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Perceptions of professional development from the lens of the global teacher in a rapidly evolving, linguistically diverse instructional environment

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Perceptions of professional development from the lens of the global teacher in a rapidly evolving, linguistically diverse instructional environment

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Content i
Perceptions of Professional Development from the Lens of the Global Teacher in a
Rapidly Evolving, Linguistically Diverse Instructional Environment
by
Maralina Milazzo
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2024

ii
Dedication
For my beautiful Mother and my hard-working Father
who gave me the gift of dreams at the expense of their own.
I am forever grateful. This is for you.
For Orion, who has brought so much joy to my life.
I couldn’t be prouder of who you are.
For Cedar, whose love and support are the foundations of this dissertation. Thank you for
your strength, patience, humor, insight and sense of adventure.
Caremadra.

iii
Acknowledgments
This dissertation would not have been possible without the intelligence, insight, patience
and imagination of my Dissertation Chair, Dr. Cathy Krop, who was there every step of the way.
Thank you to my committee members, Dr. Ekaterina Moore and Dr. Helena Seli, for their
thoughtful and engaging feedback that led to something even better than I had hoped.
To those rare, beautiful friendships that change our lives and make us who we are, I am
forever in debt to Molly Bullock, Tristen Tucker, Dara Smith, Erica Beggan, Paul Durrell,
Heather Rhodes, Manuel Rebeiro, Leah Kimes, Katherine Shaw, Christiana Fachin, Winky
Harnby, Simona Konegan, and Mary Montaldo. You kept me writing.
This is for my heroes Bonnie Home, Sharon Wilczynski, and Vesta Bennett. For Cynthia
Billodeaux, I love you. To my mentors Dr. Nunez, Dr. Turkie and Ron and Mary Kay Huizingthank you. For the giants who paved my way, Dr. Muriel Bennett, Dr. Eleanor Bushnell, and Ella
A. Bennett – pioneers of the independent spirit. For radiant Ari. May she have the chance to set
the world on fire. For Jah Bennett, who I had the blessing to find again, and now Thea, Jhea and
JJ. Wonderful.
Thank you to my husband, Cedar, for all the support, love, laughter and the adventure of
a lifetime. For my son, Orion, who is more than I can be. For my Daddy, who worked day and
night but was always there to help. “I’d like to thank her, but she turned into a tanker.”
This is for my mother who is in the stars. Raquel Marie Sousa Bennett, “Rocky,” was a
skilled, compassionate educator with an infectious laugh and a velvet voice. She did not have a
chance in this life to see me become more than a young gypsy. We did it Mama. We made it.
This is for you.

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Abstract
This study explored teachers' perceptions of best practices in professional development within
underserved populations across three global contexts. By investigating both formal and informal
professional development activities, the research aimed to understand the impact of professional
development on teachers' agency in the classroom. Through qualitative analysis and interviews
with secondary teachers facing linguistic and socioeconomic challenges, the study identifies
effective practices and gaps in current literature. The findings highlight the importance of
blending formal and informal professional development to enhance teacher engagement and
effectiveness. Evidence-based recommendations include creating partnerships for global
professional development experiences, enhancing formal development with engaging,
collaborative opportunities provided by informal development, and offering participants
opportunities to codesign their professional development experiences. Future research should
focus on the interplay between formal and informal professional development and its effects on
teacher retention. These recommendations aim to improve teacher efficacy, retention, and
ultimately, student outcomes in underserved populations worldwide.

v
Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Acknowledgments iii
Abstract iv
Table of Contents v
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem 2
Purpose of the Study 5
Significance of the Study 7
Definitions 9
Conclusion 11
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 13
Understandings of Teacher Professional Development 14
Definitions and Purposes of Teacher Professional Development 14
Formalized Teacher Professional Development 17
Informal and Independent Teacher Professional Development 22
Effectiveness of Teacher Professional Development 25
Connections to Teacher Satisfaction 25
Evidence of the Effects on Practice and Outcomes 28

vi
Emerging Discussions Around Teacher Professional Development in a Rapidly
Evolving Instructional Environment 30
Essential Elements: Standards for Professional Learning 30
Figure 1 31
Transformational Processes 34
Conditions for Success 36
Challenges in Underserved Populations 39
Emerging Forms of Professional Development 41
Professional Development Across Global Contexts 45
Finland 46
Brazil 49
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 52
Site and Organization Overview 54
Population and Sample 56
Data Collection and Instrumentation 57
Data Analysis 59
Credibility and Trustworthiness 60
Ethics 60
Role of Researcher 62
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 64

vii
Participants 65
Table 1 66
Participant Characteristics 66
Research Question 1: What Informal and Formal Professional Development
Opportunities do Secondary Teachers in Underserved Communities Engage in Across Three
Global Contexts? 71
Finding 1: Formal Professional Development for Compliance or Enrichment 72
Table 2 73
Participation in Workshops or Trainings 75
Enrolling in Certificate Programs and Academic Courses 77
Finding 2: Informal Professional Development as Unstructured Spontaneous
Collaboration 78
Collaborating through Social and Familial Networks 79
Collaborating with Colleagues 80
Participating in Online Forums and Social Media 83
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1 85
Research Question 2: How Do They Perceive the Given Professional Development
Activating Their Agency in Their Classroom Behaviors and Practices? 86
Finding 1: Activating Agency Through Culturally Responsive and Inclusive
Professional Development 89
Finding 2: Disconnected Professional Development Does Not Activate Agency 93

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Summary of Findings for Research Question 2 97
Research Question 3: How Would These Teachers Like to be Engaged in Professional
Development as They Look Toward the Future of Educational Practice? 98
Finding 1: Engaging Professional Development Modeling Student-Centered
Learning 99
Finding 2: Professional Development That Addresses the Challenges Students Face
Outside the Classroom 102
Finding 3: Active Design for Personalized and Differentiated Professional
Development 104
Finding 4: Collaborative Learning Communities That Extend Beyond Their
Boundaries 110
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3 112
Emerging Theme: All Love Teaching, and Some are Leaving the Profession 114
Acknowledging the Contextual Point of View 117
Conclusion 120
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE 122
Discussion of Findings 122
Research Question 1: What informal and formal professional development
opportunities do secondary teachers in underserved communities engage in across three global
contexts? 123

ix
Research Question 2: How Do They Perceive the Given Professional Development
Activating Their Agency in Their Classroom Behaviors and Practices? 125
Research Question 3: How Would These Teachers Like to be Engaged in
Professional Development as They Look Toward the Future of Educational Practice? 128
Recommendations for Practice 131
Table 3 131
Recommendation One: Create Partnerships and Offer Professional Development
Experiences Across Contexts and Locations Globally 133
Recommendation Two: Formal Professional Development Should be Enhanced with
the Engaging, Collaborative Opportunities Provided by Informal Professional Development
137
Recommendation Three: Offer Opportunities for Teachers to Codesign Their
Professional Development Experiences 140
Limitations and Delimitations 142
Recommendations for Future Research 144
Conclusion 146
References 149
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 176

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Participant Characteristics 66
Table 2: Amount of Time Dedicated to Formal Professional Development 73
Table 3: Evidence Based Recommendations 131

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Learning Forward's Standards for Professional Learning Framework 31

1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Education is a transformative force that holds the potential to break the cycle of poverty,
empower individuals, and foster social progress. However, numerous challenges persist in
providing equitable and high-quality education, particularly in underserved populations around
the world. One critical aspect in addressing these challenges lies in the provision of effective,
job-embedded and recursive professional development for teachers, who play a pivotal role in
shaping students’ educational experiences (Hattie, 2012). Enhancing teachers’ knowledge, skills,
and pedagogical practices creates a positive ripple effect that benefits not only the teachers and
their1razilits but also the broader community (Darling-Hammond et. al., 2018).
This research aimed to explore the informal and formal professional development
activities of teachers in underserved areas across three distinct global contexts. For the purposes
of this study, underserved populations are defined as students where the language of instruction
in their schools is not the primary language of at least 50% of students. Understanding the types
of professional development activities in which these teachers engage is essential for identifying
effective strategies that align with their unique contexts and needs as well as provide broader
lessons. By exploring the experiences and perceptions of teachers in these underserved
populations, the study uncovered valuable insights into how given professional development
opportunities activate their agency and influence their classroom behaviors and practices. This
research bridges the gap between the current state of professional development offerings and the
desired engagement of teachers, ultimately contributing to the enhancement of educational
practice in underserved populations.

2
Statement of the Problem
Despite the extensive research on effective practices of professional development for
teachers, there is a significant gap in understanding the opinions and needs of teachers
themselves. Existing literature reveals a disparity between the professional development needs of
teachers and the professional development they receive. For instance, a study conducted by the
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in 2014 found that only 29% of teachers expressed high
satisfaction with their overall professional development, emphasizing the importance of
relevance, interactivity, and instructors who understand their experiences.
Formal professional development is widely utilized in education globally, with
substantial financial investments. In the United States alone, Education Next reported in 2018
that $18 billion per year was spent on Teacher Professional Development, averaging $5,000 to
$10,000 per teacher at the district level. However, teachers often perceive professional
development as static and limited to seminars, which hampers its effectiveness and relevance.
Moreover, there is a mismatch between the design of professional development initiatives and
the actual needs of educators in specific pedagogical domains (Matherson & Windle, 2017).
The current model of professional development, characterized by a formal sitting and
listening approach, fails to align with the dynamic nature of education and the desires of teachers
(Jacobs & McGovern, 2018). This discrepancy raises concerns regarding the effectiveness,
engagement, and applicability of professional development within schools, districts, prefectures,
and states worldwide. It is crucial to bridge the gap between the professional development needs
of teachers and the opportunities they are provided to ensure their professional growth, job
satisfaction, and ultimately improved student outcomes.

3
Further, informal professional development has been steadily increasing and tends to be a
teacher-driven form of learning (Barton & Dexter, 2020; Richter et al., 2022; Rodesiler, 2017).
Self-efficacy and effectiveness are directly related to this form of learning, from social media
posts and responses to informal communities that are created both in person and online (Richter
et al., 2022). Informal professional development can enhance more formal professional
development, provide support for struggling teachers, and create communities of like
professionals in more isolated areas and underserved populations.
Teacher professional development in global settings and underserved populations
warrants specific attention and study due to the unique challenges and disparities faced by
educators in these contexts. The 2022 report by the International Organization for Migration
indicates that approximately 281 million individuals reside in countries other than their
birthplaces. This figure marked an increase of 128 million immigrants since 1990, and a
threefold rise from the numbers recorded in 1970. Europe and Asia were the predominant host
continents, each accommodating about 87 million and 86 million international migrants
respectively, accounting for 61% of the global migrant total. Following these, North America
had close to 59 million, or 21% of all international migrants. Africa, Latin America and the
Caribbean, and Oceania followed with 9%, 5%, and 3% respectively (McAuliffe &
Triandafyllidou, 2021).
Finland is a region with historically low immigration rates. Reports from the European
Travel Information and Authorisation System indicate that, in 2023, Finland saw a recordbreaking number of 71,918 new immigrants, an increase of 21,920 over the previous year
(European Travel Information and Authorisation System, 2024). Similarly, Brazil, a nation with
traditionally low immigration levels, reported significant growth in immigrant enrollments

4
within its basic educational network, rising from 41,916 in 2010 to 122,900 in 2020, an increase
of nearly 195% (Serviços e Informações do Brasil, 2022).
In recent years, the number of individuals forcibly displaced from their home countries
has surged dramatically. By the end of 2022, the global count of those displaced by persecution,
conflict, violence, human rights abuses, and other serious disturbances reached 108.4 million, an
increase of 19 million from the previous year and the largest annual increase on record, as stated
by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. This situation translates to more than
one in every 74 people worldwide being displaced (United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees, 2022). Given this influx, teachers worldwide face the challenge of supporting an
increasingly diverse student body with significant needs.
Globally, underserved populations often lack the necessary resources, support systems,
and access to quality education, exacerbating the need for effective professional development for
teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2017). By focusing on global settings and underserved populations,
this research aims to understand the informal and formal professional development engagements
of teachers in three distinct contexts, enabling the identification of strategies that align with their
specific needs and circumstances. Exploring the experiences and perceptions of teachers in these
underserved populations provide valuable insights into how professional development
opportunities activate teachers’ agency and influence their classroom behaviors and practices. By
addressing the gap between the current state of professional development offerings and the
desired engagement of teachers, this study aims to contribute to the enhancement of educational
practice in underserved populations worldwide.

5
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this exploratory study was to explore teachers’ perceptions of best
practices in teacher professional development from a global perspective, addressing current
practices and needs of teachers serving underserved populations in three distinct global contexts.
This study explored how teachers perceive how their current professional development
opportunities activate their agency and influence their classroom behaviors and practices as well
as how they would like to be engaged in professional development as they look to the future.
Examining teacher professional development in Brazil, Finland, and the United States
provided valuable insights into different approaches and strategies employed by these countries
and teachers within these countries to enhance teacher effectiveness. Each country has its unique
educational system and context and studying them offers a broader understanding of the
strengths and weaknesses of various formal professional development models and how informal
professional development, particularly teacher-driven informal professional development, can be
utilized to provide supplemental, if not the bulk of, professional learning experiences.
Brazil has a large and diverse education system facing significant challenges, such as
socioeconomic disparities and regional inequalities (Oliveira & Coelho, 2021). Exploring
Brazil’s teachers’ engagement in professional development sheds light on innovative approaches
aimed at addressing these issues and identify strategies to support professional growth, improve
teaching quality, and promote inclusive practices in diverse contexts. Finland is widely regarded
as having one of the world’s most successful education systems (Virgin et al., 2022). Examining
teachers’ engagement in professional development in Finland provided insights into their
comprehensive and highly valued professional development programs. Finland emphasizes
continuous learning and collaboration, focusing on pedagogical development and research-based

6
practices (Virgin et al., 2022). Understanding Finland’s approach helps identify potentially
effective strategies for enhancing teacher quality and developing a strong professional culture.
The United States has a decentralized education system’with significant variability across states
and districts. Analyzing teachers’ engagement in professional development in the US allows for
an exploration of diverse approaches, policies, and pr’ctices employed at different levels of the
system as well as individually through engagement in informal professional development. This
examination can help uncover how different forms of professional development serve to activate
teacher agency in their classroom behaviors and practices. Understanding how teachers in three
different countries engage in and approach teacher professional development and how they
perceive the outcomes of that engagement can reveal best practices, innovative strategies, and
potential areas for improvement. It can inform policymakers, educators, and researchers in all
countries by fostering a global perspective and encouraging the exchange of ideas and practices
that contribute to effective teacher development worldwide.
By exploring how teachers in underserved populations across these three global contexts
envision their own growth and development, the research aimed to inform the design and
delivery of future professional development initiatives that align with their needs, aspirations,
and the evolving demands of educational practice. Through in-depth interviews, this study
provided rich insights into the professional development experiences and aspirations of teachers
in underserved populations. The findings should inform educational partners, policymakers, and
administrators in developing and implementing more effective and responsive professional
development programs that meet the specific needs of teachers in these contexts. By addressing
the gap between teachers' professional development needs and current offerings, this study
contributes to the ongoing efforts in improving educational practice and promoting equitable and

7
high-quality education in underserved populations globally. The following research questions
guided the study:
1. What informal and formal professional development opportunities do secondary teachers
in underserved communities engage in across three global contexts?
2. How do they perceive the given professional development activating their agency in their
classroom behaviors and practices?
3. How would these teachers like to be engaged in professional development as they look
toward the future of educational practice?
Significance of the Study
This study’s findings contribute to the broad literature on professional development in
education, addressing the specific needs of teachers serving in underserved populations in a
global context. The uniqueness of this study comes from the emerging presence of informal
professional development, which has had little study in the usage, motivation or enhancement for
teachers. This study also adds to the body of literature on teacher voice in professional
development, and how informal, teacher-driven professional development enhances or
diminishes the formal professional development they receive. The importance of this study
extends to various audiences, including senior-level administrators, policymakers, and
researchers concerned with teacher learning, retention, and satisfaction.
For administrators such as superintendents, directors, and principals at the school,
district, and prefecture, or county levels, as well as outside consultants, the findings of this study
are valuable in shaping the design and implementation of professional development programs.
By understanding the informal and formal professional development engagements of teachers in
underserved populations, administrators gain insights into effective strategies that align with the

8
unique contexts and needs of their teachers. This knowledge will enable administrators to create
tailored professional development initiatives that promote job-embedded and recursive learning,
ultimately leading to improved instructional practices and student outcomes.
Policymakers can benefit from this study’s findings as they seek to create educational
policies that support teacher learning for equitable and high-quality education in underserved
populations. By understanding how teachers perceive professional development and how it
activates their agency in the classroom, policymakers can make more informed decisions
regarding the allocation of resources and the development of supportive policies. The study
provides evidence-based recommendations on enhancing the design and implementation of
professional development programs to ensure they meet the needs and aspirations of teachers in
underserved populations.
Researchers concerned with teacher learning, retention, and satisfaction may find value in
the findings of this study as well. By exploring the aspirations of teachers in terms of
professional development as they look to the future of the classroom and educational practices,
the study contributes to the existing knowledge on factors that influence teacher engagement and
job satisfaction, and in understanding the kind of professional development that is helpful for
teachers moving forward. The insights gained from this research can further inform future
studies and initiatives aimed at improving teacher professional growth, well-being, and
effectiveness.
This study’s significance also extends to the conceptualization of globalization in
education. By investigating professional development practices in underserved populations
across three global contexts, the study sought to understand the unique challenges of and
opportunities for providing professional development in these contexts. Uncovering shared

9
experiences and lessons to be learned from one another in both formal and informal professional
development settings contributes to the global dialogue that allows for best practices to be
shared, honed, and adapted. This information sharing and professional collaboration is essential
to the field of education.
The completion of this study contributes to the broader literature by providing insights
into the informal and formal professional development engagements of teachers in underserved
populations. The findings should inform the practice of senior-level administrators, guide
policymakers in creating supportive policies, advance research on teacher learning and
satisfaction, and contribute to the conceptualization of globalization in education. Ultimately,
this study aimed to bridge the gap between teachers’ professional development needs and current
offerings, promoting equitable and high-quality education for all students.
Definitions
Agency, in the domain of teacher professional development, represents the autonomy and
capacity of teachers to make independent choices and take actions that shape their professional
growth and instructional practices. Teacher agency is defined by the capacity of educators to
make informed, autonomous decisions that influence their professional development and
teaching practices (Bandura, 2001) . This concept is further elaborated by Hargreaves and Fullan
(2012) and Priestley et al. (2015), who note that agency is both a function of individual
capability and the environmental contexts that enable or restrict these actions. Agency thus
involves a dynamic interplay between personal initiative, empowered engagement with
professional settings, and the broader educational environment that either supports or limits such
engagement.

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Engagement is active involvement and emotional commitment of educators towards their
professional learning and the application of this learning in their teaching practices. It is
characterized by participation in professional communities, reflection on teaching practices,
application of learned strategies, and a consistent effort to enhance student learning outcomes
(Darling-Hammond, 2005; Hattie, 2012).
Equity is the consistent and deliberate pursuit of fair, just, and impartial treatment of all
individuals, encompassing those who belong to underserved populations that have historically
been denied such treatment. It encompasses individuals from various backgrounds, such as racial
and ethnic minority groups like Black, Latino, Indigenous and Native American persons, Asian
Americans and Pacific Islanders, and other people of color. It also includes members of religious
minorities, LGBTQ+ persons, individuals with disabilities, individuals residing in rural areas,
and those adversely affected by persistent poverty or inequality. Achieving equity necessitates
proactive measures to dismantle systemic barriers, rectify historical disadvantages, and ensure
that all individuals have equal opportunities and outcomes, irrespective of their characteristics or
circumstances (White House, 2021).
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) are collaborative groups of educators that
engage in ongoing cycles of collective inquiry and action research to improve teaching practices
and student learning outcomes. They provide a supportive and structured environment for
teachers to collaborate, share ideas, reflect on their practice, and engage in continuous
professional growth (Bullough & Draper, 2004; DuFour & Eaker, 2009; Goddard, 2017; Hord,
2019; Jones & Dexter, 2014; Stoll & Seashore Louis, 2007; Vescio et al., 2008).
Self-Efficacy, as defined by seminal author Bandura (1997), is a domain-specific belief
rather than a generalized sense of self-confidence or self-esteem. It involves an individual’s

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perceived competence in a particular area of functioning. It is influenced by four primary sources
of information: mastery experiences, where past successes or failures strongly shape selfefficacy; vicarious learning, through observing others who are similar successfully performing a
task; social persuasion, including verbal encouragement and feedback from others; and
emotional and physiological states, such as anxiety or stress, which can impact self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1997).
Teacher professional development refers to a continuous and comprehensive process that
aims to enhance the knowledge, skills, and effectiveness of educators, leading to improved
student outcomes. It may involve a variety of formal and informal activities such as workshops,
seminars, coaching, mentoring, collaboration, and self-directed learning, which are tailored to
meet the specific needs of teachers and are often aligned with school or district goals. It
emphasizes ongoing learning, job-embedded experiences, and the development of attitudes and
beliefs necessary for effective teaching (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Feiman-Nemser, 2001;
Garet et al., 2001; Guskey & Yoon, 2009; Hattie, 2015; National Staff Development Council,
2010; Standards of Professional Development, n.d.).
Underserved Populations for this study are defined as students who speak a language
other than the primary language of instruction. Although this study did not add socioeconomic
status as a part of its criteria or definition, all teachers who taught in these underserved
populations had students who had to flee their homes in conflict zones and were of low
socioeconomic status and were lacking necessary resources.
Conclusion
Professional development for teachers holds the key to the transformative power of
education, and with it, the critical role teachers play in shaping students’ educational

12
experiences. This chapter presented the importance of education as a transformative force that
can break the cycle of poverty, empower individuals, and promote social progress. It examined
the purpose and the significance of the study in emphasizing the need for effective professional
development to match the needs of teachers and to give the ability for that practice to be shared
globally. The Chapter also presented the research questions guiding the study. Chapter two will
offer a comprehensive understanding of the current state of professional development in
education in relation to the current literature, including the formal and informal modalities
available and engaged in by teachers, the importance of teacher self-efficacy, and an overview of
best practices in teacher learning. Chapter three will comprehensively explore the methodology
employed, including an examination of the organization, stakeholders, instruments, data analysis,
and issues of credibility and trustworthiness. Chapter four will focus on presenting the study’s
findings, addressing the research questions, while Chapter five will delve into a discussion of the
findings and related recommendations for practice.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents a comprehensive review of the literature on teacher professional
development in a changing educational environment. The chapter begins by examining the
various understandings, definitions, and purposes of teacher professional development, offering a
deep understanding of the goals and intentions underlying professional development efforts. The
chapter then explores the concepts of formalized teacher professional development, with
structured programs and activities organized by educational institutions, school districts, or
external organizations and the impact on teachers’ professional growth and instructional
practices.
Subsequently, the literature review delves into the realm of informal and independent
teacher professional development, exploring the self-directed learning pursued by individual
teachers. This section examines the benefits, challenges, and impact of informal and independent
teacher professional development on teachers’ professional development. The chapter then
investigates the effectiveness of teacher professional development by synthesizing research
studies that examine its impact on teaching effectiveness, instructional practices, and student
outcomes. Connections between teacher professional development and teacher satisfaction are
also explored, alongside emerging discussions surrounding teacher professional development in
a rapidly evolving instructional environment. The chapter then examines emerging forms of
professional development, including teacher professional development practices in global
contexts for underserved populations, specifically Brazil and Finland, providing insights into
diverse educational systems and practices. By synthesizing the existing research and identifying
gaps, this literature review establishes a comprehensive foundation for the subsequent chapters

14
of the dissertation, contributing to the overall understanding of teacher professional
development’s impact on teacher practice and student outcomes.
Understandings of Teacher Professional Development
Professional development for teachers has been a topic of significant interest in the
education sector, as it involves a large investment of financial resources and time with the
expectation to have an impact on improving teacher effectiveness and student achievement.
Teacher professional development programs aim to enhance teachers’ skills, knowledge, and
abilities, leading to improved teaching practices and increased student learning outcomes.
Definitions and Purposes of Teacher Professional Development
Within the definition of teacher professional development, there is a range of elements
that show a variance in the expectations and design of teacher professional development. Larger
teacher professional development organizations agree on certain basic components of
professional development. Learning Forward, The International Society for Technology in
Education, as well as The Center for Teaching Quality all define professional development in
terms of enhancing knowledge, skills, and effectiveness of educators to improve student
outcomes, and as a continuous process of learning (Professional Development, n.d.; Standards of
Professional Development, n.d). The International Society for Technology in Education adds to
the definition the concept of lifelong learning as well as the development of attitudes and beliefs
necessary to be effective in their professional roles (Professional Development, n.d.). The
National Staff Development Council (2010) defined teacher professional development as “a
comprehensive, sustained, and intensive approach to improving teachers’ and principals’
effectiveness in raising student achievement” (p. 4). This definition highlights the importance of
a comprehensive and sustained approach to teacher professional development that involves

15
ongoing professional learning opportunities over an extended period. Effective teacher
professional development is typically designed to be ongoing and sustained, rather than a onetime event, and is often tailored to the specific needs of individual teachers or groups of teachers.
It may also be aligned with school or district goals and may be evaluated to determine its impact
on teacher practice and student learning (Hattie, 2015).
Further definitions add elements of collaboration. For example, the California
Department of Education defines collaborative professional development aligned to student
learning and standards that prepares, trains, and recruits high-quality teachers, principals,
paraprofessionals, and other staff. Teacher professional development is also defined as the
process of acquiring and refining skills, knowledge, and attitudes related to teaching and
learning, through structured activities that enhance teachers’ effectiveness and student
achievement (Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Garet et al., 2001; National Staff Development Council,
2010). According to Garet et al. (2001), teacher professional development encompasses a wide
range of activities, including workshops, seminars, coaching, mentoring, peer collaboration, and
self-directed learning. Darling-Hammond et al. (2017) further defined professional development
in larger terms, emphasizing the need for professional development that is ongoing and jobembedded, with opportunities for collaboration and reflection among teachers. The purpose of
teacher professional development can also vary depending on the needs of the school, district, or
individual teacher. According to Guskey and Yoon (2009), the goals of professional
development can include increasing teachers’ content knowledge, improving instructional
strategies, and enhancing teachers’ abilities to work with diverse learners. Other goals may
include providing teachers with the necessary resources to implement new curricular changes,

16
supporting teachers’ emotional well-being, and fostering teacher leadership skills (DarlingHammond et al., 2009).
Teacher professional development has the overall goal of enhancing teacher
effectiveness, which, in turn, leads to improved student learning outcomes (Garet et al., 2001;
Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009). It aims to enhance teachers’ knowledge and skills in
subject-matter knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices (National
Staff Development Council, 2010), with the aim of enabling teachers to create an effective
learning environment that supports students’ academic and social-emotional growth (Cristovao et
al., 2020; Desimone, 2009). Garet et al. (2001) identified four main purposes of teacher
professional development: increasing teachers’ subject matter knowledge, improving teaching
practices and instructional strategies, enhancing teachers’ collaboration and reflective practices,
and aligning teacher professional development with school and district goals. These purposes
were described as interconnected, and a comprehensive teacher professional development
program should address all four areas (Garet et al., 2001).
Desimone (2009) argued that teacher professional development programs should focus on
improving student learning outcomes by enhancing teacher content knowledge and pedagogical
skills. She noted that teacher professional development programs that focus solely on imparting
new knowledge without connecting it to instructional practice are less effective in improving
student learning outcomes. Therefore, teacher professional development programs should aim to
connect content knowledge with instructional strategies (Desminone, 2009).
Importantly, professional development should be designed to provide opportunities for
reflection and self-assessment (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009). Additionally, professional
development can help teachers to build a supportive network of colleagues and mentors, which

17
can help to sustain their professional growth over time. Effective professional development is
typically ongoing and sustained, tailored to the specific needs of individual teachers or groups of
teachers, and aligned with school or district goals. Understanding the definitions and purposes of
teacher professional development sets the stage for exploring the formal and informal approaches
to enhancing educators’ knowledge and skills.
Formalized Teacher Professional Development
According to Jones and Dexter (2014), formal professional development is defined as
prescribed during specific periods with specific content, often initiated by the district or school.
Formalized professional development can come in the form of one-time in-person or online
workshops, lectures or books or other resource materials, and is generally static in nature (Opfer
et al., 2011).
Particular features of formal professional development programs have been found to be
effective in improving teacher knowledge and skills (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009; Desimone,
2011; Guskey, 2000). Garet et al. (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of 35 studies on professional
development for teachers and found that programs that were longer in duration, provided active
learning opportunities, and had coaching or follow-up support were more effective in improving
teacher outcomes. Guskey (2000) also found that effective professional development programs
included opportunities for collaboration and reflection.
Darling-Hammond et al. (2009) found that high-quality formal professional development
programs had a positive impact on student achievement, particularly in math and science.
Darling-Hammond defined high-quality professional development as “sustained, intensive
learning that occurs over time; is focused on subject matter and how students learn it; is
connected to specific teaching contexts; and is organized around teacher collaboration and

18
examination of student work” (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009, p. 12). The study was conducted
through a review of research literature and case studies of professional development programs in
the United States and other countries. In addition, the researchers utilized the National Center for
Education Statistics and the MetLife Surveys of the American Teacher to create their findings.
One of the primary strengths of formalized, traditional forms of teacher professional
development that contribute to their widespread use in schools and districts is the structured
nature of these programs. They are designed to meet specific goals and objectives, which can
provide teachers with clear guidance on what they need to learn and how to apply it in their
classrooms. Additionally, traditional forms of professional development often provide teachers
with the opportunity to collaborate with colleagues and share best practices, which can lead to
improvements in instructional strategies and student achievement (Desimone, 2011). Many
formalized programs are led by outside consultants or researchers, and if knowledgeable about
the latest research and best practices in education, can give educators access to experts in the
field. This can provide teachers with a fresh perspective and new ideas for improving their
teaching practices (Guskey & Yoon, 2009).
The most traditional examples of formal professional development are in-person courses,
which hold the advantage of having proximity to the instructor. In Akyol and Garrison’s 2019
study, they found a positive relationship in teaching presence and cognitive presence, both as
influential factors of teacher satisfaction with the professional development and of learning
overall (Akyol & Garrison, 2019). These interactions can foster a sense of community among
educators and create opportunities for collaborative learning and problem-solving (DarlingHammond et al., 2017b). In-person professional development has the embedded ability to tailor
training to the needs of the participants with the presenter instantly able to see the reactions of

19
the participants in real time. Educators can ask questions, engage in discussions, and receive
feedback instantly, which can help to personalize the learning experience (Dede et al., 2008). Inperson professional development can also be effective in helping teachers to implement new
instructional strategies and technologies in their classrooms. Educators can receive hands-on
training and support, which can help to build their confidence and competence in using new
approaches and tools (Garet et al., 2001). In addition, in-person education can help promote
generative conversations that happen when educators connect in a social way in a traditionally
non-social context. Cochran et al. (2015) claimed that learning for teachers is a part of the social
function of professional development, which allows for educators to discuss research-based
practices and translate them to teaching practices in the classroom.
One type of formal professional development that has been found to be particularly
effective is collaborative professional development. Formal collaborative professional
development involves teachers working together to improve their instructional practices (Wei, et
al., 2009). Formal collaborative professional development programs provide teachers with
opportunities to share knowledge and ideas, receive feedback, and engage in ongoing reflection
and evaluation (Wei et al., 2009). According to Wei et al. (2009), collaborative professional
development can lead to improvements in student outcomes, including increased academic
achievement and improved student engagement.
Online professional development in a formalized manner has more recently become an
increasingly popular form of teacher training. As an alternative to in-person formalized
professional development, online courses in synchronous and asynchronous environments have
defined time, topics, and/or spaces. Formalized online professional development typically
includes webinars and virtual workshops and are often assigned by school districts or required

20
for teacher certification (Archambault et al., 2010). One of the primary strengths of formalized
online professional development is its flexibility and convenience. Teachers can complete the
training on their own schedule, which can be particularly beneficial for those who have busy
schedules or live in remote areas (Hew & Brush, 2006). Teachers may be more engaged in
environments where they can experience professional development at their own pace. Online
courses can be designed to meet the individual needs of educators, providing targeted instruction
and feedback to help teachers improve their practices (Archambault et al., 2010). Formal
assigned online professional development can also be cost-effective for districts, particularly
those with limited resources. By offering online courses, districts can save on the costs of hiring
outside experts or providing substitute teachers to cover classes (Hew & Brush, 2006).
According to Parsons et al. (2019), teachers who engage in online professional development find
it beneficial when they are able to apply their learning directly to their teaching. The most
commonly stated benefits of online professional development include working at their own pace,
having access to professional development materials, and receiving opportunity to reflect and
discuss collaboratively (Parsons et al., 2019).
To support professional development, teachers prefer to have release time during the day,
choosing 48% of the time to have release during the workday (Education GPS: Review education
policies, 2023). However, one of the primary challenges for schools and districts with in-person
professional development is the overall investment in time and money that may not be available.
Teachers may need to take time away from their classrooms to attend workshops or conferences,
which can disrupt their instructional schedules. Additionally, the cost of hiring outside experts or
providing substitute teachers to cover classes can be prohibitive for some districts (DarlingHammond et al., 2017b). With the challenges of finding substitute teachers to cover classes, this

21
can make in-person instruction during the school day impossible as an option for many school
districts (Blad, 2022). School districts have overall reduced the number of days that used to be
set aside for professional development due to costs and substitute shortages, which eliminates
persistent, long-term in-person professional development overall (Burton, 2023).
Another downfall of traditional forms of professional development is that they may not
always be effective in improving teacher practices and student outcomes. Some research has
suggested that one-time workshops or training sessions are not sufficient to change teacher
practices or improve student achievement (Hattie, 2015; Linda Darling-Hammond, 2005).
Furthermore, traditional forms of professional development may not always be relevant to
teachers’ needs or specific to their classroom contexts (Penuel et al., 2011).
The mindsets and constraints of being “forced” to adhere to a specific professional
development model from districts or schools does not promote the ownership of the learning and
can sometimes impede learning. As Jones and Dexter (2014) suggest: “It was the shortcomings
and constraints of the formal system provided by school leaders for learning about technology
integration that spurred their efforts to learn via independent and informal means” (p. 24).
Additionally, in-person professional development may not always be accessible or relevant to all
educators, particularly those in remote or rural areas (Dede et al., 2008). While these methods are
used in other formats, in-person professional development is currently the most used method of
teacher learning at the school and district level nationwide and across the 37 democratic
countries in the OECD (Education GPS: Review education policies, 2023; The New Teacher
Project [TNTP] et al., 2015).
An21razied challenge of formal online learning is the lack of face-to-face interaction with
colleagues and experts. This can make it more difficult for teachers to engage in collaborative

22
learning and problem-solving (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). Another potential weakness of
formal assigned online professional development is the potential for limited engagement and
motivation. Without the accountability of in-person sessions, some teachers may struggle to stay
engaged and complete the assigned coursework (Archambault et al., 2010). Some research has
suggested that not all online courses are created equal, and that the quality of the instruction and
feedback can vary widely (Hew & Brush, 2006).
Formal professional development experiences are often constrained to a specific time
period and may lack the ongoing support teachers require, and “These inadequacies of traditional
formal professional development models have prompted consideration of alternative formal
models and how emerging technologies can be utilized” (Jones & Dexter, 2014, p. 369).
Informal and Independent Teacher Professional Development
Informal professional development has become an increasingly popular way for teachers
to engage in professional growth that is not part of an official offering. This type of learning can
be found through static, one-time resources such as books or videos, or through dynamic inperson and online groups, or networking events. Informal professional development is an
effective way for teachers to gain new skills and knowledge, as well as to connect with other
professionals in their field.
One of the most common ways that teachers engage in informal professional
development is through online resources which can take many forms, including video platforms,
webpages, and social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook. Video platforms, such as
YouTube and TikTok, provide a wealth of resources for teachers. These platforms aggregate
videos by content area and grade level, making it easier for teachers to locate resources
efficiently (Barton & Dexter, 2020). Teachers also use other teachers’ websites for resources and

23
lesson plans (Jones & Dexter, 2014). Additionally, some teachers purchase lesson ideas from
sites like Teachers Pay Teachers.
Richter et al. (2022) surveyed 249 teachers who were found through the social media
platform, Instagram. Through the responses, the researchers were able to determine that teachers
who shared more frequently on the site tended to have more self-efficacy. The study also found
that Instagram allowed teachers to gather support but was not a platform that allowed for
collaboration or co-creation (Richter et al., 2022). In addition, Jones and Dexter (2014) found
that when teachers utilized informal professional development, there was a greater transfer of
concepts that were part of formal professional development, making it more effective overall.
Staudt-Willet (2021) reexamined a study from Hawksey where “over the course of 8
months—between October 1, 2017, and June 5, 2018—a series of Twitter Archiving Google
Sheets (TAGS) were used to collect 1,228,506 unique #Edchat tweets from 196,263 different
contributors” (p. 279). The study found that educators used the space to share information and to
self-promote in terms of materials or practice. Only 7% of the content Tweets were off topic,
with the remainder all on educational materials, research, and instruction. However, StaudtWillet cautioned that Twitter may not be the best environment for finding mentoring or cocreation, and that educators should consider their purpose before selecting a social media
platform. Each platform can be used for separate purposes.
Informal collaborative opportunities can take many forms, including in-person and online
groups, synchronous chats, and networking events. Twitter chats and other platforms that allow
synchronous chats have been shown to be more effective than asynchronous blogs in allowing a
conversational element for collaboration (Rodesiler, 2017). Whether working in a chat group
with other teacher professionals or seeking out lessons through TikTok, the dynamic nature of

24
having a social connection that is recursive has been shown to enhance learning (Akyol &
Garrison, 2019). Barton and Dexter found in their 2020 study that informal professional
activities, such as collaboration and sharing of ideas in informal settings, allowed opportunities
for teachers to experiment with tools and strategies in a low-stakes environment. It also
complements the work in formal settings and can be a resource to reinforce formal development
(Darling-Hammond, 2015; Barton & Dexter, 2020). This suggests that a blend of formal and
informal professional development is beneficial.
While online resources are widely available, limited data exist on how often teachers use
them for informal professional development. Manca et al. (2021) systematically reviewed 54
articles on social media literacy and found that while social media is a topic of interest in
education, it is an under-researched area that requires more expansive theoretical elaboration in
the field. The review found that few studies examined skill sets particular to social media and
informal online platforms. Further, Parsons et al. (2019) conducted a survey of 380 teachers
across 41 states, with only two responses outside of the United States (in the Netherlands and
Algeria.) According to the 2019 study, only 5.4% of respondents reported participating in
informal online professional development. The authors suggested that it is possible that teachers
are using informal professional development means online and are not reporting it because of a
lack of awareness. As a newer tool in professional development, there are not many statistics that
show the number of teachers who report engaging in informal online professional development
currently.
Independent learning activities require time to allow teachers to discover new
technologies relevant to their needs and draw upon both their experience and creativity. Further,
informal collaboration opportunities require structures to be put in place to assist in subsequently

25
disseminating teacher discoveries through the organization (Jones & Dexter, 2014). Information
is not always correct or quality, and the quantity of information can be overwhelming to teachers
in some social media spaces. While educators go to informal online spaces to collaborate, create,
or gather support, there is little to no research currently that shows that they are able to achieve
these goals (Richter et al., 2021; Staudt-Willet, 2021). These constraints may be why some
teachers do not engage in online informal and independent professional development. However,
the ability to work at one’s own pace and have access to materials at any time may help to
mitigate these barriers.
Effectiveness of Teacher Professional Development
The effectiveness of teacher professional development refers to the degree to which such
programs improve the knowledge, skills, and instructional practices of teachers, leading to
positive outcomes for both teachers and students. High-quality professional development
programs that are designed to meet the individual needs of teachers and are linked to classroom
practice have been found to be more effective in improving teacher satisfaction, commitment to
the profession, and instructional practices.
Connections to Teacher Satisfaction
Efficacy of professional development programs has been studied looking at a variety of
outcome measures, yet an important area to consider is the reported impact on teachers from the
perspective of their job satisfaction and commitment to the profession. Darling-Hammond et al.
(2009) found through a review of research literature and case studies of professional
development programs in the United States and other countries that teachers who participated in
high-quality professional development programs that contained collaboration, created agency,

26
and included research-based practices had higher levels of job satisfaction, were more committed
to their profession, and reported greater teacher efficacy.
In contrast, some studies have found that professional development programs have had
little effect on teacher satisfaction. Jacobs and McGovern (2015), in their study for The New
Teacher Project, conducted a survey of over 10,000 teachers across the United States. Only 29%
of the teachers reported job satisfaction from professional development, while 47% of teachers
reported that the professional development they received was not relevant to their teaching. Of
the teachers surveyed, 64% of teachers reported that they felt professional development took
Them away from their teaching responsibilities. In one district studied, only 15% of teachers felt
that professional development had a positive impact on their teaching, while 85% felt that it had
no impact or a negative impact (Jacobs & McGovern, 2015).
In another survey of 1,300 US teachers conducted by the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation through the Boston Consulting Group, 29% of teachers were satisfied with the
professional development they were receiving, with a majority of teachers reporting that they do
not believe that professional development is preparing them for the changing nature of their jobs,
and are taking time out of their classroom without purpose instead of adding to their feelings of
job satisfaction (Boston Consulting Group, 2014).
While the research on the relationship between professional development and teacher
satisfaction is somewhat mixed, there are some consistent themes that emerge from the literature.
First, high-quality professional development programs are more likely to improve teacher job
satisfaction and commitment to the profession than low-quality programs (Darling-Hammond et
al., 2009). According to a survey conducted by researchers at the RAND Corporation, teachers
were more satisfied with professional development that was aligned with their school or district’s

27
goals and priorities, provided clear expectations and guidance, and offered ongoing support and
follow-up, which brought greater satisfaction with the teaching profession overall (Pane et al.,
2015).
Teacher professional development programs that are designed to meet the needs of
individual teachers are more likely to be effective at building teacher capacity, which leads to
greater satisfaction (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009). Ongoing professional development is also
more likely to result in improved teacher satisfaction than one-time events (Croft et al., 2010;
Darling-Hammond et al., 2009). On average across the OECD, the most effective professional
development activities, according to teachers who found them to be impactful and effective, 91%
said that they built on [the teacher’s] prior knowledge, 78% said that the activities adapted to
personal development needs, 76% said the activities had a coherent structure, and 72% said the
professional development appropriately focused on content needed to teach subjects (Education
GPS: Review education policies, 2023).
Some data in the literature is conflicting and highlights the importance of the varying
factors of school culture, job-embedded professional development, and the involvement of
teachers within their own learning. For example, while some studies have investigated the impact
of teacher professional development on teacher satisfaction, they have not considered other
factors that may impact job satisfaction, such as school leadership and support (Lunenburg &
Ornstein, 2012). The data from a study by Ballou and Springer (2014) showed that teachers who
received more teacher professional development were more likely to feel prepared to teach and
have higher job satisfaction. Specifically, 88% of teachers who received more than 20 hours of
teacher professional development felt prepared to teach, while only 66% of those who received
less than 20 hours felt prepared. Similarly, 87% of teachers who received more than 20 hours of

28
teacher professional development reported high job satisfaction, while only 70% of those who
received less than 20 hours reported the same.
With the small body of research on the relationship between professional development
and teacher job satisfaction, there are gaps in the literature that need to be addressed. There is a
gap in research, for example, on the relationship between professional development and teacher
satisfaction in rural schools and in schools with underserved populations both in the United
States and globally. In addition, there is little current research on teacher satisfaction as it
pertains to effective professional development that leads to a greater commitment to the teaching
profession overall. This calls for additional research needed to better understand these
relationships.
Evidence of the Effects on Practice and Outcomes
Research has demonstrated that effective teacher professional development can have a
positive impact on teacher practices and student learning outcomes. Didion et al. (2020)
performed a meta-analysis focused on the effects of teacher professional development on student
reading achievement, examining a body of 28 published and unpublished research studies from
1975-2017. The findings showed that teacher professional development had a moderate to
significant impact on student achievement in reading overall (Didion et al., 2020). Desimone
(2011) examined the impact of professional development sessions for teachers and examined the
assessment data for their English Learner students. The participants included 22 teachers who
participated in 46 hours of professional development sessions over the course of one year.
Desimone concluded that professional development that is focused on specific content
knowledge and instructional strategies can lead to improvements in teacher practices, which can,
in turn, improve student achievement. Using a fellowship model of professional development,

29
Audisio et al. (2023) found a direct relationship between teacher professional development and
increased student proficiency rates in math and science.
Despite the potential benefits of effective teacher professional development, research
suggests that many professional development programs fail to translate into changes in teacher
practices or improvements in student outcomes. In fact, some studies have shown that
professional development programs are often disconnected from classroom practice and may not
be aligned with district or state standards (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009). In particular, onetime workshops or training sessions may not be as effective as ongoing coaching and support
(Penuel et al., 2011; Timperley et al., 2007). This is consistent with the findings of a study by
Garet et al. (2002), which found that professional development programs that included ongoing
coaching and support were more likely to lead to changes in teacher practices and improvements
in student outcomes than those that did not. Ongoing support and coaching can help teachers to
implement new strategies effectively and sustainably, as well as provide opportunities for
reflection and problem-solving.
Other research shows that formal professional development delivered to teachers in
underserved populations is more effective when it is coupled with informal, teacher-directed
support, and that communication is key to having teachers understand what is available to them
in both formal and informal professional development opportunities and forums (Buxton, 2018;
Timberley et al., 2007). While there is some evidence that effective teacher professional
development can have a positive impact on student outcomes, there is a lack of rigorous research
in this area. This is particularly true for studies that use rigorous experimental or quasiexperimental designs to evaluate the impact of professional development on student outcomes
(Didion et al., 2020; Guskey, 2014). In looking to best practices in professional development in

30
the future, it is the emerging practices in professional development that have the potential to
create better outcomes for teachers and students in the future.
Emerging Discussions Around Teacher Professional Development in a Rapidly Evolving
Instructional Environment
As teachers grapple with constant change, a robust framework is needed to guide their
ongoing learning and development. One such framework, The Standards for Professional
Development, encompassed in the Learning Forward Framework, serves as a roadmap to
decipher the content and structure of professional development activities that are critical for
teachers to engage in, particularly those serving in underserved populations. This section will
discuss the framework and some of its key components.
Essential Elements: Standards for Professional Learning
The Standards for Professional Development, encompassed in the Learning Forward
Framework, is an integral part of the study’s conceptual framework. This portion of the
framework serves as a roadmap to decipher the content and structure of professional
development activities that teachers engage in, particularly those serving in underserved
populations. This framework, when merged with the Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI)
Psychology of Change Framework, presents a comprehensive view of not just what professional
development looks like (as detailed by the Learning Forward standards), but also why certain
types of professional development may succeed in activating teacher agency (see Figure 1).
In essence, the Learning Forward Framework underscores the “what”—the essential
elements of professional development, such as rigorous content, transformational processes, and
conditions for success. Simultaneously, the Psychology of Change Framework illuminates the
“why”—the human elements of change, the mechanisms for unleashing intrinsic motivation, and

31
the power dynamics involved in professional development. Together, they form a holistic
perspective on professional development, integrating its structural characteristics with the
psychological aspects of change. This conceptual framework, therefore, allows for a profound
exploration of teacher agency, providing valuable insights into how to optimally engage
educators in professional development for effective educational practice.
Components of the Standards for Professional Development Framework are ideally suited to
examine the content of professional development in the context of this study as they provide a
comprehensive, structured, and empirically based approach to effective professional learning.
The essential domains, such as Rigorous Content for Each Learner, Transformational Processes,
and Conditions for Success, provide invaluable insights into the multifaceted nature of
professional development activities. It embeds subcomponents like equity, rigorous content,
collaboration, leadership, and resource allocation—all critical for empowering educators,
particularly those serving in underserved populations. By outlining these concepts, the study can
delve deeper into the nuances of professional development content, thus enhancing its ability to
identify strategies that effectively stimulate teacher agency and improve educational outcomes.
Figure 1
Learning Forward’s Standards for Professional Learning Framework

32

The core concepts within the standard of Rigorous Content for Each Learner provide a
comprehensive approach to professional development that includes equity practices, curriculum,
assessment and instruction, and professional expertise. Equity practices enable educators to
understand students’ historical, cultural, and societal contexts, embrace student assets through
instruction, and foster relationships with students, families, and populations. Curriculum,

33
assessment, and instruction provide teachers with the tools to effectively design and deliver
instruction that is aligned with student learning outcomes. Additionally, professional expertise is
essential for teachers to continually improve their practice through the application of researchbased strategies and standards. By combining these elements, teachers can improve student
outcomes and create a more equitable and effective learning environment.
Professional learning has been shown to lead to equitable and outstanding outcomes for
all students when educators engage in prioritizing high-quality curriculum and instruction for
students, assess student learning, and implement best practices (Darling-Hammond et al., 2018;
Timberly, 2007). Timberley et al. (2007) conducted a systematic review of over 1,200 studies
and identified 134 rigorous research studies that confirmed the importance of educators
prioritizing high-quality curriculum and instructional materials for students, as well as assessing
student learning. Darling-Hammond et al. (2018) conducted a literature review and surveyed 247
California school districts to identify best practices for effective teacher professional
development. Their findings reiterated the significance of prioritizing high-quality curriculum
and instructional materials and assessing student learning as part of professional development.
Sato et al. (2008) explored the impact of professional development on teachers’
assessment practices through a mixed-methods study. The researchers found that educators who
received quality professional development in curriculum and instruction prioritized high-quality
curriculum and instructional materials for students and implemented effective assessment
strategies.
To effectively implement equity practices, educators must understand the historical,
cultural, and societal contexts of their students, embrace student assets through instruction, and
foster relationships with students, families, and populations. Gay (2018) emphasizes the

34
importance of professional development programs that provide teachers with opportunities to
learn about diverse cultures and perspectives, examine their own cultural assumptions and biases,
and explore strategies for creating inclusive learning environments. A study conducted by Amani
and Mgaiwa (2023) in Tanzania demonstrated that teachers with cultural competence and
orientation were able to modify instructional pedagogies to effectively transform curriculum and
positively impact learning outcomes. However, the evidence of implementing equity practices in
education is not always strong. A descriptive research study conducted in 2022 analyzed
undergraduate coursework and surveyed teacher educators to assess the extent to which
culturally responsive practices were imparted. The study revealed a lack of alignment between
the teacher educators' intentions and the actual content and pedagogy being taught (Caimpa et al.,
2022). This highlights the need for more effective implementation of equity practices in
professional development. Professional expertise also plays a crucial role in applying the
material given in professional development sessions. Teachers need to apply research-based
standards, develop their expertise, and prioritize coherence and alignment in their learning.
Hattie (2015) argues that collaborative expertise, where educators work together to improve
student learning, is vital for applying standards and research to their work. Fullan (2016)
emphasizes the significance of professional capital, which includes human, social, and decisional
capital, in developing the expertise necessary for educators’ roles. The Department of Education
and Training (2017) emphasizes the importance of coherence and alignment in learning to ensure
that practices are grounded in research and aligned with current standards.
Transformational Processes
Transformational processes, as shown in Figure 1, encompass several key domains that
contribute to effective professional learning: Implementation, Learning Design, Evidence, and

35
Equity Drivers (Altun et al., 2021; Buxton, 2018; Cohen & Wiseman, 2022; Desimone, 2011;
Gay, 2018; Gautam, 2020; McDonald, 2014). Implementation refers to the process of applying
and carrying out changes or improvements in teaching practices and strategies (Desimone, 2011).
It is crucial for educators 35razilian35d and apply research on change management to effectively
implement new approaches, which requires engaging in feedback processes and sustaining
professional learning over time (Desimone, 2011; McDonald, 2014). Research has shown that
professional development can have a positive impact on teaching practices and student outcomes
when implementation is effectively supported (Desimone, 2011; McDonald, 2014).
Learning Design involves intentional and strategic planning of professional learning
experiences (Altun et al., 2021). By setting relevant and contextualized learning goals, grounding
their work in research and theories about learning, and implementing evidence-based learning
designs, educators can create engaging and effective learning experiences (Altun et al., 2021).
Lesson design, in particular, has been highlighted as an important aspect of professional
development, as it supports the planning and preparation of innovative and inclusive lessons
(Altun et al., 2021). Evidence also plays a vital role in professional learning, guiding, and
evaluating the process (Cohen & Wiseman, 2022). Educators need to be trained in using data,
research, and other sources of information to inform their learning and measure the impact of
professional development on student outcomes (Cohen & Wiseman, 2022). Prioritizing
evidence-based practices allows for a more objective and systematic approach to professional
development (Cohen & Wiseman, 2022).
Finally, Equity Drivers are essential components that contribute to achieving equitable
and excellent outcomes for all students through professional learning practices (Buxton, 2018;
Gay, 2018). These drivers involve prioritizing equity, addressing personal biases and beliefs, and

36
collaborating with diverse colleagues to create inclusive and supportive learning environments
(Buxton, 2018; Gay, 2018; Gautam, 2020). Teachers’ perceptions of inclusive education can be
influenced by their own experiences, beliefs, and values, highlighting the need for educators to
actively engage in self-reflection and collaboration to address issues of inequality and injustice in
the classroom (Gautam, 2020).
Conditions for Success
The core concept of Conditions for Success, as shown in Figure 1, in education,
encompasses several domains that are crucial for ensuring equitable and excellent outcomes for
all students. These domains include Equity Foundations, Culture of Collaborative Inquiry,
Leadership, and Resources. By establishing clear expectations for equity, fostering a culture of
collaboration, promoting teacher leadership, and allocating resources equitably, educators can
create a supportive learning environment that meets the needs of all students. Ongoing
professional development and a shared commitment to continuous improvement are essential for
implementing this approach effectively.
Equity foundations are fundamental components necessary to achieve equitable outcomes
for all students through teacher professional learning practices. They involve establishing clear
expectations for equity, creating structures that provide equitable access to learning
opportunities, and sustaining a culture of support for all staff. By training educators to recognize
and address issues of inequality and injustice in their classrooms and schools, professional
learning becomes more effective. Establishing a culture of support and equitable access to
learning opportunities fosters a more inclusive and supportive learning environment for all
students, regardless of their background or identity (Buxton, 2018; Gay, 2018).

37
Of teachers who found their professional development to have an impact on their
teaching in the 37 OECD countries, 74% identified collaboration as the most important element
(Education GPS: Review education policies, 2023). A Culture of Collaborative Inquiry in
professional learning refers to an environment where educators work together to continuously
improve their teaching practices and enhance student learning (Darling-Hammond et al., 2018;
Postholm, 2012). This involves developing collaboration skills and capacity to engage in
ongoing discussions, share ideas, and explore new approaches. By sharing responsibility for
improving learning for all students, educators can identify areas for growth and collaboratively
develop effective solutions.
Teacher leadership in professional learning is vital for promoting and supporting
effective professional learning practices (Darling-Hammond et al., 2018). It entails educators
taking on leadership roles and responsibilities, establishing a compelling and inclusive vision for
professional learning, providing sustained support to build educator capacity, and advocating for
the importance and evidence of impact of professional learning. Teacher leaders contribute to
creating a culture of continuous improvement and ensuring that all educators have access to
high-quality professional learning opportunities that improve student outcomes.
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) have emerged as a promising strategy for
improving teaching practices and student learning outcomes through collaborative structures
(Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2004; Goddard, 2017) LCs are
formal, structured meetings where educators collaboratively engage in collective inquiry and
action research to achieve better results for their students (DuFour & Eaker, 2009). Collaboration
is a foundational principle of PLCs, allowing teachers to combine their talents, support each
other, and refine their instructional practices. Effective PLCs exhibit key characteristics such as a

38
focus on student learning, shared leadership, and a culture of continuous improvement (Stoll &
Seashore Louis, 2007). Teachers who participate in PLCs report increased knowledge and skills
related to teaching, as well as improved student achievement (Vescio et al., 2008). The
collaborative learning environment of PLCs provides a safe space for teachers to take risks, share
ideas, and reflect on their practice (Bullough & Draper, 2004). Survey results from teachers in
PLC learning programs demonstrate the positive impact of PLCs on knowledge, skills, and
student achievement (Hord, 2019). However, time remains a significant obstacle for teachers to
fully engage in PLCs and benefit from the informal collaborations that occur within the structure
(Jones & Dexter, 2014). Teachers value the rare opportunity to discuss ideas and collaborate in
PLC meetings but express a desire for additional work time and resources to support
collaborative efforts. To maximize the benefits of PLCs, schools should prioritize student
learning, provide opportunities for collaboration and shared leadership, use data to inform
teaching practices, and support teachers in implementing new strategies and interventions (Hord,
2019; Vescio et al., 2008). By addressing time constraints and creating a supportive environment
for collaborative learning, PLCs can contribute to improved teaching practices and student
outcomes (Jones & Dexter, 2014). PLCs offer a structured approach to professional development
that allows educators to engage in meaningful collaboration and continuous improvement.
Resources are an important component to attain success. In the context of professional
learning, resources encompass the various forms of support and tools that educators require to
enhance their skills and knowledge. Identifying appropriate professional development and
providing necessary resources for continuous professional development, such as workshops,
coaching, mentorship programs, and other forms of support is crucial to allocate resources
equitably, ensuring that all teachers have equal access to opportunities regardless of their school

39
context. Additionally, resources should be allocated equitably to students, irrespective of ability
or demographic statistics. Monitoring the use and impact of resource investments enables
educators to utilize resources effectively and efficiently.
By incorporating these domains of Equity Foundations, Culture of Collaborative Inquiry,
Leadership, and Resources into teacher professional learning practices, educators can create an
inclusive and supportive learning environment that promotes equitable and excellent outcomes
for all students.
Challenges in Underserved Populations
Educational challenges in underserved populations are profound and multifaceted,
impacting both the efficacy of teaching and the overall satisfaction and retention rates of
educators. These challenges are exacerbated by issues of resource allocation, the structure of
professional development opportunities, and the alignment of these opportunities with the actual
needs of teachers and students.
Despite the known benefits, the actual implementation of effective professional
development faces significant hurdles, primarily related to time constraints. Many educators,
especially those in underserved populations, express a strong preference for engaging in
professional development activities during the workday (Education GPS: Review education
policies, 2023). However, logistical and financial constraints often reduce the availability of such
opportunities. For instance, Burton (2023) noted that in the United States, school districts have
decreased the days allocated for professional development to offset costs and manage substitute
teacher shortages. This reduction not only limits the frequency and depth of professional
development sessions but also hampers the ability of educators to engage in meaningful,
transformative learning experiences that require time and continuity. The structure of

40
professional development significantly affects its effectiveness. Studies indicate that one-time
training sessions are insufficient for fostering genuine change in teaching practices or improving
student outcomes (Darling-Hammond, 2005; Hattie, 2015). This is corroborated by data from
Ballou and Springer (2014), which shows a clear correlation between the amount of professional
development received by teachers and their preparedness and job satisfaction. Teachers who
engaged in more than 20 hours of professional development annually reported feeling more
prepared and satisfied in their roles compared to those who participated less frequently.
In Brazil, teachers are required to participate in weekly webinars, a mandate that offers
no provision for additional time for collaborative or in-depth learning (Mundy et al., 2020).
Similarly, in Finland, while more time is ostensibly dedicated to professional development, the
structure often leaves little room for collaborative, teacher-driven learning, focusing instead on
mandatory training that may not address specific local needs (Pane et al., 2015). In Finland,
despite its reputation for educational excellence, underserved populations still face significant
challenges, particularly when it comes to the structure and application of professional
development for educators. Teachers in these areas report that while more time is allocated to
professional development, it often consists of mandatory training that may not necessarily meet
the localized needs or encourage collaborative, teacher-led initiatives (Pane et al., 2015). This
top-down approach can stifle innovation and fail to address specific challenges inherent to
underserved settings, such as cultural and linguistic diversity. The lack of flexibility and
customization in professional development programs in underserved populations diminishes their
effectiveness, making it difficult for teachers to apply learned strategies directly to improve
student outcomes in increasingly diverse classrooms. This misalignment highlights a critical area

41
for improvement in underserved populations, underscoring the need for more tailored and
responsive professional development opportunities.
Emerging Forms of Professional Development
As education continues to evolve, new forms of professional development have emerged,
offering innovative approaches to support teachers in their learning journey. Three such
emerging forms, micro-credentials, gamification and massive open online courses (MOOCs),
have the potential to transform teacher professional development and improve instructional
practices.
Micro-credentials are an emerging practice in professional development that offer a new
way for individuals to document their learning using work samples, videos, and other artifacts.
Micro-credentials differ from traditional professional development in that they are competencybased and focus on specific skills, rather than general knowledge (Center for Digital Education,
2019). Micro-credentials can improve teacher practice by providing more targeted and
personalized teacher professional development experiences (Levine & Rogers, 2019).
Micro-credentials are short-term courses or certifications that demonstrate knowledge
acquisition and competency in a particular skill. They are designed to be flexible, personalized,
and focused on individual learning needs (Digital Promise, 2019). Professional organizations
such as Association of California School Administrators (ACSA) and National Council of
Teachers of English (NCTE) offer micro-credentials. The National Education Association (NEA)
offers over 175 micro-credentials in subjects such as native education, assessment literacy and
exceptional learners (NEA, n.d.). In addition, some consultancy firms, both for profit and

42
nonprofit, offer micro-credentials. Some of these can help with showing knowledge, while others
are simply for knowledge development and do not have a use as a marker for advancement.
Additionally, micro-credentials can offer a more cost-effective and time-efficient way to
provide teacher professional development to educators (Teaching Channel, 2021). A study by
researchers at the RAND Corporation found that micro-credentials were perceived positively by
teachers, who appreciated the flexibility and relevance of the teacher’s professional development
experience (Griffith et al., 2019). With the lower cost structure, many districts and schools will
offer to cover the cost of micro-credentials to increase capacity in their teaching staff, although
many teachers choose to pay for micro-credentials on their own.
Studies have shown that micro-credentials can signal value to employers and students
through the credential itself, and they can motivate students to exert greater effort towards
content mastery. However, awareness of micro-credentials remains limited, and more research is
needed to better understand their implementation and benefits to both issuers and users (Ashcroft
et al., 2021).
Gamification, the use of game design elements in non-game contexts, is another
emerging form of teacher professional development. Gamification is being used in professional
development to enhance learning outcomes and engagement. Current research suggests that
gamification can be an effective tool for sharing pedagogical practices among teachers (Greaves
& Vlachopoulos, 2023). In a 2020 conference paper at the International Scientific Conference,
Lukashenya et. al. presented a study on university professors who were given professional
development using gamification. The results showed that teachers were achieving more

43
innovative goals through the play model, increased creativity and self-correction (Lukashenya et.
al., 2020).
As it is an emerging practice, gamification has few studies in education at this time. Most
of the gamification studies have been conducted in business environments, with the information
transferred to educational settings. In professional development as in business settings,
gamification techniques, such as points, badges, and leaderboards, are used to enhance the
learning experience. According to Kapp (2012), gamification can enhance the learning
experience by creating a more engaging and enjoyable learning environment. The author states
that gamified learning makes the learning experience more rewarding, and individuals are
motivated to progress to the next level or earn badges to demonstrate their mastery of a skill.
Furthermore, gamification can improve the learning outcomes. By using game mechanics such as
feedback, scoring, and progression, learners receive instant feedback, which helps them to
identify their strengths and weaknesses and adjust their learning strategies accordingly. This
feedback also helps learners to stay motivated and engaged in the learning process. Muntean
(2011) adds that gamification can create a social learning experience by allowing learners to
compete and collaborate with peers. This can enhance team building, communication, and
collaboration skills, which are essential in various fields, including business, healthcare, and
education. One of the challenges of gamification is the risk of the learner focusing more on the
game mechanics than the learning objectives. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that the gamified
elements align with the learning goals and objectives (Hamari & Koivisto, 2015).
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) have also emerged as a transformative force in
the landscape of education, democratizing access to learning through technology. These courses
are defined as large-scale, online educational experiences open to anyone with an internet

44
connection. They are typically offered by universities or specialized online education providers
and cover a vast range of subjects, from humanities and social sciences to technical and scientific
disciplines (Jansen & Shuwer, 2015).
MOOCs are distinguished from traditional online courses by their capacity to support a
large number of participants. Unlike conventional courses, which may have enrollment caps to
ensure manageability for instructors, MOOCs can accommodate thousands—even tens of
thousands—of learners simultaneously. This scalability is often facilitated by automated
assessments and peer-review systems that handle the large volumes of participants without
compromising the integrity of the educational experience (Simonsen, 2012).
Additionally, MOOCs are often free or cost significantly less than college courses,
lowering the barriers to access high-quality education. One of their primary benefits is the
democratization of education. MOOCs make high-level learning accessible to individuals who
might otherwise lack the geographic, financial, or institutional access to traditional educational
settings. For instance, a student in a developing country can access courses from top-tier
universities like MIT or Stanford without the need for travel or tuition typically associated with
these institutions. MOOCs offer unparalleled flexibility in terms of pacing and scheduling.
Learners can engage with course material at their convenience, making it possible to balance
education with other responsibilities like work and family. This aspect is particularly crucial for
lifelong learners who seek to enhance their skills or pivot their careers without the commitment
required by full-time study programs (Dillahunt et al., 2019).
Research has highlighted the effectiveness of MOOCs not just for academic learning but
also for professional development. In educational settings, especially in underserved populations,
MOOCs can serve as crucial resources for teachers seeking to enhance their pedagogical skills.

45
MOOCs provide teachers with access to a global community of practice and the latest
educational strategies that might not be available in their local professional development sessions
(Kim, et al., 2023). This exposure is vital for educators who must meet the diverse needs of their
students effectively and innovatively.
Moreover, MOOCs can facilitate the blending of formal and informal learning
environments. They allow for the exploration of subjects in a less structured, more exploratory
manner than is typically possible in formal education settings. This blend can lead to deeper
engagement and a better understanding of the material, as learners are not just passive recipients
of information but active participants in a broader learning community. As educational
technology evolves, future research and innovation in MOOCs will likely focus on improving
engagement through interactive and immersive technologies like virtual and augmented reality,
or even through the blending of gamification (Bidarra & Rusman, 2016). MOOCs have been
suggested to represent a pivotal development in educational technology, offering expansive
learning opportunities to a global audience. They hold the potential to transform how knowledge
is accessed and applied across the world, making education more inclusive, flexible, and aligned
with the demands of the future (Laurillard & Kennedy, 2017).
Use of new and emerging technologies for teachers allows for more options for
professional development to be utilized for teachers overall. The use of emerging forms of
professional development with research-based practices can impact student learning globally.
Professional Development Across Global Contexts
The breadth of professional development published research has been conducted within
the United States. As a result, the bulk of the literature in this review has been focused on
professional development in the United States, and this section will expand to a greater global

46
perspective. While there are some studies that show effective professional development in global
contexts, there is much to be gained in furthering the scope of professional development research
outside of the United States (Phillips & Schweisfurth, 2014). Globally, each area strives to meet
the current and future needs of teachers and their professional development with great
similarities and differences, depending on the contexts in which they exist. Two distinct
examples of other global contexts working in unique ways to meet the needs of teachers through
professional development are Finland and Brazil.
Finland
Professional development in Finland spans the career of the teacher. Some of the
initiatives include connecting preservice teachers to mentor teachers, supporting the greater
school community, and promoting design of school development from the teacher. This allows
for the teacher to have agency and capacity to make changes school-wide and to involve the
outside community in educational matters (Niemi, 2015). Finland has implemented nationallevel policies and initiatives to support high-quality professional development for teachers.
Teachers in Finland are required to engage in ongoing professional development throughout their
careers, and the government provides funding and resources to support these efforts (DarlingHammond et. al., 2010);.Niemi, 2015).
According to the Board of Ethics in Finland (2010), the ethical principles guiding the
behavior of teachers towards students of varying ages and grades are consistent with the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Declaration of the Rights of the Child.
Furthermore, these guidelines serve as the foundation for the primary and secondary school
curricula and legislation established by the Finnish Ministry of Education National Board of

47
Education. Training and professional development also fall under this guideline of obligation
under this code of ethics.
In accordance with the Ethical Principles for the Teaching Profession, Finnish educators
are required to follow the professional norms and ethics that emphasize the responsible
implementation of their duties and the ongoing development of their skills to enhance their
effectiveness as instructors (Tirri & Kuusisto, 2022). They are also expected to engage in
continuous reflection on their work to maintain a high level of quality. The teaching profession
in Finland is viewed as an expert role with a special mission in the community, and therefore,
teachers’ training must be of high quality to inspire confidence in their competence (Lankinen,
2010).
Teachers in Finland are employed by schools and local authorities, and as public
servants, they are linked to municipalities. Continuous professional development activities are
provided to enhance teachers’ professional skills, but they are not required to pursue further
education, and their pedagogical and substantive expertise is not monitored after graduation.
However, it is expected that teachers will participate in three training days per year as per the
national collective bargaining agreement to develop their personal and professional skills and
plan their work (Tirri & Kuusisto, 2022). Studies have shown that most teachers are willing to
invest their personal time in attending professional development activities or programs
(Kumpulainen, 2008; Piesanen et al., 2007). Moreover, Sahlberg (2007) noted that support for
teachers’ professional development had increased over time, with “school-or-municipality-based

48
longer-term programs and professional development opportunities” being offered as alternatives
to traditional methods (p. 155).
Finland not only prioritizes professional development, but is committed to teacher
empowerment, building capacity and self-efficacy. Finnish teachers are empowered and
responsible to seek out the professional development they need if not offered. In addition,
teachers are given autonomy in curriculum development and design (Tarhan et. al., 2019;
Kalmus & Autio, 2016). Alisaari et. al. (2022) reported that teachers have a strong sense of
responsibility to promote equity and to teach social justice from the code of ethics and from their
training. It is because of this increased empowerment and self-efficacy, as well as a perceived
higher social ranking, that teachers in Finland are more likely to implement curriculum that they
have learned from their professional development and have higher rates of satisfaction in their
profession (Kalmus & Autio, 2016). Darling-Hammond (2017) pointed out that Finnish
standards for teaching operate in that candidates wishing to become teachers need to take a
rigorous entrance examination, and of all teacher candidates, only an average 10% are accepted
to become teachers. Teachers in Finland are expected to obtain master of arts degrees and are
paid higher salaries. It is these factors that contribute to a higher social ranking for teachers in
this country and a higher standard of overall achievement scores.
However, according to OECD (2022), the achievement gap is widening yearly between
immigrant and non-immigrant students. In addition, immigrants in Finland tend to have a more
disadvantaged socio-economic profile with 25% of all students are considered socioeconomically disadvantaged with students from an immigrant background at 48%. In
mathematics, the average difference in performance between immigrant and non-immigrant
students was 65 score points lower for immigrant students. Finnish educators have expressed

49
concerns about the lack of professional development on how to instruct a group of students who
do not share a common language, and the scarcity of appropriate materials. According to a study
from Taylor et al. (2023), teachers raised concerns over the lack of training for teaching students
who do not share a common language and the shortage of suitable materials. Previous materials
and professional development were based on teaching Finnish to native speakers of Swedish.
These methods do not function in the same way when the base language is not the same. These
issues are particularly problematic because such training and resources are fundamental to
effective teaching for underserved students (Taylor et al., 2023).
Brazil
In contrast to the Finnish system, the Brazilian system of professional development is
regulated, regimented, and guided by the municipal governments, with all professional
development guided by the National Curriculum Guidelines (Breynner & Coelho, 2021).
Teachers are unable to teach any curricular materials that are not the official texts of the region
and are mandated to attend professional development that is assigned to those subjects. Agency
and empowerment to design curricular materials is discouraged (Breynner & Coelho, 2021).
Nacimento (2014) conducted a qualitative survey in 2009, and then re-interviewed many
of the same teachers again in 2014. The author argued that the issue with professional
development programs lies in their centralized design process, primarily conducted by higher
education professionals and government staff based in the southern center’s region. This
approach poses challenges in a country that is geographically divided into five regions with
diverse social, economic, and cultural backgrounds. The implementation of a uniform
professional development program neglects the local nuances that may affect its success. The
power dynamic in this process is imbalanced, with specialists prescribing and teachers obeying,

50
without any agency or empowerment to cocreate materials. Nacimento (2014) argued it is
essential to acknowledge that local teachers, with their unique classroom experience, should be
recognized as specialists and included in the development of professional development
programs.
Much of the literature on professional development in Brazil is on the National Standards
and regarding the implementation of specific curricular modules. In Brazil, implementation is
inconsistent, as are the differing policies and standards (Roteiro, 2021). The Brazilian Basic
Education system is implementing a national Brazilian curriculum called Base Nacional
Common Core (BNCC), which has different characteristics depending on the region. Roteiro
(2021) analyzed documents and narratives from institutions that created and are enforcing
BNCC, such as the State Department of Education, the Municipal Department of Education of
Aracaju, and the Federal University of Sergipe. The study found that there are differences
between the centralized BNCC proposal, and the regional policies needed to address local
challenges in education (Roteiro, 2021). Naimento similarly argued that it is the lack of selfefficacy and a “top-down” rather than “bottom-up” approach that causes teachers to leave the
profession in Brazil and for the student achievement to become lower overall. There is little
research on teacher perceptions in Brazil, and very few that do not have a focus on standards
only.
In developing countries, teacher professional development is often overlooked or underresourced. In a report by the World Bank, it was noted that teacher professional development
programs in developing countries tend to be short-term and lack sustained support (World Bank,
2018). The report further highlighted the need for teacher professional development programs to
be aligned with the specific needs of teachers in these countries and to be delivered in a language

51
that they understand. Looking ahead to continuing global studies in professional development,
developing countries and underserved populations are an imperative for further research.
Conclusion
The literature is extensive in the essential role of ongoing professional development in
enhancing educational quality. Studies advocate for empowering teachers by involving them in
the decision-making process of their professional development, examining how such
involvement can enhance teacher efficacy and engagement. At the same time, there are few
studies that involve co-design or programs that create these conditions.
Teachers have a need for culturally relevant professional development that addresses the
unique challenges of teaching multilingual learners on a global scale. While there is literature in
this area, there is a gap in programs that are specific and are based on teacher efficacy. Current
programs often lack specificity and depth in strategies for educators who teach students from
diverse linguistic backgrounds with the need for tailored professional development locally.
Studies suggest that teacher professional development that equips teachers with effective,
culturally responsive teaching methods which acknowledge and utilize the linguistic assets of
multilingual students can better support educators in providing inclusive and effective education.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the methodology employed to investigate the informal and formal
teacher professional development practices in underserved populations across three distinct
global contexts. The study aimed to explore how teachers perceive the impact of professional
development on their agency and self-efficacy in classroom behaviors and practices, as well as
their preferences for future engagement in professional development to improve their educational
practice. By delving into the experiences and perspectives of teachers serving underserved
populations in Sao Paulo, Brazil; California, United States; and Helsinki, Finland, this research
endeavored to provide valuable insights for improving professional development opportunities.
The primary purpose of this study was to understand the role of professional development
in enhancing teacher agency and its influence on classroom practices within underserved
populations. Underserved populations, as defined in this study, focused on students who spoke a
primary language that was not the language of instruction. This criteria is not a stand-alone issue,
as the distinction is often characterized by socioeconomic disadvantages, geographic isolation,
educational disenfranchisement, ethnic and national origin minorities, and unique challenges
faced that require targeted and effective professional development interventions. This
exploratory study sought to identify perceptions, experiences, and preferences of teachers in
these contexts to find promising practices and potential areas of improvement for professional
development educational practices.
An exploratory, qualitative research design was used to address the research questions
and achieve the study’s objectives. Qualitative research provides an in-depth exploration of
teachers’ perceptions, experiences, and preferences, allowing for a comprehensive understanding
of the phenomenon under investigation (Creswell, 2013). Face-to-face interviews were

53
conducted on a virtual platform, serving as the primary method for data collection. The semistructured interview protocol consisted of open-ended questions that were closely aligned with
the research questions, allowing participants to respond in detail and in the direction they
deemed appropriate (Krueger & Casey, 2009). This format not only encouraged open-ended
responses but also enabled teachers to express their thoughts, experiences, and insights regarding
professional development comprehensively. Additionally, probing techniques were utilized
throughout these interviews to elicit deeper context and richer insights from the participants,
ensuring a thorough understanding of their responses (Burkholder et al., 2019).
A purposive snowball sampling technique was used. Secondary teachers working with
underserved populations in each location were selected by using professional contacts who could
help find participants that fit this criteria. The use of purposive sampling ensured that the sample
included secondary teachers with the same criteria across all contexts (Patton, 2015). Snowball
sampling supplemented the purposive sampling approach as participants identified other
potential participants who meet the criteria. This technique enabled the identification of
individuals who may have valuable insights and experiences but were not easily accessible
through traditional sampling methods (Biernacki & Waldorf, 1981).
Data analysis was conducted using thematic analysis, specifically employing open
coding. Open coding involves the generation of codes through the examination of data, allowing
patterns and themes to emerge (Maxwell, 2013). As this was an exploratory study, I used the
empirical method of coding to apply to identify and categorize key themes and patterns. The
research was guided by the following research questions regarding teacher professional
development in varied global contexts:

54
1. What informal and formal teacher professional development do secondary teachers
serving underserved populations in three global contexts engage in?
2. How do they perceive the given professional development activating their agency in their
classroom behaviors and practices?
3. How would these teachers like to be engaged in professional development as they look
toward the future of educational practice?
Site and Organization Overview
This study was conducted in three different global locations, with five participants in
each location. The teachers were chosen who taught at school sites with underserved populations
from Sao Paulo, Brazil; the San Francisco Bay Area of California, United States; and Helsinki,
Finland. Underserved populations are defined by the United States Federal Government as
populations, both based on shared characteristics and geographic locations, that have been
systematically deprived of a full and equitable opportunity to participate in economic, social, and
civic aspects of life. They face limited or no access to resources and are disproportionately
marginalized and disenfranchised (United States Homeland Security, 2016; White House, 2021).
While the fifteen teachers were chosen specifically because they had students who spoke a
primary language other than the language of instruction, all fifteen had students who were
socioeconomically disadvantaged, and all fifteen had students who they identified as fleeing
from conflict zones and having experienced trauma.
There is a gap in the research in teacher perceptions of professional development, and
this is particularly true for secondary teachers in underserved populations. Teachers in
underserved populations often face unique challenges such as lack of resources, limited access to
professional development opportunities, and cultural and linguistic diversity, which can affect

55
their ability to provide high-quality education to their students. By examining the experiences
and perceptions of teachers in these contexts, current research studies can identify specific areas
where professional development opportunities can be improved to better support teachers and
ultimately improve student outcomes.
Studies of teacher professional development in varied global contexts hold immense
significance, as underscored by scholars such as Phillips and Schweisfurth (2014). Conducting
global studies serves multiple invaluable purposes. It functions as a global laboratory of ideas,
showcasing diverse possibilities and innovative practices from around the world. By examining
the professional development initiatives in different contexts, insights are gained into what is
feasible and attainable within the realm of education. Global studies provide essential yardsticks
against which the performance of our own education systems can be evaluated (Phillips &
Schweisfurth, 2014). Through the examination of different models and approaches, schools can
be equipped to gauge the effectiveness and efficiency of their professional development efforts.
These benchmarks facilitate critical self-reflection and stimulate improvement, helping identify
areas for enhancement and learning from the successes and failures of other systems.
Recognizing that the education challenges faced by nations are interconnected, Lin Goodwin et
al. (2014) emphasized the need for collective expertise and thinking from the global community.
By engaging in cross-cultural dialogue, sharing experiences and collaborating, educators create a
more inclusive and collaborative approach to improving teacher professional development
worldwide. Examining a wide range of educational systems allowed for a comprehensive
understanding of the factors that influence successful teacher professional development
initiatives (Lin Goodwin et al., 2014; Phillips & Schweisfurth, 2014).

56
The three global contexts chosen have unique educational systems, teacher preparation
programs, and student outcomes, and yet have similar challenges meeting the needs of their most
marginalized students (Andreotti, 2012). In Brazil, for example, there are significant disparities
in education between urban and rural areas, as well as between wealthy and low-income
populations (Nascimento, 2014). Additionally, there is a shortage of qualified teachers which can
lead to a lack of quality education for many students (Oliveira & Coelho, 2021).
In Finland, on the other hand, the education system is widely regarded as one of the best
in the world, with high levels of teacher professionalism, teacher autonomy, and a focus on
student-centered learning. However, even in such a successful system, there are still challenges
facing secondary teachers, such as the need to adapt to new technologies, changing
demographics, and evolving student needs (Niemi, 2015). These challenges are also seen in
Brazil and in the United States. In beginning to understand what types of formal and informal
professional development teachers engage in in these settings, their relative strengths, and
weaknesses, and how they would like to be engaged in the future, recommendations can be made
to improve professional development for teachers and for policymakers at all levels.
Population and Sample
This exploratory qualitative research study focused on secondary teachers in California,
United States; Sao Paulo, Brazil; and Helsinki, Finland who worked with underserved
populations of students who spoke another primary language other than the language of
instruction. The study employed a purposive, snowball sampling strategy, focused on secondary
teachers serving in underserved populations across three global contexts. This sampling strategy
allowed for the selection of participants who provided rich, detailed and contextually relevant
information about the professional development experiences and practices under investigation.

57
Criteria for selection were based on key characteristics: teachers currently working as
secondary teachers; teachers who were working in underserved populations, specifically with
students who spoke another primary language other than the language of instruction, and those
who were willing to share their perceptions of how these activities influence their agency and
teaching practices. The target sample size was fifteen participants with five from each global
context. This size allowed for diversity in experiences while maintaining the feasibility of indepth qualitative analysis.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
In this study, I used a semi-structured interview protocol as the primary tool for data
collection (see Appendix A). This approach enabled the inclusion of open-ended questions,
which solicited participants’ views and opinions in a non-leading way and helped capture the
subtleties of individual experiences and perspectives (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The design of
the interview questions was simple and concise, crafted to answer the research questions
effectively while allowing unexpected insights to surface (Seidman, 2013).
To recruit participants, I used a snowball sampling through the connections at the
schools. While it did not eliminate sampling bias, when the snowball sampling is done through
professional organizations as it was in this study, it avoids some of the pitfalls of social
homophily, and selection bias, as the connections are made professionally and through networks
of similar careers (Patton, 2015). Snowball sampling is a valuable approach in this research
context, particularly for studying hidden or marginalized populations. It provided access to
individuals who would otherwise be difficult to reach, offering unique insights and perspectives
(Johnson & Christensen, 2020). As Patton (2015) stated, “By asking a number of people who

58
else to talk with, the snowball gets bigger and bigger as you accumulate new information-rich
cases” (p.298).
The first step in recruitment was to reach out to teachers and school administrators,
known through personal contacts, in underserved populations who had a high population of
immigrants in California, United States; Sao Paulo, Brazil; and Helsinki, Finland. The teachers
and administrators were introduced to the study’s purpose, and I asked for their assistance in
identifying potential participants who met the selection criteria. After the teachers’ and
administrators’ identified potential participants, recruitment began through messages on a text
message application where I gave the participants the important information regarding the study.
All of the participants were offered an informational meeting, though none of them wanted the
additional meeting. At the beginning of the scheduled information session, teachers were
provided the study’s objectives, participant rights, data protection measures, and their expected
roles. The information was given verbally, and in their primary language through a translator for
the participants i’ Brazil. Teachers were given the opportunity to ask questions and express any
concerns, and were advised that participation was strictly voluntary. The participants were
informed that, upon consent, they would be recorded and that they would be identified with only
a pseudonym.
The interviews wer’ conducted face-to-face in a setting of choice that was comfortable
for the participant virtually through an online platform. Most interviews lasted approximately
one hour, with the shortest interview at 43 minutes (B5) and the longest running 184 minutes
(U3). The interviews were conducted in English, except for participants in Sao Paulo, Brazil,
where Portuguese was used. A translator was present for these interviews, with the process of
forward and backward translation utilized for accuracy. While teachers in Finland were all

59
English proficient, this was not a criteria for selection. There was a teacher selected who would
need a Finnish translator, and the translator was set up for the interview. That teacher decided to
not participate in the end.
The interviews were recorded for accuracy, with participants’ consent, with notes taken
during the interview to capture non-verbal cues and contextual details (Lobe et al., 2022).
Participants were assured of their right to decline answering any question or terminate the
interview at any time.
To maintain participant confidentiality, all collected data were securely stored, with
participants referred to using pseudonyms in all research outputs. Transcripts of interviews were
kept on password-protected drives and hard copies of notes were securely stored in a locked
cabinet. No compensation was offered to participants for their involvement in the study.
Participants’ contribution was recognized as invaluable to the study’s objectives and the broader
aim of improving professional development practices through a personally written thank you
note.
Data Analysis
The process of data analysis in this study began during the data collection period, which
started September 2023. Analytic memos were written after each interview, documenting the
researcher’s thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to the
conceptual framework and research questions (Seidman, 2013). After leaving the field, the
interviews, with the use of a transcription program, were transcribed from the recordings and
coded. The first phase of analysis involved open coding, where data-driven, inductive empirical
codes were identified.

60
In the second phase of the research process, the empirical codes derived from the
collected data were consolidated into analytic/axial codes (Duran et al., 2006). This phase
involved the organization and integration of these codes to identify patterns, relationships, and
themes within the data, building an understanding of the causal conditions, context, intervening
conditions, action strategies, and consequences associated with each category.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Maintaining credibility and trustworthiness is essential to create a valid study that can
contribute to the current literature. In this study, I employed peer debriefing as a strategy where I
presented my findings to other researchers or experts in the field to seek their valuable feedback
and critique. This collaborative approach helped me identify flaws or biases in my study,
ultimately enhancing the trustworthiness of the research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In
addition to peer debriefing, I employed reflexivity as another crucial strategy to maintain
credibility by reflecting on my influence during the research process. By acknowledging my
biases and assumptions, I was able to consider how I might impact the results of my study. This
self-awareness and introspection contributed to the overall trustworthiness of the research
(Maxwell, 2013).
One approach I used to avoid bias in the selection and recruiting of participants was the
snowball recruiting technique, which Creswell and Creswell (2018) suggest helps locate and
engage participants who may be difficult to find. To avoid inherent bias in my interview
questions, I followed the guidance of Maxwell (2013) and Merriam and Tisdell (2015) by
selecting open-ended questions that did not assume a particular perspective or outcome.
Ethics
While designing this study on teacher professional development, it was important for me

61
to consider both legal and moral responsibilities and ethics, as outlined by Lochmiller and Lester
(2017). To guide my study, I utilized the standards provided by the American Educational
Research Association (AERA), which provided a framework for this qualitative study (National
Research Council, 2002).
I began interviews by briefing potential participants on the parameters and goals of my
study and asking for their verbal informed consent to participate (Glesne, 2011). My study
focused on adult participants, and they were informed that they have the right to withdraw from
the study at any time without penalty if they became burdened or developed concerns over the
direction or content. As the researcher, I prioritized respect for the wellbeing of participants and
minimized risk while protecting confidentiality. I did not offer incentives to coerce participation
but rather sent a thank you letter for their participation. In addition, I secured verbal permission
to record each one-hour session. Participants were informed that they could choose not to answer
any specific questions if they did not feel comfortable. I assigned participants pseudonyms for
their interviews and did not include any identifying information in interviews for further comfort
and safety.
To avoid potential conflicts of interest, confusion, or potential bias, I did not use
participants from my organization. I currently hold a position which can have a perceived power
differential that may cause unknown bias in the study. All physical data was stored in a locked
file cabinet. Digital data was stored in a secure hard drive that is not accessible to others through
the internet to protect all data from potentially unauthorized access. Storing data files is an
essential component of maintaining confidentiality in qualitative studies (Creswell & Creswell,
2019; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Seidman, 2013).

62
Role of Researcher
During my journey as a teacher leader and administrator, I have realized the crucial role
that professional development plays in empowering educators and facilitating their growth.
However, traditional approaches often neglect the voices and perspectives of those closest to the
work: the teachers themselves. This lack of teacher agency has resulted in disheartening
experiences, where differentiation and effective teaching techniques have been compromised,
leading to disengagement among participants. Recognizing the significance of teacher voice and
their62razile participation in shaping their professional learning, I became an advocate for jobembedded, recursive, and meaningful professional development.
While my experiences in the United States have provided valuable insights, I was
motivated to explore professional development beyond national borders. Education is a universal
endeavor, and the opportunity to learn from diverse global contexts can foster innovation and
collaboration. By examining professional development practices worldwide, I sought to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the various formal and informal methods employed in different
cultures and educational systems. This global perspective enriched my knowledge base, enabling
me to develop more inclusive and effective approaches to teacher professional development.
In my current role, I have been able to draw on my expertise as a former teacher,
instructional coach, vice principal, and principal to lead programs in teacher induction,
administrator induction, multi-tiered system of supports (MTSS), positive behavioral
interventions and supports (PBIS), social and emotional learning (SEL) and restorative practices
and extended learning programs. I build professional development experiences for new teachers
and administrators. By bridging the gap between theory and practice, I strive to facilitate
transformative learning experiences for teachers. Through ongoing professional dialogue,

63
feedback, and reflection, I support educators in their pursuit of continuous growth and
improvement in their teaching practice through the induction program.
In the last few years, teachers have shown me short videos that were on social media, or
worksheets that were purchased online, and had referred to them as professional development. In
considering these instances, I have wondered about the status of professional development
globally, with the formal and informal ways that professional development can take place
through workplace and personal enrichment opportunities.
I have a strong belief in the research-based practices of job-embedded, recursive, and
meaningful professional development for teachers that is co-designed by those closest to the
work. As a researcher, it is important that I am able to suspend my beliefs to observe and to
listen with an open mind.

64
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to explore teachers’ perceptions of best practices in teacher
professional development from a global perspective, addressing current practices and needs of
teachers serving underserved populations in three distinct global contexts. Populations can be
underserved in multiple ways, and this study focused on those populations where the language of
instruction was not the primary language of students and students were from a lowsocioeconomic background. The teachers interviewed all instructed students who were not
proficient in the language of instruction, and all had students who had immigrated from conflict
zones. This study addressed gaps in the literature in understanding the needs of teachers as they
engage in professional development from the perspective of the teacher in underserved
populations. It also addressed a gap in the literature regarding the perceptions and desires of
teachers regarding informal professional development and formal professional development as
means for engagement and activating agency. In addition, this study was performed globally in
three different contexts to understand universal best practices in professional development.
Centering the experience of the teachers themselves who utilize these professional learning
opportunities, the study sought to identify specific practices that were considered the most
effective as identified by these teachers.
Three research questions guided this study:
1. What informal and formal professional development opportunities do secondary
teachers in underserved communities engage in across three global contexts?
2. How do they perceive the given professional development activating their agency
in their classroom behaviors and practices?

65
3. How would these teachers like to be engaged in professional development as they
look toward the future of educational practice?
The chapter begins by discussing the participants in the study. The study findings are
then organized by research question, with each section discussing the main findings that emerged
related to the research question, honoring the participants’ lived experiences.
Participants
This qualitative study consisted of a total of fifteen participants who were each given a
pseudonym to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. Five participants were from the Bay Area
region of California, teaching and residing in or around the areas of San Francisco or San Jose,
California. Five of the participants were from the Sao Paulo region of Brazil, teaching and
residing in or around the city of Sao Paulo. Five of the participants were from the Helsinki area
in Finland, teaching and residing in or around the city of Helsinki.
The sample of teachers were all secondary teachers, in that their students were twelve to
eighteen years of age, although some of the participants taught younger or older students as well.
The distinction of the type of school varied in that in the United States, ages 12-14 are separated
as middle school, with ages 14-18 as high school. In Brazil, ages 12 and above are considered
secondary, and in Finland, ages 13 and above are Upper Secondary. Five of the teachers (33%)
had twenty or more years of teaching experience, four of the teachers (27%) had between six and
19 years of teaching experience, and six of the teachers (40%) had five or less years of
experience as teachers.
The teachers had different subject matters and overall student populations, however, all
of the participants taught a population of students who did not speak the language of instruction
as their primary language. While these teachers were in different parts of the world, all fifteen

66
teachers also had students who had immigrated to their area to avoid a humanitarian crisis as a
result of conflict. While this was not a criteria for recruitment, it became apparent that for
teachers who teach students in a different language from their primary language, this was a
common factor. All of the classes in the United States were taught in English. In Brazil, all of the
classes had the primary language of instruction as Portuguese. Although Swedish is a common
language of instruction in Finland, all of the courses were taught in Finnish. For easy reference
throughout the findings sections, participants from the United States were given a pseudonym
that begins with “U,” participants from Brazil were given a pseudonym that begins with a “B,”
and participants from Finland were given a pseudonym that begins with a “F.”
Table 1
Participant Characteristics
Pseudonym Place Years of
Teaching
Experience
Subject
Matter
Language of
Instruction,
Levels,
and Ages
Additional Notes
U1 USA,
Calif
ornia,
Bay
Area
14 English as
a Second
Language
English
High School
13-18
Teaches approximately 150
students from all regions of
the globe, most who have fled
from conflict zones and are
newcomers to the English
language at a public high

67
school.
U2 USA,
Calif
ornia,
Bay
Area
19 Physical
Education
English
High School
13-18
Has a combination of students
who have different language
levels and have immigrated to
the United States at different
ages. Some are newcomer
students with no English
fluency, and some are native
speakers. Over ¼ of their
students have low English
fluency.
U3 USA,
Calif
ornia,
Bay
Area
25 English
Language
Arts (I)
English
Middle
School
12-15
Teaches intervention, a two
period English course for
students who need additional
services to increase their
language proficiency and do
not qualify for Special
Education services. This
includes English learners.
U4 USA,
Calif
3 English English
High School
Three of the five periods of
courses (60%) of their course

68
ornia,
Bay
Area
13-18 load is for students who are
English Learners.
U5 USA,
Calif
ornia,
Bay
Area
12 Multiple
Subjects
English
Middle
School
12-15
Teaches a self -contained
course. It should be that the
students change classes, but
due to a teacher shortage, this
was changed.
B1 Brazi
l, Sao
Paulo
Area
4 Physical
Education
Portuguese
Secondary
14-16
Teaching at one high school
that is a full-day school.
B2 Brazi
l, Sao
Paulo
Area
1 English as
a Foreign
Language
Portuguese
Secondary
12-15
Participated in a residency,
co-teaching model at a
university for one year. Has
been teaching for one year
and is considering quitting the
profession and working as a
freelance translator and tutor.
B3 Brazi
l, Sao
25 Special
Education
Portuguese
Fundamental
Began as a general education
teacher, moving to special

69
Paulo
Area
and
Secondary 5-
18
education after five years.
Has worked in the general
education classroom with
autistic students and currently
working with blind and deaf
students, interpreting and
teaching language. Some
students attend this special
school for three and a half
hours in the afternoon, five
days per week, and some for
fifty minutes in the morning,
two times per week.
B4 Brazi
l, Sao
Paulo
Area
6 History Portuguese
Secondary
and
Tertiary
12-20
Works three jobs. Works in a
high school in the morning, a
different high school in the
afternoon, and then at night
teaches history to adults who
need a high school diploma.
B5 Brazi
l, Sao
Paulo
1 Portuguese
Literature
Portuguese
Secondary
15-17
Works in a high school, and
then as a translator in the
evenings. Does not have a full

70
Area teaching credential and will
be exiting teaching this year.
F1 Finla
nd,
Helsi
nki
Area
20 English
Language
Finnish
Upper
Secondary
13-15
Lives in Helsinki. Spent a
year in high school in the US
and was an exchange student
in Australia.
F2 Finla
nd,
Helsi
nki
Area
20 English
Language
and Nordic
Culture
Finnish
Upper
Secondary
13-15
Spends much of their position
as a coach for other teachers,
developing and delivering
professional development.
Lives and works in the outer
areas of Helsinki, where it is
more rural and visits rural
schools. Goes into classrooms
to help with language and
culture for students still
learning Finnish and English.
F3 Finla
nd,
Helsi
nki
25 English
Language
Finnish
Upper
Secondary
13-15
Lives and works in the outer
areas of Helsinki, where it is
more rural and visits rural
schools. Their class is only

71
Area for students who have been in
Finland for two years or less.
F4 Finla
nd,
Helsi
nki
Area
5 English
Language
Finnish
Upper
Secondary
13-15
Lives and works in inner
Helsinki.
F5 Finla
nd,
Helsi
nki
Area
2 English
Language
Finnish
Upper
Secondary
13-15
Lives and works in inner
Helsinki.
Research Question 1: What Informal and Formal Professional Development
Opportunities do Secondary Teachers in Underserved Communities Engage in Across
Three Global Contexts?
Research Question 1 explored the types of formal and informal professional development
that teachers in underserved populations across three global contexts engage in. Understanding
the professional development practices taking place across three different global contexts is
critical to enabling a wide lens for understanding and exchanging best practices in professional
development for teachers serving students whose first language is not the language of instruction
in underserved populations.

72
Interview questions that were asked included:
● Tell me about the types of formal professional development opportunities you have
participated in as a teacher.
● What types, if any, of informal professional development opportunities have you
participated in?
This section is organized into the two main sections:
● Finding 1: Formal Professional Development for Compliance or Enrichment
○ Participation in Workshops or Trainings
○ Enrolling in Certificate Programs and Academic Courses
● Finding 2: Informal Professional Development as Unstructured Spontaneous
Collaboration
○ Collaborating Through Social and Familial Networks
○ Collaborating with Colleagues
○ Participating in Online Forums and Social Media
This research question’s findings help understand the different ways teachers are utilizing
professional growth opportunities, through both the structured programs available to them and
the creative, informal approaches they take to continue learning and improving their teaching
skills.
Finding 1: Formal Professional Development for Compliance or Enrichment
Formal professional development includes structured learning opportunities that are
offered or required through an institution, often the district or prefecture of employment. It is the
most traditionally attended, and it is the most referred to when educators talk about their
professional development. Participants identified the most common methods of formal

73
professional development that they engage in regularly within their contexts (Table 2). In this
study, participants stated that they participated mainly in formal workshops or trainings and in
certificate programs or academic courses.
Table 2
Amount of Time Dedicated to Formal Professional Development in a Year
Pseudonym Place Amount of Time Allocated to
Formal Professional
Development
Actual Professional
Development Time (without
Managerial Tasks)
U1 USA, California,
Bay Area
● 6 hours per month ● <1 hour per month
U2 USA, California,
Bay Area
● 6 hours per month
● 1 Full day per year
● <1 hour per month
● Full day is used for
compliance videos
U3 USA, California,
Bay Area
● 12 hours per month
● Four full days per year
● 12 hours per month
● Four full days per year
U4 USA, California,
Bay Area
● 6 hours per month
● Five full days per year
● 6 hours per month
● Five full days per year
U5 USA, California,
Bay Area
● 6 hours per month ● <1 hour per month
B1 Brazil, Sao Paulo ● 12 hours per month ● 6 hours per month

74
Area
B2 Brazil, Sao Paulo
Area
● 10 hours per month ● 2 hours per month
B3 Brazil, Sao Paulo
Area
● 10 hours per month ● 2 hours per month
B4 Brazil, Sao Paulo
Area
● 10 hours per month ● 2 hours per month
B5 Brazil, Sao Paulo
Area
● 10 hours per month ● 2 hours per month
F1 Finland, Helsinki
Area
● 4 hours per month
● 3 full days per year
● 4 hours per month
● 3 full days per year
F2 Finland, Helsinki
Area
● 4 hours per month
● 3 full days per year
● 4 hours per month
● 3 full days per year
F3 Finland, Helsinki
Area
● 4 hours per month
● 3 full days per year
● 4 hours per month
● 3 full days per year
F4 Finland, Helsinki
Area
● 4 hours per month
● 3 full days per year
● 4 hours per month
● 3 full days per year
F5 Finland, Helsinki
Area
● 4 hours per month
● 3 full days per year
● 4 hours per month
● 3 full days per year

75
Participation in Workshops or Trainings
Teachers across the global settings reported participating in formal professional
development workshops and training sessions for multiple purposes. These sessions served not
only as mandatory requirements set by their respective municipalities or districts but also as
opportunities for personal and professional enrichment. B2 shared her experience, highlighting
the dual nature of these engagements: “We had an opportunity, actually an obligation, to attend a
course on teacher development. And several things were discussed, like inclusion of students
with disabilities, certain methodologies, research technologies in teaching, things like that. But it
was all in person.”
B3 currently works as a special education teacher in a special school, helping students
who are blind and/or deaf. Her background includes general education teaching, and teaching
students with autism in a general education setting. B3 offered perspectives that were far
reaching in scope and was able to give a viewpoint on teaching and professional development
that looked at professional development in different settings. B3 shared the transformative
potential of workshops as learning experiences, regardless of their immediate quality, stating, “I
believe that every course, every formation that I have helped me in some way. I learned to filter
information, even if the course itself isn’t that great, I can filter and make changes and transform
the information.” B3 categorized herself as a life-long learner, and explained that even in the
worst workshop, she would be able to find information that could be valuable for her later- even
if it was what she knew she should not do as an instructor.
In general, it was the extended learning experiences that diverged from traditional
workshop formats that were most valued by teachers across the three global settings. U1
recounted a particularly impactful retreat:

76
So that was the one that I can remember that I was like, wow, they actually are paying for
me to do this one because it involved me going to retreats, and things like that, that were
weekend retreats. That was very different from traditional professional development. But
it was incredibly useful for me figuring out how I wanted to move forward with my job,
because I was getting to the point where I was burnt out. So that was cool. I wish there
were more. That’s a good one. I wish there were more resources for teachers in that area.
U5 also discussed the benefits of formal, extended professional development. He
discussed a three-day professional development retreat that combined collaboration and team
building with traditional learning, stating, “And then you get to spend time with other educators.
It’s just like such an incredible way to gain a new perspective. And it trickles into your
classroom. It trickles into your school.”
The preference for online or in-person training formats of formal professional
development varied among the participants and depended significantly on the content of the
training. While some participants preferred in-person workshops and found they increased their
engagement, others said that the online format helped them to have access to professional
development when time or location would have been obstacles. F1 remarked, “Depending on the
topic, online training is great, but then I think if you want to learn about like, student engaging
activities, then it’s probably useful to practice those as if you were one of the students and try
those activities and, you know, be engaged.” Book studies, for example, where a group comes
together to study a specific text together in a structured format, came up both as online groups
and in person. U3 discussed that having a hybrid book study allowed for a richer discussion and
application of ideas, explaining, “I did a cool new novel study, you know but actually going
deeper into how we teach our eighth graders to take these skills and actually apply them in a

77
greater context.” U3 said that the hybrid format allowed them to get together frequently, with the
in person sessions allowing a more personal, collaborative connection. These professional
development experiences not only fulfilled administrative requirements but were also described
as significantly contributing to personal growth, professional advancement, and the fostering of a
supportive, collaborative educational community.
Enrolling in Certificate Programs and Academic Courses
Teachers working in underserved populations across global contexts pursued formal
certificate programs and courses to deepen their knowledge and expertise in specific areas of
teaching. Many times, these were described as self-initiated and self-supported. U1 talked about
wanting more foundational knowledge as a part of her decision to seek out a certificate for
Teaching English as a Second Language to help her have a better understanding of what is
needed for her student population and to gain more confidence in her teaching. She stated, “I
didn’t get any money for that or anything. It was me deciding that I needed that for my own
teaching because I just didn’t feel like I had enough background.” B3 had similarly taken many
certifications and talked about how they liked to study in many places to vary the training and
information they received, expressing, “I also do training on my own. Teaching is my passion, so
I travel to other States (in Brazil) to have different formations, and my dream is to study in
Florida, in Gallaudet University.”
Teachers in Helsinki discussed taking PD courses at the University of Helsinki regularly.
F3 talked about the course they were currently taking as helping her both as a teacher and as a
coach of other teachers who are focused on helping their immigrant populations with language
and with trauma they have experienced. They voiced, “I have been taking many extra courses
especially among these to get you to know how these immigrants learn better.” F3 then talked

78
about a new course called language awareness that they were taking, in which the main subject
was in how the teacher communicates with students in “how we use our words and what else we
can do” to support students, and how that connects to culture and thinking.
Teachers attended certification courses and enrolled in academic courses, often at their
own expense, to enhance their pedagogical skills and deepen their expertise, specifically around
engaging those whose primary language differed from the spoken language of the country,
reflecting their commitment to personal growth and improved student outcomes.
Finding 2: Informal Professional Development as Unstructured Spontaneous Collaboration
In a rapidly changing global landscape of education, participants described professional
development extending far beyond formal training and into the realms of collaboration and
networking. Teachers from different contexts around the world revealed that engaging with
colleagues in both familiar and unfamiliar areas was pivotal to their growth, especially in
environments where resources are scarce. These informal interactions, ranging from in-person
meetings to digital forums, provided a rich tapestry of experiences, insights, and strategies that
were instrumental in shaping teaching practices. Whether through the sharing of resources in
online communities or the deep, personal connections formed during unstructured breaks or
outside of the scheduled time of workshops, the essence of professional development laid in the
dynamic exchange of ideas among educators. The heart of professional growth and innovation
resided not just within the walls of classrooms or the pages of textbooks, but in the vibrant,
informal networks that educators described forging across the globe, transcending traditional
barriers to enrich teaching and learning in profound ways.

79
Collaborating through Social and Familial Networks
The essence of informal professional development for the global teacher participants laid
in the power of collaboration and networking. Teachers from diverse backgrounds and
experiences shared how engaging with other teachers that they found as part of their established
familial network, or as a part of a social network they had created both locally and beyond,
played a crucial role in their professional growth and development, particularly in underserved
populations with limited resources.
Participants across the three contexts expressed the importance of collaborating with
nearby school, social, and familial networks. U4 described the challenges that are faced by
teachers in underserved populations who often lack time for deep and meaningful engagement
with other teachers. In contrast, she spoke about discussions she frequently had with her mother,
who is also a teacher: “I see her all the time anyway, and so it is easy for us to talk long into the
night about other ways to do a lesson, or what kinds of supports a student may need. I don’t get
that kind of time to work with my colleagues and have deep conversations.” U4 also talked
extensively about how time was needed to build trust and safety between practitioners to allow
them to be vulnerable and to have honest conversations about what is working for them and what
may be a weakness in their teaching.
I trust my mother to tell me the truth, and care about me just the same. I haven’t had the
time to build trust with my colleagues that way. I mean, with your mother, of course you
have trust. With your coworker, you don’t see them so much, and unless you have a
friendship outside of work, it is hard to get to that place where you can really share what
you need and what is really going on.

80
B2 particularly shared how personal relationships have fostered her professional
development. Her family is made up of teachers, and she talked about how valuable it was to
have people within her household who also understood the benefits and challenges of teaching.
B2 lived with her mother and was also able to share how conversations at the dinner table were
valuable to her teaching, stating, “I live with her, so it is easy.” She also made a friend and
mentor from her former English teacher who she grabbed coffee with and talked about teaching.
B5 shared a similar sentiment, “So yeah, I had an opportunity to exchange experiences with
other teachers mainly because they were part of my social circle. So it was easier to go and talk
to them.”
This was also a finding that was true in Finland. F5 talked about her experiences with her
friends, who are all teachers, and how they shift from topic to topic at their informal lunches,
expressing, “We laugh because we have to say to each other that we can’t talk about teaching
now, but just about fun and family. But it would be so hard to teach without having friends who
do it too.” Again, they talked about how important it was to have a network where you could be
vulnerable and feel safe in sharing practice, knowing that it was an environment that may have
critical feedback, but was not punitive or judgmental. Informal collaboration through social and
familial networks was very important to the teachers in all three contexts.
Collaborating with Colleagues
Teachers also found informal ways to collaborate with colleagues both inside their own
schools and by creating their own outside networks to engage in unstructured opportunities to
collaborate with one another.

81
U3 discussed a network of colleagues external to their school site that started when she
went to a professional development that was organized by their region. She was able to make
connections with teachers at other sites, which became a community of informal collaboration.
And it’s so powerful to have that network outside of your school site because then you
start seeing all those possibilities and things you can be exposed to and things you can
talk about. I mean, that’s where my thinking has most been challenged is often by people
I don’t teach with on a daily basis.
This underscored the value of broadening professional circles beyond the confines of
one’s school, and possibly the confines of one’s community or country, allowing for a richer
exchange of ideas and practices, as suggested by twelve of the fifteen teachers across the three
global contexts.
Some teachers shared that although they received time for collaboration with colleagues
at their school site, having an unstructured time with colleagues who are not in the same setting
is a more comfortable environment. B5 talked extensively about the experiences of meeting
teachers from other areas of the country, and other areas of the world. They had spent time
online, reaching out to others through Facebook, and eventually created their own Whatsapp
group. They had found each other through unconditional channels and then met virtually to share
ideas and have unstructured spontaneous collaboration. B5 referred to it as an epiphany, stating,
“It changed my life as an educator.”
F4 also discussed the ability to be vulnerable about her own teaching needs by finding
teachers from outside of her area as a benefit, suggesting, “I learn from them, they learn from
me, and the student benefits.” Teachers from all three contexts expressed this need for informal
collaboration and for knowing that the environment where they shared ideas would be safe from

82
judgment and possible consequences in their current work environment. F4 captured this when
they said, “I know they won’t be mad at me when I try it, and they won’t tell anyone I did
something wrong. You worry sometimes.”
U5 also talked about informal collaboration with colleagues beyond their own school
community that extended from more formal multi-day workshops, where participants had the
opportunity to have unstructured time for meals and relaxation, and that allowed time for
spontaneous collaboration: “When you break bread together, and you get to know each other and
you can really breathe- that is when you can talk and learn from each other. It completely
changed my view of education.” U5 then described as a part of these professional development
sessions the weaving of creating personal relationships with other colleagues and, in doing so,
gathering ideas from all over the globe, stating, “They were from everywhere! I learned so much
from them.” The deeper conversations that intersected with professional discussions and personal
relationships could only happen with large sections of unstructured time to build these blended
communities.
During the pandemic, teachers like B3 shared they reached out to other teachers in their
personal network and collaborated informally about materials that were not available to students
at home. This group of teachers took collaboration a step further by creating and sharing
resources for special education: “During the pandemic, me and the other teachers collaborated to
create materials for teaching deaf kids, and we also created a dictionary for sign language. The
idea is to open this material for any teacher that wants it.” B3 felt strongly that all teachers
should have access to the materials. In sharing the resources in her underserved community, B3
widened her network of teachers who collaborate in informal settings: “We have all made
friends, and more come as we share.”

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Teachers leveraged networks of colleagues to collaborate with about teaching practices,
strategies, and challenges. Whether through casual conversations, collaborative projects, or
social media groups, these informal interactions served as vital conduits for professional growth
and innovation, particularly in underserved populations where formal development opportunities
were often limited.
Participating in Online Forums and Social Media
Global educators, navigating the challenges of teaching in underserved populations where
students’ primary language was not the language of instruction, found innovative ways to extend
their professional learning networks beyond formal, traditional boundaries through digital means.
Participants discussed how this approach not only enhanced their instructional practices but also
connected them with a global community of educators who worked with similar populations of
students and who faced some similar challenges.
B5 noted the abundance of forums in Brazil for sharing educational materials online,
which was particularly important in Brazil where they often lacked resources:
I like Facebook because it is easy to find others who share. I have now some friends that
we message about our families and holidays, and then we also message about how a
student is or what they need. We also have a Whatsapp group for sharing as teachers in
Brazil. That is very good. I have also found websites where someone posts lessons and I
share back.
F4 and F5 similarly stated that they were lacking resources in education for immigrant
students in their schools and were able to find many of the resources they needed online. The
collaborative nature of online populations where educators freely exchanged teaching resources
was noted by F4, who praised the online forums where materials could be shared as a “magical

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library.” F5 commented that they appreciated having an online space for finding shared
resources, stating, “I look at lessons from people all over the world. What a good time to live!”
B4 discussed his experience using online resources that can directly inform teaching
strategies and content to enhance classroom practices. He further explained, “When I can find a
lesson online and then talk to who made it, that is good. It is easy to get a quick lesson, and I like
it when I can email the teacher and we can talk. That is when I can get the best.” Online
environments create unstructured areas for collaboration on the content that is found. U3
elaborated on the dynamic engagement found in social media spaces, stating,
And especially as far as social media goes, people get really passionate about posting
things on TikTok and articles, and it can be really useful and spawn some great
conversations. I’m in some chat groups on social media with fellow teachers both in
district and out. And that always spawns some really great conversations about that.
U3’s experiences reflect the evolving landscape of professional development, where social media
platforms become arenas for lively debate and sharing innovative teaching practices near and far.
B2 further expressed appreciation for the flexibility and global connectivity offered by
online formats, sharing, “It gives me the opportunity to have contact with people from all over
the world, which is also very good.” The participants used online tools to further their teaching
practice and did not think of them as separate from their formal professional development and
collaboration, but as part of a whole. The integration of social media into professional
development practices underscored the emergence of digital landscapes as pivotal areas for
fostering global educational connections. F1 highlighted the value of professional groups that
allowed a space for these global connections on social media:

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In a lot of professional Facebook groups, different teacher groups there, and that’s where
we exchange ideas and games and information and things you can do. So I really quite
actively follow those groups and take notes, but I find something that I could use in my
classroom.
F1’s engagement with Facebook groups illustrated how social media can be a rich source
of innovative teaching ideas and a platform for sharing experiences and challenges with a
supportive community of peers.
These digital platforms offered a unique blend of accessibility, flexibility, and global
interconnectedness, making them an invaluable resource for informal professional development
for participants who worked in underserved populations and often worked in environments that
lacked resources. By participating in these online communities, teachers not only enhanced their
professional skills but also contributed to a collective knowledge base, fostering a culture of
shared learning and mutual support.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1
Teachers across the three global locations engaged in formal professional development
through workshops and training sessions, which were sometimes mandatory. These sessions
were valued not only for fulfilling administrative requirements but also for personal and
professional enrichment. Experiences ranged from traditional workshops to unique retreats,
emphasizing the importance of extended learning opportunities outside conventional formats.
Teachers appreciated the transformative potential of these sessions, despite their mixed-quality,
for personal growth and professional advancement. The preference between online or in-person
formats varied, influenced by the training’s content. Teachers pursued further education through
certificate programs and academic courses to deepen their expertise in specific areas. These

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endeavors were often self-initiated and self-supported, reflecting a strong commitment to
personal growth and improved teaching outcomes.
Informal professional development frequently occurred through collaboration and
networking with peers. This collaboration extended beyond local interactions to include global
networks, facilitated by social media and online forums. Such interactions were crucial for
exchanging ideas, strategies, and challenges, particularly in contexts where resources or formal
programs were scarce. Digital platforms served as significant resources for teachers to extend
their professional learning networks. These platforms offered opportunities for educators to
connect with a global community, share resources, and engage in discussions that enhanced
instructional practices.
Personalized, experience-based approaches through informal networks of coaching and
mentoring provided essential support for navigating the complexities of teaching. These
relationships were valuable for sharing practical classroom management strategies and fostering
an environment of mutual support and learning.
Both formal and informal professional development played critical roles in fostering
personal growth, professional advancement, and a collaborative educational community. These
findings underscored the importance of a holistic approach to professional development that
accommodates diverse learning preferences and needs, ultimately contributing to enhanced
educational outcomes for students in underserved populations.
Research Question 2: How Do They Perceive the Given Professional Development
Activating Their Agency in Their Classroom Behaviors and Practices?
Research question two delved into the experiences of global educators, shedding light on
how they perceived professional development opportunities empowered them to modify or

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enhance their teaching methods and classroom management strategies as they worked with
underserved populations, here defined as populations where the language of instruction was not
the primary language of students. The increase of students who are learning the language of
instruction in schools is a global issue that is expanding over time.
According to the International Organization for Migration report for 2022, there are an
estimated 281 million people living in a country other than their countries of birth. In 2020, the
immigrant population increased by 128 million compared to that in 1990 and was three times the
estimated number in 1970. Europe and Asia each hosted around 87 and 86 million international
migrants, respectively, comprising 61% of the global international migrants. These regions were
followed by North America, with almost 59 million international migrants in 2020 or 21% of the
global migrant population, with Africa at 9 per cent, Latin America and the Caribbean at 5%, and
Oceania at 3% (McAuliffe & Triandafyllidou, 2021).
Finland is a good example of a region that traditionally has had a very low immigration
rate and is now part of the worldwide immigration revolution. According to the European Travel
Information and Authorisation System, Finland witnessed historic highs in immigration in 2023,
with 71,918 new arrivals, surpassing the 2022 record by 21,920. (European Travel Information
and Authorisation System, 2024). Brazil is also a country that has traditionally experienced
lower levels of immigration. The number of new immigrants enrolled in the basic education
network in Brazil went from 41,916 in 2010 to 122,900 in 2020, or +195% (Serviços e
Informações do Brasil, 2022).
The number of people who have been forced to leave their home country has also greatly
increased in the early 2020s. At the end of 2022, 108.4 million people worldwide were forcibly
displaced as a result of persecution, conflict, violence, human rights violations and events

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seriously disturbing public order, an increase of 19 million people compared to the end of 2021.
It was also the largest ever increase between years according to United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees’s statistics on forced displacement. More than 1 in every 74 persons
on Earth has been forced to flee (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2022). With
larger migrating populations of students with great needs, teachers across the globe must be
prepared to receive these learners and develop their abilities to assist these students.
Gaining teachers’ perceptions from three different global contexts helped understand
professional development practices that transcended a given context and were key to activating
teachers’ agency in their classrooms. This is critical as such agency directly impacts their
motivation and ability to implement new approaches that cater to the needs of their students.
Interview questions that were asked included:
● How do these professional development activities (both formal and informal) cater to the
specific needs of the underserved community you’re working with?
● Describe a time, if any, when your participation in professional development activities
led you to initiate a change or innovation in your teaching approach.
● How have your professional development experiences empowered you to make choices
and decisions in your teaching practice?
This research question’s findings are organized into two distinct sections. The first section
examines the types of professional development that teachers found effective in activating their
agency or to be empowered to make positive changes in classroom practices and behaviors. The
second part discusses professional development perceived as irrelevant or disconnected, leading
to teacher disengagement.
The sections are as follows:

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● Finding 1: Activating Agency through Culturally Responsive and Inclusive Professional
Development
● Finding 2: Disconnected Professional Development Does Not Activate Agency
Teacher agency is defined as the capacity of teachers to act purposefully and constructively to
direct their professional growth and contribute to the improvement of their practice within the
context of their schools (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012). The findings show a need for professional
development practices that resonate with educators and support their professional growth and the
academic success of their students.
Finding 1: Activating Agency Through Culturally Responsive and Inclusive Professional
Development
The global participants spoke about the importance of having professional development
that allowed them to directly apply tools, resources and techniques to assist the specific needs of
the students they served. When professional development allowed teachers to incorporate
cultural considerations into their teaching practices, recognizing the importance of understanding
students’ backgrounds and experiences, they reported the ability to be more innovative in
creating lessons and adapting to the needs of their specific learners in their underserved
populations.
U1 discussed how the formal professional development she engaged in allowed her to
better understand the needs of her students and to change the entire grading system for her
course, allowing students who had struggled to be able to receive a passing grade, even if they
had missed classes or assignments with a low grade. In California, where U1 taught, grades are
determined by the teacher and cannot be changed by an administrator. In addition, the grading
system for a course is determined only by the teacher. This can be detrimental to students who

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are language learners, as they often need additional time for processing, struggle with academic
language, and in many cases, have additional attendance challenges. Grading in California has
traditionally been based on work completion, deadlines, attendance and participation, all of
which can be challenging for students who are language learners. U1 offered how the
professional development suggested beginning the point system as starting their grades at 50%
so that students who had lower grades could bring them up over time, and adjusting her practices
so that students had a chance to redo work to show improvement. She stated, “In changing my
practices that way, through grading for equity, I feel like I’ve definitely created a more equitable
environment for students passing classes more often.” U1 described the students that she teaches
as often absent from class because they “often have caretaking duties or another job.” U1
credited her professional development experience as the nexus for the changes in her grading
policies and work collection. She is finding results in that students are more motivated to try
because they always have a chance to improve: “I can see it in them. They want to try, and they
know they have a chance.”
U1 self-reported that the area where he teaches has had a recent immigration of students
from the middle east countries, with a concentration from Iran, Yemen and Jordan, starting in
approximately 2019. U1 stated that teachers were largely unaware of Muslim customs of prayer,
dress and specific culture. U1 discussed an online course she chose to engage in independently
that brought her agency in innovating lessons that aligned with the culture of students from these
Arab countries. For example, in discussing how she created a lesson for their newcomer students
on the shapes and colors found within Arab architecture, U1 stated:
And so it was neat, because I could see kind of a light going on in the kids eyes of like,
oh, wow, I know that place or oh, I’ve seen this before or whatever. And it kind of

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brought a little window in for them but it was something that I was asked to do for a
class. And then it was like, oh yeah, this is actually really cool. How many different ways
can I do this in other things, and I do try to do that a lot. I mean, I try to bring in students’
culture whenever I can. But that particular lesson kind of stood out for me, and it was
something that was driven by a class that I took so it was neat.
While students as beginning language learners in California do not take a history class
their first year, as they must take an additional course in English for language learning, U1 stated
that she felt agency to create a lesson incorporating language with art history based on the
professional development they had been given. In creating this lesson, she incorporated historical
vocabulary that students needed as they moved into history courses and was able to validate their
culture through the lens of architecture and art history.
In the context of Finland, F1 explained that with the influx of new immigrants in the
education system in Finland, there has been a population of neurodivergent students who will
remain unidentified as language and cultural norms often mask that there are other challenges for
the student. F1 said, “We won’t test, and we won’t know.” F1 said that the best way for her to
learn how to help students is to invest in her own professional development. She enrolled in a
formal online workshop on teaching neurodiverse students through Helsinki University that she
could attend online. F1 explained that the professional development moved her to:
Write things on a classroom screen or on the board the whole structure of the lessons so
that it’s easier for them to follow. So I think in that way, I have changed and adjusted my
classes and my teaching and my planning so I try somehow to get all students engaged.
Make it a bit easier for everyone to follow what’s going on. So taking some more visual

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aids for kids who need that as well. So that has been really useful to learn about, you
know, different challenges that students may have.
F1 said that she liked the very specific ideas that could be taken from the workshop and used
right away with students learning language as well as students who are neurodivergent. It was
important to F1 that she got some ideas on how to help multilingual learners who may not be
identified as needing additional assistance, and to have practical, effective teaching ideas for all
students. This workshop was responsive to the students she teaches, and the ability to choose a
useful workshop helped build agency for F1.
F3 further elaborated on how she taught professional development to other teachers. The
sessions she taught were developed from the long talks she had with staff after school and from
the challenges she saw firsthand when coaching teachers. She referred to herself “like a
developer in this language awareness and economy.” F3 discussed being able to activate agency
of other teachers through the power of understanding their community, stating,
Teachers in this part do not have a way to get from place to place easily. What I mean is
this morning we had minus 24 degrees and the snow is quite high and the drive is far. It is
many hours to get to the city, so the teachers there do not go to the college to get their
professional development. When I can bring them a tool, and I see them talk at the table
with their friend and they say, yes, yes, I can do that- that is when I get so happy. It is
bringing the good stuff to people, and they tell you next time how they created something
wonderful, and the children learned more language. Yes, this is the best day.
F3 teaches her sessions in person, with options to engage online if someone is unable to attend.
In addition, she allows for time for teachers to “have a coffee” and talk about the content in the
workshop by structuring in unstructured talk. F3 finds this to be very successful.

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In Brazil, teachers discussed culturally responsive practices in professional development
with different approaches to classroom management when students from different cultures and
language abilities are in the same class. B4 talked about informal professional development from
online readings from blog posts and message boards to videos on social media he would engage
in on the culture of respect for students. B4 said that he was first looking for classroom discipline
help, and then emphasized how it impacted the way he treated students moving forward, stating,
“I try to win the students with respecting them as equals instead of fearmongering and using
authority all the time.” He talked about how he learned the power of using humor in the
classroom and how to use tone and body language to convey his message when speaking to
students of all cultures. B4 also said that most of his colleagues monitor their classroom behavior
through “fear mostly and yelling” and said that by finding other teachers who were doing it
differently, he found agency to know that he could do it too. Informal professional development
that promoted inclusion and addressed the needs of historically underserved populations was
impactful for teachers who had not had these opportunities for formal training.
Teachers in historically underserved populations where learners do not speak the primary
language of instruction have their agency activated when they receive professional development,
whether formal or informal, that builds their capacity for inclusive and culturally responsive
instruction for their students. In all three global contexts, having topics that were directly
connected to their unique students and having the ability to access that professional development
in different formats made a difference in giving teachers agency to benefit their students.
Finding 2: Disconnected Professional Development Does Not Activate Agency
Participants in the study reported their professional development did not fully activate
their agency because it was often misaligned with classroom realities, particularly for working

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with the underserved populations in their contexts. This was reported as formal professional
development that was required and used for accountability purposes across all three global
contexts.
U2’s frustration illuminated a broader sentiment among the global educators who yearned
for professional development that was not only relevant and practical but also respected their
time and prioritized the well-being and education of their students. U2 talked extensively about
the kinds of paperwork and procedural items that were done during the space when professional
development was supposed to occur. For example, when the time for professional development
came, the school was instead writing a report for their accreditation process for the Western
Accreditation of School Commission (WASC). Little time was given to the topic that was
supposed to be covered, and instead teachers were asked to edit and write reports. He was
concerned that when it came to the actual information to help with his students, the topic was
only covered in a general overview instead of with specific focus on the community he served.
This caused him to disengage from the workshop as he shared:
But now I’m supposed to regurgitate this and put it on a sheet for someone, and without
time to do it, without truly explaining, like you were saying, time purpose and meaning
and all that. And then where is this going? Big picture. So we end up getting like 40
minutes every, like two months to sit down with five people in the department and try to
do what we think we’re supposed to. I was asked to edit and read this thing (the WASC
report), but not given the time to do it. And I haven’t really been impressed with the
process of it to begin with. So I did what I’m supposed to do. I read it. I created and
fabricated some edits that I could put in there to make it look like I was, but I spent my

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time on things like my units, the kids and the challenges that I’m having with some of the
kids emotionally and physically. Because that’s what matters right now, you know?
U2 shared was that he wanted to work on his lesson plans and talk about the challenges that his
students were facing, and in this case, it was the inappropriate use of the professional
development time that was getting in the way of it. He did not feel agency from his professional
learning time but found that it was constricting. Yet, he continued to give suggestions of
professional development that would activate agency, stating, “We need more professional
development in understanding culture, country politics from the places where our students are
coming from and how that interfaces and how that needs to mesh here.” U2 was also from an
area with a large, more recent population of Muslim students, and U2 said he wanted to
understand how to help them specifically. It is interesting that U2 was the least engaged
participant in professional development within the study, and yet he continually asked for a more
quality experience to help him with his teaching practice:
I want it. I just don’t want it shoved into a 20 minute period and not really be meaningful.
I want it to be meaningful work… I would love to buy in. Sometimes I feel guilty that
I’m not, but it doesn’t feel real, it doesn’t feel meaningful in the way that it’s being
thrown at us once every month in an all staff meeting, once every month at a leadership
meeting. But almost as a bullet on the agenda of this, this is a six minute topic. Dinging,
dinging, dinging onto the next!
His reflections revealed an alienation from the very initiatives meant to inspire and invigorate
teaching practices, and a superficial engagement with formal professional development that
failed to resonate with his core values and commitments.

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The essence of formal professional development in all three global locations often was
diluted in the execution, transforming it into a series of procedural checkboxes. F4 exclaimed, “I
wish that all the fun wasn’t sucked out of professional learning. I was so excited to be a teacher,
and not to fill out paperwork when I should be getting help about how to work with my
students.” This echoed the concerns voiced by U2 but also amplified the narrative of a
disconnection between the envisioned purposes of professional development and its
implementation in practice.
This critical observation was echoed by U3’s experience with the gap between the
rhetoric and reality of restorative practices, “I’m all about restorative practice, but they talk about
doing restorative practice, but I never see them doing it. Like I’ve never seen anybody do
restorative practice at any of these schools.” U3 wanted to understand how restorative practices
could help with their students who are impacted by trauma and was vocal that they wanted
practical tools to help repair relationships with students, and not just hear the overarching
principles of the concepts.
B1 also brought the concern of relevancy about the practical utility of the government
required asynchronous courses, “The weekly courses not only can’t be useful a lot. Basically, I
cannot use the experience on the class. And also, there is a problem with the information on
these courses, some of them are strictly wrong.” B1 expressed concern that the information given
to new teachers was out of date or incorrect, such as the teaching videos related to math
concepts. With this, B1 would like to have more collaboration and less courses with quizzes. He
said, “I prefer to be in one place where I can exchange information with other teachers. That
would be the best for me.”

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Such candid expressions from educators highlighted the misalignment between the
theoretical objectives of formal professional development programs and the tangible needs and
realities of classroom teaching serving underserved populations in each global location. This
dissonance underscored the necessity for reimagined approaches to professional development,
grounded in the realities of teaching, prioritizing meaningful engagement over bureaucratic
checklists and genuinely supporting teachers in their quest to foster dynamic, responsive, and
effective learning environments for their students.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2
Participants highlighted the significance of professional development programs that
embedded cultural considerations into teaching practices as empowering teachers to be more
innovative in lesson creation and adaptability to meet learner needs in underserved populations.
For instance, one educator, U1, shared how an online course enabled her to innovate lessons that
resonated with the cultural background of her Arab students, enhancing engagement and
educational relevance. Another educator, F1, described how a workshop on teaching
neurodiverse students equipped her with strategies to make her lessons more accessible and
engaging for all students, highlighting the importance of inclusivity in educational practices.
Similarly, B4 emphasized the impact of learning about respect and humor in the classroom
through online resources, which transformed his approach to student interaction, underscoring
the value of professional development in fostering more inclusive and respectful classroom
environments. Inclusive and culturally responsive professional development, particularly in
historically underserved populations, were not only instrumental in building capacity among the
global educators but also in enhancing their agency to adopt teaching practices that were both
inclusive and effective in their own settings.

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However, the participants identified that formal professional development often failed to
activate teacher agency due to its disconnect to the actual classroom realities, particularly in the
context of underserved populations. For example, U2 expressed frustration over professional
development sessions that were overly bureaucratic and disconnected from the practical needs of
his students and classroom. This sentiment was echoed by other global participants who wanted
professional development that was relevant, practical, and directly applicable to the students they
served. U2’s experience highlighted the need for professional development to be meaningful and
aligned with educators’ real-world challenges. Despite his disengagement, U2, like others,
expressed a desire for professional development that genuinely supported their teaching practice.
The dissonance between the theoretical objectives of professional development and the tangible
needs of classroom teaching showed the necessity for a reimagined approach to professional
development.
Research Question 3: How Would These Teachers Like to be Engaged in
Professional Development as They Look Toward the Future of Educational Practice?
Research Question 3 delved into the preferences and expectations of global educators
serving underserved populations, seeking to understand the specific ways in which they would
like to engage with professional development programs, focusing on aspects such as delivery
methods, content focus, and formal or informal means. Educators looked to inform the design of
future professional development initiatives, making them more aligned with teachers’ aspirations
and the anticipated needs of educational practice in a changing global landscape.
Interview questions that were asked included:
● As you think toward the future needs of your students and your educational practices,
how would you like to be engaged in professional development in the future?

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● What role would you like to play in shaping or directing your own professional
development experiences in the future?
● In what ways would you like professional development to be delivered in the future (e.g.,
online, in-person, collaborative learning, etc.)?
This research question led to four findings:
● Finding 1: Engaging Professional Development Modeling Student-Centered Learning
● Finding 2: Professional Development That Addresses the Challenges Students Face
Outside the Classroom
● Finding 3: Active Design for Personalized and Differentiated Professional Development
● Finding 4: Collaborative Learning Communities That Extend Beyond Their Boundaries
Finding 1: Engaging Professional Development Modeling Student-Centered Learning
Participants across global contexts emphasized the necessity of creating professional
learning environments that mirrored the goal of engaging, student-centered classrooms of
tomorrow. They emphasized the importance of hands-on participation, collaboration, and the
integration of personal interests into learning for professional development to not only convey
essential teaching strategies but also ignite a passion for teaching and learning that resonates
deeply with educators and students alike. Participants sought a shift towards professional
development that not only informs but also inspires, urging a reimagining of educational
practices to foster a more meaningful and joyous engagement with learning.
U3 articulated a vision for professional development that mirrored the participatory and
engaging nature of effective classroom teaching, stating,
We should be treating PD much as we treat our students in the classroom. Do you talk to
your students for 90 minutes straight? Of course you don’t. Not if you’re an effective

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teacher, you know better, right? Like, you want your students to participate, you want
them to collaborate. And if we don’t build up those structures into our PD, it becomes
problematic.
U3 challenged the traditional, lecture-centric model, suggesting that active participation
and collaboration among educators are essential for learning sessions to be impactful. As they
looked to the future of educational practice, they articulated that students need engagement more
than ever in the classroom. To truly understand how to increase engagement in the classroom,
that modeling of how to increase student engagement as teachers practice being learners
themselves is crucial.
Therefore, the participants expressed that professional development should serve as a
platform for teachers to experience and practice student-centered teaching approaches, thereby
facilitating a deeper understanding and implementation of such methods in their own classrooms.
B2 stated,
The problem is to get the teachers to understand how they should actually change the way
of teaching. I think this might be the same in any country. So as an old fashioned way, is
just to keep a lesson and talk, talk, talk, talk. But you can’t do that if there are people who
don’t understand you. So that is what I’m trying to figure out, how to explain and make
them understand in a kind way.
B2 went on to discuss the importance of having movement and tangible objects as a part
of the lesson. They referred to the fact that her students needed to get up and move and that
teachers learn to teach from what they see. As for professional development, they said, “We need
to learn to teach by learning how to teach as students. We can’t just see talk, talk, talk, talk and
learn, ‘yes, I must have students move around and try.’ We have to try first.”

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F4 further reflected on the disengagement often experienced by educators during
workshops. For professional development to be effective, they stated, it must not only convey
information but also inspire and engage teachers. If the future of educational practice is studentcentered learning, then, PD must model this, as suggested in F4’s statement, “I sit in workshops,
and I wonder why we can’t enjoy them. What is it that makes us not understand that teaching
teachers is how they learn to teach? If we can’t make the lesson something to pay attention to for
each other, how are we supposed to teach this to kids?” This insight underscored the necessity of
designing professional development sessions that were both informative and captivating.
Participants in all three contexts talked about the importance of engagement for their
students, particularly for students learning the language of instruction in a new setting. As U5
stated, “Multilingual learners need more visual cues, more physical opportunities, different types
of explanations. Lectures don’t work.” The participants in Finland and the United States had
examples of professional development experiences where student-centered engagement was a
positive to the workshop. An interesting note was that while the participants from Brazil did not
have examples of good formal professional development experiences, they gave examples of
lessons that they do that are designed to engage their students. They all spoke about the
mismatch of online government professional development that lacked engagement and did not
model good teaching practices. B2 spoke out specifically about how, by engaging in informal
online forms of learning, they worked hard to engage students in the emotions of joy and
excitement that played into her own learning, stating,
I would love to focus on teaching practices related to cultural elements that are
sometimes ignored in favor of a stricter curriculum, but that could lead to great learning
experiences and to a deeper bond with the subject to understanding the subject as more

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than something you need to pass, but rather something that is good for your life and
brings you joy. Which is how my experience with learning English was. I learned English
from watching Harry Potter and things like that. So my relationship with English is very
much an emotional relationship, and I would like to focus on that emotional side of
learning. You know, how do we make students actually enjoy what is being done? Of
course you don’t have to enjoy every single aspect of it, but how do we make students not
loathe what they are studying? How do we make students relate to that with their own
lives and their own circumstances?
It is fascinating that even when the participants did not have an example of this kind of
professional development in their own setting, they were still working on lessons that promoted
student centered learning, instinctively knowing that this was what their students needed and
wanting this to help them prepare for their future courses.
Finding 2: Professional Development That Addresses the Challenges Students Face Outside
the Classroom
Teachers expressed a strong desire for professional development programs to offer
relevant and robust topics that directly address the realities of contemporary educational
challenges and student needs. The participants all had students who had immigrated into their
area, most from conflict zones who were avoiding a humanitarian crisis. These students faced
barriers of culture, language, and trauma. Participants shared overall that they were in great need
of the skills to help students who experienced deep trauma. They all hoped for better information
on the varied cultures, practices, and languages of the students they worked with everyday and to
have explicit learning in strategies for language development among their other needs.

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U3 made a case that all teachers need to understand the challenges students faced outside
of the classroom in order to create conditions that supported learning for all students with
practical, relevant ideas for handling sensitive issues, stating,
And so one of the things I’ve been encouraging our staff is to learn the story of your kids
who struggle. Learn the struggle. Kids who struggle, get to know them. Find out what it
is. Because you start learning all sorts of things and then you’re like, oh, now I see why
you struggle. And it builds compassion in the staff but it also makes you rethink how do I
help this kid learn in light of that and what do I make important for them?
U3’s account showed the importance of understanding the complex socio-economic contexts in
which students lived, advocating for a professional development approach that builds empathy
and practical strategies for supporting students who face significant outside-of-school challenges.
As the future becomes more global in education, this is a concern and need that will expand. The
participants from Finland, in particular, were concerned with the changes that have taken place
over the last decade with immigration. F4 talked about the dilemma of lacking information and
resources when their once homogenous population began to change,
We didn’t have immigrants like this before. Now we have many. It has been happening
all over Europe and, well, everywhere I think. In Finland, we were not ready for it to
happen. Now that it happens, we need to help these people. We teachers need help.
B5 also talked about the change of population, as immigrants flee conflict zones, expressing,
We forget about what happens in other countries sometimes. I think we take for granted
what is happening. Then when, when they come and they are here, and they are in my
class I think wow. I want to help you but I don’t know how to help you. And this is not
going to stop. We are growing.

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B2 echoed this sentiment by highlighting the gap between theoretical knowledge and its
application in diverse classroom settings, particularly for students with special needs:
Okay, so what do we do? What do we actively do? So in that sense, it helped because it
brought awareness to that circumstance. You know, it made me think about it, it made me
realize that no, look sometimes I will have to adapt my plans because a student has needs
that the others don’t. And I will need to adapt what I have so that it suits every student.
The teachers expressed a pressing need for professional development programs that are
deeply rooted in the real-world challenges faced by students, particularly those coming from
conflict zones or undergoing significant personal trials. Teachers were eager for training that
equipped them with the knowledge and skills to address the complex issues of culture, language,
and trauma that many of their students encountered daily. The personal stories shared by the
global educators revealed a collective aspiration to foster an environment of empathy and
understanding, recognizing that awareness and adaptability are key to supporting each student’s
unique journey. The demand for such professional development highlighted the vital role of
educators in bridging gaps between theoretical knowledge and practical application, ensuring
that every student felt understood and supported in their learning experience.
Finding 3: Active Design for Personalized and Differentiated Professional Development
Teachers expressed a clear desire to be engaged in a process of design to create
professional development programs that are more diversified to meet their specific needs, allow
for choice, and account for the varied contexts in which they teach.
Participants in all three global contexts expressed a frustration with one-size-fits-all
professional development. U3 spoke in frustration,

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I find it very hard to sit through prescribed undifferentiated professional development that
doesn’t meet my needs or the needs of my students. That’s always been challenging. It
goes back to like, you know, the district 25 years ago going, yeah, you have to go learn
how to use these science kits they use in kindergarten through third grade. I don’t teach
kindergarten through third grade. I don’t teach science. Why do I have to sit through this
training?
U3’s experiences with undifferentiated professional development sessions underscored the
frustration of engaging in training that did not align with her needs or the needs of her students,
particularly when time was a rare commodity for professional development. Her wishes for
direct professional development that met her needs were clear, “I want to learn how to help my
kids, I just want to be able to learn something that actually applies.”
B2 talked explicitly about the importance of relevance overall, explaining,
I would like development sessions to be first focused on what the teachers are doing,
focus on their own context, and not on a broad, you know, idealized classroom and an
idealized child. And, you know, talking about how the development stages are ideally,
well, we don’t have ideally, we have what is in front of us. So I would like development
sessions to be focused on what is in front of that group of teachers.
When B2 talked about the possibility of attending good professional development, most of the
sessions she referred to were online, due to the lack of resources where she is teaching, and
expressed, “So that means that these development courses should be really individualized to a
person or a group of people.” B2 had never had the experience of being asked for her opinion on
professional development needs or to help codesign sessions. When the concept was explained to

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her that teachers sometimes do have the ability to influence their professional development, they
responded, “That would be my goal.”
F1 had also not had the experience of codesigning professional development. They
expressed frustration in the lack of voice that teachers have overall,
Well, it would be great if we got asked what we would like to have the training on so
instead of just you know, pick something from this list here, so, first could ask me who
would you like us to come talk to you and on what topic, so that will be really great.
F1 was not opposed to professional development but hoped to get a more relevant and
targeted experience to help her meet the future needs of educational practice, specifically for the
underserved populations they served. They elaborated:
I think that if I find some training that I think this is exactly what I’m looking for, then
I’m going to arrange that day for myself somehow, rather than have the five days every
year, that I’m probably going to be listening to a lot of things that don’t really apply.
B3 also had not had the experience of having any choice in their professional
development and desired more voice, stating, “I would like to have more voice in which course
to take, because the State offers, for example, two courses that basically teach the same thing
about autism...So, I would like to have more voice in future formation.” B1 further called for a
more nuanced understanding of individual and school differences, advocating for professional
development that is not only tailored to the subjects and grade levels taught but also sensitive to
the diverse realities of students and communities when he stated:
Look for the differences. Each school is one school and each kid is one kid. Look for
their environment. People who do this kind of development courses just take all of it and
put it in one single box. So most of their content isn’t useful or applicable because people

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who normally do these courses don’t engage in the subjects, they don’t seem to think
about other realities, for example, content for people that aren’t really engaged. People
from communities aren’t really engaged or thinking of the same things that the
developers think they are thinking. It is not just the same reality. I think they need to look
at the differences.
This sentiment was echoed by U5, who suggested that professional development should address
the diverse teaching styles and experiences present within the educational workforce:
Because there’s always that like, you know, distance between veteran teachers and new
teachers and, and between science teachers and math teachers and between language arts
and social studies and high school and middle school or you know, so it’s like what I
would like to see restorative practice professional development that’s very active, that
gets people like mixed up and gets them involved.
U2 illustrated this point by emphasizing the importance of involving teachers in
conversations about their needs and struggles, suggesting a model where professional
development is developed through direct dialogue with educators:
I have another idea on professional development, a conversation that you’re having with
me. Whoever’s in charge of that in our district, county, school site? Have that
conversation with our staff. What do you guys need? What are you struggling with?
Yeah. What’s out there? This next school year, we’re going to, we’re going to have two
programs. We’re going to keep it streamlined, two heads to this development. This one
will be, that one could be like academic classroom strategies, one could be whatever.
These are some things that we’re talking about, like, what are you guys struggling with as
a group?

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U2 began to think aloud about all the types of professional development he would like to see,
and how much he would like for his district to say,
Like, what could help you guys be better versions of yourselves as teachers and connect
with your students and ultimately help our school site in general? Like, make us a part of
it. You get buy-in. I mean, isn’t that teaching to begin with? Isn’t that what we do with
our students?
He highlighted the value and simplicity of this approach in creating buy-in while making
professional development meaningful. U2 had not considered co-creating professional
development as a possibility and reveled in what could be a partnership of codesign rather than
just having it required. Similarly, U3 supported the notion that allowing teachers to have input on
their professional development needs could enhance the effectiveness and relevance, stating,
“And I think allowing teachers to have some input on what their professional development needs
are and what they want to work on, I think it would be really powerful.” U5 said that they
wanted to consider how AI was changing education, and “to cocreate that would be really
exciting. I like to see what is coming, and that is coming fast.”
B3 and B5 further emphasize the need for diversity, choice, and the opportunity to
experiment within professional learning, suggesting that a more collaborative approach can lead
to greater motivation and engagement in learning. B3 stated,
In Brazil, in my opinion teachers tend to be complacent in professional development, so I
like the fact that is some obligatory formation, but I also would like to see more diversity
and more choice, and more voice on the teaching site, so we would be able to go for a
more motivate to learn more willing to learn and less obligation to learn.

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B5 went even further, considering what innovations could be made if he was able to create
professional learning options,
Choice to help. I would like to have something in my development mainly to actually be
able to choose what I’m going to study. For example, if I could conduct some
experiments, experimental activities with students, for example, and try to develop a new
method or implement a new method that would also shape not only me as a professor as a
professional, but also the institution in which I’m working.
B5 also talked about how students who immigrate from other countries will continue to do so
throughout the world, “It keeps coming. And it’s good. And it’s hard. It will keep coming. The
future is no country but all of one.”
B2 discussed the benefits of a collaborative, co-design model in Brazil, where teachers do
participate in regular meetings to discuss projects and future plans, fostering a welcoming and
open environment. They highlighted the power of having a strong school leader to empower that
change when they said, “Really depends on the school, because I’ve seen schools and public
schools in which every month or so all teachers get together to discuss their project and talk
about future things that the school wants to do. And it’s all very nice and very, you know,
welcoming and open. And they have a big lunch and everyone gets together and talks and laughs
and does activities together and that’s great. And I’ve seen schools in which that doesn’t happen
at all.”
Teachers aspired to be actively involved in designing professional development programs
for themselves and their colleagues. They sought opportunities to contribute their insights,
experiences, and expertise to shape the content and structure of initiatives, ensuring that the
training provided was relevant, impactful, and met the diverse needs of educators in their specific

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context. Teachers in all three contexts were inspired by the idea of co-collaboration as they
looked to the future of education, from the dawning of AI to the globalization of our world.
Finding 4: Collaborative Learning Communities That Extend Beyond Their Boundaries
Teachers expressed a strong desire for professional development opportunities that allow
for global collaborative learning communities. For example, B3 had taken many certifications
and talked about how she liked to study in different places to vary the training and information
she received, explaining, “I also do training on my own. Teaching is my passion, so I travel to
other States (in Brazil) to have different formations, and my dream is to study in Florida, in
Gallaudet University.” She spoke of how wonderful it was to have the experience of speaking
with different teachers in different contexts globally, and if she were able to travel for all of her
professional development, she would do that. As a teacher, she utilized social media and online
methods to collaborate with others but preferred to have the experience in person, stating, “There
is more when you have the food, and the place, and the people all together. I can share and they
can share, and there is much more.” B3 also talked about how it affected her students to see that
their Brazilian teacher travels to learn: “This is not something that happens here in Brazil often.
For my students who have so little and have come so far to see that their teacher can go too- that
is, some hope.”
U5 further highlighted the value of meeting and conversing with educators from various
locations, providing an opportunity to gain a multitude of perspectives, saying,
But there are just so many opportunities where you’re meeting and talking to different
educators from different parts of the country. I mean, we had people from, at this last one,
we had people from all over California. And we had people from Arizona. We had people

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from Minnesota that had traveled all the way there. And it’s like you’re getting so many
different perspectives.
He talked about how he wished he could have more of these opportunities to see teachers from
all around the world, as he had the experience of teaching in South Korea. When he brought up
the dream of collaborating while traveling, U5 said “Well, that is just not going to happen. It’s
too hard, too expensive.” Yet, U5 did collaborate online with people online from all over the
world.
U3 illustrated the effectiveness of combining formal and informal professional
development practices to create extended collaborative communities that benefited students in
underserved populations. She described setting up a Google Chat group for immediate, informal
support among colleagues, which proved to be a valuable resource for sharing strategies,
addressing challenges, and fostering a supportive community:
People were sharing articles about reading and middle school and reading comprehension
for struggling readers. So it’s been a really great resource and really fun. And then my
colleagues have invited me over to work with them. One-On-One as things come up. So
like I’ll be on one of my preps or whatever since we have block day and it’s lovely.
U3’s experience was the most unique of all the teachers interviewed. She was the only
participant who reported integrating informal and formal professional development to achieve a
specific result. U3 reported amazing success. She used informal collaborations online to help her
drive her in-person professional development:
I appreciate my colleagues on my site, but I also really appreciate my colleagues at the
other sites. Just being able to go over or for them to come over and we can, you know,

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work on things and figure things out and share that kind of information has been really,
really good.”
Teachers expressed wanting to experience collaborative communities that go beyond
borders to offer accessibility, choice, and the ability to have a global community of teachers as
colleagues. They were casting their nets wider, seeking insights and experiences from around the
world to enrich their teaching practices. From B3’s dreams of studying in diverse locations to
U5’s reflections on the value of meeting educators from different regions, it was clear that the
quest for varied and rich professional experiences transcended geographical boundaries. When
looking to the future of education, collaborative communities are a key factor in the way that
teachers would like to engage in professional development for their multilingual learners.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3
Teachers advocated for a shift in professional development to reflect the engaging and
interactive nature of effective classroom teaching. For instance, U3 critiqued the outdated,
lecture-heavy professional development model, calling for sessions that embody the same level
of participation and collaboration expected in the classroom. This vision aligned with the need
for professional development to serve as a practical workshop where teachers, like B2, could
experience and practice student-centered approaches.
Addressing the realities students faced outside the classroom was another critical area
where teachers saw the need for focused professional development as they looked toward the
future of educational practice and the underserved populations they served. Participants highlight
the importance of understanding the socio-economic contexts of their students’ lives. U3, for
example, spoke to the necessity of building empathy and practical strategies for supporting
students who faced significant challenges, including those from conflict zones. This sentiment

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was echoed by F4 who pointed to the lack of resources and information available to teachers as
their student populations become more diverse.
The call for personalized and differentiated professional development emerged strongly
in the discussions from participants as they considered the future of education. Teachers
expressed frustration with generic professional development sessions that failed to meet their
specific needs. U3 shared her experience of being required to attend irrelevant training sessions,
underscoring the desire for professional development that was relevant to the individual teacher’s
context and subject area. B2 wished for professional development sessions that were directly
focused on the immediate needs of the teachers and their students, rather than on an idealized
notion of teaching and learning. U5 considered the future of education in codesigning
professional developments in topics such as the expanding uses of AI in the classroom.
Collaboration and learning from diverse global perspectives formed a significant part of
teachers’ vision for future professional development. U5, for example, valued the opportunity to
meet and discuss ideas with educators from different parts of the country, gaining insights that
could enrich his teaching practice. Similarly, U3 described how an informal Google Chat group
among global colleagues served as a vital resource for sharing strategies and fostering a
supportive teaching community. These examples highlighted a growing interest in professional
development opportunities that extended beyond traditional boundaries, encouraging a more
interconnected and globally aware approach to teaching and learning.
Teachers called for a paradigm shift towards professional development that is more
engaging, personalized, culturally sensitive, and collaboratively designed, reflecting a holistic
approach to addressing the complexities of the future practices in education. Participants
expressed that students in historically underserved populations deserve teachers who understand

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their specific needs, are able to identify and celebrate their cultures, know how to teach language
acquisition, and are prepared for the future challenges in our global world.
Emerging Theme: All Love Teaching, and Some are Leaving the Profession
Throughout the interviews, an important theme emerged across teachers in the three
global locations. While there was an undeniable passion for teaching, an array of systemic
challenges led some educators to consider leaving the profession. While not directly connected to
the study’s three research questions, it does have significance for thinking about the future of
teacher professional development.
The joy of teaching remained a powerful, central theme. B5 described the profession as a
vibrant exchange of experiences and cultures, a sentiment echoed by his peers. B5 expressed:
Most of it is, it’s the exchange of experiences when we’re teaching mainly when there are
people from different backgrounds, from different places, who are in the different, you
know, different ages. We have the opportunity to exchange information experiences. It’s
all between people who have different cultures and backgrounds. That’s beautiful.
U3’s joy stemmed from witnessing the long-term impact of her teaching on students’
lives, saying, “It’s always really my favorite thing to run into kids in the community who go, do
you remember me? Look at what I’m doing now. And it’s so exciting to see that.” She went on
to describe the challenges the student had from caring for a guardian to dropping out of high
school, and then the student remembered her words from years before and started school again.
U5 similarly shared the joyful experience of knowing that they have a purpose to help change
lives:
And what brings me joy is when a kid, when a kid comes to me and, you know, has an
issue and I’m able to work it, I’m able to bring them something that maybe their parents

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can’t bring them or that another friend can’t give them. I can give them a, like an
unbiased, kind of a different opinion. And I can use my experience. Because I’ve been
through a lot of trauma and I’ve been through a lot of different things in my life and I can
bring that to them. And that’s what really gives me joy. Because you can change
somebody’s life.
For B1, satisfaction came from seeing students happy and knowing they were imparting
valuable lessons:
I am happy when the students are happy. I’m also happy knowing that I’m teaching
something valuable. I always wanted to be a physical education professor and being a
teacher involves a lot of passion, so I normally am not ambitious about my career or a
better job, I’m ok with what I have now.
B3’s perspective similarly offered a poignant reflection on Brazil’s societal undervaluing of
teaching:
It’s normal here in Brazil, people thinking: ‘I don’t want to be a teacher, it is not a good
job’, but I love, and I start to think aside of my salary, because when I go home I know
I’m being the voice of someone, and that brings me joy in life.
This sentiment, shared by B4, F1, and F2, highlighted a profound commitment to teaching—a
calling that transcended financial compensation and was fueled by the impact they have on their
students’ lives. F1 also saw her calling to be with children, stating, “Well I really enjoy just you
know, being around kids and teens. I think they’re, you know, so interesting and a lot of fun.” F2
expressed similar joy in teaching and helping students:
Well, any little thing that a student learns that makes me happy. Anything I can see and
hear. And if I see that they can be happy when they find something. So that makes me

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happy. And also when they get to know me and ask help, can you help me, please. That is
also nice. Then I know that they trust me.
B2 also expressed relishing the breakthrough moments with her students, particularly the
“aha” moments of comprehension and connection with teenagers, expressing:
I suppose that when I see the penny drop for some students, I really like that moment.
You know, that moment that you realize that the student got it is something that I really
enjoy. But something that really brings me joy is when I get to, when I have a
breakthrough with the older, with the teenagers. When I see those big mean looking boys
that are so much taller than me, you know, mellow out and talk to me and confide in me,
and respect me because I respect them, that is really touching and that brings me a lot of
joy.
At the same time, B2 has recently left the teaching profession due to the long hours and
the inability to secure a full-time site. Similarly, the first thing B4 stated was their love of
teaching and how they believed they were born to teach. Then, the continued with how they were
grappling with the demands of the profession:
I believe it’s because there are too many schools and too many working hours. Yeah, here
in Brazil we don’t make that much money being a teacher. So it’s kinda normal that we
had to attend to multiple schools to get paid well. So, in order to develop better my work
I would like to be possible to attend more development, but the situation is the time
absence because all the work I have to do. So the main issue I would solve is the time…
Lack of time since I need to work in several schools. And I just don’t get the time to
develop.

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Since the interview with B4 had taken place, he also has left the teaching profession due
to the pressures of having to hold multiple jobs to support his family and the low salaries that
teachers make in Brazil. He stated, “The main issue I got, is the low pay. As I said, teachers
don’t get paid a lot in Brazil, so I need to work a lot. So the time is also an issue itself.”
In addition, U5 expressed during the interview that he might be moving out of the
teaching profession to increase his salary. F5 also expressed that due to the stress of her current
position, they were also considering quitting or taking a medical leave.
This emerging theme of passion versus challenge within the teaching profession across
three different global contexts underscored the need for systemic reforms. To retain passionate
educators and ensure the sustainability of teaching as a profession, they expressed the need to
address the issues of pay, workload, and professional development opportunities. Giving teachers
professional development that gives them agency and empowers them in the classroom can lead
to greater retention of teachers. Doing so, as expressed by the participants, not only supports the
educators themselves but also enriches the educational experiences of their students.
Acknowledging the Contextual Point of View
This study sought to understand effective professional development practices looking
across three different contexts, gaining a global lens. While each educational context has
similarities, and were specifically chosen as they served similar student populations in terms of
language needs, there are specific contextual circumstances for each area. The purpose of the
study was not to identify these unique features and how they influenced professional
development or do a comparative study, but it is important to recognize that each context brings
some specific assets and challenges that may influence the data collected and participant
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Government schools, in general, have tighter restrictions than private schools, and this is
particularly true in Brazil. Still, even within government schools, the level of academic freedom
and collaboration available to teachers can vary significantly depending on the school leadership
(Brazil: non-state actors in education, 2018). B2 reported that should she return to teaching, she
would be looking for employment in a private school due to enhanced academic freedom and the
“ability to collaborate with more colleagues.” B2 had friends who worked in private schools and
stated, “They do not have the same barriers we do (at public schools).” B4 and B2 both
expressed that when working at government schools, all teachers are required to attend
professional development that is the same throughout the region, regardless of school size,
teaching subject or location. According to the Brazilian participants in this study, all teachers in
the Sao Paulo region were required to participate in watching a webinar one time per week for
the 2023-2024 school year. All the teachers watch the same webinar given by the Ministry of
Education. The webinar is synchronous, but without interaction with the individual teacher
participants. One of the biggest challenges that teachers faced in Brazil were the very low wages,
which caused the participants to have to work several jobs in order to support their families. The
average salary for elementary and high school teachers in public schools in Brazil is around
$13,000 per year, which is less than half the average across OECD countries, which is $29,000
per year (Chavez, 2018). Low teacher salaries contribute to difficulties in attracting and retaining
quality educators in Brazil, as was the case with the study participants who had left the
profession after the conclusion of the study. Finland has a very different context overall.
Teachers are highly paid and highly respected in their profession. Universities select future
teachers based on high test scores, high grades, and with high expectations. It is easier to get into
a Medical School in Finland than to be accepted into university to become a teacher. All teachers

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have master of arts degrees, and are expected to perform research on good teaching practices in
their classrooms (Hemphill, 2018). Professional development is then lead by colleagues in their
schools as well as experts in the field, often in-person and with ready-access to the practitioner
for additional questions or suggestions for implementation. F2 was an example of a teacher who
was on special assignment to mentor other teachers with their teaching practice. She taught
workshops, did model lessons and coached in classrooms on a regular basis. The teachers knew
her, and her professional development was modeled after the direct needs of their classes.
Finland is a context that is moving from a homogenous society to a blossoming
multilingual and multicultural society. Finland has had a steady increase of immigrant
populations yearly, with a high rate of 14,448 people in 2021 to a historic increase in
immigration in 2023, with 71,918 new arrivals (European Travel Information and Authorisation
System, 2024). All of the Finnish participants stated challenges and the need for additional
professional development to know how to successfully teach multilingual students and how to
integrate them successfully into their native Finnish classrooms. While professional development
is increasing in this area, this is a new issue for Finland overall (Taylor et al, 2023).
The United States also faces unique challenges when it comes to educating multilingual
learners. With a diverse immigrant population representing numerous linguistic backgrounds,
U.S. schools must adapt to meet the needs of students who are not proficient in English. The
percentage of public school students in the United States who are multilingual learners is
increasing steadily. In the fall of 2021, students in the K-12 system who spoke a primary
language that was not English was 10.6%, or 5.3 million students, compared to the average in the
fall 2011 which was 9.4%, or 4.6 million students.. Just as in Finland, these students require
specialized instructional support and accommodations to access grade-level content while

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simultaneously developing their English proficiency. However, many schools struggle with
providing adequate resources and training for teachers to effectively serve their underserved
students, leading to achievement gaps and higher dropout rates among this population
(Cardichon et al, 2020). Like Finland, the United States is politically divided on the issue of
immigration, and teachers struggle to help these underserved students while navigating the
political issues that surround them (Criss, 2019; Villavecencio et al, 2021; Zimmerman, 2022).
While there is much to learn looking across Brazil, Finland, and the United States to
understand best practices in professional development to serve a rapidly evolving, linguistically
diverse instructional environment, each country faces some unique challenges and circumstances
that shape their approach to teaching and professional development. Addressing issues such as
low teacher wages, academic freedom, and increasing cultural diversity requires tailored
solutions that take into account the specific context of each nation. As the world becomes
increasingly interconnected, it is crucial for educators and the agencies that serve them to work,
collaborate, share globally, while also understanding the unique challenges brought by these
contextual differences and foster an environment that promotes effective teaching practices and
successful learning outcomes across and within nations.
Conclusion
This chapter explored the perceptions of best practices in both formal and informal
professional development among global teachers, with a particular focus on those working in
underserved populations in three different global contexts. The insights were gathered from
fifteen educators situated in the diverse areas of the San Francisco Bay Area of California, Sao
Paulo in Brazil, and Helsinki in Finland. Each educator faced the complexities of teaching
students who are learning a language that is not the primary language of instruction, have

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immigrated to the country, many with low socioeconomic backgrounds, and most having fled
conflict zones for humanitarian reasons. At the heart of this study is an acknowledgment of the
complex nature of underserved populations and the distinct professional development needs of
teachers serving these populations.
Looking towards the educational needs for the future, teachers articulated a vision for
professional development that is personalized, uses tools for the specific students they serve, and
encourages participation in collaborative learning populations within their school and outward
globally. This reflects a shift towards more interconnected and globally aware teaching and
learning approaches.
It was clear that educators serving in underserved populations are in search of
professional development experiences that are not only tailored to their specific contexts but also
enrich their pedagogical practices in profound ways. They stressed the importance of engaging,
culturally responsive professional development that empowered them with the agency to enact
meaningful changes in their classrooms. Their aspirations for future professional development
underscored the importance of initiatives that promote global collaboration, personalization, and
active participation in both the design and implementation of professional learning experiences.
By centering the voices and experiences of teachers, these findings provide a
foundational perspective on how professional development can be reimagined to better support
educators as they navigate the complexities of contemporary educational practice within a global
context.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE
This study examined the informal and formal professional development engagements of
teachers serving in underserved populations, defined here as populations where the language of
instruction was not the primary language of students, across three global contexts. This chapter
begins with a discussion of findings, followed by recommendations for practice,
recommendations for future research, limitations and delimitations, and the conclusion of this
study.
Discussion of Findings
This section provides a review of the findings in Chapter Four discussed in relation to
existing literature. This qualitative study explored the informal and formal professional
development activities of teachers in underserved populations across three diverse global
settings, with the purpose of understanding their perceptions of professional development that
brings them agency as well as their needs thinking toward the future of educational practice. This
study was guided by the following research questions:
1. What informal and formal teacher professional development do secondary teachers
serving underserved populations in three global contexts engage in?
2. How do they perceive the given professional development activating their agency in their
classroom behaviors and practices?
3. How would these teachers like to be engaged in professional development as they look
toward the future of educational practice?
While many of the findings were consistent with existing literature, others highlighted
gaps that need further research. The following provides a detailed discussion of each finding
within the overarching research question.

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Research Question 1: What informal and formal professional development opportunities
do secondary teachers in underserved communities engage in across three global contexts?
This study found that all teachers utilized formal professional development as a part of
their professional duties. All fifteen teachers were expected to attend structured workshops or
seminars that were fixed in topic and structure for their teaching assignment. Teachers
participated in mandated workshops through their school, district, prefecture or government
program, of which twelve of the fifteen teachers said most were not helpful, directly related to
their job, or engaging. Research has shown that the "sit and get" approach of some current
models of professional development, often perceived by teachers as static and confined to
seminars, fail to align with the dynamic nature of education and teachers’ desires, and is further
hindered by a mismatch between the design of initiatives and the specific needs of educators
(Jacobs & McGovern, 2018; Matherson & Windle, 2017).
This study found that informal professional development was often sought out when
teachers had a need to learn how to better support their students in historically marginalized
populations globally. Learning for teachers is a part of the social function of professional
development, according to Cochran et al. (2015), which allows for educators to discuss researchbased practices and to translate them to teaching practices in the classroom. This was echoed by
the study participants, as teachers in all three global contexts discussed the importance of having
social and informal networks where they could be comfortable sharing ideas, challenges, and
triumphs. This was true with in-person environments as well as online environments, and the
content of professional development was more important in matching the purpose and tools to
the needs of the teachers rather than a preference for virtual or in person learning environments.
It should be noted that for four of the 123razilian123123ts, two in Brazil, one in Finland, and one

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in California in this sample of underserved populations, some areas did not have easy access to
technology for devices or Wi-Fi connectivity and could not easily access virtual professional
development. These same communities did not have transportation resources and did all of their
professional development in person. Other communities did not have available resources for
quality formal, in-person professional development, and teachers needed to take the initiative to
engage in informal on-line learning. Regardless of the delivery, participants noted the benefits of
informal methods being employed along with formal methods to achieve agency, deeper learning
for teachers, and improved student achievement.
Whether working in a chat group with other teacher professionals or seeking out lessons
through TikTok, the dynamic nature of having a social connection that is recursive has been
shown to enhance learning (Akyol & Garrison, 2019). Similarly, Richter et al. (2022) determined
that teachers who shared more frequently on social media sites, such as Instagram, regarding
their teaching and professional learning tended to have more self-efficacy (Richter et al., 2022).
While interacting with other teachers in sharing lessons, teaching techniques and pooling
resources, these teachers have agency activated and are able to make choices and enact decisions
within their given contexts that reflect their professional judgments and goals (Priestly et al.,
2015).
The teachers from all three global contexts supported the findings from Jones and Dexter
(2014) that when teachers utilize informal professional development, there is a greater transfer of
concepts that are part of formal professional development, making workshops, seminars and
more formal means of professional development more effective overall. Barton and Dexter
(2020) further found that informal professional activities, such as collaboration and sharing of
ideas in informal settings, allow opportunities for teachers to experiment with tools and strategies

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in a low-stakes environment. This complements the work in formal settings and can be a
resource to reinforce formal development (Barton & Dexter, 2020; Darling-Hammond, 2015). In
this study, the participants who had informal collaborations or participated in online forums that
complemented the learning they did in formal professional development said that it helped their
learning and their comfort with learning new techniques, and often provided a safe space to do
so.
However, there is a gap in the literature around programs that systematically combine
formal professional development with the kinds of informal professional learning that teachers
use to enhance and specify their learning. When the teachers in this study talked about informal
professional development, they praised having the time to focus deeply on that learning. At the
same time, research suggests that informal collaboration opportunities require structures to be
put in place so as to assist in subsequently disseminating teacher discoveries through the
organization (Jones & Dexter, 2014). Tombleson (2024) explored how the integration of
technology in education can support blended learning models that combine formal and informal
learning strategies and found there to be success in programs that utilized a blending of formal
and informal professional learning. Exploring the blending of formal and informal methods of
professional development shows promise as an effective method to help educators in
underserved populations support their students.
Research Question 2: How Do They Perceive the Given Professional Development
Activating Their Agency in Their Classroom Behaviors and Practices?
Research question two explored the experiences of educators globally, focusing on their
perceptions of how professional development opportunities empowered them to adapt or
improve their teaching methods and classroom management strategies in underserved

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populations. These global populations were united by a disconnect between the language of
instruction and the primary language of the students. The issue of language barriers in education
is a growing global concern. The International Organization for Migration's 2022 report
highlighted that approximately 281 million individuals reside outside their birth countries. This
marked an increase of 128 million from 1990 and is three times the number recorded in 1970.
Europe and Asia are the primary hosts for international migrants, with about 87 and 86 million,
respectively, accounting for 61% of the total global migrant population. This is followed by
North America with nearly 59 million (21%), Africa (9%), Latin America and the Caribbean
(5%), and Oceania (3%) (McAuliffe & Triandafyllidou, 2021).
In the seminal work Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research and Practice,
which has been in publication since 2000, Geneva Gay defines culturally responsive instruction
as “as using the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse
students as conduits for teaching them more effectively” (Gay, 2010, p. 31). Gay states the
importance of culturally responsive professional development for teachers to assist their students
“is based on the assumption that when academic knowledge and skills are situated within the
lived experiences and frames of reference of students, they are more personally meaningful, have
higher interest appeal, and are learned more easily and thoroughly” (Gay, 2010, p. 31).
In all three contexts, teachers emphasized that professional development incorporating
culturally responsive instruction enabled them to modify their teaching approaches and adjust
their lessons to better serve their students. A descriptive research study conducted in 2022
assessed undergraduate coursework and gathered data from teacher educators to determine the
degree to which culturally responsive practices were implemented. The findings indicated a
discrepancy between the intentions of the teacher educators and the actual content and pedagogy

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delivered (Caimpa et al., 2022). This emphasized the need for a more effective integration of
equity practices in professional development. Another study examined the role of CulturallyResponsive Instruction (CRI) in fostering children’s learning in rural Tanzania. The study had
gathered information from 45 participants drawn from six schools in three districts through
interviews, classroom observations, and focus group discussions. Consistent with previous
research, culturally responsive instruction emerged to be instrumental in fostering inclusive
classrooms and supporting meaningful learning. The findings showed that teachers had modified
and adapted their instructional pedagogies while considering the pupils’ cultural and prior
learning experiences (Amani & Mgaiwa, 2023). The participants in this study said that they were
modifying their curriculum and teaching practices in hopes of developing more effective
methods for teaching their multilingual learners, and that having culturally responsive
professional development would give them the ability to actively serve their students.
Teachers in this study also experienced an increase in agency through professional
development programs that were not only relevant and practical but also respectful of their time
and prioritized both the well-being and education of their students. Rose (2020) found that
leadership that allowed for choice in professional development and was respectful of their
teachers’ time and choice saw a measurable increase in teacher efficacy. While such experiences
were not frequent, participants consistently emphasized the importance of relevant content in
enhancing their sense of agency. They also shared experiences where irrelevant topics required
by the programs diminished their agency by detracting from their teaching effectiveness. A study
by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in 2014 underscored these sentiments, revealing that
only 29% of teachers reported high satisfaction with their professional development, highlighting

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a demand for programs that are relevant, interactive, and led by instructors who understand the
teachers’ experiences (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2014).
Teachers often view professional development as solely formal professional development
and as a static activity which limits its effectiveness and applicability to their specific teaching
contexts. This perception contributes to a gap between the design of professional development
initiatives and the actual needs of educators, particularly in specific pedagogical areas.
Matherson and Windle (2017) highlighted this issue, noting a significant mismatch between
professional development offerings and the nuanced demands of teaching in various educational
settings. This misalignment suggests a pressing need for more tailored professional development
that aligns better with the practical and pedagogical needs of teachers (Matherson & Windle,
2017). Teachers in this study expressed that professional development activates their agency in
the classroom when it is immediately relevant to their needs when they can focus on the specific
students they serve.
Research Question 3: How Would These Teachers Like to be Engaged in Professional
Development as They Look Toward the Future of Educational Practice?
Teachers in this study advocated for a shift to professional development with more
engaging and interactive methods that reflect the best classroom teaching practices. Research has
shown that teachers who have professional learning that mirrors classroom practice, modeling
“teacher moves,” supports efficacy in teachers to translate that practice to their classrooms
(Darling-Hammond, 2017; Hattie, 2012). While there is a gap in the literature on informal
professional development to complement formal means, studies suggest that informal
professional development can play an important role in enhancing formal professional
development experiences for educators. One study that supported the complement of formal and

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informal professional development, Barton and Dexter (2020), investigated how a holistic
system of professional learning about technology integration, including formal, informal, and
independent professional learning, might allow for access to and prompt reflection on selfefficacy. The study found that this blended formal, informal, and independent learning was
effective on building capacity and self-efficacy in their teachers, and that overall more research
was needed in this area. Informal professional activities have been found to complement and
reinforce the structured learning that occurs in formal settings (Barton & Dexter, 2020; DarlingHammond, 2015). Participants in this study valued informal professional development and
wished for additional opportunities that incorporated collaboration, targeted opportunities to help
their specific students, and the ability to participate in professional development during their
schedule. Informal professional development offered ways to be able to access these
opportunities.
Further, teachers in this study overwhelmingly stated that they wanted to have voice and
choice in their professional development, including the option to help create their own learning
experiences. A study in Australian high schools that embedded co-design for curriculum
planning models found that it did increase teacher efficacy and that codesign leads to high
quality teacher professional development (Kelly et. al., 2019). Only one teacher from California
and one teacher from Finland of the fifteen participants had been asked to codesign professional
development, and one of those created workshops as a part of her particular teaching duties.
Teacher professional development programs that are designed to meet the needs of individual
teachers are more likely to be effective at building teacher capacity, which leads to greater
satisfaction (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009).

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Finnish teachers are both empowered and responsible for seeking out necessary
professional development when it is not provided, and they are granted autonomy in curriculum
development and design (Kalmus & Autio, 2016; Tarhan et al., 2019). However, study
participants suggested that that while Finnish teachers have autonomy in their classrooms and in
curriculum development, they do not have the ability to make decisions at a higher level, and that
they do not have choice at the site level regarding their professional development. Manninen et
al. (2023) found that it would be beneficial to allocate specific time for strengthening the
capabilities of head teachers to foster a culture of shared leadership, and enhance teachers’
involvement in higher decision-making processes, including those of their professional
development.
In Brazil, teachers are restricted to using only the official curricular materials prescribed
for their region and are required to participate in professional development specifically related to
those subjects. The ability for teachers to exercise agency and create their own curricular
materials is not encouraged (Breynner & Coelho, 2021). Yet, one of the Brazilian participants in
the study talked about the leadership of specific schools, and how those principals sometimes
allowed more autonomy in the classroom and within teaching practice than others. That
participant shared that they were leaving the teaching profession, and that they would only return
to one of these schools that may have more flexibility and teacher voice as a part of its design.
Participants in this study called for a shift in professional development that includes
engagement and relevance. They wanted professional development that not only allowed but
actively encouraged their involvement in the design and implementation of learning experiences
tailored to their unique contexts and needs. To do so, it was essential for educational leaders and

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policymakers to foster environments where teachers felt valued, empowered, and adequately
prepared to face the evolving challenges of the global educational landscape.
Recommendations for Practice
The following section provides recommendations to increase teacher agency and
engagement in professional development to impact student outcomes for historically
marginalized populations globally. The three recommendations align with the findings from
participants in this study while taking into consideration the reality of under-resourced schools
within different systems and an increase in migrating student populations with multilingual
learners. The recommendations include:
1. Create partnerships and offer professional development experiences that connect contexts
and locations globally.
2. Formal professional development should be enhanced with the engaging, collaborative
opportunities provided by informal professional development.
3. Offer opportunities for the participants to codesign their professional development
experiences.
The table below presents recommendations for practice, the relationship of each recommendation
to key findings, and research that supports each recommendation.
Table 3
Evidence Based Recommendations for Practice

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Recommendation Relationship to Key Findings Literature Support
1. Create partnerships and offer
professional development
experiences that connect
contexts and locations
globally.
1. Formal Professional
Development for
Compliance or
Enrichment
2. Collaborative Learning
Communities That Extend
Beyond Their Boundaries
Ellis et al. (2017)
Kim et al. (2023)
Biasutti et al. (2021)
Akyol & Garrison (2019)
Darling-Hammond, L. (2015)
Barton & Dexter (2020)
2. Formal professional
development should be
enhanced with the engaging,
collaborative opportunities
provided by informal
professional development.
1. Active Design for
Personalized and
Differentiated
Professional Development
2. Engaging Professional
Development Modeling
Student-Centered
Learning
Cochran et al. (2015)
Lawton-Stickler & Bodamer (2016)
Lom & Sullenger (2010)
Aspfors, J.et al. (2015)

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Recommendation One: Create Partnerships and Offer Professional Development
Experiences Across Contexts and Locations Globally
In our increasingly global society, teachers benefit from the ability to share and develop
practices outside of their current social and professional networks, growing knowledge and
resources that are best built collectively. The Ensuring Equability in Education for Migrant and
Refugee Pupils (EDUCAMIGRANT) project is a good example of an international collaboration
for teachers. EDUCAMIGRANT was a strategic partnership project approved by the Turkish
National Agency that included partners from Italy and Spain. In all three countries, the university
faculty, teachers, and representatives of local branches of national education institutions worked
together. During the project, the researchers and teachers from the different countries visited one
3. Offer opportunities for
teachers to codesign their
professional development
experiences
1. Active Design for
Personalized and
Differentiated
Professional Development
2. Disconnected Professional
Development Does Not
Activate Agency
Nascimento, D. (2014)
Darling-Hammond, L. (2005)
Hattie, J. (2012)
Westboek et al. (2019)
Kelly et al. (2019)

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another and focused on creating a learning environment for migrant students. The results of the
study showed that all teachers were fully involved in all activities and some of these teachers
took an active role in development when they had previously been disengaged. This structure
allowed participants to develop a sense of community of practice in which teachers could share a
variety of best practices and approaches from different countries (Biasutti, 2021)
Another interesting study in the global cross-pollination of ideas internationally involved
teachers of multilingual learners (Ellis et al., 2017). In this study, American teachers studied
teachers in Brazil to improve their own culturally responsive instruction. Topics included
Brazilian culture, Portuguese language, and the experiences of people with disabilities and their
families in Rio de Janeiro. Teachers were able to create lessons that successfully embedded
strategies for cultural responsiveness. The teachers from Rio de Janeiro were able to exchange in
lesson design and gain a collaborative network with the teachers from the United States. The
exchange was beneficial with both parties.
With teachers in historically underserved populations having a lack of funding and
resources, there are still ways for teachers who cannot manage large international travel to
engage in global learning, support each other, and share best practices. MOOCs can provide
important professional learning opportunities for teachers throughout the world. In a study by
Neha and Kim (2023), MOOCs were used to have teachers collaborate globally. The results were
that participation in the collaboration helped to increase the teachers’ affective, behavioral, and
cognitive engagement in culturally and linguistically responsive instruction. Neha and Kim
highlighted the potential of MOOCs to transcend geographical barriers, allowing teachers from
different countries to engage in rich, cross-cultural exchanges that could enhance their teaching
methodologies. The study suggested that implementing more MOOCs designed for collaborative

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learning could foster a global community of educators who support each other’s professional
growth and adaptability to diverse classroom environments.
In this study, participants spent their personal time incorporating informal professional
development because they wanted to improve their teaching and wanted to find a collaborative
group. This informal professional development often spanned global boundaries. At the same
time, participants spoke of ineffective and resource intensive formal professional development
that was not effective. Instead, school systems could consider sending individual teachers to
collaborate in global settings, like conferences or even to visit individual sister schools. In lowresources school systems, these kinds of structures could be built online for their teaching
population to enhance their global reach.
In this study, participants dedicated personal time to engage in informal professional
development as they were eager to enhance their teaching skills and connect with collaborative
groups. This type of professional development often crossed international boundaries.
Simultaneously, the participants discussed the shortcomings of traditional, resource-intensive
formal professional development programs, which they found ineffective. Instead, educational
systems might consider options such as sending teachers to international conferences or to visit
sister schools abroad. For school systems with limited resources, similar opportunities could be
created online to extend their teaching population’s global reach.
Global collaboration among teachers proves invaluable in addressing the challenges of
instructing students whose first language is not the language of instruction. Studies show that
teachers working together across borders share strategies for language acquisition, discuss
effective bilingual education tools, and develop skills for teaching in multilingual environments.
This type of peer exchange empowers teachers to more effectively support students in

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simultaneously developing language proficiency and content knowledge (Cummins, 2014;
Hammond, 2015).
Global teacher collaboration can enhance culturally responsive teaching, particularly
valuable when students are multilingual learners from cultures unfamiliar to the teacher. While
research in this specific area remains sparse, such global collaborations allow educators to share
and learn diverse strategies and insights critical for cultivating cultural competence. Educators
are encouraged to integrate students’ cultural backgrounds into their teaching practices actively,
thus creating a more inclusive learning environment and making the curriculum accessible and
relevant to all students (Hammond, 2015).
Teachers who participate in global collaborations often experience increased professional
satisfaction and a rejuvenated passion for teaching. Such interactions can reduce feelings of
isolation, especially prevalent in underserved or rural areas, by connecting educators with a
supportive network of peers facing similar challenges (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012).
Collaborating on an international scale also equips students for a globalized world by providing
them with opportunities for international interactions, which have demonstrated positive
educational outcomes. A study by Taras et al. (2013) involved over 6,000 students from around
80 universities across 43 countries working together in global virtual teams. These students
benefited from curricula enriched with international perspectives, fostering a deeper
understanding of global issues and enhancing cultural sensitivity (Zhao, 2010).
By extending collaboration globally and either creating or tapping into existing groups
focused on specific curricular topics, professional development can be transformed into a
powerful growth tool for educators. Global communities of practice offer platforms for teachers
to connect with international peers via various modes, including chat groups or platforms like

137
TikTok. The ongoing exchange within these networks promotes continuous learning through a
feedback loop, enhancing educational practices (Akyol & Garrison, 2019). These informal
professional activities provide a low-pressure environment where teachers can freely share ideas
and resources, experiment with new educational tools, and innovate without the immediate stress
of formal evaluations, fostering a creative and relaxed learning atmosphere (Thompson, 2021).
Engaging in global communities not only broadens educators’ perspectives but also exposes
them to diverse pedagogical strategies and cultural insights, leading to more adaptable and
innovative teaching practices (Chen & Starkey, 2022).
To implement this recommendation effectively, schools and educational systems must
acknowledge the importance of structured support to help teachers navigate and utilize global
online communities for professional development. While some educators readily adapt to these
networks, others may need additional guidance on accessing and evaluating these resources. By
establishing frameworks that facilitate effective global engagement and collaboration, teachers
will become more involved, gain greater autonomy, and share strategies that contribute to
building a community without borders.
Recommendation Two: Formal Professional Development Should be Enhanced with the
Engaging, Collaborative Opportunities Provided by Informal Professional Development
Teachers in this study relied on informal professional development, stating that it was
easily accessible within their time constraints, could be searched to find what was relevant to
their specific needs, and allowed them to collaborate with teachers in other schools, other
regions, and other countries. Informal and unstructured professional development can be a
powerful way for teachers to connect, build community, and create an engaging environment to
collaborate. A small amount of research in Finland, for example, has examined the benefits of

138
unstructured time as part of professional development, and those studies are around creating
spaces for researchers and teachers to collaborate (Aspfors et al., 2015). Further, self‐directed,
informal learning is a less recognized and understood form of professional development with the
potential for collaborations to negotiate the interface between research and informal learning
spaces (So & Kim, 2013).
One such study that explored this idea from Finland included a group of teachers,
members of community‐based science organizations, educators from community colleges and
universities, and graduate students working together to create and implement an afterschool
science program called Science in Action. The group collaborated informally together in an
unstructured environment, creating lessons and discussing assessments while creating
relationships. Not only did the program have successful outcomes for students, but the
researchers were able to identify that while the participants were collaborating, they did not
classify it as professional development as it was not formal (Lom & Sullenger, 2009). Informal
professional development in its nature is not part of a structured program, and teachers do not
often classify these unstructured collaborations as professional development. This can make it
more challenging for researchers to identify the kinds of professional development that is taking
place, or the number of teachers involved in informal professional development (PammerSchindler & Rose, 2021).
Informal professional learning can create generative conversations that happen when
educators connect in a social way in a traditionally non-social context. Cochran et al. (2015)
states that learning for teachers is a part of the social function of professional development,
which allows for educators to discuss research-based practices and translate them to teaching
practices in the classroom. Another study on this kind of unstructured professional learning

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involved the creation of a communicative space in the form of a Teacher Talk group, built by
researchers, where teachers in Finland engaged in different collaborative professional
development (CPD) projects. The teachers and researchers worked together in unstructured
sessions with continuous communication and reflections. The findings were that the group was
able to define informal professional development work while understanding how research can
inform practice (Aspfors et al., 2015).
Another study done in the United States included a university-based researcher and a
middle school science teacher discussing project-based inquiry (Lawton-Stickler & Bodamer,
2016). They met with unstructured thought-partner spaces: meetings with no agenda where they
openly discussed problems of practice. Framed as incubation periods, these meetings allowed
them to focus not on solution-oriented talk, but open discussion, brainstorming and
understanding. The findings were that during these meetings, there was a development of an
inquiry stance, increased risk–taking and deepening self-reflection within their interactions.
While there are few studies on the power of enhancing formal professional development
with informal professional development, there is evidence of the importance of informal
professional development. This was supported by the global teachers in this study who discussed
engaging in various means of informal professional development that complemented or offered
something unmet by formal professional development. The recommendation is to further explore
and build informal professional development opportunities as a part of formal professional
development programs.

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Recommendation Three: Offer Opportunities for Teachers to Codesign Their Professional
Development Experiences
Across global contexts, teachers in this study expressed the desire to codesign their
professional development experiences, ensuring their voices and those of their colleagues were
heard and that these experiences met their needs. This was particularly important given their
rapidly changing student demographics and their ability to meet their students’ needs. The 2022
report by the International Organization for Migration noted a significant increase in global
migration with 281 million individuals now living outside their country of birth. Classrooms
have become melting pots where students’ primary languages and cultural backgrounds vary
widely, including many who come from war-torn areas. To effectively address the diverse needs
of these students, participating global teachers expressed wanting to create professional
development programs that were responsive and adaptable. As these educational environments
continue to evolve, the need for professional development that is both relevant and immediately
applicable becomes crucial. This dynamic setting highlights why it is imperative for teachers to
not just engage in but also drive their ongoing professional learning processes.
Research conducted by Kelly et al. (2019) involving teachers specializing in digital
technologies at two Australian secondary schools found that a co-design model for curriculum
planning significantly enhanced the quality of teacher professional development. This designbased study supported the notion that when teachers are actively involved in the creation of their
own professional development, the outcomes are more impactful (Kelly et. al., 2019). Similarly,
Westboek et al. (2019) explored how teachers collaboratively creating new curricular materials,
such as courses or lessons, often with support from experts in educational design, research, and
content, can gain valuable insights into student learning processes. The study indicated that the

141
development and implementation of these materials, treated as tools rather than end-products,
provide significant learning opportunities for educators (Westboek et al., 2019). This approach is
also supported by the results from a summer program research study by Kelter et al. (2019),
which concluded that constructionist co-design is a promising strategy for both curriculum
development and enhancing teacher professional development.
Severance et al. (2016) found in a study of a structured co-design process for teachers
with professional development found that co-design not only involves teachers in the
development of curriculum but actively expands their professional agency by engaging them in
meaningful decisions that affect their teaching and learning environments. Further, involving
teachers in the co-design of their professional development is a crucial element in increasing
agency (Severance et al., 2016). The collaborative aspect ensures that development activities are
relevant and directly applicable to the teachers’ needs and contexts. Niemi (2015) emphasized
initiatives within the Finnish education system that empower teachers to design school
development programs, thereby enhancing their agency and capacity to make school-wide
changes and involve the external community in educational matters. According to Kalmus and
Autio (2016), it is because of this increased empowerment and self-efficacy that teachers in
Finland are more likely to implement curriculum that they have learned from their professional
development and have higher rates of satisfaction in their profession. However, the Finnish
teachers in this study expressed a desire for more autonomy in their professional development,
highlighting a widespread need for greater teacher involvement in designing these programs.
Teachers in this study from Brazil and California also echoed the importance of leadership in
facilitating co-design and providing the necessary autonomy for meaningful professional
development. These educators highlighted how autonomy and collaboration are often contingent

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upon the school’s leadership, which can significantly influence the culture of professional
growth within the school.
Recent studies, such as those by Kelter et al. (2021), further examine the potential for
teacher-researcher co-design in curriculum development. Yet, there remains a significant gap in
the literature regarding teachers co-designing professional development experiences in K-12
environments. Addressing this gap can profoundly impact the quality and relevance of
professional development, particularly for teachers working with students who have the greatest
needs. Codesign activates agency and allows teachers to create relevant and engaging learning
experiences for themselves and their colleagues to the benefit of their students.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations are influences that the researcher cannot control, and delimitations are the
boundaries set by the researcher that need to be addressed (Creswell, 2014). As a person
conducting research outside of the school or organization where each teacher works, a possible
limitation for the study was the potential for limited access to confidential information in the
status of a perceived “outsider” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Another limitation was the
potential for bias or influence due to my outsider status and lack of familiarity with the
organizational culture of the school site (Seidman, 2013).
A further limitation of this study is the generalizability of the findings due to the small
sample size. In interviewing 15 participants, with five from each of the global settings, each of
the qualitative interviews brought a snapshot of one particular set of teachers in a moment in
time. This limitation can affect the extent to which the insights and conclusions drawn from the
study can be extrapolated to other settings or groups.

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I interviewed teachers who are located in Brazil and Finland, in a context other than my
own, with likely limitations in understanding the cultural implications of the specific areas and of
the organizations themselves. In addition, I worked with a translator to translate the interviews
both into and out of Portuguese. Translating interviews may introduce nuances, cultural contexts,
and meanings that could be lost or altered in the process, potentially affecting the accuracy and
integrity of the data. Despite efforts to ensure accurate translation, the presence of a translator
introduces an additional layer of interpretation, which may have influenced the participants’
responses and the overall findings of the study. To help correct this, I hired a translator to
perform forward and backwards translation to be sure that it was as accurate as possible. In order
to limit the potential bias with cultural differences, I enlisted a translator who was from the
region of Sao Paulo. I used the back-translation process, translating the original material into the
target language, translating it back into the original language, comparing the two versions for
accuracy and consistency, which helps to minimize errors and ensure that the meaning of the
original material is accurately conveyed in the translated version (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Seidman, 2013).
Delimitations are present. The snowball method of recruitment was used to gather data
from a specific subset of the population, which provided depth but may have limited the diversity
and representativeness of the sample. Conducting the study in these three specific global contexts
narrows the research to these areas, and they may not be generalizable to other regions or
contexts. It is possible that choosing other areas would have created different results. Conducting
one interview per participant limited the amount of information and could have resulted in a
restricted perspective on the research topic. I may have missed out on additional insights that
could have been gained through more extensive and in-depth conversations. This delimitation

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may have limited the richness and depth of the data collected, potentially leading to a narrower
understanding of the study. I only interviewed a small number of secondary schools and teachers
in those secondary schools in each location. By not including additional sources of information
or perspectives, there is a potential to have not seen a more holistic understanding of the research
topic. This delimitation may have led to an incomplete or biased interpretation of the data,
reducing the study’s credibility.
These limitations and delimitations were due to resources and time constraints for the
study. By snowball sampling for recruitment, the process ensured efficient data collection and
leveraged existing networks for participant recruitment in three separate countries. Choosing a
qualitative approach and limiting the geographic and demographic scope made the study more
manageable and allowed for a deeper, more nuanced analysis of the data. By delimiting the study
to a manageable number of settings and participants (five from each location), I was able to
ensure that each participant’s input was thoroughly analyzed, leading to richer and more
insightful conclusions in the short time available for analysis. The delimitations helped narrow
the scope of the study to align with its specific research objectives.
By concentrating on secondary teachers working in underserved populations across three
distinct global contexts, this research directly targeted the impact of professional development on
teacher agency and classroom practices in environments that face unique educational challenges.
This focus ensured that the findings were relevant and meaningful to the specific context of
educational inequality.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research should focus on investigating the role of unstructured time for
collaboration among teachers as a pivotal tool for informal professional development,

145
particularly in non-traditional settings such as underserved and diverse educational environments
globally. This type of research could explore how allowing teachers the flexibility to engage in
informal, self-directed professional learning activities influences their job satisfaction, efficacy,
and retention. Specifically, studies could assess the impact of combining formal professional
development with strategic unstructured, collaborative opportunities, creating a blended
approach that supports sustained teacher engagement and growth. This research should aim to
delineate how these informal professional development communities influence teaching
practices, with a particular focus on their ability to foster a recursive and ongoing exchange of
ideas, strategies, and support among educators across different educational systems. By
examining these dynamics in various international contexts, researchers could gain a broader
understanding of how cultural, economic, and policy differences influence the effectiveness of
such professional development models.
Globally, it is crucial to extend research on teacher professional development beyond
well-researched areas such as the United States and Australia. While this study explored three
very different contexts, there is much more to learn worldwide in the area of teacher professional
development. Exploring professional development practices in varied international contexts will
enable a deeper understanding of how different cultural, economic, and policy environments
influence the effectiveness of both formal and informal professional development strategies.
Expanding the geographic scope of this research will also enrich the global educational
discourse, fostering a more holistic view of best practices that can be shared and adapted across
different regions to enhance teacher efficacy, retention, and ultimately, student outcomes.
Research is needed on the interplay between formal and informal professional
development and its effects on teacher retention. Such research would help to identify how

146
blended professional development strategies can better support teachers in their career
trajectories, fostering a sense of community, continuous learning, and professional growth. By
examining how these integrated approaches affect teachers’ sense of efficacy, commitment to the
profession, and their ability to adapt to changing educational demands, education professionals
can better understand and implement professional development practices that not only improve
teaching skills but also contribute to retaining skilled educators in schools.
Conclusion
This exploratory study aimed to examine teachers’ perceptions of best practices in
teacher professional development from a global perspective, focusing on the current practices
and needs of teachers serving underserved populations in three distinct global contexts. The
study investigated how teachers perceived their current professional development opportunities
to activate their agency and influence their classroom behaviors and practices, as well as their
preferences for engagement in professional development moving forward.
The findings from this study show the impact of both formal and informal professional
development on teachers operating within underserved populations across various global
contexts. It was evident that while formal development programs provide a structural backbone
for professional growth, they often fall short in terms of relevance and engagement when not
complemented by informal, collaborative opportunities. Informal professional development
emerged as a vital component that supplemented the formal efforts, offering teachers more
flexibility and responsiveness to their specific educational needs and contexts. These findings are
instrumental in showing the intricate balance needed between structured programming and the
organic, self-directed growth opportunities that support and enhance teacher efficacy.

147
The research sheds light on the unique challenges and barriers that educators face in
underserved regions, where resources are often scarce and external educational support systems
may be lacking. The resilience and innovation displayed by teachers in these areas stressed the
urgent need for more tailored professional development that not only addresses pedagogical
skills but equips teachers with strategies to overcome the specific socio-economic and cultural
challenges prevalent in their environments. The findings emphasized the need for a global
approach to professional development that transcends national boundaries and embraces the
interconnected challenges of our diverse world. By thinking and learning globally, educators can
harness a wealth of ideas and knowledge that could be transformative for both teaching and
learning. Teachers in this study connected globally to share insights and strategies, enriching
their collective expertise and approaches to education.
Schools are increasingly recognized as rapidly evolving, linguistically diverse
instructional environments. This dynamic context requires that professional development
programs are not only adaptive but also culturally and linguistically inclusive to meet the
educational needs of a changing student population. These programs must be designed to help
educators effectively navigate and thrive in these complex settings, enhancing their ability to
deliver inclusive and equitable education.
Recommendations for practice included integrating informal learning with formal
professional development efforts, urging policymakers and educational leaders to
reconceptualize how professional growth is facilitated in diverse educational environments. To
truly enhance teacher retention and improve educational outcomes, a global shift in the approach
to teacher development is required—one that embraces the complexity of teaching in diverse
settings and leverages the full spectrum of professional learning opportunities.

148
Allowing teachers to have input and control over their learning paths fosters greater
engagement and relevance and empowers them to implement practices that are most effective for
their unique teaching contexts. Prioritizing teacher agency in professional development ensures
that the programs are not simply informative but transformative. Students in all global
communities deserve transformative education. It is our imperative to give teachers the agency
and resources to bring every student to their highest potential.

149
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Research Questions:
1. What informal and formal teacher professional development do secondary teachers
serving underserved populations in three global contexts engage in?
2. How do they perceive the given professional development activating their agency in their
classroom behaviors and practices?
3. How would these teachers like to be engaged in professional development as they look
toward the future of educational practice?
Interview Questions:
Interview Questions
Research
Question
Tell me about yourself and your background in education. Icebreaker
What is your current role at your school? Icebreaker
What brings you joy professionally? Icebreaker
Tell me about the types of formal professional development opportunities
you have participated in as a teacher? Formal professional development is
learning that occurs within a structured environment. Examples might
include attending organized workshops, enrolling in certificate programs
or academic courses, partaking in structured webinars or e-learning
platforms, engaging in mentorship or coaching schemes, or participating
in company-arranged training either in-person or online.
#1

177
What types, if at all, of informal professional development opportunities
have you participated in? Informal professional development is learning
that is done outside of a formal setting. Examples might be participating
in conferences, online forums, some websites, social media for education
like Twitter or Tik Tok, or collaborating informally either in-person or
online.
#1
How, if at all, do these professional development activities (both formal
and informal) cater to the specific needs of the underserved community
you're working with?
#1
Are there specific challenges you face in accessing professional
development? If so, how do you overcome these challenges?
#1
If you are able to prioritize which professional development opportunities
to participate in, how would you do that?
#2, #3
Describe a time, if any, when your participation in professional
development activities led you to initiate a change or innovation in your
teaching approach.
#2
How, if at all, have your professional development experiences
empowered you to make choices and decisions in your teaching practice?
#2
As you think toward the future needs of your students and your
educational practices, how would you like to be engaged in professional
#3

178
development in the future?
If at all, how have you participated in co-designing your professional
development experiences? What was that experience like for you?
#2
What role would you like to play in shaping or directing your own
professional development experiences in the future?
#2 and #3
In what ways would you like professional development to be delivered in
the future (e.g., online, in-person, collaborative learning, etc.)?
#3
Are there any emerging trends or changes in education that you think
should be addressed in future professional development opportunities?
#3
How would you like to see professional development evolve to better
prepare teachers for future educational practices?
#3
What are your wishes for your future professional development sessions? #3

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Asset Metadata

Creator Milazzo, Maralina Marie (author)

Core Title Perceptions of professional development from the lens of the global teacher in a rapidly evolving, linguistically diverse instructional environment

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 07/31/2024

Defense Date 05/16/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag bilingual education,career satisfaction,classroom management,co-design,coding,collaboration,collaborative learning,community engagement,community of practice,community partnerships,continuous improvement,creative teaching,Credibility,cross-cultural exchange,cross-disciplinary approaches,cultural competence,culturally informed practices,culturally relevant pedagogy,culturally responsive teaching,culturally sustaining pedagogy,curriculum innovation,data analysis,digital literacy,diversity,educational challenges,educational equity,educational frameworks,Educational Leadership,educational outcomes,educational policy,educational practices,educational reform,Educational Research,educational systems,Educational Technology,equity in education,global challenges,global citizenship,global collaboration,global competencies,global education,global learning,global perspectives,immigrant students,inclusion,informal learning,instructional design,instructional environment,instructional leadership,instructional strategies,instructional support,language acquisition,language diversity,lifelong learning,linguistically diverse,mentorship,mixed methods,multilingual learners,networking,OAI-PMH Harvest,online learning,pedagogical approaches,peer exchange,professional development,professional expectations,professional growth,professional identity,professional learning,professional learning communities,professional networks,professional standards,qualitative methods,reflective practice,socio-emotional learning,student engagement,student-centered learning,teacher advocacy,teacher agency,teacher collaboration,teacher development,teacher empowerment,teacher experiences,teacher feedback,teacher identity,teacher innovation,teacher perceptions,teacher resilience,teacher retention,teacher roles,teacher support,Teacher Training,teacher voice,teacher well-being,teaching effectiveness,teaching methodologies,teaching philosophies,teaching practices,teaching strategies,thematic analysis,trustworthiness

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Krop, Cathy (committee chair), Moore, Ekaterina (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email maralinamilazzo@gmail.com,mmilazzo@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113998LMW

Unique identifier UC113998LMW

Identifier etd-MilazzoMar-13312.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-MilazzoMar-13312

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Milazzo, Maralina Marie

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240731-usctheses-batch-1190 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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