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Career planning education in China and path optimization in the context of Chinese new national college entrance examination

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Career planning education in China and path optimization in the context of Chinese new national college entrance examination

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Content Career Planning Education in China and Path Optimization in The Context of
Chinese New National College Entrance Examination
Lu Wang
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2024

© Copyright by your full name 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Your Full Name certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Committee Member Name：Dr. Rob Filback
Committee Member Name：Dr. Paula Carbone
Full Name, Committee Chair：Dr.Cathy Krop
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California 2024

iv
Abstract
This research aimed to explore the current state and impact of career planning education
from the perspective of head teachers and school administrators in public high schools in China. The purpose was to determine the context, approach, scope and goals of the current and/or
planned career planning programs as well as to discover the requirements, expectations and
interests of educators in constructing a useful and feasible career planning curriculum. The study
addressed three key research questions: an understanding of the present state of career
development as offered and/or utilized in educational institutions, the perceived success rate of
interventions, and areas which required more focus. The results of this qualitative study suggest that unified career planning education in
Chinese high schools is fundamentally neglected for many reasons, with the strongest evidence
being the focus on the Gaokao exam. Currently, there are a number of programs that exist that
head teachers and administrators perceive as lacking efficacy in preparing students to explore
and better understand themselves and their interests and talents and pursue directions toward
subjects and activities to better define possible career paths and occupational areas. Furthermore, there is a lack of resources, teacher training, and institutional support for the promotion and
enrichment of systematic career planning. Such findings could be insightful to policymakers and
educators with the intention of enhancing career planning education in Chinese high schools. Keywords: Career Planning Education, High School Education, China, Head
Teachers, School Administrators

v
Dedication
To my beloved children, Hope you can grow up healthily and happily.

vi
Acknowledgments
Thanks to my ever-supporting family, friends and supervisor, who have always been
supportive, caring and patient with me, providing me with constant encouragement and
continuous companionship.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements.......................................................................................错误！未定义书签。
List of Tables..................................................................................................................................ix
List of Figures................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study.......................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem................................................................................................ 2
Purpose of the Study........................................................................................................3
Significance of the Study................................................................................................ 5
Definitions....................................................................................................................... 6
Organization of the Study................................................................................................8
Chapter Two: Literature Review.....................................................................................................9
Overview of the New College Entrance Examination Reform....................................... 9
Career Planning Education ............................................................................................16
Theoretical Underpinnings of Career Education for Senior High Schools in China .... 25
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 42
Site Overview................................................................................................................ 42
Population and Sample ..................................................................................................44
Instrumentation and Data Collection.............................................................................45

viii
Data Analysis................................................................................................................ 47
Credibility and Trustworthiness.................................................................................... 48
The Researcher.............................................................................................................. 49
Ethics............................................................................................................................. 50
Chapter Four: Presentation of Data and Findings......................................................................... 53
Overview of Interviewees............................................................................................. 54
Presentation of Findings................................................................................................56
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................92
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations.........................................................................94
Discussion of Findings.................................................................................................. 94
Recommendations for Practices.................................................................................. 104
Limitations and Delimitations..................................................................................... 113
Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................................... 116
Conclusion...................................................................................................................120
References................................................................................................................................... 123
Appendix A: Teacher and Administrator Interview Protocol Current Situation of Career Planning
Education in Senior High Schools.............................................................................................. 140
Appendix B: Interview protocol for Principals...........................................................................144
Appendix C: Generation of Themes............................................................................................146

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Demographic Information About the 16 Interview Participants 55
Table 2: Recommendations for Practice 105

x
List of Figures
Figure 1 .........................................................................................................................................28
Figure 2 .........................................................................................................................................31
Figure 3 .........................................................................................................................................36

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
With the rapid development of society, career education has become an increasing focus
of attention in schools globally. Career education provides the opportunity to help countries
cultivate diverse, innovative, and selective talents (Albay & Serbes, 2017). Although China's
focus on career education started late compared with Western countries, it has increasingly
attracted attention from society. The 2014 implementation of China’s new college entrance
examination system has further promoted people's understanding of the importance of career
education. In response, all high schools in China have carried out corresponding career education
courses and services. What is not known is the current status of career education in high schools
and the effectiveness of implementation (Xiong, 2023). Additional data and study are required
before recommendations for improving the caliber of high school students' career preparation
instruction can be made. Based on a series of issued policy documents in China, such as the Outline of the
National Medium and Long Term Education Reform and Development Plan (2010-2020) and the
Implementation Opinions of the Ministry of Education on the Academic Proficiency Test of
General High School, this study aims to examine four representative regular high schools in
Jiangsu Province as examples to understand the current status of students' career planning
education and the schools’ career education-related practices. This study aims to raise the
importance of understanding students’ diverse abilities, interests, and potential, and put forward
suggestions for different levels of government, schools, parents, and students to help high school
students establish a good sense of career planning and strengthen the level of career education in
high school.

2
Statement of the Problem
Career development learning in China is mostly done at the university level, and very
scantily at the high school level (Shen 2021, Xiao et al. 2018). However, career development
education should begin earlier, and in the high school years as students experience physical and
mental development, as well as choose possible majors and careers (Shen, 2021; Xiao et al., 2018). This time enables students to reflect on various aspects such as their competency, responsibilities, and career preferences (Xie et al., 2019). At the present time, career education in
Chinese high schools is far from being at the same level as in other countries, which causes
certain difficulties for students and their understanding of their interests and future studies, major, or occupation. Students may have difficulties choosing the right subjects (e.g., languages, arts, sciences, biology, history), and orientations in college. According to a study by Xie et. al (2019), only one percent of the students in the Chinese high school benefited from career and graduation
counselling, whereas in the United States this was 68% of students. The lack of such policy
brings students almost no vocational education so they have little chance to discover what
careers they may like or what they are good at (Gu et al., 2020). China’s college entrance
examination, the Gaokao, supersedes the entire high school system making career planning
education sidelined and secondary to gaining good academic results in the Gaokao (Gu et al., 2020). This singular focus tends to lead to a repetition of Gaokao, students becoming
disinterested in their studies or having difficulties finding employment (Burkhoff, 2015). This
issue has been further compounded by inadequate educational reforms in China where actual
career education has not been made to correspond with the industrial and technical advances. Consequently, there may be issues with skills mismatch or a bottleneck, which implies that the

3
number of skills matched to the condition of the graduates will be limited in the future, thereby
affecting economic development adversely (Wang & Wang, 2020; Xie et al., 2019). To date, however, there is a significant research gap on the current state and efficacy of
career planning programs in high schools, particularly from the views of the high school head
teachers and administrators. To address this need, knowledge of their perspectives and beliefs is
crucial when developing the instruction for career planning education in Chinese high schools. Career planning programs exist, but the perceptions of high school administrators and
head teachers regarding the current implementation and effectiveness of such programs have not
been studied. Their needs to strengthen career planning education are also unknown. The
research questions aim to investigate these areas through the perspectives of key stakeholders to
better understand challenges and opportunities for improving career education for Chinese high
school students. Addressing gaps identified could help align education with student and market
needs. Purpose of the Study
This study aimed to understand from the perspective of head teachers and school
administrators in public high schools in China the status and efficiency of career planning
education. The purpose of this study was to explore the viewpoint of these key stakeholders
regarding the administration and education of career planning programs in school and understand
their particular needs to promote and enhance the provision and learning of viable career
planning curricula and instruction in their school settings. The study intends to offer a broad
perspective on the challenges and prospects for the delivery of career planning education in high
schools in China. The Communist Party of China has previously placed importance on career
planning education at the university level but has given little or no importance to career planning

4
education at the high school level as more emphasis was given towards preparing students for the
National College Entrance Examination, Gaokao (Shen 2021; Xiao et al., 2018). At the same
time, years in high school are the most important for physical, mental, and career student
advancement (Xie, Huang & Law, 2019). It is a crucial stage where a student gets to discover
something that they love to do, or has a knack for, or what the person could possibly do in the
future. Nevertheless, the advancement of education for high school career planning continues to
be limited and given minimal attention (Shen, 2021; Xiao et al., 2018). This study sought to
understand current trends and general perceptions toward career planning education by focusing
on head teachers and school administrators to fill gaps left by previous studies. The study
examined how career planning education is infused into high school. The study further assessed the perceived effectiveness of existing career planning
programs. Research grounded in the Chinese context suggests that the majority of high school
students fail to select appropriate subjects and are equivocal about their college and major by
their final year of senior high school (Xie et al., 2019). Finally, the study looked at the resources
and supports needed by educators to boost career planning education’s effectiveness. The following questions guided the study:
RQ1. What do public high school head teachers and school administrators in
China perceive as the current status of career planning in their schools?
RQ2. How do head teachers and administrators perceive the effectiveness of
functioning and execution of career planning education in their schools?
RQ3. What do head teachers and administrators see as their needs to further
implement career planning curriculum and pedagogy in their classrooms and schools?

5
Significance of the Study
The importance of this study resides in the opportunity to identify directions to connect
the current practices in education to the demands of career education and counselling for Chinese
high school students. Being a form of education, career planning is primarily delivered at the
university level and receives scant attention in Chinese high schools (Shen, 2021; Xiao et al., 2018). This study fills an important gap in education that has a pervasive and profound impact on
students’ academic and career outcomes. In this way, the study has a clear and specific purpose
of capturing the current status of, and assessing the effectiveness of, career planning education
from the perceptions of head teachers and administrators who are currently implementing such
programs. Chinese high schools are far from on par with other nations as far as career studies are
concerned, and this has had serious implications on the part of the students (Lin, 2011; Xie et al., 2019). Therefore, by acknowledging these issues and understanding them through the
perspective of key stakeholders, this study can propose ways in which to develop a more robust
approach to implementing career planning programs in order to assist students in their
understanding of their strengths and interests and career paths more effectively (Albay & Serbes, 2017; Guichard, 2001). Students' socialization in high school is a crucial time for adolescents to develop a
worldview, and viewpoints on life and morals, and to learn, investigate, and experiment with
their future profession (Xiao et al., 2018). Awareness of the current status of career planning and
teacher and administrator needs to further the current status are important in formulating
strategies for intervention that would improve the delivery of career-planning education in senior
high schools. Further, educational policy and practice-based conclusions can be derived based on
the study’s results. China continues to experience educational reforms, and it strives to deliver

6
career education in ways that respond to industrial and technological changes (Wang & Wang, 2020; Xie et al., 2019). This study offers insights that can be useful to the improvement of
policies and educational practices. This study can contribute to the body of knowledge seeking to
close existing gaps and ultimately assist China in its economic development endeavors while
preparing the student population for future success. Definitions
Regular High School. In most instances, high school is the final educational stage before
attending university (Ross & Wang, 2010). In mainland China, high schools include full-time
regular high schools, vocational secondary professional schools, and technical schools. The term
regular high school (also known as common senior middle school, or Gaozhong 高中) used in
this paper refers to the higher level of high school education received after the completion of the
nine-year compulsory education. Compulsory education consists of six years of primary
education and three years of junior secondary education (also known as Chuzhong 初中), beginning at the age of six and usually ending at the age of fifteen. Students can enter regular
high school, which usually takes three years to complete, after which they can apply to
universities by taking college entrance exams (Zhang, 2016). National College Entrance Examination (NCEE). The National Unified Examination
for the enrollment of colleges and universities is an annual test that is administered from June 7
to June 10 for the purpose of enrolling students in colleges and universities. According to the
statistics of CGTN (2018), over 9.75 million students enrolled to take the test in 2018. Candidates for the examination have to be full-time high school graduates and Chinese citizens
with the same educational background. Several terms in English have been used to refer to this
concept, including National College Entrance Examination (NCEE), National Higher Education

7
Entrance Examination, National Matriculation Examination, and GaoKao (transliterated for “college entrance examination”). It is a selective examination for regular high school graduates
and candidates, organized and arranged by the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of
China (Zhang, 2016). According to the “examination outline” promulgated by the Ministry of
Education, the test is proposed by the examination center of the Ministry of Education or the
provincial Education Examination Institute that implements independent propositions (Davey et
al., 2007). The Ministry of Education stipulates that the titles of the subjects in the province
(autonomous region, municipality) examination be the same as the names of the subjects in the
national examination and that the timetable of the national test is consistent. It is a closed-book
examination, and the subjects vary according to the individual's choice. The obligatory subjects
are Chinese, Mathematics and Foreign Languages. The conventional NCEE paradigm separated
candidates into liberal arts and science. In addition to obligatory subjects, students were expected
to complete liberal arts comprehensive (containing ideology and political science, history, and
geography) or scientific comprehensive (encompassing biology, chemistry, and physics). Differently, the new NCEE mode adopts “3+3” or “3+1+2” mode, and students have certain
rights to choose subjects. NCEE Reform. The NCEE reform in China originates from the thirst for innovative
talents in China’s economic development (Xiong, 2023). In 2014, the Chinese government
released “Implementation Views on Deepening the Reform of the Examination and Enrollment
System.” It is one of the major components of education reform and puts forth the general
direction of “classified examination, thorough assessment, multiple admission” (Burkhoff, 2015). Specifically, the new NCEE will maintain the unified test for Chinese, Mathematics, and English
as before. However, the English subject will be offered two test opportunities, and the higher

8
score will count towards the overall score. Instead of the separation between the arts and sciences
as in the past, there will be no subjects that are designated for students. The examination subjects
that count towards the final score for academic competency will be chosen individually by
applicants based on university requirements and their own interests or specialties in ideological
and political science, history, geography, physics, chemistry, biology, and other subjects. The
reform is known as the “new national college entrance examination” reform since it is more
thorough and extensive than prior reforms (Burkhoff, 2015). Organization of the Study
This research is divided into five chapters. Chapter One provided readers with the
necessity and importance of implementing career planning education in high schools. Some
related concepts were expounded, and the research problem, research questions, and the
importance of the study were explained. The second chapter is a study of the literature to
conceptually expand the understanding of career planning education. Chapter Three describes the
research design and methods, including the study setting and participant sample selection, data
collecting, and analysis. The fourth chapter will present the findings of the study. Chapter Five
will analyze the research findings within scholarly literature and the theoretical framework
guiding the study, provide recommendations for practice to assist high schools in better
implementing and carrying out career education curricula, and present areas for future research.

9
Chapter Two: Literature Review
This chapter provides a general review of China’s New College Entrance Examination
(NCEE) reform and career planning education, as the foundation for this study’s aim to better
understand the status of career planning education in four high schools in Suzhou City within
Jiangsu Province. The chapter will begin with an overview of the Chinese educational system
and the national college entrance test, followed by an overview of the national unified selection
examination with Chinese features. It will next define the substance of the NCEE reform, such as
changes to the form and content of NCEE and adjustments to admission procedures. Then, the
literature review will expand on the concept of career planning education, including its definition, origins, and evolution, as well as the relevance and present state of career planning education in
Chinese high school classrooms. Based on the practical demands of integrating career planning
education into the high school classroom, this chapter will also analyze the historical overview of
career planning education in some Western countries, including the development processes, theoretical bases, educational content, implementation methods and mechanisms. The chapter
concludes with the theoretical framework, Holland’s Career Development Theory, guiding the
study, with the theoretical traceability of integrating career planning education into the classroom. Overview of the New College Entrance Examination Reform
In China, there is a gap between high school education and tertiary education. Traditionally, high school education in China, which is test-driven, has solely focused on helping
students pass exams and get into colleges, without paying attention to students’ personal
preferences and career knowledge (Zhang, 2016). The overemphasis on academic success, along
with parents' roles focused on academics, has resulted in the school system emphasizing
children's academic performance while ignoring other elements of their development (Liu et al.,

10
2014). As a result, the mainland Chinese education system has failed to adequately prepare
young people to enter higher education and further enter the workforce, particularly in the
context of vast economic and social development (Shen, 2021). This has resulted in the
admission of many students to universities, some of them including straight-A students, who
then drop out of even the most prestigious universities as they have not had the time to
investigate their own interests or a desired major and career path (Burkhoff, 2015). This
phenomenon highlighted gaps in career planning and preparation within the high school system. As part of addressing these issues, China has recently reformed its college entrance exam (NCEE)
process.However, little is known about how high school administrators and teachers perceive the
implementation and effectiveness of career planning programs within their schools under this
new system (Brown & Lent, 2016). Their views on further strengthening career preparation for
students could provide important insights toward more successful alignment of secondary and
post-secondary education pathways. This study aims to understand these stakeholder
perspectives as part of efforts to evaluate career education reforms in China. Major Changes in China’s New National College Entrance Examination
The implementation opinions of the State Council on deepening the reform of the
examination and enrollment system were released in 2014, and since then, there has been a
significant change in the regulations governing college admission exams. The reform gives
students greater freedom and personalization when selecting their majors and examination
subjects for the new college admission examination system. This cycle of college entrance exam
reform is referred to as a “comprehensive reform” since it involves not just changes to test
formats and questions but also changes to how students are trained overall via the chain of

11
instruction, testing, and enrolling. It has an impact on not just the reform of high school
education but also college and university enrolment, as well as professional training programs
(Yuesheng & Chenghua, 2019). The traditional college entrance exam and the revamped college
entrance exam differ significantly, mainly in the following three aspects:
(1) Modifications in the form and content of the examination;
(2) Adjustments of the admission mechanism; and
(3) Highlighting the significance of comprehensive quality education. China's recent college entrance exam (NCEE) reforms allow greater student choice in
majors and subjects. This impacts the chain of instruction, testing, and enrollment at secondary
and tertiary levels. However, the perspectives of high school administrators and teachers
regarding career planning provisions under these reforms remain unknown. How do they view
current career education status and effectiveness in their schools? Their needs to strengthen
curriculum and instruction to better support students' career preparation and alignment with
further education are unclear. Modifications in the Form and Content of the Examination
The structure and content of the college entrance exam have undergone various revisions. Most importantly, there is no longer the separation in the liberal arts and sciences section, marking the most significant difference in the reform. Students have the ability to make their
subject selection with the restrictions on the conventional science examination of "Physics, Chemistry and Biology" and the liberal arts examination of "History, Geography, and Politics" being lifted. In addition to the three obligatory topics of Chinese, Math, and Foreign Language
(in most cases it is English), students in the college entrance test now can pick three of the seven
academic level examination subjects to build their own examination strategy. Moreover, the "one

12
exam for life" approach has also evolved, and students now have access to several test chances. For instance, most provinces allow each candidate to take the English exam twice (Chen et al., 2022). According to current statistics, more than 70% of applicants have chosen a novel mix of
disciplines, and their particular interests and prospective traits have been adequately expressed in
their choice of test subjects (Li & Tong, 2023). The diversification of student options has brought about an array of positive
developments. First, students are not restricted to particular liberal arts or scientific subjects, and
the blending and collision of liberal arts and scientific thought contributes to the overall quality
of education (Li & Tong, 2023). According to Yuesheng and Chenghua (2019), no division of
arts and sciences will cultivate well-rounded learners and foster new talents who are
interdisciplinary and skilled at resolving complex issues. Secondly, Due to the reform, students
now have more diverse and interest-based growth opportunities. They can choose from a broader
range of subject combinations for their majors, with the decisions being made by the students
themselves (Yuesheng & Chenghua, 2019). This means that after the reform, students have more
options and flexibility in choosing their subjects, allowing them to tailor their education
according to their interests and goals. In this regard, students have been given more power over
their own future career pathways and professional lives. Their motivation and desire to learn is
successfully sparked by additional choice in subject matter testing, which then guides their
university applications and other pathways following high school (Chen et al., 2022; Locke &
Latham, 2002). China's college entrance exam reforms allow students more choice of subjects. However, high school administrators' and teachers' views on how these changes affect career planning
provisions and student support are unknown. Do they see the exam changes as supportive of

13
career education goals? How do the new options influence delivery and perceived effectiveness
of career curricula and guidance in their schools? Their assessment of student impacts could
offer insights. Educator needs for strengthening career programming amid education
transformations require exploration. This study aims to understand stakeholder viewpoints to
help ensure student career preparation and pathways are appropriately addressed during this
period of change. Adjustments of the Admission Mechanism
Prior to the reform, students were accepted to a university with their overall college
entrance exam score serving as the de facto benchmark. The reform aims to understand how head
teachers and administrators perceive career planning education in their schools. It examines their
views on the current status of career planning and its effectiveness. It also explores their needs to
further implement career planning (Brown & Lent, 2016). Administrators may provide insights
on how the new admission mechanism by major rather than exam scores help support students' professional choices and career planning. However, they may also identify challenges in guiding
students and resourcing different majors. Their perspectives are valuable for refining policies and
determining strategies to better fulfill the goal of cultivating students' interests and preparing
them for future careers. Highlighting the Significance of Comprehensive Quality Education
The admission system and the examination assessment system are the two fundamental
components of China's new college entrance examination system. The admission system is a set
of guidelines for the distribution of higher education admissions, which includes two categories:
unified admission dominated and executed by the nation and functional departments, and
independent enrollment dominated by colleges and universities. It helps meet students'

14
professional ambitions when used in conjunction with complete assessment materials rather than
basing candidate selection just on NCEE scores (Chen et al., 2022). This highlights the
significance of comprehensive, quality, education assessments for career planning. Head teachers
and administrators could provide insights into how their schools currently evaluate students' holistic development and interests outside academics. The revised admission system considers
more than exam scores, but administrators may find it challenging implementing quality
assessments at their level. Their perspectives on the effectiveness of such evaluations in guiding
career choices would be valuable. They could also identify needs to better track students' talents, social engagement, and well-being over time. More support may be needed to help teachers
identify specialties and support professional ambitions. Their input can aid developing
assessment tools and training to strengthen career planning. Implications of NCEE Reform
Career planning has progressed to the high school level under the NCEE reform. The
General Office of the State Council published the Guidance Opinion on Promoting the Reform of
Regular High School Education Mode in the New Era in 2019, that has further outlined the main
objectives of the reform of the regular high school education mode and made it clear that
attention needs to be paid to the guidance provided to students regarding their ideals, psychology, learning, and life and career planning with enhanced guidance mechanisms. Promotes the Implementation of Career Planning Education
The most distinguishable feature of NCEE is the advancement of career decision-making
by providing students with the initiative to choose their testing subjects as early as the first year
of high school or even the beginning of high school admission, which drives high schools to
prioritize and implement career planning education (Xiong, 2023). On the other hand, it also sets

15
higher expectations for students to “make good choices” and “plan life,” to have a better
understanding of their own personalities, traits, and academic advantages, to gradually
comprehend the relationship between their current learning and their future development, and to
be able to develop the relationship between personal expertise and future career development
(Kram, 1985; Super, 1990). The NCEE reform emphasizes career planning education in high
schools. Head teachers and administrators could offer their views on how this has influenced
their schools' approach. They may identify current challenges in implementing career-focused
classes and guidance. Insights on effective practices and additional support needed to better
execute career planning pedagogy could aid policymakers in addressing gaps to fulfill the goal of
well-informed student career decision-making. The reform of NCEE has brought attention to the significance of career planning
education and professional cognition in high school (Li & Tong, 2023). Following the reform, a
number of curricular modifications have been implemented in high schools around the nation. For instance, Wuhan No. 20 Middle School committed four million yuan in the development of
software and technology to provide all high school students with access to career preparation
classes. Statistics show that Hubei Province has trained 1,632 suitable instructors since the career
planning instructor training program for high school students began in 2018. Since 2017, the
“Career Coach” training program has been running in Beijing Dongcheng District in an effort to
develop the career education instructors. The school assembled a core team of subject-matter
experts, psychologists, and senior administrators to take part in training sessions and frequent
meetings to discuss ideas and enhance the career education curriculum as a whole. In Grade 10, the curriculum has a focus on career cognition; in Grade 11, it places an emphasis on career
exploration; and in Grade 12, it includes classes on career development.

16
Highlights the Role of Comprehensive Quality Evaluation
A critical implication of the NCEE reform is its use of a comprehensive quality
evaluation of high school students as the reference basis of college enrollment. The concept of
comprehensive quality evaluation was first proposed in the National Basic Education Reform
Experimental Reform Guiding Opinions in 2014, which determines the specific components of
comprehensive quality evaluation: moral character, civic quality, learning capacity, communication and collaboration, sports and health, aesthetics, and performance. Administrators
could offer their views on how comprehensive quality evaluations are currently conducted in
their schools to assess students' holistic growth. They may find it challenging to adequately track
multiple talents. Insights on effectively integrating such assessments into career guidance
conversations and addressing resource constraints would help strengthen this important element
of the reforms. Their needs and experiences could aid developing standardized and practical
tools. Career Planning Education
The notion of “career education” was initially introduced in 1971 and was later defined by
the United States Department of Education as “a comprehensive education plans that focuses on
people's entire career, from the aspects of vocational exploration, orientation, cognition, preparation, proficiency, and so on, so that students can acquire independent living skills and
establish a human life form” (Hoyt, 1972). According to Guichard (2001), career education is not
the task of a certain stage of education, but a systematic, continuous, and dynamic
comprehensive education process that runs through all stages of education with purpose, planning, and organization. Various activities and objectives must be established in accordance
with the age-specific traits, training goals, and cognitive capacities of pupils at various times.

17
This study examines Chinese public high school administrators' and head teachers' views
on career planning. It aims to gain their insights on the current approach, effectiveness of
implementation, and needs for improvement. Administrators can provide valuable perspectives
on how well career guidance supports students and what else is needed to strengthen
programming. Their feedback will aid enhancing career education and preparation. Career
planning is the process of deciding on a personal profession and establishing personal
development objectives from a scientific standpoint, based upon the individual’s personal
interests and hobbies as well as on the basis of cognition and appraisal of one's own ability
(Albay & Serbes, 2017). Career planning education refers to educational endeavors that may
enhance personal quality and ability on the basis of a clear career plan, along with a set of
professional development goals, the internal and external environment, and other factors to
guarantee the effective accomplishment of career development (Albay & Serbes, 2017; Savickas, 2005). Typically, it can be understood from the following dimensions:
● Career planning is comprehensive and spans a broad spectrum of subject matters. ● It is an ever-changing and continuous-evolving process. It is not a one-time event, but
rather supported by ongoing personal career growth. ● Clarifying the individual career goals is necessary prior to carrying out career planning
education. Following that, relevant education plans should be formulated and
implemented in line with the specification. ● Career planning education necessitates the support from external environments, such as
educational institutions, teachers, curriculum systems, and so on.

18
● The expansion of the economy and society not only opens up more employment options
and a broader path of professional development, but also places additional expectations
on individuals, necessitating constant career education (Albay & Serbes, 2017). The Historical Background of Career Planning Education in China
After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, a planned economy with a
high degree of centralization was promoted (Guo et al., 2019). The planned economy system
managed and controlled the production, consumption, and life of the society, and adopted
methods such as unified distribution of work to implement social management (Guo et al., 2019). Under the guarantee of an "iron rice bowl", people could support their old age and have no
worries in the future. Individuals did not need to carry out career planning, and even if they did, it would have no practical implementation, as they would eventually obey the distribution of the
government (Hannum & Park, 2007). In 1993, the CPC Central Committee and The State Council promulgated the Outline of
China's Education Reform and Development, which proposed the reform of the employment
system and the implementation of "two-way choice" and independent career choice. Establishing
related employment guidance services, such as talent demand information, employment
counseling and guidance, and job introduction, played a role in this climate (Sun, 2010). Theoretical study has progressively become more in-depth, and career education in China has
received more attention as it has transitioned from a traditional job and entrepreneurship advice
stage to a stage that reflects contemporary career education (Dello-Iacovo, 2009). Subsequently, the career planning theory of Western countries was introduced into China, which exerted a huge
influence on the development of career planning education and human resource management in
enterprises (Liu et al., 2014).

19
Career planning education in China has evolved from a focus on collective societal needs
under a planned economy to emphasizing individual interests and abilities within a market
system (Guo et al., 2019; Hannum & Park, 2007; Sun, 2010). While such education expanded in
higher education, the 2014 changes to the college entrance exam prompted greater attention to
career guidance in high schools by promoting student choice and broader talent development
(Burkhoff, 2015; Frame, 2020). However, literature on administrators' perspectives is limited. This study aims to address this gap by understanding how they view current career planning
status and effectiveness in their schools from implementation of guidance programs to
pedagogical needs. Their insights can provide valuable data to evaluate policy goals and inform
future career education reforms. New college entrance examination standards were announced in
2014 to boost high school students' freedom of choice and to encourage broader talent selection
(Burkhoff, 2015). The implementation of this policy intends to promote quality education by
optimizing the enrollment system in order to disrupt the status quo of exam-oriented education, which has also made career planning education a critical topic in recent years (Frame, 2020). History of Career Planning Education in Western Countries: The Example of the United
States
The United States was the first country to develop career guidance and counseling, and it
is also currently one of the most advanced countries in career development (Chen, 2003;
Savickas, 2005). Its theoretical achievements are mature, and it has a wealth of practical
experience. It is possible to comprehend the evolution and peculiarities of career education in
Western countries by analyzing it in the United States. Career planning education has evolved
extensively in Western countries like the United States (Chen, 2003). In the early 1900s,

20
guidance focused on vocational matching but shifted to a holistic student-centered approach
emphasizing self-exploration and lifelong learning (Guichard, 2001; Jones, 1994; Super, 1976). In the United States, career education includes primary school students, middle school
students, and college students. In the United States, the theoretical underpinning of career
planning education is developed, with broad content, diverse methodologies, and developed
mechanisms. In the United States, career education has gone through three stages: career
guidance, career coaching, and career planning education (Guichard, 2001). Career guidance in
the United States began at the end of the nineteenth century. The rapid development of the
economy, the continual advancement of science and technology, the change in industrial
structure, the rapid spread of urbanization, and related employment problems all grew more
prominent. Simultaneously, aspects of psychology emerged, such that in 1905, intelligence tests
were established, advancing the prospects of career guidance. In 1909, Parsons developed the
trait and factor theory to help people find the right occupation in his book Choosing a Career, which marked the beginning of career counseling theory (Jones, 1994). By the 1970s, career
planning education emerged in American schools, integrating academic and career preparations
(Herr, 2001). The concept recognized students as active decision-makers and stressed connecting
education and career (Rogers & Creed, 2011; Super & Jordaan, 1973; Super, 1980). Following the Second World War, social and economic changes, as well as the
development of psychological theory, aided in the development of career guidance theory, and
career guidance has subsequently undergone significant changes, shifting from an initial
emphasis on vocational material analysis to a greater emphasis on personal characteristics
(Guichard, 2001). Super (1976) suggested that with the development of people's personality, career guidance should not only provide career information or match individuals with jobs but

21
should focus on individual development and emphasize people's value and potential. Super's
contention of blending the personal and professional components of coaching, introducing the
notion of career into career development and career choice, and integrating career counseling
into the growth of a person's life, marked the transition from career guiding to career planning
consulting (Savickas, 2005; Super, 1980). In 1971, the director of the Federal Education Agency
of the United States, Sidney Marland, put forward the idea of career planning education at the
annual meeting of the National Association of High Schools, hoping to address the problems of
dropout, unemployment, and social unrest, and achieve the purpose of reforming education at
that time. By the end of the 1970s, career planning education was practiced in 9,300 school
districts across the United States, accounting for half of all school districts in the country. Career
planning education integrates knowledge and self-exploration taught in school with actions of
future work, primarily supporting students in understanding the relationship between educational
content and future work choices (Kram, 1985). Based on the fundamental concept of lifelong
education, the government enacted the School Work Opportunities Act in 1994, with the goal of
providing career preparation for all students, from preschool to college to assist students to adapt
to the rapidly developing information society and the wave of globalization (Guichard, 2001). While theoretical foundations developed, limited research has examined administrators' perspectives in China's evolving system. This study aims to address this by investigating how
Chinese high school leaders currently view career planning status, effectiveness of
implementation, and needs for strengthening curriculum and guidance in their schools. It
emphasizes the value of people's learning, development, willingness, and motivation, the
relevance of people's self-determination in their own life development, and the importance of
education providing individuals with more freedom in career choice, including knowledge, skills,

22
and attitudes (Locke & Latham, 2002). Secondly, career planning education connects education
with a career, and pays attention to a person's life development. Planning education is based on
the idea of dynamic and continuous development (Super & Jordaan, 1973; Super, 1980). Thirdly, the concept of career planning education embraces a holistic view of treating individuals' progress. Everyone in society has to fulfill many social roles and has multiple life zones. Career
planning education recognizes the importance of occupations and career lives and typically
views them as the primary axis of career development (Savickas, 2005; Super, 1980). At the
same time, it is highlighted that career development should not be isolated but should stand in
the position of the human being as a whole, comprehensively examining the role of multiple
roles and their mutual conflict and coordination, and on this basis obtaining an internalized
subjective recognition of the meaning of life towards career (Rogers & Creed, 2011; Super, 1980). The Importance and Impacts of Career Planning Education in High Schools
According to Hansen (1976), development is defined as a “continuous lifelong process of
developmental experiences that focuses on seeking, obtaining and processing information about
self, occupational and educational alternatives, lifestyles and role options.” It is essential that
school systems assist and consider the significance of this responsibility for their students and
their future. The influences on and outcomes of career development are one aspect of
socialization as part of a broader process of human development (McWhirter et al., 2002;
Savickas, 2005). Literature has demonstrated that career planning education programs have a favorable
influence on high school students' attitudes toward career planning as well as adolescents' readiness to make professional selections (Brown & Lent, 2016; Shen, 2021). Research has

23
shown that students who lack access to career education classes are more likely to experience
uncertainty about their future and have no clear career goals (Albay & Serbes, 2017; Gu et al., 2020). This can impact their perception of what is realistically achievable, as well as their subject
choices in high school, potentially leading them to select courses that are not well-suited for their
abilities or desired career pathways (Albay & Serbes, 2017). Contrastingly, individuals with
stronger career determination took more electives in high school and chose their majors based on
their interests or intended occupations (Gu et al., 2020). Students who exhibited consistency
between their career interests and specific subject choices also had greater motivation in
schoolwork and improvement in their approach to learning (Xiao et al., 2018; Locke & Latham, 2002). Literature has also established the importance of career planning education in high
schools. Studies show it improves students' attitudes, readiness for career choices, and
confidence in decision-making (Albay & Serbes, 2017; Gu et al., 2020; Shen, 2021). The significance and effects of career planning in high schools can be illustrated by
looking at several instances worldwide. For instance, in Finland, high schools provide seminars
on career planning that focus on improving adolescents’ career choice preparedness (Koivisto et
al., 2011). Career choice preparedness refers to the readiness to take advantage of career
resources or to deal with barriers when making career choices (Gysbers, 2013). In the seminar, the career coach guides the students to develop their career plans by defining personal interests
and strengths and comparing them with the educational and career options offered in society. When implemented effectively through targeted counseling, classes, and career activities, it
enhances career adaptability and preparedness for college and work by helping students link
interests to course selections and develop clear plans (Berger et al., 2019; Chiesa et al., 2016;
Koivisto et al., 2011; Stipanovic et al., 2017; Xie et al., 2019). However, research has not

24
explored administrator perspectives in China to understand implementation challenges and
strengths. This study aims to address this by investigating Chinese leaders' views on current
career planning status, execution effectiveness, and needs in their schools (Brown & Lent, 2016). The Status Quo of Career Planning Education in Chinese High Schools
According to the literature, not only do senior high school students have deficiencies in
their own career planning ability and consciousness, but teachers also lack cognition of students' career planning education, and schools fail to actively and effectively carry out targeted career
planning education activities oriented to students' development characteristics (Chen et al., 2022;
Xiong, 2023; Zhou et al.,2016). Specifically, Zheng (2011) used a variety of research methods to
conduct data statistics and found that the situation of career planning education in high schools is
not satisfactory, students' self-positioning is not accurate enough, they are more blind when
choosing majors, and they have a prominent utilitarianism tendency when choosing careers. Zheng (2011) asserted that the following factors are the main contributors to these difficulties: a
society that does not value career planning education; legal and financial protection that is
insufficient; and a lack of qualified instructors and useful teaching resources. The reform of the Chinese National College Entrance Examination system launched in
2014 signals an important event influencing the provision of career planning education in
Chinese high schools. After the reform, there has been an expansion of the delivery of career
planning courses which previously only occurred at the college level. However, a recent poll of
254 seniors in high school in Guangdong Province found that only 11% of students had made
plans for the future and that 65% of students had a comprehensive understanding of colleges and
vocations (Lin, 2021). A career development analysis in the Programme for International
Student Assessment (cite, date) also discovered that high school students from Shanghai, Hong

25
Kong, and Macao in China had a lower proportion of participation in career-related activities, such as attending a job fair at school and speaking with employers, when compared to several
other foreign countries. Furthermore, the aim of including career planning education in the
curriculum is frequently ambiguous in comparison to the primary concentration on academic
success (Fan & Leong, 2016). In the Chinese educational setting, many students and parents
assume that admittance to top colleges guarantees students a high-quality job after graduation. Similarly, some students consider that vocational practice activities are detrimental to academic
advancement and a waste of time, though research has consistently shown that such courses have
a positive impact on academic achievement (Lee, 2017). Current literature highlights deficiencies in career planning education and guidance for
Chinese high school students. Studies have found a lack of accurate self-awareness, clear major
and career choices, and involvement in career-related activities compared to other countries
(Chen et al., 2022; Lin, 2021; Xiong, 2023; Zhou et al.,2016). While the 2014 college entrance
exam reforms expanded career planning courses, many students and parents still prioritize
academic success over vocational preparation (Fan & Leong, 2016; Lee, 2017). However, these
studies do not examine administrator perspectives on the status of efforts in their own schools, implementation effectiveness, and needs such as overcoming resource constraints or changing
perceptions. This research aims to address this gap. Theoretical Underpinnings of Career Education for Senior High Schools in China
Theories provide a lens or representation into reality. They are not reality itself, but they
provide some part of reality to help comprehend a phenomenon (Krumboltz, 1994). Career
development theories provide a lens into understanding the purposes and implementation of high
school career education in China. There are three main categories in the theory of career

26
planning education based on the deduction of time and the significance: selection theory, development theory, and social learning theory (Savickas, 2005). These theoretical investigations
are what lead people to transition from the conventional pure vocational education and guidance
to career planning education, making career development a significant area of student
development research and school education, and giving career education its technical scope and
specific application as a scientific foundation (Savickas, 2005). Choice Theory of Career Planning
Career planning education is often regarded as a point-in-time event that occurs at a
specific period in a person's life (Jones, 1994). For individuals at a relatively fixed time point, the
matching between people and work environment was a central concern of early career planning
education research. Frank Parsons’s Trait and Factor Theory
The Personality-Job Matching Theory, also referred to as the Trait and Factor Theory, was
methodically expressed in publications by Parsons in the early 20th century. The theory
recognizes that individuals differ, and each occupation has different requirements for workers' ability, knowledge, skills, character, temperament, and psychological quality due to its different
work nature, environment, conditions, and modes (Parsons, 1909). As a result, the necessary
employment types may be further clarified through research and studies on the needs of
personality traits of distinct occupation kinds (Parsons, 1909; Nikolaou, 2003). Parsons’ theory
can prove to be beneficial in establishing how career planning education can assist students to
get the best out of their paths given the new college entrance exam system in China. The research
questions focus on educators’ perception towards the integration of career guidance with
students’ character, preferences and prospects. Based on the concepts derived from Parsons’

27
theory, high schools could learn then degree to which current career planning interventions
enhance students’ understanding of their personality profiles and how well they fit specific
career options. Analyzing the practices, such as personality assessments and job shadowing, in
the context of Parsons’ theory may help understand how the connection between students’ subjective contexts and objective job information can be enhanced. The needs identified from
administrators and teachers may suggest the integration of trait and factor analysis into curricula. For example, individualized career guidance that explains assessment scores and discusses
compatible college majors/industries would help students make decisions under the new exam
pressures more effectively. Consequently, applying Parsons’ framework to improve the high
school career planning in China may help improve the personality-job match needed for
transitioning to post-secondary education and employment (Savickas, 2005). John Holland’s Personality Type Theory
Based on Parsons' work, American scholar John Holland proposed the personality type
theory in the late 1950s, which advanced the philosophy of personality-job matching to a new
level of development and posed a significant influence on the development of talent evaluation. Holland’s theory is believed to be an established and practical career counseling aid and has been
accepted and tested by many scholars (Antony, 1998; Batool et al., 2022; Hogan & Holland, 2003). According to Holland's theory, humans may be classified into six personality types known
as Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, And Conventional (RIASEC). In his
book Making Vocational Choices, Holland (1985) scientifically delineated six personality types
and corresponding vocations of each type using rigorous psychological assessment procedures
and methodologies, as shown in Figure 1 below.

28
Figure 1
Holland (1985)’s Six Personality Types
According to Personality Type Theory, the process of career development is essentially a
process of career choice (Ramadhani, 2020). As a theory on personality type, Holland’s
Personality Type Theory is most applicable for analyzing how Chinese high schools teach career
planning. Holland classified six personality types (RIASEC) and careers linking personality and
job. These aspects complement and are concerned with the perceptions that educators have about
their respective schools in relation to linking students’ traits to suitable paths. Holland asserted
that career development involves three essential tasks: self-awareness, vocational knowledge, and combining both. This process indicates the direction towards which China’s career planning
can be evaluated. For example, Current practices may not be sufficient for presenting high school

29
students with each of the tasks identified by Holland. According to Holland’s process, school
administrators and teachers may encounter challenges when trying to integrate personality
assessments with career exploration activities, and they should provide information on these
difficulties. Holland pointed out that in career planning, an individual has to consider personality
characteristics, work environment, and adaptability elements. The needs identified from
educators in enhancing career planning curriculum and implementation could be related to how
to translate Holland’s multidimensional model for students in search of post-secondary education
paths after the new exam. By adopting the models of personality-job matching, theoretical
foundations are created to guide the choice of paths for the Chinese youth (Fouad & Bynner, 2008; Hogan & Holland, 2003). Implication of Choice Theory for Career Planning Education in China’s High Schools
To summarize, an effective career planning education program must include the
following critical elements based on Trait and Factor Theory and Personality Type Theory. First, it stresses functional skill learning, which means that students must learn skills that they will
need and be able to apply in their future careers. A variety of resources should be made available
to help students connect with and comprehend information about various careers, such as
educational requirements, personality requirements, professional attributes, assessment
objectives, and development prospects. Second, everything that students have learned in school
and class must be put into practice as much as possible and fully utilized in their everyday social
life. That is, students should take part in field experiences and internships at a workplace to help
them further identify and match their individual traits with those professions that they are drawn
to (Ramadhani, 2020). Third, as far as possible, the demands of the social and professional
environment should be fostered and trained in schools including advising college students on

30
proper professional ethics and vocational concepts, strategies and methods for career planning, skills and tactics for dealing with interpersonal connections in the workplace, and how to
integrate into the occupational and social communities. Development Theory of Career Planning
Super’s Development Theory (date) offers a dynamic perspective for understanding how
the career planning education offered in Chinese high schools fosters students’ developmental
changes and their progress in career self-organization. Unlike the one-time static matching of
individuals to careers as proposed by choice theory, development theory focuses on the dynamic
process of career identification and responsibility taking as people grow. This study can help
educators pinpoint whether students’ continuing developmental needs are adequately addressed
by the school career programs during the exploration, establishment, and stabilization phases. For example, do such initiatives vary in terms of their nature and intensity to reflect students’ cognitive developments and processes? By focusing on career guidance as a developmental
process, rather than the selection point only, the administrators might find ways to enhance the
career development instruction and curriculum year to year. The developmental perspective also
implies the need for enhanced career counseling support under various pressures from the new
national examination across different high school levels. In sum, enhancing career planning with
Super’s ideas could be more effective for students’ changing self-identity and career route
mapping. (Super, 1953; Super & Jordaan, 1973; Super, 1980). Super’s Life-Career Rainbow
Super (1980) later expanded and refined Ginzberg’s theory. According to Super, who was
influenced by Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of needs, people should consider the needs of
roles other than their own, as well as the pre- and post-occupation phases of the professional

31
process. Super constructed a thorough graph of the evolution of several roles that he referred to
as the "Life-career Rainbow" (shown as Figure 2 below) based on the roles played at various
times of a person's life. Figure 2
Life-career Rainbow by Donald E. Super
In the "Life-career Rainbow," the horizontal direction represents the life course of the
individual across the whole life, and the extension of the rainbow represents the different stages
in the process of career development (Savickas, 2005). The division of each step has no set time
limit and varies from person to person. The individual's various life roles are represented at the
vertical level. The combination of the many functions, which vary or overlap one another, creates the individual's particular career type. The success or failure of playing a particular
corner color may have comparable consequences on other corner colors for different players due

32
to the interaction between various corner colors. The career rainbow chart's shadows illustrate
the significance of various colors to different people. The important degree of each corner color
is affected by the person's experience, time, age, and social environment change at various
phases (Dacre Pool & Qualter, 2012; Okocha, 2001). On the whole, Super’s theory is a development theory with great expansibility. It not only
considers the age stage of growth but also the sub-stage of development and has a strong
explanatory capacity for the career development of different people (Savickas, 2005). Importantly, this theory places a high weight on psychological attributions and treats the notion
of the self as its central tenet, highlighting the significance of professional values, aptitude, and
interest, among other things, and it effectively reflects the key aspects of occupational
psychological attributions. In terms of career choice, it is a more comprehensive decision-making
model considering the psychological, physiological, social-economic, cultural and other aspects
than earlier theories. Implication of Development Theory for Career Planning Education in China’s High Schools
Career development theory regards individual career development as a continuous and
progressive process and regards people as having different roles and tasks at each age stage, emphasizing the formation and realization of the concept of career maturity and self-concept. High school age is mostly characterized by growth and exploration (McWhirter et al., 2005;
Savickas, 2005). During this period, individuals begin to think about their future career and the
task facing them and give this task the goal of hard work. During this period, interests, abilities
and values play a leading role. At this stage, young people are aware of the needs of work, interests, abilities, work rewards, values and time perspective; they integrate their abilities and
interests, further develop their values, specify their career choices, and form a fixed way of

33
working. Therefore, the objective factor has an important impact on the choice of occupation
(McWhirter et al., 2005). From the perspective of developing psychology, high school students are facing an
important transition in their life stage. After receiving education in basic knowledge and skills, they are about to enter college or future learning, choose a major, and prepare to take on personal
and social responsibilities (Mortimer et al., 2002). This period is the learning and exploration
stage in the early stage of personal career development (Savickas, 2005). During this period, reasonable planning of a career path will not only help to shorten the career adaptation period
and reduce the career trial and error process, but also help future career success and contribution
to society (Sampson et al, 2013). Social Learning Theory of Career Planning
The consideration of individual and social factors, which is central to the social learning
theory (Akers & Jennings, 2015), can be used to analyze the content of career planning education
in Chinese high schools. The theories address the fact that self-efficacy, interests, and
preferences change with time due to internal and external factors. Teachers may provide
information on how well the existing career programs assist students in developing self-identity
and outcomes expectations towards different careers. They can also discuss how social and
environmental factors in and outside school influence students’ career learning and decisions. Applying the analysis of personal traits and contextual factors discussed in SLT, the
administrators may reveal potential strategies for enhancing collaborative learning, embodied
practice, and social care within the career education curriculum and tools. Lastly, improving
career planning in line with this theoretical framework might help Chinese youth establish
coherent conceptions of self and preferences to guide their journey after high school. (McLeod,

34
2011). These characteristics combine with contextual elements to create some self-perceptions, which in turn affect how someone behaves at work (McLeod, 2011). Social Cognitive Career Theory
Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) is influenced by Bandura's social learning theory, which holds that self-efficacy, outcome expectation and goal setting are the core factors affecting
personal career development (Lent et al., 2002; Super, 1990). A person's expectation of the
results of engaging in a certain conduct is known as their outcome expectation. Like self-efficacy, outcome expectation is acquired via the accumulation of experience. The individual's present and
future activities are greatly impacted by goal setting. By establishing goals, individuals organize, direct, and uphold their own unique behavioral guidelines (Schaub & Tokar, 2005). Social cognitive career theory regards career choice and development as complex system
engineering, involving not only psychological constructs, but also social and economic
influences, and organically integrates social and economic factors into the theory of career self- efficacy formation and selection (Lent et al., 2002). In this theory, career choice is regarded as a
relatively open system. As for the role of vocational interest, vocational ability, and vocational
values on career choice, social cognitive career theory pays more attention to the reasons or
formation process, as well as the interrelation between various factors. As can be seen in the
model shown in Figure 3 below, psychological characteristics of personality and social factors
affect one's self-efficacy, outcome expectations and career goals, which ultimately influence
occupational choice behavior. Economic factors (such as employment opportunities and training
opportunities) will have an impact on the specific career choice behavior, so that the career
choice presents the characteristics of economic and social background (Schaub & Tokar, 2005). Career planning education in Chinese high schools is best understood and potential

35
improvements explored using social cognitive career theory. The theory offers a broad
perspective of the multiple factors that can affect career choice. Educators who are involved in
the implementation of career programs are better placed to determine the extent to which the
current approach enables students adopt self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations with
regard to economic and social realities. For instance, it could illuminate how factors present
within learners influence how they engage with and navigate experiential activities. To enhance
the career guidance, administrators may build on SCCT perspective of vocational choice as an
open system of exploration and trials with possible modification. Designing and individualizing
tools that frame students’ self-appraisal according to first paths selected and contextual
transformations could assist the youths to adjust their career plans in view of new post-secondary
environments. The strategies that integrate the concerns of personal characteristics and broader
contexts may be more effective at preparing students to engage options proactively. On the
whole, the proposed approach based on the SCCT’s multifaceted model implies considering the
complex interplay of psychological, economic, and social factors affecting Chinese students. Systemic has the prospect to enhance how high schools develop adaptable, knowledgeable career
management.

36
Figure 3
Schematic diagram of the Social Cognitive Career Model
Cognitive Information Processing Theory
Another theory related to the social learning theory of career planning was detailed in a
book by Gary Peterson, James Sampson, and Robert Reardon published in 1991 titled Career
Development and Service: A Cognitive Approach. Cognitive information processing theory is
based on eight hypotheses: (1) Career choices are based on how people think and feel; (2)
Making career choices is a problem-solving activity; (3) Career problem-solving skills are based
on what people solve and how they think; (4) Career decisions require a good memory; (5)
Career decisions need motivation; (6) Ongoing career development is part of lifelong learning
and growth; (7) Career development depends to a large extent on people's thinking and thinking
mode; (8) The quality of life depends on the degree to which people solve their career decisions
and career problems. Peterson et al. (1999), proposed a pyramid model of cognitive information
processing (shown as Figure 4 below).

37
Figure 4
Pyramid of Cognitive Information Processing Model
The information processing pyramid is divided into three layers. The bottom two parts of
the pyramid are called the knowledge domain, including self-knowledge and occupation
knowledge. Self-knowledge includes an individual's understanding of their personal
characteristics such as values, interests, skills and abilities. Occupation knowledge includes an
understanding of a specific occupation, occupational needs and external environment. The
middle layer of the pyramid is the decision-making domain, where individuals process
information and then make career decisions based on the effective cognition of self and career. The process of information processing in this stage includes five main stages, namely, communication, analysis, synthesis, valuing, and execution (CASVE). The CASVE loop is an
ongoing, self-repeating procedure. After the execution phase, the person returns to the
channeling phase to assess if it made the right decision. The domain of execution processing, also known as metacognition, is at the apex of the pyramid. Metacognition is specifically about
an individual's knowledge of their own cognitive processes and the ability to regulate these

38
processes: knowledge and control over thinking and learning activities. The essence of
metacognition is self-awareness and self-tuning of cognition and activity. In general, cognitive
information processing theory has significant viability and efficacy in enhancing students' particular knowledge fields, assisting people in making logical career decisions, and aiding them
in objectively organizing their careers (Sampson et al., 2014). As a result, career education has
received increasingly more emphasis in colleges and universities around the world. Over time, it
has emerged as one of the key tenets that guide vocational education in colleges and universities. Implication of Social Learning Theory for Career Planning Education in China’s High
Schools
Career planning education in Chinese high school can be analyzed based on social
learning decision theory as well as self-efficacy, expectations, and environmental factors. According to this theory, career development is a product of both endogenous factors and
exogenous social and environmental factors. They can provide information on how their schools
enhance students’ self- efficacy and outcome expectancies through career-related measures and
support. They may also give us feedback on how effectively programs address developing
personal capacity, finding strengths and passions, and matching strengths with careers. Supervisors can also discuss externships, company tours and mentorships, in relation to
translating college coursework to careers. In order to enhance career pedagogy and curriculum, administrators may use aspects of the theory of modification of school and social environmental
variables for developing students’ belief in their potential. For instance, expanding
recommendations according to individual circumstances and enhancing the integration of
reassessment loops could be improved (Sampson et al., 2004; Super, 1990). The purpose of the
career planning courses offered by the school is to develop students' capacity for career planning,

39
allowing them to discover their own personality qualities, current and future resource advantages, and assist them understand their own value and continue to add value (Lachman et al., 2015;
Sampson et al., 2004). Other learning-teaching methods that would involve students
recommending the discrepancies between the obtained and desired occupational paths can also
be extended. Common Principles Across Theories to Guide Career Education for High Schools in China
Looking across these different frameworks provides a picture of common principles they
together suggest are needed to have an effective high school career services program in China. Principle Theories With the
Common Principle
Brief Discussion
Self-Knowledge Trait and Factor
(Parsons), Personality
Type (Holland), Social
Learning Theory
(SLT), Developmental
Theory (Super), Cognitive
Information
Processing (CIP), Social Cognitive
Career Theory (SCCT),
Programs must assist students, their values,
interests, skills as well as their personality
to enable one to select the right career
path.
Skill Development Trait and Factor
(Parsons), Social
Cognitive Career
Theory (SCCT), Personality Type
(Holland), Social
Learning Theory
(SLT), Developmental
Theory (Super), Cognitive
Information
Processing (CIP)
Stress on competency skills for various
professions as well as obtain practical
experience and internships.
Goal Setting and Social Learning Motivate students in development of

40
Motivation Theory (SLT), Developmental
Theory (Super), Social
Cognitive Career
Theory (SCCT), Cognitive
Information
Processing (CIP)
career aspirations and the psychological
factors influencing students’ choices. Occupational Knowledge Trait and Factor
(Parsons), Social
Learning Theory
(SLT), Social Cognitive
Career Theory (SCCT), Personality Type
(Holland), Developmental
Theory (Super), Cognitive
Information
Processing (CIP)
Stating clear, specific information on
different occupations and their demands, conditions, and outlooks is crucial.
Career Matching Trait and Factor
(Parsons), Cognitive
Information
Processing (CIP), Personality Type
(Holland)
Assigning of classes and positions based on
results of certain assessments of students’ traits and personality types. Dynamic Career Planning Social Cognitive
Career Theory (SCCT), Developmental
Theory (Super), Social
Learning Theory
(SLT), Cognitive
Information
Processing (CIP)
Explain career development as a lifelong
pattern of activities in relation to the work
world that are patterned after the growth
of the individual and events that occur in
his or her lifetime. Social and
Environmental Factors
Developmental
Theory (Super), Social
Learning Theory
(SLT), Social Cognitive
Career Theory (SCCT)
People’s social and environmental contexts
influence career decisions and
advancement. Collaborative Learning Social Learning
Theory (SLT), Developmental
Theory (Super), Social
Facilitate cooperation with the ideas of
partnership and interaction in the
curriculum of career education.

41
Cognitive Career
Theory (SCCT)
Career Counseling
Support
Cognitive
Information
Processing (CIP), Social Learning
Theory (SLT), Social
Cognitive Career
Theory (SCCT), Developmental
Theory (Super)
Offer constant career advice as and when
needed to help in dealing with
developmental state and transition issues
Adaptability and
Flexibility
Developmental
Theory (Super), Social
Learning Theory
(SLT), Social Cognitive
Career Theory (SCCT), Cognitive
Information
Processing (CIP)
Teach students the importance of learning
continually and the know-how on how to
develop their relevant career skills.

42
Chapter Three: Methodology
This study focused on career planning education in four public senior high schools
(PSHSs) in the Industrial Park District of Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China. National
education reforms have sought to reform high schools with the purpose of career development
in addition to academic preparedness. The views of the head teachers and school principals of
the four schools were obtained through interviews to establish the status of career services, perceived areas of strengths and weaknesses, and other factors that affect career service delivery
and design within the four schools. Research findings can serve to sustain the enhancement of
career education models that are innovative, collaborative and learner-centered in China. The
three research questions that guided the study were:
RQ1. What do public high school head teachers and school administrators in China
perceive as the current status of career planning in their schools?
RQ2. How do head teachers and administrators perceive the effectiveness of functioning
and execution of career planning education in their schools?
RQ3. What do head teachers and administrators see as their needs to further implement
career planning curriculum and pedagogy in their classrooms and schools?
Site Overview
The implementation of the State Council's Opinions on Deepening the Reform of the
Examination and Enrollment System in 2014 signaled the start of the new reform of China's
college entrance examination system, marking the most comprehensive, systematic, and
profound round of reform since the unified college entrance examination was resumed in 1977
(Ross & Wang, 2010). This study examines career planning education in four public senior high
schools located in the Industrial Park District of Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China. Suzhou is

43
a rapidly developing metropolitan area with a strong manufacturing and technology sector that
drives the local economy (Zeng, 2019). The surrounding industrial park is home to hundreds of
innovative companies in fields such as robotics, semiconductors, and renewable energy. The four
study schools have over 10,000 students combined in grades 10 through 12. All follow the
national college preparatory curriculum administered by the Jiangsu Provincial Department of
Education. In addition to academics, the schools provide career exploration classes, industry
internships, and counselling services to help students navigate career and university options. However, across high schools in China, there is variance in how career planning initiatives are
planned, funded, staffed, and implemented within the constraints of preparing students for the
all-important Gaokao, China’s college entrance examination (Zhang, 2016). This research aimed to understand career education from the perspective of school
administrators and teachers. Interviews with head teachers and principals gathered perceptions
on the current state of career planning programs, perceptions of effectiveness, and needs to
further their implementation. Insights are intended to help optimize career services and cultivate
students' capabilities for lifelong career management success skills that are increasingly vital as
jobs evolve rapidly (Christiansen, & Even, 2024). Government reform initiatives de-emphasizing
the Gaokao also make this an opportune time for schools to place renewed importance on career
planning. Study findings can support schools in balancing academic and workplace demands, addressing gaps in guidance services, and tapping local industry partnerships for experiential
learning opportunities. Ultimately, the results are intended to inform the continued development
of innovative, collaborative and student-centered career education models in China.

44
Population and Sample
This study focuses on four public senior high schools located in the Industrial Park
District of Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China. The population encompasses all head teachers
and principals across the four schools providing career planning education to students in grades
10-12. This study targets head teachers teaching career planning education across the disciplines, as well as school principals since they are directly involved in the delivery and management of
career planning education in their institutions. Suzhou is where I was born, raised, educated, and employed. It is the most convenient
choice to gather data as I worked at Suzhou High School after the reform was implemented and
have strong personal and professional connections. The four selected schools were chosen
purposefully based on their locality within the industrial hub of Suzhou. Their proximity to large
multinational corporations operating in fields like robotics, clean energy, and biotechnology
provides a relevant context for examining career planning initiatives and partnerships with local
industries. The schools vary in enrollment size from 1,500 to over 4,000 students, representing a
range of resource levels. Between them, they serve over 10,000 high school students annually
from the surrounding urban and suburban communities. All follow the national Chinese
curriculum administered by the provincial education board. At each school, interview participants were recruited with the help of the principal. Three
head teachers teaching different subject areas were interviewed individually at each site. In total, the sample included 12 head teachers and four principals, for a sample size of 16 participants. Interviewing three teachers per school allowed examination of within-school variations or
commonalities in views. The principal at each school provided insights into whole-school
policies, programs and leadership aspects of career planning education. Collaboration with

45
school leaders ensured informed consent from all participants. Project details and participant
rights were clearly explained. Participation was voluntary without incentive to avoid coercion. To maintain anonymity, personal and school identifiers were removed from research materials
and reports. This sampling strategy generated meaningful comparative data across cases within
resource limitations. Instrumentation and Data Collection
This research gathered qualitative data from head teachers and school administrators in
four public high schools in the Industrial Park District of Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with head teachers and school principals to allow a
deeper understanding of their perspectives. Two distinct interview protocols were designed: one
for head teachers and one for school principals. Both protocols were designed based on the
specific research questions guiding the study and with regard to the roles of the participants. Both interview protocols included questions which were open-ended and designed to reveal their
attitudes and experiences regarding career planning education. While interviewing, questions can
be more flexible and oriented to gather more personal emotions and attitudes (Jayaratne &
Jayatilleke, 2020). To address RQ1, introductory questions addressed the head teachers’ understanding of
career education. More focused questions inquired about their knowledge concerning career
planning education in regular high schools, their perceived ideal model of career planning
program, and their perspective of the state of career planning in their schools. Further questions
related to how career planning was incorporated into the curriculum, what resources and tools
were provided to the students, and changes after the new college entrance exam policy. For RQ2, which is concerned with the effectiveness of the functioning and implementation of career

46
planning education, questions posed relate to integrating career planning curriculum and
pedagogy into their teaching practices. The protocol covered approaches used to encourage
students to discuss their careers, and the assistance given to the students to help them discover
themselves and their career paths. In the case of RQ3, which focused on needs for further
implementation, questions explored the head teachers’ needs for augmenting career planning
education in their classrooms. The interview explored how they work with other teachers, other
professional development, and parents and the local community in supporting career planning. See Appendix A for the head teacher interview protocol. The principal interview protocol focused on school administrators and contained
questions related to the research questions, but from an administrative standpoint. To answer
RQ1, principals explained the state of career planning education in their schools and existing
programs or activities. Concerning RQ2, principals’ perspectives were gained on the issues they
faced in implementing career planning education, how they perceived the effectiveness, and how
they managed differences in students’ needs. In response to RQ3, principals described the
specific ways they would like to improve the education of career planning, the resources or
assistance required, and the role of teachers, staff, and the community in promoting career
planning efforts. The participants were selected from four public high schools in the Industrial
Park District from which about three head teachers and the school principal were interviewed
making up about 16 participants in all. See Appendix A for the principal interview protocol. I first sought permission from the Suzhou Education Bureau to carry out the study in four
chosen public high schools. Emails containing information letters were then sent to the principals
of the four schools to explain the research and seek their involvement. The principals were
requested to recommend up to three head teachers from different fields who had at least three

47
years of teaching experience to participate voluntarily. The interview participants were recruited
by sending a WeChat to the classroom teachers asking if they would be interested in
volunteering to participate in the study. Around 40 requests were sent to volunteer in this project. Out of this, 14 interviewees agreed to participate. The interviews were face-to-face, which
provided a comfortable setting and encouraged the interviewees to be truthful. The interviews
took between 45 and 60 minutes, and the interviews were audio-recorded for data credibility
with the interviewees’ permission. Teachers were interviewed first, followed by the school
principal. The interviews were conducted in May 2024 after the researcher received approval
from the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board in April 2024. This was
also a time during which the interviewees would not be preoccupied with school-related
activities, such as examinations. Data Analysis
Following the interviews, the recordings were transcribed in detail to accurately capture
the information given by the interviewees. Thematic analysis was adopted to analyze the
qualitative data that had been obtained from the interviews with the head teachers and school
principals. This approach enabled categorizing, comparing, explaining and reporting themes
related to the interview data collected in the four schools (Lawless & Chen, 2019). The
transcripts were coded thematically based on the research questions. The transcriptions were then
coded and analyzed for themes and patterns in order to identify those which were pertinent to the
research questions. The first set of codes was arrived at deductively from the topics that emerged
from the interview protocols used (Deterding & Waters, 2021). Also, there were other codes that
were generated from the data for a more inductive approach to the analysis (Robinson, 2022).

48
For reliability, I went through the interviews and checked the extent to which the
emerging codes were applied. These coded data extracts were then compared within and across
cases to develop themes to answer each of the research questions. Attention was also paid to
such cases that might be called ‘anomalous or deviant,’ meaning that they might not fit into the
patterns identified within the data set. Through providing a range of opinions, credibility and
accuracy of the findings and recommendations is improved (Shufutinsky, 2020). Credibility and Trustworthiness
It is necessary to ensure that results obtained from any research study are reliable; thus, a
process known as validation. In this regard, several validation techniques were employed in this
study. Descriptive validity was enhanced through member checking of the interview
transcriptions (Motulsky, 2021). Study interviewees were given an option to review the
transcripts for the purpose of confirming that the sentiments expressed were in fact documented
correctly. Credibility also depends on the clear connection of the identified themes with their
sources of evidence. Using verbatim quotes from interviewees’ actual words effectively helps to
anchor emergent understandings in the data (Lester et al., 2020). This strategy re-emphasizes
how interpretations relate back to the real views of the informants and not the bias of the
researcher. Participant anonymity and voluntary consent were also ethical measures that
enhanced the credibility of this study. Measures that ensure anonymity mitigate concerns related
to revealing identity or opinions that may harm the interviewee professionally or personally, and
result in more reliable data. Transferability is about the degree to which knowledge acquired can be applied to other
contexts (Kyngäs et al., 2020). Even though the study was located in four specific schools, the

49
descriptions of the research context aimed at offering relevant information to a variety of schools. Recording contextual details and possible sources of biases enhances the applicability of
knowledge obtained for future and other use (Bergen, & Labonté, 2020). Further, confirmability
is the extent to which the findings are not a function of the researcher but from the interviewees
(Hatch, 2023). Adhering to impartiality, addressing my own biases, and making sure that themes
are backed by evidence helped in achieving realistic portrayal (Wiltshire, & Ronkainen, 2021). Getting input from other academics on initial analyses introduces yet another angle by which to
build nascent ideas (Gravett et al., 2020). To do so, this study was reviewed by a dissertation
committee at various stages of development. Using each of the trustworthiness tactics enabled
the research to achieve reliability in terms of credibility, confirmability, dependability and
neutrality. Employing different validation techniques in this study increased the generalizability
of the results to the study schools. Therefore, this study sought to attain high levels of credibility
and quality throughout the process to enhance confidence in the findings concerning career
planning education. The Researcher
My identity is not only as a researcher but also as a teacher and administrator. As an
educator passionate about career readiness, I have a strong interest in understanding how to
better support high school students in their transition from education to future careers or further
study. While I do not have an advisory role or position of power relative to any of the
participants in the study, my current placement as director of admissions at an international
school may imply certain concealed authority and carry some pre-assumptions that the
participants could have made about me. For example, when a teacher is interviewed, they may
suppose that my research is being undertaken for a predetermined reform campaign or to find

50
data as an excuse for the introduction of a new curriculum system. As a result, it is possible for
them to provide a flattering opinion to accommodate me. To minimize any potential problems that may arise as a result of my positionality, the high
school that I worked for was excluded from the sampling base. Further, I sought to be a “familiar
insider” with the instructors in the schools, with a better understanding of the school's curriculum
structure and educational policy. This made it easier for me to appreciate and interpret the
meaning of responses and emotional expression, thus generating emotional resonance and
establishing trust among the interviewees (Paakkanen et al., 2021). However, it is a two-edged
sword, as it could be the case that the data and results were evaluated based on subjective
preconceptions (Soliman, & Tuunainen, 2022). Furthermore, the “acquaintance” functionality
may result in responders being reserved about their authentic opinions and hesitant to
communicate the genuine scenario. On the other hand, my extensive experience in high schools
enables me to communicate with participants in a more natural manner. Given that there is no
interpersonal connection with the study participants or sites, it was easier to maintain a
reasonably "objective" attitude and "neutral" posture when collecting, researching and analyzing
the data (Rassel et al., 2020, p. #). Ethics
Research has an ethical responsibility to benefit those who are involved in the research. Students, families, school personnel and ultimately society as a whole are intended beneficiaries
of the research. With the reform of the college entrance examination (Gaokao), career planning
education has become a new component of basic education in China (Shen, 2021). However, literature on implementing career planning education for regular senior high schools in China is
particularly scarce, and the research that has been done so far does not provide adequate

51
information on the unique circumstances of senior high school career planning education and the
actual needs of students (Gu et al., 2020). It is imperative to provide senior high school students
with excellent career planning education for their future well-being and to satisfy national
standards for the talent structure in the process of economic transformation and industrial
upgrading. Students can benefit from getting a more thorough grasp of who they are, how they fit
into the world of work, the companies, and the social employment contexts. Consequently, increasing self-awareness and being inspired and motivated to goal setting (Shen, 2021). In
addition, the encouragement of career orientation and professional interest in the process of
career exploration helps schools in cultivating talent and serving as a decision-making basis for
Gaokao, which enhances the caliber of the students’ future jobs and establishes a strong basis for
their employment following graduation, eventually attaining the objectives of fostering the
harmonious growth of the entire society (Xie et al., 2019). The study began with University of Southern California Institutional Research Board
approval, to protect the rights and welfare of humans participating as subjects in the research. To
respect the rights of the participants, informed consent was obtained, and the information
collected was kept confidential in this study. Prior to the interviews, an information sheet was
given to all the participants from the head teacher and principal category in the four case study
high schools. This outlined the research context and goals, data acquisition methods using audiotaped, semi-structured interviews, estimated time requirements, and inclusion criteria. They were
told that participation was completely voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at
any time without any consequences. Verbal permission to be interviewed was given. Participant identification and school details
were not disclosed to anyone apart from the researcher throughout the process of data collection

52
and analysis. Names were replaced with pseudonyms while transcribing and reporting. Taped
recordings and transcriptions of tapes were kept on a password protected computer. In any
research outputs, no individual or school was identifiable. Through participation without
coercion and anonymity, it is believed that head teachers and principals were free to express their
opinions without fear of reprisals. This ethical approach sought to obtain the best quality and
relevant data while ensuring the participants’ safety. Proper ethical consideration for
confidentiality, consent, privacy and dignity of all participants is of essence at each stage of
research process (Kang & Hwang, 2023).

53
Chapter Four: Presentation of Data and Findings
The purpose of this study was to understand teachers’ and administrators’ perspectives on
the current status and effectiveness of career education in Chinese high schools. It sought to find
an optimal route for career education in high schools in the face of China’s new college entrance
examination reform and to provide a gateway to the future. This chapter presents the findings from analysis of the data collected from sixteen one- on-one semi-structured interviews with faculty members in four public high schools in the
industrial park area in Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province. The participants were head teachers and
the administrators in the public schools, all of whom were experienced in their positions and had
been involved with the career planning education process within the context of college entrance
examination reform, to engender insights to the following research questions that guided the
study:
RQ1. What do public high school head teachers and school administrators in China
perceive as the current status of career planning in their schools?
RQ2. How do head teachers and administrators perceive the effectiveness of functioning
and execution of career planning education in their schools?
RQ3. What do head teachers and administrators see as their needs to further implement
career planning curriculum and pedagogy in their classrooms and schools?
This chapter first provides an overview of the study participants, including their age, educational level, working position at the school, teaching subjects and teaching experience. Following that, the chapter presents the major findings related to each of the study’s research
questions. The chapter then concludes with a summary of findings that lead into Chapter Five

54
where a discussion of findings within scholarly literature and recommendations for practice are
offered to support effective career planning education in high school classrooms. Overview of Interviewees
The teachers were selected from four regular public high schools within the Industrial
Park District in Suzhou City. The recruitment was conducted by email and through the most
popular public social media platform in China—WeChat. The study included a total of 12
teachers in the four key high schools in the Industrial Park District area, all of whom were the
head teachers in class, in addition to the principals of the four schools. The head teachers taught
different subjects, but mostly the components tested in the college entrance examination that are:
Chinese, Mathematics, and English. The responsibility of the head teacher, compared to the
normal subject teachers in regular high schools, lies in the extra attention to the students’ physical and mental development in addition to their academic performance. In the context of
China, the head teachers bear responsibilities that are more comprehensive, as they supervise and
manage the students’ academic and personal life to ensure that the students comply with the rules
and regulations of the school and safety requirements, shoulder the duty of keeping close contact
with the students’ parents, provide timely feedback of students’ condition, and organize various
activities to promote class cohesion and interactive communication between students. In this
regard, the head teachers are the very first and direct line to integrating career development
education in the normal curriculum in high school classes. The participating teachers all had rich teaching experience and had taught at least one
round of the old college entrance examination and one round of the new college entrance
examination, allowing them to have an understanding of the old college entrance examination
and the new college entrance examination. The four public high schools involved in this research

55
are: Suzhou Middle School of Jiangsu Province (SM), Suzhou Experimental Middle School of
Jiangsu Province (SEM), Xinghai Experimental Middle School (XEM), and Soochow University
Experimental School (SUE). The table below illustrates the background of each interviewee. Given the privacy concern that interviewees might be identified if they are reported by which
schools they work at, their working schools were coded into schools 1-4 in Table 1. Despite the
apparent imbalance between the number of female interviewees (12) and male interviewees (4), this distribution reflects the composition of the teaching workforce in China, where male
teachers constitute approximately 30% of the total number of teachers (Lu, 2022). Additionally, most interviewees were over 35 years old, as the study interviewees were either head teachers
with extensive teaching experience or administrators who had been promoted through years of
service. The composition of subjects they teach was as follows: Chinese 4, Mathematics 2, English 2, Physics 2, History 1, Chemistry 1, Biology 1, Politics 1, and Geography 2. The
number of interviewees in each subject is about a quarter to a third of the total number of
teachers in each subject within the school, which is representative. Table 1
Demographic Information About the 16 Interview Participants
Interviewees Gende
r
Age Education
level
Service
Length
Serving
in
leadershi
p
positions
or not
School
Interviewee A F 30-35 Bachelor 5-10 Years NO 2
Interviewee B F 45-50 Bachelor 10-15 Years NO 2
Interviewee C F 40-45 Bachelor 5-10 Years NO 2
Interviewee D M 45-50 Master 15-20 Years YES 2

56
Interviewee E F 35-40 Master 5-10 Years NO 1
Interviewee F F 45-50 Bachelor 15-20 Years NO 1
Interviewee G F 45-50 Master 15-20 Years NO 1
Interviewee H M 40-45 Bachelor 15-20 Years YES 1
Interviewee I F 40-45 Bachelor 10-15 Years NO 4
Interviewee J F 35-40 Bachelor 5-10 Years NO 4
Interviewee K M 40-45 Master 15-20 Years NO 4
Interviewee L F 40-45 Bachelor 10-15 Years YES 4
Interviewee M F 40-45 Master 10-15 Years NO 3
Interviewee N F 35-40 Master 10-15 Years NO 3
Interviewee O M 30-35 Master 5-10 Years NO 3
Interviewee S F 45-50 Doctor 10-15 Years YES 3
Presentation of Findings
The following sections provide a presentation of findings organized and described for
each research question. Regarding high school head teachers’ and administrators’ perceptions of
career planning education, Research Question 1, different perspectives from teachers are
presented. For Research Question 2, head teachers’ and administrators’ perceptions towards the
effectiveness of functioning and execution of career plan led to findings related to setting
education goals, increasing educational efficacy, and curriculum content. Head teachers and
administrators further reflected on their needs to further implement career planning pedagogy in
their classrooms and schools (i.e., related to Research Question 3), with different suggestions

57
offered. When presenting the findings in this section, the detailed insights are supported by
interviewees' narratives and relevant data extracts. RQ1: What Do Public High School Head Teachers and Administrators in China Perceive
as the Current Status of Career Planning in Their Schools?
Through the interviews with the head teachers and principals of four high schools in
Suzhou, a thorough understanding of the current status of career planning education in Suzhou
high schools was obtained. In general, the four schools had the relevant conditions for the
development of career planning education. For example, SUE School was equipped with a
classroom dedicated to career planning education as well as with books, teaching supplies, and
multimedia which could meet the basic requirements of career planning education. XEM School
had set up a career planning education leadership group and a career planning guidance team. The team had planned the teaching objectives, teaching content, and teaching forms for career
planning education, and had gradually implemented the teaching under the joint efforts of all
teachers, students, and parents. However, the interview results showed that only one school had
carried out career planning education through special career planning courses in their school. Other schools emphasized the popular science career education for students without differences
through the form of theme class meetings. All four schools had carried out special lectures on
career planning education, but the frequency was very limited. In the process of in-depth
interviews, it was found that teachers and principals were not satisfied with the effect of current
career planning education. As stated by an administrator (Interviewee D) who had been in
service for 20 years:
The school will indeed carry out some lectures to promote career planning education, but
the effect of the lectures is not very good, mainly reflected in the distance between

58
experts and students is too far. I have personally participated in the lectures, students will
ask me questions in the process of listening to the lectures, saying what are the teachers
talking about? The career planning content taught by experts is theoretical and abstract, which makes people not understand at all. In summary, we do have the infrastructure in
place, but the implementation is rather superficial. There is a significant gap between the
resources available and their practical application in real classroom settings. The statement highlights a significant disparity between the theoretical information
conveyed by experts and the practical requirements of students. Based on the administrators' and
head teachers' views, it can be inferred that the lectures, albeit having good intentions, do not
properly capture the attention and interest of the pupils. The gap between the professionals and
students includes not only physical separation, but also differences in cognitive abilities and
experiential knowledge which is demonstrated in research. Siburian et al. (2019) in their study on
the relationship between critical thinking skills, creative thinking skills, and cognitive learning
outcomes, using the inquiry learning strategy, found that there is often a big difference between
what is taught in class and what is learned and understood by the learners. Professionals were
conveying knowledge in a scholarly and conceptual style, which students struggled to connect
with their own personal experiences and future goals. The administrator's involvement in these lectures brought attention to this discrepancy, as
students often raised concerns about the pertinence and clarity of the content. This perspective
was reiterated in subsequent interviews, with one head teacher (Interviewee A) commenting, “The experts use technical language that is too difficult for the students to understand." This highlighted the significance of establishing a more tangible connection with the
students. Due to the deep history and impact of an exam-oriented education, the current senior

59
high school personnel training system is also deeply rooted there. In this context, interviewees
raised three key findings related to the current status and effectiveness of career planning
education in their high schools’ classrooms
Finding 1: School Administrators and Lead Teachers Are Reluctant and Feel Ill-Prepared to
Carry Out Career Education
This finding highlighted three sub concepts extracted through the interview responses of
the interviewees. In addition to the acknowledgement of career guidance being important for
students, the major aspects discussed in this part cover the reluctance of school administrators
and teachers with respect to career education reforms. Three themes that provide insights into
Finding 1 are:  Challenges encountered from China’s exam-oriented education system.  Concerns of teachers regarding potential increase in workload.  Parents’ preferences of children’s exam results over career guidance. Exam-oriented education has always been the focus of ordinary high school education in
China as per interviewees. Recognizing that reform was needed to realize the gradual
transformation from exam-oriented education to quality-oriented education, the national new
college entrance examination reform provided an opportunity for the development of career
education in ordinary high schools. Career planning education offered a way to help students
open up the communication between school and society. It is intended to help rectify the
limitations of students only receiving traditional knowledge-based education. Ordinary high
schools carry the responsibility of providing talents for higher education institutions. If ordinary
high school students have a weak sense of career planning, lack professional knowledge, and

60
have little preparation for their future career, then even high-scoring students are not able to
provide the talent needed by the country. Through the interviews, it was found that under the promotion of the new college
entrance examination policy for the development of career education, while school leadership
has realized the importance of career education for the development of high school students, and
while some are trying to carry out career education, there are many difficulties. For example, there is no unified guidance from superiors to carry out career planning education. Without the
corresponding supporting funding and policy system guidance, they are very limited to carry out
career education through only the strength of their schools. For example, there is a lack of career
textbooks or standardized criteria shared across high schools regarding how to produce the career
textbooks. This could lead to diverse and inconsistent quality of the teaching materials, which
could further increase the education inequality among different cities. Although the
administrators mentioned that many schools are developing career planning textbooks for
ordinary senior high schools, the applicability of these textbooks to students from different
schools remains unclear. Further, while some schools have set up corresponding courses, teachers tend to teach in a conventional way—lecture format, boring, students who do not pay
much attention, and the course serves only as a formality. By contrast, the intent is that "vocational guidance has the attribute of educational activities, which attaches great importance
to students' main participation in vocational guidance activities, and gain more experience in
participation,” as explained in a study by Romero-Rodríguez et al. (2022). Importantly, one major reason why head teachers and school administrators were not
willing to conduct career education as planned was related to the deep-rooted education system
in China. As suggested by different interviewed teachers, students’ scores in compulsory subjects

61
including mathematics, English, and Chinese are still the most highly valued and, thus, more
resources and efforts from the school leaders are given here. The evidence could be seen in the
following statement by Interviewee F:
However, the inertia of thought and thinking has always existed, so it is impossible to
erase the influence of exam-oriented education in a short period of time. Therefore, the
school attaches great importance to the pursuit of discipline, achievement and style of
study construction, and attaches less importance to career planning. Career planning
education is generally something that teachers do spontaneously. Furthermore, another school head, Interviewee H, shared his opinion in following words:
No matter how the college entrance examination policy changes, student performance is a
hard indicator. Without grades as a basis, students end up being chosen. With grades
students have the right to choose. From the statements above, it can be seen that grades and traditional performance
measures are still emphasized by the school site. In addition, school leaders’ reluctance to
establish career-related curriculum is also supported by the parents’ desires, as suggested here by
Interviewee B, “Even now, parents also only look at the school enrollment rate, teaching quality, etc.” Furthermore, Interviewee F added the following, “Last but not least, many parents have a
lot of power, some parents are choosing [careers], and some students really do not know how to
choose.”Beyond this, there are some concerns regarding the teacher workload that the
implementation of career education could lead to higher working time and energy. This was
indicated by one teacher, Interviewee C, stating, “In addition, the new college entrance

62
examination brings about the situation of self-selected subjects, which makes the teaching task of
teachers heavier.” Reflecting on the overall challenges, another teacher, Interviewee E, summarized:
The pressure from both the traditional exam-oriented education system and the lack of
adequate resources makes it extremely difficult for us to prioritize career education. We
need a more supportive framework and clear guidelines from higher authorities to
effectively implement these programs. From the interviews, it can be seen that school administrators’ reluctance to conduct
career education in high schools is related to various reasons and various stakeholders. However, the importance of career education for high school students was also confirmed, as suggested by
Interviewee S:
From the historical point of view, the country needs engineering talents, so as to have the
rise of industry and defense, so that we can be free from the shackles of others. After the
implementation of the new college entrance examination model, schools began to pay
attention to career education, and there was also an opportunity to carry out career
education in schools. In fact, students need career guidance very much. Even the top
scorers in the college entrance examination drop out and retake the exam. It can be seen
how important career planning is for a student. In summary, the findings showed the school leaders and instructors’ reluctance to fully
enact career education reforms stemmed from concerns related to the country’s traditional test- based education system, parents, and teachers’ workload. However, it is necessary to note that
interviewees agreed with the importance of career development for the nation and students’
future careers. As per interviewees, there was understanding among the stakeholders on the need

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for career-oriented development for the benefit of China and the learners, but this was
constrained by examination results, familial preferences and staff burdens working against
change. Finding 2: Teachers Have Not Yet Unified Their Thoughts on the Development of Career
Education
In the process of interviews with teachers, it was found that there were two divergent
views among teachers related to career planning.  Two head teachers prioritized the academic achievement of students above
everything, thus neglecting the importance of career education.  One head teacher highlighted that high schools need to implement career education
as soon as possible. The following discusses these two different views, respectively. From the interviews, it was clear that at least five teachers had a strong sense of career
planning and had begun to pay attention to their own training in this area. One teacher had also
taken the initiative to incorporate career education in their teaching. As interviewees stated, teachers are role models for students, and the attention of teachers can stimulate students' consciousness of career planning. At the same time, teachers noted that schools need to pay
attention to the training of teachers to carry out career education. Head teachers also revealed
that there were many realistic problems in carrying out career planning in high schools, especially in key high schools with academic stress. According to the interview data collected, teachers had not received the relevant training of career education and only had some superficial
understanding of career education. Moreover, high school teachers have heavy teaching tasks
and long working hours, so it was difficult for them to have the time and energy to be competent

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for the role of career mentors. For example, some statements related to this idea from the
interviewees were extracted as follows:
Interviewee N shared his perspective in following words:
Although I acknowledge the significance of career education, the truth is that my time is
already filled with the task of preparing pupils for tests. Due to time constraints, I am
unable to provide career counsel without negatively impacting their academic success. Moreover, Interviewee K added, Career education is essential; however, we are only beginning to explore the subject
without adequate training and resources. In order for this to be a significant component of
our curriculum, we require structured support from the administration. The aforesaid comment was not exceptional as other such comments made by two of the
principals appeared to also have a preference for academic success at the expense of career
development. From this view, it can be assumed that there is a deeply rooted belief in traditional
approaches to education where success is primarily in terms of grades and exams. This kind of
stance may stem from the fact that schools, on the institutional level, are pressured to safeguard
academic success as the only path for students and their preparation for the labor market, thereby
undermining the importance of students’ character development and preparation for future
professions along with their job readiness. Thus, this polarity emphasizes the need for a balanced
method that will also consider the students’ academic achievements while at the same time
preparing the learners for versatility in their careers. Contrasting with the above ideas were other teachers who were trying to learn career
planning and keep up with the pace of teaching development. As one head teacher, Interviewee
M stated,

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I think it is very necessary to carry out this project. Based on years of counseling
experience, I found that there are many students who have learning motivation for
counseling and career counseling. Otherwise, it is like knowing the destination and not
knowing the destination of the walk, the feeling is not the same as being very confident
and motivated, instead of aimless and certainly not efficient. The earlier the career
planning, the sooner the students can plan and work hard for their future, and they will
avoid many detours. The ultimate goal of cultivating students is to let them become a
useful social person. Our current high school education is out of touch with society. The above statement describes how a psychology instructor noticed the importance of
integrating career education into high schools based on their psychological counseling services
for high school students. This interviewee emphasized the need to conduct career education as it
could offer students a sense of direction and could prepare them with knowledge before they
entered into society. Beyond this, one or two head teachers even took proactive actions in career
guidance, with one (Interviewee O) discussing the following:
Some teachers in our school spend their own money to learn career guidance from
outside training institutions. One teacher even offered an elective course on career
planning that was rated one of the city's best courses. Career education is the trend of
development in the future, and schools will certainly pay more and more attention to it. The interviews revealed that there was a significant level of difference in teachers’ views
concerning the introduction of career education in high schools. While there were two teachers
who still held the traditional beliefs that achievement is everything for educational goals, others
had started to advocate for integration of career education into high school pedagogy. Three

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teachers even started to invest their own energy, time and resources for teaching their students
more related to career development. The above finding presents the Chinese teachers’ opinion on career education reforms. Two prioritized exam preparation as they considered that the focus on career guidance
discouraged this. The idea of performance was restricted to scores and grades. But one saw the
need to develop the aspect of career planning as a motivation to student and their future jobs &
careers. Inspired teachers mentioned potential complements to teaching, while counselors
identified that students needed career guidance. Finding 3: There Is a Shortage of Teachers and Weak Professional Support
This finding presents teachers’ struggles and their capacity in delivering career education
reforms in Chinese high schools. The following four sub-themes are highlighted in this finding:  Lack of enough qualified career education teachers. Schools do not have adequate
teachers trained in career education.  Interviews highlighted teacher reluctance due to additional workload burden and lack
of background training.  Teachers encountered problems in holding student attention and addressing diverse
career aspirations.  Undergraduate/graduate programs do not offer enough dedicated teacher training. The key to the implementation of high school career planning education is through the
practice of teachers. Therefore, the selection of teachers, the establishment of teaching staff, and
the post-service training of teachers are critical issues to be considered in the implementation of
career planning education. At the time of the study, there was a shortage of career planning
education personnel, the structure of personnel qualifications was unreasonable, and the lack of

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career planning literacy of many teachers were challenges that affected the current status of
career planning education in classrooms and constrained its effectiveness. In practice, this will
inevitably affect the acquisition of students 'career planning ability. There is a lack of teachers specialized in career planning education in high schools. In
many cases, the development of career planning education depends on the autonomy and
consciousness of teachers, but this kind of career planning guidance cannot meet all the needs of
students for career planning to a large extent. Moreover, it was revealed that three teachers are
unwilling to participate in the work of career planning education, and the effect of career
planning education is often evaluated by the enrollment rate, which is contrary to the expectation
of talent training that career planning education essentially wants to achieve. This is further
understood from some statements from the teachers during the interviews, which displayed
teachers’ negative attitudes and concerns regarding the implementation of career education in
high schools:
One interviewee, Interviewee P, shared his view by stating, career planning education is frequently perceived as an additional burden rather than a
fundamental component of our obligations. Many of us are hesitant to assume this
additional responsibility in the absence of adequate support and training, as a result of our
substantial burden. While another, Interviewee Q, said, It is difficult for us to offer effective career guidance due to the absence of specialized
training. Our primary training is in the delivery of academic content; however, we are
unable to satisfy the diverse career planning requirements of our students in the absence
of sufficient professional development.

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And Interviewee S, stated, Enrollment rates are frequently prioritized by the school administration over career
planning outcomes. Many educators are discouraged from dedicating time and energy to
vocation education, which is perceived as less critical, due to the emphasis on immediate
academic outcomes. These quotes reflect that two or three teachers' attitude towards career planning education
have been lukewarm with minimal enthusiasm. Even if the school stipulates that teachers of all
subjects are required to serve as career guidance for students and take charge of individual career
planning guidance for students, teachers often do not really provide the help students need in the
actual process. The reluctance of teachers to engage in career planning activities was rooted in
their heavy workloads, lack of expertise in the subject, and the lack of institutional emphasis on
the long-term benefits of career education. Further, some details regarding the students’ interactions with, and disengagement with, career guidance were revealed as follows:
Interviewee I stated the following:
We observed a lack of engagement from students during our attempts to conduct career
guidance sessions. It was difficult to engage in meaningful discussions about their future
paths because many individuals appeared disinterested. Interviewee M, an administrator, again stressed the same point:
In spite of our endeavors to incorporate career planning into the curriculum, we
encountered opposition from both students and fellow colleagues. It became evident that
a cultural transformation was required to prioritize vocation education.

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Another head teacher, Interviewee F, focused on the hindrances encountered:
Limited resources and time constraints hindered our ability to offer students personalized
guidance. Consequently, numerous students were left feeling bewildered and
apprehensive about their career prospects. Two of the interviewees were only able to do some superficial work. Further, students
rarely took the initiative to talk to teachers about their own career planning. Gradually, this task
was forgotten by many, and no substantial progress was achieved. To support this, one head
teacher, Interviewee C, described how such career-planning related courses ended up quietly
ended by stating that:
Initially, we had scheduled regular sessions to discuss career planning. However, due to
the increasing workload, the frequency of these sessions decreased. Ultimately, they were
entirely discontinued as a result of waning interest and limited resources. Additionally, teachers themselves seemed to lack sufficient knowledge concerning career
guidance and how to teach career guidance. Most of the teachers who would be engaged in
career planning education were head teachers. In the process of receiving training, these teachers
had not received sufficient career planning education themselves, and what they had received
was mainly the course content of career development taught in the university setting, and the
effect was not significant in essence. As suggested by one teacher, Interviewee J:
I must confess that I did not receive extensive training specifically focused on career
guidance. The majority of my knowledge stems from my personal experiences and the
education I acquired during my undergraduate studies. Insufficient to adequately steer
pupils in their career trajectories.

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Moreover, the physical and mental developmental of students are very different in
different stages, which cannot be completely captured in providing this support to senior high
school students. One head teacher, Interviewee E, shared her difficulties in guiding students with
different psychological needs and development during the career planning courses:
Dealing with the varied requirements of students during career planning sessions might
provide a challenge. Certain pupils possess a strong desire to investigate various
possibilities, whereas others feel uncertain and reluctant. Achieving optimal effectiveness
in meeting the demands of each student involves a meticulous equilibrium. Nevertheless, several educators conveyed a more optimistic perspective, recognizing the
need of vocational counseling and emphasizing the possible advantages for pupils. One teacher, Interviewee L, emphasized:
Despite the presence of obstacles, I am of the opinion that proficient career guidance has
the potential to greatly influence the future achievements of students. As educators, it is
expected of us to ensure that we offer them the necessary assistance and direction to
enable them to make well-informed choices on their professional paths. From the perspective of teacher training, the cultivation of talents in the field of career
planning education was stated as very limited. The related problems were claimed by interviewee
A, stating:
There is a clear deficiency in our training program regarding the provision of career
planning education. In order to enhance our ability to assist students in their professional
pathways, it is essential that we acquire further practical experience and case studies. Within the undergraduate majors and postgraduate majors of current normal colleges and
universities, there is no career planning education-related major choice. The training within the

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schools presents the problems of small training coverage, low systematization, and poor
continuity, which is not conducive to the improvement of the quality of the career planning
education team. This has led to the current status of career planning education in senior high
schools, which is difficult to promote due to the shortage of development support. The number of career planning full-time teachers is extremely limited, and this role is
primarily assumed by head teachers. This is shown by one interviewee, J’s, demonstration:
As the head teacher, I bear the responsibility of providing guidance to students in their
career decisions. However, this task is challenging due to the absence of dedicated
resources and support from the school. The reasons why the head teachers are the main force of career education are that the
head teachers have a better understanding of the actual situation and fundamental demands of
students, and the communication and contact with parents are also closer. This explanation is
supported by Interviewee N stating:
Having taught these students for an extended period, I possess an in-depth understanding
of their capabilities, limitations, and ambitions that surpasses that of any other individual. My familiarity enables me to offer more tailored career guidance. Secondly, the relationship between the head teacher and the students is the longest and
the most emotionally strong, which makes the students more able to accept and understand
guidance given. As two additional interviewees, G and O, respectively, suggested:
The close relationship I have built with my students over the years has resulted in their
trust and increased receptiveness to my advice. And,

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My students confide in me and keep in touch with me every single day, making it the
closest relationship they have outside of their own homes. However, the promotion of students' career planning and development cannot only rely
on the head teacher to shine, and each teacher has their own unique reflection on the role of
students. Interviewees suggested that career planning education should not fall to a certain or a
few teachers. Career planning education should be the joint effort and participation of all
teachers to dedicate themselves to the outstanding development of students. As Interviewee F
stated:
In order to adequately prepare students for their future careers, it is imperative that all
educators from different backgrounds contribute and collaborate. The responsibility
should not be confined to a small number of individuals. To sum up, Finding 3 suggested that the shortage of specialized teachers and weak
professional support significantly hindered the current status of high school career planning
education. An insufficient number of qualified educators, along with insufficient resources, led
to teachers feeling overwhelmed emotionally and physically, thus feeling unable to fulfill
students’ career education needs. Finding 4: Schools Lack the Support of Parents to Carry Out Career Education
This finding mainly covered the parental attitudes over career guidance education for
their children in schools. The main sub-findings discussed include:  Parents focused more on exam results than career guidance education. With the
exams coming, parents stressed more on exam preparation rather than seeing a
benefit in career education.

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 It is apparent that parents’ choices are more heavily weighted in the children’s lives
as compared to children’s own career choices. Another critical factor affecting the current status of career planning in schools was
parental attitudes. According to head teachers and administrators, parents pay the most attention
to test results, and their recognition of career education is limited to the directly useful parts of
the college entrance examination. The following interviewees, C and K, respectively, suggested
how parents thought about the implementation of career education in high school:
Our top and foremost priority as parents is the academic performance of our children. We
do not perceive the immediate benefit of vocation education, particularly if it interferes
with their preparation for the college entrance exams. And, as parents, I could not let my children focus more on vocational education as
this is something new for me and my kids could not bear the risks of sacrificing the time
of preparing college entrance examination for those new education programs. Under the pressure of current realities, parents have to yield to the pressure of the college
entrance examination results. Therefore, it was often difficult for schools to get the full support
of parents when they carried out career education, and if they perceived that it affected students’ academic performance, they would oppose students' career education. At the same time, parents
have an authoritative influence on their children's career choice. Therefore, even if the school
carries out career education, it is difficult to play a role in the real career planning of students. To
some extent, parents' choices replace or determine students' career choice and career planning. The evidence could be seen in how one head teacher, Interviewee I, who paraphrased the
parents’ statement:

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My kids totally rely on me on picking up an educational path for them, so I prefer not
trying the career path education especially in the last year of preparation for college
entrance examination. Therefore, when the school carries out career planning, it needs to consider the factors of
parents, let parents participate in the school career education, and strengthen and support their
career awareness. To sum up, this finding discussed parental views on children pursuing career education
through the lens of school administrators and teachers. Two main themes highlighted were
parents’ increased focus on exam results, considering career guidance education insignificant and
parent’s opinions influence career decisions of children more than the students themselves. Summary of Research Question 1 Findings
Related to the current status of career planning in the three study schools, interviews with
head teachers and administrators revealed that public high school head teachers and
administrators in China perceived the current status of career planning in their schools as
underdeveloped and insufficiently supported. This phenomenon could be reflected from four
perspectives. First, school leaders felt reluctant to officially conduct career education in their
high schools due to the deeply rooted exam-oriented education ideology and lack of parental
support. Second, teachers tended to show contrasting opinions towards including career
education into high school education. Third, there was a lack of support in resources or training
that could help teachers better offer career guidance. Lastly, teachers suggested that parents also
showed unwillingness for their children to be educated in career planning as they thought
achievement and academic scores were still the most important element in high school education.

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RQ2: How Do Head Teachers and Administrators Perceive the Effectiveness of
Functioning and Execution of Career Planning Education in Their Schools?
The four surveyed schools carried out a series of activities related to career planning
education. The results of the interviews showed that most schools carried out career planning
education through the form of theme class meetings and related lectures of career planning
education. Two head teachers said that they would help students plan their careers through a
career planning assessment, but it was still very limited in practical application. Interviewee A
said, “We have implemented a variety of activities to promote career planning education;
however, I believe that there is still a difference between theory and practice. The application of
what students have learned in real-world situations is considered challenging by students.” Similarly, Interviewee C mentioned, “Despite the fact that we provide career planning
assessments, their practical application is restricted. It is vital that we devise methods to enhance
the relevance of vocation guidance to the lives of students.” The above quotes show that career planning education in schools tends to be theoretical
and formal, which is not easy to understand and apply. This leads to a need to establish possible
educational policies to conduct regular career education that could help teachers increase their
teaching experience in this regard and help students experience the program as such. For instance, one teacher (Interviewee H) suggested: “If we integrate practical activities into career education, students can gain a more intuitive understanding of various career paths and constantly adjust
their development plans based on practical experiences.” This research question led to two key findings, as discussed below.

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Finding 1: The Education Goal for High School Career Planning Remains Ambiguous and
Focuses on Utility Rather Than Educational Ef icacy
This finding discusses the ambiguity with respect to career education guidance and
planning in Chinese schools. The main sub-themes discussed in this section are:  There are no direct career guidance objectives, and educators lack directness as is
seen in Western vocational systems.  For most, career guidance means preparation for admission in higher educational
institutes.  Lack of student-centered guidance that focuses on students’ talents and skills.  Biasness of career guidance for higher achieving students vs low-scorers. China's interest in career planning education started late compared to many Western
countries, and the goal of career planning education is relatively vague. Interviewee J mentioned, When it comes to career planning education in our high schools, we are essentially
exploring unfamiliar territory. Unlike Western countries, where financial education is
easily incorporated into the education system, our approach has been more exploratory, lacking a definite trajectory or educational goal. At the time of the study, with the development of career planning education in regular
high school, few head teachers could clarify the purpose of career planning education itself, and
there was no clear understanding of what goal career planning education should achieve. According to official government documents, the utilitarian purpose of high school career
planning education of regular high school students is an educational activity to improve
comprehensive quality on the basis of helping students understand themselves, understand
professional society, and scientifically and reasonably plan their studies. According to the

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interviews with the teachers, the important task of career planning education in high school is to
help students choose subjects scientifically and effectively and apply for examinations, so as to
lay a solid foundation for students' future employment. For example, one teacher, Interviewee L
stated:
Our primary objective in career planning education is to help students make wellinformed decisions regarding their academic trajectory and future career opportunities. We are of the opinion that by offering exhaustive guidance on subject selection and
examination preparation, we provide students with the requisite skills and knowledge to
excel in their chosen career paths, thereby establishing a solid foundation for their future
success in the workforce. Interviewees tended to attach a lot of importance to students' further education, including
examination performance and often neglected the other intentions of career planning education. For example, Interviewee O, a principal, demonstrated:
We often fail to recognize the fundamental nature of career planning education and
instead regard it as a means to aid students in their pursuit of higher education, thereby
neglecting their comprehensive development. Our emphasis on exam-oriented education
perpetuates a limited focus on academic achievements, undermining the true purpose of
education, instead of nurturing students' individual interests, talents, and aspirations. Under the framework, students mostly learned about the explanation of college entrance
skills, the publicity of college entrance policies, and the content of college entrance information. As a result, students’ personalities, interests, hobbies, specialties and other factors were often not
considered, and without which, could not truly promote students’ lifelong development. This
utilitarian view of schooling regarded career planning education as a tool, and even the public

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and private use of career planning education as a means to improve the enrollment rate in
colleges. Further, the implementation of career guidance was not equal, with high-achievement
students gaining more focused attention compared with their low-achievement peers. As
suggested by one of the principals (Interviewee P):
There is a clear discrepancy in the level of focus and support provided to high-achieving
students compared to those who face academic challenges, particularly in the realm of
career guidance. While high-achieving students receive individualized assistance and
guidance that is specifically designed to help them achieve their goals, students who
struggle academically often feel neglected and are left to navigate the complexities of
career planning without support. This situation worsens the existing inequalities in
educational outcomes. In order to improve the "efficiency" of career planning education, only those students
who were expected to pursue higher education and had excellent academic performance were
given guidance and answers, while those students with poor academic performance and low
expectations of going to college were ignored. When students encountered confusion of career
planning, they could not find reasonable channels to consult or solve problems within their
school. Utilitarian career planning education deviated from the original intention and purpose of
development, and alienation was inevitably created and derived in actual teaching. The development of career planning education was generally attached to moral education
or mental health education, instead of cultivating students’ career planning literacy or ability, which made it difficult to clarify the purpose. As Interviewee D suggested:
The current fusion of career planning education with moral and mental health education
results in a lack of clarity on its genuine objective. We must prioritize the development of

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students' career planning literacies and skills instead of considering it as an additional
component to other educational endeavors. From this, the current form of career planning education carried out in schools was easy
to be misinterpreted as the content of moral education or mental health education and
consultation. Teachers suggested that in the long run, if career planning education does not form
its own penetration throughout the high school education system, but only scattered
psychological counseling for individual students by head teachers, or general introduction in
class meetings, career planning education will be increasingly unable to recognize its own
positioning in the high school education system. As a result, it will be unable to fundamentally
play its role in the basic education of ordinary high schools, and students will not obtain
sufficient career planning guidance through the career planning education carried out by the
school.The weak awareness of the full purpose of career planning education was reflected in the
fact that the schools had not implemented the important position that career planning education
was expected to have. At the time of the study, career planning education had different forms in
different high schools. In the interviews, teachers and administrators did not have a thorough
understanding of the essence of career planning education, especially under the utilitarian
concept of "all based on performance," which was gradually forming the phenomenon of
ignoring the improvement of students' career planning ability and the cultivation of students’ career planning quality. Interviewee E said, “there is a clear absence of awareness regarding the
importance of career planning education within our school. It is frequently disregarded or
marginalized, as instructors fail to fully comprehend its significance in molding the future
trajectories of children.”

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From the quote, it can be noted that the goal of career planning education in high schools
is not deeply understood. In many cases, educators, did not pay attention to the development of
career planning education and, as Interviewee M stated: “Career planning education is frequently
perceived as an afterthought, receiving attention only when required rather than being seamlessly
incorporated into the fundamental educational structure.” Similarly, Interviewee N said, “Career
planning education is sometimes regarded as a perfunctory obligation rather than a substantial
educational pursuit, often taking a backseat to other educational priorities. Finding 1 for Research Question 2, examining the effectiveness of the execution of career
planning education in schools, revealed that there seemed to be no common understanding of the
goals of career education. While one of the aims, as stated, was to teach students some college
entrance skills, the current career education did not seem aimed at the more systematic
development of students. Further, teachers and school leaders seemed to hold low efficacy in
running and maintaining career education programs. This could partially be explained by the
short history of career education in China and the fuzziness of the career education goals. In sum, the finding discusses the ambiguity around different perspectives of career
guidance education in eyes of students, teachers and parents alike. The objectives for guidance
are not clear and it is regarded as a means for further education access rather than development
of career. Additionally, career guidance only focused on high achievers regardless of students’
talents, skills and abilities is also highlighted. Finding 2: The Contents of High School Career Planning Education are Narrow and Include
Single Elements
The essence of this finding lies in the issues that hinder career guidance education and
planning according to interviewees. The main sub-themes discussed are:

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 Limited and selective content that is more exam-focused.  Lack of practical usage of the concepts have rendered career planning education less
beneficial and theoretical only.  Lack of proper system guidelines regarding career planning education.  Teachers struggle when there is no or little guidance and proper system of career
guidance curriculum. The choice of the content of career planning education is the fundamental basis for the
effectiveness of functioning and execution of career planning education. The organization of
teaching activities with which content is selected plays a key role in what kind of career planning
education students can obtain (Yu, 2017). Based on interviews, this was not well developed in
high school career planning education, with single teaching content elements and narrow content, which could not fully meet the needs of students for the development of career planning
education. The discussions below highlight three aspects of this. High School Career Planning Education Content Selection is Scarce and Simple. The new round of college entrance examination reform emphasizes career planning education to
help students learn to choose. However, the choice of career planning education content
implemented by schools was often limited to how to select courses and how to improve scores. In essence, it was still to serve further education, and it ignored students’ own feelings, intentions
and aspirations, which fundamentally disregarded the essence of career planning education and
turned it into another way to compete for scores. The evidence could be seen in the reports from
different interviewees of different high schools. Interviewee E said, “the primary emphasis of our
career planning education is mostly on the tactics for selecting courses and techniques for
improving scores while disregarding the comprehensive development and personal objectives of

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students.” Interviewee G also mentioned, “career planning education appears to primarily focus
on equipping students for higher education while neglecting their individual aspirations and
interests.”
It was found that there was a characteristic of the current career planning education in
which the content closely related to the college entrance examination would be emphasized, but
the content with little relevance to the college entrance examination would be screened and
excluded in the content selection. For instance, one interviewed teacher (Interviewee A) said, “our career education curriculum predominantly emphasizes exam-specific skills and strategies, while overlooking broader dimensions of personal and career growth.” Similarly, Interviewee I
said, “there is a discernible deficiency in our career planning education regarding non-examrelated skills and knowledge, which has the potential to impede students' comprehensive
development and readiness for the future.” This violates the original intention of career planning education as established by the
reform effort (Yu, 2017). Students receiving a single form of career planning education will
likely produce negative emotions, reduce their enthusiasm for career planning education, reduce
their initiative, and eventually lead to a failed career experience. High School Career Planning Education Content Lacks Practical Integration. At
present, although the issued government reform documents clearly state the significance of
promoting career planning education in ordinary high schools, at a practical level, there is no
specific content composition, evaluation criteria, or other relevant guidelines. This was a major
concern revealed by four to five interviewees related to the effectiveness of career planning
education functioning and execution in their schools. For instance, Interviewee K said, “the
absence of precise standards and evaluation criteria for career planning education at the practical

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level presents a substantial obstacle for schools and teachers in efficiently implementing it.” Similar to this, Interviewee P mentioned, “in the absence of explicit content composition and
guidelines, educational institutions may encounter difficulties in creating thorough and efficient
career planning education programmes.” Secondly, due to the limitation of teachers' own training and time, the content of career
planning education received by students in school often had more emphasis on theoretical
teaching instead of students learning and understanding practical applications. Also, Interviewee
C said: “The prioritization of theoretical instruction in career planning education may impede
students' practical comprehension and utilization of career concepts.” Although theory teaching is indispensable to enhancing students' cognition of career
planning and understanding the essence of career planning, if the content of career planning
education is only to teach theory and seriously decouple it from practice, it is to put career
planning education on the shelf from the content. Given this situation, one head teacher, Interviewee D suggested:
To significantly enhance the career planning abilities of students, it is essential to begin
with the talents that are currently required by society and integrate them with the law of
students' psychological development. Otherwise, the discrepancy between the school's
career planning education content selection and the practice it organizes will continue to
widen, and it is simple to arrive at a state in which theory and practice are incompatible. The implementation effect of career planning education will be significantly diminished
if its content lacks practical integration. High School Career Planning Education Content System Architecture is Weak. Promoting career planning education requires systematic engineering, which not only needs the

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education administrative department to establish an effective top-level design but also needs
corresponding mechanisms to build solid structures within the career planning education system. The selection and combination of career planning education content is inseparable from the
establishment of internal consistency in the system. However, three head teachers spoke of weak
system links. Interviewee F stated: “The absence of structured career planning education
naturally hinders the development of students' ability to plan their careers”, while another
similarly expressed,“the career planning education content tends to focus primarily on self- exploration and course selection guidance for students, neglecting the exploration of external
environmental factors such as future careers and development trends.” The lack of formal structures was explained by Interviewee C as follows, Because career planning education started later in our nation, there isn't yet a very perfect
system for reference, and there are many restrictions on the degree of resource
availability, which makes it easy to choose career planning education content that only
guides students in choosing courses and conducting self-exploration, rather than
exploring external environmental factors like future careers and development trends. Naturally, the development of students' career planning skills is hampered by the lack of
a comprehensive approach to career planning teaching in schools. From the perspective of talent training, the lack of systematic career planning education
can lead to one-sided talent training. It was stated by Interviewee N, a head teacher, that, “the
content lacks a foundation in system construction, resulting in trained individuals who will
inevitably possess various deficiencies that prevent them from fully adapting to the current
demands for talent development."

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The selection of career planning content should be based on what students need and what
students want to learn, rather than what the school can carry out and what content is more
conducive to improving the school's enrollment rate. With the lack of a system in practice, teachers expressed that the content is not based on system construction, and the talents trained
will have a variety of shortcomings which cannot fundamentally adapt to the current needs for
talent training. From the perspective of integrity, system support is needed to help build the
entity's career framework. To sum up, this finding highlights the concerns regarding educational material, practical
integration and teachers’ struggles over lack of career guidance principles. Interviewees also
shed light on the materials and syllabus being more exam-centric, simple and lacking student’s
interests. Summary of Findings for Research Question 2
The findings for Research Question 2 helped understand the perceptions of head teachers
and school administrators regarding the effectiveness of executing career education in high
schools. This study found that there was a lack of goal setting for career education, with the
objectives of career education still largely serving college entrance purposes instead of the
development of students’ other skills and interests. Further, teachers and administrators generally
focused on narrowly defined career planning content and were not trained to teach career
planning education in a practical way that students could relate to. Further, a weak integrated
career education system meant that there was not a clear design or formal structure in place to
support an effective career education system to foster career knowledge among high school
students.

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RQ3: What Do Head Teachers and Administrators See as Their Needs to Further
Implement Career Planning Curriculum and Pedagogy in Their Classrooms and Schools?
Through interviews with head teachers and principals, three expressed needs rose to the
top to further implement career planning curriculum and pedagogy in their classrooms and
schools: 1) career planning education teachers; 2) establish evaluation mechanisms; and 3) set
goals for career planning education. Each of these is discussed further below. Finding 1: Optimize Career Planning Education Teachers Within a Collaborative Team
This finding suggested outlooks on career education support systems in light of educator
interviews. There were three key sub-themes:  Interviewees focused on there being specialized teachers for career guidance
education.  Interviewees suggested a team approach including perspectives and efforts from
parents, students, administrators and teachers.  A balanced training approach including theory and practice was stated as important
for teacher development. Both head teachers and administrators expressed that the realization of systematic and
comprehensive career education needs to rely on the support of professional teachers. Thirteen
out of 16 interviews agreed on the importance of professional teachers in the development of
career education. The importance of professional teachers collaborating with others to implement
career education was also noted. Interviewee G said, Career education teachers should possess knowledge of career guidance theory and
psychological counselling methods. Additionally, they should collaborate closely with
subject teachers and class teachers, engage in personalized communication with parents

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and students, and foster positive interaction with enterprises, universities, and social
groups. Similarly, Interviewee H, who is an administrator, said: “To foster the advancement of
career education specialization in schools, it is imperative to motivate career education teachers
to actively engage in professional development” Further, a head teacher stated:
Schools can integrate career education teacher training into their formal teacher training
programme by merging professional and part-time teachers. This will help establish a
stable and high-quality team of career education teachers, with professional teachers as
the mainstay. By combining full-time and part-time teachers, and continuously enhancing
the management system of the teaching team, schools can further enhance the
effectiveness of career education. This suggests that tight collaboration between head teachers, school administrators, and
teachers of all courses is necessary in order to attain favorable outcomes in career education. Subject teachers have the ability to guide students in contemplating the essence of the subject
and posing inquiries, fostering essential qualities, crucial skills, and values, and aiding them in
acknowledging the inherent significance of the subject and its relevance to prospective fields of
study and professions. Further, Interviewee G also suggested to “fully mobilize all resources, including subject
teachers, administrative teachers, class teachers, retired teachers, parents, experts outside the
school and community volunteers, to form a career education mentor team together with fulltime career education mentors, so as to match each student with a mentor and provide
personalized guidance.”

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Interviewee D added: “Through the inclusion of subject teachers, we can guarantee that
students receive personalized guidance that is specifically designed to cater to their academic
interests and objectives, thereby augmenting their comprehension of how their studies correlate
with their prospective career trajectories.” Interviewee I expressed their thoughts in this way:
Retired educators contribute their extensive experience and sagacity to the mentor group, providing invaluable perspectives and counsel to students as they navigate their career
decisions. By involving community volunteers, students are given the opportunity to
interact with professionals from different fields, enabling them to acquire practical
knowledge and guidance regarding diverse career options. The main goal of this cooperation in light of interviewees’ opinions could be to guide
students' self-awareness, social awareness and professional concepts, and cultivate students' abilities of independent thinking and independent choice, so as to realize the full development of
students. Such a comprehensive team could play an important role in the critical period of
students' personal growth and promote their all-round development. In addition to this, parents and social professionals were suggested to take part in the
building of career education as well. Study interviewees spoke of the importance of professional
career education teachers engaging parents and others in career education. One head teacher, Interviewee F, stated: “At the same time, parents and social professionals can understand the
situation of various industries, study the requirements, qualities and prospects of specific
occupations, and clarify the future career direction and development possibilities.” Four interviewees highlighted the necessity of teacher training as a way to improve the
theory and practice of career education at the local level and strengthen teachers’ career
education teaching skills so as to enhance their ability and sense of competence in career

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education. They also spoke of the importance of a team approach, involving diverse stakeholders, in the implementation of career education. Finding 1 for Research Question 3 stressed the need to stimulate teachers’ potential in
establishing effective career education. In addition to supporting the expertise of professional
career education teachers, to do this, study interviewees suggested the need for various parties, including professional teachers, school leaders, parents and social professionals, to collaborate to
fully support career planning curriculum and pedagogy in their classrooms and schools. Finding 2: Improve the Evaluation Mechanism of Career Education Courses
This finding covered the importance of evaluation of career guidance systems. The main
sub-themes discussed are:  One interviewee appreciated Hangzhou’s system for career guidance which is more
student-centric in a personalized way.  A call for a robust framework that includes standards, guidance and courses for
career guidance.  Tracking of progress through assessments were also identified as important. Educational evaluation has basic functions of diagnosis, motivation, guidance, and
identification, and is an important part of incorporating career education into curriculum
implementation according to interviewees. Related to implementing career education, two
teachers put a strong emphasis on introducing an evaluation system. Interviewee B mentioned: “It is necessary to create a robust evaluation system that promotes the standardized and
normalized growth of career education courses, while also maximizing the courses' ability to
guide students in their career planning.” Similar to Interviewee B, Interviewee L stated, “

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we need to begin to draw inspiration from successful practices in other cities. We must
find a way to ensure a comprehensive evaluation of student's abilities and interests as it
enables us to more precisely identify their strengths and areas for improvement. In particular, one interviewee mentioned how other cities had created a career education
evaluation approach as a reference for building a similar system in Suzhou City. For instance, Interviewee C said:“Our educational institutions can adopt the approach of a school in Hangzhou
by establishing individualized career development portfolios for students upon their enrollment. This would then enable teachers and parents to maintain comprehensive records throughout the
students’ lives.” Furthering this idea, Interviewee E mentioned, Dynamic tracking career file systems include records of personality and questionnaire
surveys, career course evaluations, practical assignments, personal growth records, career
type assessments, career orientation assessments, and interest and career orientation
assessments. It provides a holistic view of their progress and allows for personalized
guidance. Finding 2 for Research Question 3 indicates that another need to further implement career
planning in their classrooms and pedagogy, according to head teachers, is to establish an
evaluation mechanism for career education curriculums. Finding 3: Establish the Overall and Phased Goals of Career Planning Education
Interviewees suggested strengthening goal-setting of career guidance education. The
main aspects discussed include:  Interviewees stressed the development of a synchronized approach of clearer goals.  An approach that aligned the general aims with students’ goals was also stressed.

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The curriculum objectives of career planning education play an important role in the
vocational education plan. They are the guidance of the whole curriculum arrangement. Ensuring
the accuracy, rationality and pertinence of goal setting has an important impact on curriculum
content and implementation. In order to achieve better results, a need that was highlighted by
interviewees across the four schools was clearer goals around career planning education, both a
clearer overall goal and phased goals to get there. It was suggested by Interviewee F, for example, “to adopt a dual positioning method when setting curriculum goals: clearly define the overall
goal, and subdivide it into specific goals stage by stage, so as to realize the organic combination
of the two levels.” Similarly, Interviewee D also suggested that “by implementing a dual
positioning approach to goal planning, we may synchronize the overall aims of career education
with the distinct requirements and ambitions of students at various points in their academic
progression.” In the context of educational or career planning, implementing a dual positioning
approach allows for the synchronization of institutional objectives with the personal aspirations
and developmental stages of students. This approach facilitates a balanced alignment between
general educational outcomes and the unique, evolving goals of each student at various academic
levels (Ryba et al., 2021). In sum, Finding 3 identified the importance of clearer goals when it comes to career
guidance education. Additionally, it was stated that a synchronized and dual positioning
approach would cater to both institutional and individual goals which may help in forming career
planning reforms. Summary of Findings for Research Question 3

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Overall, the three major findings related to Research Question 3 suggested that in order to
advance career education, teachers, school leaders, parents, and other professionals need to work
together in setting clear goals at different stages, offer a well-rounded evaluation system and
increase teachers’ understanding and practice towards career education. Conclusion
In general, the interviews with principals and teachers demonstrated that the reform of the
new college entrance examination policy has played a key role in stimulating the education of
career planning in high school. This was represented by a principal (Interviewee O) who stated: “From national guidelines and policies to provincial and municipal relevant documents, all point
out the importance of career planning education. Especially after the new college entrance
examination, the importance of career planning education has become more prominent.” This was also supported by a head teacher (Interviewee B), stating, At the beginning of the head teacher meeting, the leader in charge mentioned the
importance of career planning education. The school also developed a school career
planning education program, which was printed for each teacher. Parsons' trait factor
matching theory believes that each occupation has its own uniqueness, and only the fit
between people and occupations can adapt to the needs of occupations, and only those
who adapt to the needs of occupations can do better in their positions and meet the self- value of life. High school students are gradually entering adulthood and are faced with
the choice of a path suitable for their career development. Career planning education is
very important for high school students, which can help them clarify their career goals, understand themselves and make wise career choices, so as to lay a solid foundation for
future career development.

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However, the interviews also raised many challenges in the implementation of career
planning education in high schools. In terms of teachers, the teachers in the career planning
guidance team were not professionals in the field. Except for psychology teachers who had
corresponding official qualifications, other teachers were engaged outside of their interests or
professional expertise. In terms of the curriculum, although there was a prototype of the
curriculum, and teaching activities were gradually carried out according to the arrangement, the
timeliness, effectiveness and scientific basis of the curriculum were raised as needing additional
focus. In terms of accountability, although each school has a career education group headed by
the principal, there was still a lack of a systematic system for carrying out career planning
education, and the feeling that support from higher education management departments for
schools carrying out career planning education needed to be improved. In terms of effectiveness, the career planning education of ordinary high schools in Suzhou is still floating on the surface, not really into the heart and brain, and the role of laying the foundation for student's future
development has not been fully played. In the next section, more specific and systematic
recommendations for practice will be put forward to address the above findings.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
The purpose of this research was to explore career planning education in China, from the
perspective of high school head teachers and administrators, following China’s new national
college entrance examination policy. The focus was on understanding the perceptions of school
head teachers and administrators in four high schools in Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province in terms
of the status of career planning, along with the effectiveness of functioning and execution of
career planning education in the schools. Moreover, the study explored how they saw their needs
to further implement career planning curriculum and pedagogy in their classrooms and schools. The following research questions guided the study:
RQ1: What do public high school head teachers and administrators in China perceive as
the current status of career planning in their schools?
RQ2: How do head teachers and administrators perceive the effectiveness of functioning
and execution of career planning education in their schools?
RQ3: What do head teachers and administrators see as their needs to further implement
career planning curriculum and pedagogy in their classrooms and schools?
The following sections discuss the study’s key findings in the context of scholarly
literature and theories. This is following by recommendation for practice, limitations and
delimitations of the study, areas for future research and study conclusions. Discussion of Findings
Education taking place in the country of China has gone through various changes over
time, and since 2014, when the New National College Entrance Examination Reforms came into
effect, the country has been focused on career planning education and understanding and
assessing the significance of guiding students to optimal career paths. Government policies have

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sought to emphasize that while academic education is important for students, it is equally
imperative and essential to assist students in understanding their own interests and choosing their
right career paths. Having this is mind, schools in China have worked to incorporate career
planning in their curriculum, and this is incorporated for students from primary to secondary
schools, making use of different ways and approaches to assist students with the choices they
will make in terms of career planning and progression (Wen & Hu, 2019). It has further been
understood that evaluation is one of the major components of career planning education in China, and schools are given the opportunity to identify the techniques, approaches, and policies that
have been successful, and the ones that need further improvement (Fearon et al., 2018). This study included the perspectives of high school lead teachers and administrators in
four high schools in Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province, and depicted the intricacy of career planning
education in the existing system of education for students and the complex techniques and
strategies needed. At present, Suzhou City has carried out the reform of the new college entrance
examination relatively late compared with other cities and provinces. For instance, as one of the
first cities to implement the new college entrance examination reforms, Shanghai adopted the
"3+3" exam model. This model allows students to choose three elective courses, such as
chemistry, physics, and history, in addition to the three compulsory subjects: English, mathematics, and Chinese (Tan & NG, 2018). Similarly, besides the same “3+3” exam mode, Beijing also aimed to highlight students’ all-around development by highlighting other non- academic education involving moral education, intellectual education, physical education, aesthetic education, and labor education (Chen et al., 2020). There are two points gained from
the two cases. First, students begin to be given the freedom to choose different courses to learn
based on their interests and their abilities. Second, there is a tendency for different cities to focus

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on different types of education, which indicates there is a prevalent localization of education. Although there is a wealth of experience in these regions as a reference, efforts elsewhere need
to further explore and develop career education that reflects their own context and localization. Jiangsu Province has also emphasised the importance of education leaders bringing about
real change and creating a school environment that values and supports the complete
development of students. The results of this study can be used to further develop policy
initiatives that will address the challenges identified by head teachers and school administrators
and, at the same time, maximize the impact of career planning education in public high schools. According to Shen (2021), educational policymakers, school leaders, and stakeholders can join
together to design more equitable, inclusive, and effective career planning programs that will
enable all students to reach their full potential. A main theme that emerged from the data were around concerns voiced about the current
state of career planning initiatives in their schools. These concerns included issues from the
logistical challenges, such as the limited time and funding allocated to career education programs, to general issues such as the continuing emphasis on academic achievement at the expense of
holistic student development. Educational literature similarly shows that the process of career
planning in schools is often limited by a shortage of resources and the various tasks that are
given to schools besides career planning (Gati & Kulcsár, 2021; Okolie et al., 2020). Apart from
the logistical challenges, three head teachers also questioned the effectiveness of the current
career planning programs in guiding students to their future success. They brought up the
questions of the curriculum content, the quality of career guidance that is given to the students, and the general effect of the career planning programs on the students' futures after high school.

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However, even though these difficulties existed, there were still head teachers who were
hopeful that career planning education could make a positive impact on their students' lives. These head teachers emphasised the necessity to develop career exploration, decision-making
skills, and workforce readiness of their students. They stated the benefits of the experiential
learning possibilities, industry partnerships, and mentorship programs that could boost the
students' knowledge regarding the possible career pathways and empower them to make the right
decisions about the future. Research supports the inherent benefits of experiential learning. Experiential learning opportunities like internships, job shadowing, and service learning have
been shown to help students develop 21st century skills highly valued by employers (Bowering
et al., 2020). Experiential learning allows students to directly apply what they learn in real-world
work environments, helping them better understand different career options and clarify their own
interests, strengths, and skills (Fromm et al., 2021). Partnerships between schools and employers/industry are beneficial as they provide
students access to workplace experiences, expertise, and networking (Bean, 2021). When
students interact with professionals, they gain career exposure and insights not available within
academic settings alone. Mentorship programs also effectively support students' career
exploration and development (Scerri et al., 2020). Mentors can offer guidance that to helps
mentees navigate career decision-making and role model pathways to consider. Having role
models and advice from those in the field empowers students as they define their own career
aspirations. There are valid reasons to question whether large-scale implementation of career
planning education is advisable in Chinese high schools. Foremost, the exam-centric culture of
the current system makes it difficult to prioritize career guidance in a meaningful way. With the

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immense pressure on students and teachers to achieve high Gaokao scores, any non-academic
initiatives risk becoming empty box-checking exercises unless directly tied to testing (Deng et al., 2024). Even then, they may compromise the exploration and self-discovery intended by career
advising. Given this environment, it is unrealistic to expect underpaid teachers, already
overburdened with content delivery, to spearhead complex career counselling. The workload
would be untenable without significantly better support and training. This raises doubts about the
sustainability of a teacher-led model, unlike private schools in other nations that can afford
dedicated counsellors. A more pragmatic community partnership approach leveraging local
expertise may be more effective within resource constraints faced by Chinese public education. Furthermore, while exposing youth to career options has benefits, is it appropriate or fair
to channel over 10 million adolescents into standardized career tracks and decisions so early? At
high school ages, interests and abilities are still developing rapidly. Premature commitments
could limit opportunity and potential if interests change or unforeseen circumstances intervene. A one-size-fits-all college preparatory approach also does little for the 70% of students not
university-bound, marginalizing their relevance (Thompson, 2023). Given societal pressures, students may feel compelled into paths against personal inclination to avoid disappointing
academic expectations. Rather than tailoring the program, would wholesale adoption not risk
entrenching the examination system further? There exists the danger of career education
superficially becoming another test subject added to an already-inflated assessment burden. This
risks defeating the goal of nurturing well-rounded growth and intrinsic motivation that a narrow
focus on results undermines. In light of these concerns, adversaries could argue it more prudent
to instead reduce screening and diversify secondary education to ease career pressures from the
outset.

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Although difficulties are present, there was also hope by study interviewees that career
planning education can change their students' lives for the better, as supported by research
(Zhang, 2023). Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) suggests that people learn about careers
through the combination of social factors, personal factors, and cognitive processes. The theory
underlines the significance of observational learning which is, people learning from the
behaviours and career choices of others that are around them in their social environment. In the
case of head teachers of the four study public high schools in China, their views on career
planning education were partly affected by their own careers, the way they saw students' career
advancement, and their conversations with their fellow colleagues. For instance, head teachers
who had witnessed the success of several career planning programs in different schools were
most likely to have more positive views on the effectiveness of such programs. The findings emphasized the need for greater professionalism of career education
teachers and the need for clearly defined goals. Head teachers, along with the administrators, are
considered the main actors in the process of improving career planning education in their schools. Their views are a source of useful information on the advantages, difficulties, and changes
associated with the introduction of career planning programs (Yan & Saguin, 2021). Research
also suggests that career planning education should be in harmony with the school's mission, vision, and values and be a part of its strategic plans, curriculum frameworks, and assessment
practices. By working toward and attaining the educational goals, the head teachers and
administrators can be effective in the career planning education and, at the same time, fulfil the
needs of all students (Xing & Rojewski, 2018). Further, Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) is concentrated on the individual's thoughts
about their ability to succeed in a certain task and the subjective value they assign to the

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consequences of that task. The teachers in the study articulated a need for additional professional
development around career education to succeed, and the need to put career planning education
in the hands of professional teachers with related expertise, working with a larger team. Further, in the field of career planning education, the head teachers' views on the effectiveness of these
programs may be influenced by their expectations of the way these programs will prepare
students for future success and the importance they have on career related outcomes such as job
satisfaction, financial stability, and personal fulfilment. For instance, head teachers who think
that career planning education can greatly affect the students' future career opportunities may
consider these programs as essential. The teachers in the study emphasized the importance of
career education and a focus on the broader development of the child, but also articulated the
reality of a culture where academic performance is valued more than all else. There has been ambiguity around the goal of career planning education in Chinese public
high schools. While private international schools in China have established robust career
development programs, public schools have faced challenges developing their own initiatives
from scratch (Li and Xue, 2021). Rather than continuing down this path, public and private
educational institutions should work collaboratively. Private international schools have long
understood the importance of career planning education and invested resources into developing
comprehensive programs. These schools have designated career advisors, curriculum tailored for
each grade, partnerships with universities and companies, and tools for personality and interest
assessments. However, they serve only a small proportion of students in China. Public schools
could learn from the proven models and resources already created by international private
schools (Haiyan and Allan, 2021). By working together, barriers to information sharing and
capacity building between the two sectors can be reduced.

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Cooperation allows successful elements from private school programs to be adapted for
the public education system in a sustainable way. Instead of needing to design everything
independently, public school teachers and counsellors can receive training from experienced
private school educators (Metcalf, 2021). Shared use of personality tests, university liaison
contacts, and career seminar speakers saves costs for both sides. International schools also
benefit from additional research partnerships to constantly improve their offerings. Partnering on
career education provides an opportunity for public and private schools to fulfil their missions
through collaboration rather than competition or isolation. When systems learn from each other, it drives progress across the board (Catelli, 2021). With open communication and a spirit of
learning, public high schools in China can establish clear goals and implement effective career
planning education programs for the benefit of all students. The head teachers and administrators assessed the value of career planning education by
its ability to inspire and arouse students in their career exploration and decision-making
procedures. They realised that career planning education should not just be a way of giving
information about career options, but it should also be the students' involvement and
empowerment in self-reflection, goal-setting, and action planning (Qian, 2019). Successful
career planning initiatives should enable students to discover their interests, strengths, and values, to know about possible career pathways, and to acquire the skills and competencies which are
necessary for their success in their chosen fields. The head teachers and administrators wanted to
see proof of students’ interest, enthusiasm, and self-direction in the process of career planning
and indicators of students’ progress and growth over time. This was generally not present in the
study schools, and the study interviewees suggested additional ways to measure the success of
career planning education, including looking to other schools that have successfully done this.

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Research also supports that the successful implementation of career planning initiatives is
possible only through the collaboration of a large variety of stakeholders who can give students
the necessary resources, expertise, and opportunities (Gautam, 2024). Research has shown the
necessity of having good external stakeholder partnerships with employers, industry, post- secondary institutions, and community organisations for the benefit of career planning
curriculum and the pedagogy. This allows students to be able to have opportunities of real-world
learning, mentorship, and career exposure through the cooperation between the students and the
external partners (Zhao & Zhou, 2023). Schools may have to create formal relationships with
local businesses, industry associations, and higher education institutions to make this possible
and to introduce programs like internships, job shadowing, career talks, and industry visits. Also, schools can use community resources and experts to design the curriculum content and activities
that are related to the labour market and industry trends (Zhang & Bray, 2018). With the help of
outside stakeholders, schools can improve the career planning curriculum and pedagogy, which
in turn, enables the schools to better prepare the students for the future. Head teachers and administrators were also aware of the importance of the development
of professional skills for teachers and counsellors in order to improve their ability to deliver
career planning curriculum and pedagogy. They suggested that a lot of teachers may not have the
specific training in career guidance and counselling and may need specialized professional
development programs. Zhou and Reed (2018) suggest that these initiatives could be workshops, seminars, and courses on career counselling techniques, labour market trends, post-secondary
pathways, and the effective integration of career-related content into the academic curriculum. This study explored the perspectives of high school administrators and teachers regarding
the current state of career planning education in their schools. While insights were provided on

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prevalent challenges and opportunities, questions remain around how to best meet student needs
through comprehensive career services (Okolie et al., 2020). Currently in China, career
counselling and guidance are not clearly defined areas of support provided within secondary
schools. Administrators indicated that limited resources and training exist for assisting students
in navigating future pathways. Further research is needed to understand what types of career
services would be most impactful for Chinese high school students. Questions arise around how
to properly structure career services and ensure staff have the qualifications required. International models point to the importance of licensed career counsellors who are specialists in
areas like vocational assessment, postsecondary research, resume/interview preparation, and one- on-one advising (Jackson, 2020). However, the applicability of such dedicated career counsellor
roles within China's educational context requires deeper investigation. Considering resource
constraints, alternative service delivery methods might be explored, such as training form or
homeroom teachers to fulfil basic career advising functions. Partnerships with outside
professionals could also supplement in-school support. Regardless of approach, common
standards and benchmarks are necessary to define minimum career counselling expertise. Linking career services directly to the new curriculum goals and national college entrance
exam reforms also poses challenges. While increased subject choices were intended to support
student interests, guidance is still needed to translate interests into informed career/major
decisions. Administrators acknowledged the risks if students simply pursue high-scoring classes
rather than compatibility with future pathways. Tailoring services to facilitate intentional
selection aligned with individual strengths, values and industry demand would help maximize
the intent of the reforms (Viterouli et al., 2024). Beyond structure and training, further research
is also warranted into student perceptions and priorities for career development support. Their

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views on most helpful resources, preferred delivery methods, and topics of strongest interest
could greatly aid building programs that resonate and drive engagement. Novel methods like
digital career guidance platforms might also be explored as a resource extension strategy. With
evolving technology and a dynamic job market, continuous program evaluation and
improvement will likewise be important to sustain effectiveness over time. Finally, the head teachers and administrators emphasised the need for evaluation and
continuous improvement in the implementation of career planning curriculum and pedagogy. They understood that the career opportunities and students' needs were changing all the time, hence the schools need to continuously modify and improve their career planning education
programs. They suggested that schools need to devise methods of getting feedback from students, parents, teachers, and other stakeholders on the effectiveness of career planning initiatives and
the relevance of the curriculum content. This feedback could be used for strategic decision- making, programmatic changes, and resource allocation; thus, the career planning education
would remain useful for the students' needs and aspirations (Wu et al., 2020). To do so, schools
could also participate in benchmarking and peer learning activities to gain knowledge and
experience from schools and educational institutions effectively implementing career planning
education. Research suggests that through adopting a culture of continuous improvement, the
quality and the effect of career planning curriculum and pedagogy can be improved and, thus, the
students can be better prepared for their future careers (Uy et al., 2024). Recommendations for Practices
Based on the findings on the status of career planning education in public high schools in
Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province China at the time of the study, four recommendations for practice
are offered which together aim at improving the quality and impacts of career planning education

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programs for all high school students. The recommendations focus on closing current identified
gaps between program intentions and current status while also building on the existing assets of
career planning education in the study schools and beyond. Table 2 displays the
recommendations for practice with their connections to study findings and to scholarly literature. Table 2:
Recommendations for Practice
Recommendation Connection to Findings Connection to Literature
Integration of Comprehensive
Career Guidance Programs
The recommendation
addresses findings related to
the need for a coordinated, unified, and comprehensive
plan to guide career
education.
Literature emphasizes the
need for multifaceted
approaches to career
education that guide students
through exploration, planning
and development (Yang &
Wong, 2020; Keele et al., 2020). Strengthening Teacher
Training and Professional
Development
The findings emphasized a
need greater career guidance
expertise among teachers and
the cultivation of talent in the
field of career planning
education, which this
recommendation aims to
remedy through strengthened
professional development. It
connects to the study
interviewees suggesting
improved implementation of
Research shows targeted
professional learning leads to
higher-quality career
curriculum implementation
and student support (Little &
Paul, 2021).

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career curriculum and
pedagogy through teacher
training. Collaborations with a Broad
Group of Stakeholders
The findings discussed the
importance placed on
stakeholder involvement and
partnerships that could
provide opportunities for
students, echoing this
recommendation's focus on
collaborations. It relates to
building the types of
stakeholder alliances needed
to foster career education.
Partnerships with
stakeholders provide access
to workplace experiences and
social capital shown to aid
career readiness and
transitions (Wallis, 2021). Utilization of Technology
Enabled Resources
This recommendation
considers an area that could
be developed further to
address current limitations
like constraints on time and
funding expressed in the
findings. It relates to evolving
delivery approaches that may
prevent overburdening scarce
resources.
Using virtual tools and online
platforms in career education
aligns with constructivist
perspectives emphasising
self-directed, exploratory
learning (Andrews & Ramji, 2020). Recommendation 1: Integration of Comprehensive Career Guidance Programs
Based on the findings, there is a clear need for a more robust and coordinated approach to
career planning education in Chinese high schools. Currently, career education goals are
ambiguous, and content lacks practical application. One of the major objectives and aims of

107
comprehensive guidance programs for public high schools in China is to provide answers to the
complex and multiple needs of the students. Such programs ought to be multifaceted starting
with career exploration and planning while providing students with structured help as well as
necessary resources (Yang & Wong, 2020). The professional career guidance plans incorporate
career assessment as one of its components. Through these assessments, students are able to
consider their unique interests, skills, and values. In this way, schools can offer customized
guidance for students, which lets them know their career options that match their own goals, abilities, and aspirations (Bello & Abdallah, 2024). To improve career planning education, schools might need to prioritize hiring and
training dedicated career counsellors, foster collaboration among all teachers, and allocate
appropriate resources. The availability of counselling services should also be considered in an
adequate manner. The counsellor (who is professionally trained and has experience) can provide
students with the individualised personalised support that includes developing a comfortable and
non-judgmental atmosphere, work through stages of transition, and going after their goals with
confidence. It should be considered that experiential learning engagements are also extremely
beneficial to a career guidance program as they help students develop an understanding of
different industries, jobs and working environments by actually experiencing them (Van Wart et
al., 2020). Among experiential approaches, there are internships, job shadowing, volunteering, and industry tours. Furthermore, experiential learning improves the skills of a workplace such as
communication, teamwork and problem-solving, providing chances to students to become
employable and ready to face future careers (Bowering et al., 2020). To ensure an integrated
approach, career planning education at schools needs clearly defined goals and alignment across

108
various components from career exploration to work-based learning. A comprehensive guidance
program integrates these different elements into a cohesive system through coordination among
teachers, counsellors, external stakeholders, and administrators. Only such a holistic
implementation can adequately meet students' diverse needs and help them achieve their career
aspirations. Recommendation 2: Strengthening Teacher Training and Professional Development
While professional development is commonly provided to educators, research shows that
traditional forms of PD often fail to effectively support teaching practice or foster meaningful
change. Too frequently, PD consists of one-day workshops or short-term training programs that
are not sustained over time and lack collaborative elements. As a result, many teachers do not
apply what they learn during PD to their classroom instruction (Robinson, 2024). A major
weakness of typical PD is that it operates through a “trainer model” that positions external
experts as the holders of knowledge who disseminate information to passive teachers. This top- down approach does not recognize teachers as professionals or allow them to identify their own
needs and pursue solutions through collaborative inquiry (Bergmark, 2023). When PD involves
short-term visits from outsiders, it fails to provide prolonged engagement needed for in-depth
discussion around contextualized problems of practice. In contrast, effective PD engages teachers as active learners in a community of practice. Research finds collaborative, job-embedded models have a greater impact on strengthening
teachers' content-area and pedagogical knowledge along with changing instruction (Semon et al., 2020). When teachers participate in ongoing inquiry within a consultative culture, it leads to
higher-quality learning and more significant change in the classroom. Collective participation
establishes an environment for interactive learning that offers psychosocial support through the

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sharing of insights, problems, and resources. To realize meaningful reform, it is crucial for PD to
support collaborative teacher networks committed to continuous improvement. High-quality PD
fosters learning opportunities for communities of practice to surface and unpack the thinking
behind their work through reflective dialogue and problem-solving (Ketsing et al., 2020). Such
collective participation validates teachers' expertise and allows them to build upon their
professional knowledge through reciprocal exchanges. Traditional PD approaches are often ineffective in transforming teaching because they
position external "experts" as transmitters of knowledge in a top-down manner (Robinson, 2024). To meaningfully impact practice, research indicates PD must engage teachers through sustained
collaborative inquiry that recognizes them as skilled professionals. Collective participation
within a consultative culture established through communities of practice represents an optimal
structure for supporting educator growth. In addition, professional development and teacher
training should stress more self-awareness and continuous learning experience (DeMink- Carthew et al., 2020). The education process of career planning is highly dynamic and forever
changing, adjusting to changes in the job market, education policy and the technological world. Therefore, it is necessary for teachers and policy leaders to stay current with the newest research, trends and practices in career guidance and counselling. In sum, a focus on greater teacher career
education professionalism can help schools create an environment for improved performance, foster engagement for all students, and enhance teacher motivation. Recommendation 3: Collaboration with External Stakeholders
Another strategy to improve career planning education consists of collaboration with a
wide group of stakeholders. The cooperation with external partners enables schools to offer
students extra-curricular activities, enhanced vocational programs, and a more seamless

110
transition to higher education and the job market. Collaborating with external stakeholders can
include partnering with a local business sector, economic development agencies, and employers. This collective effort can provide critical information about the current state of the economy, industry needs, and new career opportunities (Lei, 2021). Programs such as job shadowing, internships, and workplace visits can provide a showcase of career opportunities that enables
students to gain important skills as well as explore themselves and their interests concerning their
career path. Further, working with local firms, schools could ensure that their career programs
meet the demands and expectations of these employers, thus enhancing their students’ employment opportunities and career prospects. Furthermore, collaboration and relationship building are key components of
strengthening career education. Both teachers and administrators in the study emphasized the
importance of a broader team in the implementation of career education. Teachers would receive
value in the form of affiliation with the experiences as well as new ideas and know-how from
their counterparts in the career-education field. Schools can plan networking events, conferences
and communities of practice where teachers get a chance to connect with others, share resources, and come up with innovative projects together. The establishment of a suitable professional
environment will provide an excellent platform for knowledge-sharing among themselves and
the development of each other (van Diggele et al., 2020). In addition, partnership with community-based organisations, non-governmental agencies
as well as government institutions can provide additional support and resources to career
planning education. These stakeholders can provide career counselling services, mentorship
schemes, and programmes that focus on youths' developments and career readiness. School
partnerships not only widen and strengthen career planning programs but also help student

111
groups that are often left behind, providing a wide range of student needs adequately covered. In
addition, partnership with government agencies could provide a source of funds, grants, and
policies that facilitate career planning programs and helps ensure the sustainability of their
impact (Karaboga et al., 2021). Collaboration with parents/families and alumni are also extremely important as it creates
a welcoming and comfortable environment. The study findings suggest some resistance from
parents for their children to take time away from academic pursuits to engage in career education
and to having someone other than themselves provide career guidance to their children. In China, parents and family are the ultimate guidance, inspiration, and encouragement for their child
when defining their career development. It will be important for schools to collaborate with
parents, possibly including inviting parents and families to workshops, seminars, and information
sessions on career planning topics, as well as to individual counselling and consultation services. Introducing parents and families to the career planning process early can help schools to bridge
the gaps between school and home, increase parental engagement in a student's education, and
facilitate positive career decisions. Higher education institutions are another significant and imperative actor group for
cooperation. These institutions have significant influence on students' decisions to choose higher
education and to building a future career path. Universities and colleges should serve as partners
for high schools to help smooth the transition for students from secondary to higher education as
well as to future career paths. Collaboration can be enacted through different ways such as
agreement articulations, dual enrolment programs, and academic counselling services. These are just some of the collaborative platforms by which schools can cultivate career
planning education and gain needed expertise and support so that students can enrich their

112
educational lives, gain career exposure, and acquire needed resources for higher education and to
pursue the future to which they aspire. Recommendation 4: Utilize Technology-Enabled Resources
While strengthening teachers’ professionalism around career education is essential, a
connected recommendation is to utilize technology-enabled career resources. Teachers spoke of
many competing demands on their time and a lack of expertise or engagement in some areas of
career education. There is a wealth of excellent technology-enabled career education resources
that continue to evolve over time (Deng & Benckendorff, 2022). While the study interviewees
did not focus here, they could be very valuable tools. One method to use technology is to employ
the online career testing tools and systems. These tools can respond to students' queries around
their interests, strengths, and preferences, bringing their attention to different options they may
have for their career and related classes they can choose. Students could learn more about
themselves through self-assessment surveys and personality tests. As an additional note, online
career assessment tools frequently yield personal recommendations for subsequent exploration
steps, including suggested majors, occupations, and industries, that are tailored to each
interviewee’s profile and interest. Additionally, online learning platforms and educational resources can also enable
students to master specified skills and be academically prepared for their future career paths. Use
of e-learning modules, instructional videos, and online courses can offer students technical skills
and competencies they need to succeed regardless of the path they follow (El-Sabagh, 2021). In addition, learners could have the ability to look at careers virtually, made possible by
technology-based resources, increasingly through virtual reality experiences. Virtual job
shadowing programs, career fairs, and industry webinars also enable students to investigate

113
different career paths and industries from the convenience of their classrooms (Park & Jones, 2021). For instance, with the use of interactive simulations, virtual tours, and online interviews
with professionals, students can be given the opportunity to see varied career opportunities and
also allow them to create the imperative skills of communication, digital literacy, and critical
thinking.Moreover, tools that are technology-based could be utilised for effective career
counselling and other assistance. Through the use of virtual counselling, online supports, and
professional coaching of career, students would be able to gain the opportunity to attain advice
from professionals and experts in the industry, not bound by a small geographical area. With the
use of digital platforms and tools, students would be able to discuss their aspirations, goals, and
concerns, and get advice from those they might not otherwise have access to in order to assist
them in finding their right direction in the long run. Limitations and Delimitations
Among the most important elements that shape any study is the identification of its
limitations and delimitations. Creswell & Creswell (2017) noted that the limitations are factors
outside the researcher’s control that might affect a study’s results, findings, or interpretations in
qualitative research. Restrictions can stem from facets such as the research approach, method, sampling, or data gathering techniques employed. External factors may also contribute to this. Conversely, delimitations are the deliberate limitations or restrictions that the researcher imposes
within a study. These could be the inclusion and exclusion criteria for interviewees, the spatial
and temporal constraints of the study, or exclusion of certain variables from the study. Delineating the limitations and delimitations helps in comprehending the boundaries and

114
assumptions regarding the dependability and transferability of the results and findings of a
particular study. Limitations of the Study
The size of the sample could be a significant limitation, and it is vital that research makes
sure that an appropriate sample size is implemented to gather data (Akanle et al., 2020). This
study included a relatively small number of head teachers and administrative individuals in
Chinese public high schools. Though efforts were made to have a diverse range of interviewees
from public high schools, the small number of involved individuals may limit the generalisability
of the findings. With a bigger sample size, it would be possible to get more diverse views and
experiences across more regions, school types and demographic groups. Consequently, the
opinions obtained may not fully represent the diversity of opinions and practices regarding high
school career planning education in China. Another limitation stems from the susceptibility to bias during the research process. Interviewees could have experienced a social desirability bias, when they provided responses
that they thought socially acceptable rather than expressing their views honestly (Kohler et al., 2022). Also, response bias might have led to distortions in the data if, given my background, I
may have been directing the interviewees to answer questions according to my perspectives and
interests. Even when bias is counteracted by the use of open-ended interview questions and
assurances of confidentiality, which are the essential elements of qualitative research, there is
still a risk that some degree of bias remains. One of the other limitations of the study was that it was purely qualitative, and this
restricted the results and findings of the study to a certain extent. Even though a qualitative
research methodology provided the opportunity to explore the study variables in detail, it may

115
have limited the objectivity and conciseness in terms of findings (Affleck et al., 2013) and the
ability to determine the relationship between variables. Temporal limitations are another key aspect to consider, since the research was carried
out within a determined timeframe and the data collection was restricted during a definite period
(Theofanidis & Fountouki, 2018). Although steps were taken to reflect the reality of the current
status of career planning education in public high schools, the results may vary with changes in
time, subject to policy variations, practices, and socio-economic conditions. Apart from the
present-centred focus, the study might also not take into account the historical or future trends
that can influence career planning education implementation. Delimitations of the Study
An important delimitation of this research was the restriction on the range of people to be
studied. Although attempts were made to include diverse head teachers and administrators, the
views and experiences of other education interviewees, including teachers, learners, parents, and
representatives from external agencies, were not captured or not directly integrated into the
research. By concentrating specifically on the head teachers and educational directors, the study
may have neglected other interesting and alternative views to enrich the findings. Further, it is critical to keep in mind that China is characterised by cultural diversity and
regional differences. Therefore, the results of this study, conducted in one region, are expected to
mirror the cultural and educational pictures of the interviewees, which may not necessarily be
applicable to other cultural and national settings. This study focused within an urban area in
China. The study's focus on an urban area may restrict the generalisability of the findings to rural
or remote areas. According to Shen (2021), educational contexts can vary greatly between urban
and rural places because of differences in resources, infrastructure, socioeconomic factors, and

116
cultural norms. In consequence, this study might not include the specific difficulties and
opportunities of career planning education in rural and underserved areas. Recommendations for Future Research
Career planning education is China is at a relatively early stage, with many critical areas
for future research. A few of these areas are noted below:
Conduct a Longitudinal Study
Future research concerned with outcomes related to career education should be
longitudinal to better investigate the enduring influence of career planning education. Such
research might be conducted by following student population groups from high school to
universities and their first working years. Researchers could examine how involvement in career
planning programs make a difference, if any, in students' career trajectories including their job
attainment and emotional well-being. A major advantage of longitudinal research is its capacity
to observe the long-term impact of interventions. Looking at students' career outcomes at
different time points would help identify what factors, such as career education elements, their
own efforts, or their external environment factors, affect the continuity or change in students' careers and career outcomes. This future area for research could engage the larger body of
stakeholders in ensuring that career planning education in Chinese high schools meet students’
future needs. A mixed-methods research design could be implemented to overcome some of the
limitations in this current study. This could involve collecting both qualitative and quantitative
data sequentially or concurrently from a larger and more diverse sample of interviewees, including head teachers, teachers, students, parents, and external stakeholders. Surveys or
questionnaires could be used to collect quantitative data, while interviews and focus group
discussions could provide qualitative insights (Akyıldız & Ahmed, 2021. The integration of both

117
approaches would allow for a more comprehensive understanding of career planning education
over time. Moreover, longitudinal research would allow an opportunity to investigate the delicate
interdependency between career education and different outcome measures. For instance, researchers may look at whether different career education components have a positive
relationship with future employment levels, job satisfaction, well-being, and income. These types
of analyses would make it possible to determine the most significant predictors of students’ career readiness and success, and as a result, determine the appropriate interventions aimed at
enhancing these. Cross-Cultural Comparative Study
The emergent approach of conducting cross-cultural analyses might in the future lead to
fuller understanding of cultural factors affecting the development of career education and career
building. When researchers investigate different career planning practices in various cultural
contexts, they learn about the norms and beliefs as well as the communal goals that govern the
way their lives are structured (Benson et al., 2020). By doing cross-cultural research, one can get
a better sense about how universal principles as well as culturally specific factors affecting the
way an individual's career develops and the type of career education that is meaningful. One of the critical merits of cross-cultural comparative research is that it helps people to
learn the about differences around career-related beliefs, values, and behaviours (Kim et al., 2020). Researchers can broaden their understanding of the interactive process where group
members, including high school students, make career decisions, hold occupational aspirations, and maintain a work-life balance. In this regard, the value of cultural dimensions is essential to
understand, as they could have led to having important influences on how to design and

118
implement career planning curriculum and pedagogy in classrooms and schools, as well as how
to involve key stakeholders in the design and implementation. Evaluation of Technology Integration
The integration of technology into career planning and development programs, such as
employing technology infrastructure, should become a critical focus in future research to
understand the role of such technology within career planning curriculum and pedagogy as well
as its impact on students’ decision making and career outcomes. As technology becomes more
central in career decision making as well as skill acquisition, there is a need to appreciate the
impact of technology in career development structures. Through conducting detailed evaluations
of technological integration, researchers can determine the effectiveness, challenges, and
consequences of different technologies and applications in developing and implementing career
planning education. To determine the validity of technology integration, the usability and accessibility of
technology-based career resources and platforms need to be evaluated, specifically for high
school students. Research can be done on the way users interact with technology-supported
career advising tools such as online career assessments, virtual career exploration platforms, and
mobile phone applications. The process of gathering data from the end-users will help
researchers to highlight usability issues, design interface choices, and address various barriers to
accessibility which may inhibit individuals' interaction with technology-based career education
resources. By taking user’s view into consideration, technology-based career education can be
designed and developed to meet the needs of various target groups. Researchers could assess the influence of technology-assisted career interventions on
students' career achievements, decisions and preparations using both qualitative and quantitative

119
methods. For example, longitudinal studies could monitor participating students' career paths and
parameters like career clarity, education choices, and readiness for post-secondary transitions
before and after technology-based career guidance programs. This would help determine the
degree to which such interventions help high school students achieve desired career planning
outcomes and identify supportive or limiting factors for their effectiveness when implemented in
China's public high schools. Exploration of Parental Involvement Strategies
The development of strategies concerning parental involvement is one of the most
important future research areas aimed at making career planning and development initiatives
more effective, particularly among adolescent populations and youth. It is parents who
predominantly determine the career ambitions, decision-making, and general trajectory of career
development among their children in China and elsewhere. Consequently, knowing how to
properly involve parents in career-related activities and intervention programs could significantly
affect the impact of career education. Strategies for effective parental involvement could include identifying proper
communication vehicles and channels through which parents would receive career related
information. Researchers could look at the most effective methods of communication, including
the use of parent-teacher forums, online portals, or social media groups to share information
about career planning resources, events, and opportunities. By investigating the communication
priorities of parents and understanding the obstacles to participation, researchers would be able
to design targeted communication tools that effectively communicate with parents of various
origins.

120
Moreover, research on parent involvement strategies needs to include effective parent
education and awareness in order to support and help their children in their career development. Research can look at the effect of parent education through organizing seminars or workshops
that intend to educate parents about the importance of career education, career planning
processes, labour market changes, and educational pathways. This can be achieved by giving
parents information and resources to understand the changing world of work and the skills
needed for future careers. Researchers can thereby equip parents to make informed decisions and
provide guidance and care with respect to their children's future aspirations. Conclusion
This study focused on the field of career planning education in Chinese public schools, including the current status, perceived effectiveness, and needs to further implement career
planning curriculum and pedagogy in classrooms and schools. Through sixteen in-depth
interviews of high school head teachers and administrators in four schools in Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province, critical insights were gained to foster further implementation of effective
career planning curriculum and pedagogy in classrooms and schools. The findings in Chapter Four revealed several needs among teachers and administrators
to further strengthen career planning education in their schools. There is a need to clarify the
specific goals and intended outcomes of career planning education, as the current education goals
remained ambiguous. Additionally, interviewees identified a shortage of trained career planning
teachers and a need for more robust professional development support. Schools also lacked
parental support for career education activities, indicating a need for greater parent engagement. Finally, teachers and administrators expressed that career planning education currently takes a
mostly theoretical approach and needs more opportunities for hands-on, practical experiences

121
through better integration into the academic curriculum. Addressing these identified needs
around goal-setting, teacher resourcing, parental involvement, and experiential learning
components could help to improve the design and implementation of effective career planning
pedagogy according to the perspectives shared in the study. The study also exposed a number of barriers that hindered the smooth realisation of
career education, such as resource limitations and the prioritization of academic achievement
over personal development. Despite these barriers and issues, it was concluded that career
development was at the heart of educational reform with the aim of giving students the needed
guidance to embrace the uncertainties that await them in their future. The findings also pointed to the pivotal role of career planning education that has a
comprehensive approach, establishes clear goals and outcome measures, and involves a group of
relevant parties, including teachers, parents, and external collaborators. Creating relationships
with external stakeholders, such as employers and industry experts, was discussed as a key
strategic approach to make career planning education more practical and experience-based. Recognising educators' central role, the study raised the need for improved teacher
training and professional development around career education. The study also highlighted the
potential educational power of technologically-based resources to provide career education
services. Different resources, such as digital platforms, career exploration tools, and virtual
learning environments, could provide educators the tool needed to meet the varied needs and
preferences of students, and so improve personalised learning experiences. The research also identified a crucial factor of parental engagement in career education
and assisting their children to advance through their chosen paths. To promote active
engagement of parents, the study recommended a mix of strategies, including targeted

122
communication channels, training workshops for parents, and support networks of parents. In
doing so, it highlighted the vital role of positive parent-child dynamics in shaping young people's
career aspirations, goals, and decisions. As for the future, the study's findings and recommendations can lead educators and
policymakers to enhancing and refining career planning education to help all students better
know themselves, gain confidence in their unique strengths, and engage in informed decision
making around their future aspirations and careers with confidence and clarity. This research
offers an important message of a new perspective on career development in education, suggesting a holistic approach that crosses boundaries and equips students with relevant skills
and retrievability that is applicable in a rapidly and continuously changing environment.

123
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Appendix A
Teacher and Administrator Interview Protocol Current Situation of Career
Planning Education in Senior High Schools
Head Teacher Interview Protocol
Research Questions Interview Questions
Introductory Question:
Tell me about your role at your school (Probe: how many years have you been there, what grades and subjects do you teach?)
1. What do public high school head
teachers in China perceive as the current
status of career planning in their
schools?
1. How do you understand career
planning education in regular high
schools in China?
2. What do you think an effective
career planning education program
in a regular high school would look
like/include?
3. How do you see the current status of
career planning in your school?
4. How is career planning education
currently integrated into the
curriculum at your school?

141
5. What resources and tools are
available to students for career
exploration and decision-making?
6. How has career planning in your
school changed, if at all, following
the policy of the new college
entrance exam?
7. How is the effectiveness of the
career planning education programs
in your school assessed, if at all?
RQ2. How do head teachers perceive
their ability to implement career
planning curriculum and pedagogy into
their classrooms?
8. As a head teacher, what challenges
do you face in incorporating career
planning curriculum and pedagogy
into your classrooms?
9. How prepared do you feel to adapt
your teaching methods to cater to
the diverse career interests and
needs of students, if at all? Probe: If
they say they feel prepared, probe
for an example of how they have
adapted their teaching methods to
cater to the diverse career interest

142
and needs of students. 10. What strategies do you use, if any, to
engage students in career planning
discussions within the classroom?
Probe: How prepared do you feel to
do this?
11. What kind of support do students
receive in your classrooms, if any, in
identifying their interests, strengths, and career goals?
RQ3. What do head teachers see as their
needs to further implement career
planning in their classrooms and school?
12. What are your needs to further
implement career planning
education into your classrooms?
13. Do you collaborate with other
teachers to enhance career planning
education across different subjects?
How would additional collaboration
help you further implement career
planning in your classrooms, if at
all?
14. What additional professional

143
development, if any, would help you
deliver effective career planning
education?
15. What do you see as additional
needs, if any, around involvement of
parents and the community in
supporting career planning
initiatives?
16. Anything else you would like to add
about career planning education?
Thank you.

144
Appendix B
Interview protocol for Principals
Research Questions Interview Questions
2. How do head teachers and
administrators perceive the
effectiveness of functioning and
execution of career planning
education in their schools?
1. How would you describe the current
status of career planning education
within your school?
2. What specific programs or
initiatives are in place to support
students in their career exploration
and decision-making?
3. How do you measure the
effectiveness of the career planning
education provided to students?
3.What do head teachers and
administrators see as their needs to
further implement career planning
curriculum and pedagogy in their
classrooms and schools?
4. What obstacles or difficulties do you
encounter when integrating career
planning education into the school
curriculum?
5. In what ways would you like to
enhance the career planning
education offered at your school in

145
the future?
6. What kind of resources or support
do you need to expand and improve
career planning initiatives at your
school?

146
Appendix C
Generation of Themes
Codes Themes Sub-themes Concerne
d RQ
Exam-oriented
education, traditional
education system, career education
School Administrators and Lead
Teachers Are Reluctant and Feel
Ill-prepared to Carry Out Career
Education
Reluctance to offer career- centric courses, focus on the
traditional education system, workload concerns
RQ1
Career education, theoretical
teaching, practical
application
Teachers Have Not Yet Unified
Their Thoughts on the
Development of Career
Education
Emphasis on theoretical
teaching, lack of practical
application, need for
practical activities
RQ2
Teacher shortage, professional
support, training
There Is a Shortage of Teachers
and Weak Professional Support
Shortage of career planning
education personnel, lack of
professional training, insufficient support
RQ1, RQ3
Education goal, utility-focused, career planning
The Education Goal for High
School Career Planning
Remains Ambiguous and
Focuses on Utility Rather Than
Educational Efficacy
Ambiguity in educational
goals, focus on utility, neglect of educational
efficacy
RQ2

147
Narrow content, exam-specific
skills, course
selection
guidance
The Contents of High School
Career Planning Education are
Narrow and Include Single
Elements
Emphasis on exam-specific
skills, limited content
diversity, neglect of
comprehensive development
RQ2
Professional
teachers, collaborative
team, career
education
expertise
Optimize Career Planning
Education Teachers Within a
Collaborative Team
Importance of professional
teachers, collaboration with
subject and class teachers, interaction with
stakeholders
RQ3
Evaluation
mechanism, standardized
growth, career
education courses
Improve the Evaluation
Mechanism of Career Education
Courses
Need for robust evaluation
systems, standardization of
course growth, personalized
guidance
RQ3
Overall goals, phased goals, career planning
education
Establish the Overall and Phased
Goals of Career Planning
Education
Importance of clear goals, dual positioning approach, and alignment with student
aspirations
RQ3

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This research aimed to explore the current state and impact of career planning education from the perspective of head teachers and school administrators in public high schools in China. The purpose was to determine the context, approach, scope and goals of the current and/or planned career planning programs as well as to discover the requirements, expectations and interests of educators in constructing a useful and feasible career planning curriculum. The study addressed three key research questions: an understanding of the present state of career development as offered and/or utilized in educational institutions, the perceived success rate of interventions, and areas which required more focus.
The results of this qualitative study suggest that unified career planning education in Chinese high schools is fundamentally neglected for many reasons, with the strongest evidence being the focus on the Gaokao exam. Currently, there are a number of programs that exist that head teachers and administrators perceive as lacking efficacy in preparing students to explore and better understand themselves and their interests and talents and pursue directions toward subjects and activities to better define possible career paths and occupational areas. Furthermore, there is a lack of resources, teacher training, and institutional support for the promotion and enrichment of systematic career planning. Such findings could be insightful to policymakers and educators with the intention of enhancing career planning education in Chinese high schools.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Wang, Lu (author)

Core Title Career planning education in China and path optimization in the context of Chinese new national college entrance examination

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 09/03/2024

Defense Date 07/14/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag career planning education,china,head teachers,high school education,school administrators

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Carbone, Paula (committee member), Filback, Rob (committee member), Krop, Cathy (committee member)

Creator Email 2499063232@qq.com,lwang417@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11399A6V8

Unique identifier UC11399A6V8

Identifier etd-WangLu-13469.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-WangLu-13469

Document Type Thesis

Format theses (aat)

Rights Wang, Lu

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240903-usctheses-batch-1206 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu