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Perceptions of college students with ADHD and their learning strategies

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Perceptions of college students with ADHD and their learning strategies

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Perceptions of College Students With ADHD and Their Learning Strategies

Helen K. Trần

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Helen K. Trần 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Helen K. Trần certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Patricia Tobey
Kim Hirabayashi, Committee Co-Chair
Courtney Malloy, Committee Co-Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023
iv
Abstract
This study sought to identify effective learning strategies for undergraduate students with ADHD
and to learn how they describe their academic experiences. Semi-structured qualitative
interviews were conducted with 15 undergraduate students with ADHD. An analysis of
transcribed interviews resulted in the identification of three major themes: the influence of
ADHD traits on lived experiences, diverse strategies used for self-regulated learning, and
ambivalent attitudes toward institutional academic support. The lived experiences that students
described can serve as the basis for tailored interventions to be implemented in institutions of
higher education to academically support neurodivergent students.

v
Acknowledgments
This dissertation would not have been possible without the support of my partner and
family for their endless support over the last three years. I am grateful for my dissertation
committee, Drs. Courtney Malloy, Kim Hirabayashi, and Patricia Tobey, for their guidance and
affirmations throughout the dissertation process. I would also like to acknowledge that USC
occupies the land of the Gabrielino and Tongva peoples as a reminder of the original inhabitants
of Los Angeles.

vi
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
Literature Review............................................................................................................................ 4
Methods......................................................................................................................................... 13
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 13
Context of the Study ......................................................................................................... 13
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 14
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 14
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 15
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 15
Findings......................................................................................................................................... 17
Research Question 1: What Are the Lived Experiences of Students With ADHD
Navigating the College Academic Environment?............................................................. 19
Research Question 2: What Learning Strategies Do College Students With ADHD
Perceive As Effective for Their Academic Success? ........................................................ 29
Research Question 3: How Do College Students With ADHD Describe the
Academic Support Offered by Their Institution? ............................................................. 36
Discussion and Implications ......................................................................................................... 43
Research Question 1 ......................................................................................................... 43
Research Question 2 ......................................................................................................... 44
Research Question 3 ......................................................................................................... 45
Implications for Practice ................................................................................................... 48
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 51
Future Research Recommendations .................................................................................. 52
vii
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 52
References ..................................................................................................................................... 54
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................... 64
Appendix B: Social Behavioral Protocol ...................................................................................... 68

viii
List of Tables
Table 1: Narrative Table 20
Table 2: Participants’ Self-Regulated Learning Strategies 29

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Perceptions of College Students With ADHD and Their Learning Strategies
There is a growing number of children and adolescents with ADHD (Centers for Disease
and Control Prevention, 2021; Xu et al., 2018). ADHD symptoms, according to the American
Psychiatric Association (2013), include patterns of inattention such as avoiding tasks or having
trouble organizing activities. Examples of hyperactivity and impulsivity are interrupting,
fidgeting, or talking excessively (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Research suggests
that undergraduate students with ADHD have lower academic success (DuPaul et al., 2021;
Goffer et al., 2020; Jansen et al., 2017; Prevatt et al., 2015; Reaser et al., 2007; Rosenau et al,
2019). This may be attributed to the difficulties students with ADHD face while transitioning to
college (Meaux et al. 2009; Sibley & Yeguez, 2018).
There is an increase in college students with “hidden” disabilities–disabilities that are less
visible than other impairments such as ADHD (Wolf, 2001). About 2% to 8% of college students
self-report ADHD symptoms, but the actual prevalence of students with an ADHD diagnosis
may differ (Weyandt & DuPaul, 2006). The American Disabilities Act (ADA) and Section 504
of the Rehabilitation Act mandate college campuses to provide reasonable accommodations to
students with ADHD (Wolf, 2001). Examples of these academic accommodations might include
extended time for tests, note-taking services, distraction-free rooms, access to assistive
technology, extended deadlines, or adjusted attendance expectations.
Research on the utilization of academic and mental health support services among college
students with ADHD is limited and often based on small sample sizes (DuPaul et al., 2021). One
possible explanation for the limited research is that students with hidden disabilities may have
comorbid learning or psychological disorders (Wolf, 2001). Additionally, students who
experience the same problem indicated both positive and negative perceptions on the
2

effectiveness of the same reasonable accommodations received (Jansen et al., 2017).
Furthermore, it may not be effective to offer the same reasonable accommodations to all students
because each student has individual needs (Jansen et al., 2017). Weyandt and DuPaul (2006)
argue more research is needed to determine the actual effectiveness of academic
accommodations.
ADHD in college students is widely studied in the context of their lower academic
success, and most studies use quantitative research. Additionally, researchers on ADHD often
use deficit-based language underlining the negative effects of ADHD such as lower academic
performance or lack of study strategies. This language reinforces the stigma surrounding
disability. ADHD behaviors may lead to negative biases in the relationships individuals have
with others (Canu et al., 2008; Thompson & Lefler, 2015). Nevertheless, there are few studies
that focus on what works from the student perspective. For example, Sibley and Yeguez (2018)
interviewed young adults with ADHD and found factors that enhance ADHD deficits such as
high interest subjects, self-awareness of ADHD symptoms, and direct instruction. More
empirical studies are needed that highlight student voices to capture effective strategies for their
academic success. The present study will expand this area of research through qualitative
interviews to better understand the ADHD experience from the student lens.
Most institutions are not prepared to support students with ADHD beyond reasonable
accommodations (Hong, 2015). Given the increasing prevalence of ADHD on college campuses,
there is a greater need for proper treatment and disability services (Culpepper, 2011). This study
is important because identifying learning strategies from the student perspective may help
institutions improve student persistence and well-being. The findings have implications for the
academic support students with ADHD need so that institutions can better prepare them for life
3

after graduation. Understanding the lived experiences of college students with ADHD can
support the creation of interventions that better support and foster their academic success. To this
end, the purpose of the study was to examine the learning strategies of college students with
ADHD and to learn how these students describe their academic experiences. The study used
semi-structured, qualitative interviews to discover the lived and anecdotal experiences of
students with ADHD.
In this article, I summarize the literature concerning college students with ADHD and
propose a strengths-based approach to understanding neurodiversity. Then, the study methods,
data analysis, and findings are outlined. The article concludes with a discussion and implications
for practitioners on how to better support undergraduate students with ADHD.
4

Literature Review
The literature review addresses major areas of research on college students with ADHD.
In general, research focuses on the deficits of this population, but recently researchers are
shifting toward an understanding of ADHD as a form of neurodivergence. This section begins by
summarizing studies on the academic success for college students with ADHD. The literature
review also describes the occupational, organizational, and study skills of this student
population. Then, the sources of support and interventions used by these students are discussed.
Finally, neurodiversity is presented as a concept underpinning this study.
Academic Success
One of the main reasons researchers find lower academic success in college students with
ADHD is due to challenges with executive functioning (Anastopoulous et al., 2020; Barkley &
Murphy, 2011; Eddy et al., 2021, Heiligenstein et al., 1999; Kreider et al., 2020; Wolf, 2001).
Individuals with ADHD have difficulty focusing attention, particularly when classical teaching
methods are involved (Jansen et al., 2017; Meaux et al., 2009). These challenges manifest in an
academic environment through poor time management and test-taking skills (Prevatt et al., 2015,
Reaser et al., 2007, Weyandt & DuPaul, 2006). Researchers assert academic interventions are
needed to target cognitive deficits such as executive functioning and inattention (Eddy et al.,
2021; Wolf, 2001).
In addition to problems with executive functioning, researchers report college students
with ADHD obtain lower grade point averages (GPA) than students without ADHD (Advokat et
al., 2011; Blase et al., 2009; Dou et al., 2022; DuPaul et al., 2021; Gormley et al., 2019;
Heiligenstein et al., 1999; Weyandt & DuPaul, 2006). Given this information, however, it is
important to note that the rate of comorbidity with other psychological disorders may impact
5

actual contributions of how ADHD alone affects GPA (Green & Rabiner, 2012; Wolf, 2001).
More research is needed to determine how ADHD independently relates to GPA (Green &
Rabiner, 2012).
Research also finds that students with ADHD have difficulty with organizational and
study skills (DuPaul et al., 2021; Gormley et al., 2018; Reaser et al., 2007). Some studies report
the transition from high school to college plays a role in lower study skills (Cameto et al., 2011;
Meaux et al., 2009; Sibley & Yeguez, 2018). The difficulty in transitioning to college has been
attributed to less access to accommodations (Cameto et al., 2011) and more self-instruction
required in college than in high school (Sibley & Yeguez, 2018). Other researchers attribute the
challenges to study skill strategies to lower intrinsic motivation (Dou et al., 2022; Sibley &
Yeguez, 2018; Simon-Dack et al., 2016). Research suggests time management is an important
intervention target to support better academic functioning for students with ADHD (Fleming &
McMahon, 2012; Jansen et al., 2017; LaCount et al., 2018; Reaser et al., 2007; Sibley & Yeguez,
2018; Wolf, 2001).
Whereas most researchers focus on the academic performance of college students with
ADHD, little attention has been given to students’ occupational performance. There is limited
research on how college students with ADHD function in their daily lives. In a qualitative study,
Goffer et al. (2020) identified various themes influencing occupational performance such as lack
of sleep, ambivalence of medication management, and eating too little or too much. Students
with ADHD have everyday struggles and overall dissatisfaction with occupational functioning,
but students experience joy and a sense of belonging at work (Goffer et al., 2020). In another
study, Kreider et al. (2020) found that having personalized knowledge about one’s ADHD
symptoms could enhance occupational performance because knowing one’s needs helps students
6

apply strategies to manage their daily lives. More research is needed on the effects of ADHD on
occupational experiences because it affects students’ everyday health and well-being (Goffer et
al., 2020; Kreider et al., 2020).
Findings related to the psychological well-being of students and ADHD students are
mixed. The well-being of students with ADHD plays a role in their academic success. ADHD
groups in experimental studies generally report greater overall emotional distress in their daily
lives (Richards et al., 1999; Rosenau et al., 2019; Wolf, 2001). Several studies report increased
psychological challenges for individuals with ADHD (Rosenau et al., 2019; Shaw-Zirt et al.,
2005; Weyandt et al., 1998; Wolf, 2001). For example, college students with ADHD reveal
increased stress, poorer sleep hygiene, and more difficulty with emotional regulation. The well-
being of students with ADHD is also impacted by higher rates of alcohol and substance use
(Baker et al., 2012; Blase et al., 2009; Green & Rabiner (2012); Meaux et al., 2009; Rosenau et
al., 2019). There are other studies, however, that showed no relationship between the
psychological well-being of students and ADHD (Heiligenstein et al., 1999; Wilmshurst et al.
2011). Heiligenstein et al. (1999) suggested the absence of psychological challenges in ADHD
research could be due to comorbidity being controlled in studies.
Interventions
To improve academic success, research has found that individual and group cognitive
behavioral therapy (CBT) are effective treatments for adults with ADHD (Ramsay & Rostain,
2006; Fleming & McMahon, 2012; Solanto & Scheres, 2021). Teaching students to improve their
organizational and planning skills through CBT has helped reduce ADHD symptoms
(Anastopoulos & King, 2015; Anastopoulos et al., 2020; Eddy et al., 2021; Knouse, 2015).
Researchers have utilized the Accessing Campus Connections and Empowering Student Success
7

(ACCESS) intervention, which covers awareness of ADHD, cognitive therapy, and improvement
of behavioral skills. LaCount et al. (2018) expanded upon CBT interventions by developing the
Organizational, Time management, and Planning (OTMP) skills training intervention. Targeting
OTMP skills was particularly applicable to the challenges college students with ADHD face, and
LaCount et al.’s (2018) study revealed that the intervention group improved their ADHD ratings.
Gu et al. (2018) used a mindfulness-based approach to CBT, which also resulted in better
neuropsychological performance.
Mindfulness has similar effects as CBT interventions for reducing ADHD symptoms
(Murrell et al., 2015). Research demonstrates that CBT and mindfulness interventions reduce
symptoms of anxiety and stress (Baer et al., 2012; Regehr et al., 2013). For example, Zylowska
et al. (2008) implemented an 8-week mindfulness training program using CBT for adults and
adolescents with ADHD. Participants who completed the training displayed fewer symptoms of
depression and anxiety. For some studies using mindfulness interventions, participants who
received treatment also reported high treatment satisfaction with the training or intervention
(Lester & Murrell, 2019; Zylowska et al., 2008). Murrell et al. (2015) assert the importance of
recognizing individual differences, problems, and circumstances to determine the type of
mindfulness intervention such as structured or unstructured practices. The modality and
frequency of these interventions may result in attrition especially for college students who have
ADHD (Murrell et al., 2015). More research can be done on mindfulness interventions
specifically for the ADHD population.
Another effective intervention to address the academic performance of the college ADHD
population is ADHD coaching (Prevatt, 2016; Reaser et al., 2007; Swartz et al., 2005). ADHD
coaching resembles life coaching but draws from ADHD research (Parker et al., 2013). When
8

students lack self-regulation and time management skills, a coach can guide students through
goal-setting and self-awareness strategies (Farmer et al., 2015; Reaser et al., 2007). Researchers
have studied how ADHD coaching can influence students in different ways. For example, ADHD
coaching has shown improvements in self-regulation (Parker et al., 2013) and GPA (DuPaul et
al., 2017). In contrast, Farmer et al. (2015) found little to no intervention effect on students’ level
of self-determination when they worked with a personal strengths coach. Research on ADHD
coaching generally indicates improvements to academic performance, but one area for future
research on ADHD coaching is how it influences graduation rates (Prevatt, 2016; Parker et al.,
2013).
Various forms of academic support services are also used as interventions for students
with ADHD, but students report mixed perceptions about access to these services.
Accommodations received from the university’s accessibility services office is one effective
academic service (Cameto et al., 2011; Jansen et al., 2017; Meaux et al., 2009). However, some
researchers report accommodations may not be enough to support academic success (Chew et al.,
2009; Gormley et al., 2019; Hong, 2015). What may also influence the academic outcomes are
the receipt of high school accommodations (DuPaul et al., 2021), actual knowledge on how to
obtain accommodations (Pfeifer et al., 2020), and the quality of support services (Hong, 2015).
Another type of academic service that supported students with ADHD was academic advising
(D’Alessio & Banerjee, 2016). However, DuPaul et al. (2017) reported that academic advising
did not help increase the GPA of students with learning disabilities or ADHD. These discrepant
studies suggest that the approach used in the delivery of academic services, such as the use of a
student-centered developmental approach, may influence the intervention effects.
9

Lastly, interventions have been designed to support the ADHD college population using
various teaching methods. Jansen et al. (2017) suggested that traditional teaching methods pose
problems for students with ADHD who have trouble focusing their attention. One effective
method of instruction is through adapted courses, which are targeted for students with learning
disabilities and/or ADHD in certain disciplines with different modes of learning (Lipka et al.,
2019). What played the most significant roles in adapted courses were the small class sizes,
emotional support from instructors, adjusted teaching methods, instruction by modeling (Lipka et
al., 2019). Sibley and Yeguez (2018) also found that smaller class sizes were preferred by college
students with ADHD. The students in Sibley and Yeguez’s (2018) qualitative study preferred
direct instruction, hands-on learning, and a faced-paced environment to optimize their
productivity. Finally, Scheres and Solanto (2021) found that addressing temporal discounting
through immediate awards was preferred for students with ADHD symptoms. This refers to
individuals who discount rewards because they are not receiving them immediately but at a
delayed time (Scheres & Solanto, 2021). Instead, individuals value rewards when they are
immediate.
Social and Self-Support
Social support for students with ADHD has been found to benefit students with ADHD
(Bartlett et al., 2010; Meaux et al., 2009; Sibley & Yeguez, 2018). Although some studies
highlight the discrepant perceptions of ADHD symptoms between parents and children (Richards
et al., 1999; Nelson, 2013), other studies have generally found parents to be supportive figures
particularly for their caring behaviors (Bartlett et al., 2010; Meaux et al., 2009). Instructors who
display emotional support also play a role in students’ perceptions of their academic support
(Lipka et al., 2019; Meaux et al., 2009). Lastly, researchers identify several individual behaviors
10

students with ADHD display to support their academic success. Studies revealed that college
students with ADHD demonstrate self-advocacy skills (Cameto et al., 2011; Pfeifer et al., 2020;
Wolf, 2001). Pfeifer et al. (2020) propose a model of self-advocacy to help with retention rates
for college students with ADHD in which self-advocacy involves the knowledge of oneself, of
their rights, knowledge of learning contexts, and accommodations. Self-monitoring and self-
awareness are also strategies students use to improve their ADHD symptoms (Goffer et al., 2020;
Meaux et al., 2009; Scheithauer & Kelley, 2017; Sibley & Yeguez, 2018).
Neurodiversity
Given the vast amount of research on the cognitive, psychological, occupational,
organizational challenges, and interventions to work with college students, some researchers
advocate for a more strengths-based approach to discussions on ADHD students and how they
learn. ‘Disability’ can be viewed as a social construction that academia has reinforced; however,
through this lens, educators can also dismantle structural barriers (Clouder et al., 2020). The
neurodiversity paradigm reframes ADHD symptoms to traits (Carr-Fanning, 2020). Carr-Fanning
(2020) notes the terminology attached to ADHD harms human dignity, and the deficits discussed
in the literature should be understood as strengths. One approach to reframing is by applying
Ladson-Billings’s (1995, as cited in Shmulsky et al., 2022) concept of culturally relevant
pedagogy (CRP) to understand neurodivergence as a form of diversity. While CRP focuses on
supporting students’ ethnic and cultural diversity, Shmulsky et al. (2022) argue the concept
should be extended to other neurodivergent groups such as students with ADHD.
Gutierrez and Rogoff (2003) expand upon the notion of differences as traits, asserting
that the trait approach uses fixed characteristics that leads to the problem of “essentializing”
groups. Instead, a cultural-historical approach embraces the learning experiences of students in
11

cultural activities and community practices and how these experiences influence individual
learning and development (Gutierrez & Rogoff, 2003). This approach recognizes students’
cultural ways of learning, draws on their repertoires of practice, and embraces the complexities
of individual learning (Gutierrez & Rogoff, 2003). In summary, researchers are slowly shifting
away from deficit-model thinking and challenging the one-size-fits-all approach to working with
neurodiverse learners (Clouder et al., 2020).
Positionality
I am a cisgender, heterosexual, middle-class, Vietnamese, and first-generation college
student. I work at a four-year university on Tongva land where the study is taking place. As an
academic advisor, I have worked with various student populations including neurodivergent
learners. I have not been diagnosed with a disability but have chosen to focus on the ADHD
population because I have seen firsthand how institutions of higher education are designed to
disadvantage this student population. As a researcher in this study, I may hold presuppositions
about ADHD that influence how I interpret and understand the experiences of college students
with ADHD.
My positionality as someone who is neurotypical restricts me from truly understanding
the lived experiences of someone living with ADHD. As such, my analysis of the participants’
experiences with ADHD is an interpretation of how they make sense of their world. Locke et al.
(2010) discuss how subjectivity interacts with the data collection process and interpretation
decisions. I will ensure openness during the research process through ongoing reflection and
record-keeping of subjective encounters during the study. By doing so, I hope to mitigate
potential assumptions and biases affecting the study.
12

The research design is also influenced by my worldview as an educator who hopes to
dismantle traditional schooling. Freire (1970) identified the concept of banking education to
describe how students are passive learners who receive knowledge from teachers. Freire (1970)
advocates for problem-posing education, a mutual approach in which both the student and
teacher share responsibility in the process of education and conscientization. The present study
explores the mutual approach to education between students with ADHD and the university. The
literature on college students with ADHD calls on institutions to develop interventions to support
neurodiverse learners. However, few studies have centered student voices. In this study, students
identify the learning strategies that are most effective for them and what types of support are
beneficial to their academic success. Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed is the lens through
which I approach this study. My hope is to center student voices, which is an integral component
of problem-posing education.
13

Methods
Research Questions
The purpose of the study was to examine the learning strategies of college students with
ADHD and to learn how they describe their academic experiences. The research questions for
this study are:
1. What are the lived experiences of students with ADHD navigating the college
academic environment?
2. What learning strategies do college students with ADHD perceive as effective for
their academic success?
3. How do college students with ADHD describe the academic support offered by their
institution?
Context of the Study
The study took place at a large, four-year, research university in Western United States.
Undergraduate students make up over half of the overall student population. Asian and Pacific
Islander students are the largest ethnic group among undergraduate students (33%), followed by
White (26%), Hispanic (21%), African American (5%), other domestic or unknown (4%), and
American Indian & Alaska Native (<1%). In a recent survey administered to undergraduate
students at this institution, 15% of undergraduate students identified as having a disability, and
37% of these students report receiving accommodations. Of the students who reported having a
disability, 1% had a physical disability only, 8% had a psychological disability only, 2% had a
learning disability only, and 4% of students had multiple disabilities. Similar to the previous
study, this study will rely on students’ self-reported experiences with ADHD.
14

Participants
The study used purposeful sampling and recruited students through the university’s
Accessibility Services Office (ASO). Purposeful sampling is useful for gathering rich
information from a sample, particularly in qualitative research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
ASO agreed to promote the study through an email sent to students registered with the office,
therefore students who were solicited had a documented disability. When responding to the
recruitment email, students self-identified if they had ADHD. Forty-eight students responded to
the recruitment email expressing interest in participating in the study. Due to the large number of
responses, interviews were scheduled on a first come, first served basis.
In total, 15 undergraduate students with self-reported ADHD participated in the study.
Eight participants identified as White, three were Asian/ Pacific Islander, two were Hispanic or
Latinx, one was Black or African American, and one identified as mixed race. Nine participants
identified as women, four identified as men, and one identified as non-binary, and one identified
as “other.” Participants ranged from first to fourth year students, and the average of participants
was 23 years old (range: 18-44).
Instrumentation
The interviews were semi-structured and guided by an interview protocol with 11 open-
ended questions. Semi-structured interviews allow flexibility in the conversation so that
participants could give insight into their lived experiences. This format acknowledges that
participants experience the world in unique ways and allows researchers to adapt to the emerging
worldview that participants describe (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The protocol was designed to
gain access to data that would help answer the three research questions. Question types varied
15

from asking participants about their lived experiences with ADHD to ideal learning
environments. See Appendix A for the interview protocol.
Data Collection
Data collection included conducting interviews on Zoom. The interviews took an average
of 50 minutes long. Before the interview, participants received a Study Information Sheet which
presented details about the study’s purpose, voluntary participation, benefits, risks, rewards, and
confidentiality. Participants were reminded the Zoom interview would be recorded. As the person
conducting the interview, I took brief, shorthand notes to identify major points of the
conversation. According to Seidman (2013), maintaining some distance between the interview
and interviewee gives the interviewee the autonomy to respond independently. Using only
shorthand notes ensured my attention so that I could create a safe and respectful environment for
participants to share their experiences. See Appendix B for the social behavioral protocol
submitted to IRB.
Data Analysis
Zoom transcriptions of the recorded videos were imported to ATLAS.ti for coding. The
coding process was informed by Gibbs’s (2018) explanation of the data-driven coding approach,
which begins with open coding. After open coding of the data, I used the process of retrieval to
ensure codes were being applied consistently and then refined the codes accordingly. During
axial coding, I used ATLAS.ti to find frequencies of codes, overlapping concepts, and then I
merged certain categories. I then used selective coding to further identify larger categories based
on the research questions.
Throughout the coding process, I added memos in ATLAS.ti to reflect upon my biases
and assumptions about patterns I began to recognize. This approach ensured constant comparison
16

of my own personal biases and experiences against what was actually said by participants in the
interviews. I also checked the saturation of patterns by verifying the frequencies of certain codes.
This was an alternative way to achieve respondent validation, since I no longer maintained
communications with the participants. Constant comparison and reflection upon my biases were
methods used to ensure participants’ stories were accurately represented.

17

Findings
The findings are based on an analysis of the semi-structured interviews. Table 1 lists the
15 participating undergraduate students with self-reported ADHD, their majors, and ages. To
protect their identities, participants have been assigned a pseudonym. Three major findings were
derived: the influence of ADHD traits on lived experiences, diverse strategies for self-regulated
learning, and feelings of ambivalence toward institutional academic support. During the
interviews, participants described their experiences with ADHD and how it influences their
academic success. They also shared their perceptions of academic support offered by the
university. It was notable that participants described their academic experiences as influenced by
their ADHD traits. This section will also outline participants’ learning strategies using Pintrich’s
(1999) framework for self-regulated learning.

18

Table 1
Narrative Table
Participant Major(s) Age
Amanda Psychology 44
Barry History 21
Daniel Gender Studies 27
Eli Geography; Gender Studies 20
Ember Theater 18
Jade Bioengineering 21
Joseph Cognitive Science 18
Keira Asian American Studies; Political Science 21
Natalia Political Science 21
Peter Mathematics 22
Rosalind Psychology; Linguistic Anthropology 21
Sam Sociology 22
Selena Philosophy 22
Tristan Political Science 20
Van Political Science 22

Note. Participants have been assigned pseudonyms to protect their identities.

19

Research Question 1: What Are the Lived Experiences of Students With ADHD Navigating
the College Academic Environment?
There were 3 main themes observed regarding the lived experiences of participants: 1) self-
awareness regarding having ADHD and how it shaped the college experience; 2) challenges
related to integrating into the university space; and 3) perceptions and attitudes of others.
Self-Awareness Regarding ADHD
Participants described their lived experiences as being shaped by their experiences with
ADHD. Participants demonstrated self-awareness regarding their ADHD traits. They
acknowledged the intersections between mental health and ADHD, their use of medication, and
feelings of negative affective emotions.
ADHD Traits
All 15 participants attributed their academic challenges to ADHD traits such as executive
dysfunction, inattention, sensory overload, difficulty with occupational functioning, or lack of
motivation. Twelve out of 15 participants reported issues with executive functioning such as time
management and procrastination. Daniel shared how procrastination analysis causes him to feel
“so overwhelmed with things that [he] will literally lay down and just shut down for hours
sometimes.” While 14 participants mentioned struggling with attention deficit or difficulty
focusing, only one participant mentioned experiencing hyperactivity. Several participants
mentioned experiencing sensory overload in and outside of the classroom. Jade, for example,
described a time sensory overload during class led her to cry and leave class early. She
connected sensory sensitivity with her wellbeing: “I can really struggle with cutting out noises
and trying to listen to the lecture. If I am really emotionally and mentally exhausted, my sensory
issues will go up … or if I’m hungry.” Consistent with literature on ADHD, ADHD symptoms
20

resulted in difficulty managing daily life in terms of sleep, food, and overall health. Finally, 10
participants described struggling with feeling motivated. “My motivation to do things–it really
ebbs and flows so when I have a high energy moment, I try to harness that and do something
important … because I know I have that inertia,” Natalia said. Other participants echoed
Natalia’s sentiments around self-awareness and management of mental energy. Because these
ADHD traits are so prominent in their lives, participants explained these traits are the source of
their challenges navigating the college academic environment. Furthermore, having self-
awareness about one’s ADHD traits enabled them to discover learning strategies that work for
them–a process that is ongoing for some participants.
Intersections between ADHD and Mental Health
Participants’ academic challenges were exacerbated when they experienced anxiety or
depression. While this was not a focus of the research questions, it was noteworthy that
participants often discussed the intersections between ADHD and their mental health,
particularly when explaining how they were diagnosed. Peter described how these intersections
led him to take time off from school: “I met with a psychiatrist who very quickly diagnosed me
with ADHD, depression, and anxiety. … I noticed my depression was really bad at that point. …
and then I [took time off of school] for the following year.” Other participants mentioned
attending therapy on- or off-campus to improve their mental health while addressing their
ADHD through university accommodations. Mental health was also a factor into how well
participants felt they could perform for an assignment or class as a whole.
Medication
Thirteen out of 15 participants mentioned using medication to help manage their
symptoms and daily lives. However, participants were not asked to specify whether the
21

medication was prescribed for ADHD, anxiety, depression, or another purpose. It is noteworthy
that several participants chose to disclose their use of medication despite not being asked about
this topic during the interviews. Joseph believed medication for ADHD “increased his capacity
to focus on what is important.” Participants also articulated the need to be self-aware about when
they should take medication. Joseph added, “Being aware of that, I think, has been a big thing for
me … like adjusting to where I’m in control of my schedule and like how to use my medication
properly.” Moreover, some participants described how their forgetfulness affects their ability to
take medication in a timely manner and will consequently hinder their focus during class. In
general, most participants believed that medication was effective in improving the effects of
ADHD.
Negative Affective Emotions
Participants discussed how perceptions they had of themselves led to guilt and shame. Eight
participants described having cognitive dissonance between their high levels of self-efficacy and
motivation as opposed to the realities of how their ADHD traits negatively impacted their
academic lives. Specifically, although 8 participants believed they were high-achieving students,
their actual behaviors of procrastination or inattention did not reflect their self-efficacy. Daniel
shared how this manifested when interacting with faculty: “I’m very high-functioning, and that
equates to a lot of shame because people don’t know these things are happening. … The amount
of shame that comes from constantly [asking for] an extension is huge.” Guilt and shame were
highlighted as emotions that participants felt when they could not meet expectations of others or
of themselves. For this reason, negative affective emotions associated with ADHD were also
connected to participants’ mental health.
22

Factors Affecting Academic Integration
When asked how integrated they feel at the university, participant responses were mixed.
Six participants responded that they did feel integrated, seven said they did not feel integrated,
and two participants had mixed feelings about their level of integration. Participants explained
feelings of integration in terms of the academic, racial, and social components of integration to
the university. COVID-19, their transition to the university, and their identities were three major
findings to this question.
The Impact of COVID-19
Eleven participants raised the subject of COVID-19 as a factor to their feelings of integration to
the university. They described both positive and negative experiences with remote learning
during the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 was disruptive for some participants due to the
transitions between in-person and online learning. Selena shared:
In the last two years … there have been so many different changes. I think last year we
had half of my classes in person and half of them were on Zoom, or they didn’t meet at
all so they were asynchronous. I feel like it was kind of difficult to find a good schedule
and be self-sufficient with asynchronous classes. I feel like that’s hard for me … [to]
watch the lectures sometimes, stay on assignments. [Last year the school] said everything
was going to be in-person and then two weeks before [the term] started, they moved
everything online for half of the [term] and then moved it back in-person. I think what
kind of bothered me was when we moved [back] to in-person [classes].. [The school] said
they had to offer a hybrid format because so many people were sick and couldn’t come to
class so they had to offer either a lecture recording. … But I had some professors who
just refused to do that, and they wouldn’t let students record either. But my
23

accommodations let me record even if the professor says that nobody can record. … I felt
so disorganized last year. … it was just so much more difficult.
One participant shared that having to stay at home meant not being able to feel socially
integrated with the campus community. At the same time, participants identified the positive
aspects from online learning during the pandemic which included increased accessibility of
course materials and added course modalities such as asynchronous teaching. Tristan reflected:
Having transcription software and being able to record all my lecturers as well as with
everything being online, having the Zoom transcription–that has been my number one.
The way I actually digest information is through transcription software, reading it after
class, dissecting a little bit, condensing it. … I feel as though what’s being said in class
kind of goes right past me sometimes. … The ability to transcribe my lectures and have it
be online. I think it’s been really positive.
Other participants felt the flexibility associated with online learning led to a decline in their self-
discipline to learn and study. Peter mentioned the accessibility of online resources led him to
“completely [rely] on that online material” and watch recorded lectures at his preferred pace, but
it ultimately led him to skipping class entirely. Like other participants, Peter mentioned the
intersections between their mental health and COVID-19 negatively influencing their academic
experience, which led him to taking time off of school on two occasions:
I felt a bit misfitted but still integrated. … But then after I took time off, things felt very
different, and all my friends have graduated now. … [During the pandemic and at the end
of my first year], I noticed that my mental health in general was just on a very downward
spiral. I think that really put me in a very tough place mentally, and it forced me to … get
a formal diagnosis with ADHD and depression and just understand what was going on.
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… I noticed that my depression was really bad at that point. It contributed to me not
doing much in the summer after my second year. [For a majority of my third year], I was
off–that was where I was just focusing on my depression. …and then my [last term of my
third year], I took a partial workload with school. Then, again, I took time off in the
summer and Fall of my fourth year.
Participants identified COVID-19 as a key factor influencing how integrated they felt at the
university. Despite its negative effects on student integration, faculty began to adopt different
learning modalities that students found as beneficial for their learning.
Transition to the University
Participants observed distinctions between high school or a community college and a
four-year research university. Nine students who matriculated to the university right after high
school said having more autonomy in college was a challenge because it meant students had to
structure their own time for studying. Sam discussed the need for accountability after high school
and perceived that she could not rely on institutional support:
Coming from a high school where there was a lot of handholding … you’d see your
teachers in the elevator, and they’d say, “Your assignment is overdue.” But I recognize
that in my adult life, people aren’t going to do that for me either so I’ve reframed that
lack of accountability at [my school], whereas initially I thought maybe it was a negative
thing, like I wish there was more support. [Now, I think] this is an opportunity for
growth, like I’m going to have to keep myself accountable. I can’t keep relying on … an
authority figure to keep me on track–that’s something that’s going to have to come from
within, as hard as that may be. … I’m just going to have to meet those expectations
without any support.
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Conversely, six out of 15 of participants were transfer students. Van discovered that meeting
other transfer students were helpful to feeling integration to the university:
It has been pretty good. … I kind of had to adapt a bit on my own. The one downside is I
feel like [my school doesn’t] give a lot of support for the transfer students. You’re kind of
just thrown in and you kind of have to figure things out a little bit on your own, but I
definitely have found a community that’s been really helpful. I think now, as a fourth
year, I’m finally … really fully understanding the experience [at my school]. … also I
found just through classes a few more transfer students, so I didn’t feel super alone.
Transfer students in this study also recognized ADHD traits and the need for a diagnosis and
accommodations once they transitioned to the university. The major differences from high
school and community college compared to attending a university were larger class sizes and
different teaching methods. The transfer students in this study also mentioned feeling less
integrated as students who were often older in age and only having two years at the university.
Amanda, who was 44 years old, shared an instance when a class required forming groups every
class session:
I looked around, and by the time I realized I didn’t have a group, everyone was in a
group. The people next to me weren't even trying to include me. I actually left that day
crying like, “I hate school. It’s because I’m older.” … I just pretty much stopped going to
that class after that.
Identity
Six participants said they felt integrated at the university. Participants also noted how their
identity, specifically their race, gender identity, age, and socioeconomic status, were factors
influencing their integration. One participant, Keira, underlined the importance of
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intersectionality in her lived experience with ADHD. She described how much more difficult it
is being a minoritized student with ADHD navigating multiple responsibilities:
My experiences with ADHD are very different from someone who comes from a
different background. … I’m a Southeast Asian woman. I’m also from a low-income
background. I have a lot of pressure outside of school to financially succeed, but also I
have a job. I have family obligations. Sometimes I have to drop everything to take care of
my family and my mom who’s disabled.
Eli discussed how perceptions of their Black identity impacted their late ADHD diagnosis. These
experiences led them to become more deliberate with their performance in class:
I fear being perceived as an unreliable student. … I don’t want my teachers to use that
perception of me and apply it to other Black students with ADHD. If I think the professor
has a predisposed notion of what Black people are like or if I think they might be racist, I
don’t want to confirm it by being lazy or not participating so I have to fight stereotypes.
… I think there’s basically erasure of Black people and ADHD. … [In elementary
school] no one really identified me as having ADHD. I think they just wrote me off as
like a lazy student or a messy student. … No one ever picked that up as this person
having ADHD.
In addition to race, two of the oldest participants, Amanda and Daniel, recognized that their non-
traditional status made them feel more academically integrated because they were more engaged
with faculty in classes or with other non-traditional students.
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Perceptions of Others
Participants said their lived experiences were also shaped by the perceptions and attitudes
of others and of themselves with regard to their ADHD. The impact of these perceptions often
led to heightened emotions such as guilt and shame.
Perceptions of Faculty
Most participants gave examples of past experiences with faculty who they perceived as
insensitive to their behaviors as a result of being neurodivergent. Sam, for example, attempted to
request an extension when she was struggling to stay on track during the pandemic:
I was told, “No, you can’t have an extension. You’re expected to turn your work in on
time unless you have some extenuating circumstances. An ADHD diagnosis isn’t … an
excuse.” That pushed me to be like, “Well nobody’s cutting me any slack. This diagnosis
isn’t something that people are going to see as a reason for why I’m not turning things on
time or why I’m not meeting expectations. And I’m just going to have to meet those
expectations without any support.”
Participants also described encounters with faculty in which they did not provide the
accommodations they sought through the ASO. For instance, in response to whether students
communicate with faculty about their ADHD, Joseph responded: “It’ll be usually when I get sick
or something that really affects me. I think it’s more like the professor would be more
accommodating because I’m sick as opposed to because of ADHD.” In general, participants
described faculty having expectations of how students learn and study using a one-size-fits-all
approach. Many participants also received study tips or advice from others to discipline
themselves. According to Natalia, she had to “unlearn the study skills that other people taught
[her] because they don’t work for [her].” She added, “Things like forcing yourself to go write
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your paper or time block don’t work for me.” Participants reported faculty perceptions of student
learning tended to be more applicable to neurotypical students than to themselves.
Four participants referred to the notion of rejection sensitivity dysphoria as a response to
negative social interactions, which can then influence their self-esteem and emotions. Keira
described how rejection can affect her:
If, for example, what I’m asking a professor is rejected, and the professor is like, ‘Well,
why did you learn about this before?’ I will completely shut down, and I won’t want to
engage with content moving forward. I have a really strong emotional reaction to being
shut down. Being rejected is really sensitive for me, and a lot of students with ADHD
struggle with feelings of self-worth and self-esteem and things like that. … And just like
little comments assuming we’re neurotypical can be really touchy for students who
already have negative self-esteem.
As previously mentioned, feelings of rejection could also lead to guilt and shame– emotions that
may impact students’ mental health.
Perceptions of Peers
Participants felt it was difficult to manage relationships with peers who do not identify as
neurodivergent. This was the result of peers’ ableist comments, a general lack of understanding
of ADHD, or their own difficulty scheduling time to socialize. Rosalind recounted interactions
with friends when discussing accommodations: “I’ve been called lucky [for my
accommodations]. I’m really not. I have them because I need them, because I have … I don’t
want to say ‘disability,’ but it’s because I’m not normal.” Conversely, participants reported
feeling more comfortable in social interactions when another neurodivergent person could relate
to them.
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The major findings to Research Question 1 revealed how much ADHD played a role in
how students navigate the college academic environment. It was notable that ADHD traits
affected their mental health, use of medication, and emotions. Additionally, COVID-19 and
difficulties transitioning through matriculation to college, and participant identities affected how
integrated they felt in the university. Finally, negative attitudes from others affected their lived
experiences and perceptions of their college experiences.
Research Question 2: What Learning Strategies Do College Students With ADHD Perceive
As Effective for Their Academic Success?
The purpose of this research question was to identify what learning strategies work for
college students with ADHD. Interview questions were designed to be open-ended so that
student voices would be uplifted in this study. During data analysis, an inductive approach was
used to organize the learning strategies students described. Many learning strategies were listed
and were described for various learning purposes. To organize these various learning strategies
in data analysis, I found that these strategies fell within Pintrich’s (1999) categories for self-
regulated learning.
The learning strategies participants described are consistent with Pintrich’s (1999)
framework for self-regulated learning which includes three main categories: cognitive,
metacognitive, and resource management strategies. Additionally, motivational beliefs are a key
factor in self-regulated learning (Pintrich, 1999). Table 2 categorizes the various strategies
participants described using within the four self-regulated learning strategies in Pintrich’s (1999)
framework. When participants named learning strategies they used, the categories of resource
management and motivational strategies included learning strategies that participants used to
address ADHD, whereas strategies within the cognitive and metacognitive categories were
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merely described as preferred individuals ways of learning. This suggests that there are nuanced
ways in which participants learn, depending on the subject matter or assessment type.
Cognitive Learning Strategies
According to Pintrich (1999), cognitive learning strategies are those used to rehearse,
elaborate, or organize information for simple or complex memory tasks. These strategies are
used to improve comprehension of information. Participants often described using cognitive
strategies in preparation for a test with multiple-choice questions or math problems to solve.
These strategies were mentioned by students with majors in Psychology, Engineering, or Math,
in which tests were the predominant assessment type. Five participants identified note-taking as
most useful when hearing a lecture or preparing for a test. Four participants identified flashcards
as helpful for studying for an exam. One example Tristan named was an online flashcard
application that uses an algorithm to help learners study only what they do not know. Amanda,
on the other hand, shared a systematic approach to organizing her lecture notes:
[Before coming to the lecture], I take notes on the chapter, and then I would print it out.
Then I would take notes that the professor said–anything that was not from my notes
from the chapter. And then I would go back home afterwards, and anything he said that
was in the chapter, I would make that bold or highlight it so I know to pay special
attention because I know, “Okay, it was in the book and he said that–like definitely focus
on that.” Anything he said that was not in the book, I would put that in a different color. I
would have three different colors on all of my notes by the time each exam came.
Additional strategies that were mentioned included solving practice problems, organizing
information by using Post-It notes, using big picture thinking, color-coding notes, or watching
31

YouTube videos for elaboration of concepts. However, these cognitive learning strategies were
mentioned by one or two participants each.
Metacognitive Strategies
Pintrich (1999) refers to metacognitive knowledge as “knowledge about person, task, and
strategy variables,” and self-regulation is referred to as “students’ monitoring, controlling, and
regulating their own cognitive activities and actual behavior.” Eight participants described a
sense of self-awareness of their ability to study in terms of cognitive load or the types of
strategies they know work for them. Joseph shared the importance of having self-awareness
around mental energy in order to manage his time:
If I’m going to do multiple [assignments] in one day, I’d have to do one at the beginning
and one at the end. I can’t put them together that much or else I’ll lose … mental energy.
It’s like focus is kind of a commodity in that sense, you know, like I spend focus on one
task, and then I need some time to recoup more focus, and then I spend more time on
another task.
Six participants acknowledged they are still finding what works for them, and five participants
said their discovery of effective learning strategies has been a process of trial and error
throughout their undergraduate studies. In response to a question on how students found what
works for them, Ember said:
It’s difficult … I have yet to find a super definitive way on how I get myself to [study]
because sometimes it works. It doesn’t work other times. … It’s a bit of both trial and
error–just having different people [suggest a strategy], and then I do it, and I’m like,
“Nope.” Mostly it’s like funky weird things that I’ve discovered on my own.
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Participants also described maximizing their behavior by recognizing what works best for them
based on each class, learning about their ADHD through social media, recognizing their levels of
energy, making space for movement during class or studying, or multitasking to balance under-
stimulation.
Resource Management
The strategies students use to manage and control one’s environment are called resource
management strategies. In this study, 12 participants identified various strategies to manage their
physical study environment and several other techniques to organize their time. Six participants
described body doubling as a useful approach. Natalia shared:
I really rely on having somebody else around—so a body double, I would call it.
Somebody else who’s doing their own thing … but just something about their presence
helps motivate me to do what I need to do. I might even ask them to quite literally keep
me on track or check-in with me, and be like, “Hey, are you still doing the thing you’re
supposed to do?” I like that.
Of the 12 participants who preferred studying in a different environment, most of them preferred
to study in a library because it is less distracting than home. Another method six students utilized
was removing distractions. Joseph described his ideal study environment as one where “all [his]
distracting things like [his] phone got eliminated somehow,” and he could “drop his phone in a
bin” before entering a room. Participants reported that they need to control their sensory
overload by removing distractions like technology or adding other sources of stimuli like
listening to white noise.
Eight out of 15 participants identified chunking, or scaffolding, as another useful strategy
that faculty use. Chunking refers to a teaching method faculty use to break up instructional
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content into smaller lessons. Alternatively, students also appreciated it when faculty would
encourage ongoing assessment throughout the term through regular, smaller assignments or
deadlines. Sam said this ultimately helped her retain information better by the end of the term:
With my executive function and time management struggles, regularity is helpful for me
because it keeps me on track, whereas if I have classes that have two major exams and a
paper, I will wait until the very last moment to start preparing for those. … This past
[term], I was in classes that were structured with more frequent assignments. It made for
a very seamless finals week versus previous [terms] when I just had major exams and I
was starting to prepare basically a couple of days out.
Other strategies to manage students’ resources were sitting in front of the class, using a calendar
system, using the Pomodoro method, or using a planner.
Motivational Strategies
Finally, Pintrich (1999) uses three general motivational beliefs to “help promote, sustain, or
facilitate self-regulated learning.” These motivational strategies include beliefs about one’s self-
efficacy, task value, and goal orientations. Four participants stated they created small incentives
for themselves when studying to motivate themselves to complete a task. Ember used a mental
reward system to help with motivation:
It’s a lot of bargaining with myself and making compromises with what I want to do or
what I need to do. … “If you finish this essay, you can go get food, or you can eat some
Nutella. You can’t read your book, or you can’t watch Modern Family until you do this.”
I do this to myself a lot. I’m like a parent to myself.
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Seven participants out of 15 said they enrolled in more interesting courses to increase motivation
to learn more about the subject matter. Natalia learned about ADHD, interest, and motivation
from social media:
What I’ve learned about ADHD is we’re dopamine-motivated so the things that give
dopamine are novelty, urgency, and interest. When something’s new, there’s a deadline,
or I’m interested in it–those are the things that are going to motivate me. So one of the
things that I’m trying to work on is not relying so much on the urgency. Waiting for a
deadline or doing things the night before is like urgency-motivated, but that’s also
anxiety-inducing so it’s not super healthy. So doing classes that I'm more interested in is
helpful, or doing things in ways that are new to me is also motivating.
In terms of course activities, six participants enjoyed courses that gave students the choice to
demonstrate their learning through different assignment types like writing an essay, recording a
video, or a podcast. These students also mentioned a preference for choosing the time of their
courses so that they could retain their energy for the following course. Two participants even
used the method of reflection of future career goals as a source of internal motivation to learn
and study.

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Table 2
Participants’ Self-Regulated Learning Strategies
Cognitive
strategies
Metacognitive
strategies
Resource
management
Motivational
strategies
Note-taking (5)
Flashcards (4)
Solve practice
problems (2)
Online resources
(2)
Post-it notes (2)
Reviewing notes
(1)
Read before class
(1)
Summarize (1)
Big picture
thinking (1)
Color-coding (1)
Self-awareness (8)
Trial and error (5)
Learning about
ADHD (3)
Monitoring cognitive
load (4)
Movement (4)
Reminders (2)
Thought dump (1)
Organization (1)
Multitasking (1)

Different study
environment (12)
Chunking (8)
Body doubling (6)
Breaks (6)
Remove distractions (6)
Sitting in front of class
(5)
Calendar (4)
Pomodoro (3)
Planner (2)
Interest (7)
Choice (6)
Incentives or
rewards (4)
Internal motivation
(2)

Note. Strategies are listed in order of frequency mentioned by participants. Numbers in
parentheses represent the number of participants who used this strategy.

Participants identified several diverse learning strategies that were helpful to their
academic success. The types of learning strategies used are contingent upon the subject matter.
Furthermore, participants reported using different learning strategies for learning during class
compared to studying outside of class. A strategy used to prepare for a test in the sciences may
not work for a course in the humanities in which students produce essays. Selena said:
[My studying] depends if it’s like an exam, I usually do flashcards. … It’s easier for me
to remember things with flashcards like testing yourself and your knowledge, so I’ll
usually do that for an exam. But if it’s an essay, I’ll usually go back to my notes, try to
figure out what lecture it’s from … and I’ll rewatch the lecture too to see how my
professor explained it so I can better understand it. Sometimes, if I don’t fully understand
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it, I’ll go on JSTOR and look up academic papers related to the topic. … I guess it helps
me better understand it too when other people explain it.
The learning strategies listed in Table 2 are based on what has worked or what participants
believed would be ideal, even if they did not regularly use them.
Research Question 3: How Do College Students With ADHD Describe the Academic
Support Offered by Their Institution?
Participants shared both positive and negative attitudes toward the academic support
offered by their institution. While participants raised concerns about faculty teaching styles and
the level to which faculty accommodate students, participants also shared positive experiences
with faculty who were accommodative. Participants discussed the need for self-advocacy when
navigating the college academic environment. Finally, participants highlighted their experiences
with the ASO registration process, accommodations, and working with ASO personnel. In
general, participants demonstrated a sense of ambivalence toward the academic support offered
by the institution.
Faculty Teaching
Participants described faculty teaching as lacking engagement and not conducive to
students’ preferred learning modalities. Thirteen out of 15 participants either expressed a desire
to have more engaging class content, or they recalled a class in which the professor was
monotonous causing students to lose their attention. As a result of disengaging class content and
inattention from ADHD, eight participants mentioned their learning often occurs through self-
teaching. “Typically when I’m studying, I’m just basically catching up on my lectures … so
when I’m studying for an exam, I’m learning content for the first time, and it’s fresh in my head
because of that,” Keira admitted. Rosalind echoed, “The way professors teach things doesn’t
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often mesh with my brain so a lot of the time I’ll just go back and re-teach myself.” Participants
attribute their attitudes toward faculty teaching to the institution type, instructional practices, and
teaching strategies.
Institution Type
Due to attending a large research university, many participants described the institution type as
affecting their level of perceived academic support. One transfer student, Jade, noted that faculty
are focused on research at their institution, whereas faculty at their community college had more
time to develop their teaching strategies:
At [my school] and research schools, the professors are there to do their research, and
then they have to teach. It’s the necessary evil. For a lot of them, they don’t really care
about teaching, or they’re a really bad teacher because they’re there for research. But at
community college, they weren’t really there for research … so everybody was 100%
focused on teaching, and that was what they’re paid to do. That’s where their focus is, so
I had really good teachers [at my community college], and I had teachers that really
cared. … Small classrooms, better teaching focus, more hands-on labs, and being able to
build your own schedule is huge. …at community college … there were a lot more class
times offered … It was also more personal because you could have an actual personal
relationship with your teacher.
Eleven participants shared a preference for smaller class sizes because large class sizes made it
difficult to engage with faculty compared to seminars or discussion sections with teaching
assistants. Joseph admitted the large class sizes impacted the approachability of faculty:
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The lectures are really big. There are like 200-400 people for each class so it was kind of
hard to get a hold of professors outside of office hours. Even in office hours, it’d feel a bit
impersonal, and I think it’s because of the volume of [students] they have to deal with.
Instructional Practices
Instructional practices that were most helpful included structured lecture slides, recorded
lecture videos, having breaks during class, or interactive activities. Ember explained the
importance of having lectures documented in some format: “I’ve had two teachers that don’t use
PowerPoints … and it’s just them talking. I [would miss] about half of what [they] just said
because I was either writing something down or I just zoned out.” Tristan also felt having
recorded lecture videos was helpful to process information at his own pace.
Interactive activities like group work or use of technology during class were also helpful
for student engagement. This was especially true for participants who described longer class
lengths as an issue for their attention. Participants mentioned they need breaks to reduce
cognitive load or engage in movement.
Teaching Strategies
Along similar lines, participants found the most effective teaching strategies faculty used
included experiential learning, discussions, and scaffolding. Experiential learning was helpful to
demonstrate applicability of class material. Having discussions in class was effective in engaging
students and holding their attention. Scaffolding was also a helpful teaching strategy that fostered
mastery of material and motivation among students. Tristan gave the example of a Political
Theory course in which he was assigned to read one chapter every few days. Six essays were
assigned throughout the term as opposed to one midterm and final essay. He explained his
tendency to procrastinate meant he would be “rushing [to study] on any assignments in a
39

midterm or final format.” He added, “I’m only going to be getting that information for a brief
period … and I think [scaffolding allowed] me to retain a lot more information based on that
steady pace.” When naming effective teaching strategies, participants often noted the usefulness
of a strategy is dependent upon the subject matter.
Accommodative Behaviors
Participants felt most supported in their college experience when instructors
demonstrated accommodative behaviors. One example of this type of behavior is when faculty
mentioned early in the term that they would be receptive to supporting a student in some way.
Van recounted a class with a professor who recorded class meetings when she was absent due to
receiving mental health treatment: “I intentionally repeatedly take the classes he has because of
how accommodating he is … not even with the disability stuff, but just kind of as a person
overall. … He still [treated] me like a normal student.” Like Van, many students shared similar
encounters with faculty who verbalized a willingness to cooperate with a student given potential
circumstances that would arise in a term. Accommodative behaviors not only included providing
the official academic accommodations requested but also expressing kindness and flexibility,
regardless of whether they were aware of their students’ required accommodations.
Self-Advocacy
Despite most participants having positive experiences with accommodating instructors,
some participants discussed the importance of practicing self-advocacy in order to receive the
academic support they needed. Keira asserted, “I have to fully understand my [ADHD] and how
I interact with the world and how I perceive the world that’s different from someone who is
neurotypical. It’s out of necessity to advocate for myself and to get myself resources.” Along
with other participants, Natalia explained self-advocacy often demands defending her own needs:
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“I might find things that work for me, but then I have to explain it and defend it for other people
to accept that that’s what works for me.” Self-advocacy was an added step necessary for
participants to receive their academic accommodations when faculty would not ordinarily adapt
their instructional practices.
Accessibility Services Office
A majority of participants described registration with the ASO as a lengthy process, but
receiving academic accommodations and using assistive technology were helpful as sources of
academic support.
Registration Process
Participants reported varying lengths of time it took them to receive accommodations, and eight
participants expressed dissatisfaction with the process. A number of factors were mentioned as
causes for the lengthy registration time. First, it was difficult to make an appointment because
participants either missed their own appointment or appointments were not available at a sooner
time. Second, participants claimed the registration process itself and requirements were difficult
to understand. Third, participants like Barry had a longer registration process because he also
needed to receive an ADHD diagnosis first. Finally, one participant, Daniel, mentioned the
process felt bureaucratic because of the amount of self-advocacy it took for him to receive
accommodations:
I was frustrated at first with how long it took to get the accommodations because of
bureaucracy. That was really annoying and frustrating. … It’s never been face-to-face. …
It feels like getting your driver’s license. … The very system itself is set up to feel like
the DMV. It’s just not compassionate in the sense that you want it to be.
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Despite the negative experiences with registering with the ASO, seven participants did
acknowledge the process to become registered was smooth and not as lengthy as other students.
Accommodations
Testing accommodations (extended timing and a distraction-reduced exam setting) were
the most common type of accommodation for which participants described having approval. The
second most common accommodation was technology accommodations such as assistive
technology to retrieve instructional content in accessible formats. Participants reported positive
attitudes toward having academic accommodations because they were beneficial to their
academic experience. However, they also mentioned certain accommodations were not utilized
because they were not applicable to their area of study. For example, students with majors in the
humanities primarily wrote final essays at home for their culminating assignments and thus did
not need to use testing accommodations. Although some accommodations were not used,
participants felt assured knowing they could use these accommodations in the future if needed.
Participants also expressed a desire to have an accommodation for extended deadlines, although
many described not being approved for this. Many reported extended deadlines would be useful
as a result of ADHD traits such as difficulty with time management and motivation.
Staff
Nine out of 15 participants experienced positive interactions with their assigned ASO
advisor or intake psychiatrist. The staff were described as helpful, proactive, knowledgeable, and
responsive. Amanda shared her experience requesting accommodations with an ASO advisor:
[They were] really easy to talk to, and I was kind of nervous … I just spoke the truth, and
they heard me. … They made me feel really comfortable, and they said, “What you need
to succeed or be on par with everyone else – that’s what we’re here for.”
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The other six participants said their meetings with the ASO advisor felt impersonal or that there
was a lack of continuity due to staff turnover. Eli shared similar experiences with Daniel, who
commented on the transactional nature of the ASO:
I was assigned a person, and they’re like, “Okay, you’re gonna get these
accommodations.” But I didn’t feel like I got a chance to discuss my personal situations
and the way I deal with things. I feel like with [ASO], it’s like a one and done. For
example, I requested accommodations for extended deadline times because I have a hard
time turning things in, and they rejected me for that one. They’re like, “We don’t do that
for ADHD.” So I feel like I couldn’t even argue or talk about how this impacts me. It just
feels very impersonal.
The interactions participants had with ASO staff were one of the key factors for how supported
they felt academically. In general, participants described both positive and negative encounters
with the ASO staff and navigating the registration process to receive accommodations.
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Discussion and Implications
The study aims to show the learning strategies undergraduate students with ADHD use
and how they make sense of their academic experiences. Although the themes found in this study
are generally consistent with the literature on ADHD among undergraduate students, it is
important to note instances of divergent experiences raised in this study. For example, the
learning strategies participants reported using and their attitudes toward academic support varied.
In Smith et al.'s (1997) approach to interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA),
acknowledging both convergences and divergences in the study data is important in qualitative
analysis to explore the ways each participant has individualized and nuanced experiences. The
IPA approach can also be applied to this study in validating how learning looks different for
neurodiverse groups.
Research Question 1
Participants described their lived experiences as being influenced by their ADHD traits.
They observed how their ADHD leads to difficulty learning with respect to concentrating during
class or finding motivation to complete assignments in a timely manner. As a whole, all of the
participants displayed the ability to be self-aware about the role of ADHD in their lives. Sibley
and Yeguez (2018) found that self-awareness of ADHD symptoms may help improve students’
experience with ADHD. In this study, participants attributed their awareness of ADHD traits to
their ability to eventually find effective learning strategies that work for them.
Students had mixed responses about how integrated they feel at the university. In the
present study, participants identified their integration was affected by COVID-19, adjustment
issues, and their identities. This could partly be due to the participants’ various class standings or
their ages. Tinto’s (1993) Student Integration Model suggests that students bring a variety of
44

traits to their university experience which affect their social and academic integration. The more
students feel integrated, the more likely they will persist (Tinto, 1993). In this study, factors
influencing student integration included COVID-19, adjustment issues, and participants’
identities. These factors were the institutional experiences and pre-entry attributes, according to
Tinto’s model, that impacted participants’ perceived level of integration.
Participants described their lived experiences as being shaped by negative perceptions of
their neurodivergence. Negative perceptions typically came from encounters with faculty or
peers. These findings are consistent with prior research which found negative biases in the
relationships individuals with ADHD have with others (Canu et al., 2008). As a result of these
negative perceptions, participants in this study also mentioned feelings of guilt and shame. The
present study builds on Canu et al.’s (2008) study to include negative perceptions of oneself and
its impact on one’s emotions. Guilt and shame were described as emotions participants reckon
with regularly.
Research Question 2
In response to Research Question 2, study participants named several diverse learning
strategies that also fell within Pintrich’s (1999) categories for self-regulated learning. This
framework was identified during data analysis when attempting to organize the different ways
learning strategies were used. It is noteworthy that there was a range of different strategies used
by participants. This underlines the idea that there is not a one-size-fits all approach to
discovering effective learning strategies. Depending on the learning goal, participants utilized
cognitive, metacognitive, or motivational strategies and various techniques to manage resources
within their environment. Many participants also noted the process of trial and error in order to
identify the methods that are effective for them. This finding highlights the importance of self-
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awareness of ADHD traits as a metacognitive learning strategy to determine what works for a
student.
The learning strategies participants used were consistent with those found in Sibley and
Yeguez’s (2018) qualitative study which connected motivational, skills, and environmental
strategies students used to overcome certain deficits in ADHD traits. Although participants in the
present study could have implicitly adopted various learning strategies to address certain ADHD
traits, the students did not explicitly discuss alignment of their learning strategies with certain
deficits. Participants tended to attribute self-regulated learning strategies that fall under the
resource management and motivational categories with work best for their ADHD traits.
Cognitive and metacognitive strategies were described as what worked for them as individual
learners. This finding expands upon previous research that young adults with ADHD use
strategies to overcome their ADHD deficits (Sibley & Yeguez, 2018).
Although ADHD shaped their lived experiences, participants in this study did not always
define their learning through ADHD deficits. Instead, they named strategies that simply work for
them as individuals. This idea is consistent with the notion of embracing neurodiversity.
Gutierrez and Rogoff (2003) discourage treating learning styles as individual traits because
groups, like students with ADHD, would then be treated as homogenous based on what is
“known” about this group (Gutierrez & Rogoff, 2003). To answer Research Question 2, it is
important to acknowledge how learning is a complex process for each individual.
Research Question 3
Participants described the academic support offered by their institution with both positive
and negative accounts. In terms of faculty teaching, this study confirms a previous finding that
classical teaching methods affect the ability to focus for someone with ADHD (Jansen et al.,
46

2017). The instructional practices and teaching strategies participants preferred also support the
idea that adapted courses are effective for students with ADHD. Participants in this study did not
identify their institution offering adapted courses. Instead, participants selected positive elements
from past courses that stood out as being helpful such as smaller class sizes, seminars, or
attending discussion sections after a lecture. Lipka et al. (2019) also found that class size,
teaching methods, and instructor characteristics were helpful for students with ADHD.
Unlike Lipka et al.’s (2019) study, participants in this study did not explicitly identify
emotional support as something they sought from instructors. Instead, participants expressed the
desire for faculty to be merely accommodating to student’s needs. Accommodative behaviors
identified were granting more flexibility in assignments, deadlines, and being open and
understanding.
Canu et al. (2008) found that there was a stigma toward ADHD with subtle, negative
biases toward individuals with ADHD in academic settings. They further explain how stigma-
related prejudice is a response to help-seeking behaviors because of social representations of
ADHD as controllable (Canu et al., 2008). As a result of rigidity from faculty and lack of
accommodations, participants often practiced self-advocacy. This is in line with the need for
students to “fill in the gaps” to mitigate limitations they might have with regard to receiving
academic accommodations or instructional practices (Pfeifer et al., 2020). Self-advocacy was a
catalyst to overcoming lack of academic support offered by an instructor or university resources.
Interactions with campus personnel in this study were different from Hong’s (2015) study
in which participants reported more negative encounters with disability personnel. Nine of 15
participants in the present study reported their ASO specialists were helpful and responsive.
Additionally, Hong (2015) found that confusion regarding accommodation procedures led to
47

students ignoring their struggles. This study expanded upon previous findings concerning
feelings of discontent with the ASO registration process to include narratives on longer
registration times and perceived confusion with ASO procedures.
In line with previous research on the effectiveness of reasonable accommodations,
extended time for exams were reported as most effective (Jansen et al., 2017). However, similar
to findings in Chew et al.’s (2009) study, a few participants in this study expressed the desire to
receive more accommodations such as extended deadlines, and others reported only using some
of the accommodations available to them. This reinforces the guidance that reasonable
accommodations may not be sufficient to neutralize the challenges students with ADHD face
(Jansen et al., 2017).
In terms of campus interventions, the literature indicates the usefulness of ADHD
coaching, CBT, and mindfulness. Some studies also included intervention programs like
LaCount et al. (2018) who implemented the organization, time management, and planning
(OTMP) skills training intervention. In this study, only one participant in this study reported
using ADHD coaching from an external source, while others only mentioned using medication to
help with their ADHD. Even though participants may have utilized CBT through mental health
services, they did not describe this as a strategy used to improve their learning. This
demonstrates that the interventions identified as best-practices in the literature such as ADHD
coaching, CBT, and mindfulness are not prevalent among all institutions such as the study site.
As a result, there is a need for more interventions to support neurodivergent learners beyond
academic accommodations.
48

Implications for Practice
This study aims to provide direct implications for practice by centering the voices of
students with ADHD. The following recommendations address campus interventions, faculty
training, and students’ transition to college. Recommendations expand upon those suggested in
prior research.
Targeted Interventions for Students With ADHD
First, college campuses should dedicate more resources to support interventions directly
targeting students with ADHD and other neurodivergent groups. As noted in the literature,
ADHD coaching, CBT, and mindfulness are effective interventions to support students with
ADHD. A recommendation is for college accessibility offices to expand their services by
offering CBT or mindfulness workshops led by trained personnel, facilitating study groups, and
quiet study spaces. Additional personnel trained on ADHD coaching can be assigned to work
closely with students to support their academic progress throughout the academic year.
Interventions that target ADHD, or neurodivergence in general, would address how individual
students learn in different ways. Interventions dedicated to neurodivergent groups can also be a
resource for students who are yet to be diagnosed. This is one way institutions can incorporate
universal design, as opposed to merely offering accommodations to students with disabilities.
Participants in the study shared their experiences with the ASO’s lengthy and confusing
registration process. One suggestion is for campus accessibility offices to hold in-person or
virtual office hours for students who have specific questions about registration requirements and
accommodations. This would ensure that students fully understand the registration process,
rather than relying on students to read long and detailed text online. It would also mitigate
confusion that leads to longer approval times due to insufficient materials. Another approach
49

would be for campus accessibility offices to record and transcribe asynchronous videos or create
infographics that address certain commonly asked questions or issues that arise during the
registration process. These videos would assist students to quickly identify their needs and
address them early in the registration process, rather than further delaying their approval time.
Faculty Training
Another recommendation is for institutions to enhance faculty training on
neurodivergence which would include teaching methods for working with this student
population. In this study, participants identified accommodations as the main source of academic
support for their ADHD. Postsecondary institutions are required to provide accommodations. As
such, it is important for faculty to understand and respond to the accommodations requested by
students at the very least. When faculty receive accommodation letters from students, campus
accessibility offices can further provide guidance on these letters on how to implement these
accommodations through job aids. A job aid might include links to technology resources on how
to record their lectures and include transcriptions, for example. Alternatively, the aids can
provide examples of how successful accommodations have been made for students with various
accommodation types. This way faculty have concrete examples of how to support students, right
when they receive the accommodation letters.
Faculty orientations could also be enhanced by including how to make courses more
accessible for neurodivergent students. Adding accessibility as a training topic would help reduce
the stigma of disabilities and normalize neurodiversity. These orientations could be grounded in
Ladson-Billings’s (1995, as cited in Shmulsky et al., 2022) concept of culturally relevant
pedagogy (CRP) in which faculty develop cultural competence and critical consciousness by
making learning contextual to students’ lived experiences. Gutierrez and Rogoff’s (2003)
50

cultural-historical approach could also help faculty apply accessibility and acknowledge
neurodiversity in their pedagogical practices. One way institutions can implement these ideas is
by recording short, asynchronous videos faculty can watch examples of culturally responsive
teaching strategies and universal design approaches. Another way is for campus accessibility
offices to have a representative proactively outreach to academic departments to provide these
trainings at the beginning of the year. This would ensure that faculty have a point of contact in
case consultations are later needed. This multifaceted approach is a proactive way institutions
can promote universal design, early implementation, and ongoing learning and sharing of best
practices.
As Hong (2015) previously noted, professional development programs should be
formalized and designed to address how to support students with learning differences.
Institutions could provide in-depth training and orientation to introduce non-classical teaching
methods to faculty and teaching assistants. Because participants noted the importance of faculty
in their academic experiences, these strategies would be effective to improve the student
experience.
New Student Seminar for Students With ADHD
A third recommendation is to create an intervention specifically for new first-year and
transfer students with ADHD to aid their transition to college. Given the importance of self-
awareness found in this study, one intervention that institutions can implement is creating a
seminar that helps first-year and transfer students with ADHD explore various learning strategies
for various subject matters. Such an intervention would help promote positive habits early in
students’ undergraduate careers by introducing them to various formal and informal academic
systems. In alignment with Tinto’s (1993) Student Integration Model, this would support
51

students’ academic and social integration to the university thus influencing student persistence.
An introductory seminar to develop self-regulated learning strategies would also cultivate
metacognition and strategies to improve motivation. This intervention could also be a component
of the campus accessibility office’s registration requirement in order to ensure ongoing self-
regulation and motivation.
Finally, the Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) offers useful
performance indicators for institutions and aspirational goals for addressing systemic barriers for
disabled students in higher education. AHEAD calls on campus accessibility offices to provide
leadership and collaboration in disability access, consult and disseminate information, offer
accessibility solutions, and provide services and strategies to mitigate barriers for individuals
with disabilities (Association on Higher Education and Disability, 2021). AHEAD provides self-
evaluation tools that campus accessibility offices can use to assess institutional effectiveness on
disability support. Additionally, their website has a webinar series addressing current issues in
higher education and disability topics. In cases where institutions lack the resources to expand
personnel, programming, and training, there are professional associations and online resources
like AHEAD that institutions can use to share educational resources.
Limitations
The limitations of this study involve the research methodology. There is an inherent bias
in purposeful sampling when choosing participants. Because participants were recruited from the
university’s ASO, the findings may be skewed toward students who are more self-aware of their
ADHD experiences. Although this recruiting method helped answer the research questions,
future studies may find varied lived experiences from students with undiagnosed ADHD or those
without reasonable accommodations. Given that many individuals with ADHD do not get
52

diagnosed until after childhood, the findings in this study may not fully reflect the experiences of
individuals who are at different stages of their ADHD diagnosis. Finally, the study’s interview
protocol focuses more on patterns of inattention and less on participants’ hyperactivity and
impulsivity. Future research should explore how hyperactivity and impulsivity influence the
academic experiences and learning strategies of undergraduate students with ADHD.
Future Research Recommendations
Upon completing the study, there are a few suggestions for future research. First, to
address one of the limitations of this study, future research should explore the learning strategies
with students with self-reported ADHD who do not yet receive academic accommodations. This
may yield different lived experiences on how supported students feel. It may also reveal the
prevalence of students with undiagnosed ADHD and the need for institutions to support this
population. Second, many participants in this study discussed the intersections between ADHD
and their emotions or mental health. Future studies may examine these intersections further and
how institutions support these concerns beyond counseling services on college campuses.
Finally, an important topic to investigate is ADHD and the intersectional identities of students,
particularly those from minoritized backgrounds. Collecting more narratives from diverse
populations with ADHD would offer valuable insights that are lacking in existing literature.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the 15 undergraduate students with self-reported ADHD in the study
described their experiences in the context of their ADHD. The findings from this study reflected
much of the literature found in prior research in terms of ADHD traits, adjustment to college, and
university support. This study attempted to reveal the effective learning strategies of college
students with ADHD in hopes that institutions will use an asset-based approach to instruction and
53

implement proactive interventions tailored to neurodivergent students. Study implications also
show there is a need for increased awareness of the individualized ways students learn and to
deviate from the one-size-fits-all approach to applying accommodations and teaching methods.
Given the increasing prevalence of neurodivergent students on college campuses, institutions of
higher education must support students with ADHD beyond reasonable accommodations, which
will lead to more positive academic experiences and persistence.

54

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Appendix A includes the interview protocol used in the study. 11 open-ended questions
were asked during the semi-structured interviews. This is the text used during the interview.
Introduction
Thank you for participating in my study. As I mentioned before, my name is Helen, and
I’ll be conducting the interview today. Before getting into the questions, I want to remind you
that the goal of this research study is to learn more about the learning strategies of undergraduate
students with ADHD and how they perceive academic support from their university. You were
selected for this interview because you meet the study’s eligibility criteria which includes
undergraduate students who have ADHD at a four-year university. This interview will generally
explore your academic experiences, with particular interest in understanding how instructional
and campus resources have played a role in those experiences. The ultimate goal of the study is
to collect more narratives about college students’ experiences with ADHD and help improve how
college campuses can support them.
You have already received the Study Information Sheet, but I want to share a few
reminders. Our conversation will be audio-recorded with your permission. Do I have your
permission to record today’s interview?
After the study is complete, the written portion of the study will use pseudonyms to
maintain confidentiality. I also wanted to remind you that talking about your experiences may
elicit discomfort. You are welcome to stop at any time if needed, and you are welcome to decline
answering any questions. As I ask you the interview questions, please take as much time as you
need to answer. If you would like me to repeat any questions, please let me know. Do you have
questions about the study before we get started?
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Interview Questions
I will start by asking some general questions about you and your learning experiences on
campus (RQ1).
1. Tell me about your academic experiences as a college student.
a. What is your major?
b. What year are you?
c. Are you involved on campus?
2. Please describe how integrated you feel at your university.
3. How would you say having ADHD affects your academic experience, if at all?
The next set of questions are specific to your experiences inside of the college classroom.
Think about classes you’ve had and who was there with you.
4. Describe a recent time, if any, you felt supported in the classroom (RQ3).
a. Who was present?
b. Could you provide a specific example of how they showed their support?
5. What kind of teaching strategies have instructors used that were effective for your
academic success (RQ2)? What are things you remember not working for your
learning?
6. What kind of learning strategies do you utilize that help you learn (RQ2)? What are
things that you have learned do not work when you study?
Next, we want to find out what your experience has been using campus resources and its
usefulness (RQ3).
7. What kind of campus resources are available for college students with ADHD?
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a. If you have utilized any of these inside or outside of the classroom, which ones
have been useful for your academic success?
b. What are your thoughts on these programs?
c. If the student doesn’t mention Accessibility Services: Your school has a resource
for students with disabilities called the Accessibility Services office. To what
extent have you used these services?
8. For the next question, I’d like to invite you to imagine an ideal environment for you
to learn and study.
a. I will give you a moment to think about this. PAUSE to give them time to think.
b. What would that look like inside of the classroom?
c. What would that look like outside of the classroom?
d. Who would be involved?
Now I want to turn to the topic of accommodations. Students with a documented
disability have a right to request accommodations through the Accessibility Services office
(RQ3). Tell me about your experiences, if any, with the accommodation services office or
process.
9. The concept of universal design for learning is meant to give all students equal access
to succeed in their learning, whether it is through classroom practices or policies
implemented by a school. Describe how well you believe your school has offered
universal design practices. What assumptions are made about how you should learn,
if anything?
10. Is there other insight you want to share about your academic experiences as a college
student with ADHD that I may not have covered?
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Thank you very much for taking the time to share your experiences for this study. Your
insight is greatly appreciated and will be helpful for my study. If there are follow-up questions, I
would like to ask you, may I email you? If you would like to receive the final copy of the study
results, please let me know. Thank you again for your time today.

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Appendix B: Social Behavioral Protocol
The following information includes the Social Behavioral Protocol submitted to the USC
Institutional Review Board (IRB). The text has not been changed since submission.
Study Title: Perceptions of College Students With ADHD and Their Learning Strategies
PI Name: Helen Tran
Study Procedures
1. Background/Rationale (previously iStar section 11 (exempt) or 12 (expedited/full
board))
a. This study will explore the learning strategies of college students with ADHD and
how they describe their academic experiences. Researchers report that students
with ADHD have lower GPAs (Weyandt & DuPaul, 2006), well-being (Richards
et al., 1999), and time management skills (LaCount et al., 2018). The research
questions for this study are:
i. What are the lived experiences of students with ADHD navigating the
college academic environment?
ii. What learning strategies do college students with ADHD perceive as
effective for their academic success?
iii. How do college students with ADHD describe the academic support
offered by their institution?
2. Purpose/Objectives/Aims/Research Questions (previously iStar section 11 (exempt)
or 12 (expedited/full board))
a. The purpose of this study is to examine the learning strategies of college students
with ADHD and to learn more about their academic experiences. The aim of the
69

study is to discover more about the lived experiences of the ADHD population
and how they navigate higher education. By hearing directly from students about
their lived experiences, we can better understand the barriers. More importantly,
we can explore what students report as what works best for their learning
experiences. The findings will help institutions better support and academic
success for college students with ADHD.
3. Participants (sample) (Consistent with iStar sections 10 (expedited and full board)
and (for all submission types)
a. Inclusion criteria for this study are undergraduate students at a four-year
university who self-report having ADHD.
b. The study excludes children because participants must be undergraduate college
students.
c. Participants part of a special subject population are students. The rationale for
including any undergraduate student with ADHD from a four-year university is to
focus on their experiences navigating higher education. The PI is an academic
advisor for one department at the university. The PI will recruit from all other
departments across the university other than her own.
4. Recruitment/Screening Process (sampling strategy)
a. Recruitment site was excluded here to protect the anonymity of the university.
b. Recruitment will be conducted electronically with the help of the university’s
accessibility services office. The office will send email announcements of the
recruitment form and the PI’s email address. The director has agreed to send
emails out through the accessibility services office’s student listserv. The PI does
70

not have access to this listserv. The PI works at the study site and will exclude
students from her own department that fill out the recruitment form.
c. The following email text will be announced to students to recruit study
participants for recruitment:
i. You are invited to participate in a study to explore the learning strategies
and experiences of college students with ADHD. The study is being
conducted by Helen Tran as part of her doctoral dissertation. Your
participation in the study is completely voluntary and participant names
will not be used in the dissertation. Participants who volunteer will
participate in an interview conducted by the researcher. If you are
interested in participating in this study, are an undergraduate student, and
have ADHD, please click on the following link: LINK.
d. Because the university’s accessibility services office has agreed to send the
recruitment email through the student listserv, only students at the university will
receive the email. Interview participants will be screened through a recruitment
form provided in the recruitment email.
The recruitment form and interview will first ask participants if they meet the
inclusion criteria to participate in the study. Participants must 1) be an
undergraduate student and 2) report having ADHD. If respondents select ‘no’ to
either question, they will not be asked to proceed with the form. If students
qualify, participants will be asked for their email address to indicate their interest
in participating in the interview
71

5. Methods (previously iStar sections 9, 12, or 13, 16, 19, 20, and 21 depending on the
type of study/application)
a. The study will use a qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews.
Participants will be recruited through a recruitment form to participate in the
interviews. The study methods include:
i. Once USC IRB approves the study protocol, I will notify the university’s
accessibility services office director. I will provide the accessibility
services office with the IRB approval and the email text to recruit students
from the student listserv.
ii. A representative from the accessibility services office will email the
recruitment text to the student listserv. Participant criteria will be specified
in the email.
iii. To reduce coercion, the recruitment email will emphasize that
participation in the interviews is voluntary. At the beginning of the
interviews, participants will be reminded they do not need to answer every
question and can discontinue their participation at any time. During the
recruitment process, a representative from the office will only send the
recruitment email. They will not have other contact with possible
participants with regard to the study. Potential participants with questions
about the study will be directed to contact the researcher.
iv. Students who are interested after reading the recruitment email will click
on the link at the end of the email to submit the recruitment form.
72

v. The form will remind participants that answers to the form indicate that
they are consenting to participate in the study.
vi. The form will first ask participants if they 1) are an undergraduate student
and 2) report having ADHD. If respondents select ‘no’ to either question,
they will not be asked to proceed with the form.
vii. The final question in the form will ask if participants would like to
volunteer to participate in a 60-minute interview. If ‘yes’ is selected,
interested and eligible participants will be asked to provide their email
address.
viii. The PI will arrange online interviews with participants who provided
email addresses in the form. When arranging these interviews, the PI will
also include the IRB information sheet.
ix. The interview will use the same questions provided in the interview
protocol that was uploaded in the IRB application.
x. The PI will conduct semi-structured interviews with participants one-on-
one virtually.
xi. Participants will not be offered compensation as part of recruitment. After
the interviews have concluded, the PI will give participants a $5 gift card
as a thank you for their participation in the study.
xii. The PI will analyze the interview data and summarize the study’s findings.
xiii. The PI will email participants and the accessibility services office director
a summary of the study.
b. Intervention - N/A
73

c. Expedited and full board studies - N/A
d. To protect participant privacy and confidentiality, participants will respond to the
recruitment form. Interviews will be conducted using Zoom, which includes
automatic transcriptions. Participant interviews will not be directly labeled with
personal-identifying information. Pseudonyms will be used. For data analysis and
the dissertation writing, pseudonyms will be used for each participant.
e. The PI will use Zoom to record each interview. The Zoom account will be
password-protected, and only the PI has access to the account. Transcriptions will
also be saved on the password-protected Zoom account.
f. The findings from the study will be described in my doctoral dissertation. A
summary of the study’s findings will be provided to the interview participants and
the office’s director after the dissertation is fully completed.
g. Instrumentation
i. Questionnaires/Survey Measures (names and citations): N/A
ii. Qualitative instruments: The interviews will be conducted using a semi-
structured format. The interview protocol includes 11 open-ended
questions, and the interviews will take approximately 60 minutes to
complete. The interview questions and protocol were developed by the PI
specifically for this study. The questions were designed to address the
research questions of the study.
iii. Data Analysis: The PI will conduct data analysis using thematic coding to
identify key concepts that emerged from the data. Then, the PI will use the
derived codes to interpret the narratives.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study sought to identify effective learning strategies for undergraduate students with ADHD and to learn how they describe their academic experiences. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 15 undergraduate students with ADHD. An analysis of transcribed interviews resulted in the identification of three major themes: the influence of ADHD traits on lived experiences, diverse strategies used for self-regulated learning, and ambivalent attitudes toward institutional academic support. The lived experiences that students described can serve as the basis for tailored interventions to be implemented in institutions of higher education to academically support neurodivergent students.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Trần, Helen (author)

Core Title Perceptions of college students with ADHD and their learning strategies

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 04/25/2023

Defense Date 04/14/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag ADHD,learning strategies,OAI-PMH Harvest,undergraduate students

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kim (committee chair), Malloy, Courtney (committee chair), Tobey, Patricia (committee member)

Creator Email helenktr@usc.edu,helenktran@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113078174

Unique identifier UC113078174

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Legacy Identifier etd-TranHelen-11710.pdf

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Trần, Helen

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230426-usctheses-batch-1031 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu