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Inclusive vogue: exploring the demand for body diversity in the fashion and modeling world

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Inclusive vogue: exploring the demand for body diversity in the fashion and modeling world

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Content Inclusive Vogue: Exploring the Demand for Body Diversity in the Fashion and Modeling
World
Melissa Ann Mitchell
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
August 2024

© Copyright by Melissa Ann Mitchell 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Melissa Ann Mitchell certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Lenese Stephens, EdD
Katherine Bihr, EdD
Don Trahan, Jr., PhD, DBA
Marsha Boveja Riggio, PhD, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

Abstract
This dissertation explored the impact of body underrepresentation in the fashion and modeling
industries on women of color (WOC) in the United States. Drawing on narratives highlighting
women’s lived experiences, the study investigated how fashion model selection, sizing policies,
and marketing strategies influence their self-efficacy and body image perceptions. Utilizing an
intersectional framework, this research acknowledges the intersecting layers of identity and
discrimination, thereby shaping experiences of exclusion and representation in these industries.
This inquiry aimed to critically examine the fashion and modeling sectors’ systemic flaws
through a phenomenological and qualitative approach rather than merely critique these
industries. The results produced actionable recommendations to enhance body diversity, improve
brand inclusivity, and stimulate economic progress. They reinforce the need to understand the
broader implications of reduced body image perception and acceptance, mainly focusing on the
resultant mental health issues, such as diminished self-esteem and confidence. This research
underscores the need for a more inclusive and accepting fashion industry by illuminating the
complex relationship between societal beauty standards and individual self-perception.
4

Dedication
I would like to start by saying that I give God all the glory for making this all possible for
me! “I can do all things through Christ which strengtheneth me,” Philippians 4:13 KJV. This
work is lovingly dedicated to my grandmothers, whose remarkable lives and legacies have
profoundly influenced my journey. To my loving Nana, who inspired me to pursue all of my
dreams and to dream big, you have instilled in me a deep sense of self-worth. Your example in
our family has broken numerous glass ceilings for us. My late grandmother, Bobbie Jean, whose
unparalleled love left an indelible mark on my heart. As a pioneering woman in the auto industry,
she demonstrated leadership and broke new ground for females in her field. Their combined
legacy of courage, determination, and resilience has shaped my understanding of my value and
ability to leave a lasting impact on the world. I also extend my heartfelt dedication to my
mommy, whose prayers, love, and support have helped me along my academic journey. My
gratitude extends to my church family, whose unwavering support has been a constant source of
strength and encouragement, regardless of the path I chose to pursue.
I would also like to dedicate this dissertation to the countless women of color who are
aspiring leaders and changemakers. To those who have navigated diverse life experiences, some
designed to bring defeat, yet you chose to rise above them. This work is profoundly important to
me because I sought to create a platform where the voices of women of color could be
amplified—a space for them to share their experiences with marginalization and body
discrimination, a topic that remains unspoken. To both the young and mature women who may
have faced challenges in fully embracing their skin, this work is dedicated to you. You are
beautiful just as you are. Do not let the false stigmas of today’s world obscure your vision of
your own inner beauty.
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Lastly, for those who question their ability to embark on this journey, particularly those
from modest beginnings with ambitious dreams, I present my story as evidence of what can be
achieved. The idea of attending college once seemed so daunting that I dismissed it entirely. Yet,
here I am, a holder of an associate of arts, a Bachelor of Arts with a double major, a minor in
political science, a Master of Communication Management, a Master of Science in criminal
justice, and now on the verge of completing my Doctor of Education. My path is a testament to
the fact that with faith, every dream is attainable.
6

Acknowledgments
I extend my deepest gratitude to my distinguished dissertation committee, consisting of
Dr. Marsha Riggio, Dr. Don Trahan, Dr. Lenese Stephens, and Dr. Katherine Bihr, whose
unwavering support and insightful guidance were instrumental throughout this journey. Their
shared commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion deeply resonated with the essence of my
work, providing a solid foundation for my research. I would like to thank Professor James
Carney and Dr. Styles Akira, who were pivotal mentors to me in my academic career and have
been supportive without wavering. Their invaluable advice and encouragement have been a
cornerstone of my educational journey. Additionally, I express heartfelt thanks to my peers in the
OCL Cohort 22. Their collective spirit and support were crucial in reinforcing my conviction that
we would reach our goal to see one another at the finish line in May 2024. Their camaraderie and
encouragement were pivotal in navigating the challenges of this academic endeavor,
underscoring the importance of collaboration and mutual support in achieving our aspirations.
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Table of Contents
Abstract iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgments vii
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
List of Abbreviations xii
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study 1
Context and Background of the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem 4
Purpose and Research Questions 7
Significance of the Study 8
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations 10
Definitions of Terms 12
Organization of the Dissertation 15
Chapter Two: Literature Review 16
Search Description 16
Framework 17
Literature Review 20
Chapter Three: Methodology 45
Research Design 45
Research Questions 47
Setting 49
Participants 49
Data Collection 52
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Data Analysis 57
Reliability 60
Dependability 61
Confirmability 61
Validity 62
Credibility 63
Transferability 63
Chapter Four: Findings 65
Research Question 1 68
Research Question 2 74
Research Question 3 82
Chapter Five: Recommendations 89
References 100
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 124
Appendix B: Informed Consent/Information Sheet 125
Appendix C: Demographic Survey 127
Introduction to the Survey 127
End of Survey 128
Appendix D: Semi-Structured Interview Protocol 129
Introduction to the Interview 129
Conclusion to the Interview 131
Appendix E: Codebook for Representation Trends in Fashion Magazine 1 from 2019 to
2023 132
Appendix F: Codebook for Representation Trends in Fashion Magazine 2 from 2019 to 2023
135
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List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources 48
Table 2: Data Analysis Methodology 58
Table 3: Interviewees’ Definition of Body Image 66
Table 4: Interviewees’ Perception of Acceptance of Body Diversity 69
Table 5: Significant Challenges Women of Color Face Regarding Acceptance 75
Table 6: Representation Trends in Fashion Magazine 2 From 2019 to 2023 76
Table 7: Representation Trends in Fashion Magazine 1 From 2019 to 2023 77
Table 8: Steps to Promote Greater Acceptance of Diversity in the Fashion and Modeling
Industries 83
Table 9: Ten Steps to Promoting Body Diversity in the Fashion and Modeling Industries 90
Table D1: Interview Protocol 129
Table E1: Counts of Representation per Category and Year 134
Table F1: Counts of Representation per Category and Year 137
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Body Diversity for Women of Color 19
Figure 2: Representation and Celebration of Body Diversity in Fashion and Modeling
Industries 68
11

List of Abbreviations
BI Body image
CSR Corporate social responsibility
FCC Federal Communications Commission
EEO Equal Employment Opportunity
MBSRQ-AS Multidimensional Body-Self Relationships Questionnaire—Appearance Scales
MBSRQ-AE Multidimensional Body-Self Relationships Questionnaire—Appearance
Evaluation
MBSRQ- AO Multidimensional Body-Self Relationships Questionnaire—Appearance
Orientation
POC People of color
WOC Women of color
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1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Numerous industries profess to embrace inclusive and equitable practices, seeking to
eradicate discrimination based on gender, race, and body size. However, bias often manifests in
less overt forms than direct criticism or harassment (Aagerup, 2022; Glyde, 2016). Specifically,
fashion brands and modeling agencies perpetuate societal biases by upholding traditional beauty
standards (Argo & Dahl, 2018; Laham, 2020; Salam & KS, 2023). This is demonstrated in their
marketing strategies, which typically showcase a limited selection of body types and provide a
restricted range of clothing sizes, thereby sidelining body diversity (Aagerup, 2018; Murray,
2020). Such implicit biases subtly communicate to women that a single, ideal body type is
preferable, marginalizing those who do not fit this mold (Czerniawski, 2022; Fardouly et al.,
2018; Swami et al., 2015). Moreover, the pervasive culture of body shaming, perpetuated by
mainstream media, has led to widespread issues of negative self-esteem, distorted self-image,
and prevalent anti-fat attitudes among women (Andersen & Swami, 2021; Kim & Chock, 2015;
Kiling et al., 2019; Ravary et al., 2019). Body diversity encompasses more than just size; it
promotes the acceptance of all bodies, irrespective of race, size, age, genetic makeup, and
physical appearance (Basson & Weinbach, 2023; Castellanos Silva & Steins, 2023). This study
examined the need for greater body diversity in the fashion and modeling industries via a
qualitative research approach.
For decades, the fashion industry has consistently elevated White/European, thin, and
able-bodied ideals, significantly impacting the self-esteem and body image of women of color
(WOC), leading to feelings of inadequacy and exclusion (Ahmad et al., 2015; Jamal &
Mohammed, 2023; Matelski, 2011; Ravary et al., 2019). Intersectional analysis sheds light on the
compounded discrimination and marginalization WOC face, highlighting how gender, race, body

2
type, and societal influences intersect to exacerbate experiences of exclusion from the fashion
and modeling industries (Glyde, 2016; Lewis, 2019; Melnyk et al., 2004; Peters, 2022; Wilfred
& Lundgren, 2021). Studies reveal the cultural and social implications of such
underrepresentation, demonstrating how the lack of diverse images in mainstream media
perpetuates societal norms that undervalue the physical diversity of WOC (Bishop et al., 2018;
Christel & Dunn, 2017; Cohen et al., 2019; “Drexel University Study,” 2015). This misalignment
between cultural identity and the beauty standards promoted by the industry can intensify
cultural dissonance and adversely affect the self-concept of WOC, often leading to psychological
distress (Ahmad et al., 2015; Guimaraes, 2022; Jamal & Mohammed, 2023; Lazuka et al., 2020).
The psychological impact entails constant exposure to unattainable beauty ideals, which
contributes to body dissatisfaction, reduced self-esteem, and various mental health challenges
(Garfinkel et al., 1992; Jameca & Neville, 2000). With growing societal awareness of these
issues, there is an escalating demand from consumers for greater inclusivity and diversity in
these industries (Joshi et al., 2023; Park, 2017; Zhou et al., 2021). This study explored these
dynamics further, examining the need for structural change in the fashion and modeling sectors
to better reflect and respect the diversity of modern society.
Context and Background of the Problem
Historically, the American fashion and modeling industries have been called out for their
ongoing biases, traditionally favoring lighter skin tones and smaller bodies in their branding and
product offerings (Betz et al., 2019; Caldwell et al., 1997; Czerniawski, 2022; Duan, 2017).
These industry preferences have long-time marginalized plus-size women of color, limiting their
access to fashionable, flattering clothing (Czerniawski, 2012; Doyle & Moore, 2023). Through
restrictive practices of many fashion and modeling agencies, Eurocentric beauty standards

3
dominate the industry, creating segregated clothing and a need for inclusion (Aagerup, 2018;
Basson & Weinbach, 2023).
Fashion
Throughout the American fashion landscape, prominent brands and modeling agencies
have historically reinforced a beauty standard that prioritizes lighter skin tones and smaller body
sizes, a preference manifested in their selection of brand ambassadors and the constrained sizing
options they offer (Bishop et al., 2018; Bryant, 2013; Laham, 2020; Robinson-Moore, 2008).
This inclination has significantly disenfranchised plus-sized WOC, limiting their ability to access
fashionable clothing designed to flatter and celebrate their fuller figures (Thompson Summers,
2017; “Drexel University Study,” 2015). A common practice among numerous fashion entities
involves restricting their clothing lines to U.S. sizes 00-14, overlooking the reality that the
median size for American women is between 16 and 18 (Christel & Dunn, 2017; “Drexel
University Study,” 2015). Additionally, the production and availability of apparel frequently
adhere to a narrow, Eurocentric body ideal, further complicating the search for genuinely
inclusive plus-sized or curvy attire (Bryant, 2013; Cohen, 2021; Lewis, 2019; Maphis et al.,
2013).
Such constrained options for plus-size clothing are often inconspicuously placed in retail
spaces and rarely featured in window displays, which underscores the issues of body segregation
and discriminatory marketing tactics pervasive in the sector (Aagerup, 2018, 2022; Lewis, 2019;
Murray, 2020; Peters, 2022). The responsibility of the fashion industry extends beyond merely
incorporating broader size ranges; it entails an obligation to market its products equitably,
ensuring that high-quality selections are readily accessible and adequately represented. This
imperative holds particular significance given that women constitute a substantial portion of the

4
consumer base in the fashion sector (Lewis, 2019; Liebelt, 2019). The call for inclusivity,
therefore, demands a shift toward practices that acknowledge and cater to the diverse needs and
preferences of all women, fostering an environment where every consumer feels valued and
represented (Doyle & Moore, 2023; Gavrikova, 2022; Pompa, 2021).
Modeling
In the modeling industry, there is a pronounced demand for enhanced diversity in model
selection, underscoring an entrenched deficiency in inclusivity that spans beyond merely
incorporating plus-size models to embracing ethnically diverse and age-varied representation
(Black, 2022; Estrina, 2021; Gavrikova, 2022). This sector has been subjected to critique for
perpetuating microaggressions and fostering an environment of inequality toward WOC,
plus-size individuals, and older models, compelling them toward conformity with an imposed
standard of beauty that narrows their professional avenues (Dimitrov & Kroumpouzos, 2023;
Ravary et al., 2019; Riddhi, 2016; Thompson Summers, 2017). The call for a comprehensive
overhaul in aspects ranging from runway showcases to clothing designs and the criteria for
model selection is acknowledged amid incremental advancements (Pounders & Mabry-Flynn,
2019). Notable fashion houses, including Gucci, Louis Vuitton, Saint Laurent, and Givenchy,
have initiated moves toward adopting narratives that reflect a broader spectrum of inclusivity
(Aagerup, 2022; Gavrikova, 2022; Mears, 2010; Thompson Summers, 2017). This emerging
trend toward greater inclusivity is, in part, a response to extensive public critique and advocacy
for diversity by feminist and body liberation groups targeting eminent brands like Victoria’s
Secret, Tommy Hilfiger, and Michael Kors (Doyle & Moore, 2023; Gavrikova, 2022; Prestini et
al., 2023; Riddhi, 2016). This evolving discourse in the modeling industry illuminates the
imperative for a multifaceted approach to diversity, advocating for the representation of models

5
across a wider range of sizes, ethnic backgrounds, and ages to foster a more inclusive and
representative fashion narrative (Gavrikova, 2022; Griffin et al., 2022; Mitchell et al., 2023).
Statement of the Problem
This section examines the pervasive issues of underrepresentation and bias in the fashion
and modeling industries, focusing on the impact these practices have on women of color (WOC)
and plus-sized women (Evans, 2011; Fixsen et al., 2023; Jakatdar et al., 2006; Jameca & Neville,
2000). It explores how the lack of diverse representation and stringent beauty standards affect
self-perception, body image, and inclusivity (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2006; Heine, 2010;
Holland & Tiggeman, 2016; Jarman et al., 2021). It highlights the need for systemic change to
promote greater acceptance and representation of all body types and identities (Heine & Ruby,
2010).
Fashion
The underrepresentation of WOC in the fashion industry communicates a message of
exclusion, diminished importance, and, in this specific context, a perceived lack of beauty
(Bergsieker et al., 2012; Covert & Dixon, 2008; Mitchell et al., 2023). The industry’s portrayal
of an ideal clothing size further divides women into plus-sized and non-plus-sized categories,
reinforcing societal and industry-enforced beauty standards (Bryant, 2013; Czerniawski, 2022;
Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019). These standards significantly affect women’s self-perception,
impacting their self-efficacy, collective identity, and body image, driven by underlying implicit
biases (Bishop et al., 2018; “Drexel University Study,” 2015; Maphis et al., 2013; Mitchell et al.,
2023). As a result, plus-sized WOC often feel alienated and marginalized within a fashion and
media landscape that fails to reflect their identities in marketing materials, such as
advertisements and magazine covers, leaving them devoid of relatable representations in both

6
clothing brands and mainstream media (Castellanos Silva & Steins, 2023; Maphis et al., 2013;
Ogden et al., 2020; Thompson Summers, 2017).
These realities significantly influence how WOC perceive acceptance of their body
image, shaping their understanding and acceptance of body diversity (de Vignemont, 2010;
Jameca & Neville, 2000; Makkar & Strube, 1995). The pervasive lack of representation
reinforces narrow beauty standards and diminishes the visibility of diverse body types,
perpetuating a cycle of exclusion and undermining the confidence of plus-sized WOC (Han &
Rudd, 2015; Walker, 2007). This study explored the ramifications of these industry practices on
body image acceptance among WOC to identify strategies through which the fashion industry
can foster a greater acceptance of body diversity. By examining the intersections of race, body
size, and societal expectations, this research contributes to a broader understanding of the
structural barriers to body diversity acceptance and advocates for systemic change in the fashion
industry to promote inclusivity and representation for all women, regardless of size, race, or age.
Modeling
In the modeling industry, the persistent gap in representation and contract opportunities
for plus-size models is indicative of broader issues of bias that extend beyond body size to
include age, health and skin conditions, and ethnic diversity (Han & Rudd, 2015; Jamal &
Mohammed, 2023). Traditional modeling agencies often exhibit a preference for younger,
non-plus-size models, sidelining plus-size and older models, those with diverse health and skin
conditions, and those from a variety of ethnic backgrounds (Jamal & Mohammed, 2023; Salam
& KS, 2023; Sastre, 2014). This narrow selection criteria exacerbates the sector’s retention
challenges and reflects a systemic reluctance to embrace true inclusivity (Aagerup, 2022;
Czerniawski, 2012; Ravary et al., 2019). Despite some progress toward inclusivity, the industry

7
continues to impose stringent physical standards on plus-size models, demanding features such
as a flat abdomen or slim waist alongside larger busts and hips fitting a dress size of 12–14
without genuinely representing the spectrum of body diversity (Bishop et al., 2018; Christel &
Dunn, 2017; Lewis, 2019). These practices fail to reflect American women’s average clothing
size, which ranges from 16 to 18, and overlook the need for representation across age groups,
health and skin conditions, and ethnic backgrounds, thereby perpetuating unrealistic and narrow
standards of beauty (Cohen, 2008; Cohen et al., 2019; “Drexel University Study,” 2015; Peters,
2022; Thompson Summers, 2017).
The impact of these industry biases extends to WOC, impacting their body image
consciousness and confidence (Andersen & Swami, 2021; Badoud & Tsakiris, 2017; Grogan,
2021; Neagu, 2015). The prevalent beauty ideals, which rarely encompass the diversity of body
sizes, ages, health conditions, or ethnic representations, contribute to a sense of invisibility and
inadequacy among WOC (Betz et al., 2019; Christoffersen, 2022; Gavrikova, 2022; Rowe,
2023). This exclusion from the beauty and modeling industry undermines the body image
confidence of WOC and of individuals who do not see their characteristics reflected in
mainstream media (Caldwell et al., 1997; Doyle & Moore, 2023; Vikhrenko, 2017). By
continuing to uphold a limited view of beauty, the modeling industry fails to acknowledge and
celebrate the rich diversity of the human experience, reinforcing a culture of exclusion (Estrina,
2021; Lewis, 2019). Therefore, addressing the intersectionality of challenges faced by plus-size
models, older models, those with diverse health and skin conditions, and models of varying
ethnic backgrounds will foster a truly inclusive modeling industry that champions a wider array
of beauty standards and encourages self-acceptance and confidence among all individuals
(Black, 2022; Doyle & Moore, 2023; Pompa, 2021).

8
Purpose and Research Questions
This phenomenological study examined body diversity in the fashion and modeling
sectors, guided by an intersectional framework that considers the multifaceted experiences of
being a woman and a woman of color within the broader contexts of society and the fashion
modeling industry. Through the exploration of narratives from WOC in the United States, this
research endeavored to illuminate the prolonged effects of body underrepresentation and
underscore the necessity for immediate action. Specifically, it investigated the influence of
fashion model selection, sizing policies, and marketing tactics on the self-efficacy and body
image perceptions of these women. Employing intersectionality as a lens, the study examined
intersecting layers of identity and discrimination that shape experiences of exclusion and
representation. The purpose of this inquiry was not to critique the fashion and modeling industry
per se but to critically examine its imperfections through a phenomenological and qualitative
approach. By doing so, the results led to actionable recommendations to enhance body diversity,
bolster brand inclusivity, and stimulate positive economic progress. This research addressed
three research questions:
1. How do WOC perceive the acceptance of body diversity in the fashion and modeling
industries?
2. What are the significant challenges WOC face regarding the acceptance of body
diversity in the fashion and modeling industries?
3. What steps can be taken to promote greater acceptance of diversity for WOC in the
fashion and modeling industries?

9
Significance of the Study
Upon the completion of this research, I developed a 10-step model comprising five
recommendations each for the fashion and modeling industries to enhance their promotion of
body diversity acceptance. The study underscored the importance of embracing body diversity in
these industries as a key strategy for dismantling body discrimination and implicit biases against
WOC. This study’s outcomes enrich the academic discourse on themes of acceptance, body
positivity, inclusivity, and diversity within the realms of fashion and modeling. This research
underscores the detrimental impact of fashion brands overlooking the needs of WOC and
plus-size women, which perpetuates disparities and counters the efforts of body liberation
movements (Ravary et al., 2019). The investigation established a notable correlation between
women, body politics, and the intersectionality of body size, race, and societal perceptions,
emphasizing the persistent negative ramifications for WOC (Glyde, 2016; Lewis, 2019). It was
recognized that industry leaders must be cognizant of the influence of cultural narratives in
shaping societal attitudes and beliefs. The findings suggest that both the explicit and implicit
messages that fashion industry leaders convey significantly shape societal perceptions and
perpetuate stigmatizing beliefs (Peters, 2022; Ravary et al., 2019).
Through a qualitative exploration of the necessity for body diversity in the fashion and
modeling industry, particularly through a phenomenological lens, this study sought to understand
the varied experiences and viewpoints of WOC. To this end, I conducted eight interviews with
WOC, aligning with Morse’s (1994) recommendation that phenomenological studies should
involve at least six participants to ensure a depth of understanding (Guest et al., 2006; Morse,
1994, 1995). Work by Creswell (1998) supports this approach, suggesting a range of five to 25
interviews for phenomenological research, underscoring the importance of a focused yet flexible

10
sample size to capture the essence of the participants’ lived experiences (Creswell, 1998; Guest
et al., 2006). Kuzel (1992) further emphasized the role of sample heterogeneity and the research
objectives in determining the appropriate number of interviews (Guest et al., 2006; Kuzel, 1992).
Kuzel suggested six to eight interviews for a homogeneous sample and expanded this
recommendation to 12 to 20 data sources for studies aiming to explore a broader range of
perspectives or seeking to achieve maximum variation (Creswell, 1998; Guest et al., 2006). This
study’s methodological choice reflects careful consideration of these guidelines, aiming to
capture the perspectives of WOC regarding body diversity in the fashion and modeling industry.
Furthermore, this scholarly piece sought to illuminate how the study’s findings aid in
understanding the broader implications of diminished body image perception and acceptance on
mental health, self-efficacy, and self-confidence. By highlighting the intricate relationship
between societal beauty standards and individual self-perception, this research emphasizes the
need for a more inclusive and accepting fashion industry. The adverse mental health outcomes
associated with negative body image, including decreased self-esteem and confidence,
underscore the urgency of addressing these issues (Makkar & Strube, 1995; Robinson-Moore,
2008). The study argues for a reevaluation of the norms and practices in the fashion and
modeling sectors to foster an environment where all individuals, regardless of body size, race, or
age, can experience positive body image acceptance and bolstered self-efficacy and confidence.
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
The first assumption of the study was that the depiction of body types in fashion
magazines and broader media influences consumer perceptions and self-esteem, which may not
have held the same significance for all participants. Moreover, the assumption that analyzing
fashion magazine covers can fully represent broader industry standards or consumer expectations

11
could have missed subtleties and details present in other media forms. To address this, I
employed triangulation as a research methodology, integrating data from demographic surveys
and semi-structured interviews to gain a more comprehensive perspective and enhance the
credibility of the findings. The second assumption was that the participants’ attitudes and
perceptions remained constant throughout the study, not accounting for possible changes in
personal perspectives over time. Recognizing that consumer attitudes can fluctuate and that
participants might not have provided honest responses, I did not offer financial incentives. This
decision aimed to attract participants who were genuinely interested in the subject matter,
potentially leading to more candid and valuable contributions from a group of true enthusiasts in
the fashion and modeling industries. The study also presumed that participants were willing and
capable of accurately and honestly articulating their experiences and opinions during interviews
and surveys.
In this study, three primary limitations were identified. The first concerns the sample size
and the participants’ diversity. While the study included 32 participants, which is generally
adequate for qualitative research, this number still presents limitations in terms of broad
generalizability (Anney, 2014). Specifically, the diversity among the group of WOC
participants—such as differences in age, body type, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic
status—restrict the extent to which the findings can be applied to the wider population of WOC.
I intentionally did not delve into traditional demographic variables such as those mentioned
above. I narrowed the criteria to include only those aged 18 and older who identify as WOC and
who are consumers, enthusiasts, or professionals in the fashion or modeling industries. I took this
approach because I aimed to amalgamate the participants’ experiences into a unified narrative

12
rather than distinguish responses based on age or other demographic factors, focusing instead on
capturing a collective voice among the participants.
The second limitation concerns the selection of sources for document analysis. I
examined fashion covers from two major U.S. fashion publications, which, despite their
prominence in the industry, may not fully represent the broader spectrum of the fashion world.
This selection omits smaller or independent magazines and digital platforms that could exhibit
different trends or attitudes toward body diversity, potentially skewing the portrayal of industry
standards.
The third limitation relates to time constraints. The recruitment of participants was
anticipated to be lengthy as there was no monetary compensation offered, which could have
deterred prompt participation. Consequently, data collection methods like interviews and
surveys, inherently time-consuming due to the need for conducting thorough interviews and
allowing for open-ended responses, were further extended. This necessity for extended time both
complicates the logistics of gathering data and allows participants ample time to articulate their
thoughts. Moreover, the task of analyzing 5 years’ worth of fashion covers from two major
publications demanded considerable time for data collection, coding, and detailed analysis. I
aimed to further complicate this analysis by converting qualitative data into quantifiable metrics,
such as percentages, to enrich the findings. This approach added another layer of complexity and
time demand to the study.
For this dissertation, I identified two key delimitations. The first arose from the study’s
intentional focus on the perspectives of WOC. This specific focus, while central to the study’s
aims, limited its scope to one demographic group, thereby excluding other marginalized groups
in the fashion industry, such as men, non-binary individuals, and those with disabilities, who may

13
also face significant challenges related to representation and inclusion. The second delimitation
concerns the age criterion for participant recruitment, which was restricted to individuals aged 18
years and older. This age limitation may exclude younger individuals who are both consumers of
fashion and influenced by it, potentially possessing distinctive and insightful perspectives on
body diversity that could enrich the study.
Definitions of Terms
Acceptance denotes the fashion and modeling industries’ embrace of body diversity,
including its promotion, representation, and inclusion.
Body diversity, closely associated with body positivity, emphasizes the notion that no
singular ideal body type exists, advocating for the acceptance of all bodies regardless of shape,
size, genetic composition, and physical appearance (Basson & Weinbach, 2023; Castellanos
Silva & Steins, 2023). Body diversity was examined to underscore the significance of diverse
representation across media, fashion, corporate, and other industry sectors (Ogden et al., 2020).
Body image is an individual’s perception of their body type and satisfaction with their
body and appearance (Alleva et al., 2021; Cash et al., 2004; Halliwell, 2015; Kling et al., 2019;
Maphis et al., 2013). This study classified body image on a spectrum ranging from positive to
negative or high to low, with the factors influencing these perceptions largely stemming from
external influences such as lived experiences, media representations, and societal stigmas (Cash
& Grasso, 2005; Cash et al., 2004; Giovannelli et al., 2008; Grabe et al., 2008; Melnyk et al.,
2004).
Confidence, as addressed in this dissertation, pertains to the degree of assurance
individuals feel about their bodies, particularly concerning fashion and self-presentation (Cash et
al., 2004; Fardouly et al., 2018; Frederick et al., 2022). For further exploration of body diversity,

14
particularly in terms of confidence linked to fashion and self-presentation, the MBSRQ-AO is a
reliable survey instrument. Specifically, Chapter Five outlines a methodology for assessing
women’s confidence levels through a series of questions developed within the MBSRQ-AO
framework, highlighting its potential benefits for ongoing research in this area.
Consciousness, in the context of this investigation, is defined as an individual’s
cognizance and sensitivity toward their own physical appearance, encompassing both public and
private realms (Cash, 1985). The psychometric tool for this study, the Multidimensional
Body-Self Relationships Questionnaire—Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-AS), has been identified
as a potentially superior instrument for measuring women’s body consciousness and related
behaviors. This suggests its advantageous application in future research endeavors on this topic
(Cash et al., 2004; Melnyk et al., 2004).
Document analysis refers to the inferential presentation of qualitative data to uncover
“hidden textual discourses relating to education and social equity … as part of a larger notion of
‘discourse analysis,’ critical analysis of texts, images, and speech acts…through coding and
identification of themes and the frequencies of words and phrases” (O’Connor, 2019, p. 1). In
other words, it is the uncovering of narratives embedded within texts, images, and verbal
communications that pertain to education and or social equality. It is also understood as
discourse analysis, a framework that critically examines various sources of communication
(Morgan, 2022; Willig, 2003).
Intersections are identified in the study as the complex intersections of gender, race, age,
body size, societal stigmas, and body image.
People of color are people who are not of Caucasian or European race.

15
Plus-size: In this research, plus-sized WOC were identified as the primary demographic
to elucidate the requirements for body diversity. Representing realistic body types requires
including plus-sized WOC, thereby contributing to the advancement of body positivity and
inclusivity (Bishop et al., 2018; Mitchell et al., 2023; Murray, 2020). The term “plus-size” is
utilized in the fashion industry to denote individuals who wear clothing sizes 12 and above,
encompassing descriptions such as curvy, curvaceous, full-figured, or voluptuous (Christel &
Dunn, 2017; Czerniawski, 2012; Peters, 2022).
Women of color: This demographic is the core focus of this research, with each research
question meticulously designed to explore their experiences of body diversity, challenges faced,
and confidence and awareness regarding body image. This demographic encompasses women
from ethnic backgrounds, including African American, Latina, Native American, Asian
American, Middle Eastern, Pacific Islander, and all other non-European or Caucasian descents
(Luna, 2016; Matos et al., 2021; Mitchell et al., 2023).
Organization of the Dissertation
This phenomenological qualitative study is structured into five chapters. The initial
chapter sets the stage for the investigation, outlining the practice problem and its significance.
The second chapter presents a comprehensive literature review, examining the historical context
of the fashion and modeling industries, the role of women and WOC in these sectors, and issues
surrounding body image. Chapter Three delves into the research methodology employed in the
study. Following this, Chapter Four discusses the primary findings, employing thematic and
document analysis for data triangulation. The study culminates in Chapter Five, which engages
in a substantive discussion about the implications of the research findings, the study’s
limitations, and suggestions for future research.

16

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
This literature review dissects the imperative for increased body diversity in the fashion
and modeling industries. Initiating with a historical narrative of these sectors, it seeks to map out
the developments and intrinsic challenges that have historically influenced their trajectory. The
discourse will then shift focus to the integral roles occupied by women within these realms,
spotlighting the representation of WOC and examining how entrenched beauty ideals exert
influence over body image. Employing this analytical lens, the review endeavors to unravel the
relationship between the industry’s culture, the WOC’s experiences, and the overarching
perceptions of body image among women.
Through an examination of the challenges WOC encounter, this exploration provides a
comprehensive understanding of the broad issue at hand, culminating in a discussion on the
importance of fostering body image perceptions and acceptance. By integrating a thorough
analysis of the systemic issues prevalent in the fashion and modeling industries, this review
highlights the necessity of embracing and advocating for body diversity as a step toward
rectifying the long-standing disparities WOC face in these fields.
Search Description
To source scholarly articles pertinent to this research, I utilized various search platforms,
including USC libraries and Google Scholar. Keywords employed in the search encompassed
topics relevant to the study’s focus areas: “body diversity and women of color,” “fat shaming and
discrimination against women of color,” “body image perceptions and body confidence,”
“intersectionality and WOC,” “body positivity in fashion and modeling industry discrimination,”
“the history of women in fashion and modeling,” “body inclusivity in fashion,” “plus-size
women in fashion,” and “media and social media’s impact on body image and body positivity.” I

18
carefully selected these search terms to gather comprehensive literature that addresses the
multifaceted dimensions of body diversity, discrimination, and inclusivity in the fashion and
modeling industries, as well as the broader societal implications on body image and positivity.
Framework
Intersectionality serves as a critical analytical framework, elucidating the layers of
oppression that intersect to shape societal stigmas and barriers beyond what could be understood
by considering each dimension in isolation (Bruning et al., 2015, p. 2; Carbado, 2013; Heine &
Ruby, 2010; Jarman et al., 2021; Jefferson & Stake, 2009). Crenshaw’s (2019) intersectionality
theory, in particular, offers a potent and relevant theoretical lens for examining the issues in this
study. Utilizing the intersectionality framework to investigate the dynamics of body diversity in
the fashion and modeling sectors allows for a nuanced analysis of the confluence of race, body
size, and societal norms (Aguilar, 2015; Laham, 2020; Phoenix & Pattynama, 2006). This theory
facilitates an in-depth exploration of discrimination against plus-size WOC, their
underrepresentation in influential arenas, and the persistent recurrence of these issues over
decades in the fashion and modeling industries (Jamal & Mohammed, 2023; Jeffersson & Stake,
2009; Joo & Wu, 2021; Robinson-Moore, 2008).
Samuels and Ross-Sheriff (2008) explained that intersectionality necessitates the
consideration of gender not as an isolated analytical category but in conjunction with the
influences of race, migration status, historical context, and social class on an individual’s
experiences as a woman (Crenshaw, 2019; Samuels & Ross-Sheriff, 2008). This framework
extends to acknowledge that for numerous WOC, their feminist endeavors intrinsically interlink
with their resistance to racism, classism, and other barriers to equitable opportunities and social
justice (Cho et al., 2013; Samuels & Ross-Sheriff, 2008). Intersectionality’s conceptual

19
foundation transcends mere multicultural exploration or critical scrutiny; it is rooted in
individuals’ lived experiences and realities (Carbado et al., 2013; Phoenix & Pattynama, 2006).
It underscores the interplay of race, gender, age, societal norms, industry beauty standards, and
body size, weaving these strands into a cohesive social narrative that reflects the nature of
personal and collective identities (Ferree, 2018; Phoenix & Pattynama, 2006). This literature
review delves into these overlapping intersections, examining how they collectively influence
and shape the lived experiences of individuals within the contexts of society and the beauty
standards perpetuated by the industry.
The interrelation of race, gender, and body size significantly influences women’s
self-perception, self-efficacy, and self-worth (Griffin et al., 2022; Grogen, 2021; Walker, 2014).
As Crenshaw (2010) articulated, these dimensions are not standalone but are interconnected
(Carbado et al., 2013; Crenshaw, 2010). Women of color, in particular, have faced long-standing
marginalization, evidenced by their historical exclusion and discrimination in media and fashion
representations (Crenshaw, 2019; Phoenix & Pattynama, 2006; Walker, 2014). Employing
intersectionality theory alongside a phenomenological research methodology enables an
objective and detailed examination of the data, free from anecdotal bias (Cho et al., 2013; Davis,
2014). This approach aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the lived experiences
and challenges WOC face in the fashion and modeling industries, highlighting the societal
standards and expectations that contribute to their marginalization.
The literature on the need for body diversity in the fashion and modeling industries
developed the conceptual framework for this phenomenological study. The research focused on
understanding the experiences WOC as consumers, fashion enthusiasts, and fashion and
modeling industry professionals, as well as their views on body image, beauty standards of today

20
portrayed through representation, and the influence of media and popular culture. Additionally,
qualitative research highlighted that the majority of WOC do not feel the fashion and modeling
industry represents or celebrates body diversity among women of color (95.2%), as those with
Eurocentric beauty features are most represented and celebrated.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework of Body Diversity for Women of Color

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Literature Review
This literature review examines the multifaceted dynamics of the fashion industry, the
modeling agency, the representation of women, and the experiences of women of color within
fashion and modeling. It explores how these elements intersect with issues of body image and
beauty standards, shedding light on the industry's historical and contemporary practices. Through
a comprehensive analysis of existing research, this review aims to understand better the
challenges and opportunities for fostering greater inclusivity and diversity in fashion and
modeling.
The Industry: Fashion
The foundation of the American fashion industry can be traced back to the national
emergence and independence following the colonial era, when European fashion significantly
influenced the evolving American society (Entwistle, 2023; Entwistle, 2002; Jones, 2011;
Staples & Shaw, 2013) However, as the colonies expanded, rich integration of cultural exchanges
through trade and immigration began to shape and transform clothing and beauty standards in the
United States (Entwistle, 2023; Jones, 2011; Nwigwe & Morgan, 2013; Staples & Shaw, 2013).
The 18th and 19th centuries marked periods of substantial innovation and progress in the U.S.
textile industry, highlighted by the development of synthetic and faux silk fabrics, which became
particularly valuable during the 1930s and the Great Depression era as they met the economic
and social needs of the time (Jones, 2011; Laham, 2020; Matelski, 2011). During the Industrial
Revolution, inventions like the cotton gin and the spinning jenny significantly boosted
production capabilities (Godley, 1997; Hackett & Rall, 2018; Staples & Shaw, 2013).
The emergence of new technologies and the expansion of industrialization facilitated the
mass production and distribution of clothing, democratizing fashion that was once the exclusive

22
domain of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie, making it inaccessible to the working class (Godley,
1997; Jones, 2011; Matelski, 2011). The advent of ready-to-wear apparel in the 19th century
marked a pivotal transition, significantly enhancing the accessibility and affordability of clothing
for the general population (Hackett & Rall, 2018; Koblenzer, 2011; Matelski, 2011; Peters,
2019). This evolution in clothing production and distribution underscores the dynamic nature of
the fashion industry as it adapted to and reflected broader societal changes and advancements
(Diamond & Diamond, 2013; Lehman, 2013; Lusted, 2014; Nock Ambrose, 2023).
As the 20th century neared its conclusion, the American fashion industry transformed
during the Roaring Twenties, characterized by an unprecedented freedom of expression and a
redefined sense of femininity (Juan Rubio & García Conesa, 2012; Lusted, 2014; Mortlock,
2018). This period, known as the Jazz Age or the era of the Great Gatsby, witnessed a significant
upsurge in nightlife and sophisticated social gatherings among the middle and upper classes
(Lehman, 2013; Lusted, 2014; Mortlock, 2018). The youth of this era, adopting a blend of
cynicism and romanticism toward life, along with an openness to new ideas, catalyzed a rise in
consumerism and the creation of leisure spaces, including dance halls, nightclubs, and movie
theaters (Lehman, 2013; Mortlock, 2018). A notable driver of this liberation was the
empowerment of women following the ratification of the 19th Amendment, granting them the
right to vote and concurrently liberating women’s fashion (Juan Rubio & García Conesa, 2012;
Lusted, 2014). Fashion transitioned from the constrained silhouettes of the early 1910s to the
liberating flapper dresses of the 1920s, marked by shorter hemlines and more form-fitting shapes
(Diamond & Diamond, 2013; Entwistle, 2023; Lehman, 2013; Stearns, 2002). However, this era
of cultural flourishing and sartorial rebellion abruptly ended with the onset of the Great

23
Depression from 1929 to the late 1930s, leading to widespread economic turmoil (Lusted, 2014;
Mason, 2011; Mortlock, 2018).
The Depression forced many Americans into unemployment and poverty, limiting their
ability to afford luxury clothing and shifting the focus from extravagance to practicality due to
economic constraints (Juan Rubio & García Conesa, 2012; Mason, 2011). The fashion industry
experienced declining consumer spending, with many resorting to hand-me-downs or repairing
garments at home to extend their usability (Diamond & Diamond, 2013; Jones, 2011; Lusted,
2014; Mason, 2011). The necessity to economize led to a greater reliance on thrift items and
affordable materials, as high-end brands were beyond the reach of most families (Adlington,
2019; Lusted, 2014). Despite these financial challenges, the entertainment industry flourished,
offering escapism through the glamour and fashion of Hollywood stars (Fischer, 2022; Jones,
2011; Mason, 2011). This influence of cinema on fashion trends encouraged women to emulate
the styles of film and television stars through mass-produced, accessible versions of their outfits,
demonstrating the enduring relationship between media representations and fashion trends
(Lehman, 2013; Matelski, 2011; Mortlock, 2018).
Following World War II, the quest for financial recovery persisted for numerous families,
compelling a significant portion of women to engage in what was traditionally considered men’s
work (Adlington, 2019; Diamond & Diamond, 2013). Factory employment emerged as the
predominant occupation for many women during this period (Mason, 2011; Mortlock, 2018).
Surprisingly, a lack of protective gear, now recognized as personal protective equipment (PPE),
was a common shortfall in many manufacturing settings, posing risks to these workers
(Adlington, 2019; Fischer, 2022; Mason, 2011). Concurrent with these societal shifts, women’s
fashion transformed toward more functional materials like denim and utility clothing, tailored to

24
meet the working woman’s needs (Adlington, 2019; Diamond & Diamond, 2013; Entwistle,
2023; Fischer, 2022). This era saw the mass production of garments such as headscarves,
overalls, and trousers, serving as the rudimentary forms of PPE for women in the workforce
(Adlington, 2019; Entwistle, 2023; Fischer, 2022).
Conversely, the fashion scene among domestic or stay-at-home women experienced a
transformative phase, heavily influenced by legendary designers such as Christian Dior, who
unveiled the “New Look” in the late 1940s (Juan Rubio & García Conesa, 2012; Mason, 2011;
Matelski, 2011, p. 63). This era was characterized by a broadening of women’s fashion,
mirroring the dual identities of women as contributors to the workforce and as homemakers,
thereby necessitating attire that suited both professional and domestic environments (Godley,
1997; Juan Rubio & García Conesa, 2012; Mason, 2011). Key figures in 20th-century fashion,
including Christian Dior, Yves Saint Laurent, Coco Chanel, Calvin Klein, and Ralph Lauren,
redefined the fashion narrative through innovative designs that aligned with women’s evolving
societal roles (Diamond & Diamond, 2013; Laham, 2020; Lehman, 2013; Mason, 2011; Nock
Ambrose, 2023).
Advancing to the 21st century, the surge in digital technology and digitalization markedly
shaped the fashion landscape (Park, 2017; Resnick, 2002). This contemporary era, propelled by
the advent of digital technology, revolutionized communication, allowing for the rapid exchange
of ideas and information through phones, the internet, and social media (Brown, 2001; Resnick,
2002). Such shifts in communication, information accessibility, and media consumption
influenced the fashion sector significantly, compelling brands to modify their advertising
strategies and global distribution approaches (Ahmad et al., 2015; Chu & Seock, 2020; Park,
2017). The rise of the internet altered consumer purchasing behaviors, making e-commerce the

25
predominant shopping method, thus moving away from traditional shopping venues to online
platforms, including brand websites and social media (Ahmad et al., 2015; Hackett & Rall, 2018;
Park, 2017). This transition led to the closure and downsizing of numerous brick-and-mortar
stores across the United States as they strive to adapt to the digital marketplace (Adaji et al.,
2020; Anjum et al., 2020; Baubonienė & Gulevičiūtė, 2015; Ferreira & Paiva, 2017).
Concurrent with the ascent of social media and the shift from slow to fast fashion
merchandising, there has been a noticeable trend toward consumer preferences for ephemeral
fashion trends promoted by influencers and celebrities (Ahmad et al., 2015; Chu & Seock, 2020;
Crofton & Dopico, 2007; Joshi et al., 2023). This phenomenon has led to fashion brands’
diminished focus on fabric quality, as the rapid cycle of fashion trends demands immediate
responsiveness rather than lasting quality (Ahmad et al., 2015; Crofton & Dopico, 2007; Karim,
2019; Park, 2017). Consequently, the fashion industry faces challenges in maintaining quality,
often resorting to the production of lower-quality materials and implementing price increases to
manage the constraints of limited distribution and remain economically viable (Bick et al., 2018;
Lambert, 2014; Crofton & Dopico, 2007).
The proliferation of web applications and social media platforms has significantly
empowered consumers, heightening the focus on diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) initiatives
in the fashion sector (Joshi et al., 2023; Park, 2017; Zhou et al., 2021). This consumer-driven
demand has exerted pressure on the industry to minimize its environmental footprint by adopting
sustainable practices such as recycling and limiting the use of animal-derived materials (Dwivedi
et al., 2015; Joshi et al., 2023). Social media influencers have been important in advocating for
anti-cruelty measures, diversity, and ethical practices by sharing their insights and personal

26
experiences online, thus influencing broader industry standards (Christoffersen, 2022; Estrina,
2021; Gavrikova, 2022; Zhou et al., 2021).
Recent marketing campaigns in the fashion industry have targeted younger populations
who are at the forefront of the digital revolution. This strategic focus reflects the industry’s
adaptation to the evolving consumer landscape, marked by the digital savviness of younger
consumers (Anjum et al., 2020; Laham, 2020; Zhou et al., 2021). Among the most impactful
brands of the current century, Zara, Louis Vuitton, Nike, and Patagonia stand out for their
influence and responsiveness to the shifting dynamics of fashion consumption, sustainability, and
technological integration (Crofton & Dopico, 2007; Estrina, 2021; Gavrikova, 2022; Ghemawat
et al., 2003; Laham, 2020; Reinhardt et al., 2010).
Social media platforms have significantly democratized the fashion industry, enabling
young consumers to prioritize investments in brands committed to corporate social responsibility
(CSR) that reciprocally contribute to societal welfare (Chan et al., 2020; Diamond & Diamond,
2013; Thorisdottir & Johannsdottir, 2020). Consumers from Generations X and Z are at the
forefront of advocating for gender fluidity, ethnic diversity, and body positivity, striving for a
fashion and beauty industry that mirrors the full spectrum of human diversity (Beyer, 2023; Chan
et al., 2020; Cohen et al., 2021; Sastre, 2014; Thorisdottir & Johannsdottir, 2020). Historically,
fashion brands have dictated future trends and adeptly mirrored and influenced societal shifts
(Diamond & Diamond, 2013; Entwistle, 2023). The dynamic nature of the fashion industry
underscores its capacity for continual evolution and adaptation (Diamond & Diamond, 2013;
Lambert, 2014).
Fashion brands wield considerable societal influence, bearing a social obligation to
address pressing issues such as ethical manufacturing practices, inclusivity, diversity, and the

27
promotion of social impact through heightened awareness (Doyle & Moore, 2023; Kosinski et
al., 2018; Pompa, 2021). As the industry progresses, adhering to its foundational principles while
embracing adaptability in response to changing times remains critical (Crofton & Dopico, 2007;
Godley, 1997). The evolving consumer preferences underscore the imperative for brands to
remain responsive to their audience’s needs. Failure to adapt could lead contemporary consumers
to allocate their resources toward brands that demonstrate a willingness to listen and respond to
their demands (Baubonienė & Gulevičiūtė, 2015; Estrina, 2021; Joshi et al., 2023; Kosinski et
al., 2018).
Modeling
The inception of the first modeling agency in New York City can be attributed to John
Robert Powers, who established the John Robert Powers Agency, also known as the Powers
Agency, in 1923 (Encyclopædia Britannica, n.d.; Goodman, 1977). Known as Powers Girls,
Powers’s models attained celebrity in New York society, and many transitioned into film careers,
including notable figures such as Henry Fonda, Fredric March, Lucille Ball, and Ava Gardner
(Ball, 1997; Encyclopædia Britannica, n.d.; Morrison, 2010; Server, 2007; Tranberg, 2013).
Initially, fashion brands utilized storefront mannequins to showcase their garments and
accessories before the advent of professional fashion models (Evans, 2011; Matelski, 2011;
Peters, 2019). The rise of professional modeling toward the end of the 19th century marked a
significant shift, offering consumers a more relatable visual representation of how clothing fits
various body types (Evans, 2011; Fixsen et al., 2023; Yuksel, 2012).
With the burgeoning advertising industry, there was a heightened demand for professional
fashion models as brands began to expand their advertising efforts through newspapers,
billboards, and television (Scheuerman, 2015). Modeling evolved into a recognized profession

28
with the emergence of agencies like the Powers Agency and The Ford Modeling Agency,
founded by Eileen and Jerry Ford in the late 1940s (Evans, 2011; Mears, 2010; Stark, 2018).
These agencies, rooted in New York City, established industry standards for modeling as a
profession (Mears, 2010; Wissinger, 2004; Wissinger, 2015).
As the consumer goods market flourished, there was an increasing need for trained
models, leading to a viable career path for many individuals who were contracted through these
agencies (Evans, 2011; Mears, 2010; Wissinger, 2004). The agencies managed bookings and jobs
for the models, retaining a commission fee and tuition, thereby professionalizing the career
(Mears, 2008, 2010; Tertocha, 1999). The modeling industry significantly influenced societal
beauty standards, initially promoting an ideal archetype of the American woman as slender, tall,
and proportionate with distinctive curves (Calogero et al., 2007; Forbes et al., 2007; Lamkin,
2015).
Modeling agencies scout and recruit new talent by organizing various casting calls to
identify individuals who embody the ideal aesthetic standards set by the industry (Fixsen et al.,
2023; Mears, 2010; Wissinger, 2015). This process underscores the relationship between
modeling agencies and the broader societal norms concerning beauty and representation
(Christoffersen, 2022; Craig, 2002; Mitchell et al., 2023).
In the latter part of the 20th century, the term “supermodels” emerged significantly in the
fashion industry (Dion & Tachet, 2020; Wissinger, 2015). These individuals transcended their
roles as leading figures in their domain to become iconic trendsetters (Forbes et al., 2007; Stark,
2018; Wissinger, 2015). The era defined by supermodels, including Twiggy, Naomi Campbell,
Cindy Crawford, and Christy Turlington, set new precedents in fashion and culture (Mears,
2010; Reaves et al., 2004; Padula, 2016; Wissinger, 2015). These women became influential

29
household names, shaping fashion trends both on the runway and in everyday life, thus acting as
the influencers of their era (Wissinger, 2015).
The rise of supermodels underscored the fashion industry’s influence on societal beauty
standards, establishing a narrowly defined ideal that aspiring models and the general populace
sought to emulate (Laham, 2020; Salam & KS, 2023). As gatekeepers of beauty norms, modeling
agencies wielded considerable power in dictating acceptable standards of beauty, selecting
models who embodied these ideals, and training them to achieve a perceived notion of perfection
(Mears, 2008, 2010; Powers, 2007). Under the terms of strict contracts, models were often
subjected to rigorous dietary regimes, intensive exercise routines, and extensive training to
represent their agencies flawlessly (Entwistle, 2023; Fixsen et al., 2023).
Traditionally, supermodels conformed to a dress size ranging from a U.S. size 0 to 4, a
standard considerably smaller than the average size of women in the late 20th century (Estrina,
2021; Hackett & Rall, 2018). Despite societal changes, the dress size of modern supermodels has
not significantly diverged from this historical norm (Estrina, 2021; Laham, 2020). Currently, the
average dress size for women in the United States stands at a U.S. size 14 to 16, highlighting a
stark discrepancy between the fashion industry’s standards and the physical reality of the
majority of women (Baines-Love, 1982; Hackett & Rall, 2018; Stearns, 2002; Worman, 2021).
This divergence underscores the intersectionality of women and size in society, revealing
how gender, body size, and societal expectations intersect to shape individuals’ experiences and
self-perception (Grogan, 2021; Han & Rudd, 2015; Laham, 2020). In response to this
discrepancy and the broader societal implications, there has been a growing movement toward
promoting more realistic body images in the media and the fashion industry (Bowman, 2020;
Fixsen et al., 2023; Griffin et al., 2022; Compton, 2021; Oinonen, 2021). This shift aims to

30
challenge and expand the narrow definitions of beauty that have historically dominated the
fashion landscape, advocating for a more inclusive approach that reflects the diversity of
women’s bodies (Guimaraes, 2022).
The dawn of social media and the escalation of digital technologies in the 21st century
have catalyzed a noteworthy transformation in the modeling industry. This shift, moving from
established norms toward more inclusive standards, has altered model selection processes and
recruitment strategies (Estrina, 2021; Gavrikova, 2022; Pompa, 2021). Public outcry, amplified
through social media campaigns, has spotlighted the inadequate representation in fashion
branding, magazine covers, and billboards, signaling a growing discontent with beauty
paradigms (Etrina, 2021; Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019). For years, societal ideals have
gravitated toward thinness, unblemished and fair skin, long hair, and perpetual
youthfulness—attributes predominantly propagated by the fashion industry as the epitome of
beauty (Fixsen et al., 2023; Jamal & Mohammed, 2023; Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019;
Stearns, 2002).
This societal challenge prompts modeling agencies to reflect a broader spectrum of
diversity and advocate for body positivity. Historically, the industry has promoted superficial and
unattainable beauty standards, inadvertently contributing to diminished self-esteem and
confidence among individuals whose body types deviate from those glamorized in fashion media
(Ahmad et al., 2015; Guimaraes, 2022; Jamal & Mohammed, 2023; Lazuka et al., 2020;
Matelski, 2011; Robinson-Moore, 20085). It is imperative for the fashion industry to champion
diverse representations, embracing a spectrum of body shapes, ethnicities, and ages, thus
honoring the multifaceted nature of human beauty (Rocamora & Smelik, 2016).

31
Despite efforts to normalize the natural aesthetic of everyday bodies, embodying true
body diversity remains challenging for the fashion sector (Czerniawski, 2022; Doyle & Moore,
2023; Robinson-Moore, 2008). This ongoing struggle underscores the need for the industry to
reassess and broaden its approach to inclusivity and acceptance, acknowledging the
intersectionality of women’s experiences related to body size and societal expectations shaped by
media influence (Hall, 1995; Sekayi, 2003; Vikhrenko, 2017). This examination sought to shed
new light on the necessity for the fashion industry to reimagine its standards, fostering a more
accepting and diverse representation of beauty.
Women
Women are continually subjected to unattainable ideals of beauty through various media
channels, including social media platforms, digitally altered advertising on television, and
airbrushed models in glossy magazines (Han & Rudd, 2015; Lamkin, 2015). This exposure
propagates a distorted perception of beauty, significantly impacting women’s self-efficacy,
self-esteem, self-worth, and body confidence (Laham, 2020; Matelski, 2011; Peters, 2019;
Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019). The pressure to adhere to the beauty standards set by the
fashion and modeling industries is both unreasonable and exaggerated (Laham, 2020; Liebelt,
2019; Stearns, 2002). Despite beauty manifesting in diverse forms and sizes, the industry has
been critiqued for its inadequate efforts in conveying this inclusivity, raising questions about the
intentional maintenance of these narrow beauty standards (Estrina, 2021; Jamal & Mohammed,
2023; Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019).
The existence of a singular beauty ideal favoring a specific body type disregards the
natural diversity in women’s builds, skin tones, ethnicities, and genetic makeup (Doyle & Moore,
2023; Randle, 2015; Rowe, 2023). This homogenized beauty standard primarily serves the

32
interests of the beauty and fashion sectors, which thrive by exploiting women’s insecurities
(Cwynar-Horta, 2016; Walker, 2007). The omnipresence of images deemed to depict perfection
prompts women to scrutinize their appearance, amplifying feelings of inadequacy and prompting
a detrimental self-image.(Duan, 2017; Matelski, 2011; Stearns, 2002; Vikhrenko, 2017). The
beauty industry, profiting from these insecurities, has grown into a multi-billion dollar enterprise,
capitalizing on the pursuit of unachievable beauty ideals (Han & Rudd, 2015; Jones, 2011;
Walker, 2007).
Societal constructs of femininity and beauty are ingrained in women from a young age,
influencing their self-perception throughout their lives (Laham, 2020; Matelski, 2011). This
indoctrination is evident in the toys provided to young girls, the narrative content of animated
fairytales, and the literature targeted at them, which predominantly feature characters with
idealized bodies and often lighter skin tones, reinforcing a narrow and exclusive concept of
beauty (Estrina, 2021; Fixsen et al., 2023; Koblenzer, 2011; Robinson-Moore, 2008). This early
exposure underscores the pervasive influence of societal beauty standards, emphasizing the need
for a broader representation of beauty that celebrates diversity and fosters positive self-efficacy
(Estrina, 2021; Hackett & Rall, 2018; Pompa, 2021)
The plastic surgery sector has experienced exponential growth, generating substantial
revenue annually from women driven by societal norms and the pervasive sentiment of
inadequacy (Laham, 2020; Liebelt, 2019; Matelski, 2011). In the 21st century, the beauty
industry, encompassing cosmetics, weight management, and skincare products, has seen a
significant boom, propelled by the pressures exerted by digitally altered images and influencer
culture on social media platforms (Cwynar-Horta, 2016; Czerniawski, 2022; Matelski, 2011;
Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019). This industry thrives by exploiting women’s insecurities, a

33
strategy that aligns with the fashion and modeling industries’ promotion of an idealized female
form characterized by slender waists, pronounced curves, and immaculate skin (Ahmad et al.,
2015; Jamal & Mohammed, 2023; Jones, 2011; Laham, 2020; Walker, 2007).
However, the implications of internalizing society’s narrow definitions of femininity
extend beyond mere consumerism, profoundly impacting women’s perceptions of their bodies
(Bryant, 2013; Jameca & Neville, 2000; Makkar & Strube, 1995). This emphasis on physical
appearance can inflict psychological damage, fostering harmful behaviors (Hall, 1995; Irving,
1990; Turner et al., 1997). Women who lack the financial means to pursue cosmetic
enhancements or invest in high-end beauty products often bear the brunt of these pressures,
leading to adverse outcomes, including eating disorders and diminished self-esteem
(López-Guimerà et al., 2010; O’Neill, 2003; Turner et al., 1997; Walker, 2014).
This scenario underscores the intersectionality of being a woman in today’s society,
where the intersections of unrealistic standards impose a heavy toll on everyday women. The
convergence of gender, societal expectations, and economic disparities highlights the challenges
women face in navigating a culture that perpetually underscores physical perfection (Andersen et
al., 2022; Jameca & Neville, 2000; Patton, 1999). As such, there is a pressing need for a more
inclusive and diverse representation of beauty that acknowledges and celebrates the vast
spectrum of female experiences and appearances, thereby mitigating the detrimental impacts of
prevailing beauty standards.
Women in Fashion
In the fashion industry, women encounter numerous obstacles when championing body
diversity and promoting body positivity (Diamond & Diamond, 2013; Mears, 2008; Mitchell et
al., 2023). The compulsion to adhere to unattainable beauty standards is particularly pronounced

34
for those in this sector (Pompa, 2021). Their professional engagements and opportunities, along
with their financial earnings and reputation, are often contingent upon their compliance with the
industry’s unwritten criteria (Anderson et al., 2022; Fixsen et al., 2023; Reaves et al., 2004).
Advocating for change or deviating from these entrenched standards can lead to significant
professional and social repercussions, as doing so challenges the prevailing norms of equality
and inclusivity (Griffin et al., 2022; Sastre, 2014).
Nonetheless, over time, several figures in the fashion domain have bravely advocated for
body inclusivity, garnering support from various organizations aligned with body positivity
alongside allies in the industry itself (Estrina, 2021; Prestini et al., 2023). Supermodel Ashley
Graham has emerged as a prominent advocate for the body positivity movement, sharing her
personal challenges related to weight and body image and underscoring the necessity for
diversity in body representation (Cwynar-Horta, 2016; Guimaraes, 2022; Hackett & Rall, 2018).
Graham’s journey, transitioning from embodying the industry’s traditional size standards to
representing curvy, full-figured women, has significantly influenced the discourse, encouraging
others who felt marginalized to voice their experiences (Czerniawski, 2022; Hackett & Rall,
2018; Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019).
Likewise, Liris Crosse, known as the Naomi Campbell of plus, challenged industry
norms to ensure the representation of plus-size bodies in fashion and media (Sylvan, 2021).
Leveraging her visibility, Crosse became an advocate for recognizing and celebrating all body
types, thereby contributing to a more inclusive industry culture (Sylvan, 2021). Another
transformative figure, Winnie Harlow, defied conventional beauty norms by embracing her skin
condition, vitiligo (Faramawy, 2024). Harlow’s success in the fashion industry breaks barriers for
women and serves as an empowering example of embracing one’s unique beauty (Faramawy,

35
2024). Her influence extends beyond the catwalk, inspiring women globally to appreciate their
natural selves (Faramawy, 2024). These individuals exemplify the potential impact of advocating
for diversity and inclusion in the fashion industry (Cohen, 2021; Cwynar-Horta, 2016; Oinonen,
2021). Their efforts highlight the ongoing struggle against rigid beauty standards and the
importance of fostering an environment that celebrates a wide spectrum of female beauty
(Christoffersen, 2022; Jamal & Mohammed, 2023).
The advocacy of pioneering women and body positivity proponents has initiated a
paradigm shift in the fashion and retail industry toward embracing inclusive sizing, thereby
acknowledging the diverse body shapes of plus-size, full-figured, and curvaceous women
(Estrina, 2021; Fixsen et al., 2023; Laham, 2020; Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019). Historically,
fashion retailers predominantly catered to individuals wearing U.S. size 12 and below, but there
has been a gradual shift, with stores now extending their collections to include sizes 18 and
above (Baines-Love, 1982; Hackett & Rall, 2018; Jamal & Mohammed, 2023; Worman, 2021).
Previously, women with curvier physiques were relegated to specialty retailers that offered
plus-size apparel ranging from U.S. size 12 to 28, such as Lane Bryant, Ashley Stewart, and
Catherine’s (Baines-Love, 1982; Worman, 2021). However, the options available in these
establishments often lagged in style, failing to mirror the contemporary trends accessible to those
within the 00 to 12 size range (Baines-Love, 1982; Estrina, 2021; Peters, 2019; Worman, 2021).
Women considered plus-sized and who sought apparel in more mainstream retail settings
frequently encountered a limited selection of clothing (Baines-Love, 1982). In many major
stores, representations of full-figured women were notably absent, with plus-size garments often
relegated to less visible sections of the store and seldom featured in window displays or
promotional visuals (Worman, 2021). This lack of representation extended to the absence of

36
full-figured mannequins, which have begun to appear in stores only in recent years, symbolizing
a more inclusive approach to fashion retailing (Baines-Love, 1982; Estrina, 2021). The collective
voice of women in the industry has been instrumental in challenging long-standing beauty norms
and advocating for a more inclusive recognition of beauty across sizes (Christoffersen, 2022;
Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019). This shift toward inclusivity reflects a significant, albeit
incremental, progress in dismantling the monolithic standards of beauty that have long
dominated the fashion landscape.
However, the intersectionality of being a woman of color and navigating the fashion and
modeling industry introduces additional layers of complexity. Women of color face compounded
challenges stemming from both racial and size-based discrimination, highlighting the need for
continued advocacy and systemic change in the industry (Jamal & Mohammed, 2023; Matelski,
2011). Despite the strides toward inclusivity, efforts to fully embrace diversity in
fashion—encompassing race, body size, and beyond—remain ongoing, underscoring the
importance of sustained efforts to foster a fashion industry that celebrates the multifaceted nature
of beauty (Christoffersen, 2022; Liebelt, 2019; Worman, 2021).
Women in Modeling
For decades, women in the modeling industry have been pressured to maintain the
preferred physical aesthetic through rigorous exercise, highly restrictive diets, and enduring
severe criticism to remain the “it” face of brands (Mears, 2008, 2010; Salam & KS, 2023;
Scheuerman, 2015; Wissinger, 2015). This environment has led many to exit the industry, unable
to sustain a fulfilling lifestyle under the constraints imposed upon their eating habits and
experiencing significant damage to their self-esteem due to the scrutiny aimed at achieving an
industry-defined notion of perfection (Salam & KS, 2022; Wissinger, 2015). The modeling

37
industry harbors a darker aspect, prompting a revolt and advocacy from fashion models against
the anxiety and undue stress associated with striving to meet these unattainable beauty standards
(Salam & KS, 2023).
The advocacy for body diversity transcends mere fashion trends, gaining traction as it
addresses deeper issues prevalent among women in the modeling sector, such as diminished
self-esteem and negative body image perceptions (Scheuerman, 2015; Worman, 2021). Women
in modeling occupy a unique position of social responsibility, leveraging their visibility to
challenge and redefine societal beauty norms (Wissinger, 2004; Worman, 2021). Their efforts
aim to dismantle barriers for future generations, serving as catalysts for change by sharing their
personal experiences and insights from within the industry (Entwistle, 2023; Jefferson & Stake,
2009; Jones, 2011; Lusted, 2014; Padula, 2016).
The struggle with body image is a widespread concern among many women, and those in
the modeling world are poised to highlight the complexities of this issue through their firsthand
experiences (Grogan, 2021; Jameca & Neville, 2000; Patton, 1999; Turner et al., 1997; Tylka &
Wood-Barcalow, 2015). The industry often measures a model’s value based on physical
proportions, distinctiveness, and skin flawlessness (Fixsen et al., 2023; Han & Rudd, 2015;
Reaves et al., 2004; Turner et al., 1997). Despite the outward appearance of having idealized
bodies and impeccable skin, many models internally battle self-worth due to their experience in
their pursuit of success in the industry (Czerniawski, 2022; Fixsen et al., 2023; Irving, 1992;
Mears, 2008; Wissinger, 2015). This juxtaposition of external beauty against internal turmoil
underscores the need for a significant shift toward inclusivity and the celebration of diverse body
types, challenging the narrow and unrealistic standards that have long dominated the fashion and

38
modeling industries (Franchina & Lo Coco, 2018; Lazuka et al., 2020; Makkar & Strube, 1995;
Salam & KS, 2023).
Women in the modeling industry wield significant influence, underscoring the importance
of representation in redefining societal norms around desirability and beauty (Argo & Dahl,
2018; Bryant, 2013; Cwynar-Horta, 2016; Makkar & Strube, 1995). Figures such as Tess
Holliday and Candice Huffine have been instrumental in propelling the movement toward body
positivity, signaling a transformative era in the modeling sector (Cwynar-Horta, 2016;
Czerniawski, 2022; Gibson, 2023; Lewis, 2019). Leveraging social media and technological
advancements, these advocates facilitate ongoing discussions on body diversity, extending the
conversation beyond the confines of the fashion and modeling industry to influence broader
societal perceptions (Anderson et al., 2022; Franchina & Lo Coco, 2018; Lazuka et al., 2020;
Patton, 2006; Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019). Through persistent representation and advocacy,
these women challenge entrenched industry norms and inspire individuals to recognize and
celebrate the diversity of beauty (Jamal & Mohammed, 2023; Lazuka et al., 2020).
A prevailing challenge in the modeling industry is the scarcity of opportunities for
women with more robust, full-figured physiques (Czerniawski, 2022; Joo & Wu, 2021; Worman,
2021). The industry often imposes a specific aesthetic on plus-size models, emphasizing a flat
stomach, pronounced curves, and a larger bust, thereby marginalizing full-figured women who
do not conform to this hourglass silhouette (Cwynar-Horta, 2016; Dion & Teacher, 2020;
Limatius, 2018; Worman, 2021). In the infrequent instances where fashion magazines or
advertisements feature plus-sized models, they typically adhere to this idealized image, reflecting
a highly selective approach to representation (Dion & Teacher, 2020; Pounders & Mabry-Flynn,
2019). This practice restricts the entry of aspiring models into the industry and perpetuates

39
unrealistic beauty standards through the extensive use of airbrushing and photo editing to
achieve an illusion of perfection on magazine covers (Macias, 2022; Pompa, 2021; Pounders &
Mabry-Flynn, 2019; Worman, 2021).
The modeling industry, characterized by its rigid, superficial nature, profits from
promoting unattainable beauty ideals, leaving many women feeling alienated and unable to see
themselves reflected in mainstream fashion narratives (Laham, 2020; Walker, 2007). This reality
has galvanized models to advocate for change, challenging the industry to adopt more inclusive
and realistic standards of beauty (Anderson et al., 2022; Cwynar-Horta, 2016; Guimaraes, 2022;
Hackett & Rall, 2018). By addressing the intersectionality of being a woman and a model,
particularly the experiences of WOC and those with diverse body types, the push for inclusivity
seeks to dismantle the monolithic beauty standards that have long dominated the fashion world,
paving the way for a more accepting and diverse representation of beauty (Aguilar, 2015).
Women of Color in Fashion and Modeling
The visibility of WOC in mainstream fashion only began to emerge notably in the
mid-20th century, marking a significant shift in an industry long dominated by Eurocentric
beauty standards (Evans, 2011; Hackett & Rall, 2018; Mitchell et al., 2023). Sara Lou Harris
Carter emerged as one of the pioneering figures, navigating uncharted territories to carve out a
space for African American women and other WOC in the fashion industry (Haidarali, 2012).
Her appearance on the cover of JET magazine on December 2, 1954, represented a
groundbreaking moment for representation (Craig, 2002; Haidarali, 2012; Wilkes County Hall of
Fame, n.d.). This trail was further blazed in 1966 when Peggy Ann Freeman, widely known as
Donyale Luna, became the first African American woman to grace the cover of British Vogue,
setting a precedent for WOC in the industry (Vikhrenko, 2017).

40
Naomi Sims, heralded as the first Black supermodel, joined Luna as a trailblazer in the
late 1960s, challenging the prevailing industry norms and opening doors for future generations of
WOC in modeling (Hall, 1995; Matelski, 2011; O’Neill, 2003; Vikhrenko, 2017). Initially, the
presence of WOC in the U.S. fashion and modeling industry was minimal, reflecting the broader
societal adherence to predominantly European beauty ideals (Craig, 2002; Matelski, 2011;
Walker, 2014). It was during the Civil Rights Movement that various sectors, including fashion
and modeling, came under increasing societal pressure to embrace diversity and inclusivity,
leading to a gradual but impactful increase in the representation of people of color (POC)
(Crenshaw, 2019; Fischer, 2022; Jones, 2011; May, 2012; Walker, 2007; Walker, 2014).
This historical overview highlights the intersectionality of being a woman of color in the
fashion and modeling industry. The pioneering efforts of women like Carter, Luna, and Sims
challenged racial barriers and contributed to redefining beauty standards, underscoring the
complexities of race, gender, and professional identity in shaping the trajectory of the fashion
industry toward greater inclusivity (Haidarali, 2012; Matelski, 2011; Vikhrenko, 2017).
While the mid-20th century marked the inception of increased opportunities for WOC in
the U.S. fashion industry, their journey was far from straightforward (Doyle & Moore, 2023;
Padula, 2016). Despite the pioneering achievements of models such as Donyale Luna and Naomi
Sims, these trailblazers encountered significant racial discrimination in the industry (Aagerup,
2018; Craig, 2002; Lewis, 2019; Wissinger, 2015; Vikhrenko, 2017). Initially, many WOC were
precluded from participating in runway shows and major advertising campaigns, contributing to
a professional environment marked by isolation and heightened challenges in achieving
recognition and respect on par with their counterparts (Doyle & Moore, 2023; Padula, 2016;
Wissinger, 2015).

41
The underrepresentation of WOC in media persisted for decades, even following
directives from the Federal Communications Commission mandating broadcast and media
corporations to implement Equal employment opportunity programs aimed at fostering equitable
advancement opportunities for WOC and other POC (Craig, 2002; Crenshaw, 2010; Crenshaw,
2019; Juan Rubio & García Conesa, 2012; Padula, 2016; Rowe, 2023). This systemic bias and
the consequent barriers to opportunity have been evident in the fashion and modeling sectors as
well, underscoring the pervasive challenges WOC face in these fields (Mitchell et al., 2023;
Vikhrenko, 2017).
As doors slowly began to open for WOC in the United States, opportunities for
international recognition and success also emerged, heralding a new era for models of color
globally (Scheuerman, 2015). Grace Jones, hailing from Jamaica and discovered in the 1970s,
emerged as a fashion icon who defied conventional norms with her distinctive androgynous
style, challenging the industry to accept her uniqueness (Jermyn et al., 2015). Somali American
supermodel Iman Mohamed Abdulmajid represented another pivotal figure in transforming the
industry landscape, paving the way for subsequent generations of models of color to achieve
prominence on a global scale (Lewis, 2019; Padula et al., 2016; Wissinger, 2015). Alongside
Luna, Jones, Iman, and Pat Cleveland, these early models of color broke through racial barriers
on an international level, laying the groundwork for future opportunities for POC and WOC in
the industry (Gavrikova, 2022; Wissinger, 2015). These pioneering women faced formidable
obstacles, including racism, stereotyping, discrimination, and pay disparities, as they endeavored
to carve out their niches in the fashion and modeling industry (Mears, 2010; Padula, 2016;
Vikhrenko, 2017). Their resilience and determination to overcome these challenges cemented
their legacies and contributed to the gradual dismantling of racial barriers, inspiring a more

42
inclusive and diverse industry for WOC and POC in fashion (Mitchell et al., 2023; Wissinger,
2004; Wissinger, 2015).
The fashion industry’s ongoing struggle to embrace diversity underscores a persistent
deficiency in representing a spectrum of body types, particularly among WOC, despite their
increased visibility in recent years (Craig, 2002; Griffin, 2021; Roth, 2019). This issue reflects a
lack of body diversity and intersects with broader societal and racial dynamics that influence
industry standards (Samuels & Ross-Sheriff, 2008; Walker, 2014). Historical precedents set
during the late 1960s and early 1970s—when models of color, such as Naomi Sims and Iman,
faced industry-wide pressures to conform to narrow body size ideals—highlight the enduring
challenges WOC encounter in navigating an industry that often marginalizes those who deviate
from a slender physique ideal (Padula, 2016; Wissinger, 2015; Vikhrenko, 2017).
Celebrating and representing WOC across all sizes and ethnic backgrounds in modeling
and fashion is important for the sake of inclusivity and in acknowledgment of their significant
role as consumers (Joo & Wu, 202; Laham, 2020; Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019). Studies have
found that WOC are pivotal supporters of both fast fashion and luxury brands, indicating that
their spending power and consumer choices drive significant portions of the industry (Duan,
2017; Fischer, 2022). The visibility of models who reflect the diversity and real-life experiences
of this demographic can catalyze a positive shift in self-perception and body image acceptance
among consumers (Mitchell et al., 2023; Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019). By introducing
models of color with relatable body types and features that diverge from Eurocentric beauty
standards, the fashion industry can alleviate the pressure to adhere to unrealistic ideals,
promoting a healthier and more inclusive notion of beauty (Claxton, 2019; Prestini et al., 2023;
Robinson-Moore, 2008; Sekayi, 20003).

43
Furthermore, the intersectionality of race, society, and the fashion industry plays a
foundational role in shaping perceptions of beauty and worth, both within and beyond the
modeling world (Samuels & Ross-Sheriff, 2008). Women of color in fashion serve as agents of
change, wielding influence and redefining societal standards of beauty through their
representation. Their presence and portrayal in the industry mirror the demographic reality of the
market and challenge and expand the narrative around beauty, advocating for a broader
acceptance of diversity in all its forms. This intersectional approach underscores the need for a
concerted effort to dismantle traditional beauty paradigms, paving the way for an industry that
values and celebrates the full spectrum of human diversity.
Body Image
Body image is a contemporary multidimensional construct swiftly emerging throughout
academia (Cash et al., 2004; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). Body image is subjective to one’s
thoughts and opinions about one’s body (Neagu, 2015). It is not based solely on the physical
aesthetic, as it is a collective of their sexuality, expertise, health, and culture (Cash et al., 2014;
Neagu, 2015). Neagu (2015) asserted that body image could change based on media trends,
societal norms of the time, age, and location (Neagu, 2015). Researchers contend that there is a
significant distinction between positive and negative body image (Song et al., 2016; Tylka &
Wood-Barcalow, 2015). Research has linked positive body image to thoughts of self-esteem,
good social bonds and ties to society, and an optimistic outlook on one’s body image (Cash et al.,
2004; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). Negative body image is summatively directly related to
“a dysfunctional over-valuation of appearance that is inextricably tied to self-worth” (Song et al.,
2016; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015, para. 6). The way one perceives one’s body and body
satisfaction overall are highly influential in feeling the need to alter one’s image, such as by

44
losing weight, undergoing surgery, or changing appearance completely (Cash et al., 1986; Cash
& Grasso, 2005; Thomas & James, 1988). Body satisfaction has a heavy impact on self-efficacy
and emotional state (Cash et al., 2004). A person’s discontent with their appearance lowers their
motivation significantly, which increases anxiety and stress and might lead to depression
(Denniston et al., 1992; Mintz & Betz, 1986; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015).
Interestingly, there has been little research on the experiences of body image among
WOC, as society has subtly made body image dissatisfaction an issue prevalent among White
women, overlooking the core issues that take place among people of other ethnicities (Bordo,
2009; Jameca & Neville, 2000). For several years, research has deemed that studies centered
around body image focusing on topics such as eating disorders, mental health, and body
dissatisfaction have excluded the voices and stories of WOC, historically characterizing these
issues as primarily impacting White girls and women (Mastria, 2002; Smolak & Striegel-Moore,
2001). Decades of research inform that negative or low perception of body image satisfaction
with one’s body is one of the leading ways that people develop eating disorders such as body
dysmorphia (Denniston et al., 1992; Garfinkle et al., 1992; Hall, 1995; Jameca & Neville, 2000;
Striegel-Moore & Huydic, 1993).
Through decades of research, Cash (2005) has been influential in understanding the
multidimensional constructs of body image competence through measurements of appearance
evaluation, fitness evaluation, health, and overweight preoccupation. The researcher’s highly
validated assessment tool, the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ),
is a 69-item assessment for participants to self-report their attitudes and psychological
perspectives of self-body image (Cash, 2000). Cash also developed a short-item scale for the
MBSRQ-AS, a 34-item made up of several appearance scales for evaluation of both teens and

45
adults (Cash, 2000; Nevill et al., 2015). Body image is important, and various researchers have
sought to evaluate the impact of body image on various populations (Nevill et al., 2015).
Body image stereotypes wield a significant level of influence on one’s self-perception,
the idea of how one believes one should look, such as in the ideal body shape, appearance, and
what one ultimately deems as attractive or not (Mann, 2020). These stereotypes can be
categorized differently across cultures and even throughout history. When people feel that they
are not at the level of beauty or body image satisfaction, they are more susceptible to low
self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, and other disorders (Cash et al., 2004; Jameca & Neville, 2000;
Man, 2020; Mastria, 2002). In the empirical investigation conducted by Jameca and Neville
(2000) on the perspectives of African American female college students regarding body image,
self-consciousness, and satisfaction with skin color, attractiveness was characterized by features
such as shapeliness, how clothing fits, the presence of hips, and femininity (Jameca & Neville,
2000). The notion of looking good was fundamental to their understanding of attractiveness, yet
socioeconomic status influenced perceptions of body image among these women (Jameca &
Neville, 2000; Mann, 2020). For both White and Black women of higher socioeconomic
standing, societal portrayals of beauty and health acted as pressures toward maintaining a slender
figure (Jameca & Neville, 2000; Mann, 2020). However, there are limited studies that report no
significant differences in body image satisfaction between Black and White women (Jameca &
Neville, 2000; Mann, 2020).

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Chapter Three: Methodology
Women of color (WOC) have historically been sidelined in various societal sectors,
enduring centuries of marginalization. The fashion and modeling industries, in particular, exhibit
a gradual shift in beauty standards, yet considerable efforts are necessary to achieve true body
diversity and equitable representation across all body types. Beauty standards are pervasively
upheld by society, media, and the aforementioned industries, which collectively shape public
perceptions and beliefs about beauty. Recognized as benchmarks of beauty, the fashion and
modeling sectors are critical in leading this transformation. To explore how these industries
might better foster body diversity, I conducted a qualitative phenomenological study. This
chapter outlines the research design, data collection methodologies, and the analytical rationale
employed in this investigative approach.
Research Design
Adopting a qualitative research framework informed by phenomenology, this
investigation was further enriched by gathering data through demographic surveys, conducting
semi-structured interviews one-on-one, and performing document analysis (Casey, 2000). These
methods enabled a robust triangulation process, offering a thorough examination of the data to
identify underlying correlational phenomena (O’Connor, 2019; Casey, 2000). This approach
significantly bolstered the study’s reliability and validity, paving the way for future research by
providing a foundation for repeatability and further exploration of the topic by other scholars
(Creswell & Miller, 2000; O’Connor, 2019). Employing narrative research alongside
phenomenological approaches provides a deeper insight into diverse ethnographic experiences,
enriching the researcher’s understanding (Casey, 2000).

47
To enrich the study and enhance its methodological triangulation, I conducted a thematic
investigation through the document analysis of a substantial dataset spanning 5 years
(2019-2023) from two prominent U.S. fashion magazines (O’Conner, 2019). This strategy aimed
to deepen data saturation and unearth the industry’s latent realities. Qualitative document
analysis was employed as a strategic tool to sift through and examine a vast volume of historical
data, complementing insights gleaned from one-on-one interviews. This approach aided in
uncovering and coding underlying themes, thereby facilitating a comprehensive understanding of
the demand for body diversity in the fashion and modeling sectors, drawing from direct instances
observed in industry practices. Further, I then quantified the data extracted from the magazine
covers into numerical data and percentages and formulated them into data charts to support
qualitative findings and to draw parallels between the participants’ experiences and perceptions
toward body diversity. This methodological framework underscores the importance of
integrating diverse data sources to construct a nuanced view of the subject matter. Through a
detailed exploration of participants’ collective experiences, this research delved into the societal,
historical, and cultural underpinnings that shape perceptions of body diversity (Creswell &
Miller, 2000). It capitalized on direct narratives from individuals actively engaged with the
subject matter, facilitating a deep dive into the complexities surrounding body diversity
perceptions.
In the realm of social sciences, exploratory research delves into the nuances of human
perceptions, especially in demographic studies (Stebbins, 2001). Such research is key to
unveiling insights and discerning patterns in human behavior and societal dynamics (Heine,
2010; Jain, 2021; Kim & Chock, 2015; Latané, 1981). Methods like interviews and document
analysis yield an understanding of the participants’ viewpoints and experiences. Furthermore,

48
interviews are instrumental in broadening the comprehension of phenomena, including the
underlying motives, opinions, interests, and emotions of the participants, thereby establishing
interviews as a critical research instrument (Jain, 2021).
This study shed light on the core issues contributing to the lack or insufficient advocacy
of body diversity in the fashion and modeling sectors. The methodological approach included an
analysis of magazine covers over the previous 5 years from leading U.S. fashion magazines,
which allowed for drawing conclusions and identifying themes related to the advocacy for body
diversity (Spalding et al., 2010). Additionally, the collection of quantitative data through surveys
and statistical analyses enabled the evaluation of trends concerning attitudes toward body
diversity in these industries (Altheide, 2000; Ruspini, 2003; Ruspini, 2008). By synthesizing
quantitative findings with qualitative insights, the research aimed to formulate solid
recommendations for policies that promote body diversity acceptance, thereby significantly
contributing to the discourse on body positivity, inclusivity, and diversity in the fashion and
modeling domains (Spalding et al., 2010; Love, 2013).
Research Questions
This study sought to examine the nuances of body diversity acceptance, the paramount
obstacles encountered by WOC, and the measures necessary to foster enhanced inclusivity in the
fashion and modeling industries. The investigation’s queries centered on the lived experiences of
WOC, who frequently face discrimination in these sectors. The objective was to capture a
comprehensive perspective on body diversity, incorporating viewpoints from consumers,
enthusiasts, and professionals in the fashion and modeling domains to gauge the evolving
standards of beauty. This study’s researcher focused on three research questions:

49
1. How do WOC perceive the acceptance of body diversity in the fashion and modeling
industries?
2. What are the significant challenges WOC face regarding the acceptance of body
diversity in the fashion and modeling industries?
3. What steps can be taken to promote greater acceptance of diversity for WOC in the
fashion and modeling industries?
Table 1 depicts the research questions and the sources of the data analyzed to address
them.
Table 1
Data Sources
Research questions Interview Document
analysis
Demographic
survey
How do WOC perceive the acceptance of
body diversity in the fashion and
modeling industries?
X X X
What are the significant challenges WOC
face regarding the acceptance of body
diversity in the fashion and modeling
industries?
X X
What steps can be taken to promote
greater acceptance of diversity for WOC
in the fashion and modeling industries?
X X

50
Setting
I conducted interviews using a hybrid model of both online and in-person methods to
accommodate my and the participants’ preferences and locations. For participants residing within
a close distance in the state of New York, I arranged in-person interviews, either at the
participants’ homes or workplaces, providing a private setting conducive to open discussion. The
majority of interviews, however, were carried out online, leveraging the convenience and
comfort of digital platforms like Zoom. This approach ensured that participants could engage in
the study from their preferred locations, whether at home or work, fostering an environment
where they felt at ease and could share their experiences candidly. The flexibility in conducting
interviews enabled the completion of all eight interviews, underlining the importance of
participant comfort and privacy in facilitating transparent communication. This adaptive strategy
significantly contributed to the depth and quality of the data.
Participants
This study’s participants were self-identified WOC from diverse backgrounds, including
African American, Arabic Muslim, Asian, LatinX, Jamaican, and of non-European descent, who
were at least 18 years old. This research specifically targeted WOC who were consumers,
enthusiasts, or professionals in the fashion and/or modeling industry to explore the acceptance of
body diversity through their perspectives. The decision to include only women aged 18 and older
simplified the ethical considerations and consent processes, as involving participants under 18
would necessitate additional parental or guardian consent for participation in the study. I
contacted potential participants who were active consumers and enthusiasts of the fashion and
modeling industries, particularly those engaged with social media platforms.

51
Sample
I conducted this research with two distinct participant groups: one comprising 32
demographic survey respondents who provided their insights and eight interviewees, sourced
from the survey respondents, who offer deeper narratives. Age-wise, participants were adults. To
overcome the time limitations, I leveraged social media and email communications for efficient
participant recruitment, ensuring a broad and inclusive collection of survey responses and
interview engagements.
This participant pool represents a diverse spectrum of WOC, including African
American, Asian American, Hispanic/Latina, Native American, and Middle Eastern
backgrounds, as well as those of non-Caucasian descent. The sampling criteria for this study
required that participants be WOC aged at least 18 and consumers, enthusiasts, or professionals
in the fashion and modeling industry.
Sampling Method
Purposeful sampling was strategically employed to select participants from the targeted
population. This deliberate choice of women aimed to gather in-depth insights into their
perceptions of body image, the impact of media and popular culture on self-image, and
contemporary beauty standards. Such rich and nuanced information is challenging to obtain
through conventional means (Jain, 2021). This methodical approach to sampling entailed
outreach to various social groups and professional circles, utilizing social media to disseminate
recruitment flyers broadly and enhance the diversity of the sample. Additionally, recruitment
efforts included sending letters to female leaders identified on social media platforms, spanning
sectors such as media, advertising, educational technology, human resources, business
management, renewable energy, fashion, and academia. Interested women contacted me directly

52
to proceed with informed consent and a preliminary demographic survey to ascertain their
eligibility based on the study’s criteria. Before conducting interviews, I asked all potential
participants to complete this survey. I offered no compensation for participation; this deliberate
decision aimed to attract individuals genuinely passionate about fashion and modeling, ensuring
a motivated and engaged sample interested in the research topic.
This research utilized a threefold sampling strategy. Initially, I chose social media
platforms for scouting participants to ensure a broad reach across WOC from diverse
backgrounds and geographic locations. This approach enabled me to engage with a vast audience
with whom to examine body diversity. Social media facilitates an efficient and cost-effective
means of participant recruitment, bypassing the need for extensive travel traditionally associated
with gathering a wide range of perspectives (Madia, 2011). The second strategy involved
recruiting at least 30 participants for a demographic survey to achieve data saturation. This
ensured a comprehensive collection of demographic and exploratory responses, capturing a
multitude of perspectives (Creswell, 1998; Kuzel, 1992).
Incorporating a minimum of 30 participants for survey responses enhances statistical
power and facilitates a more granular analysis of the dataset, potentially unveiling additional
insights (Jain, 2021). The demographic survey’s concluding section asked participants about
their interest in participating in one-on-one interviews. This approach aimed to secure a
sufficient number of participants for in-depth interviews, with the target set at a minimum of 30
survey respondents to ensure a robust pool for interview recruitment (Kuzel, 1992).
For the document analysis component, the methodology entailed examining content from
two leading fashion magazines over 5 years. Fashion magazines are recognized for their
influential role in sculpting and mirroring societal norms related to beauty (Creswell, 1998;

53
Morgan, 2022). A thorough review of these publications supplements the subjective accounts
collected through surveys and interviews, enabling the identification of nuanced, concealed
themes and narratives surrounding body diversity standards over time. This longitudinal
examination provides depth and continuity to the analysis (Creswell, 1998; Langley & Stensaker,
2012; Morgan, 2022).
Recruitment
Following IRB approval from USC, I sent recruitment letters (Appendix A) to potential
participants. These letters detailed the study’s objectives, outlined the selection criteria, and
invited individuals to express their interest by responding to a provided link within 2 weeks.
Respondents received a link to the informed consent form (Appendix B), a demographic survey
(Appendix C), and a request for confirmation of their interest in participating in an interview.
After 2 weeks, I analyzed the demographic survey responses to verify that participants met the
sampling criteria. Subsequently, I chose eight individuals who satisfied the criteria and received
a text, email, or social media ping confirming their continued interest in the study. I sent them a
Zoom link or scheduled a meeting place for the interviews. Both recruitment emails reiterated
the confidentiality agreements stated in the informed consent form, as I did as well before the
start of the interviews. The recruitment strategy included utilizing social media platforms such as
LinkedIn, Instagram, and Facebook to quickly engage a wide audience. Additionally, I deployed
online advertisements across these platforms to attract participants and inform the broader public
about the study, facilitating snowball sampling and potential collaborations for future research.
The procedures section details the subsequent steps following this recruitment phase.

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Data Collection
The data came from three sources: a demographic survey (Appendix C), a
semi-structured interview (Appendix D), and a document analysis (Appendices E and F).
Demographic Survey
I used a demographic survey to scout participants and narrow down the research target
population criteria. “Demographic survey questions are important to describe the population of
survey responders, illuminate potential disparities, and ultimately advance equity” (Ziegenfuss et
al., 2021, p. 1). The demographic survey consisted of five questions. All survey and interview
participants were consumers, enthusiasts, or professionals in the fashion and/or modeling agency.
I used this brief survey (Appendix C) to identify if the respondents met the study criteria.
Semi-structured Interviews
Upon completion of the five demographic survey questions, I scheduled dates and times
to conduct a semi-structured interview (Appendix D), which included specific questions
designed to analyze and address the research questions. The interviews explored the perceptions,
challenges, and necessary steps toward promoting greater diversity and inclusion in the fashion
and modeling industry from the interviewees’ perspectives. Additionally, the protocol adopted a
semi-structured format to facilitate additional dialogue and fully capture the participants’
experiences.
Document Analysis
Document analysis was conducted through the collection of longitudinal data from the
fashion and modeling field to add triangulation to the study. For confidentiality and to protect the
reputation and image of the brands, two leading U.S. fashion publications were referred to under
the pseudonyms Fashion Magazine 1 and Fashion Magazine 2. These magazines were analyzed

55
to detect underlying themes and trends. Based on the magazine covers alone, issues from 2019 to
2023 featuring women on the front cover were coded (Appendices E and F). I obtained Fashion
magazines from the publishers’ direct archives and developed a codebook (Appendices F and G)
to examine body diversity in the fashion and modeling industry. After the data analysis, I
quantified the extrapolated data from the magazine covers into numerical percentages for further
analysis and support to the findings from prior analyses.
I performed document analysis to aid in triangulating the interview and survey data,
serving as a visual support mechanism to contextualize trends in the fashion and modeling
industry. This method, closely associated with content analysis, offers a scientific approach to
coding, structuring, and analyzing relevant themes and ideals in the data (Bowen, 2009; Morgan,
2022). Additionally, document analysis provided a quantifiable description of body diversity
needs and historical context (Morgan, 2022). The data for document analysis included images
from fashion magazines, excerpts from documentaries, interviews, publications featuring fashion
models’ opinions on the industry, and brand marketing campaigns from storefronts and online
platforms.
This study encapsulated the narratives of individuals who identify as WOC and are either
consumers, enthusiasts, or professionals in the fashion and modeling industry. The research
broadly defined its scope to gain an understanding of diverse perspectives regarding body
diversity and body image perceptions. The target population included WOC aged 18 and older.
These women were interviewed and surveyed to understand their experiences. The study was not
limited to the perspectives of WOC who identify as plus-size, fashion models, or those with
industry-specific backgrounds. The goal was to gain a holistic view of body diversity and body
image from WOC.

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Procedures
Following the recruitment steps, I undertook several procedural steps. I distributed links
to the surveys via Qualtrics and scheduled appointments with participants for 30-minute sessions
to discuss the study, the steps involved, and their participation. Subsequently, I conducted
document analysis involving the collection of digital public samples of fashion and model
images and excerpts relevant to the study. Specifically, I coded covers from two fashion
magazines over a 5-year period (2019–2023). This process involved analyzing and coding 5
years’ worth of fashion magazine covers to extract relevant data. The themes and data extracted
from these magazine covers were then quantified into numerical percentages, employing a
detailed codebook developed for this purpose. This quantitative analysis allowed for a structured
and empirical assessment of the themes related to body diversity, thereby augmenting the
qualitative insights gleaned from the interviews. I conducted the semi-structured interviews using
trusted video conferencing platforms, such as Zoom, as well as in-person, depending on
participant availability and geographic location. I purposefully selected interview participants
from those whose survey responses expressed willingness to participate. All subjects who
participated in the study provided informed consent.
Confidentiality Parameters
I outlined confidentiality measures with participants at the beginning of each activity and
during the informed consent process to increase their comfort level. I let participants know that
they were not obligated to answer all questions and could stop their participation at any time. I
coded all information that could identify a participant with pseudonyms to make sure human
subjects knew that their identity was kept confidential. I stored all data in an electronic database
in a dual-secured weblink. I also secured storage software and computer programs with global

57
protection software and password-protected computers. I stored all answers on a secure backup
driver. I will store the data for a year after completing the research and then remove them from
the software and erase them from the computer.
Data Management
I maintained rigorous cybersecurity practices throughout the study by updating antivirus
software, firewalls, and global protection systems and enabling automated updates on MAC and
Windows computers that were solely for my exclusive use. To enhance security, I implemented
dual system authorization every time I accessed the database to retrieve data files and cleared
cookies from computer devices to further safeguard the information. Additionally, I ensured the
confidentiality and security of sensitive data by employing strong passwords, restricting user
permissions, and securing the workstation when unattended.
The data were stored on encrypted, two-factor authentication databases to ensure robust
security. I took measures to classify research data, applying access controls via duo
authentication programs, data encryption through Cortex XDR Advanced Endpoint Protection,
and specifying backup requirements using services like iCloud, Google Drive, and Dropbox. All
data transmissions, including those through networks, web servers, application servers, and
database servers, were encrypted. Confidential and sensitive email communications were also
encrypted using OneDrive and Google Drive. Before conducting the research, I obtained
informed consent from all participants, whom I informed about how their data would be
encrypted and used solely for this study. I collected no information beyond the necessary
sampling data and obtained no personal or identifiable information.

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Dissemination of Findings
After completing data collection and analysis, I strategically disseminated the study’s
findings to serve as a practical resource for fashion brands and modeling agencies. I structured
these insights into a 10-step program designed to enhance body diversity acceptance in the
industry. This program comprises five recommendations specifically tailored for the fashion
modeling sector and an additional five aimed at the broader modeling industry. The overarching
goal of these guidelines is to facilitate a deeper understanding and implementation of body
diversity practices.
The results of this research were intended for publication in academic journals, fashion
publications, and newspapers, contributing to ongoing discussions about transforming beauty
standards and promoting body inclusivity. Additionally, I presented the key findings across
various platforms, including mainstream media, specialized articles in fashion and business
magazines, research conferences, and workshops focusing on diversity and inclusion. These
dissemination efforts were designed to reach a broad audience, spanning industry professionals,
academics, and the general public, thereby maximizing the impact of the research. Furthermore,
in recognition of the study’s ongoing nature and its potential for fostering continuous
improvement in industry practices, all research tools, procedures, and methodologies were made
publicly accessible. This openness is intended to encourage collaboration among researchers who
share a commitment to advancing body diversity and inclusivity. By providing these resources
freely, the study aimed to inspire and support further research in this field, contributing to the
narrative and driving meaningful change in societal beauty perceptions and industry standards.

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Data Analysis
I collected data via a demographic survey, semi-structured interviews, and documents
(Table 2). All data were compiled and double-verified for accuracy and consistency.

60
Table 2
Data Analysis Methodology
Descriptive analysis Thematic analysis Document analysis
Demographic survey X
Semi-structured
interviews
X X
Documents (fashion
magazine covers)
X X X
Descriptive Analysis
After completing the surveys, interviews, and document analysis of fashion magazines, I
coded and categorized all responses to identify recurring themes using basic descriptive
statistics. I calculated key data points to determine percentages and subsequently organized them
into data charts to enhance the accessibility and interpretation of the findings. For instance, I
quantified perceptions, challenges, and recommendations from the participants regarding body
diversity and self-image using basic statistical methods to determine averages, percentages, and
other pertinent information essential to formulating best practice recommendations.
Data from the demographic surveys were captured and organized using Qualtrics (2024)
and transferred to a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (Microsoft Corporation, 2024) for further
analysis. For the interview data, I employed descriptive analysis to pinpoint common themes
facilitated by direct quotations that are relevant to the research questions. This approach enabled
me to identify and delineate gaps that emerged specifically through in-depth interviews on the
topic of body diversity. These gaps provided a more comprehensive understanding of the concept
of body diversity and its implications for making a meaningful impact in the fashion and

61
modeling industry. This thorough analytical process aids in uncovering nuanced insights that
contribute to the discourse on inclusivity and diversity in these sectors.
Thematic Analysis
To enhance the methodological rigor and triangulation of the study, I performed a
thematic analysis on a comprehensive dataset collected over 5 years (2019–2023) from two
leading U.S. fashion magazines (O’Conner, 2019). This approach was designed to increase data
saturation and reveal underlying truths in the fashion industry (O’Conner, 2019). To ensure a
thorough examination, I extensively analyzed all qualitative data to maximize insights from this
research. I systematically coded data based on emergent themes, shedding light on the issues and
challenges related to body diversity, inclusivity, and representation. To maintain reliability, I
consistently applied the coding process across the data and involved multiple coders to extract
nuanced information. I organized identified codes and themes and recorded them to capture the
essence of participants’ feedback.
Document Analysis
I strategically employed qualitative document analysis to meticulously examine a vast
array of historical data, effectively complementing the insights garnered from the interviews.
This methodological approach was instrumental in identifying and elucidating underlying
themes, thus providing a comprehensive understanding of the demand for body diversity in the
fashion and modeling sectors. Direct observations of industry practices further enriched the
research. I quantified data derived from document analysis into numerical percentages to bolster
the qualitative findings and enhance the study’s validity. This quantification supported the
participants’ lived experiences as expressed through semi-structured interviews and demographic

62
surveys. By transforming qualitative observations into quantifiable data, I drew stronger
assertions about the prevalent themes and deepened the analysis.
Morgan (2022) underscored that document analysis is a highly credible and valuable
qualitative research methodology, offering researchers a robust tool for coding and understanding
deeper concepts embedded in various forms of media, such as visual data, research articles,
books, films, and videos. Willig (2003) echoed this endorsement, highlighting the method’s
capacity to delve into the subtleties and complexities of data, revealing insights that might
otherwise remain obscured. By integrating this respected approach, the study adhered to rigorous
academic standards and significantly enriched its analytical depth, providing a more detailed and
substantiated understanding of how contemporary fashion modeling industries conceptualize and
advocate for body diversity.
Reliability
For this qualitative phenomenological study, researcher reliability was employed as a
form of consistency assessment to ensure that if the study were replicated in the future, the
results would be consistent over time (Clonts, 1992; Golafshani, 2003). Reliability was a key
consideration when participants received the demographic survey (Appendix C) and participated
in semi-structured interviews (Appendix D). I acknowledged that, despite a similar demographic
profile among participants, individual experiences might vary due to various factors; therefore, I
triangulated the data to enhance reliability, consistency, and transferability. Additionally, I
conducted document analysis to complement and enrich the qualitative findings. Reliability in a
study ensures that the findings are dependable and can be replicated under similar conditions,
thereby reinforcing the validity of the research conclusions and enhancing the study’s
contribution to academic and practical knowledge.

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Dependability
Dependability in research denotes the consistency and reliability of the study over time,
making it trustworthy for ongoing or further research (Lishner, 2015). To achieve dependability, I
employed reputable survey instruments known for their internal consistency along with
well-established statistical software. The rigorous collection of data from interviews, surveys,
and documents further reinforced dependability.
To ensure that the results faithfully represent the data, I employed the data triangulation
method. This approach helps to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the participants’
experiences by viewing them from multiple perspectives. I systematically categorized all
information by thematic content. Additionally, I conducted a variety of tests to perform a holistic
analysis, aiming to identify persistent patterns and correlations across the different subsets of
data. This process ensured verifying the dependability of the study’s findings.
Confirmability
To mitigate and avoid researcher bias, I neither added nor removed information from the
interview and survey data. I utilized all data to inform the study, assisting in the identification of
recurring themes and informing conclusions through rigorous data coding procedures such as
thematic and document analysis. These measures are designed to prevent bias in the research
findings. I conscientiously reviewed the inquiry instruments and the data items used in the study
to ensure that they were accurately supported by the data, as per the standards set by Lincoln and
Guba (1982). This scrutiny acts as an audit process, reaffirming that no researcher biases have
influenced the study’s findings. This methodological rigor is essential for maintaining the
integrity and dependability of the research.

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Validity
I employed a multifaceted methodological approach to enhance the credibility and depth
of the analysis, adhering to the guidelines suggested by Patton (1999). Patton emphasized
employing strategic research techniques, utilizing triangulation or various methods of data
collection, and maintaining trustworthiness as a researcher to enhance the quality and credibility
of data analysis. He advises researchers to be transparent and intentional about the study’s
purpose from the outset. Following this guidance, this study combined surveys, interviews, and
document analysis to gather rich insights and meaningful data, thereby enhancing its validity.
I incorporated three primary data collection methods To achieve a robust triangulation of
themes related to body diversity, body image, and intersectionality. First, I administered
demographic surveys focused on body image using the Qualtrics (2024) online platform. This
platform enabled the effective collection and quantification of qualitative data, transforming
subjective perceptions into measurable statistics that support broader assertions about the lived
experiences of WOC. Second, I conducted semi-structured interviews using the Zoom video
conferencing platform or in person, depending on participant availability. I transcribed the
interviews verbatim using Turboscript (2024) to ensure the data’s accuracy and integrity in
capturing the participants’ nuanced personal experiences.
Furthermore, I performed document analysis to quantitatively analyze representation in
fashion and modeling media, with findings presented in percentages. This quantitative aspect
corroborated the interviews and survey data, adding a layer of objectivity and enhancing the
assertions drawn from the participants’ lived experiences. In maintaining rigorous standards of
research integrity, I maintained researcher memos throughout the study. These memos ensured
the presentation of direct quotes from interviews and surveys without distortion, facilitating

65
thorough and unbiased data analysis. This comprehensive and methodologically diverse
approach adheres to Patton’s (1999) recommendations and significantly strengthens the study’s
conclusions by providing a clearer, more detailed picture of the complex issues surrounding body
image and diversity as WOC experienced.
Credibility
Lincoln and Guba (1985) defined the credibility of a study as reflecting the truth or
reality of the phenomenon under investigation. In this context, I made concerted efforts to ensure
the findings were accurate and unbiased, particularly given my close relationship with the subject
matter and personal positionality. To this end, I used direct quotes for coding and employed
thematic analysis to derive clear and direct insights from the participants’ own words. To further
enhance credibility, I systematically coded longitudinal data spanning 5 years from magazine
covers for document analysis involving two leading fashion magazines. This approach ensured
that the inferences and conclusions I drew were grounded in verifiable evidence. My goal was
for the data to speak for itself, allowing for findings that were free from researcher bias.
Additionally, I incorporated demographic survey data with a high level of significance into the
study to provide direct statistics from the participants themselves. The use of triangulation was a
rigorous but necessary strategy to analyze this problem of practice through a multidimensional
and honest lens. This meticulous approach ensured that the study’s conclusions were
well-founded and trustworthy.
Transferability
Schofield (1993) suggested that research transferability is facilitated when there is a
wealth of information available about the research phenomenon or topic, which allows for
making substantial claims (Schofield, 1993; Slevin & Sines, 1999). Similarly, Lincoln and Guba

66
(1985) argued that for research findings to be transferable, the data provided must be rich and
thoroughly saturated (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Slevin & Sines, 1999). In qualitative research,
where topics are often unique, the research methodology must be consistently applied and
supported by sufficient evidence, and the methods must be clearly defined with respect to the
timeframe for data collection and the formulation of generalizations (Slevin & Sines, 1999).
This research aimed to contribute to further studies on body diversity, body image, and
the challenges of inclusivity in the fashion and modeling industries, particularly concerning
WOC. I examined this problem of practice through the lens of intersectionality theory to explore
the complex dimensions of being WOC in the United States, who may be plus-sized, and their
interactions with the fashion and modeling sectors. The participants were a diverse group of
WOC from across the United States, encompassing individuals with both direct and indirect
experiences in the marketing and modeling industries.
Regarding the contextual factors of the research, I compiled data from both historical and
contemporary sources to provide a comprehensive basis for making informed recommendations
to the fashion and modeling industries. This approach ensured that the findings were relevant and
applicable across different contexts and eras, enhancing the study’s transferability and impact on
future research and industry practices.

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Chapter Four: Findings
The comprehensive findings from demographic survey data, semi-structured interviews
with eight WOC, and document analysis of 5 years of fashion magazine covers from leading
fashion publications reveal the interplay of gender, race, body size, and societal expectations.
These data collection efforts highlight the participants’ perceptions regarding body diversity
acceptance and uncover the various challenges associated with the acceptance of body diversity,
alongside its detrimental impacts on WOC.
The participants provided insightful and forthright recommendations on how the fashion
and modeling sectors and broader society and media outlets can enhance the acceptance of
diversity. These suggestions encompass strategies for promoting greater inclusivity across
multiple dimensions of society and industry practices, aiming to mitigate the challenges and
enhance the representation and acceptance of diverse body images.
This study was created to inform the multidimensional psychological discourse of
WOC’s view on body image and how their informed perspectives complement the explorations
centered on the need for body diversity in the fashion and modeling industries. For the purposes
of this study, eight WOC were sourced for interviews to understand body image perceptions
today, the influence of advertising, the fashion and modeling industry, media, and popular culture
on a woman’s self-image, and their overall perception of beauty standards. Participants defined
body image, and Table 3 details their definitions.

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Table 3
Interviewees’ Definition of Body Image
Interview participant How do you define body image?
Interviewee 1 “Body image is physical appearance. It’s important to make
every woman feel proud of however their body type is.”
Interviewee 2 “The way that we see ourselves, the way society sees us, and
the way that the media puts out images of us.”
Interviewee 3 “When I think about body image, I just really think about the
diversity of women.”
Interviewee 4 “I would define body image as how you internally view
yourself physically and your appearance, your outward
appearance.”
Interviewee 5 “For me, body image is whatever I’m comfortable with and
whatever I feel healthy with. … I think it’s important to show
respect for everyone’s body image. We’re all different.”
Interviewee 6 “Body image is what you see yourself as but not necessarily
isn’t how others perceive you.”
Interviewee 7 “Body image is something that is given to you from other
people at a young age via TV or movies or your family.”
Interviewee 8 “How you see yourself, how you perceive the way that your
body looks in clothing even without clothing on.”
The qualitative exploration into the experiences of WOC reveals that the participants
view body image as a complex and multifaceted concept, deeply intertwined with both individual
perceptions of physical appearance and the external perceptions shaped by society and media.
Interviews with WOC highlighted that body image encompasses an internal self-assessment
alongside the external influences that shape these perceptions. A recurring theme was the
diversity of women’s bodies and the importance of fostering pride and respect for all body types.
Moreover, participants indicated that external factors such as media portrayals, societal
expectations, and familial influences play significant roles in shaping one’s body image from

69
early developmental years. These insights are critical as they reflect the broader societal and
cultural dynamics at play, which contribute to the formation and evolution of body image among
WOC.
This study’s findings are significantly tied to the critical framework of intersectionality,
which helps elucidate the interwoven layers of race, gender, and class that intersect to create
interdependent systems of discrimination or privilege. Intersectionality, as a theoretical
framework, reveals how these dimensions contribute to experiences of oppression and
discrimination for WOC. This framework is essential in understanding how societal norms,
media representations, and cultural expectations collectively influence the body image of WOC.
For these individuals, body image transcends mere personal perceptions; it evolves into a
construct that is heavily influenced by societal and media narratives. This dual perspective sheds
light on the interplay between race, gender, and societal expectations. Women of color often find
themselves at the intersection of mainstream beauty ideals, which are predominantly Eurocentric
and exclusionary, and their own cultural and familial beauty standards, which are influenced by
these pervasive societal norms.
Through an intersectional lens, it becomes evident that myriad intersecting factors
influence perceptions and experiences of body image among WOC. Addressing these
experiences necessitates a comprehensive consideration of these intersecting identities. This calls
for adopting an intersectional approach to truly understand and address the complexities of body
image among WOC. The exploration emphasizes the need for a broader societal shift toward
inclusivity and recognition of diverse beauty standards, moving beyond the narrow confines of
Eurocentric ideals to embrace and celebrate the rich diversity of all body forms and cultural
expressions in the media and broader societal narratives.

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Research Question 1
The first research question concerned how WOC perceive the acceptance of body
diversity in the fashion and modeling industries. The participants did not feel that there is fair
representation of body diversity nor that the fashion and modeling industries celebrate body
diversity. At the beginning of data collection, there was significance found in the demographic
survey data, specifically with Question 4: Do you feel the fashion and modeling industries
adequately represent and celebrate body diversity among WOC? Out of 32 survey responses, 21
participants answered this question, with the majority responding no (95.2%) and a small
minority responding yes (4.8%). Figure 2 presents the data visualization.
Figure 2
Representation and Celebration of Body Diversity in Fashion and Modeling Industries

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Figure 2 illustrates the responses to Demographic Survey Question 4, which indicates a
perceived lack of adequate representation among WOC. To analyze this question from another
lens, I analyzed interview data and documents to further examine relevant themes and underlying
relevant issues. For a more holistic understanding, I coded and deciphered interview data,
analyzing key trends in the data set. Table 4 identifies the interviewees’ perceptions of
acceptance of body diversity.
Table 4
Interviewees’ Perception of Acceptance of Body Diversity
Interviewee Direct quote
Interviewee 2 “I think they’ve definitely become more inclusive, but I still think there’s a
big opportunity to include plus size.”
Interviewee 4 “It weighs a lot on you, on you psychologically growing up ... it felt
unattainable.”
Interviewee 5 “I just personally don’t feel like it’s genuine. I think they’re doing it for the
business side of it and not for the. ‘Okay, we really do accept you.’”
Interviewee 7 “Yes, 100%. I think that, for example, for the African American culture …
they are not obese they’re just full of love, … in that way.”
Interviewee 1 “I feel like it has rattled the companies more because now they’re seeing ...
we need that change.”
Interviewee 4 “I was a kid who self-harmed all through middle school and high school
because of that feeling of worthlessness.”
Note. This table is organized to allow apparent reference to each participant’s perspective on
WOC’s perceptions of acceptance within the context of body diversity acceptance in the fashion
and modeling industries. Each quote is directly linked to the identified thematic challenge,
providing evidence and insight for academic analysis.

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Evolving Beauty Standards
The participants acknowledged some progress toward inclusivity in the fashion and
modeling industry. One participant remarked, “I think they’ve definitely become more
inclusive,” reflecting a recognition of recent efforts to broaden representation (Table 4).
However, this acknowledgment was consistently tempered by concerns regarding the depth and
authenticity of these inclusivity initiatives. The findings reveal a complex narrative of inclusion
and authenticity, with in-depth interviews providing nuanced insights into the lived experiences
and perceptions of industry practices.
The semi-structured interviews highlighted an evolving trend toward more inclusive
beauty standards, marked by a slow yet noticeable increase in the representation of diverse body
sizes and ethnic backgrounds in mainstream media. Despite these changes, participants
unanimously agreed that substantial progress is still needed. For example, one participant pointed
out, “I think they’ve definitely become more inclusive, but I still think there’s a big opportunity
to include plus-size.” This statement, along with others documented in Table 4, underscores the
interviewees’ views on the current state of diversity acceptance in the industry. These insights
contribute to an ongoing discussion about the real and perceived shifts toward more inclusive
representations in fashion.
Amid the shift toward broader representation, the fashion and modeling industries
continue to face significant challenges in fostering genuine body positivity and self-acceptance
across different media platforms. Notably, the interviewees harbor doubts about the authenticity
of the inclusivity campaigns promoted by fashion brands. For instance, Interviewee 5 expressed
skepticism by stating, “I just personally don’t feel like it’s genuine. I think they’re doing it for
the business side of it and not because they truly accept us.” This critical observation suggests

73
that the industry’s efforts to promote body diversity may be driven more by profit motives than
by a real commitment to change.
Operating within a commercial context that prioritizes revenue, these industries must pay
close attention to consumer perceptions. Consumers today are increasingly discerning regarding
inauthentic marketing efforts, signaling to the industry that failure to genuinely engage with
diversity and inclusivity could result in diminished trust and loyalty. This insight necessitates a
reevaluation of the marketing strategies employed by these industries, underscoring the need for
authenticity in their promotional activities to sustain consumer trust and support.
Furthermore, many participants expressed that while there has been some progress, there
remains a substantial need for improvement, especially in genuinely incorporating plus-size
individuals. Interviewee 2 highlighted this sentiment by observing, “I still think there’s a big
opportunity to include plus size,” indicating a significant gap in fully embracing body diversity
beyond traditional industry norms. Additionally, the underlying motivations for the industry’s
drive toward inclusivity were frequently questioned by participants, layering their perceptions
with skepticism. This doubt underscores a critical perspective in the phenomenological
exploration of how WOC perceive and interpret the actions of the fashion and modeling
industries regarding inclusivity and body diversity.
Consumer Influence & Industry Response
In the realm of fashion and modeling, a pivotal discovery from this phenomenological
study is that the advocacy for body diversity is largely propelled by fashion enthusiasts,
consumers, and industry insiders who are disillusioned with the lack of diversity. As these
consumers increasingly demand representation, certain sectors of the industry have started to
heed these calls by diversifying their models and brand campaigns. Interviewee 1 encapsulated

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this evolving response: “I feel like it has rattled the companies more because now they’re seeing
… we need that change.” Reflecting on the discussions in Chapter Two, it is evident that fashion
brands typically adjust their strategies based on societal demands, thus mirroring their
consumers’ evolving needs.
Women of color, significant stakeholders in the fashion industry, have been particularly
vocal about the need for better representation. Given their considerable influence and
consumption, their demands for fair and accurate representation are both overdue and justified.
WOC participants have pointed out the substantial impact media and advertising agencies have
on societal beauty standards, often perpetuating unrealistic and sometimes unattainable ideals.
For example, Interviewee 4 shared, “It weighs a lot on you, your psychological growing up. … It
felt unattainable.” These societal pressures have affected their mental health and intensified the
call for more substantial body diversity. Another statement from the same interviewee further
highlights the effects of these pressures: “I was a kid who self-harmed all through middle school
and high school because of that feeling of worthlessness.”
These insights emphasize the role that WOC play in influencing industry practices. They
also bring to light the severe consequences that can result from the industry’s failure to engage
genuinely with diversity. These statements underscores the need for a more inclusive approach
that acknowledges and acts upon the lived experiences of WOC, thereby fostering an
environment that truly values diversity and integrates into the fashion and modeling industries.
Limited Consistency in Body Diversity
This study explored the impact of representation in fashion and modeling media on
WOC. I undertook a longitudinal document analysis of cover data from two prominent U.S.
fashion magazines over 5 years (2019 to 2023) to discern trends in ethnic features and body

75
diversity. This analysis aimed to gauge the shifts in representation, with a particular focus on
how these changes affect WOC and contribute to broader societal discourses on diversity and
inclusivity. The analysis revealed significant fluctuations in the portrayal of White/European
features compared to those of WOC. Notably, Fashion Magazine 1 saw a peak in the
representation of WOC in 2020 at 54% but demonstrated variability in the following years. This
magazine consistently showcased models with straight/thin body types and straight hair,
predominantly featuring light skin tones over medium and dark skin tones, the latter of which
were significantly underrepresented.
Similarly, Fashion Magazine 2 exhibited trends closely aligning with those observed in
Fashion Magazine 1. Over the analyzed period, there was a slight reduction in the depiction of
White/European models coupled with an increased visibility of WOC, especially around 2021.
This year also marked a noticeable stagnation in body diversity, with little variation in the
representation of different body types. The modest changes observed around 2021 could be
interpreted as reactions to societal events, such as the racial justice movements, indicating a
potentially reactive rather than proactive approach to embracing diversity in the media. These
findings provoke critical reflections on the authenticity and underlying motivations of the
industries in question. The consistent representation of specific body and hair types, coupled
with the slow and sometimes superficial changes in ethnic diversity, suggests a strategic,
possibly commercial, approach to diversity rather than a genuine commitment. For WOC, this
representation has significant implications. It influences public perceptions of beauty and
acceptance and impacts WOC’s self-identity and self-esteem. The prevailing portrayal
perpetuates a narrow beauty standard, which can have deleterious effects on the psychological

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well-being of WOC, as they see themselves underrepresented or misrepresented in mainstream
media.
This study highlights the need for a more committed, proactive approach to enhance
diversity and inclusivity in the fashion and modeling sectors. For WOC, the integration of more
diverse and authentic representations could foster a more inclusive perception of beauty that
resonates with their lived experiences and challenges the industry to transcend superficial
inclusivity for deeper societal impact. These findings underscore the role of media in shaping
societal discourses around race, body diversity, and the urgent call for genuine inclusivity that
transcends mere tokenism in the fashion and modeling industries.
Research Question 2
The second research question asked about the significant challenges WOC face regarding
the acceptance of body diversity in the fashion and modeling industries. The research revealed a
consistency of marginalization toward WOC, as survey respondents highlighted a few of the
challenges WOC face with regard to the acceptance of body diversity in the fashion and
modeling industries (Table 5), and it is key to understand these significant challenges to know
how to counter them as a society and make suggestions to create a more diverse and inclusive
industry. Results also detail through document analysis collected the very apparent intersections
of gender, race, body size, and societal expectation through clear visualization of industry
repeated practices for the past several years with narrowed views of beauty ideals.

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Table 5
Significant Challenges Women of Color Face Regarding Acceptance
Interviewee Direct quote
Interviewee 6 “Many industries … have been criticized for perpetuating unrealistic
beauty standards. Do you believe they have? Yeah, I think so.”
Interviewee 4 “I was a kid who self-harmed all through middle school and high
school because of that feeling of worthlessness.”
Interviewee 5 “I just personally don’t feel like it’s genuine. I think they’re doing it for
the business side of it and not for the okay; we really do accept you.”
Interviewee 8 “If you did see a Black woman, it was usually a fair-skinned Black
woman. So, colorism was very much at play.”
Interviewee 8 “One thing you don’t see often … is I personally do not see a lot of
advertisements that include people with disabilities.”
Interviewee 2 “Sometimes you don’t know what is going to actually work because I
… have seen people, you know, promote either plus size or body
inclusivity like Victoria’s Secret, you know, but does that brand
actually work being that, you know, in the past, they didn’t include
everybody.”
Note. This table is organized to allow apparent reference to each participant’s perspective on
significant challenges within the context of body diversity acceptance in the fashion and
modeling industries. Each quote is directly linked to the identified thematic challenge, providing
evidence and insight for academic analysis.
I formulated key findings from the interview data into a data matrix to highlight the
challenges and difficulties WOC face regarding body diversity acceptance in the fashion and
modeling industry (Table 5). Tables 6 and 7 display the apparent disparities seen from both
Fashion Magazine 1 and Fashion Magazine 2, representing the varied aspects of representation
such as ethnicity, body type, hair type, and skin tones featured in previous fashion publications
(2019 to 2023).

Table 6
Representation Trends in Fashion Magazine 2 From 2019 to 2023
Year
% White/
European % WOC
%
straight/
thin body
%
plus-sized
%
pregnant
% straight
hair
% kinky/
curly hair
% braids/
dreads
% light
skin tone
%
medium
skin tone
% dark
skin tone
2019 71.4 28.6 93 7.1 0 93 7 0 93 7 0
2020 54.5 45.5 91 9 0 63.6 18.1 18.1 54.5 45.4 0
2021 43 57 86 7.1 7.1 57 43 0 57.1 36 7.1
2022 55.5 44.4 100 0 0 89 11 0 67 33 0
2023 67 33 100 0 0 83.3 0 16.6 83.3 16.6 0
Note. WOC = Women of color. The table represents the percentage of representation features in U.S.-based Fashion Magazine 2,
capturing various demographic and appearance-based metrics to assess trends over 5 years. The percentage values indicate the
proportion of total women featured in each category annually.

Table 7
Representation Trends in Fashion Magazine 1 From 2019 to 2023
Year
% White/
European % WOC
%
Straight/
thin body
%
plus-sized
%
pregnant
% straight
hair
% kinky/
curly hair
% Braids/
dreads
% light
skin tone
%
medium
skin tone
% dark
skin tone
2019 71 28 100 0 0 100 0 0 71 21 7
2020 45 54 81 9 9 100 0 0 45 27 27
2021 64 36 100 0 0 86 7.14 7.14 64 21 21
2022 54.5 45.4 82 9 9 82 18 0 73 9 18
2023 68 32 100 0 0 95.4 4.5 0 77 14 9
Note. WOC = Women of color. Data represent the percentage of features in U.S.-based fashion magazines over 5 years. The table
includes various aspects of representation, such as ethnicity, body type, hair type, and skin tone.

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Perpetual Unrealistic Beauty Standards
The interviewees shed significant light on how the fashion and media industries
frequently promote unattainable beauty standards, which pose challenges for many women and
disproportionately affect WOC due to their frequent underrepresentation. When asked if the
fashion and entertainment industries have been criticized rightly for such practices, Interviewee 6
affirmed the perpetuation of these unrealistic standards, stating simply, “Yeah, I think so.” This
acknowledgment points to a pervasive issue in these industries where the idealized images
continue to promote narrow and often unachievable beauty norms.
Significantly, Interviewee 8 broadened the scope of the discussion on representation,
highlighting a notable gap: “One thing you don’t see often … is I personally do not see a lot of
advertisements that include people with disabilities.” This observation sparked a deeper
reflection in the research, recognizing that discussions of body image representation extend
beyond traditional categories like body size, skin tone, or ethnicity to include women with
disabilities. A subsequent review of the fashion magazines revealed no representations of women
with disabilities, such as those using mobility aids like wheelchairs, crutches, or prostheses,
pointing to significant oversight and the exclusion of this demographic from fashion narratives.
Further compounding the issue of narrow representation, the interviews revealed an
underrepresentation of women with pregnant bodies and plus-size women, underscoring an
endemic lack of inclusivity (Tables 6 and 7). Additionally, Interviewee 8 explicitly noted
colorism in the industry: “If you did see a Black woman, it was usually a fair-skinned Black
woman. So, colorism was very much at play.” This was corroborated by document analysis,
which showed that lighter skin tones were overwhelmingly more prevalent in Fashion Magazines

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1 and 2, and even representations of Black or African American models often favored lighter
skin tones or were digitally altered to appear lighter (Tables 6 and 7).
These findings illustrate significant deficiencies in how the fashion industry represents
diversity. They underscore a need for a broader and inclusive portrayal of beauty that reflects the
true diversity of the consumer base. For the interviewees, these challenges around acceptance of
body diversity are both about seeing more diverse images and dismantling societal norms that
dictate beauty standards. This is a significant hurdle as these images reflect and shape societal
perceptions of beauty, worth, and acceptability. The underrepresentation and misrepresentation
speak volumes about the systemic biases that persist in fashion and media, necessitating a
concerted effort to broaden the narrative to include all forms of human diversity genuinely.
In the exploration of the fashion industry’s portrayal of diversity, the analysis of Fashion
Magazine 2’s 2019 edition revealed a predominance of White/European models, who comprised
71.4% of cover representations. This disparity was evident in the significantly lower
representation of WOC, who accounted for 28.6% of the cover models, with 93% of these
models having lighter skin tones, 7% with medium skin tones, and none with dark skin tones.
Furthermore, the models overwhelmingly exhibited a straight/thin body type (93%), with no
representation of pregnant bodies, and only 7.1% could be categorized as plus-size. In terms of
hair types, natural, kinky/curly hair types—commonly associated with Black/African American
and mixed-race women—were minimally represented at 7%, while straight hair textures
dominated at 93%.
In 2023, the situation exhibited slight changes but continued similar trends. Among the
six issues and six women featured that year, 67% of the cover models were of White/European
descent, and only 33% were WOC. All models portrayed in 2023 maintained a straight/thin body

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type (100%) and predominantly straight hair textures (83.3%), with a small fraction (16.6%)
featuring braids, and none exhibited kinky/curly hair. The models in 2023 were overwhelmingly
of light skin tone (83.3%), with some representation of medium skin tones (16.6%), and again,
no dark skin tones were featured. The data indicates a notable spike in diversity in 2021;
however, this increase was not sustained, suggesting a reversion to less diverse representations in
subsequent years. This pattern underscores a lack of sustained commitment to inclusivity in the
industry, perpetuating unrealistic beauty ideals that predominantly valorize lighter-skinned, thin
women with straight hair. Such narrow portrayals marginalize women who deviate from these
Eurocentric standards by excluding curvaceous bodies, darker skin tones, and diverse hair types
and have significant impacts on women’s self-esteem and self-confidence.
This consistent underrepresentation and misrepresentation pose significant challenges for
WOC regarding the acceptance of body diversity. It shapes societal notions of beauty in a way
that suggests that the prevailing portrayals are not universally ideal but reflect the restricted
perspectives of a few in the fashion and modeling industries. For WOC, these findings illuminate
the underlying discourse of exclusion and the substantial barriers to achieving a broader
acceptance of diverse body images. The impact extends beyond just representation; it influences
how WOC perceive themselves in a society that often fails to recognize or celebrate their natural
beauty. This study highlights the need for an industry-wide reassessment of what constitutes
beauty and calls for a more inclusive and representative approach to model selection and
portrayal.
Inconsistency and Inauthenticity in Body Positivity Campaigns
The findings reveal a persistent inconsistency in fashion brand advertisements,
underscoring a significant lack of diverse body representation in mainstream media. This gap

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notably impacts visibility and inclusivity, posing a substantial challenge for WOC concerning the
acceptance of body diversity. Despite growing consumer demand for increased diversity, many
brands demonstrate reluctance to adapt, revealing a significant misalignment between market
demand and business practices. Modern consumers, increasingly savvy about marketing tactics,
signal to the industry that inauthentic engagement with diversity and inclusivity might lead to a
loss of trust and loyalty. This scenario necessitates a critical reevaluation of how these industries
market themselves, emphasizing the need for authenticity in promotional strategies to maintain
consumer trust and support. WOC, in particular, are more inclined to support brands that
represent women resembling themselves rather than those that exclude them. This preference
underscores the often-questioned authenticity of brands’ campaigns supporting body diversity
and inclusivity.
Cultural and racial biases continue to sculpt beauty standards, frequently sidelining
specific groups and fostering pressures to conform to narrow beauty ideals. These pressures can
significantly affect mental health, especially during formative years. For instance, Interviewee 4
shared, “It weighs a lot on you psychologically growing up. … It felt unattainable.” This
statement reflects the psychological impacts of unattainable beauty standards promoted by the
media. An analysis of cover diversity in Fashion Magazine 1 from 2019 to 2023 (Table 7)
reveals an underrepresentation of body diversity. Over this period, the magazine featured 72
women on its covers, with a predominant 62.5% being of White/European descent and only 33%
being WOC. Furthermore, the magazine consistently favored models with straight/thin body
types (94.4%), with minimal inclusion of plus-size (2.8%) and pregnant models (2.8%). While
there was a noticeable shift toward increased ethnic and skin tone diversity in 2020, this change
prompts questions about its correlation with societal pressures and the rising demand for DEI

84
practices following various social movements. The industry’s tepid response to societal
expectations displays great variability rather than a consistent trend toward inclusivity. Straight
hair types dominated the cover features each year (93.05%), with limited representation of
women with kinky/curly natural hair textures (5.55%), and only a negligible 1.4% featured
braids and dreadlocks.
The limited representation of dark skin tones, plus-size, and pregnant bodies, along with
the absence of women with disabilities or visible skin conditions such as freckles, acne, or
vitiligo on these covers, highlights a significant gap in the portrayal of diverse and realistic
beauty standards in mainstream fashion media. This pattern raises critical questions about the
editorial decisions and underlying motivations that continue to shape a narrow and often
exclusive beauty narrative. These omissions warrant further inquiry, as they reveal the need for
more authentic and inclusive representation that aligns with contemporary societal values and
consumer expectations, particularly from the perspective of WOC who are disproportionately
affected by these industry standards.
Research Question 3
The third research question asked what steps could be taken to promote greater
acceptance of diversity for WOC in the fashion and modeling industries. I created Table 8 to
home in on participants’ responses to ways that the industry can achieve that goal. Results
revealed that both the industries and the consumers have a responsibility to participate in this
industry shift toward body diversity and inclusion.

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Table 8
Steps to Promote Greater Acceptance of Diversity in the Fashion and Modeling Industries
Interview Direct quote
Interview 8 “Media and the people who lead these organizations need to be very
intentional about making sure that a diversity of body images are reflected
in their media.”
Interview 7 “This should be like a We Exist movement for all.”
Interview 4 “Fashion brands can promote body positivity and inclusivity by finding
opportunities to uplift voices that have not been uplifted, showcasing
bodies that have not been showcased.”
Interview 7 “We are the main consumers, and they know that. If they don’t, they’re
quickly learning.”
Interview 5 “It has to start when we’re little, … showing kids that their favorite teacher is
fat, but that’s okay because she’s also very active.”
Interview 4 “Body dissatisfaction can lead to mental health issues. … That can definitely
lead to mental issues.”
Note. This table presents the participants’ insights on promoting diversity in the fashion and
modeling industries, linking their perspectives with specific, thematic actions. Each quote
provides evidence supporting the proposed steps for enhancing industry practices.
Intentionality and Authenticity
The qualitative analysis of experiences and representation of WOC in the fashion and
modeling industries underscores the necessity for deliberate and strategic actions to enhance
diversity acceptance. Industry leaders are called to articulate a clear, intentional mission and
vision for inclusivity, ensuring that these commitments are transparent and consistently
communicated across all levels of their organizations. Interviewee 8 emphasized reflecting a
diverse array of body images in media, stating that leaders must “be very intentional about
making sure that a diversity of body images are reflected in their media.” This commitment

86
requires fashion brands, modeling agencies, and media outlets to actively include a broad
spectrum of body types, skin tones, and ages in their content and campaigns, challenging the
conventional beauty standards that often exclude WOC and other marginalized groups.
Coupled with intentional representation, there must be comprehensive education for staff
and leadership about the importance of these changes, ensuring that efforts to diversify
representation are both authentic and substantive, moving beyond mere tokenism. Authenticity in
campaigns promoting body positivity means accurately reflecting the diversity of the audience,
including a variety of races, ages, ethnicities, and those with different health conditions.
Interviewee 7 noted that the notion of inclusivity should be clear and inclusive of all
demographics: “There should be a universal movement for inclusivity, yet it is imperative for
industries to clearly define who ‘we’ includes.” This inclusivity extends to advertising strategies
of fashion brands, which, despite aiming to attract a diverse clientele, often showcase a limited
demographic that represents only a small fraction of the broader population.
Additionally, the need for a sustained commitment to inclusivity is evident in the
fluctuating representation trends observed in fashion publications. For instance, in 2020, Fashion
Magazine 2 featured a significant increase in the representation of WOC, who constituted 45.5%
of cover features, and a notable presence of women with medium skin tones, accounting for
45.4% (Table 6). This was a substantial shift from 2019, when the majority of cover models were
of White/European descent (71.4%), and WOC were minimally represented (28.6%). The 2019
issues also predominantly showcased models with light skin tones (93%) and straight hair
textures (93%). This pattern suggests that while there are moments of increased diversity, they
are often reactive to societal pressures or specific cultural movements rather than indicative of a
continuous, genuine commitment to inclusivity.

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The qualitative insights reveal that promoting greater acceptance of diversity for WOC
involves more than temporary increases in representation; it requires a fundamental
transformation in how diversity is perceived and integrated into everyday business practices.
Effective change necessitates ongoing education and awareness initiatives, starting from
childhood, as Interview 5 suggested, noting the need to normalize diversity in daily life:
“showing kids that their favorite teacher is fat, but that’s okay.” Such educational efforts help lay
the groundwork for a more inclusive society that embraces all forms of diversity as the norm
rather than the exception. This comprehensive approach to inclusivity promises to reshape
industry standards and significantly enhance the acceptance of body diversity for WOC in the
fashion and modeling industries.
The representation of WOC in fashion magazines witnessed a significant peak in 2021,
with WOC comprising 57% of the models featured, marking a notable advancement in diversity.
This year, there was also a substantial increase in hair diversity, with 43% of the models
showcasing kinky/curly natural hair types. Additionally, the representation of skin tones became
more varied: 36% of the models displayed medium skin tones, and 7.1% had dark skin tones.
These shifts represented a high point in the magazine’s efforts to diversify its portrayal of beauty,
aligning more closely with the real-world demographic makeup of its audience. However, this
trend in diversity was not sustained. By 2023, the representation of WOC on the cover had
significantly decreased to 33%, with White/European models representing 67% of cover
features. During this year, the prevalence of the straight/thin body type remained high at 92%,
and the majority of models (76%) had straight hair types. While there was still some
representation of natural hair, only 18.5% of models displayed kinky/curly hair, and a mere 5.5%
featured styles like braids and dreadlocks. This oscillation in representation levels underscores a

88
recurring challenge in maintaining diversity and inclusivity in the magazine’s cover strategy. It
reflects broader issues in the fashion industry concerning consistent and equitable representation
of diverse beauty standards.
This analysis reveals that increases in diversity may sometimes be temporary, often
responding to societal pressures rather than indicating a genuine, sustained commitment to
inclusivity. For WOC, these findings highlight the underlying discourse in the fashion industry
that still heavily leans toward Eurocentric beauty standards. The lack of consistent representation
impedes the visibility of WOC in mainstream media and influences the perception of beauty,
acceptance, and self-esteem among these groups. This inconsistent commitment to diversity
sends a mixed message to consumers and can affect the credibility and trustworthiness of brands
within these communities.
To promote greater acceptance of diversity for WOC, the fashion industry needs to adopt
more than just intermittent changes in response to social movements or public pressures. It
requires a profound, ongoing commitment to inclusivity that is reflected not just in exceptional
moments or singular campaigns but integrated consistently across all media outputs. Steps to
achieve this could include establishing clear diversity goals, regular reviews of content to ensure
broad representation, and engaging with communities to understand and address their needs
continually. Such steps would help bridge the gap between temporary shifts and a permanent
transformation in how beauty and diversity are represented, fostering a more inclusive
environment that resonates with and reflects the nation’s diverse society.
Industry-Wide Change and Supporting Mental Health
The findings from this research illustrate the pressing need for the fashion industry to
initiate significant changes in beauty standards to enhance inclusivity across various body types,

89
ages, and ethnicities. Particularly vocal in this call for change are WOC, who advocate strongly
for the recognition and advancement of groups traditionally marginalized or overlooked in the
industry. As Interviewee 4 highlighted, “Fashion brands can promote body positivity and
inclusivity by finding opportunities to uplift voices that have not been uplifted, showcasing
bodies that have not been showcased.” This statement encapsulates a widespread desire among
WOC for transformative change that moves beyond superficial acknowledgment to genuine and
impactful inclusion.
Furthermore, the research underscores a need for the fashion industry to leverage its
considerable influence to support mental health initiatives. The pervasive issue of body image
dissatisfaction profoundly affects many women, impacting their self-efficacy, confidence, and
overall self-esteem. It is essential to address the mental health issues that arise from this
dissatisfaction by integrating support systems into branding campaigns and promoting a diversity
of body types. This proactive approach communicates assertively that all body shapes are
valuable and deserving of representation. The urgency of addressing these issues is captured in
Interviewee 4’s observation that “body dissatisfaction can lead to mental health issues. … That
can definitely lead to mental issues,” underscoring the psychological impact of narrow beauty
standards.
The findigs also study revealed a social demand from the participants for enhanced CSR
in the fashion and modeling industries. There is a widespread call for these sectors to actively
contribute to mental health initiatives and DEI efforts. Such demands challenge these industries
to adopt a more substantial role in CSR, advocating for diversity and the mental well-being of
individuals impacted by prevailing beauty norms. These findings inform steps that can be taken
to promote greater acceptance of diversity for WOC and improve the industry’s overall approach

90
to inclusivity. By embracing broader, more diverse representations and supporting mental health,
the fashion industry can begin to rectify long-standing inequities and foster an environment
where all individuals feel seen, valued, and supported. This approach aligns with contemporary
societal values and enhances the industry’s relevance and resonance with an increasingly diverse
and aware consumer base.
Summary
The findings underscore that the fashion and media sectors continue to propagate beauty
standards that are largely unattainable for most women and particularly detrimental to WOC,
who remain grossly underrepresented. These prevailing standards often favor specific body
types, skin tones, and features that fail to mirror the diversity seen in the general population. To
authentically engage a diverse audience, campaigns promoting body positivity must accurately
reflect the audience’s true diversity. The industry’s evident preference for light-skinned
individuals, even among Black and African American models, brings to light the issue of
colorism in fashion and modeling. Such practices sideline darker-skinned WOC and help sustain
a narrow, Eurocentric beauty standard that further marginalizes a substantial segment of the
consumer base. Moving beyond superficial tokenism is essential to ensure that WOC are
represented consistently and meaningfully in ways that honor their unique qualities.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
As outlined in Chapter Two, upon completion of data collection and analysis. I proposed
a model to be presented to leads in the fashion and modeling industry. I developed a 10-step
model (Table 9) tailored for leaders in the fashion and modeling industries. This model is divided
into five recommendations for the modeling industry and five for the fashion industry, aimed at
enhancing the acceptance of body diversity. The model provides clear, actionable steps that
organizations can follow to promote inclusivity, thereby simplifying the process of implementing
diversity initiatives. By adopting a standardized approach, I ensured that industries could achieve
a more uniform implementation of diversity practices, which helps set industry-wide benchmarks
for inclusivity. Each step in the model includes metrics for success, allowing organizations to
monitor their progress and maintain accountability. This facilitates tracking improvements and
enables organizations to report these advancements to their stakeholders, thus improving
transparency.

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Table 9
Ten Steps to Promoting Body Diversity in the Fashion and Modeling Industries
Industry Ten-step model
Fashion industry
Establish and publicly share clear diversity and inclusivity guidelines.
Develop authentic marketing campaigns that reflect the consumer base’s
diversity.
Provide ongoing diversity and inclusivity training for all staff.
Collaborate with diverse designers and influencers to ensure inclusivity
in product development and marketing.
Regularly gather and adapt based on consumer feedback to ensure
responsiveness to consumer needs and societal changes.
Modeling industry
Actively recruit and promote models from diverse backgrounds.
Implement casting processes that counteract biases toward traditional
beauty standards.
Provide comprehensive support systems for models, including mental
health and career development resources.
Advocate for industry-standard changes regarding beauty and body
image.
Conduct regular audits to assess diversity and inclusivity practices and
make necessary adjustments.
Note. The table outlines five key strategies for each industry to enhance the promotion of body
diversity. Recommendations stem from an analysis of industry practices and consumers' opinions
who were WOC. Strategies focus on operational changes, stakeholder education, and responsive
feedback mechanisms to adapt to evolving market expectations and promote inclusivity
effectively.
The creation of these 10 steps was significantly informed by the insights from WOC, who
are frequently marginalized in these sectors. Their personal lived experiences were instrumental
in shaping these proposals. The study underscores the importance of embracing body diversity in
these industries to foster inclusivity and as a strategic approach to combating body

93
discrimination and dismantling the implicit biases against WOC. Organizations that actively
engage in promoting diversity are perceived as more socially responsible, which may enhance
brand loyalty among consumers who value inclusivity. Furthermore, by fostering an inclusive
environment, companies can attract a broader spectrum of talent, which can bring fresh
perspectives and drive innovation in their operations.
Discussion of Findings
The findings of this dissertation align with both the reviewed literature and the
conceptual framework. Intersectionality theory, which posits that multiple social categories
intersect at the individual level to reflect intertwined systems of oppression and privilege, helps
to elucidate how these intersections manifest in the fashion and modeling industries, particularly
affecting women and WOC. The literature reviewed consistently underscored recurrent issues
such as the underrepresentation of diverse body types, racial discrimination, and limited
opportunities for those who deviate from a particular beauty ideal, which corroborate the
experiences of WOC both within and beyond the industry. The research highlighted in this study,
including works by Doyle and Moore (2023), points to a systemic preference for Eurocentric
beauty standards and the marginalization of plus-size, differently-abled, and older models. These
observations reflect the intersectional barriers outlined in the conceptual framework, illustrating
how societal expectations and industry standards construct a limited scope of accepted beauty
that disproportionately marginalizes WOC and other underrepresented groups.
The findings of this dissertation contribute to the literature by illustrating a gradual yet
noticeable shift toward greater inclusivity in the fashion and modeling industries, driven by
evolving societal norms and rising demand from consumers for more representation. This
development is in line with scholars such as Guimaraes (2022), who advocate for an expansion

94
of beauty standards to include a broader spectrum of body realities. Furthermore, the results
pertaining to genuine marketing campaigns and robust support systems for models emphasize the
literature’s call for substantive changes in the industry that move beyond mere tokenism or
superficial inclusivity.
The study found that, although there has been progress toward inclusivity, substantial
disparities persist. The ongoing underrepresentation of various body types and the continuous
exaltation of specific beauty ideals underscore the need for continued reform in the industry. The
implementation of authentic marketing strategies and comprehensive support systems, as
discussed in the findings, addresses these discrepancies by offering strategies through which the
industry can authentically embrace diversity. These measures challenge the status quo and pave
the way for broader acceptance and representation of diverse body types, directly addressing the
problem of practice identified at the beginning of this study. Results corroborate the issues
identified in the intersectional literature and outline a practical approach for the fashion and
modeling industries to start dismantling the deeply ingrained barriers that restrict body diversity.
By adopting the recommended strategies, these industries can advance significantly toward
creating a more inclusive and equitable environment. This progress directly addresses the
essential problem of practice and moves the industries closer to realizing the full potential of
intersectionality.
Recommendations for Practice
To cultivate a more inclusive and body-diverse fashion and modeling industry, executives
must prioritize genuinely inclusive casting practices that reflect a diverse range of races, body
types, ages, and abilities. Furthermore, it is imperative to develop authentic marketing campaigns
that are not merely performative or tokenistic. Such campaigns must resonate with a social

95
awareness that today’s consumers can discern, recognizing whether a brand’s efforts are sincere.
Additionally, comprehensive support systems at multiple levels are essential to alleviate the
pressures models face. The intense scrutiny from being in the public eye, coupled with prevailing
narrow beauty standards, places undue stress on individuals, compelling them to conform to an
unrealistic ideal of beauty. This strains their mental health and perpetuates a cycle of exclusion
and inadequacy. Implementing these recommendations will address critical issues in the industry
and lead to a healthier, more equitable professional environment for all participants.
Recommendation 1: Inclusive Casting
This recommendation recognizes the complex identities individuals hold, encompassing
aspects like race, body type, age, and abilities. By actively combating biases and establishing
diversity quotas, the fashion and modeling industries are compelled to address and break down
the structural inequalities that typically marginalize underrepresented groups. A commitment to
diverse casting challenges gradually reforms industry norms regarding who is deemed beautiful
or ideal. This approach disrupts established beauty standards.
As key influencers of beauty norms, modeling agencies have significant influence in
defining acceptable beauty standards by selecting models who fit these ideals and rigorously
preparing them to meet these often narrow criteria (Mears, 2008, 2010; Powers, 2007). However,
there has been a burgeoning movement toward endorsing more realistic body images in media
and the fashion industry, aiming to redefine the restrictive definitions of beauty that have long
prevailed (Bowman, 2020; Fixsen et al., 2023; Griffin et al., 2022; Compton, 2021; Oinonen,
2021). This evolution seeks to promote a more inclusive representation that genuinely mirrors
the diversity of women’s bodies (Guimaraes, 2022). Despite the varied manifestations of beauty,
the industry has faced criticism for its insufficient efforts to embody this inclusivity, leading to

96
ongoing discussions about the deliberate perpetuation of these constrained beauty standards
(Estrina, 2021; Jamal & Mohammed, 2023; Pounders & Mabry-Flynn, 2019).
Recommendation 2: Develop Real Campaigns for Real People
I recommend that the fashion and modeling industries develop authentic marketing
campaigns that genuinely reflect the diversity of their consumer bases. Such campaigns would
acknowledge and address individuals’ varied experiences, particularly how intersecting identities
like race, gender, and body type shape societal interactions. By featuring a diverse array of
models in meaningful roles, such campaigns affirm diverse identities and promote more inclusive
representation. This influences consumer behavior and reshapes societal perceptions,
normalizing diversity in high-visibility platforms, thereby fostering societal acceptance and
reducing the stigma associated with non-conformity to traditional beauty standards.
Despite some progress toward broader representation, challenges persist in achieving true
body positivity and self-acceptance across media platforms. Notably, skepticism about the
sincerity of diversity efforts remains high among consumers, particularly WOC. One interviewee
expressed doubts about the genuineness of fashion brands’ inclusivity efforts, perceiving them as
driven more by commercial interests than by a real commitment to diversity: “I just personally
don’t feel like it’s genuine. I think they’re doing it for the business side of it and not for the
‘Okay, we really do accept you.’” This skepticism underscores the need for authenticity in
promotional strategies to maintain consumer trust and loyalty.
Furthermore, an analysis of cover diversity in Fashion Magazine 1 over 5 years
(2019–2023) reveals a disparity in representation. Although there was a modest increase in
ethnic and skin tone diversity, this change seems to be more a response to societal pressures and
the rising demand for DEI practices than a proactive approach to inclusivity. The magazine

97
predominantly featured White/European models (62.5%) and consistently favored straight/thin
body types (94.4%), with minimal inclusion of plus-size (2.8%) and pregnant models (2.8%).
These findings highlight the need for the fashion and modeling industries to reevaluate how they
market themselves, ensuring that their campaigns are diverse and authentically inclusive. By
doing so, they can better align with contemporary societal values and expectations, thereby
fostering a deeper connection with their audience.
Recommendation 2: Develop Real Campaigns for Real People
I recommend that the fashion industry implement support systems specifically designed
for models from diverse and often marginalized backgrounds. These systems are essential as they
address the challenges posed by intersectionality, where factors such as race, gender, body type,
and other aspects of identity can significantly affect a model’s mental health and career
development. By establishing a supportive environment, the industry can either contribute to
perpetuating discrimination or actively promote inclusivity.
Historically, even pioneering models like Donyale Luna and Naomi Sims faced
considerable racial discrimination that hindered their participation in runway shows and major
advertising campaigns, isolating them professionally and impeding their ability to gain
recognition and respect (Aagerup, 2018; Craig, 2002; Lewis, 2019; Vikhrenko, 2017; Wissinger,
2015). Such experiences underline the necessity for support systems that recognize and actively
address these ingrained industry biases.
Furthermore, the concept of body image, a construct that has been studied extensively,
reveals the impact of industry standards on models’ self-perception and well-being (Cash et al.,
2004; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). Body image is influenced by a range of factors, including
media trends, societal norms, and personal factors like age and location, and can fluctuate

98
between positive and negative states. Positive body image is associated with high self-esteem,
strong social connections, and a positive self-view, whereas negative body image is often linked
to an unhealthy overemphasis on appearance that directly affects self-worth (Neagu, 2015; Tylka
& Wood-Barcalow, 2015). Support systems in the modeling industry should, therefore, focus on
mental health resources and career development, aiming to improve body satisfaction and overall
self-efficacy. Such initiatives would promote a healthier work environment and encourage a
wider range of talent, potentially shifting industry standards toward more inclusive and equitable
practices.
The perpetuation of a singular beauty ideal overlooks the inherent diversity in women’s
builds, skin tones, ethnicities, and genetic variations (Doyle & Moore, 2023; Randle, 2015;
Rowe, 2023). The prevalence of images portrayed as perfect compels women to critically
examine their own appearances, exacerbating feelings of inadequacy and leading to harmful
self-perceptions (Duan, 2017; Matelski, 2011; Stearns, 2002; Vikhrenko, 2017). The widespread
issue of body image concerns provides an opportunity for those in the modeling industry to shed
light on these complexities through their personal experiences (Grogan, 2021; Jameca & Neville,
2000; Patton, 2006; Turner et al., 1997; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). The industry frequently
assesses a model’s value based on physical dimensions, distinctiveness, and the flawlessness of
their skin (Fixsen et al., 2023; Han & Rudd, 2015; Reaves et al., 2004; Turner et al., 1997).
Despite often presenting an exterior of idealized bodies and flawless skin, many models endure
internal conflicts over self-worth, marked by the scars from their experiences striving for success
in the industry (Czerniawski, 2022; Fixsen et al., 2023; Irving, 1992; Mears, 2008; Wissinger,
2015).

99
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research, building on this study’s findings, should incorporate women with
disabilities to evaluate their representation in fashion and modeling. This inclusion is critical as
individuals with disabilities remain substantially underrepresented in media and fashion, and
examining their visibility could provide valuable insights into the inclusivity of the industry.
Such studies would be instrumental in identifying barriers and opportunities for enhancing
representation. Additionally, examining the representation of more mature women on magazine
covers and in fashion media could effectively address ageism in the industry. Age diversity is
frequently overlooked, with a predominant focus on younger models, often sidelining older
demographics. Research in this domain could foster a more inclusive approach to body diversity,
recognizing age as a vital factor.
Expanding future research to include individuals under 18 years old would also yield
insights into how early exposure to fashion standards affects body image and self-esteem among
youth. Broadening age parameters to encompass younger and more mature participants could
illuminate variations in body diversity perceptions across life stages, influencing lifelong
self-esteem and body image. Should the opportunity arise to extend this study on a larger scale, it
would be essential to explore men’s perspectives on body diversity. While women’s experiences
are invaluable, including men’s views can broaden the understanding of body diversity issues
across genders. Men also experience pressures and standards related to body image, and their
inclusion in research could lead to a more holistic view of how the fashion industry impacts body
image. Additionally, it would be enlightening to conduct interviews with men regarding their
perceptions of body image and representation of women to further explore their views on body
diversity and representation among women.

100
For future investigations aiming to delve deeper into the perceptions of body image
among WOC, I recommend the adoption of specific survey subscale instruments to enhance
statistical analysis and provide a quantitative dimension to complement the qualitative findings.
The utilization of Cash’s (2000) MBSRQ subscales, including the MBSRQ-AE and
MBSRQ-AO, is proposed to measure participants’ satisfaction with their physical appearance
and their awareness and behaviors toward body image, respectively (Cash & Grasso, 2005; Cash
et al., 2004; Melnyk et al., 2004). Employing these instruments aided in addressing the
hypotheses concerning body image and consciousness among WOC and introduced a method of
triangulation. This approach aims to enrich the narrative with quantifiable data on participants’
body image confidence and attentiveness, thereby offering a more nuanced understanding of
their perceptions and experiences related to body diversity.
Conclusion
Fashion and modeling exert significant influence on societal perceptions of beauty and
identity. By championing body diversity, these industries can more accurately reflect and
celebrate the diversity present in society, encompassing various body sizes, ages, races,
ethnicities, and physical conditions. In today’s market, consumers are increasingly drawn to
brands that resonate with their values and identities, showing a preference for companies that
demonstrate social responsibility. Traditional industry standards often perpetuate harmful
stereotypes and unrealistic beauty standards, which can lead to a range of physical and mental
health issues. A shift toward inclusivity can mitigate these detrimental effects. There is an
escalating acknowledgment of the ethical responsibility that industries bear to combat
discrimination and foster fairness. This recognition positions inclusivity not merely as a strategic
business choice but as a moral imperative.

101
Implementing a standardized model, such as the 10 steps to promoting body diversity in
the fashion and modeling industries (Table 9), could instigate profound transformations in the
fashion and modeling sectors, establishing new standards for the representation of beauty and
fashion. The incorporation of diverse models and fashion lines could broaden consumer
engagement, potentially enhancing sales and expanding market share. Inclusivity may also fuel
creativity, encouraging designers and brands to innovate with designs that accommodate a
broader spectrum of body types and preferences. As inclusivity becomes more entrenched, it
could precipitate a shift in public perception, transforming diversity in beauty and body types
from a mere acceptance to an expectation and a celebration. Brands that pioneer inclusivity
efforts are likely to benefit from sustained consumer loyalty and support, contributing to
long-term business sustainability. This 10-step model could signify a critical advancement
toward ethical, profitable, and socially responsible business practices and may serve as a
benchmark for other sectors seeking to augment diversity and inclusivity.

102
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Appendix A: Recruitment Letter
My name is Melissa Mitchell, and I am a University of Southern California student. I am
conducting a research study on the need for body diversity in the fashion and modeling industry,
seeking to recruit individuals who meet these criteria:
● You identify as a woman of color (WOC).
● You are over 18 years old.
● You are a consumer and enthusiast in the fashion and modeling industries.
The study’s inclusion criteria will include participants identifying as WOC. This will
include but is not limited to Black, Latin X/Hispanic, Asian, Indian, Indigenous, etc. Participants
must also be interested in and consumers of the fashion or modeling industry. Additionally, all
study participants must be at least 18 or older.
If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to do the following activities:
● Participate in a demographic survey in Qualtrics for ~ 5–10 minutes
● Complete an online survey via Qualtrics for ~ 20 minutes
● Participate in a 1:1 online interview over Zoom for ~ 45–60 minutes
During these activities, you will be asked questions about your perceptions of the fashion
and modeling industries, body image and body consciousness, societal pressures, and media
representation.
If you are interested in participating in this study, please click this link:
https://usc.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_bdS3mXX0mNY6rJk. If you have questions, please
contact me at mam61890@usc.edu
Thank you!
Melissa Mitchell, mam61890@usc.edu

130
Appendix B: Informed Consent/Information Sheet
My name is Melissa Mitchell. I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern
California. I also serve as the East Coast manager for a publicly traded renewable energy
corporation. I am conducting a research study on the need for body diversity in the fashion and
modeling industries. This study aims to investigate the perspectives, challenges, and
improvements areas needed to create an inclusive fashion and modeling industry. The name of
this research study is “Inclusive Vogue: Exploring the Demand for Body Diversity in the Fashion
and Modeling World.” I am seeking participants for this study.
Your participation is entirely voluntary, and I will address your questions or concerns at
any point before or during the study.
You may be eligible to participate in this study if you meet the following criteria:
● You identify as a woman of color (WOC).
● You are over 18 years old.
● You are a consumer and enthusiast in the fashion and modeling industries.
If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to do the following activities:
● Participate in a demographic survey for 5–10 minutes
● Complete an online survey for 20 minutes
● Participate in a 1:1 online interview over Zoom for 45–60 minutes
I will publish the results in the University of Southern California Library database.
Participants will not be identified in the results. Please note that all 1:1 interviews will be
recorded via Zoom and transcribed. Participants’ names will be coded to maintain
confidentiality. I will take reasonable measures to protect the security of all your personal

131
information. All data will be de-identified before any publication or presentation. I may share
your data de-identified with other researchers in the future.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact me at mam61890@usc.edu. If
you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the University
of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email hrpp@usc.edu.

132
Appendix C: Demographic Survey
The following sections present the survey used in this study.
Introduction to the Survey
Hi, my name is Melissa. I am a graduate student at the USC Rossier School of Education.
For my dissertation, I am studying body diversity within the modeling and fashion industry.
Would you be willing to participate in a brief survey for a dissertation research study? The
questions will be about understanding your perception of body image and views on self-body
appearance. The survey shouldn’t take more than 5 minutes.
(If the individual agrees to participate.) Thank you. I am interested in your honest
opinions, so let me know. Even if you don’t like something I mention or think any questions are
too personal, you are welcome to omit them. I request your permission to record your responses
for research purposes. Your responses will be confidential and anonymous – a pseudonym will
identify you in my project report.
Are you 18 years older?
● Yes
● No
Are you a consumer, enthusiast, or a fashion or modeling professional?
● Yes
● No
Do you identify as a woman of color?
● Yes
● No
● Not Sure

133
Do you feel the fashion and modeling industries adequately represent and celebrate body
diversity among women of color?
● Yes
● No
Do you identify as plus-sized?
● Yes
● No
End of Survey
Thank you for completing the demographic survey for my study on body diversity in the
fashion and modeling industry. I greatly appreciate your participation!
If you meet the criteria for participation in our study, you may be contacted for
recruitment soon. I am seeking individuals who identify as woman of color (WOC), are over 18
years old, and are enthusiasts and consumers in the fashion and modeling industries.
Your valuable insights and perspectives are crucial to advancing diversity and inclusion
in these industries. Thank you for your interest and willingness to contribute to our research
efforts.
If you have any questions or concerns, please contact me at mam61890@usc.edu.

134
Appendix D: Semi-Structured Interview Protocol
The following sections present the interview protocol used in this study.
Introduction to the Interview
Hi, my name is Melissa. I am a graduate student at the USC Rossier School of Education
for my dissertation, I am researching body diversity within the modeling and fashion industry. In
my research, you have come up as an ideal candidate to participate in our study. Would you be
willing to participate in my dissertation research study? If you’re interested, I could schedule a
quick Zoom call at your convenience or schedule a meeting time for an in-person interview. The
questions will be about your understanding of body image, the influence of media and popular
culture on a woman’s self-image, and your overall perception of beauty standards. The call
shouldn’t take more than 30 min. Would you be willing to participate?
(If the participant agrees to participate). Thank you. I am interested in your honest
opinions, so let me know even if you don’t like something I mention. I request your permission
to record your responses for research purposes. Your responses will be confidential and
anonymous – a pseudonym will identify you in my project report. Table D1 presents the
interview protocol
Table D1
Interview Protocol
Interview questions Potential probes
RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
How do you define body
image?
Do you feel it is
important to address
it in today’s society? 1
Body image
In your opinion, how have
beauty standards evolved
over the years?
Do you believe that
this evolution has
impacted how 1 and 3
Perception of
acceptance,
promotion of

135
Interview questions Potential probes
RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
women and men
view themselves?
acceptance of
diversity
In what ways do you think
media and advertising
influence societal beauty
standards?
Can you provide
examples of both
positive and
negative impacts?
1–3
Acceptance,
challenges
regarding
acceptance,
promotion of
greater acceptance
In your opinion, do you think
body image ideals differ
across cultures?
If so, how?
1–3
Challenges, promotion
of greater
acceptance
How do you believe we as a
society can promote body
positivity and
self-acceptance in a world
that often emphasizes
unrealistic beauty
standards? 2 and 3
Promotion of
acceptance,
challenges
How do you believe that
fashion brands can promote
body positivity and
inclusivity in fashion? 3
Promotion of
acceptance
How do you believe society
can challenge the notion
that one’s physical
appearance does not
determine one’s worth and
reinforce the importance of
inner qualities and
accomplishments? 2 and 3
Challenges, promotion
of body diversity
Many industries, such as
fashion and entertainment,
have been criticized for
perpetuating unrealistic
beauty standards. Do you
believe they have?
If so, how and why?
1–3
Perception of
acceptance,
challenges, and
promotion of
acceptance of
diversity
Research shows that body
dissatisfaction can lead to
mental health issues. Do
you believe it can?
If so, how can it
impact one’s mental
well-being or
confidence? 2
Significant challenges
Have you encountered body
positivity campaigns that
have effectively challenged
Why do you think
they were
successful? 1, 3
Perception of
acceptance,
promotion of

136
Interview questions Potential probes
RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
traditional beauty
standards?
acceptance of
diversity
How do you think the body
positivity movement has
influenced the perception of
beauty standards in recent
years?
Do you think it’s
impact will last? If
so, how? Are there
any ways that you
believe it can be
improved? 1–3
Perception of
acceptance,
challenges,
promotion of
acceptance of
diversity
Conclusion to the Interview
Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to participate in this groundbreaking
study. Your participation will add to the conversation about the need for body diversity and the
impact of body image perception. Please let me know if you have any questions for me. Is there
anything else you want to share or add for future research?

137
Appendix E: Codebook for Representation Trends in Fashion Magazine 1 from 2019 to
2023
Variables and categories
Year:
● Definition: The specific year of data collection.
● Values: 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023
Race/Ethnicity
● Categories
● White/European
● Black/African American
● Asian
● Hispanic/Latino
● Mixed race
● Other
Body type/size:
● Categories
● Plus-size/curvy
● Straight-size/thin
● Pregnant
Beauty features
● Hair texture
● Straight

138
● Kinky/curly ● Braids/dreads
● Skin tones ● Light ● Medium ● Dark

139
Table E1
Counts of Representation per Category and Year
Category 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
White/Eurocentric 10 5 9 6 15
Black/African American 1 6 5 3 6
Asian – – 1 1 –
Hispanic/Latino – – 1 – –
Mixed race 1 – – – –
Other 2 – – – –
Plus-size/curvy 0 1 0 1 0
Straight-size/thin 14 9 14 9 22
Pregnant 0 1 0 1 0
Straight hair 14 11 12 9 21
Kinky/curly hair 0 0 1 2 1
Braids/dreads 0 0 1 0 0
Light skin tone 10 5 9 8 17
Medium skin tone 3 3 3 1 3
Dark skin tone 1 3 2 2 2
Note. The table presents the count of features in a magazine across 5 years, categorized by
race/ethnicity, body type, beauty features, and skin tones. The dash (-) indicates no
representation recorded for that category in the given year.

140
Appendix F: Codebook for Representation Trends in Fashion Magazine 2 from 2019 to
2023
Variables and categories
Year
● Definition: Specific year of data collection
● Values: 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023
Race/ethnicity
● Categories
● White/Eurocentric
● Black/African American
● Asian
● Hispanic/Latino
● Mixed race
● Other
Body type/size
● Categories
● Plus-size/curvy
● Straight-size/thin
● Pregnant
Beauty features
● Hair texture
● Straight

141
● Kinky/curly ● Braids/dreads
● Skin tones ● Light ● Medium ● Dark

142
Table F1
Counts of Representation per Category and Year
Category 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
White/European 10 6 6 5 4
Black/African American 1 5 6 3 1
Asian 1 – 1 1 –
Hispanic/Latino 1 – 1 – 1
Mixed race 1 – – – –
Other – – – – –
Plus-size/curvy 1 1 1 – –
Straight-size/thin 13 10 12 9 6
Pregnant – – 1 – –
Straight hair 13 7 8 8 5
Kinky/curly hair 1 2 6 1 –
Braids/dreads – 2 – 1 1
Light skin tone 13 6 8 6 5
Medium skin tone 1 5 5 3 1
Dark skin tone – – 1 – –
Note. The table provides counts of different demographic and appearance-based attributes
featured in Cosmopolitan magazine across 5 years. The dash (–) indicates no representation
recorded for that category in the given year.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This dissertation explored the impact of body underrepresentation in the fashion and modeling industries on women of color (WOC) in the United States. Drawing on narratives highlighting women’s lived experiences, the study investigated how fashion model selection, sizing policies, and marketing strategies influence their self-efficacy and body image perceptions. Utilizing an intersectional framework, this research acknowledges the intersecting layers of identity and discrimination, thereby shaping experiences of exclusion and representation in these industries. This inquiry aimed to critically examine the fashion and modeling sectors’ systemic flaws through a phenomenological and qualitative approach rather than merely critique these industries. The results produced actionable recommendations to enhance body diversity, improve brand inclusivity, and stimulate economic progress. They reinforce the need to understand the broader implications of reduced body image perception and acceptance, mainly focusing on the resultant mental health issues, such as diminished self-esteem and confidence. This research underscores the need for a more inclusive and accepting fashion industry by illuminating the complex relationship between societal beauty standards and individual self-perception.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Mitchell, Melissa Ann (author)

Core Title Inclusive vogue: exploring the demand for body diversity in the fashion and modeling world

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-08

Publication Date 07/26/2024

Defense Date 07/23/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag beauty standards,body image perceptions,body underrepresentation,brand inclusivity,economic progress in fashion,exclusion in fashion,fashion industry,identity and discrimination,inclusive fashion industry,intersectional framework,lived experiences of WOC,marketing strategies,mental health and body image,modeling industry,phenomenological approach,plus-size models, body diversity,qualitative research,representation in modeling,self-efficacy,self-esteem and confidence,Self-perception,sizing policies,societal beauty standards,systemic flaws in fashion,women of color (WOC)

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Boveja Riggio, Marsha (committee chair), Bihr, Katherine (committee member), Stephens, Lenese (committee member), Trahan, Don Jr. (committee member)

Creator Email madisonesk@gmail.com,mam61890@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113998G13

Unique identifier UC113998G13

Identifier etd-MitchellMe-13282.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-MitchellMe-13282

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Mitchell, Melissa Ann

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu