University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Understanding teacher leadership styles in relation to student outcomes

(USC Thesis Other)

Understanding teacher leadership styles in relation to student outcomes

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

Understanding Teacher Leadership Styles in Relation to Student Outcomes

Erick Marcus Hamilton

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Erick Marcus Hamilton 2022
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Erick Marcus Hamilton certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Alexandra Wilcox
Kimberly Hirabayashi
Cathy Krop, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2022
iv
Abstract
This qualitative study examined school leadership styles in a small, rural school district and the
use of transformational leadership principles to support school outcomes. Based on interviews
with six elementary and middle school leaders, this study examined the use of transactional and
transformational leadership principles and perceptions of their effects on school culture and
climate. Research indicates that leadership styles can impact stakeholders within the school
community and its culture and climate. I found that school leaders generally had knowledge of
transformational leadership practices and how to implement them in practice, but some school
leaders struggled to adopt new leadership methods to address the demands of the changing
school climate of today. Evidence suggested that school leaders felt a lack of support from the
school district to address the changing nature of school leadership, including a lack of
professional development on expanding leadership style and skills to meet current needs. This
study sought to reframe the role of school leaders to address the needs of all key stakeholders
within the school community.
Keywords: elementary school, middle school, leadership styles, student outcomes, rural
school district

v
Dedication
To all the educators who continue learning!

vi
Acknowledgments
This dissertation is dedicated to all of us in the field of education who wonder why we do
what we do to improve the lives of children. As a teacher, I wonder how we can do more to make
our impact greater in the classroom. In my last 3 years as a doctoral student at the University of
Southern California, I kept asking why educators ask this question.
This dissertation is dedicated to all of us in education who try to do the best for children
but are restricted by traditional barriers of thought. For 3 years I have been outside the traditional
barriers of thought and the cost was high! Along with teaching and learning, I now understand
the word leadership. I want to thank everyone at USC who allowed me to grow outside of the
box of traditional barriers of thought.
I want to acknowledge my faith in God, which led me through this project! To the
teachers and school leaders of Atlanta Public Schools, Washington D.C. Public Schools, and
Baltimore County Public Schools, thank you for shaping me. To my new USC friends, thank you
for your support over the past 3 years. To Dr. H, thank you for picking me up when I was down!
To the sixth grade team in Baltimore County, thank you for starting my path with you! To my
brother and sisters, you were my rock! To my parents watching over me, I dedicate my work and
life to your memory! Since you were my first teachers, you should know I never stop wondering
why!

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice.................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 2
The Economic Impact of the Lack of Research-Based School Leadership ........................ 4
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 5
Organizational Context ....................................................................................................... 6
Organizational and Stakeholder Group of Study Goal ....................................................... 8
Performance Goals Related to the Problem of Practice ...................................................... 8
Research Questions Guiding the Study............................................................................... 9
Theoretical Framework/Methodology .............................................................................. 10
Definitions......................................................................................................................... 10
Organization of the Dissertation ....................................................................................... 10
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 12
Focus on Teacher Accountability to Improve Student Outcomes .................................... 12
Focus on School Leadership to Improve Student Outcomes ............................................ 15
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences .............................. 24
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 31
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 32
Study Participants ............................................................................................................. 32
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 33
viii
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 35
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 36
Ethics and Role of the Researcher .................................................................................... 37
COVID-19 Effects on Research........................................................................................ 38
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 39
Participants of the Study ................................................................................................... 39
Presentation of the Findings.............................................................................................. 40
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 50
Chapter Five: Recommendations .................................................................................................. 52
Themes and Recommendations for Practice ..................................................................... 52
Recommendation for Practice: Transformational Leadership Development
Program ............................................................................................................................. 56
Kirkpatrick Model of Evaluation ...................................................................................... 59
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................... 62
Future Research ................................................................................................................ 63
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 64
References ..................................................................................................................................... 66
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................... 74
Appendix B: Theoretical Diagrams .............................................................................................. 75

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission and Goal and Stakeholder Group’s Performance Goal 9
Table 2: Assumed Knowledge Influences on Performance 27
Table 3: Assumed Motivational Influences on Performance 29
Table 4: Assumed Organizational Influences 31
Table 5: Participants of This Study 40
Table 6: Development of the Preliminary Coding Scheme Into Findings 41
Table 7: Development of Categories Into Themes 41
Table 8: School Leaders Describing Their Leadership Style 44

x
List of Figures
Figure B1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 75
Figure B2: Herzberg’s Hygiene and Motivational Factors 76
Figure B3: Bandura’s Model of the Sources of Self-Efficacy and the Outcomes 77
Figure B4: Transactional and Transformational Leadership 78

1

Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
School principals and vice principals are given the role and responsibility of the
management of all essential non-teaching duties within the school community (National Policy
Board for Educational Administration, 2015). Within schools across the United States, teachers
are given the role and responsibilities of creating classroom environments conducive to teaching
and learning. School leaders play an important role in creating a school culture that impacts
student outcomes, including academic outcomes. This study examines the types of leadership
styles school leaders call on and the role of transformational leadership attributes to improve
student outcomes. While accountability for student academic outcomes has increasingly been
tied to teachers and key academic indicators within national and state high stakes academic
assessments, less focus has been given to school leadership styles and ties to school culture and
student academic outcomes. The problem of practice within school leadership is the absence of a
research-based style of management with an intended outcome of an improvement in academic
outcomes for public school students.
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2009), the No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) Act (2001) initiatives cost U.S. taxpayers over $30,000,000,000, and there has been
little evidence of their effects on student outcomes (Baird, 2019; Dee & Jacob, 2011). Under
President Obama in 2015, the NCLB Act was replaced with the Every Student Succeeds Act
(ESSA), which modified provisions for standardized testing for K–12 students but still required
high accountability benchmarks for teachers (ESSA, 2022a). From 2002–2015, the NCLB Act
changed the perspective of how school organizational leaders would hold teachers accountable
for high education outcomes at the federal level (Dee & Jacob, 2011).
2

The NCLB Act and the ESSA (U.S. Department of Education, 2022a, 2022b) highlighted
teacher accountability at the federal level, emphasizing the improvement of teacher instructional
practices, also described as improving teacher quality (Cohen-Vogel et al., 2019; U.S.
Department of Education, 2022x). At the state level, by 2016, the Charlotte Danielson Teaching
Framework was adopted by school systems across the United States to measure teacher
effectiveness in the classroom (Viviano, 2012). This evaluation framework has become a
standard in defining how teachers should instruct and how student learning will be measured.
Now being used in 45 states, the Danielson framework is another tool that seeks to connect
ineffective teaching to poor academic outcomes.
As evident with federal and state educational policy, the implementation of a standard
teacher framework suggests teachers are on the front line of effectiveness in moving the
academic needle forward towards progress. This approach indicates a causal assumption on how
schools should address low academic performance (Holloway & Brass, 2017). In this equation of
how instructional practices of teachers will produce positive student outcomes, the missing
element of the equation is a focus on the role of school-based leadership in student outcomes
(Cruickshank, 2017).
Background of the Problem
Since the early 2000s, public schools have seen an increase in educational policy which
ties student academic performance to key targeted benchmarks and holds teachers accountable
for meeting those benchmarks (Cohen-Vogel et al., 2019). With the rising role of accountability
measures within the layers of government, lawmakers, nonprofit foundations, and other industry
leaders were influencing government thinking on how to fix the problem of poor student
academic performance within primary and secondary schools (Cohen-Vogel et al., 2019; Dee &
3

Jacob, 2013; ESSA, 2015). With a belief system in which the solution to these problems was
characterized as simply fixing the teacher, school systems began to address teacher-related
problems with new methods on how teachers should be held accountable for high student
outcomes, including under the NCLB Act (2001).
Stoddard and Kuhn (2006) conducted a study to measure the impact of increased teacher
accountability under the NCLB Act (2001). According to Stoddard and Kuhn, the NCLB Act had
a number of negative impacts on teaching. For example, teachers described negative effects such
as an increase in work hours, elevated stress levels of new teachers, and an increasing number of
teachers leaving education within 3 years (Stoddard & Kuhn, 2006). As accountability laws
changed, teachers were required to adopt and accommodate new federal and state laws. As the
accountability culture became a norm, the problem of low student performance on reading and
math assessments became the reality for many students. The U.S. Department of Education has
viewed poor student academic performance as a teacher accountability problem as reflected in
their top-down teacher reform lens approach to national education policy (Fischer et al., 2019).
The NCLB Act was the primary law for K–12 education from 2002–2015, and ultimately
teachers were held accountable for how students learned and achieved, and this federal law
penalized schools that did not show improvement for all students (Dee & Jacob, 2013; ESSA,
2015).
Under the NCLB Act (2001), all public schools were required to reveal testing data for all
students receiving federal funding; this changed the foundation of how schools viewed effective
teaching in the classroom and this was followed by ESSA (2015), which shifted much of the
law’s federal accountability provisions to the states (Dee & Jacob, 2013). These laws pushed
teacher accountability as one aspect of the teaching and learning equation but overlooked the role
4

of school leadership (Cohen-Vogel et al., 2019). Less understood is how leadership style, such as
transactional or transformational styles, impacts a teacher’s ability to become effective in the
classroom. Transactional leadership is a style of leadership in which leaders promote
compliance by followers through rewards and punishments (Bass & Avolio, 1999).
Transformational leadership is a theory of leadership where a leader works with teams to
identify the need for change by creating a vision to guide change through the process of
committed followers (Cruickshank, 2017). Given this culture of teacher accountability, the
problem in public education is in part the failure to identify research-based leadership practices
which may have a positive outcome on school climate, teacher development, retention, and
student outcomes (Cruickshank, 2017). Much of the current research only addresses the problem
of student achievement within a vacuum perspective, meaning that this lens fails to address
factors related to the relationship between school leadership and teaching and learning. Without a
research-based approach to school leadership, this gap in knowledge may have a negative impact
on how teachers can improve instructional methods to improve student outcomes.
The Economic Impact of the Lack of Research-Based School Leadership
The economic impact of the lack of an effective research-based school leadership
approach is difficult to measure; however, multiple indicators may reveal its true cost. The rate
of teacher burnout, retention, teacher absentee numbers, and student persistence may all link to
school leadership (Dee & Jacob, 2011). Alliance for Excellence in Education (2014) found that
500,000 U.S. teachers leave the teaching profession each year. The study indicated the annual
cost in the United States was $2,200,000,000 to recruit, hire, and train new teachers. While data
are not yet available, there are concerns that teacher turnover may be even higher during and
following the COVID-19 pandemic (Zamarro et al., 2022). In 2014, 6.5% of the high school
5

population of approximately 50,000,000 students in the United States dropped out or failed to
graduate (News@Northeastern, 2022). The impact of dropouts on taxpayers is estimated at
$292,000 per dropout per year. This cost is catastrophic in large urban school systems such as
Atlanta Public Schools, New York City Public Schools, and Los Angeles County Public Schools.
A study from the Thomas B. Fordham Institute (Griffith, 2014) calculated the national
rate for teacher absenteeism across all public schools at 28.3%. According to this study, chronic
absenteeism is defined as teachers who take more than 10 days of sick or personal leave time a
year. The connection between teacher burnout, absenteeism, student persistence, and school
leadership reveals a need to focus more attention on school leadership and leadership styles that
promote positive school outcomes (Miller et al., 2007). For example, research suggests that
leadership plays a key role in creating a positive culture and climate where teachers feel cared for
and motivated to persist (Miller et al., 2007). While school leadership plays a key role in
economic, academic, and social outcomes related to public school systems, the focus on teacher
accountability has overshadowed the focus on improving school leadership. The often-
overlooked economic impact of ineffective educational policy or the failure to reframe this
problem grows as public school systems grapple with limited resources and stakeholders seek
solutions to improve the problem of low student performance.
Importance of the Study
The issue of school leadership is important to study for a number of reasons, including a
paradigm shift on the problem of poor student performance. This problem has been researched
extensively from a teacher performance perspective; however, this lens of teacher accountability
has shown little improvement on student outcomes for fourth- and eighth-grade students in math
and reading scores since 2002 (Baird, 2019; ESSA, 2015). This research study looked at low
6

student performance and performance gaps through an alternative perspective that highlights the
role and capacity of school leaders and leadership styles. Having a research-based leadership
approach to school management and student academic outcomes can help close the knowledge
gap on school leadership roles and the achievement gap of students who fail to demonstrate
academic progress according to National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
assessments (Baird, 2019). This study examined leadership approaches that have the potential to
impact student outcomes through teaching and learning, teacher development, school
climate/culture, and teacher retention. The importance of the study is placed in the context of the
COVID-19 pandemic and schools emerging from it. The pandemic exposed the inequitable
resources and outcomes of historically marginalized students. As the achievement gaps may have
been exacerbated during the pandemic and issues of student health and wellbeing came to the
forefront, it is more important than ever to focus on school leadership approaches, such as
transformational leadership, that have the potential to best support students.
Organizational Context
I conducted this research study in a rural, southern public school district with a student
population of under 1,000. This school district includes four schools: early learning/pre-K
school, elementary school, middle school, and high school. The student population in this district
reflects the overall population of the county with over 90% of the student body African
American. I centered this study in a rural district as a considerable amount of research on student
outcomes, particularly African American students’ performance, is focused in urban areas.
I sought to understand leadership styles, in particular the transformational leadership
style, and perceptions of how transformational leadership supports or hinders student outcomes
and achievement in a rural school setting. I used the term school leader to identify a school
7

employee responsible for the direction and guidance of students completing academic
coursework required of fourth- and eighth-grade students. I collected data from a variety of
school employees within the XYZ School District (a pseudonym) and within the organizational
context of this school system. I collected from a primary and secondary school leader, two
department heads from a primary/secondary school, a reading specialist, and a family
engagement specialist. In Chapter Three, more details about each participant will be given to
reflect a better understanding of the role and impact of being a school leader within the XYZ
School District.
For the rural school district of study, the county’s overall performance on academic
indicators was higher than 1% of districts in the state in 2019. At the elementary school level, in
2019, student academic growth was higher than about 50% of districts in the state. Middle school
student academic growth was higher than about 15% of districts. At the high-school level,
academic growth was higher than about 5% of districts. In 2019, fewer than 30% of its third-
grade students were reading at or above the grade-level target, while around 40% of its eighth-
grade students were reading at or above the grade-level target. Its 4-year graduation rate was
about 80%, higher than 8% of districts. Finally, just under half of the graduates at the high-
school level were college and career ready.
The XYZ School District is committed to providing each student with a path to college
entrance and/or a career to acquire economic independence, become responsible citizens, and
productive members of their communities. The mission statement of the XYZ School District
was created by a learning community. This includes ensuring high performance to increase
achievement, wellness, health, and safety for all students. The district strives for collaborative
shared decision-making involving administrators, teachers, support staff, parents, and
8

community members and to provide equitable instruction to all students by creating a career plan
leading in three directions.
Organizational and Stakeholder Group of Study Goal
The organizational goal is to redefine and assess the role of school leadership styles to
support the achievement of all students by 2023. In particular, the school district is focused on
supporting the development of transformational leadership as a leadership style where school
leaders engage with teachers and other stakeholders to meet their individual needs and empower
and motivate them to reach higher levels of performance. One of the many tasks of school
leaders is to establish a culture where teachers are supported beyond standard accountability
measures, including teacher development. School leaders have the responsibility to establish the
values and vision of the school, make key decisions to move the school toward those values and
vision and communicate with all stakeholders within the school community. Along with creating
a relationship with stakeholders with effective communication skills, school leaders have the
power and influence to create norms and practices that impact school culture and climate. For the
XZY school district, the school leaders’ goals are to use research-based leadership practices
aligned with transformational leadership to support the school community’s success. Table 1
summarizes the mission and goals.
Performance Goals Related to the Problem of Practice
The accomplishment of the following organizational performance goal and school leader
goal form the basis for this research, to connect the role of school leaders in this rural school
district with research-based leadership approaches to increase student performance.

9

Table 1
Organizational Mission and Goal and Stakeholder Group’s Performance Goal
Organizational mission
The organizational mission is to provide each student with a well-rounded educational program
leading to college entrance and/or career pathways that will foster economic independence
and social responsibility in the 21st century.
Organizational performance goal
By June 2023, the organization will redefine and assess the role of transformational school
leadership to support the achievement of all students.
School leaders’ performance goal
By June 2023, school leaders will use research-based school leadership practices aligned with a
transformational leadership style to support the school community’s success.

Research Questions Guiding the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand current school leadership’s styles and the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational support needed by current school leaders to adopt a
leadership style aligned with transformational leadership to improve student outcomes. This
study interviewed school leaders in the public school district, including school principals and
vice principals.
The questions guiding this study were as follows:
1. What are the current leadership styles of school leaders in the XYZ School District?
2. What is the knowledge and motivation needed by school leaders to further develop as
transformational leaders to support student outcomes?
3. What organizational supports enable or inhibit school leaders from adopting
transformational leadership principles?
10

Theoretical Framework/Methodology
I leveraged Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis conceptual framework, which focuses
on three key elements affecting organization performance: knowledge, motivation, and
organizational support. I used this framework to examine and measure a school leader’s
knowledge, motivation, and organizational support related to transformational leadership in
support of student academic outcomes. I collected responses from interviews of leaders from the
elementary and middle school levels in the XYZ School District, a rural district in a southern
state (see Appendix A for interview protocol). The role of school leadership related to student
outcomes is at the heart of education reform and how school leaders can use research-based
leadership practices to leverage the power of their roles to improve practice (National Policy
Board for Educational Administration, 2015).
Definitions
The following are terms and definitions central to the focus of this dissertation.
Transactional leadership is a style of leadership in which leaders promote compliance by
followers through rewards and punishments (Furtner & Baldegger, 2012).
Transformational leadership is a theory of leadership where a leader works with teams to
identify the need for change by creating a vision to guide change through the process of
committed followers (Furtner & Baldegger, 2012).
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is organized into five chapters. In Chapter One, I provided the reader
with key concepts and terminology about the role of school leadership and leadership styles to
improve teacher development, retention, and school climate that are generally overlooked within
the current culture of teacher accountability. I introduced the organization’s mission, goals, and
11

stakeholders focus for this research and the research questions guiding the study. In Chapter
Two, I provide a review of current literature surrounding this study’s scope, including a review
of the emphasis on teacher accountability to improve school outcomes, research-based school
leadership styles, strengths of various leadership mindsets and attributes in different school
settings, and the connections between school leader style and teacher and school outcomes. In
Chapter Three, I detail the study methodology and include the participant selection, data
collection, and analysis procedures. In Chapter Four, I assess and analyze the collected data and
present key findings. In Chapter Five, I provide recommendations for practice and future
research.

12

Chapter Two: Literature Review
This review of literature begins by examining the focus on teacher accountability to
improve student outcomes and the need for more attention on the role of school leadership on
student outcomes. This includes a review of literature on the role of leadership styles, and, in
particular, a transformational leadership style, on multiple stakeholders inside of a school’s
community and how it establishes a foundation for student academic success. I review the role of
school leadership on student achievement through an increase in long-term teacher retention,
reduction in teacher absenteeism, and positive school climate. Following this review of literature,
I turn to Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis as the conceptual framework to better understand
school leaders’ knowledge, motivation, and organization needs to adopt a transformational
leadership style.
Focus on Teacher Accountability to Improve Student Outcomes
Since the early 2000s, the United States has seen multiple efforts to improve educational
outcomes by focusing primarily on teacher accountability. This approach to improving student
outcomes can be seen through the implementation of federal laws including the NCLB Act
(2001; Fischer et al., 2019). Top-down educational reform directed from Washington, D.C.
intended to create equity through teacher accountability to ensure the improvement of all
students in reading and math (Fischer et al., 2019; Folsom et al., 2017). Researchers have also
looked critically at teacher accountability actions and their impact on academic outcomes of K–
12 students. A significant push was made to establish high teacher accountability through the
creation of the NCLB Act. This federal legislative milestone in public school policy established a
teacher accountability culture, and under President George W. Bush, the NCLB Act, part of the
13

reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, raised the level of
educational outcomes for U.S. public schools’ K–12 students (NCLB Act, 2001).
Much of the language, guidelines, and structure of the NCLB Act (2001) were adopted
from the Texas Department of Education with the claim that this teacher accountability model
would become the foundation for the educational reform model for the U.S. public school system
(Odland, 2006). The primary goal of this landmark federal legislation was to increase teacher
instructional accountability through four methods: (a) increased accountability for school
districts and schools in terms of meeting state academic standards in math and reading; (b)
school choice for parents and students who wished to transfer out of a failing school (i.e., a
school not reporting adequate yearly progress toward meeting goals); (c) greater flexibility for
states, school districts, and schools in deciding how best to use federal education funds awarded
for achievement; and (d) federal funds to promote quality reading programs for students in
Grades K–3 through the Reading First Initiative (Odland, 2006). A focus on teacher
accountability continued with the federal ESSA (2015), which shifted much of the NCLB Act’s
federal accountability provisions to the states.
Despite a focus on teacher accountability, the needle on academic achievement has not
moved forward within the scope of the NAEP (Baird, 2019). According to NAEP, scores in math
and reading for fourth- and eighth-grade students in the United States have dropped since 2010
(Baird, 2019). This data show that over the past decade, no significant increase has been made in
mathematics or reading performance scores of fourth-, eighth-, or 12th-grade students.
According to the NAEP 2019 report, significant increase can be defined as a .05 increase in the
standard deviation of test scores from the previous school year. The NAEP achievement exams
follow academic performance standards indicating expectations of demonstrable student
14

knowledge with three levels of student academic indicators: basic, proficient, and advanced.
Many schools require teachers to attend professional developmental classes where teachers are
trained to use this academic indicator classification from NAEP assessment to develop skills-
related lesson planning, content development, and presentations for a diverse student population
(Baird, 2019).
In 2010, researchers examined the impact of professional development goals and teacher
accountability on reading instructional outcomes of first-grade students (Gersten et al., 2017).
The reading instructional outcomes of first-grade students reflected the thinking of teacher-
focused accountability and the role of professional development and reading instructional
methodology on student outcomes (Gersten et al., 2017). Gersten et al. (2017) measured the
impact on the academic indicators of three large urban school districts from three states,
examining the connection between increased teacher instructional accountability and a positive
impact on student academic performance.
Gersten et al. (2017) measured the impact of professional development models on first-
grade teachers’ reading comprehension and vocabulary instruction of students. The results
showed only marginal effects on the oral vocabulary skills of 81 first-grade students in three
school systems (Gersten et al., 2017). Despite teacher accountability efforts embedded in the
model, the development workshops on reading instruction saw no improvement on student
reading scores (Gersten et al., 2017).
By a variety of measures, the increased focus on high stakes testing and teacher
accountability has not produced the magic bullet effect hoped for on student assessment scores
(Nichols & Berliner, 2007). According to 2019 NAEP scores, 66% of fourth-grade students
performed at a basic academic skill level on reading assessments. In 2002, the 1st year of the
15

NCLB Act (2001), 64% of fourth-grade students performed at a basic level on reading
assessments (Baird, 2019). The data from NAEP indicated no significant gains on outcomes of
fourth-grade students beyond a basic understanding of reading skills (Baird, 2019). Although
Texas’ educational system was a leading voice on teacher accountability, academic indicators
show a lack of progress for elementary and middle school students or closing the achievement
gap (Vasquez Heilig & Clark, 2018). While this top-down teacher accountability model has
served as the model for the nation, research showed this effort has had little to no academic
progress for fourth- and eighth-grade students (Baird, 2019). The critical years within the
primary grades need additional research to examine how to improve student academic outcomes,
including a focus on the important role of school leadership.
Focus on School Leadership to Improve Student Outcomes
Impact of School Leadership
Although policy has increasingly focused on high-stakes student testing and holding
teachers accountable for student outcomes, the role of the school leader is less often leveraged
within the framework of improving student outcomes (Gersten et al., 2017). Research suggests
that school leadership can have important positive effects on school culture and climate,
improving teacher retention and student outcomes (Cruickshank, 2017). Griffin et al. (2014)
found a relationship between principal leadership style, particularly a transformational leadership
style, and a positive impact on school staff job satisfaction, staff turnover, and school
performance. Griffin et al. examined and indicated leadership traits that impact teachers and
students within schools with high student academic outcomes on state assessments. The findings
support the value of public schools identifying and applying effective leadership practices to
16

shape the culture and climate of schools which can further the elements of effective teaching and
learning for students (Griffin et al., 2014).
Research in the United States and elsewhere is increasingly looking at the role of school
leadership on student academic outcomes. A study in 2017 by an Australian researcher
(Cruickshank, 2017) explored the connection between school leadership and student outcomes,
and the role of school leadership in creating a climate for student success. This research provided
a framework for why school leadership is often a missing variable in the teacher and learning
equation and, more specifically, given the nature of how schools operate and work with children
with varying emotional and academic needs, why transformational leadership is best practice for
school leaders.
Findings support that school leadership can improve the quality of teaching and learning
by improving the working conditions of teachers and the climate and environment of schools.
The study suggested that while many leadership styles have been explored in education literature
and no single leadership approach is effective for improving all schools, a transformational
leadership style has had positive effects on improving student outcomes. Transformational
leadership is linked to enhanced organizational culture and increased teacher engagement and
commitment (Cruickshank, 2017). The study revealed effective aspects of leadership included a
focus on effective teaching, focus on objective outcomes, school-wide vision, and external
awareness of school-wide vision (Cruickshank, 2017).
The wider body of research on the influence of school leadership on student academic
outcomes suggested that school leaders implementing a transformational leadership style can
foster climates, conditions, and operating systems within schools to support teachers to motivate
students into learning at a higher academic level. Along with Cruickshank’s (2017) findings in
17

Australia, two American researchers conducted a national study focused on school leadership,
particularly transformation, instructional leadership, and student outcomes (Marks & Printy,
2003). The study was grounded in transformational and instructional conceptions of leadership,
and the sample consisted of 24 nationally selected restructured schools including eight
elementary, middle, and high schools to measure the impact of transformational leadership.
Marks and Printy (2003) examined the potential of leaders in their active collaboration around
instructional practices to enhance the quality of teaching and student academic performance.
This active collaboration of leadership and teacher objectives was under the direction of
transformational leadership practices within teacher lesson planning and then measuring
academic indicators from assessments (Marks & Printy, 2003). This study suggested
transformational leadership is essential in supporting the commitment of teachers and
overcoming what may be a lack of motivation by inviting teachers to share leadership ideas.
When teachers perceive principals’ leadership behaviors to be appropriate, they grow in
commitment, professional involvement, and willingness to innovate (Marks & Printy, 2003).
Donaldson (2006) suggested the view of traditional school leadership with a strong
emphasis on school accountability/compliance regulations is short-sighted and apt to fail. This
research identified a lack of traditional leadership styles in U.S. schools to promote motivation
themes of self-efficacy and self-determination (Donaldson, 2006). The study connected the
impact of people, a purpose, and a practice for producing positive outcomes for students,
suggesting positive outcomes of transformational leadership on students using the self-
determination theory to achieve academic goals (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Donaldson suggested
traditional school leadership promotes a hero approach that fails to share leadership
responsibility with fellow teachers and staff, promoting burnout (Donaldson, 2006). By contrast,
18

if school leaders elicit high levels of commitment and professionalism from teachers and work
with teachers in a shared instructional leadership capacity, in congruity with transformational
leadership, schools will learn and perform at high levels (Donaldson, 2006).
Role and Characteristics of School Leaders
The Council of Chief State School Officers publishes standards for educational leaders
based on empirical research on the elements of effective school leadership. This governmental
organization is responsible for accreditation and accountability for school leader examinations
and licensure, and in 2008, the standards for school leaders inside the United States changed to
reflect the need to gain more skills and knowledge on leadership (National Policy Board for
Educational Administration, 2015). These standards include two leadership positions within a
school leadership community; these were identified as principal and assistant principal, with
these leaders overseeing the daily operations of a school building. The primary task in leadership
is the safety of all students and staff and to lead in instructional support of teachers (National
Policy Board for Educational Administration, 2015).
The Professional Standards for Educational Leaders includes a framework for viewing
the relationship between educational leadership, school climate/culture, teacher development,
and student learning. Along with internal accountability of teacher and student development,
educational leaders must focus on external relationships with families and how student
achievement is defined (National Policy Board for Educational Administration, 2015). These
national leadership school standards are designed for the following outcomes: students learn
when educational leaders foster safe, caring, and supportive school learning communities as well
as promote rigorous instruction and an effective assessment system to measure student learning
and growth (National Policy Board for Educational Administration, 2015). To support student
19

academic outcomes, school leaders need to build and strengthen a network of support for
teachers and staff and build relationships with families and community leaders (National Policy
Board for Educational Administration, 2015).
Transformational and Transactional School Leadership
The full range of leadership model is a leadership theory focusing on the behavior,
actions, and leadership traits of organizational leaders in the workplace and in different work
situations (Furtner & Baldegger, 2012). This model labeled leadership styles in organizations as
being transformational or transactional (Bass & Avolio, 1999). These leadership styles are seen
in school leaders, teachers, and all supporting staff, and this model seeks to explain why some
leadership styles produce more positive outcomes. See Figure B4 in Appendix B for a diagram
describing the dynamics between these two leadership styles.
Transactional leadership is a style of leadership in which leadership promotes compliance
with human behavior with a system of rewards and punishments for the organization (Northouse,
2018). This leadership style suggests rewards and punishments are key motivators of human
behavior (Northouse, 2018). Odumeru and Ogbonna (2013) observed that these types of leaders
can motivate followers for the short-term but lack long-term practice. Transactional leaders use
an exchange model of rewards for good workers or positive outcomes; however, this leadership
style seeks to punish bad workers or negative outcomes until the problem is corrected by a
change in actions or results (Odumeru & Ogbonna, 2013). The study indicated the role of a
system used by leaders to reward or punish to impact human behavior (Odumeru & Ogbonna,
2013). Northouse and Odumeru and Ogbonna both established the goals of transactional
leadership as methods to limit human actions while transformational leaders seek to expand the
impact of human behavior.
20

Hargis et al. (2011) found that another characteristic of transactional leadership was a
focus and implementation of lower-level goals and objectives by stressing specific tasks or skills
by employees and using the punishment/reward system to impact a certain type of behavior by
employees. Transactional leadership seeks to control a range of employee actions within the
workplace setting. Finally, transactional leaders can be effective in getting specific tasks
completed by managing employees individually to a set of standards or larger goals (Odumeru &
Ogbonna, 2013). Bass (1985) studied transactional leadership in school settings that identify
followers’ skills and award compensation or other rewards if a successfully finished task impacts
teacher burnout. Other studies have found that transactional leadership that controls teachers’
practices can lower job satisfaction and lower persistence (Gagné & Deci, 2005).
A critical review of transformational leadership has largely been associated with positive
student outcomes and benefits impacting the school communities and all stakeholders
(Northouse, 2018). Bass (1985) was the first to use the term transformational leadership to
describe leadership that inspires people into acts led by ideals, vision, and values rather than by
threat of force. Four essential characteristics of transformational leadership include the use of
idealized influence (role modeling), inspirational motivation (visionary), individualized
consideration (trusting), and intellectual stimulation (creative actions; e.g., Long et al., 2014).
Transformational leadership is a motivational theory focused on making organizational changes
in performance, improving workplace climate, and producing higher educational outcomes. This
style of leadership motivates people to take action and can be used to motivate educational
leaders to embrace the ups and downs of leadership; educators can use the methods of these
models to influence, inspire, and motivate students to achieve greater academic success (Shatzer
et al., 2014). To that end, Fischer et al. (2019) called for additional attention to the role of school
21

leadership and the effectiveness of transformational leadership on school leadership and
outcomes (Fischer et al., 2019).
Within school settings, school principals who integrate creative insight and sensitivity to
the needs of others are known as transformational leaders (Bass & Avolio, 1999). School
principals with a transformational leadership style promote vision building, provide individual
support, and provide intellectual stimulation (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006). Additional studies
suggested and supported the use of a transformational school leadership style that inspires staff
to identify themselves with the school’s goals and the leader’s vision and positively impacts
teacher motivation (Eyal & Roth, 2011).
Duraku and Hoxha (2021) assessed 357 Kosovar public middle school teachers using the
Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. This
questionnaire, which collected data from middle school teachers who support the practice of
transformational leadership, found the attributes of this type of leadership was a predicted
motivation of teachers and documented the positive effects of transformational leadership on
motivation. The researchers concluded that education systems should support school leaders in
improving their leadership styles to support teacher motivation and student learning.
Connections Between School Leadership Style and Student Academic Outcomes
School leaders can foster a school climate that promotes the basic human needs of safety,
love, self-esteem, and self-actualization (Maslow, 2019) and address them within school
leadership standards (National Policy Board for Educational Administration, 2015). While
limited research directly addresses transformational school leadership’s effects on student
achievement, Sun and Leithwood (2012) conducted a meta-analysis and found that
transformational leadership has a small but significant effect on student achievement with some
22

transformational practices being especially powerful. The transformational leadership practices
found to make the largest contributions to student achievement were building collaborative
structures and providing individualized consideration.
Allen et al. (2015) found a positive connection between school climate and
transformational leadership based on teacher perceptions of seven domains of school climate:
leadership, environment, involvement, instruction, expectation, and collaboration. The results
from this study demonstrated a positive connection between transformational leadership and
school climate surveys from school staff. The study did not show a connection between
transformational leadership style and student outcomes in reading, math application skills, or
writing assessments, suggesting the complicated and multi-faceted relationship between
leadership and academic outcomes.
Leadership Style and Teacher Retention
In addition to a link between leadership styles and student outcomes, questions obtain
around the connections between leadership styles and teacher retention rates. A study conducted
outside of the United States for the Near East South Asia International School Association
examined the perceptions of teachers on school climate and culture. This study surveyed 22
school leaders and 248 teachers to track teacher turnover rates and identify factors correlating to
teacher turnover (Mancuso et al., 2010). By examining teacher turnover rates ranging from 17%
to 60% from 2006 to 2009, this study showed a connection between teacher retention and teacher
job satisfaction to the age of teachers, salary, and the perception of the school leader (Mancuso et
al., 2010).
Mancuso et al. (2010) are critical in understanding the connection between leadership and
teacher retention numbers. This study linked the impact of leadership on teacher climate
23

assessment results. In this study, school leaders had the support to use transformational
leadership practices to display supportive characteristics, and teacher perceptions of supportive
leadership styles were closely linked with a transformational leadership style (Mancuso et al.,
2010). This study used words from teachers to label and describe types of leadership traits seen
in their school culture and these words within the finding sections reflect the use of
transformational leadership (Mancuso et al., 2010). Their descriptions, such as proactive
leadership, supporting, caring, pro-teacher, innovative, and new ideas exemplify transformational
leadership in practice (Mancuso et al., 2010).
A study conducted in Singapore by Koh et al. (1995) examined the effects of
transformational leadership on teachers’ attitudes. Transformational leadership was examined in
89 schools to examine the influence of school principals’ transformational leadership behaviors
and organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior. Findings suggest that
transformational leadership had significant add-on effects on transactional leadership to
organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior. Thomas et al. (2020)
examined the effects of transformational leadership on teachers’ job attitudes during their 1
st
year
in the profession, as teacher attrition is a particular concern among beginning teachers. A total of
292 1
st
-year teachers participated and the researchers found that the transformational leadership
of the principal is directly related to teachers’ job attitudes in a positive way. Fischer et al. (2019)
noted that the connection between transformational leadership and teacher motivation was
critical to ensure an effective teacher-school leader relationship.
The lack of a linear relationship between school leaders, teachers, and student outcomes
makes it difficult to connect leadership style to teacher retention. Research suggested the benefits
of transformational school leadership over transactional leadership in terms of school outcomes,
24

including teacher retention, but the research is limited and given the multitude of effects on
teacher retention, it is difficult to draw a direct conclusion.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
This section leverages Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis to identify assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs of elementary and secondary school leaders to
meet their stakeholder goal of using research-based school leadership practices aligned with
transformational leadership practices to support the school community’s success (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Knowledge and Skills Influences
School leadership is the backbone of the educational system. School district leaders are
responsible for establishing the organizational culture, climate, and mission and often have a top-
down management approach to leadership (Clark & Estes, 2008; National Policy Board for
Educational Administration, 2015). An effective public school system should advocate for
school leaders to have the opportunity to self-reflect on the effectiveness of different leadership
styles within a school environment (National Policy Board for Educational Administration,
2015).
School leaders increasing their leadership style knowledge is a first step in becoming
more impactful leaders; they must select an effective style of leadership based on the goals,
objectives, and climate of the school (National Policy Board for Educational Administration,
2015). The assumed knowledge influences on school leader performance include factual,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge of transactional leadership as relates to their leadership
style.
25

These knowledge types are important for school leaders to design organizational goals,
build productive relationships with staff, students, and parents, and lead school efforts to achieve
community and district goals. The definition of factual knowledge is an understanding of
definitions and terms (Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural knowledge are how to steps and strategies,
whereas metacognitive knowledge describes one’s action of self-assessing or self-monitoring
(Krathwohl, 2002).
Factual Knowledge of School Leadership
School leaders need to know the attributes of a transformational school leadership style.
Knowing the type of leadership skills to guide the roles of each school staff will influence how to
implement school-wide initiatives which will support the primary goal of school: finding the
most effective way to teach students. The factual knowledge of transformational leadership will
help school leaders be effective in their actions taken in schoolwide objectives. Much of the
knowledge demonstrated by school leaders is learning how to apply factual knowledge about
transformational leadership strategies in certain situations which will impact outcomes (National
Policy Board for Educational Administration, 2015).
Procedural Knowledge of School Leadership
School leaders need to know how to put research-based transformational school
leadership practices into their environments. The procedural knowledge of school leadership is
vital in the day-to-day operations of school management. With a closer look, transformational
leadership requires procedural knowledge to be effective inside the school community. This
procedural knowledge by school leadership establishes order, structure, and foundation for
students to learn, teachers to instruct, and support staff to assist with the teaching and learning of
26

K–12 students. Children have the desire to be in a safe environment, and teachers need to know
how to create a safe and orderly learning environment (Maslow, 2019).
According to the Professional Standards for Educational Leaders, a national framework
for school leaders to follow, the primary task of a school leader is to ensure a safe and orderly
school environment meaning that students must have a plan for entering and leaving school,
teachers must have a course of study to instruct students, and support personnel must have a plan
for transportation, food services, and safety needs (National Policy Board for Educational
Administration, 2015). Based on Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs, these are lower-level
needs. Once these needs are met, a transformational leadership style can support higher-level
needs of belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. School leaders need procedural knowledge of
how to put research-based school leadership practices in place to achieve positive educational,
behavioral, and financial outcomes over the school year.
Metacognitive Knowledge
School leaders need to reflect on their leadership styles with respect to the broad
stakeholders within a school community (National Policy Board for Educational Administration,
2015). Metacognition refers to having an understanding or awareness of how one thinks about
thinking; this term defines how a leader has cognition, awareness, control, and self-reflection
(Krathwohl, 2002). In this study, metacognitive knowledge enabled school leaders to reflect and
redefine the role of leadership. This type of knowledge impacts self-knowledge of the
connections between leadership style, teacher classroom effectiveness, and retention rates.
Metacognition reflects on how the learning process happens for children and adults, for example,
in the context of the many educational theories of classroom learning (Krathwohl, 2002). Table 2
shows the assumed knowledge influences of school leaders’ ability to reach performance goals.
27

Table 2
Assumed Knowledge Influences on Performance
Assumed knowledge influence Knowledge type
Knowledge of attributes of a transformational
leadership style
Factual
Knowledge of how to leverage transformational
leadership behaviors into their practice.
Procedural
Knowledge to reflect on and redefine their role
as transformational leaders.
Metacognitive

Motivational Influences
School leaders work to meet organizational objectives, school academic goals, and
professional goals over the scope of a school year (National Policy Board for Educational
Administration, 2015). Motivation propels leaders into taking actions with the school community
to achieve these objectives. A definition of motivation is an influence that causes people to take
on challenges with the hopes of a desired outcome (Mayer, 2011). For a school leader,
motivation sets the course of action for the implementation of all school-based actions including
professional development for teachers, which supports effective classroom practices and is
related to increased academic outcomes, maintaining a positive school climate, and effective
communication (National Policy Board for Educational Administration, 2015).
Effective school leaders are driven by many motivational influences. This study explored
one major motivational theory: the role of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to a belief in one’s
capacity to complete a task or goal (Bandura, 1986). School leaders with self-efficacy have the
motivation and capacity to influence the behavior of teachers and students with effective
28

leadership, which further supports district goals and objectives (National Policy Board for
Educational Administration, 2015). This ability to influence school community members such as
teachers and students aligns with the character traits of transformational leadership (Northouse,
2018). To model a transformational leadership style, a leader needs to have self-efficacy in their
abilities as a transformational leader. School leaders need to feel efficacious in demonstrating
both accountability leadership traits and supportive leadership traits (Burke, 2018).
Without self-efficacy, school leaders will not be confident in utilizing a transformational
leadership style to address complex problems of both teachers and students. Although
transactional leadership offers accountability and structure for school culture, many of the
challenges during the school year require more than accountability leadership skills to meet the
goals and objectives of organizational leaders (National Policy Board for Educational
Administration, 2015). Table 3 shows the stakeholder goal and assumed motivation influence
affecting school leaders’ ability to reach their performance goals.
Organizational Influences
This section focuses on the organizational influences necessary to reach the
organizational goal to redefine and assess the role of school leadership through transformational
leadership to support the achievement of all students. School leaders may have knowledge of
transactional leadership traits from years of federal, state, and local governmental policies calling
for compliance, but these traits may not intrinsically motivate teachers and students to higher
performance outcomes. This section explores organizational influences that may prohibit or
foster the implementation of a transformational leadership style to pursue a positive school
climate, teacher success, and, ultimately, student outcomes.
29

Table 3
Assumed Motivational Influences on Performance
Assumed motivation influence Motivational construct
School leaders need to believe in their ability
to engage in transformational leadership
behaviors to improve school outcomes.
Self-efficacy

Cultural models and cultural settings are types of organizational cultural influences that
affect organizational performance. Rueda (2011) defined cultural models as the shared mental
schema of how the world functions and shapes how an organization is structured. These include
values, practices, policies, and reward structures. Conversely, cultural settings are the social
contexts where the policies and practices of an organization are enacted. Cultural settings
provide a tangible context whenever people are gathered to accomplish something (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Examples of cultural settings include providing role model examples for
school leaders to adopt transformational leadership styles.
Cultural Model Influence: Promoting Goals and Values of Transformational Leadership
For school leaders to adopt transformational leadership approaches, the systems
surrounding the school need to value and set goals that support this type of leadership. To
support the achievement of the organizational goal, the organization needs to align the
development of school leaders toward transformational leadership traits. School leaders must
know how and why transformational leadership is effective in meeting the school and district’s
objectives and addressing systemic problems to improve the effectiveness of teaching and
learning. District leaders can promote a higher level of awareness for school leaders.
30

According to Cruickshank (2017), transformational leadership is critical for school
organizations to achieve organizational goals and objectives. The larger organization in which
the school leader works impacts their practices through establishing vision and goals,
professional development opportunities, benchmarks of academic achievement, and other
objectives (Burke, 2018). For school leaders to gain a greater perspective on the principles of
transformational leadership and how to implement them, the larger organization will have to set
goals supported by transformational leadership, reflect the values and actions of transformational
leadership itself, and offer professional development to school leaders.
Cultural Setting Influence: Transformational Role Models
For school leaders to adopt research-based leadership practices, they need to have
transformational role models. Given the role of visionary leadership of projecting a better way
forward, role models have the capacity to greatly impact the direction of leadership. The current
politics of the day impact mission and strategy, leadership, individual and organization
performance goals, and organizational culture which has the potential to impact the outcomes of
individual and organizational performance goals (Burke, 2018). School leaders need role models
to guide them through these events and guide them in their leadership practices.
Transformational leadership can challenge the status quo of an organization (Burns, 1978).
For public school systems, the organizational influences that result in poor academic
indicators on national exams must be addressed where students attend and gather in school
systems. Burke (2018) suggested that school systems can enact change through the influence of
transformational factors within the management practices of all school leaders. Table 4 shows
the stakeholder goal and assumed organizational influences affecting school leaders’ ability to
reach their performance goal.
31

Table 4
Assumed Organizational Influences
Assumed organizational influences Organizational construct
The organization needs to adopt goals,
values, and a professional development
philosophy aligned with transformational
leadership practice.
Cultural models
The organization needs to provide role
model examples of transformational
leadership traits in practice.
Cultural settings

Conclusion
In this chapter, I presented research related to the focus on teacher accountability to
improve school outcomes, the need for additional focus on school leadership, and research-based
practices of transformational leaders. Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis conceptual
framework allowed for a discussion of the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences on school leadership for this study. In Chapter Three, I present the study’s
methodological approach to understanding the assumed influences on school leaders’ use of
research-based school leadership practices aligned with transformational leadership to support
school success.

32

Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter begins with a description of the participating stakeholders and continues
with an explanation of the methods used in the qualitative research approach. The purpose of this
research study was to identify characteristics of school leadership styles within a rural, southern
public school system and the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs of school leaders
to adopt transformational leadership practices to support student outcomes. Within this school
system, research was conducted to address the following research questions:
1. What are the current leadership styles of school leaders in the XYZ School District?
2. What knowledge and motivation is needed by school leaders to further develop as
transformational leaders to support student outcomes?
3. What organizational supports enable or inhibit school leaders from adopting
transformational leadership principles?
The purpose of the study was to examine school leaders’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs to foster a transformational leadership style to drive student-centered
teacher instructional practices within schools, improve school climates, and student outcomes.
Using Clark and Estes’s (2008) conceptual framework allowed for a deeper understanding of
their current leadership styles, the alignment with research-based transformational leadership
principles, and school leaders’ perceptions of their needs to foster a transformational leadership
style within their practice (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Study Participants
The participants in this study were from a public school district in the southeastern part of
the United States. The XYZ School District has a student population of approximately 734 and
has four schools which consist of the following: a head start program, an elementary school
33

(Grades K–5), a middle school (Grades 6–8), and a high school (Grades 9–12). The participants
of this study were six school leaders from the elementary and middle schools in the district. For
purposes of the study, school leaders included principals, assistant principals, and department
heads. There was a possible participant pool of 12 principals and assistant principals. This study
took place during the COVID-19 pandemic. Given all of the constraints on school leaders’ time,
out of the 12 principals and assistant principals, four agreed to participate.
Department heads have varying roles in elementary and middle schools. Two department
heads were included in this study. One was from elementary school with the task of working
with fourth-grade reading teachers and students. The other department head worked within the
middle school as the math department head responsible for teacher pre-observations, teaching
eighth-grade students, and professional development of math teachers. All participants gave
permission to participate before research was conducted in the Spring of 2021.
Data Collection
The data collection process started with an email from me to the superintendent of the
XYZ School District to gain access to participants willing to be a part of this leadership study.
After receiving the approval of the institutional review board (IRB) governing body of the
University of Southern California, I notified the superintendent with emails addressing the
following topics: the goal of this leadership study, requirements of participants within the study,
and the consent forms for all participants. In March 2021, I sent a collection of emails to the
Office of the Superintendent to collect data within the XYZ School District. In April, the
superintendent granted permission to conduct research and collect data from school leaders
within the primary and secondary schools.
34

Data collection began in April and ended in June of 2021. During 3 months, interviews
were recorded and data was collected to understand the relationship between leadership styles
and academic outcomes of fourth- and eighth-grade students. I collected data by interviewing
school leaders within a primary and a middle school (see Appendix A for interview protocol). I
used open responses through interviews to promote conversations about leadership styles and
their knowledge, motivation, and organizational support related to a transformational leadership
style. The data for this research study was collected from a sample size of six leaders from the
XYZ School District, and their interviews were the foundation of the data analysis. I recruited
school leader participation by a formal request of the Board of Education and then with the
consent of the superintendent of the XYZ School District.
In March 2021, after my formal request to interview school leaders and institutional
research board approval, the Board of Education granted access to interview school leaders.
Along with permission from the school board, the superintendent requested a Zoom session to
gain more information on the nature of the research being conducted. I requested permission to
interview school leaders within the elementary and middle schools of the XZY school district.
Given the size of the school district, two school principals and two vice principals were sent
emails about granting permission to conduct interviews and the timeline to complete the
interview on leadership style impacting student outcomes. After sending the informed consent
form, the superintendent granted principals access to this study with an open selection process
According to the school policy of the XYZ School District, the superintendent informed the
school leaders that their participation was voluntary and open to any school leader meeting the
requirements outlined in the permission letter.
35

This open selection process was based on other school leaders having a direct or indirect
impact on fourth- and eighth-grade students in reading and math. This included an elementary
reading department head and a middle school math department head. After receiving emails from
principals expressing their interest in participating, I planned interviews over 3 months, sending
date times, Zoom links, and consent forms requesting permission to participate in the leadership
study. Although I originally planned to include additional school leaders, COVID-19 and limited
internet access reduced the number of school leaders within this study to six. I conducted
interviews via Zoom and coded transcripts from these interviews to explore the research
questions guiding the study. Each interview conducted lasted approximately 45–60 min.
The goal of the interview was to collect data to more deeply understand their leadership
styles and connections, if any, to transformational leadership and their perceptions of the impact
of those leadership styles on school climate and student outcomes. Along with perceptions, these
interviews allowed school leaders to discuss their leadership styles, knowledge, and motivational
and organizational support needed to adopt transformational leadership principles. This data
collection was critically and purposefully targeted toward school leaders. This sampling strategy
allowed me to make meaning from the group of individuals with the most insight (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The interviews were semi-structured and one-on-one. I served as the interviewer
and collector of all responses. Given the human element of emotions, interviews allowed me to
stay focused on collecting data and allow for human response (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data Analysis
I collected the data for this research study from a sample of six leaders from the XYZ
School District and their responses to interviews were critical in answering the study’s research
questions. I downloaded the transcripts from the Zoom interviews from an online platform and
36

saved them onto a password-protected personal laptop. I took this measure to ensure privacy and
confidentiality (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I then transcribed and analyzed the audio recordings.
I read and reread the data to gain familiarity with them. Next, I coded the data. I based the coding
scheme for the data on the research questions guiding the study and the assumed influence of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences identified in Chapter Two. I coded the
transcripts using a priori codes aligned with the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences, as discussed in Chapter Two, affecting school leaders’ development as
transformational leaders. I identified data excerpts that matched the preliminary, deductive codes
within the transcripts and color-coded them. I identified themes by interpreting the coded data to
assess its meaning in relation to the codes reflected in the preliminary coding scheme. Lastly, I
interpreted the findings in relation to the research questions. My coding strategy followed the
recommendation of Creswell and Creswell (2018) to use a five-step data analysis: preparing the
data for analysis; reading all the data; coding the data; identifying themes; and interpreting the
findings.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
To build credibility and trustworthiness, I used peer examinations and pilot testing to
develop the interview protocol questions. Within the research methods course at the University
of Southern California, Inquiry Three allowed fellow educators to examine interview questions
for bias and effectiveness linked to the elements of the conceptual framework and the research
questions guiding the study. Along with having peers review interview questions, Inquiry Three
allowed for these questions to be tested in a pilot phase during classwork sessions. The data
collected from this study reflects the academic standards of two organizations: the public school
system of study’s research and development office and the research standards from the
37

University of Southern California, including the IRB. These research standards informed the
process of asking ethical questions, using transparent research protocols, and obtaining the
consent of all research participants. Once data were collected, a careful transcription of the Zoom
interviews and member checking ensured the credibility and trustworthiness of the data.
Ethics and Role of the Researcher
I am a high school graduation coach from another state and school district than the school
district included in the study. I am responsible for providing support to high school students at
risk of failing to graduate. As a long-time teacher, I have biases about school leadership styles
and their effects on school climate and student outcomes. I reflected on these biases before
designing interview questions and at various parts of the study including study design, data
collection procedures, during data collection, and during data analysis. I was careful to design
interview questions with a neutral tone. I took care to ensure that follow-up questions during
interviews employed a neutral tone to avoid influencing the study participants. While it is
impossible to eliminate all biases, I continuously reflected on how they may have or may not
have affected the questions, findings, and conclusions drawn (Maxwell, 2013).
According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), numerous ethical issues must be considered
when conducting research involving human participants. IRB approval of the study was required
before participants were allowed to be interviewed for this study. Additionally, informed consent
information and participant rights were communicated to the study participants before they were
interviewed as mandated by IRB. I gave participants a USC IRB information sheet by email, and
I verbally explained the informed consent form during the interview introduction. Participants
were reminded upon the start of each interview that their participation was voluntary and that
they could end the interview at any time during the interview process. Finally, participants were
38

not exploited in any manner, and to mitigate risk, participants could request a final copy of the
dissertation study upon its completion and approval.
COVID-19 Effects on Research
This research was conducted in 2021 during a global pandemic that had far-reaching
implications for schools and school leaders. Originally, the study sought to include 12 school
leaders from the primary, middle, and secondary schools in the XYZ School District, including
principals, vice principals, and department heads. However, given the negative impact of the
spread of COVID-19, only six school leaders agreed to participate. During the pandemic, most
school leaders, as was the case of the school leaders in the XYZ School District, were asked to
take on additional duties within their schools’ communities. Although the number of participants
was reduced from what was originally planned, the school leaders who participated were
generous with their time and provided important and meaningful insights related to the research
questions guiding the study.

39

Chapter Four: Findings
In Chapter Four, I present the results and research findings from qualitative interviews
with school leaders from the XYZ School District (a pseudonym). Study participants were
employees who identified themselves as school leaders, including principals, assistant principals,
and department heads. Their insights allow deeper understanding of current school leadership
styles and the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs for school leaders to adopt
principles of transformational leadership to support the achievement of all students and the
school community’s success. In this chapter, I discuss findings related to the three research
questions guiding this study:
1. What are the current leadership styles of school leaders in the XYZ School District?
2. What is the knowledge and motivation needed by school leaders to further develop as
transformational leaders to support student outcomes?
3. What organizational supports enable or inhibit school leaders in adopting
transformational leadership principles?
Participants of the Study
As stated in Chapter Three, the participants consisted of six school leaders inside the
XYZ School District, including four in the leadership roles of principal and vice principal and
two in the leadership roles of department heads. Although other employees serve in positions of
leadership, the principal, vice principal, and department heads are key school staffers who
establish school culture and climate for all staff, students, and parents. All participants were
required to give permission to participate before research was conducted in the Spring of 2021.
Participants 1–4 were principals and vice principals while Participants 5 and 6 were department
chairs. Table 5 displays the range of diversity of a school leader participating in this study.
40

Table 5
Participants of This Study
Participant
number
Age Sex Race Level of education
Years of
service
P1 40–50 Male Black Master’s 10+
P2 30–39 Female Black Master’s 10+
P3 40–50 Male Black Bachelor’s 5–9
P4 20–29 Female Bi-racial Bachelor’s 5–9
P5 30–39 Male Black Doctor of education 10+
P6 20–29 Male White Bachelor’s 5–9

Presentation of the Findings
This presentation of the findings is organized by research questions. Under the heading
for each research question, the findings used to address the question are reported as themes.
Table 6 indicates how the preliminary codes were developed into findings through the
interpretation of the data assigned to them.
Lastly, the interpreted findings were used to develop each of the preliminary coding
categories into a theme addressing research questions: Research Questions 1, 2, and 3. These
codes support evidence of the presence of knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO)
conceptual framework (Clark & Estes, 2008). Table 7 indicates how the categories were
developed into themes.
41

Table 6
Development of the Preliminary Coding Scheme Into Findings
Category Initial, deductive code
Finding developed from code through
interpretation of the data
Leadership style Transformational style Leadership style is identified as
transformational.
Transactional style Discrepant data indicate transactional style
is used in discipline.
Knowledge Declarative factual
knowledge
Strong declarative knowledge of
transformational leadership
Declarative conceptual
knowledge
Transformational practices are conceptually
linked to inspiring teachers.
Procedural knowledge Procedural knowledge includes gaining buy-
in and implementing a vision.
Metacognitive knowledge Self-reflection is identified as available only
for new and aspiring principals.
Motivation Self-efficacy High self-efficacy
Organizational
influences
Professional development Professional development is available only
for new and aspiring principals.

Table 7
Development of Categories Into Themes
Preliminary coding category Theme developed from category
Leadership style Theme 1: Leadership style is identified as transformational.
Knowledge Theme 2: Strong declarative, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge of transformational leadership were reported.
Motivation Theme 3: Strong self-efficacy was indicated.
Organizational influences Theme 4: Minimal organizational support exists for established
leaders.
42

Research Question 1: What Are the Current Leadership Styles of School Leaders in the
XYZ School District?
Purpose
The purpose of Research Question 1 (RQ1) was to understand how school leaders
describe their own leadership styles and to see the extent to which they perceived themselves as
possessing the attributes of a transformational leader. To address this, the interview asked the
school leaders, How would you describe your leadership style? This was the first question in the
interview and purposely not leading them to describe themselves as a particular type of leader.
Instead, it looked at the types of words they used in describing their leadership style and how
they aligned with transformational or other types of leadership styles.
Theme 1: Transformational Leadership Style
RQ1 examined the current leadership styles of school leaders used in the primary and
secondary schools in the XYZ School District. In this research question, a theme emerged that
school leaders used some of the core principles of transformational leadership. Two participants,
P1 and P2, reported that they engaged in the transformational leadership practice of idealized
influence in which the leader leads by example to model desired follower behaviors (Smir,
2018). P2 described leading by example by helping followers with tasks: “You must develop that
you’re not going to sit at the top and take the glory, but you get your hands dirty and be down in
the trenches with [the followers].” P1 modeled the behavior of admitting knowledge deficits and
requesting instruction: “I’m not afraid to tell my teachers or my students that it’s been a long
time, [and] I don’t remember how to do this; can somebody teach me how to do this?”
P3 reported using the transformational leadership domain of inspirational motivation, in
which the leader develops and conveys a clear vision to direct a collective endeavor. P3 stated,
43

“I’m very big on vision. I’m very big on influencing and inspiring—motivating—people to see
the vision, to see the bigger picture. So, I would say that my leadership style would be
transformational.” P2 reported using the transformational leadership component of intellectual
stimulation, in which the leader encourages subordinates to develop themselves and think
creatively (Smir, 2018). P2 reported utilizing a leadership model learned while serving in the
army, in which “You encourage subordinates to come up with ideas and be involved in the
decision-making.” P3 provided partly discrepant data indicating that a transactional style was
used only to handle the disciplining of teachers who broke rules, saying, “Unfortunately, the
teaching profession is just like any other profession. No matter how well you are doing as a
leader, there’s always going to be someone or group of people that just don’t follow the rules.”
P3 added that when teachers broke rules, “[transformational leadership is] gonna shift a little bit
to transactional, or even authoritative, and it has to be a writeup, or it has to be a suspension, or
something along those lines.”
Table 8 presents the principles of transformational and transactional leadership and the
number of references to each principle from the school leader interviews (Furtner & Baldegger,
2012).
School leaders have knowledge of transformational leadership skills and understand the
value of empowering students, teachers, and school personnel by using the goals of
transformational leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1999; Furtner & Baldegger, 2012). School leaders
also have the task of changing leadership styles to meet the demands of school management,
inside the XYZ School District.
44

Table 8
School Leaders Describing Their Leadership Style
Key principles
underlying a
transactional
leadership style
Number of times
referenced in
interviews
Key principles
underlying a
transformational
leadership style
Number of times
referenced in
interviews
Extrinsic motivation 14 Idealized influence 24
Opposed to change 31 Trusting 18
Extrinsic reward 15 Inspirational 33
Performance-oriented 11 Creativity 18
Directive 43 Visionary 51

Research Question 2: What Is the Knowledge and Motivation Needed by School Leaders to
Further Develop as Transformational Leaders to Support Student Outcomes?
Purpose
Using Clark and Estes’s (2008) KMO framework, the purpose of Research Question 2
(RQ2) was to identify knowledge and motivation needs of school leaders to develop the practice
and awareness of transformational leadership to support positive student outcomes. The
following types of questions were asked of school leaders related to this research question: What
do you think about a transformational leadership style; How would you describe school
leadership traits and attributes that motivates and inspires teachers; How do you reflect on your
role as a leader, if at all; and, Where do you feel more or less confident in your abilities as a
school leader?
45

Theme 2: Knowledge of Transformational Leadership
All participants demonstrated declarative, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge of
transformational leadership. Declarative factual knowledge was defined as knowledge of
attributes of transformational school leadership. P1 said of transformational leadership that this
construct involves permitting people to grow along with you to attain a common goal: “It’s
allowing other people to grow along with you to achieve the same vision.” P1 thus cited the
inspirational motivation (“achieve the same vision”) and intellectual stimulation (“grow along
with you”) domains of transformational leadership. Similarly, P2 stated, “Transformational
means that you are taking skills that you have and distributing them to others so they can learn
the skills that they need,” again citing the intellectual stimulation domain (Bass & Avolio, 1999;
Furtner & Baldegger, 2012). Participants demonstrated how to leverage transformational
leadership behaviors, including how to motivate, inspire, and connect the need of humans to the
outcomes of the larger organization (National Policy Board for Educational Administration,
2015). P1 said of motivating teachers, “If you include teachers in everything that you’re doing
then that motivates them to make your vision come true.” P2 spoke of motivating teachers
through idealized influence, and specifically through leading by example: “As a leader, you gotta
be willing to demonstrate what you’re talking about. If you’re critiquing teachers’ teaching
ability, you gotta be willing to even go into the classroom and show what you’re talking about.”
P3 cited intellectual stimulation via professional development as a means of motivating and
inspiring teachers: “I think school leadership behaviors that are most likely to motivate and
inspire teachers are behaviors that promote relevant professional development.”
Procedural knowledge was defined as knowledge of how school leadership establishes
order and structure for students to learn, teachers to instruct, and the school community to
46

prosper (National Policy Board for Educational Administration, 2015). In demonstrating their
procedural knowledge, two participants reported instances in which they had taken appropriate
steps to implement their visions for collective achievement. P2 spoke of meeting with relevant
stakeholders and persuading them to renovate the deteriorated, outdated facilities in the school:
That renovation, I sat down with the architects, I sat down with the engineers, I sat down
with the builders, I set down the money for the school system, and always I would tell
them, I said if this school was in [a more affluent region], would you do that to the
school?
Notable in P2’s response was the strategy of citing equity concerns to persuade stakeholders to
support the conversion of the courtyard to a playground in a disadvantaged school. P3 spoke of
pushing community leaders to have an empty, concrete courtyard at the school converted into a
playground:
We had a very big space outside, space outside of our school, but it was just all concrete,
and there was nothing there … so I really just started to look at companies that worked
with schools to build playgrounds and finally got with a company, and you had to go
through this long, arduous process to even be considered as a candidate for their program,
and so I got the community involved.
The participants demonstrated metacognitive knowledge, defined as knowledge to reflect
on and redefine the role of being called a school leader (National Policy Board for Educational
Administration, 2015). P1 spoke of the importance of self-reflection for refining leadership
practices: “As a leader, you have to be reflective, because if you want to improve in your own
practices, you have to reflect in order to improve yourself as a person as well as a leader.” P2
similarly spoke of setting aside time each day to practice self-reflection: “Every afternoon,
47

before I went home, I reflected about what happened that day, about how I handled it, and also
about how I had influenced others to take care of situations.” As another example of
metacognitive knowledge, P3 spoke of soliciting feedback from subordinates to aid in self-
reflection: “When reflecting on my leadership, I try to take it from different angles. First, I like to
get feedback from my team.” Thus, participants reported that they engaged in metacognitive self-
reflective practices to refine and enhance their leadership.
Theme 3: High Self-Efficacy Reported
Participants reported strong self-efficacy as leaders. Self-efficacy was defined and
understood in this context as self-efficacy to believe in their ability to engage in transformational
leadership behaviors to improve school outcomes (Bandura, 1986; National Policy Board for
Educational Administration, 2015). P1 spoke of the importance of self-efficacy for
transformational leaders, who need to believe in their capacity to affect change and learn from
mistakes: “Being a transformational leader is that someone who was not afraid of making
changes, and who’s not afraid to make mistakes, because you’re gonna learn something.” P2
expressed high self-efficacy by stating, “I felt that I had the leadership qualities to become a
good leader in a school system.” P3 reported self-efficacy was established through successful
leadership experiences:
One of the big factors that made me decide to become a school leader was working as a
teacher for approximately 10 years and really having those roles of leadership while I was
a teacher, so being on the instructional leadership team, being an advisor for graduating
classes, or just working you know with a group of students after school.
While not explicitly explored through the interview questions, some interviewees
discussed their self-identity as connected to their self-efficacy. They identified themselves as
48

having an intrinsic passion for supporting, coaching, and helping teachers reach desired
outcomes and students reach high levels of performance. Participants reported that they had
intrinsic passion for their work and how they could use that passion to support better school
outcomes. For example, P6 stated, “I am kinda nerdy. I love statistics, and I like digging down in
test scores and looking at different variables that can affect student performance and student
goals, and I was quite strong in that.” P6 reported an intrinsic passion for sharing a vision and
their confidence in themselves as a transformational leader in doing so: “I’m very big on vision
… When I came into leadership, the schools that I worked with had been historically low
performing, and I really wanted people to see that there could be a different way.” Although
leaders were confident in their abilities as transformational leaders, they expressed new and
additional complexities to their roles since the pandemic. The lack of organizational support to
further develop as transformational leaders to address these new complexities, as discussed
below, may in the future affect their confidence in their ability to engage in transformational
leadership behaviors to improve school outcomes.
Research Question 3: What Organizational Supports Enable or Inhibit School Leaders in
Adopting Transformational Leadership Principles?
Purpose
The purpose of Research Question 3 (RQ3) was to identify what organizational supports
enable or inhibit school leaders in adopting transformational leadership principles. Using Clark
and Estes’s (2008) KMO conceptual framework, after examining knowledge and motivation
influences on performance, RQ3 addresses the concept of identifying organizational support or
inhibitors to adopting transformational school leadership. The following types of questions were
asked of school leaders related to this research question: How does the district support your
49

development as a school leader? What goals does the district set for you as a school leader?
What, if anything, limits your ability to be a transformational leader? What additional support, if
any, would be helpful to you to develop as a transformational school leader?
Theme 4: Minimal Organizational Support for Established School Leaders
While the interview data indicated high levels of knowledge of transformational
leadership and self-efficacy toward transformational practices, RQ3 indicated minimal
organizational support for established school leaders to continue to develop as transformational
leaders. All participants indicated that some organizational support for leadership development
existed for new and aspiring principals. Those organizational supports included 1 year of
mentoring for new principals and the assumption of some leadership responsibilities under a
mentor for aspiring principals. P1 referenced the availability of mentorship for new principals:
“The new principals, so it’s great, [the organization] support[s] them, they have a mentor that
works with them to help them to develop the skills that they need as a leader.” P5 corroborated
P1’s response, speaking of the availability of coaching and training for new leaders: “If you go
through the new leaders’ program, you will receive a coach for a year … you also have access to
opportunities to take professional development.” P2 also spoke of mentoring opportunities for
aspiring principals:
Folks who were in the administrative track, you were placed in different schools to be
mentored. They would be given responsibility in their schools, but they would be
mentored to help them develop the skills that they needed, and then they would be
evaluated.
Thus, participants spoke with approval of the professional development opportunities for
new and aspiring leaders through their organization. However, participants added that no support
50

to develop their transformational leadership skills or set leadership goals was available following
their 1st year. P2 reported that in the absence of professional development to promote
transformational leadership, he set his own benchmarks and asked his superior to hold him
accountable:
I was sticking my neck out there because I was giving them benchmarks to look at me as
a leader and seeing if I was able to meet my benchmarks. I clearly understood where I
was going, what I needed to do, and how to do it.
P1 referred to a lack of support for established principals and a resulting divergence of
leadership styles among different principals: “Honestly, I would not say that we get that much
support in becoming a transformational leader as a principal. We all have our own styles of
leadership.” P3 stated, “I don’t think [organizational leaders] intentionally go out of their way to
promote any one style of leadership.” Thus, leaders needed to develop as transformational
leaders by learning about leadership independently, setting personal benchmarks, and requesting
that a superior maintain accountability. This relies on school leaders being self-motivated to
invest their time and resources in developing as transformational leaders, and, given the
increasing complexities of their roles as school leaders and demands on their time, the lack of
organizational support for established leaders may limit their ability to continue to grow as
transformational leaders to support school outcomes.
Conclusion
I used three research questions to guide this study on the leadership styles school leaders
use and the role of transformational leadership attributes to improve student outcomes with
leadership styles. These findings are based on evidence from interviews with school principals,
assistant principals, and department heads. The first question (RQ1) was focused on participants’
51

leadership styles. Findings indicated that participants perceived they used a transformational
leadership style in which they emphasized the components of inspirational motivation via
developing and communicating a clear vision, idealized influence via leading by example, and
intellectual stimulation via professional development for teachers and distributed leadership.
The second research question (RQ2) was focused on the knowledge and motivation
needed by school leaders to develop as transformational leaders to improve student outcomes.
Participants demonstrated strong declarative, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge of
transformational leadership. Participants also reported strong self-efficacy.
The third research question (RQ3) was focused on organizational supports that enable or
inhibit school leaders in adopting research-based leadership principles. Participants indicated that
strong organizational support existed for new and aspiring leaders in the form of mentoring and
professional development. However, a need was identified in relation to organizational support
to promote transformational leadership among established principals, with all participants
reporting that no support was offered them. In Chapter Five, I discuss the implications drawn
from these findings.
52

Chapter Five: Recommendations
The purpose of this study was to understand the current school leadership practice within
a small rural school district in the United States, and the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs for school leaders to adopt principles of transformational leadership to
support the achievement of all students and the school community’s success. This qualitative
study identified themes in leadership practices among a participant group of six school leaders
including principals, vice principals, and department heads in a rural African American school
district. The findings from Chapter Four provide insights into school leadership styles and the
KMO support needed for school leaders to further develop as transformational leaders as they
continue to work to improve school climate and student outcomes. Based on findings presented
in Chapter Four, Chapter Five offers recommendations for practice, implementation, areas of
future research, and a conclusion to this study. The following research questions guided the
study:
1. What are the current leadership styles of school leaders in the XYZ School District?
2. What is the knowledge and motivation needed by school leaders to further develop as
transformational leaders to support student outcomes?
3. What organizational supports enable or inhibit school leaders in adopting
transformational leadership principles?
Themes and Recommendations for Practice
Four themes emerged from the data related to school leaders’ leadership styles. The
findings from Chapter Four indicate participants’ use of transformational and transactional
leadership styles with particular reliance on principles of transformational leadership. Using
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis model, this study examined school leaders’ KMO support
53

related to transformational leadership practices to improve student outcomes. The collected data
indicated strong knowledge around transformational leadership as well as gaps related to self-
identity in having intrinsic motivation for supporting, coaching, and helping teachers reach
desired outcomes. This may be related to the final theme which suggests school leaders feel a
lack of organizational support to adopt and practice transformational leadership. Based on these
findings, the recommendation for practice is to establish a district-wide Transformational
Leadership Development Program (TLDP). Each theme will be discussed below in the context of
prior research and the recommendation for practice.
Theme 1: Transformational Leadership Style
Transformational leadership is a theory focusing on behavior and actions leading toward
positive outcomes (Furtner & Baldegger, 2012). According to research on self-efficacy, leaders
who drive organizations to higher outcomes are driven by intrinsic motivation and position
themselves as a peer coach as opposed to a traditional authority figure (Bandura, 1986). All six
participants discussed their leadership style as including key principles underlying transactional
and transformational leadership styles; however, transformational leadership principles were
most commonly referenced.
Some school leaders practiced transactional leadership but saw limitations with this type
of leadership. Participants described a leadership practice and awareness which encourages
teachers and students to find intrinsic motivational goals to reach goals within the school
community (Janse, 2020). The literature review within Chapter Two supports the idea that
leadership style, and specifically a transformational leadership style, can impact a school’s
climate, the retention of teachers, and influence processes that improve student outcomes
(Cruickshank, 2017). Implementation of district, at-large professional development involving all
54

school leaders has equipped leaders with transformational leadership practices (Furtner &
Baldegger, 2012). This type of leadership training could be modeled on a research-based
leadership approach as suggested by the Cruickshank study (Cruickshank, 2017).
Theme 2: Knowledge of Transformational Leadership
All six participants indicated a practice of transformational leader skills with specific
examples reflecting declarative, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge supporting school-
wide actions. The evidence collected from the leadership interviews reflected the findings of the
Cruickshank study, which affirmed the use of transformational leadership in addressing the
required school culture and climate for student success (Cruickshank, 2017). The Cruickshank
study, as discussed in Chapter Two, is a cornerstone body of research that validates the practice
and impact of transformational leadership on academic outcomes (Cruickshank, 2017). This
study validated the awareness and practice of transformational leadership knowledge with the
use of four approaches to school management.
In 2017, this study was conducted within the School of Education at the University of
Tasmania Australia. The study examined the impact school leaders have on student achievement
and which leadership practices are associated with increased student achievement. This empirical
research study examined the impact of leadership styles and the academic outcomes of public
school students in Australia, South Korea, and the United States (Cruickshank, 2017). Within
this study, teachers assessed principals’ leadership styles by the use of a data collection tool:
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire based on transformational leadership traits and a Principal
Instructional Management Rating Scale (Cruickshank, 2017; Shatzer et al., 2014).
The questionnaires used within this study were critical to assess the knowledge of school
leaders who practice transformational leadership within varying school systems in three
55

countries and the findings within the Cruickshank study (Cruickshank, 2017) suggested the
following themes:
• a positive impact of transformational leadership on instruction
• a focus on teaching and learning
• building and sharing a common vision of transformational leadership
• external awareness and engagement
The development of a district-wide Transformational Leadership Development Program
could continue to build on current knowledge and practice of transformational leadership among
school leaders in XYZ School District using the themes of the Cruickshank study (Cruickshank,
2017), including teaching and learning, building and sharing a common vision of
transformational leadership, and external awareness and engagement.
Theme 3: High Self-Efficacy Reported
Self-efficacy is defined as a person’s belief in their ability to succeed in a particular
situation and school leaders are faced with complex situations (Bandura, 1986). Self-efficacy is
critical for a leader to demonstrate transformational leadership principles in their actions.
According to research in 2018, the impact of leadership on school climate, teacher
retention, and student outcomes was tied to the role and awareness of a school leader’s self-
efficacy (Smir, 2018). According to self-efficacy research, leaders who drive organizations to
higher outcomes are driven by intrinsic motivation and manage from a peer coaching model as
opposed to a traditional authority figure approach (Bandura, 1986). Increasing a leader’s intrinsic
motivation fosters highly motivational responses with other members of the workplace
community (Pink, 2009). Setting work-related goals, performing them well, and having the
autonomy to do so, can increase intrinsic motivation within the framework of school leadership
56

(Janse, 2020; Pink, 2009). A district-wide TLDP could support the development of intrinsic
motivation through the development of their self-efficacy as transformational leaders.
Theme 4: Minimal Organizational Support for Established School Leaders
Although all six participants indicated having knowledge of transactional and
transformational leadership, and the use of transformational leadership principles, school leaders
suggested a lack of organizational support for their development of transformational leaders,
particularly those who were experienced in their positions. All six participants indicated
responses that indicated low levels of support for their development as transformational leaders.
The low levels of intrinsic motivation may be the result of organizational barriers by district
leadership (Janse, 2020). The data suggests school leaders must comply with rules, expectations,
and standards on school leadership practices created by district policymakers. The standards of
leadership practices from district leadership may inhibit school leaders from adopting and
implementing research-based leadership principles.
Research suggests school leaders should be educated and empowered on a full range of
leadership styles, which may benefit teachers, students, and the school’s culture for success.
Allen et al. (2015) suggested transformational leadership practices have positive outcomes for
reading and math scores of fourth- and eighth-grade students. As such, the XYZ School District
could benefit from a leadership development program that explores a variety of leadership styles
and their use, including transformational leadership.
Recommendation for Practice: Transformational Leadership Development Program
School leaders often lack a research-based approach to school leadership and indicate
being removed from the practice of teaching and learning. The findings from Chapter Four
suggest school leaders would benefit from and are requesting more leadership training on how to
57

expand their skills, particularly around transformational leadership. The request for additional
skills comes, in part, from the complexities of school leadership and development of a culture
and climate for school success during and following the COVID-19 pandemic.
To address the complex tasks of modern school leadership, I recommend the creation of a
TLDP for school principals and other school leaders. The recommendation includes key
components of its development and implementation:
• First, the development of a transformational leadership plan should be implemented
with a sense of urgency. District leaders should act with a sense of urgency to make
school leaders aware of the value, research, and benefit of transformational leadership
within their school culture and community (Burke, 2018; Kotter, 2017).
• Second, district/school leaders should form a coalition to educate school stakeholders
within the XYZ School District on the benefits of transformational leadership. This
coalition could guide the direction of school leadership programs for all employees
who have leadership roles (Kotter, 2017).
• Third, district leaders should create a plan on how leadership style identification can
impact student academic outcomes. The value of a research-based leadership style to
impact school climate/culture and student outcomes could be an effective perspective
on innovations in education reform. The outcome of this plan is to enhance awareness
of knowledge of transformational leadership by district leaders (Kotter, 2017).
• Fourth, within leadership training sessions, the district leaders of the XYZ School
District could promote and communicate the principles of transformational leadership
through workshops, leadership development, leadership evaluations, and school
climate assessments (Kotter, 2017).
58

• Fifth, the XYZ School District could implement the use of an assessment tool and
scoring system to measure the use of transformational leadership. This assessment
could be implemented by district leaders and develop leaders by expanding leadership
styles beyond transactional. This tool could measure short-term goals within the range
of a single school year (Kotter, 2017).
• Sixth, the Office of the Superintendent could establish short- and long-term goals for
school leaders to ensure a cultural change in the implementation stages of all school
academic benchmarks for 1 year. After a year of evaluations, implementation, and
reflection, the superintendent could continue a constant process of evaluation,
implementation, and reflection to ensure the effectiveness of the transformational
process by using online survey platforms (Kotter, 2017).
• Seventh, the XYZ School District could assess teacher retention rates, school climate,
reading and math scores of fourth- and eighth-grade students, and school leadership
feedback by online survey platforms to assess connections between leadership style,
and transformational leadership in particular, and school outcomes (Kotter, 2017).
• The eighth and final stage of change could be the collection and sharing of
information on the impact of transformational leadership on school outcomes. This
stage reflects the large goal of why this research study was undertaken—to build
research-based school leadership practices. The information feedback could be
external to the community from school boards meeting, state departments of
education, and community leaders (Kotter, 2017).
59

Kirkpatrick Model of Evaluation
The Kirkpatrick model of evaluation is a model for analyzing and evaluating training
programs seeking to implement changes in human behavior (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
This study has led to the recommendation for the XZY school district to implement a leadership
development program using eight stages of change to further bring transformational leadership
into the school community. This program would apply concepts of transformational leadership
within the primary and secondary schools of the XYZ School District, and the Kirkpatrick model
of evaluation could serve as an evaluation plan to examine the impact on school leader
behaviors, school climate and culture, and, ultimately, student outcomes.
The Kirkpatrick model suggests evaluating training on four levels of understanding:
reaction, learning, behavior, and results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 1 measures
reactions of school leaders to new training; essentially, this measures the extent school leaders
are open to change or resistant to learning about the concept of transformational leadership.
Level 2 analyzes if school leaders understand the principles of transformational leadership, while
Level 3 evaluates behaviors of school leaders modeling transformational leadership traits for
students and teachers. Level 4 evaluates the impact of the leadership training and whether those
sessions had a positive impact on the organization in terms of school climate and culture and
ultimately student outcomes.
Level 1: Reaction
School and district leaders will participate in learning about principles of leadership with
a particular focus on transformational leadership. The goal includes increasing leadership
awareness and intrinsic motivation (Janse, 2020; Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This training
could begin over the summer before teachers and students return to school to engage in teaching
60

and learning. A primary responsibility of all school leaders is to create a school environment safe
and conducive to teaching and learning (National Policy Board for Educational Administration,
2015). The first level of Kirkpatrick’s four-level evaluation model is reaction, specifically, the
reaction of participants or key stakeholders. To what extent do they find the training valuable and
relevant to reach the goal (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016)? This level evaluates participants’
engagement, their perceptions of the relevance of the training, and customer satisfaction.
Methods to measure engagement could include attendance of participants, participation observed
by facilitators, a survey asking participants about their thoughts regarding relevance, and pulse
checks with participants through discussion and feedback.
Level 2: Learning
Level 2 measures the learning and impact on participants (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). If the TLDP is effective, school leaders should have greater knowledge of
transformational leadership skills and practices and confidence in how to implement them in
their school environments. Level 2 examines if school leadership is active in the learning process
to gain knowledge of transformational leadership within the context of their school environment.
Development sessions will offer school leaders the ability to demonstrate transformational
leadership knowledge with interactions between teachers and students. To measure the acquired
knowledge of the teachers regarding transformational leadership, interviews could be conducted,
and leaders asked how the program has helped or not helped them gain knowledge of
transformational leadership. Afterward, the interview data could be compared with the original
interviews conducted at the beginning of this study, before the implementation changes occurred.
By having school leaders participate in this training, this action will reduce the perception of a
lack of transformational support by district leaders (Janse, 2020).
61

Level 3: Behavior
Level 3 focuses on how the participants apply what they learned in their schools
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level 3 suggests the evaluation of behavior is critical in
measuring the effectiveness of training. At this level, it is important to see if the school leaders’
learning transferred practices at the school site. If so, school stakeholders and the entire school
community should show more engagement. One way to measure changes in behavior is through
school leader reflections and observation of behavior changes during the sessions. Other school
stakeholders could reflect on changes in leadership practices following their leaders’
participation in the program. Not only should school leaders’ behavior change, district leaders
should move to embrace the principle of transformational leadership without the fear of losing
the impact of accountability. Just as with school leaders, district leaders must expand their
knowledge and organizational support of transformational leadership with a deeper
understanding (Clark & Estes, 2008; Furtner & Baldegger, 2012).
Level 4: Results
Level 4 of the Kirkpatrick model seeks to target outcomes as a result of learning
(Kirkpatrick Partners, 2023). At this level, it is important to evaluate the results holistically with
a long-term vision toward sustainable changes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The change
model should result in a transformative leadership development program that has a positive
impact on the culture of district schools and, ultimately, student outcomes. Results are most
likely if the program is in line with the mission and vision of the district, there is broad
acceptance and long-term support for leadership development, leaders are part of the planning
process, incentives are provided, and there is sustained effort for integrating learning into
practice (Bringle & Hatcher, 2000). It is important to evaluate results from the perspective of
62

important constituencies, such as students, teachers, and the community. Through surveys,
observations, and interviews, the district can evaluate the effect of the development program on
school culture and student outcomes. The results can be used to make necessary changes to
ensure the sustained performance of a high-quality service TLDP. In addition, the relationship
between school leaders and district leaders could improve over time through new leadership
awareness. After the 1st year of the new program, school leaders and district leaders will have
data to evaluate the progression of an expansion of leadership skills and practices with the XYZ
School District. By collecting data at the end of the school year with surveys, the XYZ School
District will also have data to measure if experienced school leaders have a stronger awareness
of organizational support for their continuous leadership development.
Limitations and Delimitations
According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), limitations are outside the control of the
researcher. By contrast, delimitations are parameters of a study defined by the researcher that
may limit the study’s scope (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In terms of limitations, this study was
impacted by the global spread of the coronavirus in 2019. School districts were heavily impacted
and hesitant to grant their school personnel permission to participate in research during this
period. Some school districts instituted COVID-19 policies that temporarily prohibited school
personnel from participating in outside research projects to mitigate infection risk to district
employees and to ease the burden of other additional responsibilities already on them. Given the
small number of school leaders, the XYZ School District attempted to reduce the impact of over-
tasking school staff by granting me access only to school leadership and prohibiting access to
teachers and support staff. This caused this study to limit its focus to school leaders’ perceptions
of their leadership and precluded the inclusion of the perceptions of teachers and other
63

stakeholders. Within the XYZ School District, some district leaders and school leaders were
asked to go into the classrooms to cover for teachers because so many teachers were impacted by
the spread of COVID-19. During this research study, three of the participants stated they were
impacted by the COVID-19 virus; for example, participants faced childcare challenges, ongoing
health safety concerns, and the financial impacts of closure of a business from COVID-19
restrictions. Given the size of the community of the XYZ School District, this study could not
include the originally proposed sample size of 12 participants. Along with the limited sample
size, this rural county has limited internet availability due to a shared cell phone tower which
furthered restricted times and the ability for online interviews. Given the COVID-19 restrictions,
school systems’ safety guidelines required interviews to be conducted via Zoom. Conducting
interviews virtually may have affected the rapport between myself and the participants, which
could have affected participant responses. COVID-19 had a negative effect on this study by
placing restrictions and challenges outside of the scope of inquiry.
In terms of delimitations, the study focused on two types of leadership styles in
particular, transactional and transformational leadership styles, but other leadership styles also
affect school climate and student outcomes. Due to the constraints of the dissertation project
cycle, I chose to focus on two leadership styles. Further, the study only included school sites in
one district due to convenience and access. The findings may not be generalizable to other school
settings.
Future Research
This dissertation aimed to reframe the conversation on the role school leaders have on the
climate and culture of their school communities, and ultimately, on student academic outcomes.
The relationship between leadership styles such as transformational and transactional and
64

academic outcomes of students requires more attention and research. Future research could be
conducted in other school districts, rural and urban, to further validate these findings. Future
research should take place within a larger system and with more school leaders. By conducting
research inside a larger school system, future research would offer more data to evaluate the
presence of different leadership styles and allow for greater understanding of leadership styles in
different communities and what might be more or less effective given the particular community
served. Future research could focus on determining what motivates school leaders and
identifying organizational barriers to changes in leadership styles. Finally, future research could
include other stakeholders, such as teachers, to understand their perceptions of their school
leaders as transformational leaders and how transformational leadership affects the culture and
climate of the school.
Conclusion
The purpose of this dissertation was to identify characteristics of school leadership styles
within a rural, southern public school system and the KMO needs by school leaders to adopt
transformational leadership practices to support student outcomes. Evidence suggests that many
school reform efforts, such as the NCLB Act (2001) and ESSA (2015), both with a focus on
teacher accountability, failed to improve student academic outcomes, particularly for
marginalized populations (Baird, 2019). School systems need to find innovative solutions to the
problem of low academic performance of marginalized students, including a focus on school
leadership. Research suggests that transformational school leadership can have a positive impact
on school culture, and ultimately, student performance. This study found that school leaders in
the small, rural, high-poverty district of study have knowledge of school leadership and
implement transformational leadership principles in their practice. There is some lack of self-
65

efficacy in these practices and perceptions of a lack of continuous district-level support in
advancing their leadership abilities.
For many school systems across the United States, academic excellence is not achieved.
For many African American students living in poverty, this research and other research on
school leadership may be an opportunity for a new beginning in education. The biggest barrier to
change is change itself. This dissertation is a chance for a new approach to academic outcomes
by reframing the roles of leaders into a new type of school leader. Research needs to address the
impact on school systems of transformational school leadership, particularly for schools with
student populations coming from marginalized communities. If transformational leadership
empowers others by role modeling, this could also empower students.

66

References
Allen, N., Grigsby, B., & Peters, M. L. (2015). Does leadership matter? Examining the
relationship among transformational leadership, school climate, and student achievement.
International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 10(2), 1–22.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1083099.pdf
Alliance for Excellence in Education. (2014). On the path to equity: Improving the effectiveness
of beginning teachers. https://all4ed.org/reports-factsheets/path-to-equity/
Baird, K. (2019). National Assessment of Educational Progress. In D. J. Brewer & L. O. Picus
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of education economics & finance.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483346595.n174
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Prentice-Hall.
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. Free Press.
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1999). Platoon readiness as a function of
transformation/transactional leadership, squad mores, and platoon cultures. U.S. Army
Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.
Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (2000). Institutionalization of service learning in higher
education. The Journal of Higher Education, 71(3), 273–290.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2000.11780823
Burke, W. (2018). Organization change: Theory and practice. Sage.
Burns, E. H. (1978). Actions public school boards may take to reduce resistance to change
during times of declining enrollment. Wayne State University.
67

Clark, R. E., & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right
performance solutions. Information Age Publishing.
Cohen-Vogel, L., Little, M., & Fierro, C. (2019). Evidence-based staffing in high schools: Using
student achievement data in teacher hiring, evaluation, and assignment. Leadership and
Policy in Schools, 18(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2017.1326146
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage.
Cruickshank, V. (2017). The influence of school leadership on student outcomes. Open Journal
of Social Sciences, 5(9), 115–123. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2017.59009
Dee, T., & Jacob, B. (2011). The impact of NCLB on student achievement. Association for Policy
Analysis and Management.
Dee, T., & Jacob, B. (2013). The effects of NCLB on school resource and practice. Association
for Policy Analysis and Management. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373712467080
Donaldson, G. A. (2006). Cultivating leadership in schools: Connecting people, purpose, &
practice (2nd ed.). Teachers College Press.
Duraku, Z., & Hoxha, L. (2021). Effects of school climate and parent support on academic
performance: Implications for school reform. International Journal of Educational
Reform, 30(3), 222–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/10567879211015946
Every Student Succeeds Act, Pub. L. No. 114-95, S. 1177 (2015).
Eyal, O., & Roth, G. (2011). Principals’ leadership and teachers’ motivation: Self‐determination
theory analysis. Journal of Educational Administration, 49(3), 256–275.
https://doi.org/10.1108/09578231111129055
68

Fischer, M., McCoy, A., Foster, B., Eisenkraft, A., & Lawrenz, F. (2019). Use of the Stages of
Concern Questionnaire in a national top-down reform effort. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 80, 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.12.019
Folsom, J. S., Smith, K. G., Burk, K., & Oakley, N. (2017). Educator outcomes associated with
implementation of Mississippi’s K–3 Early Literacy Professional Development Initiative
(REL 2017-270). Regional Educational Laboratory Southeast.
Furtner, M., & Baldegger, U. (2012). Self-Leadership and Leadership: Theory, Models and
Practical Implementation. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-8349-3837-46
Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self‐determination theory and work motivation. Journal of
Organizational behavior, 26(4), 331–362. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322
Gallimore, R., & Goldenberg, C. (2001). Analyzing cultural models and settings to connect
minority achievement and school improvement research. Educational Psychologist,
36(1), 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3601_5
Gersten, R., Newman-Gonchar, R., Haymond, K. S., & Dimino, J. (2017). What is the evidence
base to support reading interventions for improving student outcomes in Grades 1–3?
Regional Education Laboratory Southeast. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED573686.pdf
Griffin, M. M., Taylor, J. L., Urbano, R. C., & Hodapp, R. M. (2014). Involvement in transition
planning meetings among high school students with autism spectrum disorders. The
Journal of Special Education, 47(4), 256–264.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466913475668
Griffith, J. (2014). Teacher absenteeism in charter and traditional public schools. Thomas
Fordham Institute.
69

Hargis, M. B., Watt, J. D., & Piotrowski, C. (2011). Developing leaders: Examining the role of
transactional and transformational leadership across business contexts. Organization
Development Journal, 29(3), 51–66. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-22136-004
Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959). The motivation to work (2nd ed.). Wiley.
Holloway, B., & Brass, J. (2017). Making accountable teachers: The terrors and pleasures of
performativity. Journal of Education Policy, 33(3), 361–382.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2017.1372636
Janse, B. (2020). Daniel Pink motivation theory. Toolshero.
https://www.toolshero.com/psychology/daniel-pink-motivation-theory/
Kirkpatrick Partners (2023). The Kirkpatrick model. https://www.kirkpatrickpartners.com/the-
kirkpatrick-model/
Kirkpatrick, J. D., & Kirkpatrick, W. K. (2016). Kirkpatrick’s four levels of training evaluation.
Association for Talent Development.
Koh, W. L., Steers, R. M., & Terborg, J. R. (1995). The effects of transformational leadership on
teacher attitudes and student performance in Singapore. Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 16(4), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030160404
Kotter, J. (2017). Leading change. Harvard Business School Press.
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview. Theory Into Practice,
41(4), 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4104_2
Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2006). Transformational school leadership for large-scale reform:
Effects on students, teachers, and their classroom practices. School Effectiveness and
School Improvement, 17(2), 201–227. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-09473-004
70

Long, C. S., Yusof, W. M. M., Kowang, T. O., & Heng, L. H. (2014). The impact of
transformational leadership style on job satisfaction. World Applied Sciences Journal,
29(1), 117–124. https://www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj29(1)14/17.pdf
Mancuso, S. V., Roberts, L., & White, G. P. (2010). Teacher retention in international schools:
The key role of school leadership. Journal of Research in International Education, 9(3),
306–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240910388928
Marks, H. M., & Printy, S. M. (2003). Principal leadership and school performance: An
integration of transformational and instructional leadership. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 39(3), 370–397. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X03253412
Mas, L. (2013, March 15). Transactional and transformational leadership. To Infinity and
Beyond! https://mylifelonglearningjourney.wordpress.com/2013/03/15/transactional-and-
transformational-leadership/
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346
Maslow, A. H. (2019). A theory of human motivation. General Press.
Maxwell, J. C. (2013). The 17 indisputable laws of teamwork: Embrace them and empower your
team. HarperCollins Leadership.
Mayer, R. E. (2011). Does styles research have useful implications for educational practice?
Learning and Individual Differences, 21(3), 319–320.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.11.016
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Designing your study and selecting a sample. In
Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (pp. 73–104). Wiley.
71

Miller, R. T., Murnane, R. J., & Willett, J. B. (2007). Do teacher absences impact student
achievement? Longitudinal evidence from one urban school district. National Bureau of
Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w13356
Mozahem, N. A. (2020). Social cognitive theory and women’s career choices: An agent-based
model simulation. Computational & Mathematical Organization Theory, 28(1), 1–26.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10588-020-09317-6
National Policy Board for Educational Administration. (2015). Professional standards for
educational leaders. https://www.npbea.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Professional-
Standards-for-Educational-Leaders_2015.pdf
News@Northeastern. (2022). High school dropout rate: Causes and costs.
https://news.northeastern.edu/in-the-media/high-school-dropout-rate-causes-and-costs/
Nichols, S. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2007). Collateral damage: How high-stakes testing corrupts
America’s schools. Harvard Education Press.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 20 U.S.C. § 6301 et seq. (2001).
Northouse, P. G. (2018). Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage.
Odland, J. (2006). NCLB: Time to reevaluate its effectiveness. Childhood Education, 83(2), 98–
99.
Odumeru, J. A., & Ogbonna, I. G. (2013). Transformational vs. transactional leadership theories:
Evidence in literature. International Review of Management and Business Research, 2(2),
355–361. https://www.irmbrjournal.com/papers/1371451049.pdf
Pink, D. (2009). The puzzle of motivation [Video]. TED Conferences.
https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_pink_the_puzzle_of_motivation?language=en
72

Rueda, R. (2011). The 3 dimensions of improving student performance: Finding the right
solutions to the right problems. Teachers College Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). When rewards compete with nature. In C. Sansone & J. M.
Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (pp. 13–54). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012619070-0/50024-6
Shatzer, R. H., Caldarella, P., Hallam, P. R., & Brown, B. L. (2014). Comparing the effects of
instructional and transformational leadership on student achievement: Implications for
practice. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 42(4), 445–459.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143213502192
Smirl, P. (2022, February 15). The keys to transformational leadership. Wisconsin School of
Business. Retrieved April 9, 2023, from https://business.wisc.edu/news/becoming-a-
transformational-leader
Stoddard, C., & Kuhn, P. (2006). Incentives and effort in the public sector: Have U.S. education
reforms increased teachers’ work hours? National Bureau of Economic Research.
https://doi.org/10.3386/w11970
Sun, J., & Leithwood, K. (2012). Transformational school leadership effects on student
achievement. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 11(4), 418–451.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2012.681001
Thomas, L., Tuytens, M., Devos, G., Kelchtermans, G., & Vanderlinde, R. (2020).
Transformational school leadership as a key factor for teachers’ job attitudes during their
first year in the profession. Educational Management Administration & Leadership,
48(1), 106–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/174114321878106
73

U.S. Department of Education. (2022a). Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA).
https://www.ed.gov/essa?src=rn
U.S. Department of Education. (2022b). No Child Left Behind.
https://www2.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml
Vasquez Heilig, J., & Clark, B., Jr. (2018). New insights and directions: Considering the impact
of charter school attributes on communities of color. Grantee Submission, 7(1), 3–9.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED605480
Viviano, T. (2012). What 21st century leadership in career and technical education should look
like. Journal of Career and Technical Education, 27(2), 51–56.
https://doi.org/10.21061/jcte.v27i2.559
Zamarro, G., Camp, A., Fuchsman, D., & McGee, J. B. (2022). Understanding how COVID-19
has changed teachers’ chances of remaining in the classroom. Sinquefield Center for
Applied Economic Research.
74

Appendix A: Interview Protocol
1. How would you describe your leadership style?
2. What do you think about a transactional leadership style? Transformational leadership
style?
3. How would you describe school leadership traits and attributes that motivates and
inspires teachers?
4. How do you reflect on your role as a leader, if at all? Can you give me an example of
a time you reflected on your leadership?
5. Where do you feel more or less confident in your abilities as a school leader?
6. What made you decide to become a school leader?
7. How does the district support your development as a school leader?
a. What kinds of professional development, if any, is provided to new school
leaders in the district on research-based leadership best practices?
b. Do you have opportunities to interact with other school leaders as a role
model? If so, what do those opportunities look like?
8. What goals does the district set for you as a school leader?
9. What, if anything, limits your ability to be a transformational school leader?
10. What additional support, if any, would be helpful to you to develop as a
transformational school leader, among all of your transactional responsibilities.

75

Appendix B: Theoretical Diagrams

Figure B1
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Note. From “A Theory of Human Motivation,” by A. H. Maslow, 1943, Psychological Review,
50(4), p. PPP (https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346). Reprinted with permission.

76

Figure B2
Herzberg’s Hygiene and Motivational Factors

Note. From The Motivation to Work (2nd ed., p. X), by F. Herzberg, B. Mausner, and B. B.
Snyderman, 1959, Wiley. Reprinted with permission.

77

Figure B3
Bandura’s Model of the Sources of Self-Efficacy and the Outcomes

Note. From “Social Cognitive Theory and Women’s Career Choices: An Agent-Based Model
Simulation,” by N. A. Mozahem, 2020, Computational & Mathematical Organization Theory,
advance online publication, p. X (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10588-020-09317-6). Reprinted with
permission.

78

Figure B4
Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Note. From “Transactional and Transformational Leadership,” by L. Mas, 2013, Name of the
Blog (https://mylifelonglearningjourney.wordpress.com/2013/03/15/transactional-and-
transformational-leadership/). Reprinted with permission.

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Employee motivation in corporations that experienced a leadership transition

PDF

Leadership and patient safety culture

PDF

Prescription for change: gender barriers impact on healthcare leadership equity

PDF

Women in information technology senior leadership: incremental progress and continuing challenges

PDF

The development of change leadership skills in aspiring community college leaders

PDF

Community college leadership for student success

PDF

Life sciences executive leadership’s perspective on organizational change

PDF

Leadership development and Black pentecostal pastors: understanding the supports needed to enhance their leadership development and ministry effectiveness

PDF

A case Study of gender gaps in the legal profession

PDF

Post-incarceration challenges: examining barriers to reentry post-release

PDF

Increasing representation of women in executive technology leadership roles

PDF

Implementing organizational change in a medical school

PDF

Mitigating low employee engagement through improved performance management: an evaluation study

PDF

The lack of gender diversity in executive leadership ranks within higher education

PDF

The impact of elementary school leadership on student achievement: a gap analysis

PDF

Leadership in turbulent times: a social cognitive study of responsible leaders

PDF

Frontline workers serving students: a study on the well-being of student affairs professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic

PDF

Deckplate leadership: a promising practice study of chief petty officer development

PDF

We sant you! Kind of: Exploring the experiences of women pastors/leaders in Christian churches

PDF

Organizational agility and agile development methods: an evaluation study

Asset Metadata

Creator Hamilton, Erick (author)

Core Title Understanding teacher leadership styles in relation to student outcomes

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 04/24/2023

Defense Date 04/19/2022

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag elementary school,leadership styles,middle school,OAI-PMH Harvest,rural school district,student outcomes

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Krop, Cathy (committee chair), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee member), Wilcox, Alexandra (committee member)

Creator Email erickham@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113077681

Unique identifier UC113077681

Identifier etd-HamiltonEr-11697.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-HamiltonEr-11697

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Hamilton, Erick

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230424-usctheses-batch-1029 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright. The original signature page accompanying the original submission of the work to the USC Libraries is retained by the USC Libraries and a copy of it may be obtained by authorized requesters contacting the repository e-mail address given.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu