University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Architectural lighting teaching lab: a space for architecture students to experience lighting perception

(USC Thesis Other)

Architectural lighting teaching lab: a space for architecture students to experience lighting perception

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING TEACHING LAB:
A Space for Architecture Students to Experience Lighting Perception
by
Shuangyu Xi
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE
May 2024
Copyright 2024 Shuangyu Xi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who have supported me throughout
my thesis project. It is only with their valuable support that this work could have been realized.
Special thanks to Professor Douglas Noble, Professor Lauren Dandridge, and Professor Kris
Sandheinrich. Their patience and meticulous attention to detail have greatly enhanced this
research. I am also grateful to Professor Karen Kensek for her assistance and suggestions in
refining this project and moving it forward. Also, to my family and friends who provided endless
encouragement and patience during this challenging period. This experience has been profoundly
educational, and I am immensely thankful for the opportunity to conduct this research.
Committee chair:
Douglas E. Noble, Ph.D., FAIA
Professor
School of Architecture
University of Southern California
Email: dnoble@usc.edu
Committee Member #2:
Lauren Dandridge Gaines LC, IESNA, Principal
Chromatic, Inc
Adjunct Associate Professor
School of Architecture
University of Southern California
Email: ldandrid@usc.edu
Committee Member #3:
Kris Sandheinrich, IALD, LC | Principal
KGM ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING
School of Architecture
University of Southern California
Email: ksand@kgmlighting.com
ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................ii
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................... xi
KEYWORDS..................................................................................................................................xi
HYPOTHESIS...............................................................................................................................xii
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES..........................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................1
1.1 Lighting Fundamentals and Basic Perception......................................................................1
1.1.1 What Can Light Do.....................................................................................................2
1.1.2 Reflection, Absorption, Refraction and Transmission................................................2
1.1.3 Visual Perception........................................................................................................ 4
1.1.4 Color Science............................................................................................................10
1.2 Light Sources..................................................................................................................... 15
1.2.1 Incandescent Lamps..................................................................................................16
1.2.2 Discharge Lamps...................................................................................................... 17
1.2.3 Solid State Lamps..................................................................................................... 19
1.2.4 Lighting System and Styles of Luminaires...............................................................20
1.3 Architectural Lighting Design........................................................................................... 24
1.3.1 Layers of Light..........................................................................................................27
1.3.2 Basic Lighting Design Process................................................................................. 28
1.3.3 Light, Health, and Energy.........................................................................................29
1.3.4 Lighting Simulation Software...................................................................................31
1.4 The Lighting Lab............................................................................................................... 31
1.4.1 The Site: Watt One....................................................................................................32
1.4.2 Existing Lighting Conditions....................................................................................38
1.5 Undergraduate Architecture Lighting Curriculum.............................................................42
1.6 Summary............................................................................................................................43

CHAPTER TWO: BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW......................................... 45
2.1 Lighting Teaching Lab in Universities.............................................................................. 45
2.1.1 The United States......................................................................................................46
2.1.2 Lighting Labs outside of the USA............................................................................ 54
2.2 Laboratory Activities......................................................................................................... 58
2.2.1 Illuminance and Color Science................................................................................. 58
2.2.2 Energy and the Environment.................................................................................... 62
2.3 The Site.............................................................................................................................. 63
2.3.1 Existing Architectural Structure............................................................................... 63
2.3.2 Existing Lighting Schedule.......................................................................................64
2.4 Undergraduate Architectural Lighting Curriculum........................................................... 67
2.4.1 USC...........................................................................................................................68
2.4.2 Others........................................................................................................................69
2.5 Summary............................................................................................................................72
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY...................................................................................... 74
3.1 Understanding the Curriculum...........................................................................................74
3.1.1 Demonstration with Lighting Fixtures in Class........................................................76
3.1.2 Other Demonstration Topics..................................................................................... 79
3.2 Examining the Proposed Facility.......................................................................................80
3.3 Creating Design Proposal and Teaching Manual...............................................................81
3.4 Implementing the Proposal................................................................................................ 82
3.5 Testing the Experience.......................................................................................................83
3.6 Summary............................................................................................................................83
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA............................................................................................................. 85
4.1 Teaching Manual................................................................................................................85
4.2 Lighting Simulation........................................................................................................... 88
4.3 Visual Demonstration Topics.............................................................................................89
4.3.1 Recommended Illumination Levels.......................................................................... 90
4.3.2 Illuminance and Luminance......................................................................................93
4.3.3 Glare..........................................................................................................................94
4.3.4 Color Temperature and CRI......................................................................................98
4.3.5 Lamp Types...............................................................................................................99
4.3.6 Lighting Systems and Layers of Light....................................................................102
4.4 Summary.......................................................................................................................... 110
CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.................................................................... 112

5.1 Visual Demonstration Topics and Implementing.............................................................112
5.1.1 Recommended Illumination Levels........................................................................ 112
5.1.2 Illuminance and Luminance....................................................................................121
5.1.3 Glare........................................................................................................................123
5.1.4 Color Temperature and CRI....................................................................................127
5.1.5 Lamp Types.............................................................................................................130
5.1.6 Lighting System and Layers of Light..................................................................... 137
5.2 Teaching Manual..............................................................................................................142
5.3 Summary..........................................................................................................................142
CHAPTER SIX: FUTURE WORK AND CONCLUSION.........................................................143
6.1 Conclusions......................................................................................................................143
6.2 Future Work..................................................................................................................... 156
6.2.1 Real Course Implementation and Feedback from Students.................................... 156
6.2.2 Other Installation and Exercise............................................................................... 156
6.2.3 Control System........................................................................................................157
6.3 Summary.......................................................................................................................... 158
References....................................................................................................................................160
APPENDIX A.............................................................................................................................. 165

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Examples of EN 12464 Lighting of Workplaces - Indoor Workplaces Recommended
Lighting Levels (BS EN 12464-1:2021 light and lighting, 2021)................................................... 7
Table 2.1 DEA 3500/6520 The Ambient Environment for both undergraduate and graduate
students in Cornell......................................................................................................................... 69
Table 2.2 401 Architectural Building Systems, MIT.....................................................................70
Table 2.3 ARC 330 Architectural Lighting, University of Arizona...............................................70
Table 2.4 Arch 575b: Systems, Luminous and Auditory Phenomena in Architecture, USC........ 71
Table 2.5 Arch 577: Architectural Lighting Design, USC.............................................................72
Table 3.1 List of Lighting Topics...................................................................................................75
Table 3.2 List of Visual Demonstration Topics and Fixtures Needed........................................... 76
Table 4.1 All of the Demonstration Topics.................................................................................... 90
Table 4.2 Examples of Industrial and Office Tasks and the Recommended Light Levels (The
IESNA lighting handbook, 2000).................................................................................................. 91
Table 4.3 Common Types of Lamps and Applications (C.C. for O.H. and S., 2024)..................100
iii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Non-linear Relationship Between Brightness and Visual Performance (Boyce, M.S. et
al., 2002).......................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 1.2 Sources of Direct Glare and Veiling Reflection (GE Lighting, 2024)............................8
Figure 1.3 Different Types of Glare: High-angle Direct Glare, Low-angle Glare, Veiling
Reflections, and Direct Source Glare (Screen Glare) (GE Lighting, 2024)....................................9
Figure 1.4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum (Electromagnetic spectrum, 2024).............................11
Figure 1.5 The Scale of Color Temperature (Gd-Admin, Color temperature and influence of
lights, 2022)................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 1.6 The Scale of CRI (Electrical, E.-G., 2023)...................................................................13
Figure 1.7 Graphic Generated Using the Spectral Calculator, in Conformance with the ANSI/IES
TM-30-20 Standard Published by the IES (Stevens, L., 2024)......................................................14
Figure 1.8 Tungsten Halogen Lamps or Quart Iodine Lamp (Halogen Light Bulbs, 2024)..........17
Figure 1.9 Different Types of Fluorescent Lamps (Fluorescent Bulb and Base Types, 2024)...... 18
Figure 1.10 Different Types of HIDs............................................................................................. 19
Figure 1.11 Different Types of Downlights (Pendarves, C., 2024)................................................22
Figure 1.12 Typical Troffer Lights.................................................................................................23
Figure 1.13 Typical Commercial Fluorescent Fixtures..................................................................23
Figure 1.14 Typical Fluorescent Industrial.................................................................................... 24
Figure 1.15 Watt One Existing Situation, Project West.................................................................33
Figure 1.16 Watt One Existing Situation, Project East..................................................................34
iv

Figure 1.17 Watt One Existing Situation, Project North............................................................... 35
Figure 1.18 Watt One Existing Situation, Ceiling Structure..........................................................36
Figure 1.19 Watt One Existing Situation, Lights Not Connected to the Switch............................37
Figure Figure 1.20 Floor Plan of Watt One................................................................................... 38
Figure 1.21 Switches for Track Lights...........................................................................................39
Figure 1.22 Four Switches on the Wall..........................................................................................40
Figure 1.23 Lens Troffers On, North and South Display Lights On..............................................40
Figure 1.24 Lens Troffers Off, North and South Display Lights On............................................. 41
Figure 1.25 Lens Troffers Off, South Display Lights Off, North Display Lights On.................... 42
Figure 2.1 Lighting Lab of the Pennsylvania State University, PSU Department of Architectural
Engineering....................................................................................................................................47
Figure 2.2 Scientific research setting, PSU Department of Architectural Engineering.................48
Figure 2.3 Lighting Lab of the University of Colorado.................................................................49
Figure 2.4 The University of Kansas Lighting Research Laboratory............................................ 51
Figure 2.5 The Dark Room at the University of Kansas Lighting Research Laboratory.............. 52
Figure 2.6 The Color Lab, CLTC, UCDavis..................................................................................53
Figure 2.7 UC Davis Lighting Design Courses............................................................................. 54
Figure 2.8 Lighting Lab at the University of Sydney.................................................................... 55
Figure 2.9 Indoor Environmental Quality Lab at the University of Sydney..................................56
v

Figure 2.10 VR Technology Studies, Kyushu University..............................................................57
Figure 2.11 Royal Danish Academy Lighting Lab........................................................................58
Figure 2.12 Students Participating in In-person Color Appearance Demonstrations....................61
Figure 2.13 Existing Architectural Situation................................................................................. 64
Figure 2.14 Existing Lighting Schedule of Watt One....................................................................65
Figure 2.15 South and North Display Lights.................................................................................66
Figure 2.16 Foyer Lights at the Entrance.......................................................................................66
Figure 2.17 The Existing Lights.................................................................................................... 67
Figure 3.1 Methodology Diagram..................................................................................................84
Figure 4.1 Teaching Manual Pages................................................................................................87
Figure 4.2 Agi Examples............................................................................................................... 89
Figure 4.3 Method to Find Sources of Glare (C.C. for O.H. and S., 2024)...................................95
Figure 4.4 Example of the Luminance Map (Photolux Luminance, 2024)................................... 97
Figure 4.5 Infographic for Choosing the Right Specifications (Lighting, A., 2022)...................101
Figure 4.6 Specification Sheet Example for Recessed Linear LED Light (1-inch recessed linear
led light, 2024)............................................................................................................................. 102
Figure 4.7 Left, Highlighting Design Elements on the Wall with LED Cove Lights. Right,
Surface-Mounted Linear Cove LED Light (Hakimi, D., 2023)...................................................105
Figure 4.8 Setting the Mood with Linear Ceiling Surface Lights at AARMY Fitness Center
(Hakimi, D., 2023).......................................................................................................................105
vi

Figure 4.9 Highlighting Exposed Beams and Architectural Ceiling Features with LED Uplighting
(Hakimi, D., 2023).......................................................................................................................106
Figure 4.10 Volumetric Lighting Design for Produce Department of a Grocery Store (Volumetric
lighting, 2023)..............................................................................................................................108
Figure 4.11 RCP and Lighting Schedule Design Example (Master of professional studies in
lighting design, 2024).................................................................................................................. 108
Figure 4.12 Glow Plan Sketch (Master of professional studies in lighting design, 2024)...........109
Figure 4.13 Glow Plan (Master of professional studies in lighting design, 2024)...................... 110
Figure 5.1 AGI Rendering for Average Illumination Level 3 fc..................................................113
Figure 5.2 Real Scene for Average 3 fc....................................................................................... 114
Figure 5.3 Lighting Schedule for Average Illumination Level 3 fc.............................................115
Figure 5.4 AGI Rendering for Average Illumination Level 15 fc................................................115
Figure 5.5 Real Scene for Average 15 fc..................................................................................... 116
Figure 5.6 Lighting Schedule for Average Illumination Level 15 fc...........................................117
Figure 5.7 AGI Rendering for Average Illumination Level 30 fc................................................117
Figure 5.8 Real Scene for Average 30 fc..................................................................................... 118
Figure 5.9 Lighting Schedule for Average Illumination Level 30 fc...........................................118
Figure 5.10 A Real Light Meter and the Light Meter Apps........................................................ 119
Figure 5.11 Light Meter in Different Locations...........................................................................120
Figure 5.12 A Standard Lamp, Candle, Measuring Tape, White Boards.................................... 122
vii

Figure 5.13 Reading Measurements from the Light Meter..........................................................123
Figure 5.14 Reflected Glare from Direct Lights with Different Locations..................................125
Figure 5.15 Trying Different Angles and Positions to Avoid Reflected Glare.............................125
Figure 5.16 Blocking the Direct Glare.........................................................................................126
Figure 5.17 Camera Setting and Assembling.............................................................................. 127
Figure 5.18 Example of the Luminance Map (Photolux Luminance, 2024)............................... 127
Figure 5.19 Real Scene for Three Different Color Temperature with Works on the Wall (2700K,
5000K, and 6000K)......................................................................................................................128
Figure 5.20 Real Scene for Three Different Color Temperature with Works on the Table (2700K,
5000K, and 6000K)......................................................................................................................128
Figure 5.21 AGI Rendering for Three Different Color Temperature (2700K, 5000K, 6000K)...128
Figure 5.22 Real Scene for Three Different Color Temperature with the Whole Room (3000K,
4000K, and 5000K)......................................................................................................................129
Figure 5.23 Different Colors of Light.......................................................................................... 130
Figure 5.24 The Light Display Board..........................................................................................131
Figure 5.25 Different Types of Lamps and Converter Samples...................................................131
Figure 5.26 Three Types of Lamps.............................................................................................. 132
Figure 5.27 The Light Display Board Exercise........................................................................... 133
Figure 5.28 Specification Sheet Example for Recessed Linear LED Light (1-inch wide recessed
linear led light, 2024)................................................................................................................... 135
Figure 5.29 Specification Sheet Example for Surface mount LED lighting (1-inch linear led
T-Bar Grid Ceiling Light, 2024).................................................................................................. 136
viii

Figure 5.30 Specification Sheet Example for LED Track Light Head (Multi-sized led Track Light
Head, 2024)..................................................................................................................................137
Figure 5.31 Lighting Effect of LED Recessed Cove Lights........................................................ 138
Figure 5.32 Lighting Effect of Track Lights in the Front of the Classroom................................ 138
Figure 5.33 Lighting Effect of Rotated Up Track Lights.............................................................139
Figure 5.34 Ceiling Structure without Uplighting....................................................................... 140
Figure 5.35 New Linear Lighting Fixtures.................................................................................. 141
Figure 5.36 Detailed Drawings of Six Method of Using Cove Lighting (Cove Lighting
Application Note, 2024)...............................................................................................................142
Figure 6.1 List of Lighting Topics............................................................................................... 145
Figure 6.2 Lighting Schedule.......................................................................................................146
Figure 6.3 Teaching Manual Pages..............................................................................................147
Figure 6.4 Methodology Diagram................................................................................................148
Figure 6.5 AGI Rendering for Average Illumination Level 3 fc..................................................148
Figure 6.6 Real Scene for Average 3 fc....................................................................................... 149
Figure 6.7 Reading Measurements from the Light Meter............................................................150
Figure 6.8 Reflected Glare from Direct Lights with Different Locations....................................150
Figure 6.9 Example of the Luminance Map (Photolux Luminance, 2024)................................. 151
Figure 6.10 Real Scene and AGI simulation for Three Different Color Temperature (3000K,
4000K, and 5000K)......................................................................................................................152
ix

Figure 6.11 Three Types of Lamps.............................................................................................. 153
Figure 6.12 Lighting Effects........................................................................................................ 154
x

ABSTRACT
Light not only reveals architecture but also serves as a dynamic tool for altering perceptions,
making it a pivotal element in the design process. Recognizing this critical role, the USC School
of Architecture proposes the establishment of a lighting teaching laboratory within Watt Hall's
classroom B1, also known as Pierre F. Koenig FAIA, Watt One. This initiative aims to provide
undergraduate architecture students with a hands-on educational experience, enhancing their
understanding of various lighting concepts and applications. The proposed lighting lab, boasting
a 15-foot ceiling height and a hung metal ceiling grid of 5' x 5', is designed to facilitate an
immersive learning environment. Students will engage with a broad spectrum of lighting
conditions, exploring different illumination levels, glare, color temperatures, lamp types, lighting
systems, and the intricacies of layering light. Additionally, the lab will offer insights into "bad"
lighting practices and their impact on human perception and well-being. The proposed design
includes installed fixtures and other tools, and the flexible design ensures the easy incorporation
of additional fixtures in the future, allowing the facility to evolve alongside advancements in
lighting technology and educational needs. Through this initiative, the USC School of
Architecture aims to contribute to the students' educational journey, equipping them with the
knowledge and skills to thoughtfully integrate lighting into their future design projects.
KEYWORDS
Lighting, Lighting Education, Architectural Lighting Design, Watt Hall, USC
xi

HYPOTHESIS
The establishment of a lighting laboratory within the USC School of Architecture is
hypothesized to play a pivotal role in enriching the educational landscape, offering students an
expansive showcase of lighting fixtures and diverse illumination scenarios. This facility is
expected to foster a deeper comprehension among students, encouraging them to integrate
lighting considerations from the onset of their design process. With the addition of various
fixtures to the classroom and a comprehensive outline of student activities, the hypothesis aims
to validate the importance of experiential learning in lighting design and its role in developing
skilled future architects.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
• To design and construct a classroom for educational lighting experiences.
• To review the physical and physiological factors of light and its relationship to human
behavior and the interior environment.
• To help students learn the fundamental concepts of architectural lighting design, primary
types of lamps, fixtures used, and their effects in interiors.
• To design with flexible experimental setups, allowing for the practical applications and
new ideas in lighting design.
xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Architecture students must learn a tremendous amount of material about the design of
buildings. Undergraduate architecture students typically lack a deep understanding of indoor
artificial lighting. This is not due to the absence of lighting instruction, but is perhaps more
because visualizing lighting effects is difficult. Learning about architectural lighting is easy to
comprehend when students can observe it in real space. While the lighting curriculum in regular
architectural education is reasonably presented, professors and instructors still struggle to help
students’ gain an appropriate understanding since real lights usually cannot be demonstrated in
class. Pictures and videos of luminaries and standard designs are usually shown to students,
which can make learning difficult.
Lighting labs are therefore an important component of architecture schools. However, most
universities do not have a teaching lab to demonstrate various concepts of light (lamps, fixtures,
reflectors, and lighting effects) that improve the understanding of how humans respond to visual
stimuli. This chapter will talk about the architectural lighting fundamentals and basic perception,
types of lighting sources, architectural lighting design basics, the background information of the
existing site room, and the USC undergraduate lighting curriculum, in defining the necessary
components for the educational lighting lab.
1.1 Lighting Fundamentals and Basic Perception
Architecture students should be familiar with the basic concepts of lighting design.
Considering light as an important aspect of spatial design, understanding what is light, and how
1

people see the light is essential to use light as a design element.
1.1.1 What Can Light Do
Scientists, artists, and architects are fascinated by light. There are different ways in which
they define light. It can be a medium of perception in art, one of the most fascinating aspects of
physics, and it can also reveal architecture.
Light is believed to have three major effects. First, it influences visual functions, which
depend on factors such as compliant illumination levels, glare-free visibility, and effective
lighting. Secondly, lighting can enhance architectural features, creating scenes and effects that
elicit emotional responses. Lastly, light has biological impacts that support human circadian
rhythms and can either stimulate or calm individuals.
It is important for architecture students to learn how the design profession has used light, the
tools to study light, the fundamentals of design and conventions that are used to manipulate light
in buildings. Good lighting design is a key component of a successful architectural design.
Lighting is also one of the largest energy consumers in buildings, therefore, good lighting
design should also comply with building codes and sustainability initiatives. The ability to
understand lighting and controls provide a better understanding of design.
1.1.2 Reflection, Absorption, Refraction and Transmission
Light propagates in four ways: reflection, absorption, refraction, and transmission.
Reflection occurs when light bounces back after hitting a surface. There are three types of
2

reflection: regular reflection, also known as specular reflection, semi-specular reflection, and
irregular reflection, also known as diffuse reflection. In specular reflection, light rays are reflected
in one direction when they strike a smooth surface, such as a mirror. During diffuse reflection,
light rays are reflected in random directions on a rough surface. Reflection also creates glare
(Quantum Theory of Light, 2024).
In absorption of light, the energy that was carried by the light is absorbed by atoms of the
material and turned into heat. Objects that reflect all components of light appear white, and the
objects that absorb all the components of light appear black (Quantum Theory of Light, 2024).
Light is refracted when it passes obliquely from one medium to another in which it travels at
a different rate. The refractive index is calculated as the speed of light in vacuum divided by the
speed of light in a medium. Light slows down and refracts toward the normal line when it is
transferred from a low refractive index medium to a high refractive index medium. A higher
refractive index therefore results in a slower propagation of light and a greater change in the
direction of the light (Libretexts (2022) 3.6: Reflection, refraction, and dispersion, Physics
LibreTexts).
A transmission occurs when light passes through a material without being absorbed, and the
extent of the transmission depends on the type of the material. Material that is transparent or
translucent transmits light, while material that is opaque does not. There are three different types
of transmission: direct, spread, and diffuse. Direct transmission occurs when light does not
become scattered or diffused during its journey through a medium, thereby conserving its
intensity and direction. In the case of spread transmission, light scatters slightly as it passes
through a medium, causing the light to spread out but not fully diffuse, primarily through
3

materials that are translucent but not entirely transparent. During diffuse transmission, light is
scattered in numerous directions as it passes through a medium and is evenly distributed in all
directions. This type of lighting is commonly used in residential and commercial spaces to create
ambient lighting and create a welcoming and evenly lit environment.
1.1.3 Visual Perception
Visual perception refers to the ability to interpret the surrounding environment by utilizing
light within the visible spectrum (Visual perception, 2013). In order for people to perceive visual
information, it is not simply a matter of where eyes are looking. For the human retina to detect
patterns of light, human brains must perform computations that outclass even the most
sophisticated modern computers every time people open their eyes (de-Wit, L. and Wagemans, J.,
2012). Visual tasks can be performed based on how well a person's eyes perceive details, and the
performance of visual tasks is interrelated. Visibility is mainly influenced by size, exposure time,
brightness, contrast, familiarity, illumination level, brightness ratio, and glare.
A larger object or one that is placed closer to eyes makes it easier to see. Exposure angle also
determines the size and proximity of the object. For example, an increase of 25% in the lettering
size on a blackboard has the same visual effect as an increase from 10 to 1000 footcandles, or
100 to 10,000 lux. As footcandles and lux are units of measurement for illuminance, footcandles
represent the amount of light received per square foot, while lux represents the amount of light
received per square meter. Increasing the font size on computer displays leads to significant
improvements in productivity, accuracy, and viewing distance when performing text-based tasks
4

(Ko, P. et al., 2014). In particular, each 1-mm increase in font size resulted in an improvement in
accuracy of 2%. Larger font sizes also reduced the perceived difficulty of the tasks.
To achieve good visual performance, adequate light is required. However, brightness has a
non-linear relationship with visual performance, the relativity of brightness should be considered
at the same time (Figure 1.1). When considering delicate objects and paints that should be
protected from light damage, long wavelength radiation with red is preferable than short
wavelength radiation (Standards, Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023). Short wavelength
light, such as ultraviolet (UV) and blue light, carries more energy and has a greater potential for
causing photochemical degradation of materials. As a result of this type of damage, colors can
fade, organic materials may degrade, and other forms of degradation may occur.
Figure 1.1 Non-linear Relationship Between Brightness and Visual Performance (Boyce, M.S. et
al., 2002)
Variations in luminance, or contrast, enable people to distinguish a visual task from its
5

surroundings. Luminance ratio refers to the difference in luminance between any two areas of the
visual field (Luminance ratio, Illuminating Engineering Society, 2018). Luminance ratios that are
inappropriate can cause problems of transient adaptation as well as discomforting glare.
Guidelines for illumination level are established based on a variety of approximate types of
activities by the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES). For general lighting throughout the
space, public spaces with dark surroundings, for example at night, can have 3 fc or 30 lux. In
areas where visual tasks are performed only occasionally, such as lobbies and corridors, it is
recommended to use 15 fc or 150 lux. For illumination on task, the recommended illumination
for tasks requiring high contrast or large sizes, for example residential kitchens and other work
areas, is 30 fc or 300 lux. And for visual tasks of medium contrast or small size is 75 fc or 750
lux, for visual tasks of low contrast and very small size over a prolonged period of time is 150 fc
or 1500 lux (Standards, Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023). The color of the surface and the
age of the participants are also important. Another standard, EN 12464 Light and Lighting -
Lighting of Workplaces - Indoor Workplaces, recommends minimum illuminance levels of 50 lx
for walls and 30 lx for ceilings (Figure 1.2). Previously, it was typical to have light levels ranging
from 100 to 300 lux for ordinary activities, but nowadays, the common light levels are between
500 to 1000 lux, varying according to the type of activity. For tasks requiring precision and
detail, the light levels might even reach 1500 to 2000 lux (BS EN 12464-1:2021 light and
lighting, 2021).
6

Table 1.1 Examples of EN 12464 Lighting of Workplaces - Indoor Workplaces Recommended
Lighting Levels (BS EN 12464-1:2021 light and lighting, 2021)
An excessive brightness ratio can result in visual stress. The maximum recommended
brightness ratio for indoor lighting in the areas where task to immediate surroundings for
example book to desktop is 3:1, for task to general surroundings for example book to nearby
partitions is 5:1, for task to remote surroundings for example book to remote wall is 10:1, and for
light source to large adjacent area for example window to adjacent wall is 20:1 (The Indoor
Lighting Standard, SFS-EN 12464-1:2011, 2024).
Visual noise, such as glare, interferes with the ability to see clearly. Glare can be direct or
indirect (Figure 1.2). Direct glare occurs when an object is brightly illuminated directly in the
field of vision, causing irritation, discomfort, or a reduction in visual performance. The reflection
of a bright object from a glossy or polished surface produces reflected glare. When the field of
vision is overexposed to light, people are less able to perceive the visual information they need to
complete a task. When it produces physical discomfort it is called discomfort glare, and when it
7

reduces visual performance and visibility it is called disability glare. Understanding the effects of
glare on people enables human-centric design.
Figure 1.2 Sources of Direct Glare and Veiling Reflection (GE Lighting, 2024)
Glare is depicted in four different forms (Figure 1.3). In the first scenario, there is a bright
8

light source within the field of view that produces a high angle direct glare to a worker. The
second one is an example of a luminaire almost directly overhead causing low angle glare in a
worker's peripheral view. Eyebrows serve as a shield against this type of glare. Third, reflected
glare reduces contrast between the task and its surroundings due to a mirror-like image of
overhead lighting that reflects from a glossy surface. It is also known as veiling reflections. As
can be seen in the picture, the magazine has produced intense reflected glare that is making it
difficult to read the printed text. The fourth one is the screen glare, created by bright light sources
or images of distant objects reflected in video display terminal screens, resulting in reduced task
visibility and discomfort to the operator. The monitor in the picture has been affected by
inappropriate direct lighting, resulting in screen glare. Reflected light patches will distract the
operator and reduce the contrast between characters.
Figure 1.3 Different Types of Glare: High-angle Direct Glare, Low-angle Glare, Veiling
Reflections, and Direct Source Glare (Screen Glare) (GE Lighting, 2024)
For the observer, the main factors influencing visual perception in lighting include the
condition of eyes, adaptation, fatigue level, health, and effect of drug and alcohol. In addition to
affecting the visual ergonomics of humans, light can also affect their non-visual ergonomics. For
example, ergonomic office lighting leads to an increase in productivity of 4.5% (Juslén, H.,
Wouters, M. and Tenner, A., 2007). Circadian rhythms and overall health are influenced by
lighting beyond illumination and color accuracy. Natural light or artificial light that mimics
natural patterns can improve mood, energy levels, and sleep quality, thereby affecting overall
9

health and performance.
1.1.4 Color Science
A spectrum of light can be observed in a rainbow or through a prism, containing every color
visible to the human eye. The three primary colors are red, green, and blue; the three secondary
colors are yellow, cyan, and magenta. Light is perceived by the human eye as white when the
primaries are combined. In architectural lighting and theatrical lighting, removing colors from
white light to generate colored light is a common strategy. The majority of non-incandescent
light sources generate specific colors of light. Although most lamps are designed to appear white
or nearly white, some have been designed to create specific colors.
Electromagnetic waves differ in their wavelength, which is the distance between each wave
peak (Figure 1.4). It varies in length from a fraction of a millimeter for the shortest gamma waves
to hundreds of kilometers for the longest radio waves. Light is the part of the electromagnetic
spectrum that is perceived by human eyes with the wavelength range between 380 and 780 nm,
also known as the visible spectrum (Electromagnetic spectrum, 2024).
10

Figure 1.4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum (Electromagnetic spectrum, 2024)
Two important measurements of appearance of light are color temperature, and color
rendering index (CRI). Color temperature refers to how warm, neutral, or cool the light appears,
whether reddish or blue in color. Color rendering index (CRI) indicates the quality of the light on
a scale of 0 which means horrible, to 100 which means perfect.
The term color temperature refers to the light emitted from a metal object that has been
heated to the point of incandescence, for instance, an incandescent lamp has a color temperature
of 2700K, which is the same appearance as a metal object heated to 2700° Kelvin, 2427° Celsius
or 4400° Fahrenheit (Lighting Design Basics: Mark Karlen, Christina Spangler, James R. Benya,
2012). The low end of the Kelvin spectrum features red tones, while the high end displays blue
tones; right in the middle is daylight (Figure 1.5). Natural overhead daylight at 12:00 noon is
approximately 5600 K. Lamps with color temperatures below this value will exhibit yellow to
red hues, and those above it will appear green to blue (Color temperature, ScienceDirect Topics,
11

2024). Most traditional tungsten incandescent light bulbs have a color temperature of 2700K,
halogen bulbs have a color temperature of 3000K, and Edison-style lights that produce an orange
glow have a color temperature of 2000 to 2200K. Designers can incorporate warmer tones to
support a more relaxing environment and brighter tones to support an active environment. There
are a number of manufacturers that offer lighting fixtures that can be controlled by a smartphone
or simply by flipping a switch to modify the color temperature.
Figure 1.5 The Scale of Color Temperature (Gd-Admin, Color temperature and influence of
lights, 2022)
CRI is a less obvious way to measure color than color temperature. When two light sources
have the same color temperature but a different CRI, they appear much more similar than when
they have similar CRI but a different color temperature. There are also CRI indexes of scale and
classifications for minimum lamp CRI for different applications (Figure 1.6). Lighting for
noncritical applications, such as storage and security, requires a minimum CRI of 50. Industrial
and general illumination where color is not important can be between 50 to 70. For most office,
retail, school, medical, and other work and recreational spaces, the requirement is from 70 to 79.
Retail, work, and residential spaces where color quality is important need 80 to 89. And for retail
12

and work spaces where color rendering is critical, the minimum CRI is 90 to 100 (Lighting
Design Basics: Mark Karlen, Christina Spangler, James R. Benya, 2012).
Figure 1.6 The Scale of CRI (Electrical, E.-G., 2023)
A more comprehensive and accurate method of evaluating these products has become
necessary with the advent of new lighting technologies, such as LEDs. ANSI/IES TM-30-20 is a
revolutionary approach to assessing color rendition in lighting, introduced by IES (Using TM-30
to improve your lighting design by Illuminating Engineering Society, 2022). It considers the
entire spectrum of light emitted by LEDs and uses 99 reference colors, chosen from real-life
objects, to evaluate the color fidelity and saturation of a light source. IES developed the Spectral
Calculator (Figure 1.7) as an official tool for computing metrics derived from spectral power
distributions (SPDs) of light sources, provides implementations of the IES Method for
Characterizing the Color Rendition of Light Sources, serves as the reference implementation of
13

TM-30 (IES TM-30 Calculator, 2023).
Figure 1.7 Graphic Generated Using the Spectral Calculator, in Conformance with the ANSI/IES
TM-30-20 Standard Published by the IES (Stevens, L., 2024)
14

1.2 Light Sources
The main light sources are daylight, and artificial light, commonly referred to as a lamp.
Additional sources such as bioluminescence, chemiluminescence, and electroluminescence are
not typically used for general lighting purposes in architectural spaces. The term luminaire refers
to a complete lighting system that includes lamps, light distribution systems such as reflectors
and lenses, and power supply connections such as ballasts, if discharge sources are used.
Daylight is technically reliable and predictable, as weather data allows for the precise
calculation of the solar position throughout the year. Typically, designers aim to maximize
sunlight exposure during winter and reduce it in summer. Although daylight is a valuable
component of architectural lighting, the proposed lighting lab will focus exclusively on studying
electric lighting.
For lighting prior to the invention of gaseous fuels, olive oil, beeswax, fish oil, whale oil,
sesame oil, nut oil, or other similar liquid fuels were used. Ancient Chinese documents, over
1,700 years old, mention the use of natural gas for both lighting and heating in homes, with
bamboo pipelines delivering the gas (James, P. and Thorpe, I.J., 1995). In 1792, while employed
by James Watt's steam engine enterprise in England, engineer William Murdoch began to explore
the use of coal gas as a source of light. He pioneered the practical use of gas's combustibility for
illumination purposes (Thomson, J., 2003). Until electricity was widely accessible and affordable
to the general public, outdoor and indoor lighting in urban and suburban environments was
predominantly provided by gas lighting. However, natural gas is almost entirely obsolete today as
a source of lighting inside homes (Sweeney, M., 2019).
15

Since Thomas Edison and Joseph Swan invented the first practical incandescent lamp in the
19th century, many types of electrical lighting have been developed, and their efficiency has
improved significantly over the years. Lamps are essential to a lighting system, and some of the
most important ones are listed in the following paragraphs.
1.2.1 Incandescent Lamps
The incandescent lamp is one of the standard lamps available in a wide variety of sizes and
voltages. It is an electric light with a wire filament that is placed in either a nitrogen gas mixture
or a vacuum, and heated to a high temperature that it glows with visible light. The sudden flow of
current, energy, and heat penetrate the thin areas and heat up the filament, therefore, once the
filament reaches a certain temperature, it tends to break and burn out the bulb. A typical
incandescent lamp has a life expectancy of approximately 1000 hours, with a luminous efficiency
of about 15 lumens per watt. These lamps are rapidly being replaced by LEDs. A number of
countries have already prohibited the sale of most incandescent lamps at higher wattages.
A halogen lamp consists of a tungsten filament, which is sealed with a compact transparent
envelope and filled with an inert gas and small amount of halogen (Figure 1.8). Halogen lamps
improve their life expectancy and brightness, with a luminous efficiency of about 25 lumens per
watt. However, the European Union began phasing out inefficient bulbs in 2009. Also, halogen
light bulbs have been banned in Australia since 2020 (Lighting Council Australia, 2020).
16

Figure 1.8 Tungsten Halogen Lamps or Quart Iodine Lamp (Halogen Light Bulbs, 2024)
1.2.2 Discharge Lamps
The term discharge lamp refers to a family of artificial light sources that provide illumination
by sending an electric discharge through an ionized gas, such as argon, neon, krypton, or xenon.
Light color is determined by the emission spectrum of the atoms, pressure, and density of the gas
in addition to other variables.
Fluorescent lamps, introduced in the 1930s, are high efficacy lamps that produce ultraviolet
(UV) light through the use of an electric discharge through low pressure mercury vapor, and use
fluorescence to produce visible light (Figure 1.9). Lamps of this type are safer to use, as well as
reducing energy costs for cooling, generating 70 percent less heat. Over the past decade,
however, the production of fluorescent lamps has significantly decreased.
17

Figure 1.9 Different Types of Fluorescent Lamps (Fluorescent Bulb and Base Types, 2024)
A High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamp is an electrical gas discharge lamp that produces
light by creating an electric arc between tungsten electrodes housed inside a translucent or
transparent fused quartz shell (Figure 1.10). Over 10,000 hours of operation, the lumen output of
HID lighting can decrease by up to 70%. Mercury vapor, metal halide, induction, sulfur, and
high-pressure sodium are some of the most common types of HID lamps. In comparison, these
lamps produce a great deal of light. Normally, HID lamps are used for large outdoor activity
18

areas, gymnasiums, large public areas, pathways, roadways and parking lots where there is a
need for high levels of light.
Figure 1.10 Different Types of HIDs
1.2.3 Solid State Lamps
Semiconductor light-emitting diodes (LED), organic light-emitting diodes (OLED), and
polymer light-emitting diodes (PLED) can emit light without the use of filaments, plasma, or gas
as sources of illumination. This type of lamp is known as a solid state lamp.
In the year 2025, LED market transformation is expected to reach 50%, following the Paris
Agreement (The Paris Agreement, 2016). LED lighting is a relatively mature technology.
Compared with incandescent lighting, the best white LED lighting systems provide more than
three times the luminous efficacy, which is the term of the amount of light produced per unit
power consumed in lumens per watt. By switching to energy-efficient light emitting diode
technology, over 1,400 million tons of CO2 could be saved and 1,250 power stations could be
19

avoided (The Paris Agreement, 2016).
LEDs also have the advantage of long life, as they are capable of lasting for up to and beyond
100,000 hours or more. Light from LEDs is of higher quality as they emit a minimum amount of
ultraviolet and infrared radiation. The systems have low voltage, cool-to-the-touch systems
which are generally considered to be safer. As well as being smaller and more flexible, they are
ideal for lighting tight spaces due to their size.
1.2.4 Lighting System and Styles of Luminaires
Any device that includes a lampholder can be defined as a luminaire. On the other hand,
luminaires attached permanently to a building are known as lighting fixtures (Lighting Design
Basics: Mark Karlen, Christina Spangler, James R. Benya, 2012). Luminaires are distinguished
by their distribution of light. There are direct luminaires, indirect luminaires, diffuse luminaires,
direct/indirect luminaires, asymmetric luminaires, and adjustable luminaires.
Direct luminaires emit light downward, including most types of recessed lighting, for
example, downlights and troffers. They are useful for distributing light directly onto the task area,
but the high contrast of light can be uncomfortable. Therefore, direct lighting is generally not
recommended for workspaces. Direct luminaires are typically used to create a dramatic space for
building lobbies, and restaurants.
Indirect luminaires emit light upward, reflecting light from the ceiling into the space, for
example, some suspended luminaires and sconces. The advantage of these lights is that they
produce a soft, low-contrast light, which is ideal for workspaces in which people spend a
significant amount of time working.
20

Diffuse luminaires emit uniform light in all directions, for example, some bare lamps,
chandeliers, and some table and floor lamps. Typically, they create broad general light that are
utilized for ornamental purposes or utilitarian applications. Most designers do not use diffuse
luminaires alone because they can be flat and uninteresting.
Direct/indirect luminaires emit light both upward and downward, not to the side, for example,
many types of suspended luminaires, and some table and floor lamps. This is an effective
compromise between direct lighting and indirect lighting, in terms of the efficiency and the
comfort.
There are usually special applications for asymmetric luminaires. For example, wall washer
can provide a strong distribution to one side in order to illuminate a wall, or an accent light can
highlight and illuminate a painting. These lights are used when accent lighting of objects or
surfaces is needed.
Adjustable luminaires are usually direct luminaires that can be adjusted in order to throw
light in specific directions, for example, track lights, flood-lights, and accent lights.
Recessed downlights are one of the most common styles of luminaire, usually round and
recessed in the ceiling as general illumination. It is possible to install downlights that are
equipped with incandescent, halogen, low-voltage incandescent, compact fluorescent, or HID
lamps (Figure 1.11) as well as solid state sources. There are generally two parts to a downlight:
the recessed housing above the ceiling and the trim installed below it.
21

Figure 1.11 Different Types of Downlights (Pendarves, C., 2024)
In recent history, a fluorescent luminaire called a troffer is the most common type of
luminaire used for general lighting in commercial and institutional facilities, for example, offices,
stores, and schools (Figure 1.12). The majority of fluorescent technologies can be equipped in
troffers, including dimming, magnetic or electronic ballasts, along with T-8 or T-5 lighting.
During a power outage or emergency, some or all of the lamps are able to be powered by
emergency battery packs.
22

Figure 1.12 Typical Troffer Lights
In terms of cost, commercial lighting fixtures are among the most affordable (Figure 1.13).
Most of them are intended for use in dry environments, and they are commonly used in general
and utility lighting.
Figure 1.13 Typical Commercial Fluorescent Fixtures
Many industrial luminaires are utilitarian or functional in design. The fluorescent industrial
luminaire is a strip light, open fixture with a simple reflector that can be surface mounted or hung
23

using a chain or a rod (Figure 1.14). These fixtures can be found in factories, warehouses, and
the space that require a less finished appearance.
Figure 1.14 Typical Fluorescent Industrial
The linear lighting system is available in a variety of lengths and can be arranged according
to specific needs. The system can be configured with different types of luminaires including
indirect, semi-indirect, and direct-indirect lighting distribution.
1.3 Architectural Lighting Design
Architectural lighting design emphasizes incorporating light into the built environment,
improving both the aesthetic allure and practical utility of architectural spaces. It requires
balancing artistic vision with technical expertise to develop solutions that are not only visually
appealing but also effective. This includes ensuring visual comfort, enhancing aesthetics,
optimizing functionality, integrating seamlessly with the space, supporting health, conserving
energy, among other considerations. As Le Corbusier's theory of light, "Architecture is the
masterly, correct, and magnificent play of masses brought together in light. Our eyes are made to
24

see forms in light; light and shade reveal these Forms...", emphasize the role of light in shaping
architectural form and experience.
In contemporary architectural design, lighting systems are treated as fundamental building
systems, similar to heating and HVAC systems. Typically, focusing solely on an engineered
lighting layout leads to a uniform lighting system arranged in a regular pattern or grid. However,
such a strategy can often lead to dissatisfaction among occupants due to the glaring light it
produces and its aesthetic shortcomings. Designers with a deeper understanding of architectural
lighting are capable of devising more sophisticated solutions than just a simple, standard grid of
lights.
There is a difference between architectural lighting fixtures and decorative lighting fixtures.
Architectural lighting fixtures are used to illuminate structures in an architectural manner while
remaining inconspicuous and functional. Different types of wall washers, wall grazing fixtures,
accent fixtures, cove lights, and task lights are architectural lighting fixtures. On the other hand,
decorative lighting contributes significantly to the building's style, period, and motif. Chandeliers,
pendants, close-to-ceiling luminaires, sconces, floor lamps and table lamps are examples of
decorative lighting.
The following six types of architectural lighting are noted for their positive effects
psychological and physiological.
Cove lighting can be installed in various architectural features, usually mounted to a wall or
ceiling, softens the space it illuminates, creating an inviting atmosphere. This indirect, soft
lighting fosters a peaceful environment by avoiding direct light, minimizing harsh shadows and
bright spots that can cause visual discomfort and stress. Additionally, it helps maintain visual
25

comfort throughout the space.
Ambient lighting delivers a uniform, soft, and even illumination across spaces. It provides
sufficient light for safe movement and basic tasks, thereby reducing the risk of accidents and
improving the functionality of a space. Additionally, ambient lighting establishes the tone of a
room and enhances architectural features.
Accent lighting is typically three times brighter than ambient lighting and is strategically
used to emphasize specific areas or objects, such as artwork, architectural features, or key design
elements, ensuring they become focal points in a space. It requires meticulous planning and
placement to create the intended effect without producing glare or unwanted shadows. It
significantly enhances visual clarity, which is especially beneficial in museums and galleries
where detail is crucial. Accent lighting not only draws attention but also adds a unique touch
compared to other types of lighting.
Task lighting is specifically designed to deliver concentrated illumination for activities like
reading, cooking, and studying, thereby enhancing both the functionality and comfort of
workspaces. Many task lighting fixtures are adjustable, enabling users to accurately position the
light source, reducing shadows and glare and increasing the area's flexibility. By offering
sufficient illumination, task lighting alleviates eye strain and fatigue, facilitating better focus and
boosting productivity.
Uplighting is also an indirect lighting technique that minimizes glare and reduces shadows
and dark spots in interior spaces. By casting light upwards and reflecting it off the ceiling and
walls, it can make rooms appear larger and less claustrophobic, which can be soothing to the
mind.
Surface and suspended lighting, such as linear LED surface lighting systems, are effective for
26

creating a sense of movement through space and differentiating between various areas within a
room. Linear recessed lighting arranged in clean, straight lines to achieve a seamless integration
between walls and ceilings. This type of LED lighting system is especially favored in office
environments where there is a focus on enhancing productivity, creativity, and alertness. The
lights are recessed into the walls, floors, or ceilings, providing even lighting that complements
and highlights modern interior designs (Chahine, A., 2023).
1.3.1 Layers of Light
The concept of layers of light refers to the strategic use of different types of lighting to create
a balanced and functional space, not only enhances the aesthetic appeal of an environment but
also improves its usability. Each layer serves a specific purpose and works in harmony with the
others to furnish a comprehensive lighting solution. Layers will assist designers in making better
choices with regard to different design requirements. Providing a framework that enables
designers to understand and achieve composition and aesthetics in the design of lighting.
The ambient layer provides overall lighting in the space, rather than specific tasks. A
significantly lower ambient light level will result in a high contrast between task and ambient
light levels, resulting in a more dramatic appearance of the environment. The choice of ambient
lighting will affect the mood and ambience of the space. As an example, ambient lighting in
museums is often low in order to enhance the sense of drama and create a significant contrast
with the feature exhibits. Additionally, lower ambient lighting in museums can prevent the fading
and deterioration of sensitive materials which may be damaged by prolonged exposure to bright
light.
27

A task light layer is created where the task lights are provided for working and reading,
including table lamps, floor lamps, drafting lamps, and shelf lights. Since task lighting is usually
much needed than ambient lighting in most of the space, providing higher levels of task light
only where necessary will typically be more energy-efficient.
The focal layer with focal lighting usually illuminates features such as artwork, architectural
features, retail displays, and signs. The most popular form of focal lighting is track lighting,
because they allow rapid changes in the lighting to suit changing display needs. Recessed
adjustable accent lights, wall washers, and monopoint accent lights are also commonly used focal
lighting that is meant to be innocuous.
The decorative layer aimed to catch the eye and to make statements. Decorative lighting
includes chandeliers, sconces, lanterns, pendants, lamps, and ceiling surface lights. Due to the
poor light emission from most decorative lights, occupants usually do not rely on them for task
lighting purposes.
1.3.2 Basic Lighting Design Process
According to Lighting Design Basics, Mark Karlen and James Benya, 2012, there are eight
steps to successful lighting design solutions. Step 1 is to determine lighting design criteria, for
example the quantity of illumination, quality of illumination, and codes. Step 2 is to record
architectural conditions and constraints that may affect lighting design decisions. Step 3 is to
determine visual functions and tasks to be served. Step 4 and 5 is to select lighting systems to be
used, and then select luminaire and lamp types. Step 6 is to determine the number and location of
luminaires. Step 7 is to place switching and other control devices. Finally, step 8 is thinking
28

about aesthetics and other intangibles. These steps are intended to be a prescribed methodology
for high-quality, professional lighting design results.
1.3.3 Light, Health, and Energy
The relationship between light and humans is explored through physical space, as well as
knowledge related to light qualities, cultural aspects, light sources and materials, as well as the
design process itself. Reflecting on the importance of lighting in daily life and its impact on
human well-being and the environment, for example, the effects of various wavelengths of light,
especially blue light from electronic screens and LED lighting, can disrupt natural sleep-wake
cycles and adversely affect overall health if exposed to them. Also, dynamic lighting systems
match natural light patterns throughout the day, improving well-being and energy efficiency in
buildings.
Human-centric lighting is concerned with addressing the physiological effects of artificial
lighting. An individual's ability to maintain productivity over an extended period of time is
directly affected by visual comfort, which involves creating a lighting environment that is easy on
the eyes and prevents strain. For example, providing good lighting in the workplace will improve
ergonomics and prevent strains and injuries, contributing to a healthier work environment.
Lighting needs to change with age and for people with specific health conditions, and lighting
design needs to take this into account.
CO2 emissions from lighting account for nearly 5% of global emissions (Environment, U.,
UNEP, 2013). Climate action is urgently needed following the historic Paris Agreement. In the
next decade, LED lighting will be able to save cities up to 50% on energy costs and will enable
29

cities to transition to a low-carbon economy. Energy-efficient lighting technologies, such as
LEDs and OLEDs, can reduce energy consumption and the environmental impact of lighting.
The integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar power, into lighting systems to
promote sustainability and reduce dependence on non-renewable energy sources.
Lighting fixtures should meet safety and quality standards. Several standards that address
both safety concerns and energy consumption are outlined below. Title 24 is the section of
California's energy regulation code which pertains to lighting in almost all of California’s
buildings including historic, residential and non-residential(California Energy Commission
Building Energy Efficiency Standards, 2024). As part of California's energy regulations, there are
controls, restrictions, and mandates regarding lighting power loads in indoor and outdoor
settings. For example, light-emitting diode (LED) lighting technology, lighting power density
(LPD), and wattage requirements are stipulated. Regulations are updated approximately every
three years.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) maintains Nationally
Recognized Testing Laboratories (NRTL) for the recognition of third party testing and
certification to applicable product safety standards. It provides evaluation, testing, and
certification services for products that are electrically operated or that are gas or oil-fired
(OSHA’s nationally recognized testing laboratory (NRTL) program, 2024). Underwriters
Laboratories (UL) lists products only after they have been tested by UL and found to meet UL's
safety requirements. It means the product has been evaluated by the government as meeting
national standards for sustainability and safety, and that it is free from reasonably foreseeable
risks of electric shock or fire in a Division 2 environment with ignitable concentrations.
Electrical Testing Laboratories (ETL) is part of Intertek Testing Laboratories, which is also an
30

OSHA-recognized NRTL. Rather than publishing their own standards, ETL focuses on product
testing against established standards. It is recognized and accepted in North America and the
United States as the ETL mark indicates compliance with North American safety standards (ETL
Listed Mark, 2024). The safety and quality of lighting fixtures is an important component of
architectural lighting design. Understanding the differences and similarities between lighting
products is essential in order to make an informed decision.
1.3.4 Lighting Simulation Software
As a leading lighting simulation software, AGI32, sometimes referred to as AGI, was
developed by Lighting Analysts, Inc.. In Agi32, lighting levels are calculated and graphical
representations are provided for both interior and exterior environments (Agi32 Overview –
Industry Standard Lighting Software: Lighting analysts, 2020). It allows accurate simulations of
lighting effects in complex geometry with the tools for creating intricate 3D models of
architectural spaces. In addition, it can perform exact photometric analyses in order to determine
illumination in a particular area. Moreover, it provides dynamic visualizations, such as realistic
renderings and animations, to illustrate graphically how light interacts with surfaces and
materials.
1.4 The Lighting Lab
Establishing a lighting lab is crucial for architecture students, as it provides them with a
practical understanding of lighting design's impact on spaces and structures. Many architecture
31

schools, including the USC School of Architecture, presently lack a dedicated facility for lighting
experimentation. However, it is feasible to convert an existing classroom into a lighting
laboratory. Utilizing just one standard classroom should be enough for this purpose. As an
example, classroom B1 in Watt Hall at USC has been identified as a suitable location for such a
conversion.
1.4.1 The Site: Watt One
The School of Architecture at the University of Southern California is situated within Watt
Hall and Harris Hall. Watt Hall, which came into existence in 1974, is a creation of Edward
Killingsworth, an esteemed alumnus of the institution. Within Watt Hall, the lighting teaching
laboratory is designated as room B1, also known under the names Pierre F. Koenig FAIA, and
Watt One. The dimensions of this room are 40 feet by 50 feet, featuring a ceiling height of 15
feet (Figures 1.15 to 1.17). Additionally, the room is equipped with a metal grid ceiling structure
that spans 5 feet by 5 feet (Figures 1.18 and 1.19).
32

Figure 1.15 Watt One Existing Situation, Project West
33

Figure 1.16 Watt One Existing Situation, Project East
34

Figure 1.17 Watt One Existing Situation, Project North
35

Figure 1.18 Watt One Existing Situation, Ceiling Structure
36

Figure 1.19 Watt One Existing Situation, Lights Not Connected to the Switch
Originally designated as a lighting laboratory, the infrastructure and systems requisite for
such a purpose are already established within the room. However, the lighting lab has not been
used in several decades, and some lighting fixtures currently are disconnected from the
corresponding switches. Due to its current use as a conventional classroom with projectors,
screens, tables, and chairs, the room has the flexibility to accommodate a variety of classroom
lighting scenarios (Figure 1.20).
37

Figure 1.20 Floor Plan of Watt One
1.4.2 Existing Lighting Conditions
A diverse array of existing lighting types is present. The track lights installed on the ceiling
grid are equipped with dimming capabilities (Figure 1.21). It has been also observed that some
original fixtures positioned on the grid, as well as the downlights, seem to be disconnected from
their respective switches. This indicates that the wall-mounted switches intended for the track
lights do not govern all lighting units. Furthermore, distinct switches have been allocated for the
downlights, north display lights, south display lights, and foyer lights (Figure 1.22).
The available lighting configurations include options for turning the lens troffers, north
38

display lights, south display lights, foyer lights, and certain connected track lights either on or
off. The subsequent pictures detail the various lighting effects attainable through the combination
of these settings (Figure 1.23 to 1.25). Deactivating all lighting fixtures will result in the room
being completely dark.
Figure 1.21 Switches for Track Lights
39

Figure 1.22 Four Switches on the Wall
Figure 1.23 Lens Troffers On, North and South Display Lights On
40

Figure 1.24 Lens Troffers Off, North and South Display Lights On
41

Figure 1.25 Lens Troffers Off, South Display Lights Off, North Display Lights On
1.5 Undergraduate Architecture Lighting Curriculum
USC School of Architecture offers a foundational lighting course for undergraduate students,
titled Arch 315: Design for the Luminous and Sonic Environment. This comprehensive course
encompasses three distinct domains of design, lighting, acoustics, and building engineering
systems, allocating eight lectures of study to lighting each semester. The syllabus for the course
is as follows:
Lecture 01: Lighting Fundamentals and Basic Perception.
Lecture 02: Physics of Light and Color.
42

Lecture 03: Light Sources, Lamps and Fixtures.
Lecture 04: Designing with Artificial Light, Equipment, Point Grid.
Lecture 05: Calculating Light-Lumen Method/ Applications.
Lecture 06: Basic Electricity and Dimming.
Lecture 07: Designing with Daylight.
Lecture 08: Lighting Applications.
Undergraduate architecture programs often incorporate lighting related courses into a broader
building science curriculum. For example, the Arch 315 course concentrates on the thermal,
luminous, and acoustic properties of buildings concurrently over a single semester. Students are
instructed in applying these principles to design comfortable indoor environments. Another
example, within the course titled 4.401 Architectural Building Systems, offered by the
Department of Architecture at MIT, the curriculum extends beyond a singular session on
daylighting to include two dedicated lectures specifically addressing electric lighting and control
systems. In the realm of more specialized lighting design education, the Lighting Design Seminar
offered by the School of Architecture at the University of Florida serves as a pertinent example.
This course delves into a variety of topics including cultural interpretations of light, its historical
usage, the perception of light, its physical properties, the interaction between light and surfaces,
and the conversion of electricity into light.
1.6 Summary
Lighting laboratories are a crucial part of architecture schools' educational infrastructure.
However, it is relatively rare for universities to possess a dedicated teaching laboratory where
43

students can explore different lighting fixtures and deepen their understanding of lighting design
principles. This chapter has laid the foundational knowledge of architectural lighting, including
the differentiation among light sources, detailed information regarding the selected site, and the
lighting curriculum for USC undergraduate students.
44

CHAPTER TWO: BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE
REVIEW
An overview of university-based and professional lighting laboratories is provided in this
chapter, emphasizing their role in facilitating experimental studies that have proven to be
instrumental in enabling a deeper understanding of architectural lighting. Also, the existing
architectural lighting curricula around the world have been examined to determine the requisite
components and learning outcomes for a lighting lab. It is important to identify and incorporate
the commonalities among newly established lighting laboratories in order to improve lighting
labs. This chapter will talk about the lighting lab in universities both in and outside of the USA,
lab activities, analysis of the architecture and lighting details of the site, and the summary of
lighting curriculum in a variety of universities.
2.1 Lighting Teaching Lab in Universities
There are not always lighting labs available in architecture schools. In addition to enhancing
classrooms with additional lighting fixtures, lighting labs can also be adapted for use as
experimental spaces within a professional setting. A selection of examples from around the
world are presented here, including examples from the United States that cater to students in a
variety of disciplines, such as architecture, engineering, and interior design.
According to Professor Shaun Fillion, LC MIES, Program Director of the Master in
Professional Studies in Lighting Design program at the New York School of Interior Design, the
45

state-of-the-art architectural lighting lab is a key tool for building a fundamental understanding
of how light can be used as a medium (Master of professional studies in lighting design, 2024).
Through hands-on experiences in focusing, composition of scenes, and color tuning, students
will have the opportunity to explore lighting in full scale. Electrical contracting and architectural
lighting design differ significantly in this respect. Architectural lighting designers provide light
sources and control systems, arrange them spatially, and consider how light and materials
interact. Lighting design plays an important role in the aesthetic and functional design of
architectural spaces, which can be better learned by taking part in a lighting teaching lab. Such
laboratories offer a range of demonstrations, providing a hands-on learning experience that is
invaluable to the educational process.
2.1.1 The United States
As part of this section, a selected group of three case studies are examined that relate to
analogous lighting teaching laboratories located at academic institutions across the United
Stateses. The universities featured in these case studies include Pennsylvania State University,
the University of Colorado, and the University of Kansas.
The Lighting Lab of the Department of Architectural Engineering of The Pennsylvania State
University focuses on the interaction between humans and built environments with respect to
energy consumption, user interaction, and environmental impacts (Figure 2.1). As part of the
lab's mission, it facilitates cross-disciplinary research that addresses socioeconomic,
sociotechnical, and sociocognitive aspects of illumination design. Light and health, energy
efficiency, next-generation lighting systems, color science, visual perception, psychophysics, and
46

many others are some of their research areas (Lighting Lab, Department of Architectural
Engineering The Pennsylvania State University, 2024).
Figure 2.1 Lighting Lab of the Pennsylvania State University, PSU Department of Architectural
Engineering
A demonstration classroom with 20 seats is available for architecture students, along with a
wide range of lighting controls and luminaires for human factors experiments. Lab equipment
include a repertoire of legacy luminaires, installed lighting that provides readily available
demonstrations for chromaticity, color rendering, Flynn Modes, and more. Additionally, the
lighting lab at The Pennsylvania State University offers two sets of LED arrays with 27 unique
LED emitters for producing research spectra for tightly controlled experiments (Figure 2.2).
Measurement equipment for example luminance and illuminance meters, a non-contact
47

spectroradiometer is there to collect feedback. The lab uses DALI (Digital Addressable Lighting
Interface), DMX (Digital Multiplex) and MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) for the
control system. Research is conducted in both fundamental and applied fields in the lab. Many
scientific research projects have been conducted here. There are five courses enrolled in the
lighting lab, Fundamentals of Electrical and Illumination Systems for Building, Architectural
Illumination Systems & Design, Computer-Aided Lighting Design, Color Science, and Human
Factors and Lighting. (Research Lighting Lab, 2024).
Figure 2.2 Scientific research setting, PSU Department of Architectural Engineering
As part of the Architectural Engineering and Building Systems program at the University of
48

Colorado, students have access to their own lighting laboratory (Figure 2.3). It has a dynamic
ceiling that can be adjusted to different heights, blackout curtains for external light, daylight
sensors, a goniophotometer to measure the intensity of light at various angles, a moveable
lighting station, and a variety of luminaires. It is possible to adjust almost everything individually
or in groups based on the needs of academics or researchers (Lighting laboratory, Civil,
Environmental and Architectural Engineering, 2022).
Figure 2.3 Lighting Lab of the University of Colorado
Dynamic ceilings consist of an extensive aluminum grid that allows for the quick connection
of electrical and physical sources of light. The lighting station also includes handheld
illumination measurement equipment, for example, illuminance and luminance meters. Lamps,
49

sockets, ballasts, and luminaire samples are also available for use in mock-ups, luminaire design
exercises, and research.
The lab is complemented by the main lab and an adjacent studio space that is used primarily
to conduct lighting research. The purpose of the laboratory is to provide an independent research
space for research on topics such as daylighting, light spectrum optimization, and psychological
aspects of lighting. The lab utilizes active learning, testing, and experimentation to support
lighting curricula.
The University of Kansas Lighting Research Laboratory has two parts, the 715 square feet of
laboratory space, and a 550 square-foot dark room. With floor-to-ceiling curtains, this lab can be
divided into multiple sub-areas for daylighting education and research, Solid-State Lighting
display, mock-up tests, and more (Figure 2.4). There are approximately 20 seats available for
class in this multi-purpose lab which can be used for both research and teaching. Lighting
fixtures can be mounted and tested on ceiling grids with power tracks, and ceiling panels with
adjustable heights are available for comparison in sub-areas (Lighting Research Laboratory,
Civil, Environmental & Architectural Engineering, 2024).
50

Figure 2.4 The University of Kansas Lighting Research Laboratory
The Kansas Dark Room is a windowless laboratory space specifically designed for lighting
measurement and testing in a well-controlled laboratory environment (Figure 2.5). This space
was remodeled with all interior surfaces painted flat black. Currently, the Dark Room
accommodates an LED workshop, a full LED light measurement system with 0.5 m integrating
sphere, a portable calorimeter chamber for accurate heat transfer measurement of the new LED
luminaires in a well-controlled environment, a Heliodon sunlight simulator for daylighting
studies, a traffic signal light control cabinet, and a lot of test equipment including Minolta light
meters, environmental meters, power meters, infrared cameras, laser distance meters, Onset data
loggers and sensors, AC/DC power supplies, etc (Lighting Research Laboratory, Civil,
Environmental & Architectural Engineering, 2024).
51

Figure 2.5 The Dark Room at the University of Kansas Lighting Research Laboratory
The California Lighting Technology Center of The Regents of the University of California,
Davis campus (California Lighting Technology Center, 2024), aims to accelerate the
commercialization of electric building systems and controls technologies for decarbonization,
grid resilience, and community well-being. A major focus of their work is on colors, human
factors, energy management systems, as well as both indoor and outdoor lighting systems.
At UC Davis' California Lighting Technology Center, in collaboration with the Center for
Mind and Brain, has established the "Color Lab" for exploring how discrete color spectrums may
influence stress, mood, and alertness (Figure 2.6). In conjunction with commercially available
color-tuning lighting technologies and the new color lab, human-centric lighting design will be
52

interpreted to optimize the space for the well-being of the occupants (The color lab, California
Lighting Technology Center, 2024). Furthermore, students at UCDavis have access to a lighting
class in which they will develop a lighting vocabulary and gain a fundamental understanding of
the technologies of lighting (Figure 2.7). To acquire a working knowledge of LEDs,
next-generation lighting sources, and fixture design in addition (California Lighting Technology
Center, 2024).
Figure 2.6 The Color Lab, CLTC, UCDavis
53

Figure 2.7 UC Davis Lighting Design Courses
2.1.2 Lighting Labs outside of the USA
Within this segment, additional case studies will be presented, focusing on university-based
lighting teaching laboratories situated in various global locations. These institutions comprise the
University of Sydney, Kyushu University, and the Royal Danish Academy of Architecture, each
distinguished by its unique area of specialization.
The University of Sydney School of Architecture, Design and Planning established their
lighting lab to solve the limitations associated with using commercial lighting products for
research (Lighting lab, The University of Sydney, 2024). Facilities include spectral power
distributions, integrating spheres, optical elements, tools used to manipulate the spatial
distribution of light, and specify lighting control systems (Figure 2.8). Students are able to study
54

the application of emerging lighting technologies in this lab. Mounting equipment on the
customized rigging system allows height and width adjustments of experimental spaces. As part
of this system, temporary wall panels can be attached to simulate interior environments or isolate
psychophysical testing areas (Lighting lab, The University of Sydney, 2024).
Figure 2.8 Lighting Lab at the University of Sydney
Furthermore, The University of Sydney also has an Indoor Environmental Quality
Laboratory, one of the only laboratories of its kind in the southern hemisphere. As a unique
facility, the IEQ Lab provides the building research community with the opportunity to examine
multiple factors affecting human comfort, performance, and health (Figure 2.9). There is a
particular focus on lighting, acoustics, and thermal comfort. The use of laboratory methods
allows precise control of the exposure of experimental subjects to qualities of the indoor
environment, such as artificial lighting and daylight. These equipment can also be used for field
studies that use actual buildings with actual occupants. (The University of Sydney School of
Architecture, Design and Planning)
55

Figure 2.9 Indoor Environmental Quality Lab at the University of Sydney
The Architectural Lighting Laboratory, Department of Architecture and Urban Design,
Faculty of Human-Environment Studies at Kyushu University, Japan, is mainly working on
design, evaluation and control of indoor and outdoor luminous environments from aspects of
environmental physics and human psychology and physiology (Figure 2.10). For design and
evaluation of architectural spaces utilizing the virtual environment, the lab is focusing on
development of design methods for the building envelope and windows based on visual
information of 3D urban models (Architectural Lighting Laboratory, Department of Architecture
and Urban Design, Faculty of Human-Environment Studies, KYUSHU UNIVERSITY, 2024).
56

Figure 2.10 VR Technology Studies, Kyushu University
Students, teachers, and researchers use the Architectural Lighting Lab at the Royal Danish
Academy of Architecture, Design, Conservation to study daylight and artificial lighting. There is
a mirror room in the lab with an artificial sun, which makes it possible to observe how the sun
illuminates and creates shadows during various times of the day (Figure 2.11). A collection of
light sources and fixtures is also available in the laboratory for use in tests, studies, and the
exploration of lighting conditions (Architectural Lighting Lab, Royal Danish Academy, 2022).
57

Figure 2.11 Royal Danish Academy Lighting Lab
2.2 Laboratory Activities
This section encompasses an overview of research activities conducted in university-based
lighting laboratories. Immersive visual demonstrations constitute a crucial element of lighting
education, highlighting the importance of a versatile lighting laboratory. A flexible lighting lab
allows for a wide range of activities, including the demonstration of color temperature, dimming,
and energy efficient lighting design as examples in this section.
2.2.1 Illuminance and Color Science
58

Increasing the illumination level in an office setting has been shown to have a positive effect
on subjective alertness, objective performance, and physiological responses (Smolders, K.C.H.J.,
de Kort, Y.A.W. and Cluitmans, P.J.M., 2012). With higher illuminance, 1000 lux at eye level,
with a color temperature of 4000 K, compared to 200 lux at eye level, participants reported
feeling less sleepy and more energetic. Using a combination of objective and subjective
measures, another study assessed how different lighting conditions affect the comfort and fatigue
level of individuals using paper and electronic devices (Yu, H. and Akita, T., 2023). At an
illuminance level of 300 lux, participants reported feeling tired, expressing a preference for an
illuminance level of 750 lux with a correlated color temperature of 5000K or 6500K. In
comparison with higher CCTs at lower illuminance levels, they were more comfortable with a
CCT of 3000K at 750 lux, which were higher illuminance level and lower CCT. There was no
significant effect on task performance or subjective comfort levels based on the type of task,
either paper or computer, although paper tasks required significantly higher levels of brightness
for perceived comfort than computer tasks.
In color science education, immersive visual demonstrations are crucial. To demonstrate
color appearance phenomena to students, remote tutorials were designed and performed in the
Lighting Lab of the Department of Architectural Engineering at Pennsylvania State University
(Durmus, D., 2021). There are two tutorials for chromatic adaptation and the Hunt effect, defined
as an increase in color intensity with increasing luminance, both in person and remote. Students
will be sitting 2 meters away from a white wall illuminated with a multi-primary LED light
source controlled through software (Figure 2.12). In the tutorial for chromatic adaptation,
students will be assessed on three adapting white lighting conditions and a green test light to see
59

the different appearances of a white disk on the wall. And during the Hunt effect demonstration,
students will judge the perceived colorfulness of the test sample under five different levels of
illumination. A high dynamic range (HDR) webcam will be used for the remote lab
demonstrations in order to record the same lighting conditions for both tutorials. And then upload
to the Penn State e-learning website, with the instructions for students. However, due to the
limited webcam range and the disparity in the white conditions, there are differences between in
person and remote demonstrations. The digital camera and human eyes have significant
differences. It is possible to create a pleasant and productive learning environment through
demonstrations.
60

Figure 2.12 Students Participating in In-person Color Appearance Demonstrations
In architectural spaces, all of the objects and materials absorb light. This study calculates the
color differences for 15 reflective samples illuminated by various coloured test light sources and
reference white illuminants (Durmus, D. and Davis, W., 2015). Light quality and user acceptance
61

depend on the spectral power distribution (SPD) of the source illumination as well as the light
reflected from the surface of the object (McCluney, R., 2003). As humans perceive only reflected
light, absorbed light is converted into internal energy, mostly heat, and is therefore regarded as a
loss of energy for illumination purposes. According to the results, colored test spectral power
distributions (SPDs) can reduce energy consumption by up to 44% while maintaining identical
color appearance. It is possible to reduce energy consumption further, however, there is a
noticeable shift in color. The color appearance of objects illuminated by light can be tested and
shown to students in the lab.
2.2.2 Energy and the Environment
Lighting is one of the major sources of energy consumption around the world. As reported in
the Annual Energy Outlook 2023 by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the U.S.
residential and commercial sectors used about 213 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity for
lighting in 2022 (Annual energy outlook 2023 - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA),
2023). Lighting design has a significant impact on the holistic concept of sustainability. Among
the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), there are three key goals addressed by
architectural lighting design: good health and well-being, sustainable cities and communities,
and responsible consumption and production (The 17 goals | sustainable development, United
Nations, 2024). Architecture students, and future designers should take into account the
professional and ethical responsibilities of decisions related to sustainability when making
decisions. The human-centered lighting approach, as well as the economic aspects of lighting
installation, are both crucial.
62

In order for energy-efficient lighting to be accepted by users, it must provide high-quality
illumination as well as energy efficiency. Studies show that, using computational simulations,
light absorption was minimized by illuminating objects with two-peak spectral power
distributions. It is possible to save up to 71% of energy without causing perceptible changes in
object color (Durmus, D. and Davis, W., 2015). Conducting tests within a real-world context can
prove to be beneficial.
2.3 The Site
The current classroom B1 located in Watt Hall has the potential to be transformed into a
lighting laboratory. It offers ample space and the necessary flexibility to house a diverse range of
lighting fixtures.
2.3.1 Existing Architectural Structure
This room measures 40' x 50', has a ceiling height of 15', and a metal grid ceiling structure
that measures 5' x 5'. Behind both display walls, there is a storage area of 3'2" wide, which is
narrow for only one person to pass through. With recessed lighting, the overhang of the display
wall is 1’4”. The upper staircase platform around the display wall measures 5'2" in width (Figure
2.13). Additionally, there is a beam in the front of the room measuring 10' x 6', but not touching
the metal ceiling structure.
63

Figure 2.13 Existing Architectural Situation
2.3.2 Existing Lighting Schedule
Watt one is equipped with projectors, screens at the front, tables and chairs for students, and
multiple classroom lighting scenarios can be implemented. Aside from the ceiling grid structure
and the fixtures mounted on it, there are already six different types of lights in the room (Figure
2.14). Including cove lights for the north and south walls for students to pin up their drawings,
lens troffers, down lights, and accent lights in the center, and also track lights for blackboard and
presentation in front of the room. The metal grid structure measures 5' x 5' in size. Although
there is already a structure and a system in place, some lights on the grid are not connected to
switches or have broken lenses.
64

Figure 2.14 Existing Lighting Schedule of Watt One
The switches on the wall are only controlling the lens troffers, the South and North display
lights, and the foyer lights. As a result, the lens troffers are the primary lighting sources in the
classroom. They provide even illumination for teaching, working, and other activities within the
classroom. Additionally, the room is brightened by display lights on both sides, which are
intended to present and review drawings and other students' works (Figure 2.15). As for the foyer
lighting on the other side of the room, there are only two for the entrance, which may not be
helpful in the classroom setting, but will be useful when people enter the room when it is dark
(Figure 2.16). The visual appearance of the existing lighting fixtures were also included in this
section (Figure 2.17).
65

Figure 2.15 South and North Display Lights
Figure 2.16 Foyer Lights at the Entrance
66

Figure 2.17 The Existing Lights
2.4 Undergraduate Architectural Lighting Curriculum
Syllabi from universities around the world can be used to identify the requirements for a
lighting laboratory. Following are several lighting course plans for architecture students in
different universities. Given that lighting design is commonly incorporated within building
systems courses, students are afforded several weeks to acquaint themselves with the principles
of lighting design.
67

2.4.1 USC
In the USC School of Architecture, Arch 315: Design for the Luminous and Sonic
Environment is a mandatory course which is generally taken in the third year of study. This class
not only considers light and sound, but also topics like mechanical, electrical and plumbing
systems. The outline of the lighting portion of the class is provided by Professor Lauren
Dandridge:
Lecture 01: Lighting Fundamentals and Basic Perception. This lecture will be a start to
understanding what is light to architects. How do people see light? What is the perception? What
are the past experiences and cultural understanding effects?
Lecture 02: Physics of Light and Color. This lecture describes the propagation of light, the
science of color in lighting, light and human health.
Lecture 03: Light Sources, Lamps and Fixtures. This lecture talks about different types of
lamps and lighting, as well as the history behind them.
Lecture 04: Designing with Artificial Light, Equipment, Point Grid Calculation. The design
and location of lighting is discussed in this lecture.
Lecture 05: Calculating Light using the Lumen Method with example applications. In
addition to explaining how to calculate, lighting software is also briefly discussed.
Lecture 06: Basic Electricity and Dimming.
Lecture 07: Designing with Daylight.
Lecture 08: Lighting Applications. Lighting design is both art and science. This lecture
describes the application of lights, also the basic standards of lighting design, for example, Title
24 in California with the limits and IES recommendations.
68

2.4.2 Others
A compilation of course syllabi from USC School of Architecture and other universities that
have some focus on architectural lighting design is provided below. The collection of syllabi
collected either from students of these universities or from their official websites.
Table 2.1 DEA 3500/6520 The Ambient Environment for both undergraduate and graduate
students in Cornell
69

Table 2.2 401 Architectural Building Systems, MIT
Table 2.3 ARC 330 Architectural Lighting, University of Arizona
70

Table 2.4 Arch 575b: Systems, Luminous and Auditory Phenomena in Architecture, USC
71

Table 2.5 Arch 577: Architectural Lighting Design, USC
As mentioned previously, the courses outlined include several master level courses, some of
which primarily focus on daylighting and exterior lighting. However, this project will concentrate
mainly on undergraduate-level courses within the architecture department.
2.5 Summary
This chapter has discussed examples of both university-based and professional lighting
laboratories, where experimental studies and demonstrations have been conducted. These labs
have provided students with the opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of lighting. While
these laboratories share many similarities, they also focus on different issues. In conclusion,
72

many universities have established their lighting labs within engineering departments, which are
distinct from architecture departments that train future architects. But at UC Davis, students can
take lighting courses at the California Lighting Technology Center to learn about various lighting
technologies. The University of Sydney boasts an Indoor Environmental Quality Lab that
explores different factors affecting human comfort, performance, and health. When developing
new lighting labs, it's crucial to recognize both their commonalities and unique specialties.
In addition, to determine what task should be included in the lighting lab, this chapter also
collects and examines the existing architectural lighting curriculum in universities throughout the
world. Combining them allows for the development of a new lighting lab curriculum.
73

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The project is to design and partially install a lighting teaching lab in the School of
Architecture at the University of Southern California. Achieving this goal requires five essential
components. First, an understanding of the curriculum, second, an analysis of the proposed
facility, third, creating a design proposal, fourth, partially implementation of the design, and
finally, examining the resulting experience with students. This chapter discusses each of these
steps in detail.
3.1 Understanding the Curriculum
Lighting curricula are included in several different courses offered by the University of
Southern California Architecture Program, including two specialized lighting courses.
Additionally, lighting courses are also offered at the master's degree level. In this project, the
curriculum for undergraduate and graduate level lighting courses is evaluated to determine which
types of lighting demonstrations might be helpful in helping students comprehend the key
characteristics of lighting. To establish a set of lighting demonstrations in the lighting teaching
lab, examining lighting curricula at other universities in America and abroad is also valuable. To
assist with the listing of necessary fixtures, existing lighting labs are also being studied and
documented.
Upon consultation with faculty at the School of Architecture, as well as other professionals in
the field, it should be determined whether any potential curricular items have not been included
or have not been demonstrated to a sufficient level of understanding. It is likely that faculty
74

members will have different expectations regarding the appropriate content of the lighting
curriculum. A set of demonstrations based on the study of the lighting curriculum materials from
several universities will be extracted, and then by consulting with lighting professors and lighting
professionals to help fill out the lighting demonstrations list.
Furthermore, it will be necessary to ensure that the lighting teaching components meet the
accreditation requirements established by the National Architectural Accreditation Board in
order to ensure that faculty members are teaching the appropriate material for the lighting portion
NAAB Curriculum. Even though the lighting teaching curriculum is not simply based on
“teaching to the test” of the licensing exams, it is important to ensure that the basics for the
exams are included in it. Since the lighting curriculum requirements for the architect registration
exams are quite minimal, the curriculum will typically extend beyond the base requirements.
Based on the examples of USC and other global architecture schools, a large set of lighting
demonstrations can be established that a typical architecture program will be able to afford both
in terms of space and lighting components. An extensive set of design opportunities will be
generated based on the initial evaluation. The list will be refined into a smaller subset of the most
important or highly prioritized lighting design demonstrations in class.
There are six main parts in the lighting curriculum: lighting fundamentals and basic
perception, light sources, architectural lighting design, mood and visual interest, software tools,
and other design tools (Figure 3.1). In class, the first three could be demonstrated using a variety
of lighting fixtures, and the other three can be viewed on the screen briefly.
75

Table 3.1 List of Lighting Topics
3.1.1 Demonstration with Lighting Fixtures in Class
The lighting fixtures used in each of the three sections that are displayed may be overlapped.
Topics on lighting fundamentals and basic perception consists of two parts, visual perception and
color science. There are several factors that contribute to visual perception, including size,
exposure time, light intensity, contrast, familiarity, illumination level, and glare. Color science
includes color temperature and CRI. Light sources will discuss the lamp types and the lighting
system. Architectural lighting design contains layers of light, and the “bad” lighting examples. In
the lab, many different aspects will be discussed, but the ones highlighted in the table will be
demonstrated in class (Figure 3.2).
76

Table 3.2 List of Visual Demonstration Topics and Fixtures Needed
Brightness and visual performance are not linearly related. Showing examples of the
suggested illumination levels can help with understanding of the visual effect and the
illumination values. For example, the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) suggests for
general lighting throughout the space, public spaces with dark surroundings, for example at
night, can have 3 fc or 30 lux. In areas where visual tasks are performed only occasionally, such
as lobbies and corridors, it is recommended to use 15 fc or 150 lux. For illumination on task, the
recommended illumination for tasks requiring high contrast or large sizes, for example
residential kitchens and other work areas, is 30 fc or 300 lux (Standards, Illuminating
Engineering Society, 2023).
It is possible to create lighting scenes that represent situations with different illumination
levels in the classroom. Different types of glare, such as direct glare and veiling reflection should
be demonstrated in class by setting the seat for students and placing the light source in different
77

locations, or with a glossy surface object. For example, a bright light source that produces a high
angle direct glare to the participant.
For color temperature, lamps with different color temperatures will be installed and shown to
students, including the typical incandescent lamp 2700K, typical Halogen lamps 3000K, lamp
representing daylight, such as blue skylight 5500K. Color in lighting can be measured by two
different methods, color temperature and color rendering index (CRI). The standard offering of
color temperatures for lamps are 2700K to 3000K for warm white light, 3500K to 4100K for
bright and cool white light, and 5000K to 6500K for mimicking daylight. In the case of
presenting different color temperatures to students in class, the following lighting fixtures can be
considered. The most traditional incandescent light bulbs with a color temperature of 2700K
should be included because they remain a significant part of the existing built environment.
Typical halogen bulbs with a color temperature of 3000K, and Edison-style lights with a color
temperature of 2000 to 2200K can also be shown. CCT that can mimic sunlight can also be
shown as it is also important to learn. Different color temperatures are suited for various
applications and contribute to creating distinct ambiances. By understanding these variations,
students can make more informed choices. In the US, a color temperature of 2700K typically
creates a cozy and inviting atmosphere, while 3000K provides a warm glow. Color temperatures
ranging from 3500K to 4100K are suitable for general lighting in offices, schools, industries,
medical facilities, stores, as well as display and sports lighting. Meanwhile, lights with a color
temperature of 5000K offer a crisp and invigorating light.
As part of the lecture on light sources, there will be a demonstration of three sets of lights to
illustrate the differences between 1) light fixtures, 2) lamp types, and 3) lighting systems. Several
categories will use the same fixtures, but it is helpful for students to understand the rationale
78

behind such groupings.
To be able to distinguish between types of lighting fixtures, recessed lighting, track lighting,
linear LED, pendants, sconces, ceiling lights, floor and table lamps will be shown. To
demonstrate different lamp types, incandescent lamps, for example Tungsten Halogen lamps;
discharge lamps like fluorescent lamps, High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps; and solid state
lamps like semiconductor light-emitting diodes (LED) will be included. Several of these were
already implemented in the proposed lighting teaching lab space. To learn more about lighting
systems, the following luminaires can be considered: direct luminaires as most types of recessed
lighting; indirect luminaires as some suspended luminaires and sconces; diffuse luminaires as
some bare lamps, chandeliers, and some table and floor lamps; direct/indirect luminaires as many
types of suspended luminaires, and some table and floor lamps; asymmetric luminaires as wall
washer; adjustable luminaires as track lights, flood-lights, and accent lights; downlights as cans;
and fluorescent luminaire as troffer.
For the third category, the theory of architectural lighting design will be separated into two
parts, layers of light, and the “bad” lighting examples. There are four layers of light, ambient
layer, task light layer, focal layer, and decorative layer. The difference will be shown by ambient
layer as recessed lights, task light layer as table lamps, focal layer as track lighting, and
decorative layer as pendants. In addition, lighting in some spaces that are not properly designed
will be discarded.
3.1.2 Other Demonstration Topics
The following three sections can be considered to show on the screen, these include the
79

topics of mood and visual interest, software tools, and other design tools. Students will
investigate the relationship between humans and light, including cultural interpretations,
historical applications of light, and psychological perceptions of light. It will include study of
lighting precedents in architecture, as well as analysis of noteworthy lighting designs through
case studies.
Different cultures have unique traditions, rituals, and symbolic meanings associated with
light. As an example, light and shadow play a crucial role in creating a sense of balance and
spatial harmony in Japanese architecture; light and shadow are considered fundamental elements.
The artful control of light and shadow significantly affects human emotions and behavior. Spaces
designed with a balanced interaction between light and shadow can evoke feelings of tranquility,
happiness, or wonder, thereby enriching the overall experience for users (Fujimori, T., 2019).
Students can learn about various architectural philosophies that place a high priority on light as
an essential design component.
Students will also be introduced to prediction tools such as computer models and lighting
calculation estimates as part of an integrated lighting design proposal. Students of architecture
can greatly enhance their design capabilities by mastering lighting software tools for calculation
and rendering. In addition to traditional software, students can also expand their toolkit by
exploring a variety of apps and measurement tools that offer practical solutions for assessing and
visualizing lighting conditions, for example the commonly used software: DIALux and Relux.
3.2 Examining the Proposed Facility
Many decades prior to the start of this research, the site location for the proposed lighting
80

teaching lab, Watt One, was chosen for a lighting teaching lab for the USC School of
Architecture. The official current name of this room is the Pierre F. Koenig, FAIA, Lecture Hall.
The room is approximately 40 feet wide and 40 feet long and has a ceiling height of almost 20
feet. Watt One is a windowless multifunctional room with a basic set of existing lighting for
classroom setting.
In order to develop a proposal for a lighting teaching laboratory, this room must be examined
for its important architectural characteristics, such as seating arrangements, visibility within the
room, and existing materials and finishes. The existing ceiling track system will allow an
extensive number of new light fixtures to be attached. However the room must be examined for
its capability to handle additional lighting loads and electrical loads.
Following the measurement of the room, including the architectural details and the furniture
plans, a detailed 3D model will be created for the existing room condition with the materials
assigned, and furniture arranged in the room. The existing lighting will be documented and
included in the plan and model. Lighting levels at several different locations of the existing
lighting conditions will be measured with all of the current lighting opportunities. Based on the
lighting performance in classic classroom conditions, presentation conditions, and demonstration
conditions, they will be evaluated as good, or bad.
3.3 Creating Design Proposal and Teaching Manual
The design proposal for the space will be developed, with the list of the fixtures and tools
needed. In addition to architectural design drawings, lighting schedules, renderings, detailed
sections and images, there will also be tutorials for students and faculty members as a teaching or
81

learning manual. Depending on different lighting fixtures, they can be simply attached to the
switches and the ceiling grid, or they may need to be mounted with supporting parts in the
ceiling. The majority of the lighting fixtures will be directly connected to the walls and ceiling
grid.
The design of a flexible lighting teaching lab is also an important aspect of this project. It is
therefore necessary to include adjustable features, for example, the height of the fixtures. Due to
the progress and advancement of technology in the lighting field, fixtures may need to be updated
in order to meet the requirements of the most recent architectural lighting design.
It is also proposed to design a name and logo for the lighting lab in order to identify it. The
use of these elements will assist in distinguishing and identifying the lab.
A teaching manual with tutorials explaining how to use the lab facilities will also be provided
to students and instructors. This manual is intended to enhance the inclusivity of architectural
lighting design education within both classroom settings and individual study, and to be able to
develop additional activities and experiments. It covers seven major topics: luminance and
illuminance, recommended illumination levels, glare, color temperature and CRI, lamp types,
lighting systems, and layers of light. Detailed information sheets are provided for each subject,
detailing the exercises, the necessary fixtures, and other requisite equipment.
3.4 Implementing the Proposal
A small financial grant for this project will be used primarily to purchase lighting fixtures and
other equipment for installation. Lighting fixtures that can be mounted directly on the ceiling grid
should be able to connect to the switch or controller. The installation of lighting fixtures with
82

supporting systems may require the assistance of a professional electrician or the school
construction team. During the installation process, it is also important to consider the weight of
the fixtures. Assembling each fixture should be conducted in accordance with the instructions
provided with it. After assembling the parts that will be attached to the fixture, the height should
be adjusted to the desired range. When wiring and hanging, the box and mounting hardware may
still be visible, despite the fixture being secured to the ceiling.
Another important consideration is whether the junction box that houses the wiring
connections in the ceiling support can support the lighting fixture. Some lighting fixtures may
also require a voltage converter.
3.5 Testing the Experience
Following the proposed ideal design, the majority of the topics will be illustrated using the
installed fixtures and other tools. All the steps and experience will be documented as the result.
Additionally, the classroom environment, encompassing lecturing, self-directed student learning,
and interactive engagement, will simultaneously be enhanced. An experimental class with
students will be conducted, and feedback from their experience will be helpful in improving the
lab in the future. Based on observations of the implemented lighting, additions modifications that
may need to be made will be identified.
3.6 Summary
The project began with an investigation of the curriculum of architectural lighting courses in
83

universities, focusing primarily on the USC School of Architecture. By combining information
from professors and professionals, the most important things for architecture students to learn
will be listed. The lighting fixtures and other tools for installation will be decided, along with the
lighting schedules and architectural plans. As part of the lab's educational potential, a
comprehensive teaching manual will be provided to both students and instructors, which contains
instructional materials explaining how to utilize the lab facilities. After the implementation of
most of the fixtures, data and results of the demonstration will be collected from students for
future improvements.
Figure 3.1 Methodology Diagram
84

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA
Exercises are designed to assist in understanding, along with an instructional guide available
to teachers and students. An explanation is provided of the topics discussed and the methods
employed. This chapter will include the description of the teaching manual, the application of
lighting simulation software, and visual demonstration topics.
4.1 Teaching Manual
The teaching manual serves as a guide to enhance the inclusivity of architectural lighting
design education within both classroom settings and individual study. It offers educators a
collection of practical activities that can be directly implemented. The hope is that the examples
and steps contained within this manual will inspire both instructors and students to conceive
additional activities and experiments. Furthermore, the manual provides detailed examples for
instructors and students on their application.
There are seven major subjects covered in this instructional manual: recommended
illumination levels, luminance and illuminance, glare, color temperature and CRI, lamp types,
lighting systems and layers of light. The following are example pages of the teaching manual
(Figure 4.1); the entire handbook will be described in the next chapter, and attached as the
appendix.
85

86

Figure 4.1 Teaching Manual Pages
87

4.2 Lighting Simulation
Lighting simulation software will be used to illustrate the efficacy of some activity
demonstrated within the classroom setting. This approach is advantageous for the process of
curriculum development and enhancing the activities in class. The diverse range of capabilities
provided by AGI32 will be utilized and confer significant advantages to the design of the lighting
lab.
Agi32, often referred to as Agi, is a leading lighting simulation software created by Lighting
Analysts, Inc. It is engineered to facilitate the calculation and graphical representation of
illumination levels within both interior and exterior environments (Agi32 Overview, Lighting
analysts). A wide range of lighting design and analysis capabilities are provided by the software.
The software includes tools for creating intricate 3D models of architectural spaces, which
allows simulations of lighting effects, however, it is mainly used for professional quantitative
measurements. It accommodates a range of measurement metrics, including illuminance (lux),
luminance (cd/m²), and daylight factors, among others. Furthermore, it offers dynamic
visualizations, such as renderings and animations, in order to illustrate graphically how light
interacts with surfaces and materials within the model (Figure 4.2).
88

Figure 4.2 Agi Examples
4.3 Visual Demonstration Topics
From the entire curriculum list (Table 4.1), six major topics have been selected:
recommended illumination levels, luminance and illuminance, glare, color temperature and CRI,
lamp types, lighting systems and layers of light. For each subject, one or more dedicated
information sheets are provided, detailing the exercises, necessary fixtures, and other requisite
tools. Clear steps for executing these exercises are included, allowing instructors who are not
well versed in lighting terminology but wish to present straightforward examples to their
students.
89

Table 4.1 All of the Demonstration Topics
4.3.1 Recommended Illumination Levels
Light influences the design and functionality of built environments, particularly in
workplaces, educational settings, and healthcare facilities, where optimal visual performance
directly affects productivity and health. Identifying the nuanced relationship between light and
visual performance is essential, as well as emphasizing the non-linear relationship between
brightness and visual performance. The Illuminating Engineering Society, IES, established
guidelines for illumination levels based on a variety of approximate types of activities. The color
of the surfaces and the age of the participants, and materials are also crucial. Lighting scenarios
of recommended illumination levels for a variety types of activities will be shown to students by
settings representing each scenario.
The required level of illumination fluctuates based on the specific task, including the
demands for speed and accuracy, the type of surfaces and their ability to reflect or absorb light,
90

the overall workspace, or the vision of an individual. Lux is the unit used to quantify the intensity
of light that lands on a surface. Considering the variables, adequate general lighting typically
ranges from 500 to 1000 lux, as measured 30 inches from the floor (Government of Canada, C.C.
for O.H. and S., 2024). A table below provides examples of industrial and office tasks and the
recommended lighting levels (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 Examples of Industrial and Office Tasks and the Recommended Light Levels (The
IESNA lighting handbook, 2000)
The amount of light reflected off a surface can also be measured, as many lighting fixtures are
designed specifically to direct light onto walls, ceilings, and objects. The percentage of light
reflected off various surfaces is crucial for achieving balanced and efficient lighting. In an
average interior environment, it is recommended that the maximum light reflection off walls
should be 50%, as the percentage value refers to the amount of light reflected off walls versus the
amount falling on them. For ceilings, the reflection rate should be between 70-80%, floors should
be 20-40%, furniture between 25-45%, window blinds around 40-50%, and office equipment as
well as machines should not exceed 50%. Furthermore, the placement and spacing of light
91

fixtures are critical. Improper positioning can lead to undesirable shadows and uneven
illumination. Objects obstructing the path between the light source and the workspace can cast
shadows, affecting visibility and ambiance.
This section also describes how to detect insufficient lighting by measuring the average
illumination of the space, and comparing it with established lighting standards for similar
environments. This ensures that a space is not only functional and safe but also a comfortable
and productive environment for its users. For example, inadequate lighting in industrial settings
can lead to mishaps with machinery, and in places like offices or schools, poor lighting can lead
to increased fatigue and decreased productivity.
This section contains six possible exercises for students:
1. Public spaces with dark surroundings, for example at night, 3 fc or 30 lux.
2. Areas where visual tasks are performed only occasionally, such as lobbies and corridors,
15 fc or 150 lux.
3. Illumination on visual tasks requiring high contrast or large sizes, for example residential
kitchens and other work areas, 30 fc or 300 lux.
4. Visual tasks of medium contrast or small size, 75 fc or 750 lux,
5. Visual tasks of low contrast and very small size over a prolonged period of time, 150 fc or
1500 lux.
6. How to detect insufficient light.
Detailed instructions for the first to third exercises along with the sixth exercise will be
provided in the next chapter.
92

4.3.2 Illuminance and Luminance
Illuminance is the amount of light falling on a surface, quantified in lux (or lumens per square
meter, which is equivalent to 10.76 foot candles, fc). This is typically gauged using a light meter,
with readings taken from various angles and positions. On the other hand, luminance refers to
the light that a surface reflects back, measured in candela per square meter (or 0.29
foot-lamberts). To determine luminance, an illuminance meter is employed, taking multiple
readings for an average, and luminance tables provide comparative values.
Creating effective and efficient lighting systems requires a thorough understanding of
luminance and illuminance. Understanding how much light falls on a surface can help designers
optimize the use of light for energy conservation. Students must grasp the relativity of brightness,
often conflated with foot candles, lux, and lumens. Through practical exercises, students will
explore the illuminance produced by a candle, use an illuminance meter to measure light in
different scenarios, and understand the difference between the total light output (lumens) and the
light that lands on a surface (lux and foot candles). A well-lit space can appear welcoming and
warm, while an inadequate amount of lighting can make the same space feel unwelcoming and
oppressive. Thus, lighting design involves more than technical considerations, it involves a deep
understanding of how light interacts with materials, colors, and the human psychological system.
This section contains two possible exercises for students:
1. How much light a candle produces.
2. How to measure the light intensity, and the difference between Footcandle, Lux, and
Lumens.
Both of the exercises will be described in the next chapter.
93

4.3.3 Glare
Glare is visual noise that interferes with visual performance. Glare can be direct and indirect,
and it directly impacts the visual comfort, health, and productivity of building occupants.
Understanding both direct and indirect glare helps future architects design spaces that minimize
discomfort and visual impairment, it also influences decisions regarding materials, surface
finishes, and the orientation of buildings.
It is imperative to understand glare in order to create a comfortable and visually efficient
environment, particularly in environments that require precision and attentiveness to detail. Glare
stands out as a prevalent issue, it occurs when a bright light source or its reflection negatively
affects your vision of an object. Typically, the human eye adjusts to the highest level of
brightness within view, which can subsequently obscure the visibility of details in areas that are
less illuminated, despite them being adequately lit. This effect can lead to discomfort and
annoyance, and it may even diminish visual acuity. This section will show the two main types of
glare, the methods to detect glare, and the possible ways to correct glare problems.
Reflected glare emerges when light bounces off surfaces that are polished, shiny, or have a
glossy finish. It can manifest from the screens of computers and other digital devices. With the
typical working position, shield the area from direct light coming from the front or above using
an opaque object. If an enhancement in the visibility of details within the task area can be
noticed, it suggests that reflected glare from surfaces is affecting visual comfort (Figure 4.5).
Also, looking for shiny objects that reflect light is another method for determining glare exists in
the visual field. Direct glare is the result of intense light that comes directly from light fixtures
94

that are not optimally positioned. This kind of glare is particularly disruptive and can
significantly impact visibility. Use a similar blocking method to obstruct the path of light coming
from overhead or nearby fixtures. If the ability to see the distant object improves significantly
with the light blocked, it indicates that the light fixtures may be causing direct glare (Figure 4.3).
Instructors and lighting designers can talk directly to the individuals using the space and ask if
they frequently experience symptoms such as eye fatigue, headaches, or squinting.
Figure 4.3 Method to Find Sources of Glare (C.C. for O.H. and S., 2024)
A range of strategies tailored to ensure optimal visual comfort and functionality, to
effectively address glare-related issues. Instead of relying on a single high-intensity light source,
consider employing several smaller, low-intensity fixtures, which helps distribute light more
evenly across the space. Choose light fixtures designed to diffuse or concentrate light effectively,
for example indirect fixtures or those equipped with parabolic louvers. Or cover bare bulbs with
louvers, lenses, or other devices. Another method is to increase the brightness of the surrounding
area near the source of glare, balancing the overall lighting levels helps minimize the contrast
95

between bright and dark areas, but maintain the recommended lighting levels at the same time.
Also, the arrangement of light fixtures can be considered to minimize the reflection of light
directly into users' eyes, and apply local lighting solutions with adjustable brightness controls,
avoid frontal or overhead lighting, allowing users to tailor illumination levels to their specific
needs and preferences.
UGR (Unified Glare Rating) is a numerical system used to quantify the glare produced by
interior lighting setups. This measure specifically assesses the type of glare that, while
psychologically bothersome, doesn't necessarily impair one's ability to see clearly. It is most
relevant for lighting fixtures that distribute light directly, and focuses exclusively on the direct
glare emitted by these fixtures and does not consider the glare resulting from light reflecting off
surfaces. Lighting installations should not exceed UGR 19 (ERCO GmbH, 2024). Glare can be
detected by using a camera with a fisheye converter lens set at eye level and used to take four
photographs at different exposure times. The images are analyzed using Photolux software
(Figure 4.4) to calculate average luminance and Unified Glare Rating (UGR), as well as to
determine the maximum and minimum luminance values within the human visual field.
96

Figure 4.4 Example of the Luminance Map (Photolux Luminance, 2024)
This section contains five possible exercises for students:
1. Reflected glare. The reflection of a bright object from a glossy or polished surface, like
the magazine.
2. Reflected glare. A bright light source reflected in terminal screens like computers,
creating screen glare.
3. Direct glare. A bright light source within the field of view that produces a high angle
direct glare to a worker.
4. Direct glare. A luminaire almost directly overhead causing low angle glare in a worker's
peripheral view.
5. Glare detection methods and possible solutions.
The next chapter will demonstrate all five of these exercises.
97

4.3.4 Color Temperature and CRI
Although most lamps are designed to appear white, some lamps have been designed to create
specific colors in some cases. The two measurements of appearance are color temperature, and
CRI. Color temperature is the more obvious way to measure color, when two light sources have
the same color temperature but a different CRI, they appear much more similar than when they
have similar CRI but a different color temperature.
Color temperature refers to how warm, neutral, or cool the light appears, whether reddish or
blue in color. Designers can incorporate warmer tones to support a more relaxing environment
and brighter tones to support an active environment.
To show the difference in CRI, it is possible to use a set of colored objects or swatches and
illuminate them with light sources of different CRI values. Observing and comparing the
appearance of these colors under each light source will reveal the impact of CRI on color
perception. Discuss the visual differences and the importance of CRI in lighting design,
especially in contexts where color accuracy is critical, such as art galleries, retail stores, and
workspaces requiring accurate color discrimination. Due to the nuanced nature of distinguishing
between different CRI values, the exercises focusing on CRI will be conducted on a smaller scale
to facilitate clearer observation and comparison of the impact on color perception.
This section contains four possible exercises for students:
1. Representing daylight: Blue skylight on a summer day at noon, 5500K. Reddish rising and
setting sunlight, 1800K. Cloudy day, 6500K.
2. Typical light bulbs: Traditional incandescent light bulbs, 2700K. Halogen bulbs, 3000K.
Edison-style lights that produce an orange glow, 2000 - 2200K.
98

3. Same CRI but different color temperature.
4. Same color temperature but different CRI.
The next chapter will show the second exercise.
4.3.5 Lamp Types
Lamp types directly influence the design, functionality, aesthetics, and sustainability of
buildings and spaces. Students should develop a thorough understanding of how to select and
integrate a variety of lighting options in order to enhance architectural features, create desired
atmospheres, and support the intended use of each space. Students should be able to select
lighting solutions that reduce environmental impact while meeting or exceeding energy codes
and standards. Knowledge of various lamp types and their applications allows for the
customization of lighting solutions to meet specific project needs, providing the flexibility to
address diverse design challenges.
This exercise discusses the applications of each lamp type in architectural design, and the
implications of lamp selection on design aesthetics, operational cost, and environmental impact
(Table 4.3). Also consider setting up a station where students can observe the same object or set
of objects under different lamp types, for a direct comparison.
99

Table 4.3 Common Types of Lamps and Applications (C.C. for O.H. and S., 2024)
Also discussed in this section are the considerations that students should take into account
when choosing fixtures for their projects in the future. Architectural lighting fixtures, often
referred to as specification-grade lighting, typically come with a variety of customizable options
or specifications (Figure 4.5). These options allow for the tailoring of the fixture to suit the
specific needs of a project, ensuring the lighting fits the architectural design rather than the other
way around. Various specifications, including size, dimension, finish, light output, color
temperature, beam spread, and mounting type for architectural lighting, will be discussed as
examples for students by looking at the specification sheet example (Figure 4.6).
100

Figure 4.5 Infographic for Choosing the Right Specifications (Lighting, A., 2022)
101

Figure 4.6 Specification Sheet Example for Recessed Linear LED Light (1-inch recessed linear
led light, 2024)
This section contains two possible exercises for students:
1. Applications of each lamp type in architectural design, including the difference of
incandescent lamps. discharge lamps, and solid state lamps.
2. Considerations students should make when selecting fixtures for their future projects.
Both exercises will be shown in the next chapter.
4.3.6 Lighting Systems and Layers of Light
In the field of lighting design, the complete lighting unit, often called a light fixture or
luminaire controls and distributes the light. This section of exercises will show several light
102

fixtures in a variety of types, each designed to distribute light in specific ways to suit different
environments and tasks. Direct light fixtures are designed to direct 90 to 100 percent of their light
downward toward the area of work, which can result in shadows. Direct-indirect light fixtures
split their light output equally upward and downward. By reflecting light from the ceiling and
other surfaces of the room, direct glare can often be reduced. Indirect light fixtures directing most
of their light output upwards, ceilings and upper walls to illuminate a space. They are known for
providing uniform light distribution and minimizing direct glare. Shielded light fixtures use
diffusers, lenses and louvers to cover bulbs from direct view; therefore, helping to prevent glare
and distribute light. There is no one fixture type that fits all designs. The particular needs
determine the best-suited type of lighting fixture, taking into account the required brightness,
illumination quality, and the importance of reducing glare and shadows.
Lighting designers often prefer to use multiple types of lighting. One of the modern-day
pioneers of lighting design, Richard Kelly (1910-1977), inspired many lighting designers. Focal
Glow, Ambient Luminescence, and Play of Brilliants continue to be the three core theoretical
statements of lighting design. Richard Kelly uses focal glow to emphasize important elements,
ambient luminescence to provide a sense of the environment as a whole, and play of brilliants as
light as information, which can be dynamic or colorful. Said Kelly, “focal glow is the follow spot
on the modern stage. It is the pool of light at your favorite reading chair. It is the shaft of
sunshine that warms the end of the valley… Ambient luminescence is the uninterrupted light of a
snowy morning in the open country. It is foglight at sea in a small boat, it is twilight haze on a
wide river where shore and water and sky are indistinguishable… Play of brilliants is Times
Square at night. It is the eighteenth century ballroom of crystal chandeliers and many candle
flames…” (Kelly, R., 1952)
103

Understanding lighting systems and the layered approach enables students to significantly
improve the quality of lighting in spaces they design. Lighting is instrumental in shaping the
atmosphere, depth, and texture of an environment, playing a key role in the overall perception of
a space. Architects can create spaces that are both visually appealing and highly responsive to the
diverse functional needs of their occupants by integrating light layers. A well-designed lighting
system offers flexibility, allowing spaces to serve multiple purposes or adapt to different
occasions. Additionally, the quality of lighting can have a significant impact on a person's
physical and mental well-being as well as their visual comfort. Through the strategic use of
lighting layers, ambient, task, accent, and decorative, architects can highlight architectural
features, draw attention to art or focal points, and create mood. By strategically combining
lighting layers, ambient, task, accent, and decorative, architects have the ability to underscore
architectural elements, accentuate art or focal points, create mood, thereby enriching the spatial
experience.
Architectural lighting fixtures serve to cast light on buildings and spaces in a manner that
accentuates their design, allowing designers to highlight architectural features without visually
revealing the fixture. Among the key implementations of architectural lighting are cove lighting,
uplighting, and the use of linear recessed, surface, and suspended lighting systems (Figure 4.7 to
Figure 4.9).
104

Figure 4.7 Left, Highlighting Design Elements on the Wall with LED Cove Lights. Right, Surface-Mounted Linear Cove LED Light (Hakimi, D., 2023)
Figure 4.8 Setting the Mood with Linear Ceiling Surface Lights at AARMY Fitness Center
(Hakimi, D., 2023)
105

Figure 4.9 Highlighting Exposed Beams and Architectural Ceiling Features with LED Uplighting
(Hakimi, D., 2023)
Uplighting for indirect luminaires reduces ceiling dark spots and shadows while providing
users with additional, softer, glare-free indirect lighting, highlighting details such as beams,
pipes, and other distinctive features of the ceiling structure. By orienting the light source away
from the viewer rather than toward it, the room is made to appear larger and more spacious. It is
recommended that the minimum distance between the fixture and ceiling for indirect lighting be
12 to 18 inches, but the ratio between the fixture and ceiling distance may differ (Lighting, A.,
2022).
The advancements in LED technology have not only resulted in lower overall fixture costs,
reduced energy consumption, and allowed for more creative fixture designs. LED linear lighting
provides continuous runs of light, with seamless connections from ceiling to wall. With linear
106

LED lighting, designers can create patterns to enhance the design of a space for example,
zigzags, snake-like patterns, and asymmetrically linking wall to ceiling to floor.
Volumetric lighting refers to the illusion created by a lighting technique that creates the
illusion of volume in a given space, context, or application by suggesting a specific perspective,
orientation, or effect (Volumetric lighting, 2023). An example in reality would be directing a
shape of light, such as a cone, toward a specific area, making it appear to be a transparent
container of a specific volume, creating the illusion of 3D by drawing attention to a specific area.
Using steam, fog, or smoke, this technique can enhance the perception. It is often assumed that
volumetric lighting is synonymous with task lighting, for instance, it may be designed with a
distinguishable beam spread which can be purposefully aimed at lighting artwork, and food on a
table. As shown in the diagram below (Figure 4.10), volumetric lighting and spot lighting are
combined with track lighting to highlight the display of fruits and vegetables. LEDs reduce
electricity costs and emit 80 percent less heat. As part of this exercise, students should also be
able to see some examples of lighting plans (Figure 4.11).
107

Figure 4.10 Volumetric Lighting Design for Produce Department of a Grocery Store (Volumetric
lighting, 2023)
Figure 4.11 RCP and Lighting Schedule Design Example (Master of professional studies in
lighting design, 2024)
A glow plan is a conceptual tool or diagram used to analyze the distribution, intensity, and
quality of light within a space (Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13). This provides students with a visual
108

understanding of how light is distributed throughout a space and helps them identify areas that
will receive ample light and those that may remain in shadow, which is critical for creating an
effective and balanced lighting scheme. In the same way that architectural drawings are a means
of communicating ideas to clients, contractors, and other stakeholders, glow plans are also a
communication tool to ensure that the lighting design is understood and executed as intended.
This exercise will provide students with examples of beautiful glow plans.
Figure 4.12 Glow Plan Sketch (Master of professional studies in lighting design, 2024)
109

Figure 4.13 Glow Plan (Master of professional studies in lighting design, 2024)
This section contains five possible exercises for students:
1. A variety of light fixtures: direct, direct-indirect, indirect, and shielded light fixtures.
2. Light layered approach: ambient layer, task light layer, focal layer, and decorative layer.
3. Architectural lighting fixtures: cove lighting, uplighting, linear recessed, surface, and
suspended lighting systems.
4. Volumetric lighting with task lights aimed at artwork and object on the table.
5. Examples of RCPs and glow plans.
All of the exercises will be shown in the next chapter.
4.4 Summary
This chapter describes the use of the teaching manual, the application of lighting simulation
110

software, and the topics for visual demonstration in the classroom. The six main topics were also
accompanied with a range of exercises and their respective backgrounds.
111

CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Following the setup of luminaires and essential equipment for the six exercises outlined in
the preceding chapter, this chapter aims to detail the use of these tools. It will cover both the
physical outcomes and the results derived from computer simulations. Due to existing technical
limitations, some lighting exercises are currently difficult to demonstrate. This chapter will
explore the possible student exercises related to recommended illumination levels, luminance and
illuminance, glare, color temperature and CRI, lamp types, lighting systems, and the various
layers of light. There is also an appendix for the teaching manual.
5.1 Visual Demonstration Topics and Implementing
For each exercise of the six topics, detailed instructions and the required tools will be
provided. This includes detailed, step-by-step guidance for demonstrations and suggestions for
possible solutions. The feasibility of conducting the same exercise in a standard classroom or
independently by students will also be explored, comparing these settings to the use of this
specialized lighting lab.
5.1.1 Recommended Illumination Levels
This exercise demonstrates the recommended average illumination levels for the room and
their lighting effects under various conditions. The initial phase of this exercise involved using
AGI to calculate the average illumination for each scenario, a process that occurred during the
112

design phase rather than in the classroom with students. Subsequently, these lighting settings
were replicated under real-world conditions in Watt One for classroom activities. RCPs and
lighting schedules are provided, featuring new lights in orange and highlighting the lights that are
turned on with a yellow fill color.
It begins by evaluating public spaces in low-light conditions, such as nighttime, set at 3 fc or
30 lux. For this, display cove lights and entrance downlights are activated (Figure 5.1 to Figure
5.6).
Figure 5.1 AGI Rendering for Average Illumination Level 3 fc
113

Figure 5.2 Real Scene for Average 3 fc
114

Figure 5.3 Lighting Schedule for Average Illumination Level 3 fc
Second, areas where visual tasks are performed only occasionally, such as lobbies and
corridors, the recommended value is 15 fc or 150 lux. In addition to the display cove lights and
entrance downlights, both the lens troffer and selected track lights are on (Figure 5.4 to Figure
5.6).
Figure 5.4 AGI Rendering for Average Illumination Level 15 fc
115

Figure 5.5 Real Scene for Average 15 fc
116

Figure 5.6 Lighting Schedule for Average Illumination Level 15 fc
Third, for illumination on visual tasks requiring high contrast or large sizes, for example
residential kitchens and other work areas, the recommended level is 30 fc or 300 lux. In addition
to the lights that are already on, all other lights, including the new linear lights and the
downlights in the center, should be turned on as well (Figure 5.7 to Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.7 AGI Rendering for Average Illumination Level 30 fc
117

Figure 5.8 Real Scene for Average 30 fc
Figure 5.9 Lighting Schedule for Average Illumination Level 30 fc
118

A method for detecting insufficient lighting is to begin by measuring the average illumination
across various sections of the space with a light meter, particularly where tasks are being
performed (Figure 5.10). This method aids in quantifying the current lighting conditions,
including work surfaces, floors, and other key areas relevant to the intended use. Then the
measured illuminations are compared with the measurements against the established lighting
recommendations and guidelines provided by the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) or local
regulations.
Figure 5.10 A Real Light Meter and the Light Meter Apps
By placing the light meter in ten different locations in the classroom, the average number of
the illumination level can be found by students, and compared with the AGI results (Figure 5.11).
This will advance the understanding of the difference between simulation software and the real
119

life situation.
Figure 5.11 Light Meter in Different Locations
Shadows are most prominent at workstations and in areas with significant foot traffic, such as
staircases, that can indicate inadequate lighting and may require additional lighting solutions.
This is another possible exercise in Watt One. After measuring the average illumination level, the
next step is to consult with individuals who use the space regularly for their feedback. Symptoms
such as eye strain, difficulty focusing, or headaches may be an indication of poor lighting. Their
120

experiences can provide valuable insights into the areas that need improvement. Measurements
and observations should be made while the occupants are positioned as they would be during
their typical work activities, leading to more accurate data for solutions. If lighting is found to be
inadequate, the following strategies can be adopted: replacing lamps on a regular basis,
maintaining the cleanliness of light fixtures, installing additional light sources, painting the walls
and ceilings in lighter shades of paint, utilizing reflected light and task lighting in order to
counteract shadows, and also, consider the placement of workstations.
All the lights in the classroom will be required as tools for the exercise. Participants will
include the entire class.
5.1.2 Illuminance and Luminance
For illuminance and luminance, the fist exercise involves determining the light output of a
candle. This is done by positioning a standard candle one foot away from a light source then
measuring the resulting illuminance on a vertical 1ft by 1ft surface area perpendicular to the
candle (Figure 5.12). Start by placing the candle on a flat surface, ensuring it's not in the path of
any drafts that could alter the flame. Next, use a measuring tape to establish a precise distance,
such as one foot, between the candle and a wall or screen. Light the candle, making the room as
dark as possible to accurately gauge the light it emits. Observe and record the diameter and
brightness of the light circle projected onto the wall or screen. Employ a light meter to quantify
the illumination at this point, recording the results in foot-candles or lux. Proceed to gradually
move the candle away from the wall or screen, observing changes in the light's properties at each
interval, and capturing illuminance meter readings at each new position.
121

Figure 5.12 A Standard Lamp, Candle, Measuring Tape, White Boards
The second activity focuses on utilizing an illuminance meter and a smartphone application
to gauge light levels. This task aims to acquaint students with the workings of an illuminance
meter, including its measurement scale, typically in lux or foot-candles, and how to interpret its
display. Begin by positioning the light meter so its sensor directly faces the light source, ensuring
it's unobstructed (Figure 5.13). Take note of the meter's readings and the measurement unit's
readings. While lumens measure the total light output from a source, lux and footcandles
measure the amount of that light that actually lands on a surface, with the difference being the
unit of measurement (meters for lux, feet for footcandles). Refer to the lamp's packaging or
122

specification sheet to provide its lumen output as a fixed value, illustrating that lumens are a
property of the light source itself, not the illuminated area. Finally, discussing different scenarios,
e.g., lux for international projects, footcandles for U.S.-based projects, and lumens for selecting
light bulbs. Following this, vary the meter's distance from the light source and adjust the angle at
which it's held. Observe and document how these changes affect the light readings as additional
observations in this exercise.
Figure 5.13 Reading Measurements from the Light Meter
It is necessary to have the following fixtures and tools in order to conduct these experiments:
several lamps with known lumen output, a candle, matches or a lighter, rulers or measuring tapes,
a dark room, white walls, and an illuminance meter or an app that measures light. Participants
will be the entire class.
5.1.3 Glare
123

Effective lighting provides sufficient brightness to ensure clear visibility without
overwhelming the eyes with excessively high light levels, which can lead to glare. In typical
office and classroom settings, tasks often involve both computer monitors and paper documents.
Paper documents generally require more light than monitors, which are self-illuminating and do
not need extra light from external sources. However, if a monitor is not correctly adjusted, it can
become a source of glare. Additionally, the screen can reflect nearby objects, shiny surfaces, and
any light sources, especially overhead lighting, further contributing to glare issues.
To detect reflected glare, maintain the typical working position and observe the task, ensure
the workspace is free from unnecessary clutter that can affect the experiment. As a first
observation, note any highly reflective surfaces, such as glossy tabletops or glass surfaces. This
example compares two tasks, reading a document or using a computer. Observe the task under
existing lighting conditions and note any difficulties with visibility or discomfort, such as
squinting or adjusting position (Figure 5.14). Use an opaque object like a book or a piece of
cardboard to block light coming from potential sources above or in front of the task area, then
note any changes in the visibility of the task details (Figure 5.15). The purpose of this exercise is
to identify specific lights that, when blocked, improve visibility. Also look for reflective objects
that might not directly emit light but can reflect it, such as white papers, shiny table surfaces, or
electronic screens. A number of methods exist to enhance the visual comfort, such as rearranging
the workspace layout by moving the desk, adjusting the monitor position, or installing diffusers
on lights or repositioning light sources.
124

Figure 5.14 Reflected Glare from Direct Lights with Different Locations
Figure 5.15 Trying Different Angles and Positions to Avoid Reflected Glare
To detect direct glare, while seated in usual work posture, select an object at a distance that
aligns with eye level, the lecture platform was selected in this example. Also comparing tasks
with a computer monitor and paperwork. Use a similar blocking method between the suspected
light source and observer eyes, and the blocker should intercept any direct light potentially
causing glare (Figure 5.16). The improvement of clarity or comfort suggests the presence of
direct glare from the blocked light source. If the ability to see the distant object improves
significantly with the light blocked, it indicates that the light fixtures may be causing direct glare.
Another method is to position a small mirror flat on the work surface, and if it shows the
reflection of any overhead lights in the mirror, these fixtures are likely causing glare that can
125

impact visual comfort.
Figure 5.16 Blocking the Direct Glare
To scientifically detect and measure glare, a camera equipped with a fisheye converter lens
can be utilized, and the resulting images analyzed using software such as Photolux. First,
configure the camera and position it at a height equivalent to that of a user's eyes (Figure 5.17).
Take four photographs from the same position, focusing on the same point, with varying
exposure times (½, 1/15, 1/125, 1/1000 seconds). Using Photolux, calculate the average
luminance and Unified Glare Rating (UGR), as well as identify the points of maximum and
minimum values, based on the angle of the human visual field (Figure 5.18).
126

Figure 5.17 Camera Setting and Assembling
Figure 4.18 Example of the Luminance Map (Photolux Luminance, 2024)
The necessary tools for the exercise include tables, chairs, glossy surfaces, computer screens,
paperwork, and opaque objects such as pieces of cardboard to block light. Each session will
involve one student or a group of students participating at a time.
5.1.4 Color Temperature and CRI
This part of demonstrations visually represents how different light sources and environmental
conditions affect the appearance and mood of light. The works of architecture students will be
used as an example, as students usually pin their work to the wall for presentation and critique.
To begin with, the LED lights with adjustable color temperature (2700K, 5000K, and 6000K)
127

were attached to the display wall, as well as placed on a table for comparison (Figure 5.19 to
Figure 5.21).
Figure 5.19 Real Scene for Three Different Color Temperature with Works on the Wall (2700K, 5000K, and 6000K)
Figure 5.20 Real Scene for Three Different Color Temperature with Works on the Table (2700K, 5000K, and 6000K)
Figure 5.21 AGI Rendering for Three Different Color Temperature (2700K, 5000K, 6000K)
The effect of the whole classroom can also be shown with the color temperature adjustable
LED linear lights attached to the pipe grid. This shows 3000K, 4000K, and 5000K, with a remote
128

controller (Figure 5.22).
Figure 5.22 Real Scene for Three Different Color Temperature with the Whole Room (3000K, 4000K, and 5000K)
Moreover, seeing different colors of light aside from just the color temperature is helpful in
fields of lighting design, and even art, photography, and fashion, where color accuracy is
paramount (Figure 5.23). In entertainment settings, such as theaters and amusement parks,
different colors of light enhance the viewer's experience by adding drama and emphasizing
emotions or themes. This section will show the different colors of light through an engaging
classroom activity.
129

Figure 5.23 Different Colors of Light
5.1.5 Lamp Types
The light display board, measuring 1’ x 3’5”, is equipped with three lamp holders, each with
its own individual switch (Figure 5.24). This board showcases various types of lamps, such as
compact fluorescent, metal halide, LED, halogen, and Edison-style lamps. Some lamps are
connected using converters to be compatible with the spiral lamp holders, including GU5.3 and
GU24 adapters (Figure 5.25).
130

Figure 5.24 The Light Display Board
Figure 5.25 Different Types of Lamps and Converter Samples
The choice of lamp type can influence the overall design and operational cost of a project. By
131

setting up separate areas for each category of lamp types, each provides a brief summary that
covers the principle of operation, typical uses, advantages, and disadvantages of each lamp type
(Figure 5.26). Place a set of colorful objects under each type of light source for observation
(Figure 5.27). Also the students should be allowed to turn the lights on and off, and let students
note the different hue of the lamps, and their heat output compared to LEDs. Facilitate a
discussion on the ideal applications for each lamp type within architectural spaces, considering
factors like ambiance creation, task lighting, energy efficiency, and sustainability goals.
Figure 5.26 Three Types of Lamps
132

Figure 5.27 The Light Display Board Exercise
This section also covers the factors that students should consider when selecting fixtures for
future projects. Architectural lighting fixtures often offer a range of customizable options and
specifications to ensure that the lighting complements the architectural design effectively. There
are several dimensions available for this linear LED light shown in the example below, including
2 ft, 3 ft, 4 ft, 6 ft, 8 ft, and custom lengths (Figure 5.28). There is also a choice of white or black
finishes for the surface mount LED lighting (Figure 5.29). The most popular options are white,
silver and black, but many factories can also custom paint a fixture according to an architect's or
designer's specifications. The light output is a measure of the amount of light needed in a space,
as determined by an electrical engineer, architect, or lighting designer. The color temperature can
be selected from a range of cool to warm. CRI is an optional feature, with commonly available
choices being CRI 80+ or 90+. Notably, in California, residential lighting must meet a minimum
of 90+ CRI. Fixtures with a light distribution option can be selected as direct (only downlight),
indirect (only uplight), or direct/indirect (both downlight and uplight) illumination. For
architectural lighting fixtures, mounting type options include surface mount, recessed mount (can
be offered either trimless or with trim), pendant or wall mount. Pendant fixtures, in particular,
may be hung using either adjustable aircraft cable kits or fixed stem/rod mounts. Following
133

recommendations from the electrical engineer or architect regarding the lighting control system,
a suitable driver can be chosen. This device not only powers but also manages the operation of
LED lights, accommodating options like 0-10v, ELV, wireless, and dimming capabilities to align
with the system's specifications. At present, dimming systems utilizing 0-10v are the most
favored choice (Lighting, A., 2022).
134

Figure 5.28 Specification Sheet Example for Recessed Linear LED Light (1-inch wide recessed
linear led light, 2024)
135

Figure 5.29 Specification Sheet Example for Surface mount LED lighting (1-inch linear led T-Bar
Grid Ceiling Light, 2024)
Generally, angled beam spread applies to architectural recessed downlights or track lighting,
which provide the desired spread to highlight an artifact, furniture, or painting (Figure 5.30). It is
recommended that for general lighting, choose a wider beam spread; for spotlighting, choose a
narrower beam spread. Recessed LED fixtures have multiple potential applications, available in
wide flood, wide flood, and narrow flood. A number of manufacturers offer multiple beam spread
lenses when an order is placed, allowing the installer to select and field-install the lens that best
suits the project requirements.
136

Figure 5.30 Specification Sheet Example for LED Track Light Head (Multi-sized led Track Light
Head, 2024)
5.1.6 Lighting System and Layers of Light
The original lighting in Watt One encompasses various designs, such as LED recessed cove
lights for display walls, which can be characterized as architectural lighting fixtures, serving
primarily as an ambient layer of indirect lighting (Figure 5.31). The track lights in the front of the
classroom can be described as direct lighting fixtures in the focal layer, as they are highlighting
the lecture and presentation area (Figure 5.32). On the other hand, the rest of the track lights on
the grid were rotated to aim up to the ceiling structure, representing the indirect uplighting
(Figure 5.33 and Figure 5.34). The new linear lighting fixtures also can be described as direct,
and surface mounted lighting systems (Figure 5.35).
137

Figure 5.31 Lighting Effect of LED Recessed Cove Lights
Figure 5.32 Lighting Effect of Track Lights in the Front of the Classroom
138

Figure 5.33 Lighting Effect of Rotated Up Track Lights
139

Figure 5.34 Ceiling Structure without Uplighting
140

Figure 5.35 New Linear Lighting Fixtures
141

This section also presents examples of RCPs, glow plans, and detailed drawings (Figure
5.36).
Figure 5.36 Detailed Drawings of Six Method of Using Cove Lighting (Cove Lighting
Application Note, 2024)
5.2 Teaching Manual
The teaching manual is included as an appendix. Additional information for these exercises
can be found within the teaching manual.
5.3 Summary
This chapter follows up on the setup of luminaires and equipment detailed in the previous
chapter by explaining how these tools are utilized. It discusses both tangible outcomes and
computer-simulated results. The chapter outlines potential student exercises, and the appendix
includes the teaching manual, which offers detailed instructions and necessary tools for each of
the six exercises, complete with comprehensive demonstration guides and improvement
suggestions.
142

CHAPTER SIX: FUTURE WORK AND CONCLUSION
This research effort towards designing and creating a lighting teaching lab has illuminated
several additional possibilities and opened up new questions that merit further exploration. The
following paragraphs outline some potential directions for future work, such as refining the
optimal design for the teaching lab, establishing a real class implementation, as well as
identifying and installing an improved control system. By identifying these areas, the thesis not
only highlights progress made but also maps out the area of future investigation and
development.
6.1 Conclusions
Lighting design is guided by two principles, the qualitative and the quantitative aspects of
light. Qualitative aspects, also known as aesthetic factors, contribute to a pleasing ambience in a
space, the artistic interspersion of shadows and light. The quantitative aspects, also referred to as
engineering aspects, involve the provision of adequate levels of illumination based on the
guidelines for a wide range of tasks and activities that were published by the Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America (IES). It is important to understand that when lighting
design is left in the hands of engineers who simply aim to meet quantifiable lighting output
specifications per application, then interior and exterior areas risk becoming soulless (Hakimi,
D., 2023). Lighting design involves the conception, creation, integration, infusion and
organization of lighting to create a coordinated experience. The design is also tailored to the
specific purpose of the space.
143

The lighting teaching lab is useful for architecture students to demonstrate various luminaries
that can improve the understanding of how humans respond to visual stimuli. In order to build a
lighting teaching lab in the School of Architecture at the University of Southern California, the
project began with an investigation of the curriculum of architectural lighting courses in
universities around the world, focusing primarily on the USC School of Architecture. By
combining information from professors and professionals, the most important things for
architecture students to learn will be listed.
Studying both university-based and professional lighting labs, and emphasizing their role in
facilitating experimental studies, equipment, and lab activities, proved to be instrumental in
enabling an understanding of architectural lighting on a deeper level. Each of the case-study labs
specializes in different areas; for instance, Pennsylvania State University and the University of
Colorado emphasize engineering and design. Meanwhile, students at UC Davis can enroll in
lighting courses at the California Lighting Technology Center, where they will build a
foundational lighting vocabulary and learn about lighting technologies. The University of Sydney
features an Indoor Environmental Quality Lab that investigates various elements impacting
human comfort, performance, and health. Immersive visual demonstrations are a vital component
of lighting education, supporting the need for a multifunctional lighting lab to effectively teach
these concepts. It is necessary to identify the positive attributes of both university-based and
professional lighting laboratories and determine how to effectively implement these qualities.
Based on the examples of USC and other global architecture schools, a large set of lighting
demonstrations can be established that a typical architecture program will be able to afford both
in terms of space and lighting components. There are six topics: lighting fundamentals and basic
perception, light sources, architectural lighting design, mood and visual interest, software tools,
144

and other design tools. In class, the first three could be demonstrated using a variety of lighting
fixtures (Figure 6.1). The list is refined into a smaller subset of the most important and interesting
lighting design demonstrations in class, which are: recommended illumination levels, luminance
and illuminance, glare, color temperature and CRI, lamp types, lighting systems, and the various
layers of light.
Figure 6.1 List of Lighting Topics
The potential site for the lab, classroom B1 (Watt One) in Watt Hall, was thoroughly
evaluated and found to be suitable for transformation into a lighting laboratory. It provides
enough space and flexibility to accommodate a variety of lighting fixtures (Figure 6.2). The room
is a multifunctional, windowless space measuring approximately 40 feet wide and 40 feet long,
with a ceiling height of nearly 20 feet. It comes equipped with a basic set of furniture and
lighting suitable for a classroom setting. The ceiling grid and the lighting circuit, especially
wiring, switches, and fixtures, in Watt One was also studied by consulting with the professional
electrician. A detailed 3D model, floorplans and RCPs were created and examined for its
capability.
145

Figure 6.2 Lighting Schedule
A design proposal and a teaching manual have been developed, complete with the necessary
fixtures, tools, and demonstration tutorials for students (Figure 6.3). Additionally, the design
includes a flexible setting for the lab, ensuring that the fixtures are both movable and adaptable to
various configurations. This flexibility enhances the lab's functionality and accommodates
diverse learning and experimentation needs. A logo has been created for the lab and is featured
alongside the teaching manual, helping to distinguish and identify the lab.
146

Figure 6.3 Teaching Manual Pages
Various lighting fixtures, such as lamps and light meters, along with other essential tools,
were acquired and installed in Watt One. These fixtures are located on the grid structure, the
south display wall, and the movable lamp display board, enhancing the functionality and
versatility of the space. The original lights in the room were modified, allowing them to be aimed
in various directions to create a range of lighting effects. Each topic includes a series of concise
exercises designed to enhance students' understanding of architectural lighting design. All steps
and experiences will be thoroughly documented to aid in learning and assessment (Figure 6.4).
147

Figure 6.4 Methodology Diagram
The recommended average illumination levels for a room and their effects under different
conditions were demonstrated. After AGI calculated the average illumination for each scenario,
these light settings were then recreated in real-world conditions in Watt One for classroom
activities (Figure 6.5 and Figure 6.6). RCPs and lighting schedules are included for illumination
levels of 3 fc, 15 fc, and 30 fc. This also offers an opportunity to compare computer simulations
with real-life scenarios by using a light meter to measure and calculate the average illumination
during the activity.
Figure 6.5 AGI Rendering for Average Illumination Level 3 fc
148

Figure 6.6 Real Scene for Average 3 fc
The task for illuminance and luminance aims to acquaint students with the workings of an
illuminance meter, including its measurement scale, typically in lux or foot-candles, and how to
interpret its display. Students were provided with candles, different lamps with known lumen
output, light meters, measuring tapes and boards (Figure 6.7).
149

Figure 6.7 Reading Measurements from the Light Meter
Reflected glare often comes from computer screens and other digital devices, while direct
glare results from intensely bright light fixtures that are poorly positioned. To detect these, use an
opaque object like a book or cardboard from a normal working position to block light from
potential sources (Figure 6.8). The goal is to identify specific lights that, when obstructed,
enhance visibility.
Figure 6.8 Reflected Glare from Direct Lights with Different Locations
A scientific method to detect glare using the Unified Glare Rating (UGR) involves
positioning a camera with a fisheye converter lens at eye level to take four photos at varying
exposure times. These images are then analyzed with Photolux software to calculate the average
luminance and UGR, as well as to identify the maximum and minimum luminance values within
150

the human visual field (Figure 6.9).
Figure 6.9 Example of the Luminance Map (Photolux Luminance, 2024)
Demonstrations of color temperature illustrate how various light sources and environmental
151

conditions influence the appearance and mood of light. Using architecture students' work as
examples, which are typically displayed on walls for presentations and critiques, different color
temperatures such as 2700K, 5000K, and 6000K were mounted on the display wall and also
placed on a table for comparison. Additionally, the impact on the entire classroom ambiance is
demonstrated using new adjustable LED linear lights with color temperatures of 3000K, 4000K,
and 5000K attached to the ceiling grid (Figure 6.10).
152

Figure 6.10 Real Scene and AGI simulation for Three Different Color Temperature (3000K, 4000K, and 5000K)
Display of lamp types with the light display board, sized at 1 foot by 3 feet 5 inches, features
three lamp holders and is used in this exercise for a variety of lamps, including compact
fluorescent, metal halide, LED, halogen, and Edison-style lamps. Students can interactively turn
the lights on and off, facilitating discussions about the optimal use of each lamp type in
architectural settings (Figure 6.11).
153

Figure 6.11 Three Types of Lamps
Watt One features a diverse array of original and additional lighting systems, encompassing
multiple layers and types of illumination (Figure 6.12). LED recessed cove lights on display
walls are used as architectural lighting fixtures, primarily providing ambient, indirect lighting.
The track lights at the front of the classroom function as direct lighting fixtures in the focal layer,
highlighting the lecture and presentation area. Meanwhile, other track lights on the grid have
been adjusted to aim upwards, creating indirect uplighting by illuminating the ceiling structure.
Additionally, the new linear lighting fixtures serve as both direct and surface lighting systems.
154

Figure 6.12 Lighting Effects
155

6.2 Future Work
Although the results have already provided some valuable insights into lighting concepts for
undergraduate students, they also highlight the multi-dimensional complexity of real-life
situations. Students' feedback should be collected and analyzed following visual demonstrations
in class. There can be other topics and exercises developed, and the lab can be updated and
improved in the future.
6.2.1 Real Course Implementation and Feedback from Students
Currently, exercise demonstrations involve only a select few students, which may limit the
feedback received. It's proposed that an integrated class testing all the exercises be conducted in
Watt One, with any challenges documented to assess whether the lab fulfills student needs and
identify the areas needing improvement. Furthermore, the lab should establish a formal feedback
system to gather insights from both students and faculty. Using this feedback, the lab can make
ongoing adjustments to its setup, equipment, and course offerings. For future semesters,
maintaining these regular evaluation reports will also help to track improvements over time.
6.2.2 Other Installation and Exercise
Due to the focus on undergraduates and introductory concepts, there is room for expansion to
cover more advanced topics suitable for graduate students and specialized lighting courses. For
156

students to gain a better understanding, it's essential to expand the curriculum by incorporating
additional exercises. Additionally, obtaining additional funding for the new fixtures and tools is
crucial to realizing the ideal design of the lab. Developing collaborations between the
architecture, engineering, and even theatrical design departments could promote a more dynamic
learning environment, improving understanding of how lighting influences various design and
functional elements.
In addition to the basic exercises designed for students, the lab offers potential for
research-based projects, aided by its ceiling grid that can provide adjustable connections with
additional lighting fixtures. This setup is ideal for students interested in artificial lighting,
providing them with a space to gain practical experience and explore various research topics. To
facilitate this advanced use of the lab, it may be necessary to update the lab technology and tools.
This update would also include the latest lighting simulation software, advanced light
measurement instruments, and smart lighting systems, ensuring the lab remains at the forefront
of lighting education and research.
6.2.3 Control System
A consistent control system is not currently incorporated into the design. An ideal and
advanced lighting control system should extend beyond basic wiring to include integrated
controls that manage light intensity, color temperature, and energy efficiency, often utilizing
automated or remote control capabilities. Such a system would feature advanced dimming
options supporting multiple dimming protocols, which enable precise adjustments of light
intensity across various fixture types.
157

However, integrating consistency for the control system can be challenging as it should
ideally be incorporated during the design and construction phase of the room. Additional lights
can be connected to existing fixtures and operated from the same switch. The feasibility of using
external controllers, such as remote controls or new wall switches, should be explored with a
professional electrician to ensure proper implementation. Moreover, with the development of the
lab, there are also opportunities of programmable interfaces tailored for specific experiments or
demonstrations, allowing users to set and recall customized lighting scenes or schedules with
diverse lighting conditions.
6.3 Summary
The initiative of the lighting lab aims to provide undergraduate architecture students with a
hands-on educational experience, enhancing their understanding of various lighting concepts and
applications. The proposed lighting lab, boasting a 15-foot ceiling height and a hung metal
ceiling grid of 5' x 5', is designed to facilitate an immersive learning environment. Students will
engage with a broad spectrum of lighting concepts, exploring the recommended illumination
levels, illuminance, glare, color temperatures and CRI, lamp types, lighting systems, and the
intricacies of layering light. The proposed design listed the possible installed fixtures and other
tools, and there are some of the fixtures added to the classroom for varieties of student activities.
In conclusion, this chapter outlined potential directions for advancing the project and further
exploration, such as implementing the designs and exercises in actual classes, improving the
design of the curriculum of the teaching lab, and refining the control systems. Insights gained not
only mark significant advances in understanding but also provide the basis for future innovations
158

and improvements.
159

References
In this project, ChatGPT was utilized to enhance the language and structure of the writings.
Chapters 1 and 2 used it to refine wording and grammar, as well as to expand upon basic
concepts and fundamentals using the browser tool. Chapter 3 utilized ChatGPT for grammar
corrections and sentence restructuring. For Chapters 4 and 5, ChatGPT was used to detail
demonstration steps, highlight areas requiring special focus, as well as to identify details that
might be easily overlooked.
1-inch linear led T-Bar Grid Ceiling Light (no date) 1" Linear LED T-Bar Grid Ceiling Light – Alcon Lighting
14027. Available at: https://www.alconlighting.com/linear-14027.html (Accessed: 18 March 2024).
1-inch wide recessed linear led light (no date) Slim 1" Linear Recessed LED Light – Alcon Lighting 12100-10-R.
Available at:
https://www.alconlighting.com/12100-10-r-continuum-10-recessed-architectural-led-trimless-linear-recessed-m
ount-light-fixture.html (Accessed: 18 March 2024).
10 years on from the first inefficient light bulb ban, consumers have saved up to €1,330 (2019) BEUC. Available at:
https://www.beuc.eu/press-releases/10-years-first-inefficient-light-bulb-ban-consumers-have-saved-eu1330#:~:t
ext=Thanks%20to%20the%20EU%20Ecodesign%20lighting%20regulation%2C%20inefficient,2009%2C%20p
aving%20the%20way%20to%20more%20efficient%20LEDs. (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
The 17 goals | sustainable development (no date) United Nations. Available at: https://sdgs.un.org/goals (Accessed:
08 February 2024).
Agi32 Overview – Industry Standard Lighting Software: Lighting analysts (2020) Lighting Analysts | Creator of
AGi32, ElumTools and other outstanding software! Available at:
https://lightinganalysts.com/software-products/agi32/overview/ (Accessed: 09 February 2024).
Annual energy outlook 2023 - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) (no date) Annual Energy Outlook 2023
- U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Available at: https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/ (Accessed: 08
February 2024).
Architectural Lighting Lab (2022) Royal Danish Academy. Available at:
https://royaldanishacademy.com/workshop/architectural-lighting-lab (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Architectural Lighting Laboratory, Department of Architecture and Urban Design, Faculty of Human-Environment
Studies (no date) Architectural Lighting Laboratory | FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, KYUSHU UNIVERSITY.
Available at: https://www.eng.kyushu-u.ac.jp/e/lab_architecture06.html (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Boyce, M.S. et al. (2002) ‘Evaluating resource selection functions’, Ecological Modelling, 157(2–3), pp. 281–300.
doi:10.1016/s0304-3800(02)00200-4.
California Energy Commission (no date) Building Energy Efficiency Standards, California Energy Commission.
160

Available at: https://www.energy.ca.gov/programs-and-topics/programs/building-energy-efficiency-standards
(Accessed: 18 March 2024).
California Lighting Technology Center, 2024. Available at: https://cltc.ucdavis.edu/ (Accessed: 30 April 2024).
Chahine, A. (2023) What is architectural lighting: All you need to know, Architecture Lab. Available at:
https://www.architecturelab.net/what-is-architectural-lighting/ (Accessed: 16 March 2024).
The color lab (no date) The Color Lab | California Lighting Technology Center. Available at:
https://cltc.ucdavis.edu/project/color-lab (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Color temperature (no date) Color Temperature - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/color-temperature (Accessed: 23 April 2024).
Cove Lighting Application Note (no date) LED LinearTM. Available at: http://www.led-linear.com/xoocove
(Accessed: 16 April 2024).
de-Wit, L. and Wagemans, J. (2012) ‘Visual perception’, Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, pp. 665–671.
doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-375000-6.00371-2.
Durmus, D. (2021) ‘Remote Laboratory activities for Color Science Education’, Education and Training in Optics
& Photonics Conference 2021 [Preprint]. doi:10.1364/etop.2021.f1b.3.
Durmus, D. and Davis, W. (2015) ‘Optimising light source spectrum for object reflectance’, Optics Express, 23(11).
doi:10.1364/oe.23.00a456.
Electrical, E.-G. (2023) What is CRI in lighting and why is it so important? - E-green electrical, E. Available at:
https://e-greenelectrical.com.au/what-is-cri/ (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Electromagnetic spectrum (2024) Encyclopædia Britannica. Available at:
https://www.britannica.com/science/electromagnetic-spectrum (Accessed: 07 February 2024).
ENERGY STAR (no date) Fact sheet lighting technologies, LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES: A GUIDE TO
ENERGY-EFFICIENT ILLUMINATION. Available at:
https://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/promotions/change_light/downloads/Fact%20Sheet_Lighting%20Techn
ologies.pdf (Accessed: 12 April 2024).
Environment, U. (2013) The rapid transition to energy efficient lighting: An integrated policy approach, UNEP.
Available at:
https://www.unep.org/resources/report/rapid-transition-energy-efficient-lighting-integrated-policy-approach
(Accessed: 08 February 2024).
ERCO GmbH (2024) UGR (unified glare rating): ERCO Lighting Knowledge, UGR (Unified Glare Rating) | ERCO
Lighting knowledge. Available at:
https://www.erco.com/en/designing-with-light/lighting-knowledge/lighting-design/ugr-method-7488/#Whatdoes
UGR19mean? (Accessed: 10 April 2024).
ETL Listed Mark (no date) ETL listed mark. Available at: https://www.intertek.com/product-certification-marks/etl/
(Accessed: 18 March 2024).
Fluorescent Bulb and Base Types (no date) Fluorescent bulb and base types. Available at:
https://www.lightbulbs.com/fluorescent-bulb-and-base-types (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Fujimori, T. (2019) Light and Shadow in Japanese architecture, Grand Seiko. Available at:
https://article.gs-story.com/7e15c88bc116846005a2ce734ab83d82.html?v=15809683564210&id=8 (Accessed:
29 April 2024).
161

Gd-Admin (2022) Color temperature and influence of lights, https://www.eurborn.com/. Available at:
https://www.eurborn.com/news/color-temperature-and-influence-of-lights/ (Accessed: 07 February 2024).
Government of Canada, C.C. for O.H. and S. (2024a) Lighting Ergonomics - General, Canadian Centre for
Occupational Health and Safety. Available at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/lighting/lighting_general.html (Accessed: 20 March 2024).
Government of Canada, C.C. for O.H. and S. (2024b) Lighting ergonomics - survey and Solutions, Canadian Centre
for Occupational Health and Safety. Available at:
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/lighting/lighting_survey.html#section-7-hdr (Accessed: 19 March
2024).
Hakimi, D. (2023a) Lighting Design 101, Insights. Available at:
https://www.alconlighting.com/blog/learning-lab/intro-to-lighting-design/ (Accessed: 18 March 2024).
Hakimi, D. (2023b) What makes architectural lighting unique?, Insights. Available at:
https://www.alconlighting.com/blog/lighting-design/what-are-architectural-lighting-fixtures/ (Accessed: 17
March 2024).
Halogen lamp (no date) Encyclopædia Britannica. Available at:
https://www.britannica.com/technology/halogen-lamp (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Halogen Light Bulbs (no date) LightBulbs.com. Available at:
https://www.lightbulbs.com/category/halogen-light-bulbs (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
IES TM-30 Calculator (2023) Illuminating Engineering Society. Available at:
https://www.ies.org/standards/standards-toolbox/tm-30-spectral-calculator/ (Accessed: 17 March 2024).
The IESNA lighting handbook: Reference & application (2000). New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America.
The Indoor Lighting Standard, SFS-EN 12464-1:2011 (no date) Ensto. Available at:
https://www.ensto.com/downloads/tools/lighting-guide/the-indoor-lighting-standard-sfs-en-12464-12011/
(Accessed: 07 February 2024).
James, P. and Thorpe, I.J. (1995) Ancient inventions. New York: Ballantine Books.
Juslén, H., Wouters, M. and Tenner, A. (2007) ‘The influence of controllable task-lighting on productivity: A field
study in a factory’, Applied Ergonomics, 38(1), pp. 39–44. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2006.01.005.
Kelly, R. (1952) ‘Lighting as an integral part of Architecture’, College Art Journal, 12(1), p. 24.
doi:10.2307/773361.
Ko, P. et al. (2014) ‘Effect of font size and glare on computer tasks in young and older adults’, Optometry and Vision
Science, 91(6), pp. 682–689. doi:10.1097/opx.0000000000000274.
The leader in LED Lighting Solutions (no date) GE Lighting. Available at: https://www.gelighting.com/ (Accessed:
07 February 2024).
Libretexts (2022) 3.6: Reflection, refraction, and dispersion, Physics LibreTexts. Available at:
https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Davis/UCD%3A_Physics_9B__Waves_Sound_Opt
ics_Thermodynamics_and_Fluids/03%3A_Physical_Optics/3.06%3A_Reflection_Refraction_and_Dispersion
(Accessed: 31 January 2024).
Lighting Council Australia (ed.) (2020) Halogen lamp (Globe) phase-out in Australia, Lighting Council Australia.
162

Available at:
https://www.lightingcouncil.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/200210-halogen-phase-out_FINAL1.pdf
(Accessed: 12 April 2024).
Lighting Design Basics: Mark Karlen, Christina Spangler, James R. Benya, 2012. Available at:
https://www.amazon.com/Lighting-Design-Basics-Mark-Karlen/dp/1119312272 (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Lighting lab (no date) The University of Sydney. Available at:
https://www.sydney.edu.au/architecture/our-research/research-labs-and-facilities/lighting-lab.html (Accessed:
08 February 2024).
Lighting Lab, Department of Architectural Engineering The Pennsylvania State University (no date) Lighting lab.
Available at: https://sites.psu.edu/llab/ (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Lighting laboratory (2022) Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering. Available at:
https://www.colorado.edu/ceae/research-facilities/facilities-centers/facilities/lighting-laboratory (Accessed: 08
February 2024).
Lighting Research Laboratory (no date) Civil, Environmental & Architectural Engineering. Available at:
https://ceae.ku.edu/lighting-research-laboratory (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Lighting, A. (2022a) Architectural lighting fixtures: Choosing the right specifications, Insights. Available at:
https://www.alconlighting.com/blog/lighting-design/architectural-lighting-fixtures-choosing-the-right-specificat
ions/ (Accessed: 18 March 2024).
Lighting, A. (2022b) Interview: Lighting designers on the role of uplighting, Insights. Available at:
https://www.alconlighting.com/blog/lighting-design/lighting-designers-role-of-uplighting/ (Accessed: 17 March
2024).
Luminance ratio (2018) Illuminating Engineering Society. Available at:
https://www.ies.org/definitions/luminance-ratio/ (Accessed: 07 February 2024).
Master of professional studies in lighting design (no date) New York School of Interior Design. Available at:
https://www.nysid.edu/master-of-professional-studies-in-lighting-design (Accessed: 15 March 2024).
McCluney, R. (2003) ‘Radiometry and photometry’, Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, pp. 731–758.
doi:10.1016/b0-12-227410-5/00648-7.
Multi-sized led Track Light Head (no date) Multi-Sized Swivel LED Track Light Head – Alcon Lighting 13340.
Available at: https://www.alconlighting.com/13340.html (Accessed: 18 March 2024).
OSHA’s nationally recognized testing laboratory (NRTL) program (no date) Occupational Safety and Health
Administration. Available at: https://www.osha.gov/nationally-recognized-testing-laboratory-program
(Accessed: 18 March 2024).
The Paris Agreement, 2016 (no date) Unfccc.int. Available at:
https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Pendarves, C. (no date) Lighting Information, Lights and Lighting, Luxplan, Luxplan. Available at:
https://www.luxplan.co.uk/how-to-choose-downlights/ (Accessed: 08 February 2024).
Photolux Luminance (no date) photolux. Available at: https://www.photolux-luminance.com/ (Accessed: 05 April
2024).
Quantum Theory of Light (no date) Encyclopædia Britannica. Available at:
https://www.britannica.com/science/light/Quantum-theory-of-light (Accessed: 31 January 2024).
163

Ramachandran, V.S. and Ramach, E.-C.V.S. (2012) Encyclopedia of human behavior (second edition). Elsevier
Science & Technology.
Research (no date) Lighting Lab. Available at: https://sites.psu.edu/llab/research/ (Accessed: 01 March 2024).
Smolders, K.C.H.J., de Kort, Y.A.W. and Cluitmans, P.J.M. (2012) ‘A higher illuminance induces alertness even
during office hours: Findings on subjective measures, task performance and heart rate measures’, Physiology
& Behavior, 107(1), pp. 7–16. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.04.028.
Standards (2023) Illuminating Engineering Society. Available at: https://www.ies.org/standards/ (Accessed: 07
February 2024).
Standards, E. (2021) BS EN 12464-1:2021 light and lighting. lighting of work places indoor work places, BS EN
12464-1:2021. Available at:
https://www.en-standard.eu/bs-en-12464-1-2021-light-and-lighting-lighting-of-work-places-indoor-work-places
/ (Accessed: 24 April 2024).
Stevens, L. (2024) Reimagining color rendering in lighting design: An introduction to TM-30-20, Insights. Available
at: https://www.alconlighting.com/blog/learning-lab/tm-30-20-color-rendering-lighting-design/ (Accessed: 17
March 2024).
Sweeney, M. (2019) Before electricity, streets were filled with gas lights, Office for Science and Society. Available at:
https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/technology-general-science/electricity-streets-were-filled-gas-lights
(Accessed: 03 April 2024).
Thomson, J. (2003) The Scot who lit the world: The story of William Murdoch inventor of gas lighting. Glasgow:
L’autor.
Using TM-30 to improve your lighting design (2022) Illuminating Engineering Society. Available at:
https://www.ies.org/research/fires/using-tm-30-to-improve-your-lighting-design/?_ga=2.160519677.197918915
1.1693672220-1208566590.1691722488 (Accessed: 17 March 2024).
Visual perception (2013) Visual Perception - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/visual-perception (Accessed: 07 February 2024).
Volumetric lighting (2023) Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumetric_lighting (Accessed: 18
March 2024).
Yu, H. and Akita, T. (2023) ‘Effects of illuminance and color temperature of a general lighting system on
psychophysiology while performing paper and computer tasks’, Building and Environment, 228, p. 109796.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109796.
164

APPENDIX A
The teaching manual is designed to enrich architectural lighting design education in both
classroom and individual study environments. It provides educators with a set of practical
activities ready for immediate implementation, aiming to inspire both instructors and students to
develop further activities and experiments. The manual includes detailed examples for practical
application. It covers seven key topics: recommended illumination levels, luminance and
illuminance, glare, color temperature and CRI, lamp types, lighting systems, and layers of light.
165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Light not only reveals architecture but also serves as a dynamic tool for altering perceptions, making it a pivotal element in the design process. Recognizing this critical role, the USC School of Architecture proposes the establishment of a lighting teaching laboratory within Watt Hall's classroom B1, also known as Pierre F. Koenig FAIA, Watt One. This initiative aims to provide undergraduate architecture students with a hands-on educational experience, enhancing their understanding of various lighting concepts and applications. The proposed lighting lab, boasting a 15-foot ceiling height and a hung metal ceiling grid of 5' x 5', is designed to facilitate an immersive learning environment. Students will engage with a broad spectrum of lighting conditions, exploring different illumination levels, glare, color temperatures, lamp types, lighting systems, and the intricacies of layering light. Additionally, the lab will offer insights into "bad" lighting practices and their impact on human perception and well-being. The proposed design includes installed fixtures and other tools, and the flexible design ensures the easy incorporation of additional fixtures in the future, allowing the facility to evolve alongside advancements in lighting technology and educational needs. Through this initiative, the USC School of Architecture aims to contribute to the students' educational journey, equipping them with the knowledge and skills to thoughtfully integrate lighting into their future design projects.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Structural design tool for performative building elements: a semi-automated Grasshopper plugin for design decision support of complex trusses

PDF

Changing space and sound: parametric design and variable acoustics

PDF

Visualizing architectural lighting: creating and reviewing workflows based on virtual reality platforms

PDF

A teaching tool for architectural acoustics

PDF

Lightnet: a Web based teaching tool

PDF

Modular shading: using design to mitigate bus rider thermal heat stress

PDF

Effective light shelf and form finding: development of a light shelf design assistant tool using parametric methods

PDF

A survey and experiments exploring light transmitting concrete

PDF

Evaluation of daylighting circadian effects: Integrating non-visual effects of lighting in the evaluation of daylighting designs

PDF

Shading mask: a computer-based teaching tool for sun shading devices

PDF

Acoustic cumulus: acoustic improvements in the graduate building science studio

PDF

Precast concrete thin-shell skins: a smart computer tool for generating complex shapes

PDF

Blind to light loss: evaluating light loss through commercial building facades as a contribution to urban light pollution

PDF

Performative shading design: parametric based measurement of shading system configuration effectiveness and trends

PDF

Mitigating the urban heat island effect: thermal performance of shade-tree planting in downtown Los Angeles

XLS

Glass beam design for architects: brief introduction to the most critical factors of glass beams and easy computer tool [spreadsheet]

PDF

Post-tensioning a GFRC assembly: an experiment using glass fiber reinforced concrete panels

PDF

Examining the challenges faced by parents of children with autism in their advocacy efforts: a field study

PDF

Impacts of indoor environmental quality on occupants environmental comfort: a post occupancy evaluation study

PDF

A proposal for building envelope retrofit on the Bonaventure Hotel: a case study examining energy and carbon

Asset Metadata

Creator Xi, Shuangyu (author)

Core Title Architectural lighting teaching lab: a space for architecture students to experience lighting perception

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Building Science

Degree Program Building Science

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 06/12/2024

Defense Date 06/12/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag architectural lighting design,lighting,lighting education,OAI-PMH Harvest,USC,Watt Hall

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Noble, Douglas (committee chair), Dandridge, Lauren (committee member), Sandheinrich, Kris (committee member)

Creator Email xishuang@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC1139963AI

Unique identifier UC1139963AI

Identifier etd-XiShuangyu-13092.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-XiShuangyu-13092

Document Type Thesis

Format theses (aat)

Rights Xi, Shuangyu

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240614-usctheses-batch-1168 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu