate with the workforce and stakeholders. There was improvement
and expanded use of existing solutions, upgrades of software and mobile applications
Participants introduced new software and apps to enhance communication and create greater
efficiency within the organization. Ana found that the pandemic provided the opportunity to
explore gaps in the operation, which could be addressed through technology. Manual processes
were inefficient, but they were the norm before the pandemic in aspects of the operation. Not
being together in the same office or location forced the team to consider how to automate
processes as she explained:
We noted is that still, for example, for reefer repairs everything was manual. … They
were just filling up a chart with what was wrong, and then go and make the estimates …
So, we decided, okay, all of the export and import process … have to be automated.

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One participant also sought to make similar improvements: “We really found out that we
have a lot of systems that were not connected and needed to be connected.” Communication and
access control were areas that were enhanced. A range of technologies were employed. Henry M
reported that his terminal used QR codes to control access to the terminal:
The only thing that came out of COVID that was unique to COVID was the use of … QR
code. … They were set up everywhere. … That was certainly important because we have
to lock this terminal down. And contractors or people who had a need to come here have
to basically validate their reason for doing so by using this QR code.
Similarly, Camilia’s port developed a mobile app that was deployed to all employees:
Everyone had an app, and every day we had to … inform the company in that app … how
we felt physically. And if we didn’t do that, we couldn’t open up computers [and] we
couldn’t get into the systems of the company. So, … because everybody was reporting
their health, patient daily, our doctor could know that people have that and people that.
Every day, we have to report our health condition.
The responses were monitored by a team of doctors, nurses, and specialists who provided
immediate support to employees who fell ill. Employees were unable to log into computers
without providing their health status in the app. This was one segment of an extensive
multimedia educational and monitoring campaign developed for the port sector. This
demonstrates the far-reaching effect of communication technology, specifically mobile
technologies, in data gathering, which can guide appropriate responsive action.
Technology was used to support systems that enabled compliance with COVID-19
protocols. Upgrades of existing technologies were driven by demand. There was also the
constant drive on a port to improve efficiency. That drive, which is embedded in port culture, led

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to small innovations and improvements in port processes. Mobile technology emerged as
indispensable in providing information access, extending permissions, and collecting crucial data
to inform leadership decisions. Solutions and mobile applications were swiftly developed to
address the imperative of safeguarding health and minimizing operational disruptions.
Summary of Findings RQ1
Leaders leveraged available technology to alleviate the repercussions of COVID-19 and
other crises. COVID-19 stood out as the most influential crisis among the participants, closely
followed by the earthquakes encountered by seven individuals. The impact remained largely
consistent across both developed and developing nations. Despite similar lockdowns and
restrictions, port operations persisted across all nations, necessitating vigilance from operators
regarding team health and welfare. Prioritization of worker welfare was evident across all ports
and terminals. Leaders adopted more compassionate attitudes toward team members, while
greater trust became essential as administrative staff transitioned to remote work. The use of
technology is instrumental to port operations and will grow in importance in the future.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 was used to establish the impact and benefits of technology and
innovation on terminals and the challenges in creating a culture of innovation and introducing
new technology. The themes that emerged from the responses were focused on technology,
innovation, and team engagement (Table 9). Elements of leadership and change management
were also themes in participants’ responses to questions related to Research Question 2.

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Table 9
Research Question 2: Summary of Findings
Themes Subthemes Quotations
Technological integration Significance of
technology in port
operations
In terms of technological level
advancement, we have shifted for
the last 15 years, a lot has changed
… to the extent … we are
becoming … paperless in the sense
that we can run everything, using
technology, using ICT.
Technology acquisition
versus development
We’ve got we got our own warehouse
management; we have our own
development IT development team
that keeps on upgrading our
warehouse management system.
5G technology We need to have more … connection
between the systems, more
integration.
Automation We started here, trialing automated
equipment in the year 2000. At a
trial site, and it was designed
because the cost of the cost of
handling cargo in this country was
quite high, quite prohibitive.
Cyber security Cybercrime is, was bad. So, we had
to create all sorts of things to
protect ourselves … but my IT
guys had to develop a lot of
infrastructure to allow people to be
away. And then to protect ourselves
from being attacked.
Port community systems Port is operating since 2008 with a
port community system. … [It is]
the first port in South America to
operate with a port community
system. … That really helps us to
be very well prepared for the
restrictions [of a pandemic].
Technology implementation One of the things that really help and
make … successful implementation
that they would were able to find
what everybody wants, what they
… need to make the whole system
better.

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Themes Subthemes Quotations
Teaching and learning Anybody can buy cranes, anybody
can buy RTGs, anybody can buy a
piece of land and put a business
case for port, and the banks are out
there putting the money. But what
will make the difference is
basically the people, how you train
them, and how they use that
technology in order to be more
efficient.
Innovation Innovation. I guess we’re, over time,
… trying to … innovate and use
more technology in the business,
try to eliminate a lot of that manual
transaction.
Problem-solving The way that managers work, where
we grow is that we normally
resolve problem because we know
the cost, or the factor that caused
this problem, when you don’t know
now that that’s a problem.
Technological Integration
The integration of technology in port operations encompasses equipment, connectivity,
and software applications. Terminal operating systems and applications that link the port with
shipping lines, customs, other government agencies, customers, and the local logistics
community have become standard. As with other economic sectors, innovation is increasingly
important in port operations. Subthemes that emerged include the significance of technology,
decisions regarding acquisition versus development, and emerging technologies such as 5G,
automation, the IoT, and AI. Port community systems and cybersecurity are subthemes of
technological integration.

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The Significance of Technology to Port Operations
All participants indicated that technology was a crucial tool used in every aspect of the
business. Technology is perceived as integral to growth, development, and efficiency, especially
on small ports where there is no room for physical expansion. Efficiency and growth were tied to
the use of technology as stated by twelve of the seventeen participants. For example, common
across all participants is the investment in systems to coordinate information. The systems and
the capacities vary but the objectives include faster turn times, improved spatial management on
the terminal and better-quality customer experiences. Miguel stated, “We make it very easy for
the importers to … pick your container and take it out … We will charge you very high to stay,
… I need the yard to be cleared as soon as possible.” Ports that were established decades ago in
port cities are usually landlocked. The cities have grown, and the demand for imports and
exports, but there is no physical space to expand. Neil provided an example of the consideration
given to improving productivity and efficiency for a port constrained by limited space for
expansion;
We are right on the doorstep of the city. One of the challenges … is our social license to
operate … we are constantly under scrutiny by the community … one of the undertakings
that we’ve made is that we will no longer reclaim into the harbor to increase our
operating footprint.
Environmental concerns, at times led by Indigenous communities restrict expansion as evidenced
by the following quote: “They absolutely see themselves as custodians of the land and the
harbor, and therefore want to absolutely protect it and ensure that anything put in place is not
gonna degrade the harbor.” Prioritizing the environmental concerns of the community
surrounding the port limits industrialization even for ports that are not landlocked. Nicolas’ port

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has listened to and prioritized the concerns of the indigenous community regarding
industrialization and the impact of large shipping vessels on the environment,
They are extremely concerned about how industrialized the area has come. … They’re
also very protective and concerned about their major food source, which is the sea …
they would say that the fish stocks … is now not as plentiful as it once was.
Only one participant received consent to reclaim land due to special concessions.
However, there are funding constraints: “We are consented, unlike some of our colleagues. …
We’ve got the ability to reclaim land. … It actually comes down to how do we actually fund it?”
Technology is the option that will facilitate growth and productivity, as demonstrated by the
following quote: “We operate with straddles that are one over two, so the maximum that they can
stack is three high. By automating, we’ve gone to one over three, high straddles. … That gives us
roughly another 30% more capacity.” Technological advancements boost both capacity and
productivity, allowing port operators to handle larger cargo volumes more efficiently. This
improves throughput without expanding the physical space of the port. The level of technology
employed in the ports operated by participants varied, but participants agreed that technology
would be used in their operations increasingly. Eight participants stated that technology enables
the agility that is now demanded by the market in business. One participant affirmed: “We’re
learning new things every day. That means we might need to be agile and change. And you
know, decisions made last week may be revoked in different decisions made.” Agility is essential
in adapting to new information, shifting market demands, labor fluctuations, and crises. Arturo
noted, “I was on the commercial side. For me, I make phone calls all the time, I make virtual
meetings all the time. So, … to adapt, instead of traveling, having to do video calls, I adapted
real quick.” Agility and responsiveness are paramount to conduct any aspect of the business

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successfully. Manuel, who is responsible for ICT, was leading the cutover from one system to an
upgraded one. The transition had to be between vessel calls to avoid disruptions and delays.
Manuel stated,
It is important to have a very agile business. … Without technology, it is impossible to
take the action with the demand that we are receiving. We need to be more flexible, more
agile, and more strong to move as the market demands.
The use of technology can also be beneficial in unstable labor markets. In some countries, there
was a labor shortage during the pandemic, and in growing economies, there is seasonal demand
for labor. Technology can reduce dependency on the labor force as demonstrated by the
following:
During COVID … one of the things was labor was very challenging, as the labor market
was very tight … what we’ve noticed is that labor could be a key bottleneck to basically
stopping us. … Young people are not coming through that want to work on ports. …
We’re a business that is 24/7. We have high demand over the weekend. But we have a lot
of vulnerability and staff availability over the weekends as well. So, trying to smooth that
part of the operation … through automation would have reduced our reliance on labor.
Technology is increasingly important, allowing for easier communication, greater
efficiency, swifter processing of documentation, improved agility, and the ability to respond
promptly to change. The reduction of reliance on the labor market can contribute to efficiency.
However, in countries with ample labor, this is a contentious issue leading to challenges in
implementing technology. Henry M pointed out that when speaking of automation, he believes
“there will never be a port without people.” Notably, this observation is evident in the port and

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across various sectors, with all participants in this study sharing this view regardless of their
level of automation in their operation.
Technology Acquisition Versus Development
Acquiring and adopting technologies developed elsewhere to be used on the terminals is
the approach several organizations take. The level of technology and the range available for port
operation and administration is vast. Catchphrases in discussions surrounding ports and
technology include 3D printing blockchain, machine-to-machine learning, and IoT. However, the
level of comprehension of the applicability to ports is questionable. Arturo observed,
There’s a lot of different technologies out there, … but I believe nobody really
understands them. … I think it’s just starting from very minimal things. … Let’s say I
need a contract that I need to sign. And I can use blockchain for that. … I can use
blockchain for the signatures of mandates here in the court and making sure that the guys
that are signed are the ones that are supposed to sign, and I can use technology for that.
A review of technologies used on the ports shows that they are sourced from Asia,
specifically China and Korea, and Europe, Holland, and Spain. Software and network-related
technologies are also sourced in North America. These technologies were modified in some
cases to fit unique operational needs. Thomas stated,
We have what I normally call tailor-made … it was subscribed from South Korea.
However, we have customized to suit our needs, the local needs because it is a unique
industry. … We have localized or customized to suit our local interest.
Of note, nine out of 17 companies used the same TOS, which is currently owned by a
North American company with global reach. The TOS is used in approximately 400 ports
worldwide. The cost of developing software of this caliber can be prohibitive. No participants

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reported having developed a TOS. However, the ports have highly skilled software and network
engineers engaged in systems development and maintenance, allowing for interconnectivity with
the wider port community, as evidenced by this quotation:
We’ve got our own warehouse management; we have our own IT development team that
keeps on upgrading our warehouse management system. And we had to create a lot of
other links for the people to be able to access from wherever they are.
The skill set of the IT teams is high, which facilitates the development work and adaptation as
technology plays a greater role in port operation. One participant described the evolution,
We have more technicians. … These are not simple mechanic technicians. These are
software technicians … one of these machines, they cost 3.5 million dollars of the 3.5, 1
million is for software and hardware, we call [it] the jewelery.
Manuel supported this as he stated, “It’s very important that the experience of the IT team
members are high.” The leaders are not necessarily highly knowledgeable of IT, but instead are
aware of what they need to achieve. One participant explained, “I have a whole IT team … I
don’t know the details. But I can tell you we pay a fortune to keep all our systems safe.” Systems
need to be safe. This is achieved in part by upgrades and improvement of applications. Nine of
the seventeen participants spoke of the information technology teams that were engaged in the
development of proprietary software, apps and implementing a network of systems tailored
specifically for their operations. Felix stated,
In IT we’ve got … youngsters. … The amount of things that develop that we don’t even
think about. … They created some apps for the phone for our fruit stock controls for our
clients. … They created on their free time because they while they’re waiting for the
other developer to achieve something they do this.

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Acquisition versus development is a decision that is made by port leadership as they seek to
introduce technologies to assist in productivity. Technology is costly. However, cost cannot be
the overriding factor in any analysis. A comprehensive cost-benefit analysis will necessitate
consideration of various factors such as business requirements, the feasibility of implementing
and sustaining systems, the availability of resources for worker training, and a host of other
relevant considerations.
Technology: 5G
The technology landscape is currently undergoing a transition toward 5G technologies in
the ports. Stakeholders are observing a blend of various technologies, envisioning a future where
automation, facilitated by AI, and the IoT becomes the standard practice. One participant shared,
“Innovation, sustainability automatization. artificial intelligence, they all are one, you know, you
can have all one and then thinking that the other will follow, you have to take it all for the same
price.” The adoption of IoT and AI technologies varies at ports, with IoT being more prevalent
than AI. The implementation of 5G technology enhances connectivity across systems.
Connectivity within the port and to external parties is required for real-time interactions and the
sharing of data. The demand for secure networks, communication technology, and connectivity
is constant, with a focus on speed, accuracy, and security. The need is evidenced by the
following quote, “We need to have more how to have more connection between the systems,
more integration.” Twelve of the 17 participants described operations facilitated by IoT. Manuel
stated,
We are implementing IoT. It is the first time that the port would be using IoT, not only
for surveillance and security. … It is more focused … to have the system on chat with the
machine doing the job.

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The description of activities on the port, such as security systems, operation of automated
stacking cranes and other equipment, mobile racking systems, and forklifts with computerized
scanners, and the availability of Wi-Fi at the quay side indicate that several ports employ 5G
technology. One participant shared,
We have the most sophisticated mobile racking systems. … The whole facility is under
Wi-Fi so that the forklifts move permanently connected to the server. … The locations
are, are marked with barcodes so that the scanners, when they travel through, they scan
the barcode. … The location is given to the server. … It’s a live system. I can tell you any
time of the day, of the night where a pallet is because of this whole computerized system
that we have got.
IoT facilitates communication and the flow of data, allowing for increased responsiveness and
facilitating analysis of the operation. As the understanding of AI increases, systems will process
data, facilitating even greater responsiveness but, more importantly, proactivity. These
technologies will be adopted increasingly on port to achieve greater productivity.
Automation: Safety, Security, and Efficiency
Nine participants agree that automation enhances safety on the port: safety tied to
operations and safety as it relates to security. In Latin America, terminals have already embraced
automation and now aim to deepen their integration of this technology. Antonio confirmed, “We
have been continuous introducing automatization.” Luis shared, “We are the pilot site for most of
the technologies. Most of the people from organisations come … to see this [operation].”
Participants in that region all foresee heightened investment in both equipment and software to
propel advancements in this domain. One participant stated, “We’re trying to introduce
technology to get people in a safer working environment.” Alex concurred and elaborated, “We

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believe automation is … the safest way to operate.” Consideration for the health and safety of the
workforce is driving decision regarding automation, as evidenced by the following quotation,
“reasons we’re going to some automation, tight labor market, health and safety advantages.” All
stakeholders are concerned about safety but as Henry explained’ “they want safety, and we can
deliver that in spades, high levels of safety, but it comes at the price of automation.”
The global impact of the narcotics trade and contraband is significant both socially and
economically. According to one participant, the patterns of intimidation that facilitate trade in
contraband through the port were well established,
They used to contaminate containers with drugs … truck comes in, shows the photograph
of their family to RTG operator and tell them bring me that “Y” container … they open
[the container] in terms of seconds they put a bag in.
While the use of automation to bolster security across multiple ports has proven effective, the
challenge remains ongoing. Therefore, this area receives close attention. Although some ports
are more outspoken, all ports potentially face challenges related to the importation or exportation
of contraband, including human trafficking. Ana explained,
We have a well-known narcotics problem. We had, as an organization, the experience that
everything that can be done automatically. … We could just have people to put
everything in the system, and everything was automatic, and just following the process.
One participant further explained, supporting the efficacy of automation for security purposes
emphasizing that without pre planning for a container move IT system will block the movement
of equipment and send alerts:
When the guy tries to move that “Y” container he cannot move it and the system will
block itself and the spreader will block and he cannot make that move, and we send the

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signal to the authorities and to Operation saying this guy with this name in RTG. XYZ in
this position … He’s trying to do fake move. Either he made a mistake, or there’s a
security problem.
Using technology for security purposes extends beyond the use of cameras; real-time
communication with the authorities enables targeted intervention. Arturo elaborated, “It’s
business intelligence. … With my information, push it to … Homeland Security … CBP of the
United States … to local authorities, … with all the intelligence. … That’s how they find things
here in the terminal.” Participants in regions with challenges with the narcotics trade mentioned
that automation has facilitated security in multiple terminals. Given the global concern regarding
terrorism, contraband, and human trafficking, undoubtedly, technology integrating automation
and artificial intelligence is consistently being developed to enhance security in general.
Participants agreed that port operations automation leads to potentially greater efficiency.
The level of automation across regions is varied. Automation is advancing on terminals in
Central and Latin America but is mixed in Oceania and Africa. A participant from Latin America
explained, “In my experience, … we are ahead in automation. … We have very small area. …
Efficiency comes with technology.” According to Nicholas in Oceania, “We’re certainly not
bleeding edge. We are looking at bringing in automated stacking cranes now into our container
terminal. At the moment, we run manual straddles.”
Automation of a terminal is capital-intensive, making acquisition a difficult decision,
especially for companies near the end of a concession without assurances of being awarded a
new concession agreement. One participant noted, “As a terminal … we cannot do automation.
… We are a concession. We have a time frame. We have 6 more years to go. … Then, we finish
the concession.” Ana shared a similar perspective:

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Even though we don’t have much space to grow. … We could still grow in more
equipment, and to be more efficient … the next challenge is what to do when you have a
concession deadline. … What to invest in?
Nonetheless, all ports have a measure of automation. One participant shared, “to get the scale we
need … automation becomes really relevant for us.” First and foremost, it is essential to conduct
cost-benefit analyses and provide justifications before deciding to automate terminal processes.
The project is then likely to spread over several years. According to Neil, “We won’t be leaders
and technology or innovation, but we’ll be fast followers.” Alex supports this view when making
decisions regarding automation, “I think … work with a tried and tested or established mode of
automation, don’t try and recreate the wheel.” Over time technology can become more costeffective. Late adopters support the perspective shared by one participant, “Automation will
continue in our view get better, cheaper, easier to implement.” The need for greater efficiency is
demonstrated by the following quote:
If our wharves don’t work efficiently, it prejudices our ability to trade on a world’s stage.
… We export a lot of meat through this port. … If we’re not efficient, the cost of that
product, landed … will go up, and … farmers will suffer. … The wharves have to work
efficiently. So, we say automation has certainly been a major step on the path towards
very efficient port operations.
The experiences of participants were diverse regarding automation. Nine of the seventeen
participants have participated in automation projects, with some participants as decision-makers.
As an early adopter, Luis described his port in Latin America as the first to implement automatic
stacking cranes using RFID technology. This system transmits information throughout the
process—from the trucker’s arrival at the port to collect a container, to the container’s location,

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to identifying the crane in closest proximity to the container, to loading the container onto the
chassis to complete the delivery process the trucker. He explained,
These are like robots that look like cranes, … 98.5% of the transactions … they do,
there’s no human intervention. … We used to have a driver in the RTG. This is like an
RTG on steroids … Now we have supervisors sitting in … office.
Automation is a contentious issue, recognized by all participants, whether they are in the
exploratory stage or have already automated parts of their operations. The persistent fear of job
losses due to automation fuels this concern. In unionized environments, resistance is particularly
strong, which is not surprising. If a work crew scheduled to service a vessel is reduced by half
due to automated processes, resistance is inevitable unless change is carefully managed and the
benefit clearly communicated. According to Henry who played a lead role in the construction
and commissioning of an automated terminal,
It’s an existential threat here, and the union have this problem. … Our crane gang is four
people. If it was a manned operation with driven equipment, there will be eight or nine.
So, it’s half the demand. But this will be the safest container terminal in … one of the
safest in the world. So, the unions are in a difficult position. … automation does take
people off the job.
Terminals have traditionally had unionized workers, whether directly employed at the
terminal or outsourced to stevedoring companies. The tension between job losses and efficiency
is ongoing, yet terminals in Latin America, South America, and Oceania are partially automated
and will continue in that direction, albeit at a moderate pace due to the high capital requirement.
As progress is made in this area, engaging the unions and workers at the outset of the project is

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critical as well as equipping workers to take up new jobs which are created as technological
advancements are made.
Automation: Limitations
Technology, specifically automation, is one of the best ways to increase productivity on a
terminal with a small footprint. However, cost and considerations related to ownership/
management agreements limit progress in this area. Miguel operates under a concession
agreement that will expire in 2030. He disclosed, “We have to now do the whole process to be
extended. When that is done, if we are awarded, of course, we will have a big innovation.”
Timing can be a limitation to the automation of a port, as evidenced in Miguel’s case and all
participants operating as concessionaire. Even as a government entity, political decisions can
alter how the port is managed. Depending on the timeline of decisions, automation projects can
lose priority or be shelved. An example of the uncertainty that influences technology decisions in
a government-owned and operated entity was outlined by a participant,
The … budget has a … black hole. … They’re finding ways of how they … take pressure
off ratepayers … proposed is that the operating of the port company be put out to tender
for 35-year lease. Now, that’s out for public consultation … and then … vote.
The impact of timing was also displayed when an implementation project of a port in
Oceania was canceled. Poor timing was one of several factors that hindered the attempt to
automate one part of the process on a port with the other part remaining manual. Neil. said,
We were trying to do something that had never been done before at other container
terminals around the world. That was operate with automated straddles in one part but
interfacing with manual straddles that are driven by person to complete the task. And that
level of integration had never happened before. … The software wasn’t able to keep up

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with the demand and the operation. … We elected to actually cancel the whole project.
Automation has ended for us. We wrote off about $60 million and software costs.
This experience has influenced the decisions of other ports looking on. Automation is being
considered on Alex’s terminal as part of the recovery plan, and a range of factors including
stakeholder engagement has caused the project to proceed slowly. There has been a gradual
acceptance of automation by stakeholders as they have slowly ceded that automation is
inevitable in the future. He explained
We’re probably … in between 5 to 10 years before we automate. … What the customers
want to see is … greater levels of productivity and … consistency. … If you can …
deliver … without huge amounts of disruption, then they will buy into that.
There is a sense that automation is inevitable. The main limitations are costs and
acceptance by the workforce. The initial capital cost of automation is high, but operational costs
are reduced in a fully automated environment. Both the cost and labor elements require a longterm plan with a dedicated change management component. Greenfield projects are ideal, but the
reality is that the participants are tasked with transforming long-established ports, working with a
finite amount of space.
Artificial Intelligence
While there is a noticeable shift toward 5G based on participant descriptions of available
connectivity, although mentioned by participants, only three participants indicated that their port
has ventured into the realm of AI. Andres explained,
Actually, we have used [AI]. … we have cameras in this road that connects the port with
this area … 11 kilometers away that can control the flow, and we have queues on certain
points of the road. So, … we can manage the flow, and we can prevent … accidents.

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Artificial intelligence is being explored, and there have been investments. An example is a
solution, which is being tested for deployment in crane cabins. The system can help prevent
accidents by using facial recognition to analyze the crane operator’s emotional state,
attentiveness, and level of tiredness. Paul said, “It can recognize, or they can anticipate … if an
accident, or there is an opportunity that an accident can happen in the moments later of the
operation.” The shared perspective on AI is to “think that [AI] can improve processes. They can
make the world better about the end actually can improve the quality of life of the people that
work at the port.”
Artificial intelligence is futuristic for most participants. Those who have already achieved
a measure of automation of their systems are more inclined to consider AI a part of the
technology used on the ports in the immediate future.
Cyber Security
Participants were aware of the threat of cyber security, which comes with the increased
use of technology. One participant stated. “Logistics is one of the most hacked industries in the
world.” This is supported by Andres, who stated, “Cyber security. It’s a big challenge. … We
work so our systems are being closed … people want to get inside and make an attack.” An
entire industry is devoted to developing malware and executing ransomware attacks. There is an
industry dedicated to creating malware and carrying out ransomware, even offering Ransomware
as a service and malware for sale. Firewalls, network security solutions, and monitoring and
defence applications can be expensive but not as costly as a successful cyberattack. Felix
explained that there is a dedicated team employed to address the cyber security of his operations.
“We pay a fortune to keep all our systems safe. … We’ve got millions of attempts daily … we do
we do invest a lot because … systems are crucial,” Eleven participants acknowledged that

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measures have been introduced to address threats and concur that “the people happen to be the
weakest link on the cyber security.” Luis shared,
We had this company come to us doing a fake phishing email with … Sixty percent of
the people click on … the attachment. … Then, we’re gonna do 3 months of training. …
We’re gonna send the exact same email. … How many people click on the attachment
this time? … Still 20%.
A systematic, ongoing training program may be the only way to counter human error. Paul
explained, “We have this plan that reinforce … least a couple of times at the at a year.” This
perspective is shared by participants as ethical hacking and special security courses were
introduced, as demonstrated in the following quotation: “All of us have to make … special
courses where you reinforce the security measures … designed to test. If you are aware of the
risk of open an unknown email it generates a culture of security.”
5G technology is present and operational on terminals and ports. Automation and IoT are
both being utilized to varying degrees. Artificial intelligence has been introduced but is not as
prevalent. With the integration of these technologies, cybersecurity measures and tools to counter
potential attacks are crucial for ensuring uninterrupted operational continuity. Technology
affords many enhancements, but a vital part of managing technology is planning to counter the
risks.
Port Community Systems
Single maritime windows and port community systems are technological and process
innovations that enhance connectivity and information-sharing within shipping communities. Ten
participants of seventeen operate in ports with a single maritime window or port community
system. There is a shared experience amongst participants regarding the creation of the single

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windows, as demonstrated by the following quotation, “It was created in recognizing that there is
data/information that we were … processing independent of one another, duplicating IT resource,
and establishing what should be standard EDI messaging with shipping lines and border
regulators.”
The port community systems did not necessarily have nationwide connectivity; public
authorities and private entities developed systems as joint ventures. Participants were involved in
the development and deployment of systems within their respective regions, ensuring compliance
with the regulatory framework of national trade laws. Andres provided an example of a process
that the system in his port has facilitated. t has alleviated congestion on the delivery side of the
port while working within existing legislation,
We show customs in this way to work. … as we, right now, at the port … work … which
is really, really something that is very unique. … We receive the trucks 11 kilometers
away from the port. … We avoid the queues at the port.
Port community systems have enhanced the information flow and clearing processes in the
sector. Neil stated regarding the single window in his port that “Given ports are an essential
service, PC had to position themselves to ensure that their uptime mirrored ours.” This form of
technology will see further expansion in the future evidenced in this quote:
This technology is imperative for ports and will continue to evolve. Customers are
stakeholders [and] are requiring more and more real-time information flow and updates to
make informed and timely decisions up and down the supply chain. PC is an extension of
the port’s IT function where the port can focus on what it needs to do to operate and
ensure that the digital and data flow is correct and timely, and PC can be the front of

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house in offering aggregation and consolidation of the information in one location for
multiple ports and the wider supply chain.
All sectors of the supply chain and government entities with access to a single window face the
challenge of adapting to change. More than just a software application, a single window drives
changes in processes and the standardization of user experiences. Prior to the introduction of port
community systems and single windows, there were shared systems, as evidenced by this
quotation:
We already operate with the same vehicle booking system for trucks to book slot times to
come into the respective terminals for picking up or dropping off containers, PC
facilitated the evaluation of options and presented a single solution … for … ports to use.
Port community systems and single windows enhance this feature by introducing more
transparency.
Single windows and port community systems have enhanced information and cargo flow
within port communities, improving operations efficiency and productivity. Feasibility studies
and plans for the deployment of single windows and related systems in compliance with
International Maritime Organization regulations are being processed in three of the countries
represented in this study. Discussions are ongoing in other countries, including one African
country, which could be considered as part of the community consultation process. It is
anticipated that this form of technology will be standard in port operations in the future.
Collaboration of all shipping entities is required in the development and deployment. The early
adopters have highlighted the benefits.

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Technology Implementation
Technology projects are prone to delays. These delays arise through incorrect
requirement definitions, scope creep, insufficient testing, training, and limited involvement in the
project by the end users. Employing best practices of project management and change
management can limit delays. Nine participants have had similar successes in introducing new
technology to their operations. The best starting point is to clarify and understand the demands of
the market and the business. Establishing the need and defining the requirements by engaging
multiple stakeholders at the outset aids in the development and implementation of systems. Felix
has implemented a standardized process at his port that takes an inclusive approach, emphasizing
careful requirement definition, comprehensive user testing, and parallel runs. One key
component is that “We start with a bigger team, and then start filtering down. … It comes from
the team. So, we believe that involving them from the beginning, we save again, by people
actually wanting rather than resisting it.”
Establishing a realistic timeline also helps to minimize the risk of failure or unreasonable
delays in a technology project. Implementing a new TOS is one of the largest projects that a port
can undertake. Miguel shared his experience in implementing a new TOS. “We took our time. …
Repair, check, test everything, and then we have the go-live. … It was … 1 year of preparation.
… We have change management.”
Benchmarking and training are vital steps in successful implementations. Benchmarking
can be comparative, assisting in the decision-making process. This, combined with training at
ports that are willing to collaborate, builds knowledge, capacity, and confidence in the
workforce—both those who are sent overseas to train and those who remain at the home port.
Training is vital, and port can reap the benefit of workers being able to have hands-on experience

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before new equipment and processes are introduced. One participant shared, “We made our
benchmarking with our port in Panama. … I send two direct reports to understand … the
procedure and the technology. … After that, everything was very, very good.” Luis confirmed
that his principals used his terminal to test new technology, and terminal operators in the region
used it for benchmarking and training. The intra-region collaboration helps lift the level of
technological acumen even among competing ports. This collaboration is supplemented by
training in other geographical regions, including Europe and the Middle East. A participant
explained the benefit and how he provided training and exposure for his team before new
automated equipment was introduced:
You need to train these guys with the RTG. … They’re going to go … to a different way
of operating. … We’re going to do this change, and we’re going to do it smoothly. And
you’re going to go to Dubai, why? Because they do it. There, you’re going to go to
Europe to this, this terminal that they have an automated, you’re gonna take a look. And
they feel empowered. They’re gonna go for training, they know that we’re investing in
them, they know that we’re helping them out to get that technology implementation and
be part of that project that will they feel part of it.
Only six participants acknowledged that emulation and simulation exercises contribute to the
success of an implementation. According to Arturo, “I think technology is everything … we use
technology to simulate what the operation will be like before the vessel comes in.” Diego
concurred, recalling exercises before a major pier expansion. It included the testing of tugboats
and vessels in a simulation facility in London, England. Emulation and simulation can form part
of a range of training programs, not only reserved for the technical aspect of an operation.

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Technology is employed in training throughout the port. Camilia underscores the importance of
training using technology,
If you use technology, the education process will be better … We have immersive
simulation. … virtual reality … digital twins to train our people. We are using all digital
ecosystems … to improve and to upskill digital capabilities that are needed.
Critical factors for successfully implementing technology at ports involve early
engagement with users and establishing clearly defined requirements based on their input.
Additionally, incorporating benchmarking, simulation, training, and testing into a realistic
delivery schedule that allows for revisions is essential.
Teaching and Learning
The ideas expressed by ten participants suggest that leaders see the benefit of a learning
organization and wish to cultivate a culture of learning within their organizations. Miguel aligned
his leadership style to that of a teacher,
My leadership style is, like, I like to teach. … When somebody comes, I have a problem.
… I don’t want them to give me the problem and hand it over … bring me a solution. …
and we work on that.
During COVID-19, ports created educational programs focused on the pandemic to meet the
community’s need for accurate and useful information. One port designed and implemented a
program that extended beyond basic pandemic information. Some programs extended beyond the
workers to stakeholders. Such programs and success point to a culture of learning. Engaging the
workforce in continuous learning boosts confidence and encourages creativity for both the
workforce and the leadership. Extending beyond the organization shows corporate commitment
and engagement and can foster support from the community, which may not be linear but could

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yield long-term results. Camilia shared, “We develop for the first time in our history, … in the
country. … We have this technology platform training eLearning platform for all the community,
and they are using them.” E-learning and peer-to-peer learning, especially in hands-on settings,
demonstrate that the responsibility to teach does not rest solely on the leader. Arturo provided an
example where new training roles have been created for experienced employees. The port
purchased a crane simulator and engaged one of their best crane operators to train others. This
action not only instilled best practices but also served as a powerful motivator for the team. He
explained, “He is teaching others how to be more productive, more efficient. … They feel that
they can grow. … You don’t feel that, oh, we have this new technology; I’m going out of here.”
One participant shared,
We’ve had to reinvent the workforce here several times … other employers would
simply, … retrench … the workforce and replace them with people that they considered
more suitable. That’s not an option for us. … We are constantly training and retraining
our people.
Luis shared that he selected four older crane drivers for training, an action that yielded
results that defied the odds:
We had a general from the Air Force. … We were showing them this project. Hey, …
how many crane drivers were you able to transition to the new position? And I said four.
They said, you know, this reminds me of a project that the Air Force had … to transition
these jet pilots to become drone pilots. … Do you know how many jet pilots the Air
Force managed to transition to become drone pilots? Zero.
A culture of continuous learning thrives within the ports, facilitated through both formal and
informal avenues. Notably, educational initiatives extend beyond internal staff to include

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stakeholders like truckers and contractors in at least one instance. This commitment to ongoing
learning adapts to evolving job demands spurred by automation and technological advancements
and creates opportunities for the emergence of new roles. A learning-centric environment
enhances skills and fosters trust, viewed as an investment in human capital.
Innovation
All participants acknowledged the importance of innovation. Yet, there were contrasting
views on innovation on the port based on experiences. Perceptions of what innovation entails
could also account for the varied opinions. One participant explained, “We have different types
of innovation. … How we can do things better. You look at innovation … to train people … help
them … put in paper and communicate their new ideas in a better way.” Nicholas declared that
his operation was “not cutting-edge;” in fact, they were slow adopters. Antonio stated that he did
not see the port as an environment for great innovation, “This is an industry that doesn’t
improvise a lot, doesn’t change a lot. We do more or less the same thing. Over and over. … You
don’t see big innovations.” In contrast, several other participants expressed complementary
perspectives on innovation and the necessity of fostering a climate of innovation. Diego
considers competition as the driving force behind innovation,
Innovation … the product of the curiosity and the competition. … you discover that the
other port is doing better than your port … this is the start of the of the decision of
innovation. How can I be better … and attract more customers.
Based on their responses, 12 participants actively support a thrust to innovation,
identifying innovation on the port and encouraging the team to think differently and innovate. It
is important to note that participants acknowledged that innovative ideas are not the purview of
leaders only, as demonstrated in this quote: “Many times, many ideas appears because the

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stevedore discover because we change the culture.” Arturo stated, “I think innovation is in our
genetics, innovation in our work. I think it’s something that it’s ongoing.” One notable initiative
is the annual contest held at a port in South America, which is open to both employees and
participants from around the world. This initiative demonstrates that leadership is intentional
about cultivating an innovative climate:
It could be something totally different that you’re not doing today that could be in terms
of infrastructure … Open innovation is that we go outside in the world saying, okay,
what’s out there that we can implement here? And it’s ideas from others. … it’s open to
the world, because literally, there’s some guys from all over the world presenting their
startup doing the pitch … This is how can I help logistics. And let’s see if … we are
going to invest or not.
Innovation is defined in various ways and is shaped by individual perceptions and context. It can
take different forms, but the common thread is change, ideally for the better. Innovative activities
and ideas are happening at the port and in the logistics industry at a measured pace. Leaders
facilitate the process of innovation, creating the environment and allowing ideas to emerge. They
also support, guide, and provide training and tools, allowing for failure and celebrating success.
Problem-Solving
Innovation on the port was based predominantly on problem-solving or to create greater
efficiency. Existing technologies were used in new ways. Diego explained that, over his career,
innovation has been critical to problem-solving. For a small port, the International Maritime
Organization regulations to weigh containers became a logistical challenge. Diego and his team
found a workaround that prevented bottlenecks and delays:

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Many people have the traditional way to measure the weight. … We discovered that at 15
hectares terminal that is poison for us. So, we start to investigate in the world. And we
discover the only technology to weigh, but in a very precise way the weight of the
containers, and we put scales in all the RTGs and the reach stacker, and when we receive
the container, at the same time you weigh the container.
Innovation and investing in new technology are capital-intensive. Whether terminal operators are
nearing the end of the concession or are privately or publicly operated, high expenditure to foster
innovation is not a simple option. Participants implemented cost-effective innovative strategies,
like the aforementioned, which would create efficiencies without negatively affecting
profitability in the short term.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2
Ports and terminals boast well-equipped ICT teams comprising highly skilled personnel
who oversee the management of acquired technology and the development of new technologies
tailored to their respective operations. Decisions concerning technology acquisition and
development are guided by the business imperative for enhanced efficiency and productivity.
However, the costs associated with acquisition and development have impeded the pace of port
automation, notwithstanding the potential efficiencies and safety enhancements. Leaders are
vested in advancing technology and fostering innovation. Contrary to the notion that technology
and innovation inevitably lead to job losses, experiences have demonstrated that job losses can
be mitigated through strategic planning aimed at enhancing the skills of workers, necessitating an
investment in human resources.

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Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 delved into the leadership styles of the participants, particularly in
navigating crises and fostering an atmosphere conducive to innovation. The central theme is
leadership, with subthemes addressing crisis, innovation, and organizational change (Table 10).
Themes also include leadership styles and attributes correlated with success in the port
environment.
Table 10
Research Question 3: Summary of Findings
Themes Subthemes Quotations
Leadership The best leader is the leader who doesn’t get into
the weeds, but similarly, isn’t set up in the
ivory tower away from it.
Crisis and change I never stopped coming to the port during [the
pandemic].
Communication I think communication and engagement is
paramount.
Resilience and
flexibility
I think it put enormous pressure on the business,
I think. It really tested the resilience of people
because, on top of your normal day job, you
also had a very, very complex.
Reflections on styles
and attributes
We would collaborate and come up with the best
solution. If there’s not a hundred percent
alignment right across various functions and
teams my teams, then I’ll make the decision,
you know. But I’ve got an open style to try
and come up with the best solution.
Cultural influences Now mana, and it’s a Māori term mana. … In
Māori, it can mean many things, but it’s
regaining your sense of integrity and power,
not power in a dominating sense, but power of
control.

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Leadership
Leadership can make the difference between an organization’s success and failure. Good
leadership is critical during crises. Leaders ought to have vision and the ability to see beyond the
crisis. Leaders do not have all the solutions but should be able to guide teams to successful
outcomes.
Crisis and Change
Crisis and change occur simultaneously. Crisis leads to organizational change in many
respects, placing demands on leadership, as reflected in the following quote: “Nobody likes to
change, right? … You have to change behavior and change policy. But then, again, if you don’t
have a problem, they don’t need someone to lead.” Leaders’ responses to crises differ. As Alex
observed, “Some of the leaders that you would think … would step up and take the lead …
probably ended up taking a backseat, and some that perhaps weren’t as visual in the organization
were able to stand up.” Crises and change are opportunities to learn and to draw on previous
experience. One participant shared, “I think you learn, and you evolve, I think over a crisis, over
the days and the weeks, as you’re working through that, I think you find, you find new ways to
work through.” All the participants supported this idea. Crisis allows leaders to excel, as
demonstrated in the following quote: “When you have changes in the situation, you need to
inspire and lead people through … So, I think that the crises let leaders shine … let leaders guide
these organizations through the difficult times.” Leading well requires open, clear, authentic
communication, mutual trust, the ability to adapt, and the willingness to take on the task. Diego
stated, “Leadership is a complex task but it’s something that is a long-term relationship to being
able to get trust from everybody from the community.” Notably, these attributes are required to
lead innovation, further enhanced by a willingness to experiment, and to fail. Excelling as a

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leader requires qualities and skills developed over time, along with a readiness to take calculated
risks when facing the uncertainties of a crisis.
Communication
Participants consistently emphasize the importance of leaders maintaining effective
communication with all stakeholders, particularly during challenging times. Communication
must be bidirectional, ensuring team members feel fully supported. As stated, “You have to be in
constant communication.” The daily meetings held at ports during COVID and the check-ins
conducted by Human Resources teams during the pandemic were two communication strategies
that fostered a sense of support. A participant shared, “I think the big support that we receive is
communication on time, and learn from somebody experienced inside the company.” This is
further supported by Camilia, “It was an open-communication methods, double way … when
someone had something to say they would tell us.” Both during and outside of crises, the goal is
to build a unified workforce. Arturo stated, “I think we did it well with the communication, and
we felt that people stayed together.” Manuel supported, “Very important to have clear
communication.”
Twice within 3 years, there was a leadership change in a port at the very top. The
participant, in comparing the experience with the previous leader to the current leader, described
the current leader’s ability as an effective communicator:
Now, [leader] was brought in to help get operational control back. … But the first action
that the union took was to issue a strike notice … that’s what also undermined a lot of the
culture and the engagement between the workforce and leadership … Now, we’ve got a
relatively new leadership … I’m very lucky to have a CEO who was not afraid to front

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some of that messaging, and he’s been very supportive to acknowledge to customers that
we haven’t delivered. But we are improving, and we will improve further.
Effective communication supported by action builds trust among the stakeholders. Thirteen
participants emphasized the necessity for clear and authentic communication in leadership. In a
unionized environment, communicating trust is vital:
Leadership style here has been about building trust. … We have had a history of
industrial tension with the … union … there’s always been this tension between the union
and the leadership around the workforce and who has operational control.
In both a unionized and non-unionized environment, providing an ongoing forum for
communication is a leadership strategy that augers well for the company. Proactive
communication helps to ensure that a void is not created. Thomas shared his opinion: “Once a
management has made a decision, they have to communicate the same properly, to the entire
workforce, you know, workforce where you’re dealing with 7000 people, communication is
key.” Alex was supportive of this opinion:
I think communication and engagement is paramount … both inside and outside the
organization, particularly in a in a port environment where you’re so critical to a broader
economy or a broader region, people, make up their own or come up with their own ideas
of what is happening. If you leave a void of communication and avoid a visible
leadership, then people will do that.
Even when communication is good, it should increase when there is a problem. Communication
should be continual, occurring both informally and within formal settings. Diego shared that for
many years he made it a point of duty to spend time meeting to talk with port workers

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informally. Neil engages informally with workers, but a more formal structure has been
introduced in the form of a thrust toward “high-performance, high engagement” (HP HE):
An example of HP HE is we have an operational improvement team. … union and
management co-lead [ing] this project team. … You’ve got subject matter experts that are
leaders of people, but also individuals who are union members, like crane drivers and
straddle drivers who are close to the problem trying to fix it. And what I’ve experienced
through this process is it takes longer to get an outcome, but it builds solid bases of
engagement.
Technologies and remote work could hinder the engagement between leaders and the workforce,
especially the new generation of leaders, resulting in a decline in productivity. One participant
was concerned about what he observed in his country,
The younger generations now discover … they can work from house, from holidays,
through the Zoom or phone, and they have less time on the operations … less time on the
yard. … We are more flexible, … but … I have the impression [that] we are losing
productivity.
There is a change in the leadership and communication styles of successive generations.
Intentionally instilling the need and how to be relational and communicative at all levels helps to
build a positive culture on terminals and throughout the industry. Henry has observed that there
is a young cadre of leaders on his port, who are technically competent but who are unclear of the
implications of what they do philosophically, ethically or socially. Henry stated, “I think it’s
absolutely important for people like me to make sure that the young people coming through are
trained the right way.”

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The participants’ actions and direct statements indicate that they view being present as part of the
communication process and fundamental to successful leadership. One participant stated, “I
think that [in the] whole vision of visible leadership, communication is really important.” His
experience has shown that
The CEO, the high level of the managers have to go to operations just to see just talk and
open the gates for discussions for learning about the people that really do the job. And I
have been present in that point.
Effective communication and team engagement yield benefits in both formal and
informal settings. Communication should be continuous, not merely emphasized during crises.
Indeed, proficient communication is akin to nurturing relationships; conversely, poor
communication yields the opposite effect. This principle is intrinsic to leadership experience -
leaders who excel in communication, both in speaking and listening, are adept at cultivating
resilient teams.
Resilience and Flexibility
All participants concur that in times of uncertainty, both during and beyond, possessing
resilience and adaptability is imperative for effective leadership. Flexibility manifests in
decision-making, engagement with internal and external stakeholders, communication, a
readiness to learn, and receptiveness to innovative ideas capable of reshaping processes and
enhancing organizational performance. Camilia observed,
It’s a cliche when you say you have to be very resilient, very flexible, but really, you
have to be very resilient and flexible because things that were planned, were impossible
to do, but other things came to the company.

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Luis concurred, stating “We need to be more nimble, … more adaptive … be able to adapt to
these situations because … the chances are they’re going to have more disruption in the system.”
With incoming generations more mature leaders are being forced to be more flexible as
evidenced by the following quote, “Being a leader. It is about, for me, it is about being flexible,
being open, and empathy, empathic, and perfectly decent … And being connected with the
people that you lead.”
The literature speaks to adaptable leadership as a means for creative problem-solving in
uncertain environments (García, 2018). In times of crisis, the challenges that surface demand
adaptive leadership, particularly concerning inclusion, communication, and the ability to
acknowledge diverse perspectives. Adaptive leadership was demonstrated through facilitating the
involvement of team members in problem-solving and the decision-making process, improved
communication and engagement, and in how leaders respond to failure. Participants observed
that adaptable leadership has extended beyond that time and is now standard in the
organizational culture. A learning organization is reflective of adaptive leadership. Nine of the
seventeen participants underscored the importance of ongoing organizational learning. A
participant stated, “The philosophy of our company … training is the key to transform whatever
you want: behaviors, processes, people, everything is possible to be transformed with training
and education.” Investing in the workforce through training can impact competitiveness. Arturo
explained,
Anybody can buy cranes, … anybody can buy a piece of land and put a business case for
port … the banks are out there putting the money. But what will make the difference is
basically the people how you train them.

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Training and a commitment to lifelong learning must be intentional Henry, a self-professed
advocate for lifelong learning, observed,
We … [are] funding … our young managers to do master’s degrees … we have to have
smart people, but part of that is … to reinforce … the need to act in an appropriate
manner, certainly the ethical thing.
Confidence and investment in the team meshed with the ability to appreciate the
environment and identify opportunities that others may not appreciate forms part of the resilience
and flexibility required to lead an organizational growth. Competition from larger operators
forces a port to either adapt and thrive or risk failure. One participant experienced this firsthand,
and it was the leadership’s and team’s commitment to seeking opportunities and solutions that
ultimately ensured the company’s sustainability, growth, and recognition as one of the best
places to work in the region. He shared, “We decided to be the positive guy saying, … let’s take
the opportunities for growth, … internationally and within our own country. … There’s no
reason why we cannot keep growing.”
Being willing to acknowledge weaknesses and failures and being vulnerable, open, and
working to change after failure shows strength in leadership, as demonstrated by this quote,
It’s given me a lot more character and resilience … I’m … very grateful for the business
supporting me with professional coaching … helping me to … peel the layers of the
onion away as to why my immediate reaction … has been … defensive.
The level and type of support provided by leadership when peers or the workforce face a failed
project can significantly affect their emotional, mental, and physical well-being, for better or
worse.

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Flexibility is required in the face of change in the demands of the market and operation
during the pandemic. Neil. shared, “I needed to make sure that I was very flexible in terms of
messaging out to the business.” Flexibility extends to many facets of the organization and can be
tied to how relationships are managed within the workplace. Arturo stated, “I think, I changed in
terms of flexibility, the timing, nowadays, I’m here, and I don’t care that people are in the office
… Just get your work in.”
Leaders with experience outside of the port sector have entered the industry and function
effectively, creating change. Entering a new industry requires a willingness to learn. Six
participants and a portion of Neil’s executive team entered the port industry without specific port
operations knowledge or experience. The benefit of different perspectives and experiences serves
well in strengthening leadership and building an organizational culture and climate of
innovation.
Self-Reflection on Styles and Approaches
Participants were reflective regarding their own leadership styles, acknowledging their
weaknesses and vulnerabilities and how they grew as leaders during crisis. One participant who
had been part of the team leading a failed exercise shared, “I was struggling. … Taking a lot of
this on board personally, feeling that it was actually my own integrity at question.” Failure can
serve as the foundation for future success. When leaders adopt a reflective approach and the
organization is willing to offer coaching support, the likelihood of the leader and team emerging
stronger increases.
Communication was identified as important to all participants. Communication with
direct reports and peers is crucial, as it allows leaders to gather diverse thoughts and perspectives
to aid in decision-making. However, the effectiveness and openness of communication depend

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on pre-established relationships. Marco shared, “I’m the type of leader that listens … before I
take a decision, … so I can get a better solution for the work.”
While this collaborative communication style extends to the administrative levels and
external stakeholders, it does not necessarily extend to the stevedores, and other operational staff.
According to one of the participants, “I think stevedores at the operational level are still a bit like
my way or highway.” Participants admitted that they can be hard taskmasters, as evidenced in the
following quote,
I’m all about efficiencies. When I talk to my people, it is about delivery. I’m as tough
with people as I am with myself. I have a principle, I don’t ask you to do anything that I
don’t know, I cannot do.
Overall, there has been a softening over time in how leaders relate to the workforce,
including those who are considered the lower-level staff. Henry stated, “This is a place where
you get the best out of people by encouraging them to work with you rather than demanding that
they work with you. … Quite empathetic.”
Nevertheless, default attributes are hard to change, and post-crisis former attributes can
resurface. Self-reflection and intentional action are required. Ana found that she was forced to
delegate more during COVID-19, and this was a change in her personal leadership style.
However, post-COVID, she has found that she has pivoted. She shared,
It was difficult for me to delegate … in [the] pandemic, you didn’t have any option. You
couldn’t just control everything. You just had to trust in the people that you had there that
they were making the right choices. … Post-COVID, you cannot delegate as much
because people, even you, tend to be in a comfort zone … you always have to question
the people that work for you … I tend now to trust more in indicators and reports. I think

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that if you have the correct system and you can get data from there, you can make better
decisions from analyzing data instead of being in the operation itself.
Further reflection by the participants confirmed that communication and staff engagement is a
theme that permeates their experiences of leadership. The COVID influenced how the leaders
related to and communicated with team members. Some admitted to still being hard taskmasters
who struggle with delegating, which could indicate a lack of trust in their staff. Notably, leaders
acknowledged their vulnerabilities, which contributed to improving relationships with inner and
external stakeholders.
Cultural Influences
Cultural influences can shape leadership approaches. Particularly noteworthy is the
concerted effort within Oceania terminals to integrate programs rooted in Indigenous culture.
These initiatives align with the workforce profile, which is predominantly of Pacific Island
origin. One program focuses on catalyzing organizational culture change, and simultaneously, a
second initiative aims at reinstating core values and returning to fundamental principles. Neil.
explained that the essence of the initiative:
Leadership development, succession planning, … the engagement, and the safety and
well-being of our people. … We’re not going to lift operational performance and sacrifice
safety. … We want you to get back to basics and see gradual, ongoing improvement. …
Don’t cut corners.
Ten of the 17 participants expressed the importance of ethical leadership. Leaders may
treat workers harshly or take less obvious actions, such as neglecting to invest in training,
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The concept and concern to lead ethically surfaced in a range of the responses given by
participants. Henry stated,
My own personal ethos and then the ethical code I try and live by … care for people …
I’d rather be seen as quite paternalistic. … You treat them the way you expect to be
treated. I think they are good attributes of a manager in any business.
Participants were concerned that leaders ought to be ethically strong. The following quote is an
example of that concern,
I’m very interested in business ethics and the way people conduct themselves … I think
one thing that’s really important, … in all industries, … particularly important in this one
is to be ethically strong, … if you tell lies, or what have you, you have a very short
career.
Ethical decisions and actions are seen as fundamental to good leadership, as they play a key role
in shaping an organization’s culture.
The self-described leadership styles encompassed a blend of paternalism, mentorship, and
ethical considerations. One participant shared, “My leadership is … find the right people for the
right position. That’s where I put my most effort. If I get that right. Everything else goes
automatic … If there are broke people, try to teach them.” There was an emphasis on caring for
the workforce, making the right choices, and being truthful in interactions with internal and
external stakeholders. Even at the level of a participant employed to a port authority stated
concerning the concessionaires,
We have to observe, … help … support … and understand them and be aware about the
conditions that we can support … to change in order to achieve the goals to operate with
safety and take care about the people.

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Ten participants provided examples of interactions that demonstrated this style.
There was also mentoring that promoted learning from experience and intentionally
passing on knowledge: training, teaching, and empowering subordinates. One participant stated,
“We need to come back to mentoring we have lost that part, and maybe because we think that all
these young guys know everything.” Miguel shared,
I’ve been here for 18 years, so I’ve seen many things. I have two more managers that are
as old in the company as me, but everybody else is younger, and they maybe haven’t
learned about the crisis, so there my role as a leader would say, give them the confidence
that okay, don’t worry. … We have had this similar but different. … I mean to teach
them. … but it’s like also teaching them very fast what is needed, but also lots of talking
and anecdotes. … Teach them outside of the crisis. So, they get to know and trust you.
These styles of leadership were not unique to one culture. Instead, there was recognition that the
upcoming leaders needed to be equipped with soft leadership skills. Those who have led realize
they will not hold the same leadership position in perpetuity. This hopefully leads to ethical
interactions that may or may not be formal, but which instill culture, reinforce company values,
and build mutual trust.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 delved into the leadership styles and attributes of executives.
Participants had the opportunity to reflect on their leadership styles and how these had evolved.
They also made observations about their peers’ leadership styles. It was unanimously agreed
among the leaders that swift action and decisive decisions are imperative during crises. They
emphasized the necessity of collaborative planning, signaling a departure from the traditional
top-down approach to planning and decision-making, which is now deemed almost obsolete.

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Culture has also influenced the move away from top-down leadership. While the ideal scenario
involves data analysis before decision-making, they acknowledged that during crises, decisions
often have to be made amid high uncertainty. Building a greater level of trust between leaders
and their teams, alongside effective delegation, was recognized as vital. Trust is cultivated over
time and is underpinned by an ethical leadership approach and robust communication practices.
Conclusion
The interviews provided a platform for participants to navigate their experiences during
crises, prompting reflections on personal and organizational transformations. The majority
acknowledged substantial changes, even if some believed their leadership style remained
consistent, noting deeper connections formed with others. This level of introspection likely
hadn’t been accessible before, fostering newfound self-awareness.
Moreover, the interviews underscored the critical role of technology in facilitating
operational continuity amid unparalleled uncertainty characterized by illness, loss, and isolation.
Executives expressed a commitment to technological advancement, aiming for heightened
productivity and efficiency while ensuring workforce well-being remains paramount.
A notable shift toward prioritizing team welfare emerged, even in organizations already
valuing their employees. This humanization of organizations led to increased recognition and
engagement with staff, fostering environments conducive to learning, experimentation, and
incremental innovation.
The richness of the results and findings now allow for a transition to Chapter 5, which
presents recommendations on leadership and fostering a climate for technological innovation on
small and medium ports and terminals.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
This research aimed to explore the leadership styles and attributes of C-level executives
in ports and terminals in the Global South and Oceania and establish how technological
innovation was used in a time of crisis, specifically the COVID-19 pandemic. The research
highlights the need for adaptability in addressing future challenges, such as those posed by
pandemics and geopolitical threats. For the Global South and Oceania, these crises are not ones
they create but situations to which they must respond with agility. The purpose of this research
was to provide leaders, particularly in developing countries and emerging economies, with
guidance on effectively approaching and preparing for crises, which are expected to increase in
frequency. The research aimed to help leaders learn how to navigate crises, engage their people,
and maintain productivity while running sustainable operations using technology. This is
especially critical in the context of emerging economies, where effective crisis management can
contribute to national progress, poverty eradication, and the overall well-being and prosperity of
the population.
The research found that predominant leadership styles were ethical, paternalistic, and
adaptive. The concern for team welfare while maintaining operations was the participants’
primary concern during times of crisis. The decisions taken before the pandemic to deploy and
utilize innovative technology enabled ports and terminals to operate continuously throughout the
pandemic. Additionally, selected technologies were adopted during the pandemic, and innovative
projects that supported remote work, enhanced communication, aided team welfare efforts and
facilitated operations. Interestingly, there were mixed opinions regarding the capacity for and
level of innovation on ports and terminals, yet participants gave several examples of how
technology was adapted for use, improving productivity. The results on company performance

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were mixed; however, most ports reported economic growth despite the disruption and the
unforeseen expenses required.
The conceptual framework designed to guide the study outlines interrelated elements that
influence company performance. The environment, specifically crises, exerts influence on both
leadership and the organization’s culture and climate, which influences the level of innovation in
the organization and the company’s performance. The impact of each element is reciprocal. The
conceptual framework was used to develop the following research questions.
Research Questions
1. How has the leadership of ports and terminals employed technology in response to
Crises, especially the COVID-19 pandemic
2. What are the impacts and benefits of an innovative port operation?
• How are the benefits of technological innovation related to company
performance?
• What are the challenges in establishing a culture of innovation?
• What are the challenges in introducing new technologies in port operations?
3. What types of leadership styles are demonstrated by C-suite executives, and which
attributes favor a climate of technological innovation and change in a time of
unprecedented crisis?
Findings and Actionable Recommendations
This chapter will explore the research findings in alignment with the research questions.
The discussion will include citations from the literature which support the findings. I will then
provide practical recommendations and examine key considerations. Additionally,

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recommendations for implementation will be presented and framed by the Burke-Litwin
organizational change model (Burke & Litwin, 1992)
Discussion of Findings
The study’s major findings center around five themes: leadership, technological
innovation, organizational change, proactive and transparent communication, and employee
engagement and involvement. A discussion of the findings with an emphasis on selected
subthemes is useful to set the foundation for recommendations.
Leadership
Leadership emerged as a major theme in the findings from the research. The participants
displayed multiple leadership styles and attributes, including empathetic, adaptable, and ethical
traits. Leaders who maintained a heightened, visible presence, succeeded at effective crisis
management, and mentored upcoming leaders while cultivating a climate of innovation in their
respective organizations. These qualities and strategies enabled them to navigate unprecedented
challenges, support their teams, and ensure operational resilience and sustainability. As the
global landscape and environment become more dynamic with the possibility of overlapping
crises, these attitudes and approaches will be required for effective leadership, underpinned by
traditional leadership styles like transformational leadership.
Ethical, Empathetic, and Adaptable Leadership
Ethical, empathetic, and adaptable leadership styles were prevalent among the C-level
executives of ports and terminals in this study. They experienced a measure of personal
transformation during COVID-19 and other crises, as expressed: “It is … about being flexible,
being open … and empathy, empathic and perfectly decent.” They consistently acknowledged
the importance of human connections, cohesion, and communication (Cooper & Kramers-Olen,

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2021; Dirani et al., 2020). Under their leadership, organizations became more humane, with
greater care for the workers, including their emotional well-being (Masood & Budworth, 2021).
The participants did not employ just one leadership style, a finding that is in keeping with the
literature (Lui et al., 2003; Masood & Budworth, 2021).
Non-Western Leadership Attributes and Styles
In non-Western theories globally, ethical leadership is a recurring principle (Tenuto &
Gardiner, 2018). There is an expectation from followers and stakeholders that the leader will act
fairly and ethically. Of note, participants spoke directly of ethical conduct, which could be a
pushback against the perceived environment of corruption in some countries of the Global South,
as Kieh (2023) noted in earlier work. The pandemic required leaders to show greater empathy
and support for their teams, focusing on their well-being and safety. These dimensions of
leadership hint at a paternalistic leadership style. For example, one participant in the current
study stated, “I’d rather be seen as quite paternalistic. … I love this business. … I’ve got a very
… strong expectation that others will love the business as well.” This is not unusual in nonWestern countries and may be generalized across countries outside of North America and
Western Europe (Cheng & Wang, 2015; Pellegrini et al., 2010). Paternalistic leadership
incorporates elements of empathetic and ethical attributes, displayed by the level of care for the
worker, which transcends the workplace and extends to the worker’s personal life (Pellegrini et
al., 2008; Sposato, 2019). This extension of care was demonstrated during the COVID-19
pandemic. Leaders demonstrated empathy and support, focusing on the well-being of employees,
which increases follower performance (Kock et al., 2019). This finding may indicate a cultural
shift or a heightening of a non-Western traditional leadership style. Ethical, empathetic, adaptive

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leadership helped maintain morale, fostered a sense of solidarity within the workforce, and
facilitated agility within organizations.
Visible and Supportive Presence
The research found that leaders exhibited heightened visibility during a crisis (Helsloot &
Groenendaal 2017; Pounder, 2022). Leaders who were present alongside the team, displaying
visible leadership, demonstrated a key attribute. “I think that whole vision of visible leadership,
… is really important.” Their physical presence showed commitment and endurance, inspiring
confidence and unity among their teams. This approach was essential for maintaining team
morale and operational continuity. Not all individuals who were expected to lead from the front
did so. Those who did focused on supporting their teams by ensuring they had the necessary
resources and enforcing and educating the workforce on health protocols. New leaders emerged,
possibly from the middle ranks. During crises, leaders should be visible and accessible. This
helps build trust and confidence among employees. This approach reflected the cultural value of
leading by example and being present during challenging times. According to Ciulla (2010),
when a leader is physically present during or after a crisis, it signals moral solidarity,
commitment, and concern.
Succession Planning and Mentorship
In engaging the team, effective leadership requires a focus on succession planning and
mentorship to ensure continuity and expertise transfer within the organization (Cikaliuk et al.,
2020; Wainright et al., 2021). This involved identifying and nurturing future leaders who could
take on critical roles during crises and normal operations. Leaders emphasized mentoring and
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capabilities. “We need to come back to mentoring.” This was crucial for preparing the next
generation of leaders in the organization and the wider industry.
Effective Crisis Management
Effective crisis management requires a balance between strong leadership and competent
management (Kapucu & Ustun, 2018). Leaders needed to inspire and guide their teams through
uncertainty while ensuring stable execution of operations (Rameshan, 2021). Participants
emphasized predefined crisis management plans and delegating responsibilities effectively. This
approach ensured everyone knew their roles and could respond swiftly to crises. There were both
preexisting plans based on crisis experiences such as natural disasters or social unrest and plans
established in the initial stages of the pandemic, “You gain experience, … so when you get a
new crisis, … you already map everything out.” Effective leaders delegate, allowing workers to
take responsibility and act following the agreed approach. Successful crisis management relies
on adapting quickly to new circumstances and maintaining clear, transparent communication
with all stakeholders. This helped manage expectations, navigate through disruptions, and
empower workers at a time when everyone’s contribution was crucial in achieving positive
outcomes.
Leadership and Innovation
Effective, visionary, and proactive leadership is crucial in driving innovation (Gilley et
al., 2011). Research and literature indicate that leaders who exhibit transformational leadership
qualities, such as actively communicating the advantages of new technologies and engaging
employees in the innovation process, were more effective in implementing changes (Gilley et al.,
2011; Wipulanusat et al., 2020). Technological innovation was often part of a long-term strategic
vision aimed at enhancing resilience and ensuring the sustainable growth of port operations,

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However, innovation also served as a tool for problem-solving. Participants recognized that
effective leadership involves creating a conducive environment where management and workers
collaborate and cross-functional teams are formed and encouraged to tackle immediate
challenges with creative solutions. The research uncovered examples of how team effort resulted
in problem-solving using equipment in new ways and improving customer delivery.
Technological Innovation
Findings on technological innovation in ports, terminals, and the wider shipping industry
during the COVID-19 pandemic and other crises highlight the need for technological readiness,
including digital self-efficacy, before crises in fostering workforce agility during crises (Durst et
al., 2023). Leaders were instrumental in driving technological innovation, even under operational
constraints. They emphasized continuous learning, adaptation, and staying competitive by
leveraging new technologies and best practices. There were elements of rapid technology
adoption, with a focus on safety and efficiency, increased cybersecurity awareness, customized
technological solutions, and continuous learning and adaptation. These technological
advancements enabled ports to maintain operational resilience, improve efficiency, and enhance
safety during unprecedented challenges. The literature shows that full or partial automation of
port operations resulted in higher productivity during the COVID-19 pandemic (Kim et al.,
2022). Participants repeatedly acknowledged the importance of technology. Technological
advancements will determine port performance in the future.
Technological Innovation and Automation
Ports and terminals have been adopting automation and AI technologies to optimize
operations, improve efficiency, and reduce the need for manual intervention “We’re trying to try
to innovate and use … more technology in the business … to eliminate a lot of … manual

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transaction.” During the pandemic, there were a limited number of major automation projects. A
participant reported the failure of an automation project on a medium-sized port during the
COVID-19 pandemic. Introducing major technologies requires extensive training, substantial
resources, targeted, proactive, inclusive communication, and high-level buy-in from
stakeholders. Terminals have used specific locations as pilot sites and conducted emulations and
simulations in the implementation process. This approach allowed them to test innovations in a
controlled environment before wider implementation, helping to mitigate risks and ensure
effectiveness. The demand of a crisis dilutes dedicated attention and resources required for pilot
projects and successful implementations. Furthermore, implementing new technologies is often
met with resistance from the workforce, particularly from unions. Therefore, clear proactive
communication, collaboration, and gradual implementation are essential to minimize resistance
and ensure smooth transitions.
Technological Integration
Technological integration, customized solutions, and a focus on safety and efficiency are
critical dimensions of port and terminal operations and management. Despite challenges, the
maritime industry showed remarkable adaptability and commitment to continuous learning and
sustainability. The research supports the literature that greater technological innovation,
including automation and port digitalization, forms an important dimension in considering the
future development of ports and terminals (Park et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2022). Effective
leadership and strategic vision were key drivers in successfully navigating the complexities of
technological innovation during the COVID-19 pandemic and other crises. These innovations
ensured operational resilience and positioned the industry for future growth and competitiveness.

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Adoption of Technology
The pandemic accelerated the adoption of technology in the port and shipping industry.
Previously underutilized technologies, such as remote work tools and digital communication
platforms, became essential for maintaining operations during lockdowns and travel restrictions.
The crisis necessitated a shift toward remote work and communication technologies. The
industry successfully adapted to remote communication tools like Zoom, maintaining operational
efficiency and safety despite being a traditionally hands-on, face-to-face industry.
Customized Technological Solutions and Continuous Learning
Ports often employ customized operational systems to meet specific needs, tailoring
technological solutions to their specific needs and involving local personnel in adapting and
maintaining these systems (Kia et al., 2000). This approach ensured that technological changes
were effective and sustainable. Knowledge transfer and enhancement are crucial as they uncover
previously untapped capacities and highlight gaps that must be addressed. This information is
fundamental in planning technology strategies. For example, over 70% of the ports in the study
used a TOS solution. Local engineers provide the system with day-to-day support. The vendor
collaborates with local engineers to update and upgrade systems. One of the African ports in the
study uses a customized TOS adapted from a South Korean model, which involves training local
personnel for operation and maintenance, ensuring self-sufficiency and tailored solutions. This
has led to knowledge transfer and the upskilling of the workforce. Port invested in training
programs to ensure that their workforce was equipped to manage new technologies and
innovations effectively. Involving employees in the change process and providing extensive
training on modern technologies and protocols were key to successful implementation. This
direct approach ensured that employees felt prepared and supported. Emphasis was placed on

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continuous learning and adaptation. Ports engaged in continuous learning and adaptation by
exposing their teams to modern technologies and best practices from other ports through formal
and informal initiatives. This helps foster acceptance of new technologies, facilitate innovative
thought, and maintain competitiveness in the industry.
Safety, Security, and Efficiency
Technology is seen to enhance safety, security, and efficiency (Pavlić Skender et al.,
2022; Postolache et al., 2019; Sternberg, 2012). Innovations aimed at improving workplace
safety were critical during the pandemic. Examples include the use of infrared cameras for
temperature screening and systems for fast container turnaround times. Operational efficiency
was essential as major ports continued to operate uninterrupted throughout the pandemic and
other crises. The research showed that the need to improve operational efficiency forced
technological advancements. Innovations streamlined processes, reduced costs, and enhanced
overall service delivery. Decisions on the way forward regarding the use of technology ought to
consider the COVID-19 experience, as preexisting technologies were fundamental to continued
operation, preventing the collapse of the global supply chain.
Organizational Change
Adaptability, effective leadership, consistent, proactive clear communication, technology,
and a human-centric focus are essential aspects of organizational change at any juncture. Ports,
Terminals, and wider industry’s ability to quickly implement structured change management
strategies and embrace continuous improvement ensured resilience and operational continuity
during the COVID-19 pandemic and other crises. Effective stakeholder collaboration and a focus
on people and safety were essential in navigating the complexities of organizational change and
positioning the industry for future growth and sustainability.

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Adaptability and Resilience
The industry demonstrated remarkable adaptability during the pandemic. Ports quickly
implemented new safety measures, adjusted operational protocols, and adopted remote work
where possible to maintain continuity. This adaptability was crucial in navigating the
unprecedented challenges posed by the pandemic, “The whole system around the port of truckers
and government offices and shipping lines, shipping agents, cargo agents, our own employees
have had to adapt to this new reality.” Despite the global crisis, ports continued operations,
displaying their inherent resilience (Notteboom et al., 2021). This resilience was attributed to the
historical importance of maritime trade and the industry’s ability to adapt to changing
circumstances quickly. During a crisis, change can be sustained and rapid; nonetheless, efficient
change management strategies are still required.
Change Management Strategies
Effective change management involves team engagement, clear objectives, realistic
timelines, thorough planning, testing, and phased implementation of new technologies and
processes (Maali et al., 2020). Identifying a champion to lead the process and following a
structured approach helped mitigate risks and ensured a smooth transition. This was not
necessarily an option during a crisis. There is, therefore, a greater element of risk from the
perspective of leadership and a higher requirement from leaders to trust the judgment and
abilities of the team. Involving employees in the change process and providing training are
important to successful organizational change. This involvement helped build trust and
acceptance of new technologies and practices. Successful technological and organizational
changes are driven by proactive communication and workforce involvement (R. Sharma &

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Sahoo, 2014). Transparency and honesty in communication are essential to build trust, minimize
resistance, and respond to unexpected changes caused by environmental factors.
Crisis Management and Operational Resilience
The pandemic also highlighted the need for crisis management and operational resilience.
Ports implemented rigorous safety measures early on and adapted quickly to new circumstances.
This included technological upgrades for operational efficiency and safety enhancements. The
ability to stabilize operations, manage workforce dynamics, and collaborate with stakeholders
was critical. Relying on past experiences through documentation and analysis and creating and
assessing a range of scenarios prepares the leaders, managers, and workforce for future crises.
This helps to build resistance within the organization.
Proactive and Transparent Communication
Efficient and effective communication in the port and shipping industry is essential for
managing organizational change, whether planned or unplanned. Proactive, transparent, and
empathetic communication from leadership, effective stakeholder collaboration, and the strategic
use of technology are essential in ensuring operational continuity and building trust. Ensuring the
well-being of employees and maintaining open communication channels were prioritized to
support and protect the workforce. Transparency and honesty in communication were key to
building trust with employees, stakeholders, and the community.
Internal and External Communication Strategies.
Communication strategies focused on involvement, training, and safety contributed to
successfully navigating the complexities of the pandemic and other crises. Leaders who
communicate openly and honestly can foster a supportive and cooperative environment.
Consistent and transparent dissemination of information to all employees, including updates on

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safety measures, operational changes, and company policies, is essential to maintain trust and
confidence. Leaders who communicated with empathy and provided support to their teams were
able to inspire and motivate their workforce. This approach was particularly important during
crises, where uncertainty and fear were prevalent.
Engaging stakeholders early in the process of implementing changes is crucial, whether
in a crisis or in implementing change. Clear communication about the reasons for changes, the
expected impacts, and the benefits helped manage expectations and reduce resistance. Engaging
with employees, unions, and other stakeholders early in the process helped manage expectations
and minimize resistance, “I think communication and engagement is paramount. And that’s both
inside and outside the organization.” Proactive communication is essential when introducing new
technologies or organizational changes. Leaders needed to inform employees about potential
impacts well in advance and encourage open dialogue to gain buy-in and minimize resistance.
Effective leadership communication involves issuing directives and listening to and addressing
employees’ concerns. Leaders who communicate measured and well-thought-out responses in the
dialogue with workers help maintain stability and confidence.
Collaboration and communication with government authorities and regulatory bodies
were crucial in implementing new safety protocols and operational changes. Regular updates and
dialogues helped ensure compliance and facilitated smoother operations. Engaging with industry
peers and local communities helped share best practices, gather support, and navigate challenges
collectively. Leaders needed to engage effectively with a wide range of stakeholders, including
government bodies, shipping lines, and local communities. This engagement was crucial for
managing expectations, securing support, and ensuring operational continuity. This collaborative

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communication was key to maintaining operational continuity and addressing community
concerns during the pandemic.
Employee Engagement and Involvement
Findings on the workforce of the port and shipping industry highlight the resilience,
adaptability, and commitment of employees during the COVID-19 pandemic and other crises.
Ensuring health and safety, providing training and development, engaging employees in change
processes, and demonstrating empathetic leadership were crucial strategies in managing and
supporting the workforce (Li et al., 2021). These findings underscore the critical role of the
workforce in sustaining operations and navigating unprecedented challenges in the maritime
industry (Schneider et al., 2018).
Communication and Employee Engagement
Actively involving employees in implementing technological or procedural changes
helped manage resistance and fostered a sense of ownership. Transparent communication and
early engagement were key strategies to navigate crises and serve as tools to facilitate
organizational change. Leaders must show curiosity, actively listen to employees, and encourage
collaboration (Benjamin & Chung, 2023). Maintaining open communication channels and
regularly seeking employee feedback ensured that there was an opportunity for concerns to be
addressed promptly. This approach helped build trust and improve overall workforce morale in
ports during the pandemic. Leaders demonstrated empathy and support, focusing on the
emotional well-being of employees. This included providing resources for mental health support
and maintaining a visible leadership presence to inspire confidence.

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Workforce Resilience and Adaptability
The workforce had to navigate various uncertainties, from the initial disbelief about the
severity of COVID-19 to ongoing operational disruptions. Adapting to these uncertainties
required flexibility, and workers adapted to new safety protocols and operational changes to
ensure minimal disruption to global supply chains. Ensuring the safety and well-being of
employees was a primary concern. Ports implemented rigorous safety measures early on,
including sanitization, masks, social distancing, and temperature screenings to protect workers
and maintain operations. Securing necessary resources such as vaccines and providing health
support were critical in managing the workforce during the pandemic. Regular health updates
and communication about safety protocols helped maintain worker confidence and morale. The
pandemic caused staff shortages due to health concerns and restrictions, impacting day-to-day
operations. Ports adjusted staffing levels and operational processes to manage these challenges
effectively.
Continuous Improvement and Learning
Benjamin and Chung (2023) stated that leaders who show an authentic interest in team
members can successfully promote a culture of continuous improvement by building on team
engagement. Continuous improvement augers well for the organization. Participants emphasized
learning from past crisis experiences, “We were in a very, very tough situation … so we say, we
have lots of learning here, we cannot waste them.” Encouraging teams to learn from past
experiences and refine strategies strengthens the organization’s capacity to adapt to evolving
challenges. This included benchmarking and conducting regular crisis simulations to improve
response strategies and resilience (Lalkaka, 2002). Structured training and development plans

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that allow for upskilling of the team and encourage risk-taking and adaptability are strategies that
complement benchmarking and simulations.
Recommendations for Practice
Based on the study, I identified seven main recommendations for practice. These
recommendations can be implemented individually or collectively, with certain elements
complementing each other to strengthen the organization in the short term. As the literature
indicates, a sustained organizational change could take up to 7 years, and elements including
fairness and trust in implementing the change initiative are essential for success (Kotter, 2017;
Peus et al., 2009). Kotter (2017) stated that underestimating resistance to change and not creating
a great sense of urgency and an inclusive team of champions for change, plus crafting plans
without a clear vision, under-communicating the vision, not planning for short-term wins, and
declaring success and victory too soon are reasons change initiatives fail. At year 5 in the change
process, the greatest achievements are made, and these must be sustained over at least 2 more
years for sustained change. Therefore, it is crucial to consider these pitfalls and consistently
establish and communicate a clear vision throughout the organization; incorporating succession
planning for leaders is essential to mitigate disruptions during leadership transitions.
Recommendation 1: Develop and Implement a Comprehensive Strategy to Enhance
Ethical, Empathetic, Adaptive Leadership and Transformational Management Capabilities
Leadership development is essential in shaping organizational culture and ensuring longterm success amid industry and environmental crises. Leaders are expected to help their
followers perform by overcoming fear and limitations, which are ever present but even more so
during crises (Dirani et al., 2020). The study allowed the participants to reflect on their
leadership styles and the attributes they saw displayed by their colleagues. As a result of the

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crisis, the participants evolved as leaders. Ethical, empathetic, and adaptive leadership emerged
as one of the main themes in the findings of this research. According to the literature, these are
attributes of traditional non-Western leadership styles, especially in cultures where the collective
is valued above the individual.
Dirani et al., 2020 proposed that leaders must be visionary and purposeful during crises,
share responsibility by engaging the team, communicate in a timely, authentic manner, provide
technological resources, prioritize team welfare, secure the company’s financial health, and
preserve the organization. The research showed that ethical, empathetic, and adaptable leadership
traits augured well for the organization’s leaders as they fulfilled their leadership roles during the
COVID-19 pandemic. These attributes must be sustained in mature leaders and cultivated in new
leaders. Without training, mentoring, and coaching, leaders can return to their comfort zone,
which will not necessarily include these attributes. These attributes are closely related to
transformational leadership, which can create an adaptive culture and strengthen an
organization’s resilience (Madi Odeh et al., 2023). An intentional, comprehensive strategy is
required to enhance leadership and management capacity, incorporating these attributes and
capabilities in creating organizational change.
Recommendation 2: Foster Adaptability, Resilience, and Sustainability in Practice
Fostering adaptability, resilience, and sustainability helps an organization to thrive in a
dynamic environment, manage risks effectively, engage employees, and maintain a competitive
advantage (Ciasullo et al., 2024; Holbeche, 2019; Miceli et al., 2021). Adaptability allows an
organization to pivot quickly in response to changes, ensuring they stay relevant and competitive.
Adaptable organizations are agile and can better innovate and improve their products and
services, enhancing customer satisfaction and increasing market share (Holbeche, 2019).

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Cultivating resilience strengthens the ability to recover from setbacks, disruptions, or crises,
ensuring that the organization can maintain operations and continue to grow despite challenges.
Resilient organizations can maintain high performance even during tough times, avoiding
significant losses and quickly bouncing back. Building a sustainable organization ensures longterm viability as resources are used efficiently and responsibly.
The research showed that the leaders of ports and terminals were required to respond to
unimaginable environmental changes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Organizations will
continue to face constant changes as crises multiply and overlap. In 2022 and early 2023, the war
in Ukraine was considered a global crisis that was affecting supplies of oil and grain. Before the
end of 2023, there was heightened conflict in other parts of the globe, resulting in supply chain
disruptions. For example, vessels were attacked in trade lanes feeding the Suez Canal; as a result,
global shipping lines rerouted vessels around the horn of Africa, adding additional time and costs
and delays to cargo (Uren, 2024). Adaptability, resilience, and sustainability help improve
company performance, spark innovation, mitigate risk, and enhance employee engagement and
retention, all in the face of concatenated crises (Corrales-Estrada et al., 2021).
Recommendation 3: Promote Innovation and Technology Adoption
Promoting innovation and technological adoption is critical for maintaining a competitive
edge, enhancing efficiency and productivity, futureproofing the organization, driving growth and
revenue, and enhancing decision-making. There is a perception that ports and terminals lag other
industries in the areas of innovation and technological innovation (Vanelslander et al., 2019). Yet,
the COVID-19 experience has shown that technology decisions taken prior to the pandemic
determined ports’ productivity during the pandemic. This included automation and
communication systems. The maritime industry is moving to implement Industry 4.0

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technologies, and ports, as a major hub in the industry, need to implement complementary
technologies to maintain a competitive advantage (Henríquez et al., 2022). Utilizing advanced
technologies and automation in ports and terminals can enhance operational efficiency and
resilience and significantly boost productivity by reducing manual tasks, minimizing errors, and
optimizing workflows. Using AI-driven predictive maintenance, real-time monitoring systems,
and automated logistics solutions can reduce downtime and improve responsiveness to
disruption.
A culture of innovation ensures that the organization is constantly evolving and adapting
to changes in the market, reducing the risk of obsolescence. It helps the organization stay
relevant and prepared for future challenges. Keeping pace with technological advancements
ensures that the organization is not left behind in a rapidly changing landscape. It also enables
the organization to leverage new opportunities that arise from technological progress. Employing
change management strategies with a well-researched, suitable, and resourced technology plan
can increase port operations’ efficiency, productivity, resilience, and sustainability.
Recommendation 4: Practice Proactive Communication and Transparency Consistently
Practicing proactive communication and transparency consistently within an organization
is essential for building trust and credibility, enhancing employee engagement and morale,
managing crises effectively, improving stakeholder relationships, and strengthening
organizational culture. Proactive communication nurtures a positive, resilient, and successful
organizational environment.
Transparent communication fosters trust between the organization and its stakeholders.
When stakeholders are engaged and informed early in any process, they feel they are kept
informed and not in the dark, and their trust in the organization grows. Proactive, authentic, and

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open communication enhances the organization’s credibility; stakeholders are more likely to
believe and support the organization’s decisions and actions. Proactive communication
encourages a two-way dialogue, allowing for valuable input and feedback from various
stakeholders. This can lead to better ideas and solutions being implemented. Communicating
well amid a crisis or simply communicating bad news is a leadership skill that strengthens
employee and stakeholder engagement. Crafting a plan incorporating multiple communication
channels and engaging all stakeholders is important as ports embark on technology upgrades.
In times of crisis or change, proactive communication is crucial (Hinsberg & Lamanna,
2024; Murray & Marvin, 2024). Being transparent about the situation and the steps being taken
to address it can prevent panic, misinformation, and loss of trust. Consistent transparency helps
the organization navigate challenges more effectively, as stakeholders are more likely to support
and cooperate with the organization’s efforts when they are fully informed. Employees and
managers can make better-informed decisions when they have access to accurate and timely
information. This leads to improved operational efficiency and strategic planning. A culture of
transparency and open communication promotes collaboration, innovation, and a sense of
community within the organization. It creates an environment where employees feel safe to share
ideas and voice concerns. Transparent communication aligns everyone in the organization with
its mission, values, and objectives (Köhler & Zerfass, 2019). Corporate strategies are most
effective when stakeholders clearly understand them. This is crucial for achieving long-term
success, maintaining a unified direction, and implementing change.
Recommendation 5: Facilitate Workforce Engagement and Emotional Support
The welfare of the workforce should be a priority in an organization. This is expressed by
leadership and documented in vision statements but is not necessarily exercised as decisions are

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made based on the true priorities of an organization. An organization’s greatest asset is an
engaged workforce that trusts leadership and has open communication. Workforce engagement
helps build a positive organizational culture characterized by teamwork, respect, and mutual
support. This cultural strength is vital for long-term success and employee well-being. Engaged
employees align with the organization’s mission and values, creating a cohesive workforce
working toward common goals.
Workforce engagement in a port and terminal environment is also essential for
employees’ productivity. Workers are more vigilant and conscientious about following safety
protocols, which reduces the risk of accidents and injuries in a port’s hazardous environment.
They understand the importance of safety standards and procedures and are proactive in
resolving issues that affect fellow employees and other stakeholders, namely the customer. A
dedicated workforce takes all measures to ensure that cargo is handled with care and efficiency,
which enhances the port’s reliability and reputation.
Their involvement in day-to-day operations gives them unique insights into potential
improvements and innovations and can make them more adaptable and open to change, which is
crucial for implementing new technologies and processes in the port environment and critical in
building resilience and agility. Engaged employees are more resilient in facing challenges and
disruptions, such as economic downturns, labor disputes, or natural disasters. They are more
likely to pull together and find ways to overcome obstacles.
In summary, promoting workforce engagement in a port environment enhances
operational efficiency, ensures safety and compliance, improves customer service, fosters
innovation, boosts morale and reduces turnover, builds a resilient and agile workforce, and
enhances organizational culture. These benefits collectively ensure that the port operates

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effectively, maintains a competitive edge, and can navigate the complexities and challenges of
the environment and future.
Recommendation 6: Build a Future-Ready Workforce
Building a future-ready workforce in a port is crucial for several reasons, each
contributing to the port’s long-term success, resilience, and ability to adapt to evolving industry
demands. There has been job displacement with the introduction of automated ports (Gekara &
Thanh Nguyen, 2018). A future-ready workforce ensures that port and terminal operations
remain dynamic, competitive, and capable of meeting the demands of the future maritime
industry. Creating a learning organization where continuous learning central should be included
in organizational goals (Garvin et al., 2008; L. Li, 2022)
The importance of the workforce must be underscored. During the COVID-19 pandemic,
participants acknowledged that their organizations became more humane. As a follow-up to the
previous recommendation highlighting worker engagement and emotional support, equipping the
workforce for the future is critical. Participants are of the view that there will never be a fully
automated port – one without people. The upskilling of workers as automation is introduced
builds loyalty and secures institutional knowledge. Automation changes the type of jobs
available and changes what is required of the worker (Gekara & Thanh Nguyen, 2018). The
commitment must be bidirectional between the employer and the employee (L. Li, 2022).
In sum, building a future-ready workforce in a port is essential for adapting to
technological advancements, enhancing operational efficiency, ensuring safety and compliance,
improving customer service, fostering sustainability, building resilience and agility, attracting
and retaining talent, and supporting economic growth and competitiveness. Automation and
Digitization in the port industry are increasing with the aim of improving efficiency, accuracy,

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and safety. A future-ready workforce equipped with the skills to operate and manage these
technologies ensures seamless integration and maximizes their benefits. They will be able to
embrace new technologies as they form part of a culture of innovation, enabling the port to
implement cutting-edge solutions that enhance operational performance.
A future-ready workforce would be equipped to handle disruptions, such as economic
fluctuations, natural disasters, or supply chain interruptions, ensuring the port remains
operational and resilient in the face of challenges. Continuous training and development help
employees acquire new skills and improve existing ones, leading to increased productivity and
efficiency in port operations. Employees trained to be adaptable can respond quickly to changes
in the industry, such as shifts in trade patterns or new technological requirements, maintaining
the port’s competitiveness. In fact, a skilled and future-ready workforce contributes to the
economic growth of the port and the surrounding community by driving innovation, efficiency,
and productivity. New technologies and cost considerations transform employment (Gekara &
Thanh Nguyen, 2018). The investment in training the workforce benefits the port, the wider port
community, and related industries, giving a competitive edge in the market by offering superior
services and adapting to industry changes more effectively.
Recommendation 7: Redefine and Enhance Engagement With External Stakeholders
Redefining and enhancing engagement with external stakeholders are key for a port
community, especially in a context where government acknowledgment of the port sector’s
importance is often limited to times of crisis and where the ports and terminals have a historical
reputation as disruptive in the labor arena. Stakeholder engagement needs to be planned and
targeted, as the sector has multiple stakeholders.

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Firstly, lobbying for greater infrastructure and legislative support requires continuous
engagement and regular and proactive communication with government officials and agencies.
By showcasing the port’s contributions to economic stability, job creation, and trade facilitation,
the government can develop a deeper appreciation for its significance. The engagement is
necessary to highlight the ongoing importance of the port sector beyond just crisis moments.
Dialogue would be required at the level of economic development decisions. Building strategic
alliances with government bodies can lead to better support and advocacy for port-related
policies and initiatives. These alliances can help ensure that the port’s needs and challenges are
considered in policy-making processes, securing long-term support and resources.
Regularly communicating the port’s role in supporting the local and national economy,
such as through job creation, business opportunities, and trade facilitation, can emphasize its
value to a broad range of stakeholders, including the government, businesses, and the public.
Engaging in community development initiatives and promoting these efforts can demonstrate the
port’s commitment to social responsibility. This includes supporting local education, healthcare,
and infrastructure projects that benefit the community. Actively engaging with the local
community through public forums, educational programs, and community events can build
stronger, more positive relationships. This helps gain community support and reduce resistance
to activities.
Ports and terminals have increasing environmental responsibilities. Implementing and
promoting sustainable practices can improve the port’s environmental footprint. Transparent
communication about these efforts can enhance the ports’ and terminals’ reputation as
responsible and environmentally conscious entities. Building a collaborative ecosystem with
various stakeholders, including local businesses, industry partners, and educational institutions,

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can foster innovation and growth. Collaboration can lead to shared initiatives that benefit all
parties and strengthen the port’s role in the community. By positioning itself as a leader in
industry best practices, the port can influence positive changes and set standards for the sector.
This can include advocating for fair labor practices, technological advancements, and
sustainability initiatives.
Establishing strong, crisis-resistant relationships with stakeholders before a crisis ensures
better coordination and support during emergencies. Stakeholders who understand the port’s
critical role are more likely to provide necessary support and resources during challenging times.
Collaborative efforts in planning and preparedness, including joint exercises, shared resources,
and coordinated response strategies, can enhance the port’s and its stakeholders’ resilience.
In sum, redefining and enhancing engagement with external stakeholders is essential for
changing stakeholder perceptions, enhancing awareness of economic and social impacts,
building stronger community relations, creating a collaborative ecosystem, and developing crisisresilient relationships.
Organizational Change Model
The Burke-Litwin causal change model (Figure 3) is the most relevant framework to
guide the implementation of the recommendations. However, it has limitations as it is based on
perspectives from the Global North. A preferred framework incorporating perspectives and
approaches from the Global South has yet to be developed or identified. The Burke-Litwin
framework addresses the influence of the environment on the organization and the factors that
create the need for change (Martins & Coetzee, 2009). The Burke-Litwin model incorporates the
reciprocal influence of external and internal factors, providing a lens to explore an organization’s
capacity to change in response to external drivers, considered the most important drivers of

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change (Burke & Litwin, 1992; Martins & Coetzee, 2009). The Burke-Litwin model emphasizes
the influence of the external environment on the organization (Burke & Litwin, 1992). The
model has three levels: transformational, transactional, and individual, and drivers are grouped
within the functions, ranked in order of importance. According to Burke and Litwin (1992), the
uppermost tier is transformational, consisting of three drivers directly influenced by the external
environment: leadership, mission and strategy, and organizational culture. The second
transactional tier consists of operational levers, including management practices, structures, and
systems. The third tier consists of tasks and individual skills, work unit climate, motivation,
individual needs, and performance. All drivers are interrelated. Once there is a change in one
driver, all will eventually be affected (Burke & Litwin, 1992).

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Figure 3
Burke-Litwin Causal Model for Organizational Performance and Change
Note. Adapted from Kavitha. (n.d.). Burke and Litwin model PowerPoint template & Google
slides by Kavitha, n.d. Slide Egg. (https://www.slideegg.com/burke-litwin-model). Copyright
2024 by Slide Egg.
Path to Organizational Change for Ports and Terminals
The research and major findings have led to recommendations regarding the path to
organizational change that a port or terminal could adopt to face what is expected to be
increasingly dynamic conditions characterized by crisis. Port authorities or terminals may

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implement the recommendation. Modifications would be necessary if the port authority operates
only in the capacity of a landlord or concession manager. The benefit of adopting the
recommended strategies would be an agile operation with a skilled workforce equipped and
knowledgeable in the use of technologies. The objective of the recommended approach is the
automation and digitalization of ports and terminals. Visionary, ethical, empathetic,
transformational leaders who communicate effectively and proactively with internal and external
stakeholders in a climate of innovation and trust are critical to meeting the objective. These
factors would contribute to improved productivity.
Implementation Strategy
The proposed strategy stems from an industry perspective. The implementation can be
tailored to a specific entity. I developed an implementation plan for each recommendation has
employing the Burke-Litwin model as a guide. I also propose key action items for consideration.
Not all strategies and implementation plans can be implemented simultaneously for small and
medium ports. The planning must consider the availability of resources. The strategies and plans
can be implemented systematically. A recommendation is that the starting point for any plan be
at the transformational level, addressing mission, leadership, and organizational culture, which
are considered long-term levers.
Implementation: Key Considerations
Technological innovation, including automation and digitalization of ports, have helped
port operators weather crises successfully and improve productivity. To remain competitive,
resilient, and sustainable, ports and terminals in the Global South and Oceania must continue to
employ technology and create an innovative environment while simultaneously preparing the

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workforce for the future and engaging external stakeholders to optimize the industry’s
contribution to economic growth and development.
Overview
The maritime industry has earned a reputation for being slow to employ technology, yet
the COVID-19 pandemic, a global crisis, has shown that the industry is resilient. Ports and
terminals displayed agility during the crisis and relied on technology to sustain operations and
engage the workforce throughout the pandemic. The dynamic environment will demand greater
agility in the years to come. Ports and terminals will meet challenges by equipping leaders to be
adaptive, empathetic, and transformational, as well as by engaging internal and external
stakeholders proactively and consistently and embracing technological advancement and
innovation to increase productivity, competitiveness, and resilience.
Vision
To empower small and medium ports to become leaders in automation and digitalization
through transformational, empathetic, ethical, and adaptable leadership. To foster a collaborative
ecosystem with our workforce and stakeholders, creating a continuous environment of learning
and upskilling. In driving efficiency, sustainability, and resilience in operations, the aim is to
have a positive economic impact and connect communities worldwide, leading the way in
innovation and adopting technological advancement.
Objectives
Recommendations are made to strategically enhance the capabilities and competitiveness
of small and medium ports by embracing automation and digitalization. This involves six
objectives.

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• adopting state-of-the-art automation and digitalization solutions to improve
operational efficiency, accuracy, and safety within port operations
• encouraging leadership that is transformational, empathetic, ethical, and adaptable to
guide the ports through the changes and crises, ensuring alignment with modern
standards and practices
• creating a learning organization: an environment that prioritizes the continuous
education and professional development of the workforce, equipping them with the
necessary skills to operate new technologies and adapt to evolving industry demands
• nurturing a cooperative and collaborative ecosystem among all stakeholders,
including employees, partners, and the community, to ensure a unified approach to
growth and innovation
• building sustainable and resilient port operations that can withstand economic and
environmental challenges, ensuring long-term viability and positive economic impact
on local and global scales
• enhancing the economic contribution of the ports to their communities and
establishing stronger connections that facilitate trade and economic growth
These changes aim to position small and medium ports as leaders in innovation and
technological advancement, ultimately driving their success and relevance in the global maritime
industry.
Stakeholders
To ensure success, stakeholders—the workforce, direct customers who use the port
facilities, unions, the central government, and the local community—will need to be engaged in
the change initiative. Each stakeholder exerts influence and could potentially resist change.

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There will be concerns about job losses, environmental impact, and disruptions in productivity.
Early engagement and progressive proactive communication will assist in managing resistance
and fostering engagement. I crafted the recommendations for implementation with these
considerations.
Communication Strategy
A communication strategy that spans internal and external stakeholders is important in
achieving objectives and goals. Transparent and consistent communication channels must be
established to inform stakeholders about progress, changes, and upcoming initiatives. Feedback
mechanisms should complement this to gauge engagement and satisfaction and identify areas for
improvement. By implementing this comprehensive communication plan, ports, and terminals
will significantly enhance both internal and external communication. This will facilitate stronger
relationships and ensure high transparency and trust. Consequently, these improvements will
increase operational efficiency, greater stakeholder satisfaction, and overall organizational
success. Table 11 provides a framework for a communication plan.
Table 11
Communication Plan
Item Objective Action
Assess current
communication
practices.
Understand the existing
communication
infrastructure and
practices.
Conduct a comprehensive audit of
current communication tools and
channels.
Gather feedback from employees and
stakeholders on the effectiveness of
current communication.
Identify gaps, inefficiencies, and areas
for improvement.
Develop a strategy. Establish a clear,
strategic framework
Define the objectives and goals of the
communication plan.

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Item Objective Action
for effective
communication.
Identify key audiences, including
employees, stakeholders, customers,
and the community.
Develop key messages tailored to each
audience.
Establish a communication timeline
with regular updates and reviews.
Internal communication Improve the flow of
information within the
organization.
Regularly update employees on
organizational changes, news, and
developments through newsletters,
emails, and meetings.
Encourage two-way communication
by creating channels for employee
feedback and suggestions.
Conduct regular town hall meetings
and Q&A sessions with leadership.
External communication Build strong
relationships and
transparency with
external stakeholders.
Develop a stakeholder engagement
plan outlining how and when to
communicate with external parties.
Create a dedicated portal or section on
the website for stakeholders to
access information and updates.
Utilize social media platforms to share
news, updates and engage with the
community.
Organize regular meetings, webinars,
and forums with stakeholders to
discuss progress and address
concerns.
Open and transparent
communication
Foster a culture of
openness and trust
within and outside the
organization.
Ensure that communication from
leadership is transparent, timely, and
consistent.
Share successes and challenges openly
with employees and stakeholders.
Provide clear explanations for
decisions and actions taken by the
organization.
Encourage a culture where questions
and concerns can be raised without
fear of reprisal.
Communication training Enhance the
communication skills
of employees and
leaders.
Provide training programs on effective
communication techniques and
tools.

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Item Objective Action
Offer workshops on public speaking,
active listening, and conflict
resolution.
Train leaders to communicate
effectively during crises and
organizational changes.
Encourage continuous learning and
improvement in communication
skills.
Use technology for
communication.
Utilize advanced
communication
technologies to
improve efficiency
and reach.
Implement a unified communication
platform that integrates various
tools and channels, including social
media.
Adopt AI-driven communication tools
to automate routine communications
and responses (chatbots).
Ensure all communication platforms
are mobile-friendly.
Measure and evaluate
communication
effectiveness.
Regularly assess the
impact and
effectiveness of
communication
efforts.
Establish key performance indicators
(KPIs) for communication activities
(e.g., engagement rates, feedback
response times).
Conduct regular surveys and feedback
sessions to gauge employee and
stakeholder satisfaction.
Monitor social media and other
external channels for public
sentiment and engagement.
Adjust communication strategies
based on data-driven insights and
feedback.
Change Management Team
Leaders are at the helm of change management initiatives as they are responsible for
setting the vision. Identifying champions for the change is important, as is collaboration across
the hierarchy. These champions will assist in driving change throughout the organization. This
bidirectional engagement would allow for feedback and input from across the organization. The

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literature has shown that cross-functional teams are optimal in planning for change, and
incorporating key stakeholders who share the vision can enhance the process.
Further Considerations: Monitoring, Timelines, Resources and Risk Mitigation
Monitoring, soliciting feedback, and adjusting strategy are important in implementation
plans. Progress can be tracked in quarterly reviews and annual reports summarizing
achievements, challenges, and future goals related to each dimension of the change strategy are
useful. Timeline, resources, and risk mitigation are three dimensions that organizations need to
consider at the implementation stage. However, organizational change requires a 5- to 7-year
window. Timelines must be realistic and resource planning must cover more than the financing
of technology. The human resources required at each stage should form part of the projection.
This includes the resources to provide training. Planning will assist in mitigating risks but will
never eliminate risk completely. Agile, ethical, empathetic, transformational leaders will be
required when risk and crisis ensue.
Implementation Recommendations
Leadership Development
Table 12 addresses recommendations for implementing a strategy to enhance leadership
and management of a port or terminal, using the drivers of the Burke-Litwin model as a guide.

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Table 12
Implementation Plan: Strategy to Enhance Leadership and Management Capabilities
Burke-Litwin drivers Summary of strategy
Environment factors Analyze external environmental factors, such as industry trends and
competitive pressures, to inform the strategy for strengthening
leadership and management.
Transformational factors
Leadership Develop leadership capabilities by providing training, mentorship,
and opportunities for leaders to gain diverse experiences and
insights.
Mission and strategy Align the organization’s mission and strategy with leadership and
management development goals, ensuring these objectives are
communicated and understood across all levels.
Organizational culture Foster a culture that values continuous improvement, innovation,
and the development of strong leadership and management
practices.
Transactional factors
Structure Design an organizational structure supporting leadership
development, such as creating cross-functional teams and
pathways.
Management practices Implement effective management practices that promote
accountability, empowerment, and the delegation of
responsibilities to cultivate leadership skills.
Systems Establish systems, policies, and procedures that support leadership
and management development, including performance
evaluations, succession planning, and professional development
programs.
Individual and personal factors
Work unit climate Create a positive work unit climate that encourages open
communication, collaboration, and the sharing of best practices
among leaders and managers.
Task requirements and
individual skills
Ensure that task requirements and job roles are designed to
challenge individuals and develop their leadership and
management skills.
Individual needs and
values
Align individual career aspirations and values with organizational
goals, providing personalized development plans to strengthen
leadership and management capabilities.
Motivation Enhance motivation by recognizing and rewarding effective
leadership and management and offering incentives for continuous
improvement and development.
Individual
organizational
performance
Measure and assess the impact of the multi-pronged strategy on
individual and organizational performance, adjusting as needed to
ensure continuous growth and effectiveness in leadership and
management.

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Key actions related to the proposed implementation plan are
• Initiate a leadership audit: thoroughly assess current leadership capabilities and define
competencies.
• Develop leadership training programs, including executive coaching and mentoring.
• Foster a learning culture: promote continuous learning and develop and implement
individualized leadership development plans.
• Implement succession planning for critical positions and identify potential leaders
using technology, such as through parametric testing.
• Encourage open, authentic communication: teach and employ active listening.
• Utilize online learning platforms to support development efforts.
Implementation Recommendations: Adaptability, Resilience, and Sustainability
By integrating the strategies outlined in Table 13, ports and terminals can foster
adaptability, resilience, and sustainability, ensuring long-term success and operational excellence
in a dynamic and challenging environment.

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Table 13
Summary Implementation Plan: Adaptability, Resilience, and Sustainability in Practice
Burke-Litwin drivers Summary of strategy
Environment factors Understand how external factors, such as market trends, economic
conditions, and regulatory changes, impact the need for
adaptability, resilience, and sustainability.
Transformational factors
Leadership Cultivate leadership that emphasizes and models adaptability,
resilience, and sustainability in decision-making and strategic
planning.
Mission and strategy Develop and communicate a clear mission and strategy prioritizing
adaptability, resilience, and sustainability as core organizational
values.
Organizational culture Foster a culture that supports continuous learning, flexibility, and a
long-term perspective on sustainability.
Transactional factors
Structure Create an organizational structure that facilitates quick responses to
change and supports resilient and sustainable practices.
Management practices Implement management practices that encourage adaptability, such
as flexible work arrangements and resilience through support
systems and resources for employees.
Systems Develop and maintain systems, policies, and procedures that
promote sustainable practices and the ability to adapt to changes
effectively.
Individual and personal factors
Work unit climate Encourage a positive work unit climate where team members feel
supported to be adaptable, resilient, and committed to
sustainability.
Task requirements and
individual skills
Ensure that job roles and tasks are designed to require and develop
skills in adaptability, resilience, and sustainability.
Individual needs and
values
Align individual needs and values with organizational goals to
promote engagement in adaptability, resilience, and sustainability
efforts.
Motivation Enhance motivation by recognizing and rewarding behaviors and
outcomes that demonstrate adaptability, resilience, and
sustainability.
Individual
organizational
performance
Measure and assess performance at both the individual and
organizational levels to ensure that practices of adaptability,
resilience, and sustainability lead to desired outcomes and
continuous improvement.

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Implementation plans to achieve adaptability, resilience, and sustainability in ports and
terminals would include
• Development of comprehensive crisis management plans, which should be regularly
updated and tested, including simulations and scenario planning. Plans should be
communicated to all employees and stakeholders.
• Risk management frameworks help ports and terminals anticipate, prepare for, and
respond to disruptions. This includes identifying potential risks, assessing their
impact, and creating contingency plans. Regularly updating and testing these plans
ensures the organization is well prepared to handle unforeseen challenges.
• Ongoing training programs to keep employees updated on the latest industry
practices, safety protocols, and technological advancements.
• Technology to enhance supply chain visibility and efficiency, including predictive
analytics and real-time tracking, to improve decision-making and reduce disruptions.
• Adoption of sustainable operations, including energy-efficient technologies, waste
reduction programs, and green initiatives.
• Support for environmental initiatives: engage in activities that reduce carbon footprint
and enhance ecological conservation.
Implementation Recommendations: Innovation and Technology
Table 14 outlines the implementation strategy for innovation and technological adoption,
framed by the drivers of the Burke-Litwin model.

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Table 14
Summary Implementation Strategy: Innovation and Technological Adoption
Burke-Litwin drivers Summary of strategy
Environment factors Monitor and analyze external trends, market demands, and
technological advancements to identify innovation and
technological adoption opportunities.
Transformational factors
Leadership Empower leaders to champion innovation and technological
adoption by providing vision, resources, and support for these
initiatives.
Mission and strategy Integrate innovation and technological adoption into the
organization’s mission and strategic goals, ensuring alignment
with long-term objectives.
Organizational culture Cultivate a culture that encourages experimentation, creativity,
and a proactive approach to adopting new technologies.
Transactional factors
Structure Design an organizational structure that facilitates collaboration,
knowledge sharing, and rapid decision-making to support
innovation and technology initiatives.
Management practices Implement management practices that promote flexibility, agile
methodologies, and the ability to pivot quickly in response to
technological advancements.
Systems Develop systems, policies, and procedures that streamline the
process of innovation and technological adoption, reducing
barriers and enhancing efficiency.
Individual and personal factors
Work unit climate Foster a work unit climate that supports innovation by
encouraging open communication, risk-taking, and the sharing
of ideas and feedback.
Task requirements and
individual skills
Ensure that job roles and tasks are designed to develop skills in
innovation and technology, providing training and resources to
enhance these capabilities.
Individual needs and
values
Align individual aspirations and values with organizational
innovation goals, offering opportunities for personal growth
and involvement in technology projects.
Motivation Increase motivation by recognizing and rewarding contributions
to innovation and technological adoption and by creating
incentives for continued participation in these efforts.
Individual organizational
performance
Measure and assess the impact of innovation and technological
adoption on individual and organizational performance, using
this data to drive continuous improvement and future
initiatives.

183
Ports and terminals can effectively leverage technology and innovation to enhance their
operations, increase resilience, and achieve long-term sustainability. An implementation plan
would include the following elements:
• Conduct a comprehensive technology assessment: evaluate current technology
infrastructure and capabilities and create a gap analysis.
• Develop a strategic technology roadmap.
• Define short-term, mid-term, and long-term technology goals.
• Prioritize key technology projects based on impact and feasibility.
• Outline timelines, budgets, and resource requirements for each project.
• Include milestones and success metrics to track progress.
• Secure leadership commitment and funding
• Foster a culture of innovation and continuous improvement: create an organizational
culture that supports innovation and technological advancement.
• Encourage employee participation in innovation initiatives and idea-sharing.
• Establish innovation hubs or labs to test new technologies and processes.
• Implement recognition and reward programs for innovative contributions.
• Promote continuous learning through training programs on emerging
technologies.
• Strengthen stakeholder collaboration and engagement: foster strong relationships with
stakeholders to support technology initiatives.
• Use data-driven insights to make informed decisions and adjustments to the
technology roadmap.

184
• Continuous monitoring and improvement through assessments and feedback from
stakeholders.
• Implement a continuous improvement cycle to ensure technology systems remain
innovative.
Ports and terminals should cultivate a culture that encourages innovation by recognizing
and rewarding creative ideas and problem-solving initiatives. This involves creating an
environment where employees feel safe to experiment and suggest improvements without fear of
failure or retribution. Establishing innovation labs or hubs within the organization can provide
dedicated spaces for brainstorming and developing new technologies and processes.
Implementation Recommendations: Communication
A communication plan, ports, and terminals can enhance internal and external
communication, build stronger relationships, and ensure transparency and trust. This will
improve operational efficiency, stakeholder satisfaction, and overall organizational success.
Table 15 outlines an implementation plan for proactive, transparent communication.

185
Table 15
Summary Implementation Plan: Proactive, Transparent Communication
Burke-Litwin drivers Summary of strategy
Environment factors Assess external factors such as stakeholder expectations, industry
standards, and regulatory requirements that influence the need for
proactive communication and transparency.
Transformational factors
Leadership Encourage leaders to model proactive communication and
transparency, setting the tone and expectations for the entire
organization.
Mission and strategy Embed proactive communication and transparency into the
organization’s mission and strategic objectives, ensuring these
principles guide decision-making and operations.
Organizational
culture
Foster a culture that values open dialogue, honesty, and the free flow of
information, making proactive communication and transparency
fundamental aspects of the organizational ethos.
Transactional factors
Structure Design an organizational structure that supports efficient
communication channels and transparent information-sharing across
all levels and departments.
Management
practices
Implement management practices that promote regular updates, open
forums, and feedback mechanisms to ensure ongoing proactive
communication and transparency.
Systems Develop and maintain systems, policies, and procedures that facilitate
and standardize proactive communication and transparency
throughout the organization.
Individual and personal factors
Work unit climate Create a work unit climate where team members feel safe to share
information, ask questions, and provide feedback openly and
transparently.
Task requirements
and individual
skills
Ensure that job roles and tasks include responsibilities for proactive
communication and transparency, providing training and resources to
develop these skills.
Individual needs and
values
Align individual needs and values with organizational goals by
fostering a work environment that appreciates and rewards proactive
communication and transparency.
Motivation Enhance motivation by recognizing and rewarding individuals and
teams that consistently practice proactive communication and
transparency.
Individual
organizational
performance
Measure and assess the impact of proactive communication and
transparency on individual and organizational performance, using
this data to make continuous improvements and uphold these
practices consistently.

186
An implementation plan for a comprehensive strategy would include the following
elements:
• Assess current communication practices
• Establish a clear, strategic framework for effective communication.
• Define the objectives and goals of the communication plan.
• Identify key audiences, including employees, stakeholders, customers, and the
community.
• Develop key messages tailored to each audience.
• Establish a communication timeline with regular updates and reviews.
• Encourage two-way communication by creating channels for employee feedback and
suggestions.
• Conduct regular town hall meetings and Q&A sessions with leadership.
• Promote open and transparent communication.
• Ensure that communication from leadership is transparent, timely, and consistent.
• Share successes and challenges openly with employees and stakeholders.
• Provide clear explanations for decisions and actions taken by the organization.
• Encourage a culture where questions and concerns can be raised without fear of
reprisal.
• Train leaders to communicate effectively during crises and organizational changes.
• Utilize advanced communication technologies to improve efficiency and reach.
Implementation Recommendations: Equipping the Workforce
Building a future-ready workforce involves preparing employees to adapt to changing
market conditions, technologies, and organizational needs. Table 16 outlines the strategy.

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Table 16
Summary Implementation Plan: Future-Ready Workforce
Burke-Litwin drivers Summary of strategy
Environment factors Analyze external trends, technological advancements, and market
demands to identify skills and competencies needed for a
future-ready workforce.
Transformational factors
Leadership Cultivate leadership that prioritizes future readiness by providing
vision, resources, and support for workforce development and
innovation.
Mission and strategy Integrate the goal of building a future-ready workforce into the
organization’s mission and strategic objectives, ensuring
alignment with long-term goals.
Organizational culture Foster a culture that values continuous learning, adaptability, and
innovation, encouraging employees to develop future-oriented
skills.
Transactional factors
Structure Design an organizational structure that supports agile teams,
cross-functional collaboration, and flexible roles to adapt to
future needs.
Management practices Implement management practices that promote continuous
professional development, mentorship, and opportunities for
employees to acquire new skills.
Systems Develop systems, policies, and procedures that facilitate ongoing
training, upskilling, and reskilling programs to prepare
employees for future challenges.
Individual and personal factors
Work unit climate Create a work unit climate that encourages experimentation, open
communication, and a proactive approach to embracing change
and new technologies.
Task requirements and
individual skills
Ensure job roles and tasks are designed to challenge employees
and provide opportunities to develop skills that are critical for
future success.
Individual needs and
values
Align individual career aspirations and values with organizational
goals, offering tailored development plans to prepare
employees for future roles.
Motivation Enhance motivation by recognizing and rewarding efforts that
contribute to building a future-ready workforce, including
innovation, learning, and skill development.
Individual organizational
performance
Measure and assess the impact of workforce development
initiatives on individual and organizational performance, using
this data to drive continuous improvement and ensure readiness
for future challenges.

188
Ports and terminals can prepare their workforce to adapt and thrive in dynamic and
uncertain environments, ensuring readiness for future challenges and opportunities. The
following may be incorporated into an implementation plan:
• Continuously monitor industry trends, technological advancements, and market
demands. Benchmark against regional and global industry leaders to identify gaps in
skills and capabilities.
• Integrate the goal of building a future-ready workforce into the organization’s mission
and strategic objectives.
• Develop long-term plans that prioritize workforce development.
• Promote a culture that values continuous learning, adaptability, and innovation,
including design thinking.
• Create flexible roles and cross-functional teams to support agility.
• Establish training programs focused on upskilling and reskilling employees.
Implement systems for capturing and sharing knowledge across the organization to
facilitate continuous learning.
• Foster a work unit climate that encourages experimentation, open communication,
and collaboration.
• Establish recognition and reward systems that incentivize continuous learning and
innovation.
• Utilize performance data to drive continuous improvement and adjust strategies as
necessary.

189
Implementation Recommendations: Workforce Engagement
An implementation plan guides leaders to enhance workforce engagement and emotional
support, fostering a positive and supportive workplace culture that contributes to employee wellbeing and organizational success. Facilitating workforce engagement and emotional support in
ports and terminals can be achieved through a multifaceted approach that prioritizes
communication, well-being, and inclusive practices. Table 17 provides an outline that keeps with
the Burke-Litwin model.

190
Table 17
Summary Implementation Plan: Workforce Engagement
Burke-Litwin drivers Summary of strategy
Environment factors Understand external factors such as industry trends, economic
conditions, and societal expectations that impact workforce
engagement and emotional support needs.
Transformational factors
Leadership Empower leaders to prioritize workforce engagement and emotional
support, demonstrating commitment through their actions and
policies.
Mission and strategy Integrate workforce engagement and emotional support into the
organization’s mission and strategic objectives, ensuring these
principles are central to the organization’s goals.
Organizational culture Foster a culture that values employee well-being, engagement, and
emotional support, promoting a supportive and inclusive
environment.
Transactional factors
Structure Design an organizational structure that facilitates engagement and
support, such as establishing dedicated teams or roles focused on
employee well-being and engagement initiatives.
Management practices Implement management practices that encourage regular check-ins,
feedback sessions, and initiatives that promote workforce
engagement and emotional support.
Systems Develop systems, policies, and procedures that provide clear
guidelines and resources for workforce engagement and emotional
support, ensuring accessibility and consistency.
Individual and personal factors
Work unit climate Create a work unit climate where team members feel valued,
supported, and engaged, fostering strong interpersonal relationships
and open communication.
Task requirements and
individual skills
Ensure job roles and tasks are designed to promote engagement and
provide opportunities for employees to utilize and develop their
skills, fostering a sense of purpose and connection.
Individual needs and
values
Align individual needs and values with organizational goals by
offering personalized support and engagement opportunities that
cater to diverse employee preferences and circumstances.
Motivation Increase motivation by recognizing and rewarding efforts that
enhance workforce engagement and emotional support, creating a
positive feedback loop.
Individual
organizational
performance
Measure and assess the impact of engagement and emotional support
initiatives on individual and organizational performance, using this
data to make continuous improvements and ensure sustained
support.

191
An implementation plan for workforce engagement and emotional support should
incorporate the following:
• Form a multidisciplinary task force comprising HR professionals, senior leadership,
and representatives from different departments to oversee the implementation.
• Conduct a comprehensive assessment of current workforce engagement levels,
emotional well-being indicators, and existing support structures.
• Monitor industry trends, economic conditions, and societal expectations impacting
workforce engagement.
• Develop programs to adapt engagement and support initiatives.
• Provide training sessions for senior leaders on the importance of workforce
engagement, emotional support, and their role in fostering a supportive culture.
• Hold workshops to integrate workforce engagement and emotional support goals into
the organization’s mission and strategic objectives.
• Develop a communication strategy to articulate these integrated goals to all
employees, ensuring alignment and understanding across the organization.
• Conduct workshops and training sessions to educate employees on the importance of
emotional support and engagement in the workplace.
• Establish dedicated roles or teams responsible for overseeing employee engagement
programs and emotional support initiatives.
• Implement regular feedback mechanisms and check-ins between managers and
employees to gauge engagement levels and address concerns.
• Provide training for managers on effective communication, empathy, and supporting
employee emotional well-being.

192
• Organize team-building activities and events to foster camaraderie and strengthen
relationships among team members.
• Implement communication tools and platforms that promote open dialogue and
transparency within work units.
• Maintain flexible work arrangements and benefits to accommodate personal
circumstances and promote work-life balance.
Implementation Recommendation: External Stakeholder Engagement
Applying the Burke-Litwin model can help organizations improve relationships with
external stakeholders, enhance reputation, and achieve sustainable success in a competitive
environment. By following these recommendations and implementation steps, ports and
terminals can redefine and enhance their engagement with external stakeholders, fostering
stronger relationships, building trust, and achieving mutual benefits. Table 18 outlines an
implementation plan for the engagement with external stakeholders.

193
Table 18
Summary Implementation Plan: Engagement With External Stakeholders
Burke-Litwin drivers Summary of strategy
Environment factors Analyze external factors influencing stakeholder engagement, such
as market trends, regulatory changes, and competitive dynamics.
Transformational factors
Leadership Empower leaders to articulate a compelling vision for stakeholder
engagement, providing necessary resources and support.
Mission and strategy Align engagement strategies with the organization’s mission and
strategic objectives, ensuring coherence and purpose.
Organizational culture Foster a culture that values transparent communication, trust, and
responsiveness to external stakeholders.
Transactional factors
Structure Design organizational structures that facilitate effective
communication and collaboration with stakeholders.
Management practices Implement practices that prioritize stakeholder feedback, continuous
improvement, and ethical considerations.
Systems Develop policies and procedures that promote accountability,
transparency, and responsiveness in stakeholder interactions.
Individual and personal factors
Work unit climate Create a climate that encourages employees to engage with
stakeholders and supports their efforts with necessary resources.
Task requirements and
individual skills
Ensure job roles and tasks incorporate responsibilities for
stakeholder engagement, providing training and development
opportunities.
Individual needs and
values
Align individual aspirations with organizational goals, fostering a
sense of ownership and commitment to stakeholder relationships.
Motivation Recognize and reward efforts that contribute to successful
stakeholder engagement outcomes, promoting a culture of
proactive communication.
Individual
organizational
performance
Measure and evaluate stakeholder engagement performance metrics,
using insights to drive continuous improvement and strategic
alignment.
A structured plan would incorporate the following elements:
• Conduct a stakeholder mapping and needs assessment to identify key areas for
improvement.

194
• Develop a targeted stakeholder engagement strategy with clear objectives and goals
by stakeholder segment.
• Train staff on effective stakeholder engagement techniques and build internal
capacity for managing stakeholder relationships.
• Utilize digital tools and platforms to enhance reach and effectiveness; monitor,
evaluate, and analyze feedback.
• Regularly review and update the engagement strategy.
Recommendations for Future Research
Several areas for future research could address practical issues in the port and terminal
sector in the Global South, Asia, and Oceania. Three topics deserving further research are the
leadership experience during COVID-19, technological innovation in both public and private
port operations, benchmarking and technological advancements, and the application of nonWestern leadership attributes and styles in port communities.
This study documented 17 leaders’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic and
other crises. Participants had the opportunity to process their experiences in a novel way, which
could benefit their growth as leaders, as well as their followers and the broader community. The
study covered eight countries in the Global South and Oceania, but there is potential to expand to
additional countries in Africa, Oceania, and Asia. Comparing technological innovation and
productivity between government-owned and privately managed ports could help identify the
best models for emerging and developing countries. This would include the significance of
benchmarking. The impact of new technologies in ports could provide practical applications
through model development. Exploring non-Western, non-European leadership theories and the

195
influence of Western leadership theory could help create models tailored to emerging markets
and developing countries.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this research project aimed to equip leaders with practical strategies for
approaching and preparing for calamities of the magnitude of the COVID-19 pandemic and
geopolitical upheavals, which are anticipated to become more frequent. The study emphasizes
the need for leaders to integrate the findings into their core practices, making them an intrinsic
part of their leadership approach. It highlights the importance of adopting and embodying the
attributes and styles identified to navigate crises effectively, engage teams, and maintain
productivity while ensuring operational sustainability. This guidance is particularly vital for
developing and emerging economies, where adept crisis management can drive national
progress, aid in poverty eradication, and enhance their populations’ overall well-being and
prosperity.
The comprehensive analysis of ports and terminals revealed significant insights into
leadership, technology, innovation, organizational change, communication, and workforce
dynamics. Leaders’ experience during the COVID-19 pandemic and other crises framed this
study; however, the findings instruct the way forward, considering the view that crises will
increase globally, and entities will need to be agile to operate successfully in a dynamic
environment. Of note, the findings indicate a place for leadership theories and models that have
emerged from the Global South and Oceania in the dialogue on Leadership globally.
Key findings demonstrated that the modern port and terminal sector and the maritime
industry require adaptive leadership. Technological advancements, particularly in automation,
digitalization, and predictive analytics, emerged as key to enhancing operational efficiency and

196
resilience. Innovation was identified as a cornerstone for sustaining competitive advantage,
emphasizing fostering a culture of continuous learning and creative problem-solving.
Organizational change initiatives must be strategically managed to ensure smooth transitions and
alignment with long-term goals. Effective communication strategies are essential for building
trust and ensuring transparency among internal teams and external stakeholders, thereby
fostering stronger relationships and collaborative efforts.
Based on these findings, several recommendations were made to enhance ports’ and
terminals’ operational and strategic capabilities. To build a future-ready workforce, investing in
continuous education and skill development is essential, promoting flexibility and innovation.
Investing in advanced technologies and cultivating an innovative climate will enhance
operational resilience and efficiency. Engaging with local communities and industry partners will
strengthen stakeholder relationships and support sustainability efforts. Finally, establishing clear
KPIs and conducting regular assessments will facilitate continuous improvement and
adaptability. Though focused on the maritime sector, these recommendations are essential for any
organization navigating today’s dynamic global landscape. By integrating these
recommendations, ports and terminals can navigate the challenges of the modern maritime
landscape, be prepared for crises in the future, and achieve sustainable success.

197
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
The following sections present the interview protocol used in this study.
Research Questions
1. How has the leadership of ports and terminals employed technology in response to
Crises, especially the COVID-19 pandemic?
2. What are the impacts and benefits of an innovative port operation?
• How are the benefits of technological innovation related to company
performance?
• What are the challenges in establishing a culture of innovation?
• What are the challenges in introducing new technologies in port operations?
3. What types of leadership styles are demonstrated by C-suite executives, and which
attributes favor a climate of technological innovation and change in a time of
unprecedented crisis?
Respondent type: C-Suite members of port/terminal companies and professional shipping
organizations.
Introduction to the Interview
Thank you for meeting with me. I am Frances Yeo, and I am enrolled at the University of
Southern California in the Organizational Change and Leadership doctoral program. I am
working on my dissertation, conducting research on the response of ports to global crises.
Specifically, I am exploring how leadership has used technological innovation to sustain and
grow business, and I value your input, especially in light of the impact of the COVID-19
pandemic. The information that you share with me will be analyzed and reported; however, your
identity will remain confidential. I plan to use a pseudonym for your organization’s name, but I

250
will provide a general geographic location in my report. The data gathered will be presented in
the form of a dissertation. I hope my findings will help to guide future research and encourage
leaders to employ technological innovation in port operations.
The schedule of questions was shared with you to give you an opportunity to review
ahead of this interview. Should you not wish to answer any questions or if you wish to
discontinue the interview, please let me know. Would you please confirm that you have agreed
to participate in this study willingly? Would you permit me to record the interview for notetaking purposes?
Do you have any questions before we begin?
Table A1
Interview Protocol
Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed Key concept
addressed
Describe the experience in
the port and shipping
community at the
beginning of a global
crisis like the COVID-19
pandemic.
How did you feel during
this time?
1 Impact of
global crises
How would you describe
the key functions of your
role in the organization
during the crisis?
What were the most
important aspects of your
job during that period?
3 Leadership
How do you as an
individual feel you
changed during the global
crisis?
3 Leadership
What would you say were
the greatest challenges to
1 Environmental
influences

251
Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed Key concept
addressed
your organization during
the pandemic?
What sort of external
support did you receive
during COVID-19 to deal
with the challenges?
1 Environmental
influences
How did your leadership
style change during the
global crisis?
3 Leadership
attributes
How would you describe
innovation within your
organization during the
global crisis?
2 Innovation.
Could you describe the
level of technology used
in your organization
during COVID-19?
2 Technological
innovation
How has the use of
technology changed since
the COVID-19
pandemic?
2 Technological
innovation
Would you please describe
the process of introducing
new technology to the
port operations?
What process is used in
making the decision to
introduce new
technology?
Please provide an example.
Please describe any
significant hurdles.
2 Technological
innovation
How do you think specific
technologies influenced
company performance
during the pandemic?
2 Technological
innovation
How would you describe
the response of team
members and
stakeholders to new
Please give me a few
examples.
2 Organization
climate and
environment

252
Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed Key concept
addressed
technologies, especially
any introduced during the
crisis?
When you reflect on your
company, describe
anything that you now do
differently compared to
the pre-crisis years.
3 Innovation
What do you think is
essential to ensure growth
within your operations?
3 Leadership
approach
Could you describe any
limitations within your
organization or external
challenges that could
threaten or delay the
growth of your business?
1 Environmental
impacts
What else would you
consider important to
share regarding your
success in sustaining
business through and
beyond a global
pandemic?
What should I have asked
but did not think to ask?
1 Leadership
Conclusion to the Interview
Thank you for taking the time to participate in this interview. I would like to reiterate that
our discussions will be kept confidential, and I do not plan to disclose your organization’s name.
Considering our discussion, is there anyone that you recommend I should interview?
Would you be able to provide me with an introduction?
Do you have any questions for me?

253
Thanks again. I truly value your time and input. Would it be ok for me to contact you
again if I have any other questions?

254
Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Email
Dear [Participant’s Name]
My name is Frances Yeo, and I am a student at the University of Southern California.
I am conducting a research study on the experience of leaders of ports and terminals
during the COVID-19 pandemic and how technology has been used to sustain their organization.
The name of this research study is “An Exploration of Leadership of Ports and Terminals and the
Use of Technological Innovation during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” I am seeking your
participation in this study.
Your participation is completely voluntary, and I will address your questions or concerns
at any point before or during the study. You may be eligible to participate in this study if you
meet the following criteria:
1. Employed in a senior executive position at a multipurpose or transshipment cargo
seaport or terminal.
2. Employment must have commenced in 2017 and extended to the present or through
2022.
3. You are over 18 years old.
If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to do the following activities:
1. Participate in a 1:1 interview over Zoom for 45–60 minutes.
2. Review your interview transcript via email for 10–15 minutes.
3. Meet with me post-interview over Zoom for 15 minutes to confirm that your
responses are represented correctly.

255
I will publish the results in my thesis, a presentation, and/or publication. Participants will
not be identified in the results. I will take reasonable measures to protect the security of all your
personal information. All data will be de-identified prior to any publication or presentation. I
may share your data, de-identified, with other researchers in the future.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact me: fyeo@usc.edu or (876) 383
3785. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

256
Appendix C: Coding Table
Research question
Area of conceptual
framework
(a priori code)
Code
(thematic codes)
How has the leadership of ports and
terminals employed technology in
response to crises, especially the
COVID-19 pandemic?
Environment, external COVID-19/crises
Government policies and
protocol
Socioeconomic influences
Leadership Attributes
Action
Team welfare
Team engagement
What are the impacts and benefits of
an innovative port operation?
• How are the benefits of
technological innovation
related to company
performance?
• What are the challenges in
establishing a culture of
innovation?
• c. What are the challenges in
introducing new technologies
in port operations?
Technological
innovation
Automation, AI and IoT
Adaptation
Process change
Inclusion
Research and benchmarking
Knowledge transfer
Organizational culture
and climate
Work-life balance
Technology acceptance
Job change
What type of leadership attributes favor
a climate of technological innovation
and change in a time of
unprecedented crisis?
Leadership Communication
Stakeholder engagement
Organizational culture
and climate
Learning and training
Cross-functional
collaboration
Technology-oriented
Appendix C: Coding Table

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Asset Metadata

Creator Yeo, Frances Andrea (author)

Core Title Leadership of ports and terminals in the global south and Oceania and the use of technological innovation during the crisis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 09/04/2024

Defense Date 07/31/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag adaptive,COVID-19 pandemic,empathetic leadership,ethical,leadership,leadership communication,OAI-PMH Harvest,ports in Oceania and the Global South,technological innovation adoption in ports,workforce engagement in crisis

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia E. (committee chair), Canny, Eric (committee member), Maddox, Anthony (committee member)

Creator Email franyeo@gmail.com,fyeo@usc.edu

Unique identifier UC11399A772

Identifier etd-YeoFrances-13481.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-YeoFrances-13481

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

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Internet Media Type application/pdf

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