University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Thermal performance of a precast roof assembly: achieving comfort using dynamic insulation and photovoltaics in an extreme climate designed for a small residence at Joshua Tree National Park

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Thermal performance of a precast roof assembly: achieving comfort using dynamic insulation and photovoltaics in an extreme climate designed for a small residence at Joshua Tree National Park

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Content Thermal Performance of a Precast Roof Assembly: Achieving Comfort Using Dynamic Insulation and Photovoltaics in an Extreme Climate Designed for a small residence at Joshua Tree National Park by Aditya A. Bahl A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE May 2023 Copyright 2023 Aditya A. Bahl ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the support and guidance of Lauren Dandridge, Kais Al-Rawi and Mic Patterson. I would also like to appreciate Roy Aguilar for sharing his expertise and helping me to build and cast my project. A debt of gratitude is also owed to Gideon Susman for taking out his time and helping me solve my issues with the software’s used to extract the output of this research. Last but not the least, I would also like to thank my parents, my committee members and my teammates Archana Janardanan and Yuqing He, without you none of this would have been possible. Chair: Douglas E. Noble, Ph.D., FAIA Professor USC, School of Architecture Email: dnoble@usc.edu Committee Member 2: Karen Kensek, LEED BD+C, DPACSA Professor of Practice USC, School of Architecture Email: kensek@usc.edu Committee Member 3: Sanjeev Tankha, AIA Lecturer USC, School of Architecture Email: st_051@usc.edu Technical Advisor: Gideon Susman, EngD, LEED AP BD+C Lecturer USC, School of Architecture Email: gsusman@usc.edu iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................. ii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ vi ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... xvii 1 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Joshua Tree National Park ........................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Precast Concrete ......................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Precast Concrete: Admixtures ................................................................................................................ 3 1.2.2 Precast Concrete: Types ......................................................................................................................... 4 1.2.3 Precast Concrete: Hot Weather Concreting ............................................................................................ 6 1.2.4 Thermal Mass ......................................................................................................................................... 7 1.2.5 Thermal Mass: Specific Heat of Concrete .............................................................................................. 8 1.2.6 Thermal Mass: Calculation of Heat Capacity ......................................................................................... 8 1.2.7 Thermal Mass: Thermal Conductivity .................................................................................................... 8 1.3 Glass: for operable windows ..................................................................................................... 9 1.4 Ventilation ................................................................................................................................. 10 1.4.1 Natural Ventilation ............................................................................................................................... 11 1.5 Thermal Break or Thermal Barriers ..................................................................................... 12 1.6 Frames and Sash ....................................................................................................................... 13 1.7 Photovoltaic Panels .................................................................................................................. 14 1.8 The Idea of a Pocket Lodge ..................................................................................................... 16 1.8.1 The Pocket Lodge: Design .................................................................................................................... 17 1.8.2 The Pocket Lodge: Room Layout ......................................................................................................... 17 1.8.3 The Pocket Lodge: Smart Roof ............................................................................................................ 17 1.9 Software for simulation. .......................................................................................................... 18 1.9.1 PV Watts Calculator ............................................................................................................................. 18 1.9.2 Climate Studio ...................................................................................................................................... 19 1.9.3 Microsoft Excel .................................................................................................................................... 19 1.9.4 IES VE .................................................................................................................................................. 20 1.9.5 Ladybug (Rhino / Grasshopper) ........................................................................................................... 20 1.9.6 AGi 32 .................................................................................................................................................. 21 1.10 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 21 2 Chapter 2: Literature Review ................................................................................................ 23 2.1 Hot-Arid Climates .................................................................................................................... 23 2.2 Orientation ................................................................................................................................ 23 2.2.1 Sun Orientation ..................................................................................................................................... 23 2.2.2 Wind Orientation .................................................................................................................................. 24 2.3 Prefabricated Construction ..................................................................................................... 24 2.3.1 Prefabrication Construction: Advantages (Global, 2019) .................................................................... 25 2.3.2 Prefabrication Construction: Disadvantages (Global, 2019) ................................................................ 25 2.4 Daylighting and Glare: Skylight Roofs .................................................................................. 26 2.5 Photovoltaic ............................................................................................................................... 27 iv 2.5.1 Photovoltaic Panel Roofs ...................................................................................................................... 27 2.5.2 Bio-solar Roofs ..................................................................................................................................... 27 2.6 Other Roof Strategies ............................................................................................................... 28 2.6.1 Concrete Roofs ..................................................................................................................................... 28 2.6.2 Cool Roofs ............................................................................................................................................ 28 2.6.3 Insulated Roof ....................................................................................................................................... 29 2.6.4 Horizontal Trombe Wall ....................................................................................................................... 29 2.7 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 30 3 Chapter 3: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 31 3.1 Data Collection: Collected as a team. ..................................................................................... 32 3.1.1 Site & Orientation ................................................................................................................................. 32 3.1.2 Design Development ............................................................................................................................ 33 3.1.3 Material ................................................................................................................................................. 36 3.1.4 Mold & Prefabrication .......................................................................................................................... 38 3.1.5 Code Compliance ................................................................................................................................. 38 3.2 Data Collection: Collected Individually for Roof of The Pocket Lodge .............................. 39 3.2.1 Solar Radiation Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 40 3.2.2 Photovoltaic Panels ............................................................................................................................... 41 3.2.3 Glare, Dynamic Shading and Daylighting Analysis ............................................................................. 42 3.2.4 Thermal Analysis .................................................................................................................................. 46 3.2.5 Lighting Design .................................................................................................................................... 54 3.3 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 58 4 Chapter 4: Simulation & Results ........................................................................................... 60 4.1 Simulation & Results: Collected design background. ........................................................... 61 4.1.1 Site & Orientation ................................................................................................................................. 61 4.1.2 Design Development ............................................................................................................................ 62 4.1.3 Material ................................................................................................................................................. 64 4.1.4 Mold & Prefabrication .......................................................................................................................... 64 4.1.5 Code Compliance ................................................................................................................................. 65 4.2 Data Collection: Collected Individually for Roof of the pocket lodge ................................. 65 4.2.1 Solar Radiation Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 65 4.2.2 Photovoltaic Panels ............................................................................................................................... 67 4.2.3 Glare Dynamic Shading and Daylight Analysis ................................................................................... 69 4.2.4 Thermal Analysis: Testing external materials. ..................................................................................... 74 4.2.5 Thermal Analysis: Addition of shading components and code compliance. ........................................ 79 4.2.6 Thermal Analysis: Ventilation Strategy ............................................................................................... 81 4.2.7 Thermal Analysis: Dynamic Insulation on roof. .................................................................................. 91 4.2.8 Thermal Analysis: Testing thermal lag on IES VE .............................................................................. 98 4.2.9 Lighting Design .................................................................................................................................... 99 4.3 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 111 5 Chapter 5: Data consolidation for base model of pocket lodge ........................................... 113 5.1 Final Iteration collected at a team. ....................................................................................... 114 5.1.1 South Wall (By Archana Janardanan) ................................................................................................ 115 5.1.2 North Wall (By Yuqing He) ............................................................................................................... 116 5.1.3 Roof (By Aditya A. Bahl) ................................................................................................................... 117 5.2 Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation .............................................................................................. 118 5.3 Prototype Composite .............................................................................................................. 119 v 5.4 Prototype Mold ....................................................................................................................... 120 5.5 Dynamic Insulation Movement ............................................................................................. 121 5.6 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 122 6 Chapter 6: Building Simulation for pocket lodge ................................................................ 123 6.1 Base Case Overall Model ....................................................................................................... 123 6.1.1 Material ............................................................................................................................................... 124 6.1.2 Thermal Comfort/Ventilation ............................................................................................................. 124 6.1.3 Dynamic Insulation Movement. ......................................................................................................... 126 6.1.4 Base Model of Pocket Lodge .............................................................................................................. 126 6.2 Proposed Overall Model ........................................................................................................ 131 6.2.1 Remove Interior Dynamic Insulation from South Wall Profile in Winter Season. ............................ 132 6.2.2 Remove Interior Dynamic Insulation from North Wall Profile in Winter Season. ............................ 134 6.2.3 Remove Interior Dynamic Insulation from Roof Profile in Winter Season. ...................................... 135 6.3 Addition of mechanical system to pocket lodge. .................................................................. 137 6.3.1 Calculating Heating and Cooling Loads of iteration 16.0 .................................................................. 137 6.3.2 Calculating Heating and Cooling Loads of base model composed of polyester. ............................... 141 6.3.3 Comparison of cooling and heating loads of Iteration 16.0 and Tent Structure ................................. 143 6.4 Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge ................................................................................. 145 6.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 146 7 CHapter 7: Conclusion & future work ................................................................................ 148 7.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................. 148 7.2 Comparison of Resultant Models .......................................................................................... 149 7.2.1 Tent Structure ..................................................................................................................................... 151 7.2.2 Original Model (Dynamic Insulation only on Roof) .......................................................................... 151 7.2.3 Combined Base Model of the Pocket Lodge ...................................................................................... 151 7.2.4 Overall Proposed Model of the Pocket Lodge (Iteration 16.0) .......................................................... 152 7.2.5 Overall Proposed Model of Pocket Lodge with Heat Pump ............................................................... 152 7.3 Other Research Findings ....................................................................................................... 153 7.3.1 Weight Calculations ........................................................................................................................... 153 7.3.2 PV Calculations .................................................................................................................................. 153 7.3.3 Lighting Design .................................................................................................................................. 154 7.3.4 Glare & Daylighting ........................................................................................................................... 154 7.4 Future Work ........................................................................................................................... 155 7.4.1 Design Improvement .......................................................................................................................... 155 7.4.2 More Simulations ............................................................................................................................... 156 7.4.3 Casting the Pocket Lodge ................................................................................................................... 157 7.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 158 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 159 vi LIST OF FIGURES Fig 1.1: Joshua tree national park (NPS, 2022)…………………………………………… 2 Fig 1.2: Precast Concrete (Northwest Pipe Company, 2022)……………………………... 3 Fig 1.3: Precast Concrete Footing (J & R Precast, 2022)…………………………………. 4 Fig 1.4: Precast Concrete Beam (Shutterstock, n.d.)……………………………………… 5 Fig 1.5: Precast Concrete Column (Environdec, 2022)…………………………………… 5 Fig 1.6: Precast Concrete Wall (SBC Magazine, 2018)…………………………………... 6 Fig 1.7: Damping and lag effect of thermal mass (Omniblock, 2018) …………………… 7 Fig 1.8 : Double pane glass and triple pane glass (The constructor, 2022)………………. 9 Fig 1.9: Types of ventilation (Stouhi, 2021)……………………………………………… 11 Fig 1.10: Chimney Effect (Smegal, 2017)………………………………………………... 12 Fig 1.11: Metal Window Frame (Grainger, n.d.)..………………………………………... 13 Fig 1.12: Vinly Window Frame (Modernize, 2022)……………………………………… 14 Fig 1.13: Solar panel inverter (Soligent, 2023)…………………………………………… 15 Fig 1.14: Solar panel batteries (Low Tech Magazine, 2022)…………...………………… 16 Fig 1.15: ‘The pocket lodge’ with a basic plan and dimensions. ………………………... 17 Fig 1.16: Sample output for PV Watts Calculator………………………………………... 18 Fig 1.17: Sample output for Climate Studio……………………………………………… 19 Fig 1.18: Sample output for Microsoft Excel…………………………………………….. 19 Fig 1.19: Sample output for IES VE……………………………………………………… 20 Fig 1.20: Sample output for Ladybug……………………………………………………. 20 Fig 1.21: Sample output for Agi 32………………………………………………………. 21 Fig 1.22: Software Diagram……………………………………………………………… 21 vii Fig 2.1: Wind wheel of Twentynine palms spring……………………………………….. 24 Fig 2.2: Skylight Roof (Abuseif, 2018)………………………………………………….. 26 Fig 2.3: Double Skin Roof (Abuseif, 2018)……………………………………………… 27 Fig 2.4: Photovoltaic Roof (Abuseif, 2018)……………………………………………… 27 Fig 2.5: Bio-solar Roof (Abuseif, 2018)…………………………………………………. 27 Fig 2.6: Concrete Roof (Abuseif, 2018)………………………………………………….. 28 Fig 2.7: Cool Roof (Abuseif, 2018)………………………………………………………. 28 Fig 2.8: Insulated Roof (Abuseif, 2018)………………………………………………….. 29 Fig 2.9: Trombe Wall (Cao, 2020)……………………………………………………….. 30 Fig 3.1: Methodology Diagram…………………………………………………………... 31 Fig 3.2: Methodology Diagram for Chapter 3……………………………………………. 32 Fig 3.3: Standard Flatbed trailer Dimensions (Tesla Semi Dimensions, 2022)…………. 33 Fig 3.4: Area Dimension for Pocket Lodge……………………………………………… 34 Fig 3.5: Form Development for pocket lodge…………………………………………… 34 Fig 3.6: Structural Design…………………………………………………….…………. 35 Fig 3.7: Weight Calculation of Concrete Components………………………………….. 35 Fig 3.8: Mold Design and dimensions for The Pocket Lodge…………………………… 38 Fig 3.9: Insulation Table (Energy Code Ace - Reference Ace 2022 Tool, 2022)……….. 39 Fig 3.10: Methodology Diagram focusing on chapter 3 individual work………………... 40 Fig 3.11: Honeybee simulation for incident radiation on each surface…………………... 40 Fig 3.12: Sun movement in relation to the site…………………………………………… 41 Fig 3.13: Total electricity generated for the rangers on site……………………………… 42 Fig 3.14: Brands of Monocrystalline PV panels…………………………………………. 42 viii Fig 3.15: Several iterations were tested on Climate Studio Software……………………. 43 Fig 3.16: Built mass developed on Rhino 3D……………………………………………. 43 Fig 3.17: Glare analysis in Climate Studio………………………………………………. 43 Fig 3.18: Output report from Climate Studio……………………………………………. 45 Fig 3.19: Daylighting analysis from Climate Studio…………………………………….. 45 Fig 3.20: General view of built mass in ModelIt Section of IES VE……………………. 46 Fig 3.21: ‘Aplocate’ window on IES VE………………………………………………… 47 Fig 3.22: Solar Shading Calculation on IES VE…………………………………………. 47 Fig 3.23: View of built mass on ‘Model Viewer II’……………………………………... 48 Fig 3.24: Assignment Construction window on IES VE………………………………… 48 Fig 3.245 Edit or creating a new wall component on IES VE…………………………… 49 Fig 3.26: Internal gains inserted to perform thermal calculations……………………….. 49 Fig 3.27: Daily Occupancy Profile………………………………………………………. 50 Fig 3.28: Daily Lighting Profile…………………………………………………………. 50 Fig 3.29: Daily Computer Profile………………………………………………………... 50 Fig 3.30: Daily Summer Ventilation Profile…………………………………………….. 51 Fig 3.31: Daily Winter Ventilation Profile………………………………………………. 51 Fig 3.32: Annual Ventilation Profile…………………………………………………….. 52 Fig 3.33: Assign Opening Types Window on IES VE…………………………………... 52 Fig 3.34: ‘MacroFlow opening types’ of window on IES VE…………………………… 53 Fig 3.35: ‘Apache Simulation’ window on IES VE……………………………………… 53 Fig 3.36: ‘VistaPro’ window on IES VE…………………………………………………. 54 Fig 3.37: User interface of Agi 32………………………………………………………... 54 ix Fig 3.38: Adding rooms and objects to perform simulations on Agi 32………………….. 55 Fig 3.39: Adding luminaire to Agi 32 model……………………………………………... 55 Fig 3.40: Define luminaire window on Agi 32…………………………………………… 56 Fig 3.41: Window pop-up on selecting Browse/recent on Agi 32……………………….. 56 Fig 3.42: Editing and placing lighting fixture on Agi 32………………………………… 57 Fig 3.43: Photometric web tool on Agi 32……………………………………………….. 57 Fig 3.44: Output of photometric web tool………………………………………………... 58 Fig 3.45: Calculate results on Agi 32…………………………………………………….. 58 Fig 4.1: Methodology diagram for chapter 3-6…………………………………………… 60 Fig 4.2: Methodology diagram focusing on Chapter 4…………………………………… 61 Fig 4.3: Site and Orientation of the pocket lodge………………………………………… 62 Fig 4.4: Final area dimensioning of ‘The Pocket Lodge”……………….……………….. 62 Fig 4.5: Weight Calculation of Concrete Components…………………………………... 63 Fig 4.6: Total Estimate Weight Calculation……………………………………………… 63 Fig 4.7: Mold design of the Pocket Lodge……………………………………………….. 64 Fig 4.8: Insulation Table (Energy Code Ace - Reference Ace 2022 Tool, 2022)………... 65 Fig 4.9: Incident Radiation on the roof of ‘The Pocket Lodge’………………………….. 66 Fig 4.10: Incident Radiation on the walls of ‘The Pocket Lodge’……………………….. 66 Fig 4.11: Sun Path Diagram at Twentynine Palms………………………………………. 67 Fig 4.12: Total electricity generated for the rangers on site……………………………... 67 Fig 4.13: Brands of Monocrystalline PV panels…………………………………………. 68 Fig 4.14: Simulation test on PV Watts Website…………………………………………. 68 Fig 4.15 A: Iteration 1.0 for Glare Analysis……………………………………………... 69 x Fig 4.15 B: Iteration 1.0 for Shading and Daylighting Analysis………………………… 70 Fig 4.16 A: Iteration 2.0 for Glare Analysis……………………………………………... 71 Fig 4.16 B: Iteration 2.0 for Shading and Daylighting Analysis………………………… 71 Fig 4.17 A: Iteration 3.0 for Glare Analysis……………………………………………... 72 Fig 4.17 B: Iteration 3.0 for Shading and Daylighting Analysis………………………… 72 Fig 4.18 A: Iteration 4.0 for Glare Analysis……………………………………………... 73 Fig 4.18 B: Iteration 4.0 for Shading and Daylighting Analysis………………………… 73 Fig 4.19: Results of Glare and Daylighting Analysis conduct on Climate Studio……...... 74 Fig 4.20: Selecting heading for the results on Vistapro………………………………….. 74 Fig 4.21: Selecting polyester material on IES VE……………………………………….. 75 Fig 4.22: Base Model Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature……………………………..... 75 Fig 4.23: Iteration 1.0 with copper on all its exterior surface. …………………………... 76 Fig 4.24: Iteration 1.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature…………………………….... 76 Fig 4.25: Iteration 2.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature…………………………….... 77 Fig 4.26: Iteration 3.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature…………………………….... 77 Fig 4.27: Iteration 4.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature…………………………….... 78 Fig 4.28: Iteration 5.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature…………………………….... 79 Fig 4.29: Iteration 6.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature…………………………….... 80 Fig 4.30: Iteration 7.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature…………………………….... 81 Fig 4.31: Adding ventilation formula to IES VE profiles. …………………………….... 82 Fig 4.32: Iteration 8.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature…………………………….... 82 Fig 4.33: Comparing internal temperature of Iteration 7.0 and iteration 8.0…….……..... 83 Fig 4.34: Formula added for Iteration 8.1 on IES VE….. ……………….………………. 83 xi Fig 4.35: Iteration 8.1 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature……………………….……… 84 Fig 4.36: Formula added for Iteration 8.2 on IES VE……………………….…………… 84 Fig 4.37: Iteration 8.2 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature………………………….…… 85 Fig 4.38: Formula added for Iteration 8.3 on IES VE…………………………….……… 85 Fig 4.39: Iteration 8.3 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature…………………….……….... 86 Fig 4.40: Formula added for Iteration 8.4 on IES VE…………………………….……… 86 Fig 4.41: Iteration 8.4 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature…………………….………… 87 Fig 4.42: Formula added for Iteration 8.5 on IES VE……………………….…………… 87 Fig 4.43: Iteration 8.5 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature………………………………. 88 Fig 4.44: Formula added for Iteration 8.6 on IES VE. ……………………..……………. 88 Fig 4.45: Iteration 8.6 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature………………………………. 89 Fig 4.46: Formula added for Iteration 8.7 on IES VE. …………………………..………. 89 Fig 4.47: Iteration 8.7 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature………………………………. 90 Fig 4.48: Comparing all ventilation profiles with and without formula………………….. 90 Fig 4.49: Dynamic insulation on modelit tool……………………………………………. 91 Fig 4.50: Adding material to dynamic insulation through assign construction tool……… 91 Fig 4.51: Profile generated for Dynamic insulation……………………………………… 92 Fig 4.52: Iteration 9.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature………………………………. 92 Fig 4.53: Formula added for Iteration 9.1 on IES VE……………………………………. 93 Fig 4.54: Iteration 9.1 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature……………….……………… 93 Fig 4.55: Formula added for Iteration 9.2 on IES VE……………………………………. 94 Fig 4.56: Iteration 9.2 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature………………………………. 94 Fig 4.57: Formula added for Iteration 9.3 on IES VE……………………………………. 95 xii Fig 4.58: Iteration 9.3 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature………………………………. 95 Fig 4.59: Combing iterations 7.0, 8.0 and 9.1 on IES VE………………………………... 96 Fig 4.60: Ventilation profile of Iteration 10……………………………………………… 96 Fig 4.61: Dynamic insulation profile of Iteration 10……………………………….…….. 97 Fig 4.62: Iteration 10 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature……………………………….. 97 Fig 4.63: Results of Thermal Analysis on IES VE…………………….…………………. 98 Fig 4.64: Iteration 2.0 interior and exterior temperature on 21 st August…………………. 99 Fig 4.65: Iteration 7.0 interior and exterior temperature on 21 st August…………………. 99 Fig 4.66: Interior plan of pocket lodge…………………………………………………… 100 Fig 4.67: Lighting fixture and dynamic insulation placement……………………………. 100 Fig 4.68: Iteration 1.0 lighting design on Agi32………………………………………….. 101 Fig 4.69: Iteration 2.0 lighting design on Agi32.…………………………………………. 101 Fig 4.70: Iteration 3.0 lighting design on Agi32.…………………………………………. 102 Fig 4.71: Iteration 4.0 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 102 Fig 4.72: Iteration 5.0 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 103 Fig 4.73: Iteration 6.0 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 103 Fig 4.74: Iteration 7.0 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 104 Fig 4.75: Iteration 7.1 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 104 Fig 4.76: Iteration 7.2 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 105 Fig 4.77: Iteration 7.3 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 105 Fig 4.78: Iteration 7.4 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 106 Fig 4.79: Iteration 7.5 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 106 Fig 4.80: Iteration 8.0 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 107 xiii Fig 4.81: Iteration 9.0 lighting design on AGi32…………………………………………. 107 Fig 4.82: Iteration 10.0 lighting design on AGi32………..………………………………. 108 Fig 4.83: Iteration 11.0 lighting design on AGi32………..………………………………. 108 Fig 4.84: Iteration 11.1 lighting design on AGi32………..………………………………. 109 Fig 4.85: Iteration 11.2 lighting design on AGi32………..………………………………. 109 Fig 4.86: Results of Lighting Design Simulation on Agi 32……………………………... 110 Fig 4.87: Connecting lighting fixture to the roof (axislighting, 2023)…………………… 110 Fig 4.88: Cross-section of Air LED (axislighting, 2023)………………………………… 110 Fig 4.89: Cross-section of Bean Square 2 LED (axislighting, 2023)…………………….. 111 Fig 5.1: Methodology Diagram for chapter 3-6……………………….………………….. 113 Fig 5.2: Methodology diagram focusing on chapter 5…………………….……………… 114 Fig 5.3: Exploded Isometric diagram of the pocket lodge.………..….…..………………. 115 Fig 5.4: Annual dynamic insulation profile of south wall………………………………... 116 Fig 5.5: Annual dynamic insulation profile of north wall………………………………... 116 Fig 5.6: Profile for inside and outside dynamic insulation on north wall………………... 117 Fig 5.7: Annual dynamic insulation profile of roof………………………………………. 118 Fig 5.8: Adding ventilation formula to IESVE profiles………………………………….. 118 Fig 5.9: Angle and length of south insulation canopy……………………………………. 119 Fig 5.10: Movement of exterior dynamic insulation on south façade……………………. 119 Fig 5.11: Option 1 - Vertical opening of louvres…………………………………………. 120 Fig 5.12: Option 2 – Sliding of louvres…………………………………………………… 120 Fig 5.13: Mold design of the Pocket Lodge………………………………………………. 120 Fig 5.14: Mold Design and dimensions for The Pocket Lodge…………………………... 121 xiv Fig 5.15: Combined annual dynamic insulation profile of all components………………. 122 Fig 6.1: Methodology Diagram for chapter 3-6…………………………………………... 123 Fig 6.2: Methodology Diagram for chapter 6…………………………………….………. 123 Fig 6.3: Adding ventilation formula to IESVE profiles………………………………….. 125 Fig 6.4: Iteration 8.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature………………………………... 125 Fig 6.5: Combined annual dynamic insulation profile of all components………………... 126 Fig 6.6: Annual dynamic insulation profile of roof………………………………………. 127 Fig 6.7: Internal and dry bulb temperature with dynamic insulation only on the roof…… 127 Fig 6.8: Number of hours within comfort range with dynamic insulation only on roof…. 128 Fig 6.9: Annual dynamic insulation profile of south wall………..………………………. 128 Fig 6.10: Internal and dry bulb temperature with dynamic insulation of Iteration 12.0…. 129 Fig 6.11: Number of hours with dynamic insulation on roof and south wall…………….. 129 Fig 6.12: Base Model of The Pocket Lodge on IESVE………………………………….. 130 Fig 6.13: Annual dynamic insulation profile of north wall………………….…………… 130 Fig 6.14: Internal and dry bulb temperature with dynamic insulation of Iteration 13.0…. 131 Fig 6.15: Number of hours with dynamic insulation on all three components…………... 131 Fig 6.16: Proposed Interior dynamic insulation movement on South Wall……………… 132 Fig 6.17: Internal and dry bulb temperature of Iteration 14.0……………………………. 133 Fig 6.18: Number of hours within comfort range in Iteration 14.0………………………. 133 Fig 6.19: Proposed Interior dynamic insulation movement on North Wall……………… 134 Fig 6.20: Internal and dry bulb temperature of Iteration 15.0………………………….… 134 Fig 6.21: Number of hours within comfort range in Iteration 15.0………………………. 135 Fig 6.22: Proposed Interior dynamic insulation movement on Roof…………………….. 135 xv Fig 6.23: Internal and dry bulb temperature of Iteration 16.0……………………………. 136 Fig 6.24: Number of hours within comfort range in Iteration 16.0………………………. 136 Fig 6.25: Types of Heat Pumps are their COP achieved (Langer, 2023)………………… 137 Fig 6.26: Proposing set points for the mechanical system on IES VE…………………… 138 Fig 6.27: Internal and dry bulb temperature of iteration 16.0 with mechanical system….. 138 Fig 6.28: Number of hours within comfort range in Iteration 16.0……………….……… 139 Fig 6.29: Cooling loads of proposed overall model with mechanical system……………. 139 Fig 6.30: Heating loads of proposed overall model with mechanical system……………. 140 Fig 6.31: Data extracted from IES VE into Microsoft Excel…………………………….. 140 Fig 6.32: Internal and dry bulb temperature of tent structure with mechanical system….. 141 Fig 6.33: Number of hours in tent structure with mechanical system……………………. 142 Fig 6.34: Cooling loads of tent structure with mechanical system……………………….. 142 Fig 6.35: Heating loads of tent structure with mechanical system……………………….. 143 Fig 6.36: Energy Use Index of Iteration 16.0…………………………………………….. 144 Fig 6.37: Energy Use Index of Tent Structure……………………………………………. 144 Fig 6.38: Total Electricity required for The Pocket Lodge………………………………. 145 Fig 3.39: Total Electricity generated at Pocket Lodge…………………………………… 145 Fig 7.1: The Pocket Lodge at Joshua Tree National Park………………………………... 148 Fig 7.2: Methodology Diagram for chapters 1-6………..…………………………….….. 148 Fig 7.3: Comparing results of all five models………..…………………………..………. 150 Fig 7.4: Exploded Isometric View of Overall Proposed Model of The Pocket Lodge…... 150 Fig 7.5: Result and parameters of Tent Structure……………………………….………... 151 Fig 7.6: Result and parameters of Original Model or Iteration 11.0……………………... 151 xvi Fig 7.7: Result and parameters of The Base Model of Pocket Lodge or Iteration 13.0….. 151 Fig 7.8: Result and parameters of The Overall Proposed Model of Pocket Lodge………. 152 Fig 7.9: Result and parameters of The Final Model of Pocket Lodge……………………. 152 Fig 7.10 Summary of five studies air temperature interior space results………………… 153 Fig 7.11: Total Estimate Weight Calculations……………………………………………. 153 Fig 7.12: Photovoltaic Panel Placement………………………………………………….. 154 Fig 7.13: Results of Lighting Design Simulation on Agi 32……………………………... 154 Fig 7.14: Results of Glare and Daylighting Analysis conduct on Climate Studio……….. 155 Fig 7.15: Result of Overall Proposed Model of the Pocket Lodge………………...…….. 158 xvii ABSTRACT A roof canopy system was designed for a small residence (a “pocket lodge”) for the seasonal rangers at Joshua Tree National Park (JTNP), California. The lodge was developed to respond to the human comfort needs of the rangers with the roof canopy helping the building respond to extreme climate of the park. The pocket lodge is made primarily of precast concrete with the design of the south and north walls as thermal batteries alternately storing daytime and insolation energy as heat or cool night air. The concept would manage heating and cooling loads based on user requirements reducing the dependence on HVAC systems. Apart from generating sufficient electricity through the photovoltaic panels on top of the module, the roofing system assists the four walls below in achieving thermal comfort by providing adequate shading and preventing direct sunlight from entering the interiors. It consists of foldable panels on the west and east end and a horizontally extended canopy providing shade to the southern facing wall. Moreover, it also obtains the responsibility of dumping heat when required through dynamic insulation and ventilation. Further for ease in fabrication, the residence is intended to be cast using a single formwork. An online tool called PV Watts, is used for understanding the placement and orientation of the PV panels. Climate Studio software is used for comparing different design strategies used to avoid glare and provide adequate daylight. IES Virtual Environment (IES VE) was used to perform thermal analysis. The simulation conducted on IES VE to compare different materials, in arid climate, enhance natural ventilation, testing passive strategies and dynamic insulation to achieve thermal comfort. At last, Agi 32 is used to perform lighting design for the module. Assuming the user would require 10.5 KWh per day, the pocket lodge would accommodate 8 solar panels on the roof generating 11.1 KWh per day at JTNP with the azimuth angle between 177-181 degrees and tilt angle between 32-33 degrees. Addition of the folding plates on the east and west with vertical fins rotated at 45 degree prevented the user from experiencing any glare within the module while providing daylighting. The addition of the smart roof components allowed the module to reduce the worst annual internal temperature fluctuation experienced from 25.78-148 degree Fahrenheit to 50.9-106.2 degree Fahrenheit. The overall proposed model achieves 4889 hours in a year within comfort range (65-85-degree F) and experiences an 87% reduction in cooling and heating loads and 75.6% in EUI as compared to the base model composed of polyester. HYPOTHESIS: Apart from generating adequate amount of electricity for the module through the solar panels, the roof assists the walls and interior spaces to achieve thermal comfort through the interior dynamic insulation. KEYWORDS: roof for hot arid climate, precast concrete, arid climates, Joshua Tree National Park, insulation. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: ● To develop a self-sustaining prefabricated pocket lodge module that responds to the desert climate of Joshua Tree National Park. xviii ● To determine azimuth, tilt angle and placement of photovoltaic panels, calculate the amount of AC energy required by the rangers and the number of PV panels required to create that energy. ● To design shading components functioning on the east and west facades that prevents glare and reduce the rangers’ dependence on artificial lighting. ● Assist the walls in achieving thermal comfort i.e. temperature fluctuations within the interior space between 65-85 degree F. ● To create a concrete roof using the same formwork as the walls, explore the connections, and a transportation strategy that would not require any additional permits. 1 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION The introduction begins to discuss about Joshua Tree National Park, precast concrete, ventilation, thermal break, frame and sash, photovoltaic panels, the idea of pocket lodge and the multiple software programs for simulations. A small residence for rangers will be designed for the extreme climate Joshua Tree National Park (JTNP), accommodating 12 seasonal rangers. The primary material will be precast concrete. One unit will be constructed per ranger responding to human comfort needs, assisting them in adapting to the harsh climate of the site and is self-sustaining and minimizing the need of annual maintenance. The focus of this research effort is on the roof. Other researchers are exploring other aspects of the building. The roof is responsible for shading and for generating electricity through the photovoltaic panels (PV panels). It prevents direct sunlight from entering the interiors and is responsible for dumping heat when required. The whole roofing component will be composed of precast concrete sandwiched within other materials. The wall thickness would absorb and store heat and release the collected heat into the interiors during the night as per the user requirements. The roof will help to reduce energy use and the human dependence on HVAC (heating, ventilation, air conditioning) systems and further decrease the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere. Having no cooling and heating mechanical system would help in reducing the need to annual maintenance of the module as well. Ventilation will be achieved through the east and west facing walls. A single formwork for the precast concrete will be developed capable of casting all the components of the house considering the cost of project and exploring issues faced while transporting, connecting, and installing the molds on site. Chapter 1 includes with a brief site study of Joshua Tree National Park, precast concrete, glass (east and west wall panels), ventilation, the idea of a pocket lodge, and software for simulation. Precast concrete and its characteristics that helps in understanding how the material can be used to achieve the proposed objectives in hot arid climate are illustrated in chapter 1. Further, it talks about different types of glass that were tested, the ventilation strategies and photovoltaic panels. Chapter 1 provided a wider insight of the configuration of pocket lodge and the software used to calculate the impact of the iterations. 1.1 Joshua Tree National Park The park is located in the south-eastern part of California , north of Twentynine palms and east of Los Angeles. JTNP is 795,156 acres covers a large portion of the southern California deserts and has its name derived from the Yucca Brevifolia or Joshua tree. The unique topography of the park consists of high ground, canyons and plateaus (10 Facts about the Incredible Joshua Tree - the Environmentor, n.d.). Joshua Tree National Park functions as a home to 813 higher plant species, 46 reptile species, 58 mammal species and 250 bird species through its 792,623 acres of land (NPS, 2021). The National Park Service (NPS) is seeking to house 12 seasonal rangers, who typically work on maintaining the park for 4 to 6 months in a year. The NPS hopes to develop tiny lodges of an area of 100-300 square feet with one ranger per unit. The terms “tiny house” or “pocket lodge” refers to a small house that provided the seasonal rangers with adequate amenities required by them to adapt to the desert climate and fulfil their tasks. Due to the three adjacent cities of Yucca Valley, Joshua Tree and Twenty-nine Palms having a shortage of housing and being several miles away from site, construction of pocket lodges within the park seems to be a viable option (Noble, 2022). 2 The NPS staff comprises approximately 120 rangers during high season, out of which 40 are seasonal rangers. These rangers are responsible for preserving the natural and cultural attributes of the park for the future generations and to provide a unique experience to the visitors. The employees are responsible for maintenance, administration, education and interpretation, law enforcement, recourse management and science and visitor services seasonally or year round. Rangers guide the visitors through tour walks, lectures and by hosting activities during the night (Ranger Programs - Joshua Tree National Park (U.S. National Park Service), n.d.). Most of the seasonal rangers are college students majoring in environmental studies, geology, biology, and natural sciences. They become rangers as a short-term employment with the aim to gain experience, rather than as a professional career. In the national park, the seasonal rangers primarily work during the summers as they attend their college during the winter seasons (Noble, 2022). However, Joshua Tree National Park site experiences much larger visitation in winters due to more adequate and pleasant temperature (Elaine, 2022). Late summer in Joshua Tree National Park is extremely hot, and visitation rates are much lower, and thus the seasonal rangers at this park are often here in the fall, winter and spring, but less so in the summer (Fig 1.1). Further, the rangers might require a small simple residence, finding an appropriate house is difficult for various reasons, one being unavailability of housing within the three neighbouring cities. The visitors use the park during the winter season due to adequate temperature, all the accommodations during this period are full causing difficulty for the rangers to look for a place to sleep and work in (Noble, 2022). Developing a tiny house is beneficial for the rangers and the environment. Moreover, there are lesser carbon emissions exposed to the environment and lower cost with a unit of such small area. (2019 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction Sector | UNEP - UN Environment Programme, n.d.). Fig 1.1: Joshua Tree NP (NPS, 2022) In 2020, the Joshua Tree National Park was the most visited park in California, and the 10 th most visited park in the whole of USA (USA Today, 2022). The park receives over two million visitors who spend over $122 millions in local communities in 2020. These expenditures help creating a total of 1510 job opportunities, $60.1 million in labour income, $102 million in value-added and $164 million in economic output in gateway economies. The largest sector of visitor expenditure was on lodging and restaurants, with $46 million on local accommodation and $18 million on local restaurants. Local economies are considered within the 60 miles radius 3 of JTNP involving the towns adjacent to it (NPS, 2021). Visitors use the park for camping, hiking, and rock climbing. The subtropical dessert consist of clear skies throughout the year with extremely hot summers and cold winters. The average annual temperature is noted to be fluctuating between 35 to 99 degree Fahrenheit, rarely going above 105 degree Fahrenheit or below 28 degree Fahrenheit. The summer noon time are harsh with the temperature rising up to 100 degree Fahrenheit whereas the nights are 80 degree Fahrenheit. Winter nights are cold whereas the day are warmer comparatively. July s noted to experience the highest temperature, while December achieves the lowest temperature. Joshua Tree National Park experiences longer summers as compared to winters by 3.5 months (When to Go in Joshua Tree National Park | Frommer’s, n.d.). 1.2 Precast Concrete The modern-day precast concrete was initiated in the 1900s and in 1950s, the first major precast concrete structure (a bridge) was developed in Philadelphia, United States. A precast concrete panel is built off site rather than being casted on site, using a wooden or steel mold. The concrete in poured into the mold consisting of rebar or wire mesh which could consist of prestressed properties. The panel is cured within a controlled environment in plant, and once finished, the panel is transported to site for installation. Tension is provided within the concrete through the rebars or wires. Precast concrete is fire-resistant, has acoustic benefits and is suitable for arid climates (Fig 1.2). The material provides an added advantage as it helps in developing an environment which is energy efficient and reduces moisture content (Martin, 2021). Fig 1.2: Precast Concrete (Northwest Pipe Company, 2022) 1.2.1 Precast Concrete: Admixtures An admixture is a material apart from aggregate, water or reinforcement material that is added to the into the cementitious mixture before or during its mixing to acquire more characteristics through concrete (American Concrete Institute, 2022). Several admixtures could be poured into 4 the concrete aggregate to obtain different characteristics based on the projects requirements. Typical concrete consists of 4000 to 6000 psi of strength, use of smaller aggregate size would help in achieving a finer and firmer finish on the architectural wall (Noble, 2022). Further, other admixtures added cure concrete quickly, achieve higher strength and colour additive aid in achieving numerous colours as per the architect’s choice. 1.2.2 Precast Concrete: Types There are 5 common components made of precast concrete: footings, floor slabs, beams, columns, and walls. • Precast Footing Precast footing refers to the concrete foundations that are cast in a factory setting and transported to the site. They are easy to install (Fig 1.3). They could be installed as soon as they arrive on site and are very strong, provide a stable base. The placement of such components is not dependent on weather and requires on site preparations (Elebia, 2022). Fig 1.3: Precast Concrete Footing (J & R Precast, 2022) • Precast Floor Slabs There are two types of precast floor slab, the hollow core block and double tee block (Patil, 2021). Hollow core slabs are flooring components that are stressed with circular or shaped voids. They are mainly used in buildings with long floor span (Elematic, 2022). Double tee block resembles two ‘T’ letters placed side by side and are the most manufactured precast component. They are preferred to be used on buildings with a long floor spans as well (PCI, 2022). • Precast Beams Precast beams are essential today as they provide a low-cost flooring solution to houses, flats, and commercial buildings (Fig 1.4). However, there are several varieties of precast beam based on their function. One being edge and spandrel beam consisting of a sill. The sill in the precast component provides strength by going around the edge of 5 construction, with the floor slat starting from the base of the sill. Precast beams that have two sills are called spine beams. Over doors and frames, lintel beams are used (Elebia, 2022). Fig 1.4: Precast Concrete Beams (Shutterstock, n.d) • Precast Columns Precast columns are majorly used to enhance flexibility, strength, and the life to the building (Fig 1.5). These columns are erected up to five times quicker as compared to in-situ concrete and achieve a high-quality finish (Elebia, 2022). Fig 1.5: Precast Concrete Column (Environdec, n.d) • Precast Walls Precast walls are used both in interiors as well as exteriors in a building (Fig 1.6). Precast shear walls are used to provide additional strength and lateral stability and are connected through various methods. One method is to connect the walls using a steel edging plate that can be further welded to apply more strength. It is installed six times faster as compared to traditional brick building (Elebia, 2022). 6 Fig 1.6: Precast Concrete Walls (SBC Magazine, 2018) 1.2.3 Precast Concrete: Hot Weather Concreting Precast concrete can acquire thermal insulation abilities to prevent heat from entering the built mass. Heat is a thermodynamic quantity of thermal energy that flows from one object to another when there’s a temperature difference. Thermal insulation refers to methods used for avoiding transfer of heat from one object to another. To provide effective thermal insulation, materials require to comprise of high heat resistance values with the thickest and densest formats (Reimbold, 2020). Over the last few decades, civil engineers across the globe have immensely discussed the durability of concrete. Precautions are required to be taken to ensure handling, curing, placing, and finishing of concrete, especially in hot arid regions. These surroundings are exposed to high ambient temperatures, high concrete temperatures, low relative humidity, wind speed and solar radiation which result in damaging the hardened concrete (Penna Cement, 2015). As per Bureau of Indian Standards IS:7861(Part 1): “ Any operation of concreting done at atmospheric temperatures above 40 degree Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit) or any operation of concreting ( other than steam curing) where the temperature of concrete at time of its placement is expected to be beyond 40 degree Celsius is termed as “hot weather concreting”. During hot weather, the long term strength of concrete (i.e. after 28 days of curing) may suffer even though the initial strength might not be affected. In a hot climate, due to low humidity, the concrete could experience shrinkage or other issues anytime in the year. The temperature at which the concrete is set is correlated to its strength and thus the material could experience loss of strength if not cured properly in such climates (Penna Cement, 2015). Addition of admixtures allows the structure to respond to the extreme climates. For example, using hydration control and workability retaining admixtures could help to retain concretes strength without compromising the set rate (Penna Cement, 2015). Further, synthetic microfibers are poured and evaporation reducer is sprayed by the contractors to prevent shrinkage cracks. However, using such chemical admixtures must be done with precaution and by following the manufacturing specification and an experts advice (Penna Cement, 2015). Thermal cracking is another issue experienced while casting in a hot climate due to rapid decrease in temperature from hot weathering of the concrete. Pouring chilled water that has a specific heat of 4 to 4.5 times than cement or aggregate has a major impact on the concrete 7 temperature and is therefore poured directly into the plant during concreting in high temperatures. Crushed ice is also used in by contractor facing such circumstances. However, adding water might increase the workability and slump of concrete, but it also reduces the materials strength (Penna Cement, 2015). 1.2.4 Thermal Mass The ability of building materials to absorb, store and later release a significant amount of heat is known as thermal mass (PCA, 2019). To enable life in hot dry climate regions, earlier generations used stone and adobe construction taking advantage of their thermal mass properties. Concrete and masonry construction hold the same energy saving advantage as they as well inherit thermal mass. Moreover, these materials absorb energy at a much slower pace but hold it for a longer duration of time as compared to stone and adobe (PCA, 2019). This delay allows concrete to function better in regions that experience spikes in heating and cooling requirements as the mass reduces the response time and moderates indoor temperature fluctuations (PCA, 2019). A thermally massive building would require less energy as compared to a low mass building due to reduction in heat transfer via massive components (PCA, 2019). Thermal mass of concrete have several other advantages: • Delays peak loads as thermal mass shifts energy demand to off-peak time periods when utility rates are low. This further helps in reducing the number of power plants as these plants are designed to provide power at peak loads (PCA, 2019). • Helps in reduction of peak loads (PCA, 2019). • Works well in residential and best in commercial buildings (PCA, 2019). • Works to its more efficiently (Static insulation) when exposed on the inside surface (PCA, 2019). Thermal mass could work well in Joshua tree national park because of its swing in diurnal temperatures. The higher the temperature, the higher would be the capacity of wall or roof to store heat during the day (Fig 1.7). However, these components must be cool at night to dissipate the heat. Fig 1.7 : Damping and Lag Effect of Thermal Mass (Omniblock, 2018). 8 Mass is considered as an advantage in regions with large daily fluctuations (PCA, 2019). In these situations, natural ventilation is used to cool the mass during night and absorb heat during warm days. When the outdoor temperature is at its peak, the interiors remain cool and the heat is yet to penetrate the mass. In climates dominated by heat, thermal mass can be used effectively to absorb and collect solar gains (PCA, 2019). Specific heat, thermal conductivity and density of a material decides the heat flow through wall (PCA, 2019). 1.2.5 Thermal Mass: Specific Heat of Concrete The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one pound of a material by one degree Fahrenheit is called specific heat of that material. The phenomenon defines the ability of the material to trap heat. The specific heat of concrete is 0.2 British thermal units per pound degrees Fahrenheit (Btu/lb·°F) (PCA, 2019). 1.2.6 Thermal Mass: Calculation of Heat Capacity The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a mass of one degree Fahrenheit is called heat capacity of that material. This includes all the layers of different materials in a wall. For one material, heat capacity is calculated by multiplying the density of the material times its volume times the specific heat of the material. Heat capacity for multi-layered wall is the sum of heat capacities for each layer. It is measured in Btu/ft 2 ·°F (PCA, 2019). For example: Concrete: Specific Heat = 0.2 Btu/lb degree F Density (Average) = 133 lbs/ft3 Volume = 10 x 10 x 1 (Assuming Roof Height = 10ft, Width = 10ft and thickness = 1ft) = 100 ft3 Mass = Density x Volume =133 x 100 = 13300 lbs Heat Capacity = Mass x Specific Heat = 13300 x 0.2 = 2660 Btu/ft 2 ·°F Polystyrene: Specific Heat = 270.1 Btu/lb degree F Density = 2 lbs/ft3 Volume = 10 x 10 x 0.25 (Assuming thickness = 3 inches) = 25 ft3 Mass = Density x Volume = 2 x 25 = 50 lbs Heat Capacity = Mass x Specific Heat = 50 x 270.1 = 13505 Btu/ft 2 ·°F Total Heat Capacity of wall = Heat capacity of concrete + Heat capacity of Polystyrene = 2660 + 13505 = 16165 Btu/ft 2 ·°F 1.2.7 Thermal Mass: Thermal Conductivity Thermal conductivity is “the quantity of heat transmitted through a unit thickness of a material - in a direction normal to a surface of unit area - due to a unit temperature gradient under steady state conditions” and has units of Btu/(hr ft °F) (Engineering Toolbox, 2003).” 9 1.3 Glass: for operable windows The overall energy lost through doors and windows depends upon the framing material, glazing, gas fills, spacers and the type of operation (Energy Saver, 2022). Operable windows are responsible for allowing ventilation and daylight into the interior space. Installing openings in a built mass helps to reduce the heat transfer (U-Value) and solar heat gain coefficient. This results in reduction of energy entering through windows. Further, operable windows give the users flexibility and allow them to take advantage of the heat from the sun during winters and decrease solar heat gain during summers (Energy Saver, 2022). In homes, 30% of heat energy is lost through opening thus energy efficient windows are essential. During winters, 76% of sunlight entering the house becomes heats penetrating through windows (Energy Saver, 2022). Therefore, window openings play an important role in achieving comfort, lowering bills, and regulating heat (Energy Saver, 2022). The energy efficiency of a building depends mainly on the glazing materials on windows and this is selected based on opening’s design factors such as building design, climate, window orientation, etc. In earlier times, single glazing was the most commonly used glazing systems in buildings (Energy Saver, 2022). However, the newer generations have shifted to the following types of glazing units: • Insulated Windows with two or more panes of glass are referred as insulated window glazing. The glass panels are placed with some space in-between for the air gap (functioning as the insulating material). Insulated windows are sealed to be airtight and achieve insulating properties (Fig. 1.8). This type of glazing reduces the SHGC and the U-factor (Energy Saver, 2022). Solar heat gain refers to the amount of sunlight entering through the openings, either transmitted directly or absorbed and substantially release heat into the interiors. The lower the solar heat gain coefficient, the less solar heat is transmitted and greater is the shading ability. U-factor refers to the heat flow apart from sun radiation of doors, windows, or skylights. (Energy Saver, 2022) Fig 1.8 Double Pane Glass and Triple Pane Glass (Theconstructor, 2021) 10 In 1950s, the double pane glass was introduced (Fig. 1.8). Double pane glass consists of two panes of glass fitted into the frame creating an air pocket for greater insulation. The most common way to measure the materials resistance to heat transfer is R-value system. Higher the R-value, greater is the resistance and higher is the insulating value of the opening (Wallender, 2022). Similarly, having three panes of glass with air gab in-between each, is referred as triple pane windows (Fig 1.8). The increased insulating air space results in greater energy efficiency and noise reduction as compared to double- pane glass window (De Vries, 2022). The space in-between the glazing layers or glass pane is usually ½ inch. The glass panes are generally kept apart using sealant which prevent moisture and gas leaks. Moreover, they provide accommodation to thermal expansion (Energy Saver, 2022). Another strategy used to minimize the transfer of heat between indoors and outdoors spaces is filling the ½ inch air gab with argon or krypton gas. Both are inert, clear, non- toxic, and odorless. Argon due to being inexpensive is commonly used and performs well in the ½ inch space. When the space is thinner than usual (1/4 inch), krypton is used. It is costly however, it consists of a better thermal performance than argon (Energy Saver, 2022). • Window Films Window films are majorly used to create a barrier against solar heat gain, glare, and ultraviolet exposure without blocking the views and keeping the interiors connected with the exteriors. These windows generally consist of three layers. First being adhesive layer placed against the glass to adhere film to the glass. Second, a layer to avoid scratches, and at last polyester film layer for scratch resistance. In certain situations, for increasing security, tints or thicker films are installed (Energy Saver, 2022). • Low Emissivity Coating Low-E coating windows are used to reduce the amount of ultraviolet rays and infrared light flowing through the glass to increase energy efficiency, while allowing visible light to pass. The ‘E’ refers to the characteristic of the material to radiate heat and is known as emissivity. Higher the reflectivity of a material, lesser is its emissivity and vice versa. Therefore, reduction in a window systems emissivity results in improvement of the windows insulating characteristics (Vitro, n.d.). • Vacuum Insulated Glass Vacuum insulated glass or VIG is developed to maximize insulation performance on an opening. It consists of an R-value of R14, U-value of 0.07 and is known to be a highly used material within the industry. VIG comprises of two pieces of 4mm glass panel with a vacuum space separating the glass panels using a non-leaded metal seal. The whole unit achieves a total thickness of 8.3mm, thicker than a standard 6mm glass panel (Vitro, n.d.). 1.4 Ventilation Warm air rises, cold air sinks and due to the pressure difference, air movement is created and is called wind. Distributing the air present in the exteriors into the interiors is known as 11 ventilation. There are three ways through which ventilation can be generated, naturally, mechanically and through a mixed-mode (Stouhi, 2021). However, focusing more on creating a space that achieves thermal comfort without being dependent on the mechanical systems and therefore using only natural ventilation. The functioning of ventilation is dictated by built mass, scale, location, orientation and the materials used. These components help in understanding the amount of flow of air within a space (Stouhi, 2021). 1.4.1 Natural Ventilation • Single Sided Ventilation Single sided ventilation method uses a single window placed on one side of the building (Fig 1.9). This type of ventilation generally used in places where the method of cross ventilation cannot be adapted. Furthermore, it generates the least amount of air circulation as compared to other methods providing natural ventilation (Stouhi, 2021). Fig 1.9: Types of Ventilation (Stouhi, 2021) • Cross Ventilation or Wind Effect Ventilation Cross ventilation refers to the structure having two openings on opposite or adjacent walls (Fig 1.9). The air enters from one opening, crosses the space and escapes from the other window on the adjacent wall. In regions that experience higher temperature, this method creates constant air renewal within the building, reducing the internal temperature (Stouhi, 2021). The inlets for the proposed method only function in situations where the direction of the wind flow is within the range of -45 degree to 45 degree to surface (Moffitt, 2022). Thus, having larger inlet and outlet areas leads to more air to travel through these openings and therefore, removing a larger amount of heat. However, a unbalanced system can be created when the inlet size is larger than the outlet causing more amount of air to enter as compared to the amount allowed to escape. This can be prevented by having inlets and outlets of the same dimensions (Moffitt, 2022). Another study observed having larger outlets and smaller inlets, which allows wind with a larger velocity of air to enter the interiors due to the air passing. The total force acting on the small inlet, forces the air passing through at a higher pressure. Larger outlets and smaller inlets are considered in areas that do not experience a constant airflow (Moffitt, 2022). Another example of such ventilation method, is to use wing walls. These wing walls are projected outwards next to the openings and create high pressure zones even when slight breeze is experienced. The difference in pressure pulls the outdoor air through the inlets and passes through the outlet (Clear, 2022). • Stack Ventilation 12 Stack ventilation method invites cooler air from the surroundings into the built mass at a low level which eventually gets warm as its exposed to the heat source of the building (Fig 1.9). This cool air converted into warm air rises up and escapes from the openings present at a higher level. Stack ventilation has a broader impact when used in taller buildings with a central atrium but can also be incorporated within buildings. The cross ventilation method isn’t able to penetrate sufficient amount of air as compared to stack ventilation. However, for the method to function adequately, the interior temperature requires to be higher than the external temperature (Stouhi, 2021). • Chimney Effect Chimney effect is constantly used in vertical buildings where the warm air is pushed upwards by the pressure created by the cold air (Fig 1.10). However, having an central open courtyard would allow the same air to circulate around the interiors and escape through the roof (Stouhi, 2021). Fig 1.10: Chimney Effect (Smegal, 2017) 1.5 Thermal Break or Thermal Barriers “Thermal break is defined as a material with low thermal conductivity placed in an extrusion with the purpose of reducing the flow of thermal energy” (Herbert, 2021). These components have low thermal conductivity and help reduce the flow of heat between conductive materials, in or out of the built mass. The challenge structural engineers experience is to induce different iterations of thermal break while maintaining the structural design proposed (Hardy, 2019). The interior environment, outdoor climate, glass options, glazing choices and the way the windows are installed affect the thermal performance of a window. Areas near windows, doors and penetration through building facades are example of spaces that experience noticeable energy loss. Addition of thermal breaks in this areas could help in reducing the heat lost through walls and reduce the amount of energy needed to keep the interiors at a comfortable temperatures. Thermal breaks can be applied on a variety of structural applications. For example, in reinforced concrete structures, the components could be placed between external area slab and internal conditioned slab (Hardy, 2019). Thermal barriers are generally composed of reinforced polyamide strip (composite, non- metallic, structural material). Polyamide strip consist of low thermal conductivity reducing the transfer of heat and cold. Further, wider the thermal barrier, better is the insulation performance (Thermeco, 2019). 13 1.6 Frames and Sash Improvement in openings energy efficiency, particularly U-factor, could be contributed by enhancing the thermal resistance of the frame. All types of framing material have certain advantages and disadvantages, however, vinyl, fiberglass, wood and composite frame provide a greater resistance than metal (Energy Saver, 2022). • Metal Frames Metal frames are majorly used because of their strength, lightweight and low maintenance capabilities (Fig 1.11). However, since metals are poor insulating materials, they conduct heat very rapidly. An insulated plastic strip functioning as a thermal barrier must be placed between the inside and outside of the frame to reduce the heat flow (Energy Saver, 2022). Fig 1.11: Metal Window Frame (Grainger, n.d.) • Composite Frames Composite wood products, for example, laminated strand lumber and particleboard induced with polymers plastic help develop composite frames. These materials are stable. As compared with wood, composite materials have the same or greater structural and thermal properties and consist of better abilities to resist moisture and decay (Energy Saver, 2022). • Fiberglass Frames Fibreglass frames consist of air cavities that could be filled with insulating materials allowing them to perform better as compared to uninsulated vinyl and wood. Moreover, fibreglass frames provide an added advantage of being dimensionally stable (Energy Saver, 2022). • Vinyl Frames Vinyl window frames are composed of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) with ultraviolet (UV) stabilizers to prevent the solar radiation from tearing down the material (Fig 1.12). They consist of good moisture resistance without applying any paint. Insulating materials are filled into the hollow cavities present within the materials making them thermally superior as compared to wooden or standard vinyl frame (Energy Saver, 2022). 14 Fig 1.12: Vinyl Window Frame (Modernize, 2023) • Wooden Frames Although wooden frames require regular maintenance, they consist of great insulating properties. The maintenance requirements are reduced by cladding the wooden frames with vinyl or aluminium (Energy Saver, 2022). 1.7 Photovoltaic Panels The conversion of sunlight into electrical power is attained through photovoltaic technology. Cell is a single PV device capable of generating one or two watts of energy and are composed of semiconductor materials. In order to sustain within outdoor climate, the cells are sandwiched together with protective layers in a combination of materials and glass. Further, to enhance the power output of PV cells, multiple layers of the above mentioned sandwich are connected together in chains forming a larger unit called photovoltaic panels. Each photovoltaic panel uses several solar panels called as a solar array (Renogy, 2021). One or more arrays is then connected to an electrical grid or a storage battery (off-grid system) (Energy efficiency & renewable energy, 2011). To maximise the production of electricity from the PV panels, their orientation and inclination are considered important. The tilt angle requiring to be considered as the panels produce maximum energy when the sun is directly perpendicular to the horizon. During summer, the sun is higher and in winters the sun is at a lower angle, in the northern hemisphere. To maximise total electricity production, panels are oriented facing south with an angle of 37 degree. The angle is site specific and might change depending on the location of the panels (Dualsun, 2019). There are three types of solar panels (Deegesolar, 2022): 1. Polycrystalline (poly) panels 2. Monocrystalline (mono) panels 3. Thin filmed For a small residence, monocrystalline panels are considered to be an adequate choice. Mono panels are more expensive as compared to the other two types, however these solar panels are known to last longer and have higher efficiency. These are composed of single (mono) 15 crystalline silicon solar cells, highest purity silicon is placed into bars and sliced into wafers. The cells are made of single crystals that have higher power output (Deegesolar, 2022). Apart from the panels, there are 6 more components responsible for the whole system to function adequately. These components include the following: • Invertor The solar panels (or modules) generate direct current (DC) electricity whereas, our home electrical appliances function on alternating current (AC) electricity (Fig 1.13). An inverter functions as the brain of the system, responsible for converting the DC power into AC power for the electrical appliances to work. Further, an inverter is also responsible for managing power directed from the panels and making sure adequate amount of voltage flows into our homes, back into the grid or into the storage battery (Southern Energy, 2022). Fig 1.13: Solar Panel Inverter (Soligent, 2023) • Racking or Mounting Solar racking or mounting are responsible for holding the panels in place. There are three types of racking system. Our study focuses on low slope or flat roof racking system called ballasted racking comprising of weighted tray holding the panels in place (Southern Energy, 2022). • Optimizers Optimizers are placed at the back of each solar panel to make sure that each module can produce maximum power even if other panels are not able to produce sufficient power. Such components also help in tracking performance of each panel and for identifying issues. When the system is down, the optimizers automatically shut down as a safety measure (Southern Energy, 2022). • Bi-directional Meter Bi-directional meters (or power system metering) allow the user to monitor the amount of solar power that is supplied to their homes. Such components help in understanding and monitor the performance and in figuring out if repair is required to achieve maximum efficiency (Renogy, 2021). 16 • Energy Monitor One of the most essential components of PV panels is the energy monitor. These monitor helps the user to read and understand the consumption and production rates to compare the amount of energy the panels produce as to the amount they consume (Southern Energy, 2022). • Storage Batteries Storage batteries are components that help in storing extra power from the solar system for it to be used later when required (Fig 1.14). The solar system continues to recharge the batteries to have sufficient electricity during the absence of the sun. There are four types of storage batteries: 1. Lead-acid 2. Lithium-ion 3. Nickel-cadmium 4. Flow Each type of battery consist of advantages and disadvantages, however, lithium-ion batteries require minimum maintenance and are also capable of holding more solar energy within a smaller space as compared to lead-acid battery (Renogy, 2021). Fig 1.14: Solar Panel Batteries (Low Tech Magazine, 2023) 1.8 The Idea of a Pocket Lodge The pocket lodges are small buildings about 100-250 square feet, providing the seasonal rangers with basic amenities (Fig. 1.15). The lodge functions as a small residence for the rangers to work, sleep and rest in. Separate units would be developed to accommodate other functions such as kitchen, urinals, and bathing spaces but are not part of this research paper. Each residence could have photovoltaic panels resting on the roof generating adequate electricity throughout the year with an off-grid system. The design development comprise of six components: the roof, southern wall, northern wall, eastern wall, western wall and floor. Each component is designed to target individual issues experienced during the harshest weather conditions at Joshua tree national park. All residential lodges aim to achieve a common objective of attaining thermal comfort throughout the year without use of any HVAC systems. 17 The dimensions of the pocket lodge have been derived based on the legal dimension as per the state of California of the loading truck to prevent any additional cost. Transportation of the three components would require a flatbed trailer that consist of the maximum length of 48’, width of 8’6”, height of 13’6” from ground and a maximum weight of 80,000 lbs. Developing the lodge to be within these external dimension avoids the need of applying for any additional permit within the state of California. Therefore, this helps in making the process of transportation simpler and convenient. Fig 1.15: ‘The Pocket Lodge’ with a basic plan and dimensions. 1.8.1 The Pocket Lodge: Design The exterior surfaces are mainly responsible for the heat exchange between the building and the environment. The ratio of surface to volume is immensely essential as a compact building would gain less heat during the daytime and loses less heat at night. In instances which require small amount of heat exchange between the environment and the interior spaces, surface to volume factor should be less. The acquired indoor temperature would be close to the average outdoor temperature. However, in instance which require heat exchange, the surface to volume ratio should be greater. This further benefits the mass with a higher ventilation rate (Gut, 1993). 1.8.2 The Pocket Lodge: Room Layout Placement of rooms located in specific areas allows the user to gain several climatic advantages. Room layout is decided based upon the time the user would be present in that space. For instance, in hot climate regions bedrooms are generally located on the east side where it is relatively cool during the evenings, whereas living rooms would be placed on the northern side. Kitchens and other rooms that would experience high internal heat load should be detached from the bedrooms through a corridor or are placed as a separate built mass (Gut, 1993). 1.8.3 The Pocket Lodge: Smart Roof The design developing of the roofing membrane is conducted aiming at the following objectives: PV panels: The roof is responsible for generating adequate electricity through photovoltaic panels using an off-grid system. The PV panels are selected based on their annual electricity generation, size, weight, and price. The connection of the panels to the roof and other electrical appliances is to be explored. Furthermore, locating other components such at storage batteries, invertor, optimizers, charge controller, etc., required for the PV panels to function should be studied. The pocket lodge would include an appropriately sized lithium-ion battery. 18 • Shading components: The roof provides shade to the south, east and west facing walls. South facing would require a horizontal extended canopy whose length should not exceed the maximum width of the flatbed trailer i.e., 12 feet. The east and the west ends would be protected from the morning and evening sun by the roof through foldable panels with lattice work. These vertical shading panels would prevent direct glare from entering the interiors by providing vertical shade. Further, these extensions are required to be folded manually to reduce annual maintenance and thus would be composed of a lightweight material. The buffer space created between the folding panels and the east/west ends helps in further storing heat. • Dumping heat: The roof is also responsible of dumbing heat when required. Methods of night sky radiation and dynamic insulation are explored which would help the module in achieving its goal of having thermal comfort through the year. Further, heat could further be dumped by using operable windows through natural ventilation. 1.9 Software for simulation. Following are the software, plug-in’s and online-tools used for achieving the objectives mentioned above: PV Watts Calculator, Climate Studio, Microsoft Excel, IES VE, Ladybug (Rhino / Grasshopper), and AGi 32. 1.9.1 PV Watts Calculator PV watts is an online tool used to calculate the amount of energy that is generated in Joshua Tree National Park (Fig 1.16). The online tool also helps in achieving appropriate orientation and placement of the solar panels through which they generated the highest amount of energy through the year. The website provides a table expressing the electricity produced monthly. The website also provides the total energy generated annually in the last row of the table based upon the site and the placement selected. Fig 1.16: Sample output for PV Watts Calculator 19 1.9.2 Climate Studio Climate Studio functions as a plug-in tool for 3D software Rhino (Fig 1.17). The plug-in is used to test and compare different iterations for glare, daylighting, and solar radiation. A 3D model of the built mass is developed on Rhino 3D. Rhino 3D or rhinoceros 3D is a computer software used to develop 3D geometry and graphics for a built mass. Grasshopper is a plug-in built in rhino used to generate complex geometry through algorithms (Harmon, 2022). Then through the plug-in, location is selected, materials are added to each layer and an interior area is selected for which the result are calculated. Fig 1.17: Sample Output of Climate Studio 1.9.3 Microsoft Excel Microsoft Excel is a software tool used to generate spreadsheets that can analyze and recording statistical and numerical information (Fig 1.18). The user is allowed to perform various operations, complex calculations and illustrates the input data in forms of output graphs (Gibson, 2023). Fig 1.18: Sample Output of Microsoft Excel 20 1.9.4 IES VE IES VE is a software used to calculate the annual, monthly, or daily thermal properties of a building (Fig 1.19). The software first requires the user to build the geometry of a building. Further, materials are applied the exterior envelope, interior spaces, and openings. Next, through a built-in plug-in called Apache, the interior temperature and dry bulb temperature is extracted. The software is further used to compare different iterations with the aim to enhance ventilation and test the concept of dynamic insulation. Fig 1.19: Sample Output of IES VE 1.9.5 Ladybug (Rhino / Grasshopper) A script is generated on Grasshopper using the Ladybug components. The script requires an input of the materials and climate of the selected region. The built mass is developed through grasshopper to which the ladybug components are attached. The output allows the user to compare different exterior surfaces simultaneously. Further, the script even allows the user to study solar analysis and understand the sun movement in respect to the 3D mass (Fig 1.20). Fig 1.20: Sample Output of Ladybug 21 1.9.6 AGi 32 AGi32 is a simulation tool used to calculate precise photometric predictions (Fig 1.21). A software tool that can compute the illuminance generated by a luminaire within a space (Agi32 Overview – Industry Standard Lighting Software: Lighting analysts,” Lighting Analysts | Creator of AGi32, Elum Tools and other outstanding software!, 2020). The geometry of the space and furniture are developed within the software. It allows the user to set the placement and orientation of the luminaire and provides an output as footcandles achieved at specific points. Fig 1.21: Sample Output of AGi 32 Below, a table is developed illustrating the software used for simulations in order to achieve the objective proposed (Fig 1.22). Fig 1.22: Software Diagram 1.10 Summary The introduction begins to discuss about Joshua Tree National Park, precast concrete, ventilation, thermal break, frame and sash, photovoltaic panels, the idea of pocket lodge and the software’s for simulations. S No. 01 02 03 06 04 So!ware Name Function PV Watts (Online Tool) Climate Studio Microso! Excel Grasshopper (Ladybug) IES VE Calculated most suitable placement, orientation and electricty generated monthly and annually by the PV Panels. Compare di"erent iterations of the geometry created on folding panels to analysis glare and daylight impact. To create tables cal- culating the weight of the module and daily electricity generated by the PV Panels. Test solar radiation on each facade at 29 Palm Spring. #ermal analysis on the passive design strategy proposed and test the ventillation. To create 3D geometry of the pocket lodge and plugin climate studio. Rhinoceros 3D 05 07 A so!ware that computes the illu- minance created by a luminaire within a space. AGi 32 22 Chapter 1 discusses background study of Joshua Tree National Park, advantages and disadvantages of precast concrete, glass material and the design principles implied to the east and west façade. Moreover, it illustrates the strategies proposed for ventilation, the idea of a pocket lodge, and software for simulation. Chapter 1 depicted precast concrete and its characteristics that helps in understanding how the material can be used to achieve the proposed objectives in hot arid climate. Further, it talked about different types of frames that have been used and gathers general knowledge regarding photovoltaic panels. Chapter 1 provided a wider insight of the configuration of pocket lodge and the software used to calculate the impact of the iterations. PV Watts and Ladybug used to determine the placement and orientation of the panels, Climate Studio used to test different iterations of the shading panels on west and west façade. Further, IES VE is used to perform thermal analysis and Agi 32 to test different luminaires and their placement within the space. 23 2 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW Literature review elaborates on hot arid climate, orientation, prefabricated construction, daylighting and glare, photovoltaics, and other roof strategies. This chapter explores existing techniques used by buildings across the globe to adapt to a hot arid climate conditions. The first section begins by illustrating the challenges experienced by a built mass in a hot arid climate. It expresses several advantages that could established by simply orienting the module on the basis of sun or wind direction. Moreover, having the module prefabricated adds on to the advantages to face the harsh climate present. Further, it will also discuss how the research would inform the design of the components of the small residence in Joshua Tree National Park. 2.1 Hot-Arid Climates During the summer, one would experience intense heat, isolation, and vastness at Joshua Tree National Park. The site consist of an arid environment and extreme temperatures with moisture deficit, parched surroundings, and low annual precipitation (NPS, 2021). A person would be exposed to high temperatures during the day and comparatively lower temperatures during the night. Joshua Tree National Park (JTNP) comprises of a sub-tropical desert climate, with extremely hot summers and mild winters with the presence of a bright sun throughout the year (NPS, 2021). 2.2 Orientation The north direction experiences diffused sun exposure and stays cool even during the winter, although the south would receive the maximum amount of harsh sunlight. The south side walls can be provided with shade (using deep hangs) to avoid increasing the temperature inside (Gut, 1993). Too many windows pointing towards east catches the morning sun and windows facing west would allow the afternoon sun to enter. 30% of the heat enters the structure through windows; thus reducing the number of openings, helps in reducing internal temperature. Insulated glazing or thermal tinted windows are used as an alternative (Gut, 1993). Double pane low E glass should be recessed 6 to 8 inches or more from the exterior end of the tiny house to prevent the daytime summer sun from shinning into the southside of the house. Further, thicker walls are preferred to be placed facing south, east, and west as they act as natural insulation. (Gut, 1993). An entrance door should be placed facing east. The space is warm during early cool mornings when the ranger would be leaving for work. Moreover, the east direction is shaded during the warm afternoon when the user would return home (Noble, 2022). Using tile, metal and SIP panels as roofing material prevent the sun from beating down the built mass all day while allowing air circulation under reflected roof and over the house (Gut, 1993). Double canopy can also be used to avoid direct sunlight penetrating the interiors and cool the heat before entering the structure (Gut, 1993). 2.2.1 Sun Orientation A site is able to avoid any exposure to the sun by placing them on the north facing slopes as the southern facing façade is shaded by the slope itself. At a higher altitude, south slope facing 24 slope are adequate due to its advantage in passive heating (Gut, 1993). If the site is at a valley bottom, the site would experience additional heat by the reflection of sun radiation from the adjacent slopes. The topography surrounding the site might store and reflect radiant heat towards the building, depending upon the angle and type of the surface. In situations where solar heat is to be prevented from impacting the built mass, the surrounding surface can be covered with greenery or orientation of the building could be changed (Gut, 1993). Optimum sun orientation assists in minimizing the radiation during hot periods, while during cool periods, adequate radiation is released (Gut, 1993). East and west facing facades experience maximum intensities of radiation, especially during the summers. Thus, these walls are developed to be as small as possible and contain fewer and smaller openings. The directions of highest radiant gain achieved for both summers and winters can determine the most sufficient orientation for the given situation (Gut, 1993). 2.2.2 Wind Orientation Air movement is better at higher altitudes as the site at the bottom of the valleys are often in a wind shadow. Lower wind velocity are experienced in valleys and thus, there is a reduction in wind velocity (Gut, 1993). Further, correct wind orientation guides the built mass to achieve cooling by ventilation. Therefore, orienting the building across the breeze helps in achieving cooler indoor environment. However, this direction is often different from the most sufficient orientation according to the sun. More attention is given to the solar radiation as the structural elements help in influencing the direction of the wind to a certain extent (Gut, 1993). There is high wind movement from west, north west and the north for a long duration of time (Fig. 2.1). These directions experience high wind velocity (25 mph), low temperature (32 – 69 degree Fahrenheit) and 30-70% of relative humidity at Twenty Nine Palms near Joshua Tree. Fig 2.1 Wind Wheel for Twenty nine palms. 2.3 Prefabricated Construction Prefabricated construction refers to a construction technique in which the building components are composed on at a construction job site and then later transported to the building site where 25 they are set in place, assembled, and have the utilities added. The technique is beneficial as the jobsites today could be confined and are often situated in dense urban regions. However, the off-site construction requires to involves broad aspects to plan designing, manufacturing, and transporting building components from another site (Ellis, 2019). In the modern age, there are several trends that have impacted prefabrication. One example would be lean construction. Lean construction aims at the goal of innovative techniques and technology and immense communication between contractors, consultants, and stakeholders to reduce time, material, and cost of the project. However, the transportation of these prefabricated building components from the manufacturing site to the job site experiences certain issues. First, to utilize the area available on the truck efficiently with the aim to use fewer vehicles. Second, to prevent damaging of any building components while transporting them. Transporting elements even requires the contractor to achieve permission and licenses to be able to use the highways towards their jobsite and follow the rules stated by the highway authority. To avoid these issues, contractors are required to develop a transportation strategy prior to the construction stage (Ellis, 2019). Once the building components reach the jobsite, they are organized and placed at the desired location. These components are connected to each other through well detailed joints. These connectors play a crucial role in securing the unity of the built mass and ensuring waterproofing, weathering, meeting the fire resistance requirements and acoustic performances. The designers while designing the prefabricated components resolve the most efficient method which would allow them to easily install and connect different pieces together. The location of the joint has a great impact on what type, dimensions, and the type of sealant to be used. Modern sealants are durable; however, they would require maintenance or replacement when exposed to sunlight. Further, the positioning is even crucial due to their relationship with the building components that can affect the construction, usability, and maintenance of building envelope (Gut, 1993). 2.3.1 Prefabrication Construction: Advantages (Global, 2019) ● Helps in increasing productivity of construction workers and speed up their timelines. ● Leads to movement of modules on site could be more expensive as compared to shifting them around a factory. Furthermore, due to increase in labour productivity, personnel cost reduces. ● Builds 50% faster as compared to cast in place technique. ● Allows the users to control and organize the factory surroundings, providing a better quality and efficiency in work in contrast to onsite construction. ● Aims to reducing environmental impact. Offsite construction aid in reduction of pollution and in on-site disturbance. Moreover, a factory having a controlled dry environment decreases use of water and promotes scrap and other material recycling. ● Helps in improvement in the projection of the project and is easier against weather damage for construction elements. 2.3.2 Prefabrication Construction: Disadvantages (Global, 2019) ● Offers limited customization and utility area. ● Leads to addition of transportation cost. ● Causes increase in risk of damaging building components during transport. 26 ● Changes made to the design of the module and its building components would be required to be sent back to factory. 2.4 Daylighting and Glare: Skylight Roofs The main purpose for skylights is to provide interior spaces with natural daylighting to enhance the internal comfort, reduce dependence on artificial lighting, and improve the interaction between indoor and outdoor areas (Fig 2.2). Such methods are beneficial during the day for buildings where the lighting from the side windows is not enough. Thermal loads inside the building can directly impacted by using skylights (Abuseif, 2018). To avoid increase in the total energy consumption in a building, special treatment is needed when selecting the roof (Abuseif, 2018). The glass treatment or shading devices majorly impact the skylight performance. Furthermore, integrating roof evaporative cooling with skylight is very efficient and injecting phase change materials into to the air gap in between the dual glass system can reduce heat flux up to 47.5%. However, higher the thickness of the phase change materials, lesser is the light transmission. 20% of light energy loads could be saved through skylight roofs in arid climates and payback period can be up to 19.75 years (Abuseif, 2018). Fig 2.2 : Skylight Roof (Abuseif, 2018). Double-skin roofing method could be considered as an example of passive cooling and is suitable for hot climates (Fig 2.3). This roofing method comprises of two layers of roofing slabs with a gab in between them, aiming to reduce heat flux within the interiors (Abuseif, 2018). The upper layer works as a reflector or an absorber for heat and the lower layer covers the internal space. The gap in between containing air functions as an insulation layer to prevent the heat transfer between the addressed layer. Due to the dynamic nature of the air present in- between the layers, thermal resistance of the double skin roof is dynamic as well. Applying a reflective layer on top of the upper layer and adding more efficient insulating materials between the layers enhances the roofs efficiency up to 85% (Abuseif, 2018). 27 Fig 2.3 : Double Skin Roof (Abuseif, 2018). 2.5 Photovoltaic The following are iterations of smart roofing system that use PV panels: photovoltaic panel roofs and bio solar roofs. 2.5.1 Photovoltaic Panel Roofs Using renewable energy source such as photovoltaic panels help to gain the ability to generate electricity on-site and reduce the dependence on fossil fuel energy consumption. An added benefit is archived through these components by casting shade under the panels and absorbing solar radiation, contributing to reduction in heat gain on the roof surface (Fig 2.4). The type of roof insulation decides the amount of reduction in cooling loads caused by shading through the photovoltaic panels (Abuseif, 2018). However, there is an energy penalty experienced if the built mass is situated in cold climate regions or during the chilly winter seasons. An experiment depicted these panels to increase heating loads by 6.7% during the winters but decrease the cooling loads in summers by 17.8%. The payback period (4-11 years) and efficiency is dictated by the panels material, tilting degree, orientation, capacity and roof finishing material (Abuseif, 2018). Fig 2.4 : Photovoltaic Roof (Abuseif, 2018) Fig 2.5 : Bio-solar Roof (Abuseif, 2018) 2.5.2 Bio-solar Roofs Bio-solar method combines the strategies and the advantages achieved in PV panel roof and roof garden (Fig 2.5). This is comparatively a newer approach where the PV panels are precisely placed above the vegetation, avoiding generation of any shadows over the panels (Abuseif, 2018). Furthermore, the plants help in reducing the temperature under the panels leading to a slight improvement in its production by 1.2-5.3%. This improvement depends upon the type of plantation and roof garden characteristics and becomes negligible in situations 28 where the temperature is above 25 degree Celsius (77 degree Fahrenheit). On the other hand, PV panels provide a comfortable environment for the plants. The combination results in reductions of sensible heat flux up to 50% (Abuseif, 2018). 2.6 Other Roof Strategies Existing roofing system designed throughout the globe that are used as the core foundations for the pocket lodge design are mentioned below. 2.6.1 Concrete Roofs A concrete roof consist of the ability to store and dump heat due to high thermal mass (Fig 2.6). Thermal losses might be experienced during the winter season, however, the material absorbs external heat in the summers leading the users to be thermally unstable and uncomfortable. Different material have been added into concrete to improve its characteristics (Abuseif, 2018). For example, plastic waste and tires have been induced into the aggregate reduces the heat gain by 10-19% without effecting its performance. Dead load of roofs are also reduced through rubberized concrete and hollow concrete is capable of reducing thermal conductivity by 13- 40%. Several researcher have used phase change material (PCM) which allows the material to absorb heat before gaining access to the internal space (Abuseif, 2018). Fig 2.6 : Concrete Roof (Abuseif, 2018) Fig 2.7 : Cool Roof (Abuseif, 2018) 2.6.2 Cool Roofs Cool roofs are established by addition of reflective layer or coating over the roof slab with the goal to reflect solar radiation (Fig 2.7). Usually these roof are white in colour; darker colours tend to decrease solar reflectance resulting in an increase in the surface’s temperature. However, several discussion have led to the conclusion that using darker colour could still have a positive impact if they have high reflectivity performance (Abuseif, 2018). This strategy is functions well in hot arid or tropical climates. During the winters, a cool roof method might cause an energy penalty due to blockage of passive heating at the structures roof and its unable to prevent heat loss from internal spaces through roof slab unless insulation is applied. Such strategy help in reduction of heat flux up to 33%. The payback period of cool roofs is less when compared with other methods. Furthermore, cool roofs maintains a lower temperature causing the passive cooling to improve during night time when compared with photovoltaic panels and green roof systems (Abuseif, 2018). 29 2.6.3 Insulated Roof Insulated roofs are most frequently used roof type, and several countries mandate insulated roofs in their by-laws. Thermal conductivity (k) and the thickness of the layer dictates the insulation performance (Abuseif, 2018). Several materials are used to achieve this roof, for example, having a 50mm thickness of burnt mud phuska and 50mm of burnt clay brick tile, polystyrene, rock wool and fine white sand. In situations where insulation roofs are used with other technique such as ventilation or a reflective layer, efficiency can be increased up to 84% and 88% respectively. For insulated roofs, the economic payback period is greater than the environmental payback period (Fig 2.8). The economic payback period varies depending upon thermal conductivity and thickness of the layer, that can be 3-5 years (Abuseif, 2018). Fig 2.8 : Insulated Roof (Abuseif, 2018) 2.6.4 Horizontal Trombe Wall A standard Trombe wall consist of a glass panel placed 2-5 cm from a 10-40 cm thermal mass wall (Fig 2.10). This thermal mass could be composed of bricks, concrete or stone. The solar heat is passing through the glass panel is absorbed by the wall and is then slowly released into the interior space (Cao, 2020). The direct solar radiation consist of a shorter wavelength due to which it can easily be conducted through glass. Whereas, the heat re-emitted from the thermal mass wall comprises of a longer wavelength and can’t pass through the glass panel easily (Cao, 2020). The process allows the Trombe wall to limit the re-emitted heat into the environment and allowing the wall to effectively absorb heat. For a 20 cm thick wall, the method takes around 8-10 hours. Therefore, the wall absorbs heat during the day and slowly radiated heat into the interior spaces at night, reducing the dependence on mechanical heating system. The Trombe wall can function as a load-bearing wall while passively heating a building (Cao, 2020). A ventilated Trombe wall is a commonly used variation where vents are added to this system. The vents are placed at the top and bottom in between the gap of glass panel and the Trombe wall. The heated air rises up and is redirected into the interior spaces through these vents. On the other hand, cold air from the internal space escapes into the gap through the bottom vent where its heated (Cao, 2020) (Fig. 2.9). 30 Fig 2.9 : Vertical Trombe Wall (Cao, 2022) To enhance the effectiveness of ventilated Trombe wall, several architects apply a layer of metal sheet foil functioning as a radiant barrier to the external surface of the thermal mass wall (Cao, 2020). The foil allows the system to absorb higher amount of solar radiation converting it into heat and is also a low emittance material, avoiding the heat to escape through the glass. Moreover, the strategy is integrated with shading devices, preventing the internal spaces from overheating during summer season (Cao, 2020). 2.7 Summary Literature review elaborates on hot arid climate, orientation, prefabricated construction, daylighting and glare, photovoltaics, and other roof strategies. Chapter 2 began with a brief introduction to the climate exposure and the difficulties faced at Joshua Tree National Park. It then discussed the different strategies that are naturally offered by the context and could be implied to a built mass on such sites, for example sun and wind orientation. Construction in hot arid climate is tough due to the harsh weather conditions; precast done at another site could be a good solution. However, this technique consists of additional cost due to transportation and installation. At last, numerous roofing strategies are proposed that have been used by existing building facing similar climate across the globe, allowing the users to adapt and sustain to the harsh weather on site. 31 3 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY Methodology defines each stage collected as a team- site orientation, design development, material, mold and fabrication and code compliance. Moreover, it illustructs the procedure for individual data collected- solar radiation analysis, photovoltaic panels, glare and daylight analysis, thermal analysis and lighting design. This overall workflow aims to guide the reader throughout each step taken to achieve the desired objective (Fig 3.1). Chapter 3 focuses on design background and simulation menthodology. It states all the background research and software simulations performed as a team and individually on the roof. Site and orientation is dicussed first and the conclusion extracted are applied to the design development of the pocket lodge. Further, materials used within and for the construction of pocket lodge are explored. Area dimensioning, u values and r values are refined as per code compliance. Fig 3.1 : Methodology Diagram for Chapters 3 - 6 Moving forward towards the design background and simulation methodology that is collected individually to design the roof of pocket lodge (Fig 3.2). Following are the software’s, plug- in’s and online-tools used for the simulations: PV Watts Calculator, Climate Studio, Microsoft Excel, IES VE, Ladybug (Rhino / Grasshopper), and AGi 32. Chapter 3 guides towards understanding the procedure and steps taken to derive the required output. It introduces the reader to the programs explored within the research and the objective of each simulation. DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY MATERIAL MOLD & PREFABICATION CODE COMPLIANCE − Precast concrete − Insulation material − Shading louvers − Glass and frame − Mold material − Mold design − Prefabrication techniques − California Building Code − California Energy Code SITE & ORIENTATION − Sun position − Shade − Placement on site DESIGN DEVELOPMENT − Area/Dimension − Form development − Structure − Weight calculations (Excel) − Finishes (Texture) COLLECTED AS A TEAM COLLECTED INDIVIDUALLY DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE SOUTH WALL FINAL ITERATION COLLECTED AS A TEAM Chapter 3 Chapter 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS LIGHTING DESIGN − Glass & Frame − Dynamic Insulation for roof − Buffer Space + Folding Plates − Ventilation − Heating & Cooling days − Heat Capacity PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS − Orientation & Placement − Excel (Calculate daily requirement) − Battery Calculations GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Design Concept − Glare Analysis − Daylight Analysis − Shade Analysis − Lighting Fixture Selection − Design & Placement − Installation Process Aditya A. Bahl Chapter 6 NORTH WALL ROOF – Wall thickness – Connection details – Insulation thickness – Insulation material – Insulation Position – Dynamic Insulation Profiles – Overall joinery details – PV Panels placement & orientation – Folding Panel design – Insulation position – Insulation thickness – Thermal Analysis of dynamic insulation on roof – Thermal Lag in IESVE – Lighting Design Analysis SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Placement of PV Panels − Months with highest DB Temp SIMULATION & RESULTS Thermal Comfort/Ventilation Prototype Composite Prototype Mould Design Dynamic Insulation Movement BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS • Ladybug, Grasshopper − Incident radiation on each surface. PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS Chapter 4 • PV Watts − Orientation & Placement − AC energy generated − Number of panels GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS • Climate Studio − Glare disturbing percentage − Lux achieved at each zone THERMAL ANALYSIS • IESVE − Testing external material − Addition of shading components & code compliance − Natural Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation on roof − Thermal lag test LIGHTING DESIGN • AGI32 − Test different fixtures − Tilt & rolling angle Base Case Overall Model − Material − Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation Movement − Base Model of Pocket Lodge Proposed Overall Model − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on South − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on North − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on Roof – Wall thickness – Outside & Inside Insulation thickness – Insulation position – Insulation material – Dynamic insulation profile – Static insulation Work by Aditya A. Bahl Work by Archana Janardanan Work by Yuqing He Work done as a group COLLECTED DESIGN BACKGROUND Addition of Mechanical System − Heating & Cooling load iteration 16.0 − Heating & Cooling load tent structure − Compare heating & cooling loads Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge 32 Fig 3.2: Methodology Diagram for Chapter 3 3.1 Data Collection: Collected as a team. The following topics were common for all members of the pocket lodge team. The team collected the information regarding these topics as a team. References have been taken from the existing examples of small residences and the information collected is used as the foundation for designing pocket lodge. The research was divided into two categories. First, being the site analysis discussing the orientation, placement, topography, Joshua Tree National Park, seasonal rangers, and the visitors. Further, the data was collected thinking about the process after design development i.e., transportation and installation. Information regarding by-laws, route and permits required for transporting and site modifications are illustrated. 3.1.1 Site & Orientation Exploring how existing structures and precast concrete react to arid conditions and climate is important. Site and orientation involve exploring the site which would guide the design development and achieve a context responsive module. Site analysis involves exploring the relationship between the climate with the site, understand the interaction of a built mass with the sun and how to take advantage of the existing recourses present on site. The conclusions derived from the site analysis would assist in material selection and geometry of the built mass. Site study is crucial specially to achieve thermal comfort within the pocket lodge. It can lead to greater understanding what issues and difficulty the existing structures experienced and help achieve a solution for them. DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY MATERIAL MOLD & PREFABICATION CODE COMPLIANCE − Precast concrete − Insulation material − Shading louvers − Glass and frame − Mold material − Mold design − Prefabrication techniques − California Building Code − California Energy Code SITE & ORIENTATION − Sun position − Shade − Placement on site DESIGN DEVELOPMENT − Area/Dimension − Form development − Structure − Weight calculations (Excel) − Finishes (Texture) COLLECTED AS A TEAM COLLECTED INDIVIDUALLY DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE SOUTH WALL FINAL ITERATION COLLECTED AS A TEAM Chapter 3 Chapter 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS LIGHTING DESIGN − Glass & Frame − Dynamic Insulation for roof − Buffer Space + Folding Plates − Ventilation − Heating & Cooling days − Heat Capacity PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS − Orientation & Placement − Excel (Calculate daily requirement) − Battery Calculations GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Design Concept − Glare Analysis − Daylight Analysis − Shade Analysis − Lighting Fixture Selection − Design & Placement − Installation Process Aditya A. Bahl Chapter 6 NORTH WALL ROOF – Wall thickness – Connection details – Insulation thickness – Insulation material – Insulation Position – Dynamic Insulation Profiles – Overall joinery details – PV Panels placement & orientation – Folding Panel design – Insulation position – Insulation thickness – Thermal Analysis of dynamic insulation on roof – Thermal Lag in IESVE – Lighting Design Analysis SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Placement of PV Panels − Months with highest DB Temp SIMULATION & RESULTS Thermal Comfort/Ventilation Prototype Composite Prototype Mould Design Dynamic Insulation Movement BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS • Ladybug, Grasshopper − Incident radiation on each surface. PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS Chapter 4 • PV Watts − Orientation & Placement − AC energy generated − Number of panels GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS • Climate Studio − Glare disturbing percentage − Lux achieved at each zone THERMAL ANALYSIS • IESVE − Testing external material − Addition of shading components & code compliance − Natural Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation on roof − Thermal lag test LIGHTING DESIGN • AGI32 − Test different fixtures − Tilt & rolling angle Base Case Overall Model − Material − Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation Movement − Base Model of Pocket Lodge Proposed Overall Model − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on South − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on North − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on Roof – Wall thickness – Outside & Inside Insulation thickness – Insulation position – Insulation material – Dynamic insulation profile – Static insulation Work by Aditya A. Bahl Work by Archana Janardanan Work by Yuqing He Work done as a group COLLECTED DESIGN BACKGROUND Addition of Mechanical System − Heating & Cooling load iteration 16.0 − Heating & Cooling load tent structure − Compare heating & cooling loads Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge 33 3.1.2 Design Development The next stage after data collection would be design development and figuring out dimensions of the module and structure of the tiny lodge while strictly following the bylaws. The design is derived from the proposed objectives: • Aims to achieve thermal comfort in an arid region without using any mechanical systems. Using precast concrete and its characteristics to develop the whole lodge as a thermal battery and introducing the concept of dynamic insulation. • Generates and stores adequate amount of electricity and design the roof with joinery that accommodate the PV panels. • Responds to the human comfort needs of the seasonal ranger in the interior space. • Acts as a self-sustaining and resilient structure requiring minimal maintenance. • Composed of a single mold, casting the north, south facing walls, base, and the roofing structure of tiny house. • Achieves simplicity while transporting and installing the built mass. The pocket lodge is a prefabricated structure designed as a turnkey project. The design developed is further divided into several sub-headings leading towards the development of the initial stages of design. This stage is further carried forward and refined based on the simulations being conducted. The subheading includes area dimensioning, form development, structure, and weight calculations. Area Dimension The dimensions of the pocket lodge have been derived based on the legal dimension as per the California oversize permits of the loading truck to prevent any additional cost (Heavy Haul Trucking, 2021). Transportation of the whole module would require a flatbed trailer that consist of the maximum length of 48’, width of 8’6”, height of 13’6” from ground and a maximum weight of 80,000 lbs. (Fig 3.3). Fig 3.3: Standard Flatbed Trailer Dimensions (Tesla Semi Dimensions, 2022) 34 The module while being transported would require having its folding panels on east and west sides to be enclosed. This allows the module to have its longest length while transportation to be 28’, which can be easily transported on the flatbed trailer (Fig 3.4). Further, developing the lodge to be within these external dimensions avoids the need of applying for any permit within the state of California. Therefore, this helps in making the process of transportation simpler and convenient. Fig 3.4 First iteration of Area Dimension for Pocket Lodge Form Development The pocket lodge will be a simple cuboidal form and has its longer sides facing north and south. The built mass is made linear to have fewer and simpler molds for casting the module. The east and west ends of the roof can fold as per user requirement assisting the walls to achieve thermal comfort, preventing glare and allow adequate daylight to enter the lodge. Further, the glass panels are shifted into the built mass creating semi-outdoor spaces or buffer spaces on both ends. This feature gives the module a hollow cuboidal tube form with two wings hanging on the shorter ends (Fig 3.5). Fig 3.5: Form Development for Pocket Lodge Structure Pocket lodge would be composed of five individual hollow tube structures that would be assembled using post-tensioned tendons running through each component (Fig 3.6). The concrete would be poured into the mold vertically with the mold accommodating the space left for the tendons. The concrete component is casted with steel reinforcing strands or caps installed using a method that would protect them from bonding with the concrete itself. Once, the concrete is casted and hardens, the five modules would be joined together by passing the post-tensioned tendons through each of the hollow openings. The concept allows the pocket lodge to achieve structural stability, earthquake self-centering and alignment. Further, this modular design allows the lodge to have flexibility by having length as a variable that could be decided based on the seasonal ranger’s requirements. 35 Fig 3.6: Structural Design Weight Calculation: The weight calculations have been derived from the California highway authority stating a maximum of 80,000 lbs. is allowed to be transported on a flatbed trailer without requiring any additional permit (Easton & Easton, n.d.) (US Department of Transportation, Date Accessed 12/06/2022). Furthermore, several iterations with different concrete component dimensions and thicknesses were tested and the estimate total weight of each is noted. The weight calculating tool was developed on Microsoft Excel (Fig 3.7). It uses simple equations for calculating the volume of concrete using their length, breadth, and thickness in inches of each wall individually and then multiplying it with concrete weight per inch i.e., 0.087 pounds/inch. Fig 3.7: Weight Calculation of Concrete Components Other materials were not considered during the first step due to concrete being the heaviest material and following the above-mentioned method, made the whole process simpler. 36 However, once the weight of concrete is finalized, another weight calculating tool is developed on Microsoft Excel deriving the weight of each component individually by multiplying its weight in inches with pounds/inches. Next steps for weight calculation are explained in detail within the following chapter (Section 4.1.2). 3.1.3 Material Materials for the module were decided based on their thermal characteristics, maintenance requirement, and energy requirements. Pre-cast concrete was selected due to their ability of high thermal mass which guides the study to develop the thermal battery concept with dynamic insulation. Further, the material consists of long-lasting abilities and doesn’t require any maintenance once casted. One issue the study experienced with this material was its weight. Transporting a module on a flatbed trailer restricts the dimensions of the lodge to the smallest dimensions stated in the by-laws. Standard concrete mix (Compressive Strength: 2500-5000 psi) would be used for the construction of the tiny residence (Lysett, 2022). The formula for this mix was derived through several discussions within the pocket lodge team and engineers of Precast/ Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI). The concrete mix was decided by taking references from project done by these engineers with similar dimensions and requirements. The ratio of the high strength concrete mix (Compressive Strength: Greater than 6000 psi) is set to standards and to achieve easy flow of concrete slurry, self-consolidating mix is used (PCA, n.d.). This self-consolidating mix consists of added advantages, preventing generation of any air pockets in most scenarios. However, vibrators are used to set the concrete mix and prevent generation of air pockets. Concrete Mix: • Portland cement: 750 lbs./yard • Sand: 1250 lbs./yard • Water: 36 gallons • Aggregates: 1600 lbs. For insulation, the material selected requires preventing heat from passing through its volume for the thermal battery concept to function. The two dynamic insulation on both sides of the concrete wall assist the lodge with three stages. First, with the external insulation open to collect heat and fill up the concrete battery. Second stage is when both insulation components are closed, storing all the collected heat into the wall battery during the period when the user doesn’t require the room to be heated. Third stage, when the internal insulation is turned on, dumping all the heat into the cold interior. The same concept is replicated on the northern wall, collect cool winds that would help in decreasing the room temperature when required. the addition of insulating material leads to decrease of U value and increase in R value of the longer walls. The insulating material are required to have the following characteristics to reduce internal heat gain: • High Thermal Resistance (R) • Low Thermal Conductivity (λ) • Thickness of insulation (e) • Density of Insulation 37 Polystyrene, polyurethane board, foam board, and batt insulation are the insulated material considered within the simulations to achieve the proposed objective. The R-values of each are mentioned below: (Thermal Insulation Materials, Technical Characteristics and Selection Criteria, 2023). • Polystyrene 7.0 • Polyurethane Board 6.25 • Foam Board 6.5-7 • PUR Insulation 6.5 (Aragonés, 2023) • XPS Insulation 4.7 (Aragonés, 2023) • Batt Insulation 3.7 • EPS Insulation 3.6 (Aragonés, 2023) • Foam Glass 3.4 (Aragonés, 2023) The folding plates with shading louvers on east and west ends were initially planned to be composed of lightweight concrete such as aerated concrete. However, since the component requires to be manually operated by the seasonal rangers, the panels are fins are required to be composed of material much lighter and requiring low annual maintenance. One such material with such characteristics, has a low cost, and is not susceptible moisture and water is vinyl (An Introduction to Vinyl, 2023). The east and west facades of the pocket lodge would consist of glass operable windows for ventilation and daylighting. These openings require to be high performing that would reduce solar heat gain for the rangers to sustain at a site like Joshua Tree National Park. The following properties are considered for the windows of tiny house: Multi-Pane Glass: These refer to window glasses with two or three panes of glass. The panes are placed with some space in between that is generally filled with gas or air as an insulating material. For the tiny house, argon gas would be filled in-between the glass panes helping in saving energy through its insulating properties and is considered cheaper and more efficient as compared to other gases (Bartley, 2022). Low E-Glass: Low E coating or low emissivity glass are applied to reduce the amount of infrared and ultraviolet light that can transmit through the glass surface without compromising the amount of visible light passing though (Vitro, 2022). Vacuum Insulated Glass: Vacuum insulated glass or VIG is developed to maximize insulation performance on an opening. It consists of an R-value of R14 and U-value of 0.07. VIG comprises of two pieces of 4mm glass panel with a vacuum space separating the glass panels using a non-leaded metal seal (Vitro, n.d.). Solar Heat Gain Coefficient: SHGC is a measurement unit used to determine the amount of solar radiation that can transmit through a window or skylight. Energy efficiency of openings are quantified through solar heat gain coefficient ratings. The rating is between 0 and 1 where 1 refers to the maximum amount of solar heat allowed through a window and 0 refers to the least amount of solar heat surpassing through the opening (Gromicko, 2022). U Factor: An opening’s U factor refers to measuring the amount of heat transferred by a window and therefore, how well an opening insulates. Low heat flow through a window is 38 noted when the opening consists of a low U-factor and vice-versa. Having low U-factor means low heating and cooling cost (P.C. Remodeling, 2022). 3.1.4 Mold & Prefabrication The next step is to design the mold through which this hollow cuboidal tube-like structure would be casted through. Modularity within the design of the mold would allow production to be quicker, cost effective and be more efficient. The material of the formwork is required to withstand multiple pours. Having plywood as the mold material is sufficient due to its ability to hold multiple pours, it consists of low cost and the board size available in market are 4’x8’ and 4’x10’ (Curtis Lumber & Plywood, 2019). These dimensions are suitable for the dimensions of the pocket lodge module that is to be casted repeatedly. ¾ inches thick plywood is considered to increase the longevity of the formwork usage. The size of the mold is derived from the dimensions of the tube (Fig 3.8). Fig 3.8: Mold Design and Dimensions for the Pocket Lodge Other factors that are needed to be considered while design a plywood mold: Mold releasing Agent: One of the biggest issues experienced while casting concrete in a plywood mold is of the concrete getting stuck to the formwork. The situation leads to increase in labor cost, reduces durability of the mold and increases cleaning time. It doesn’t only cause issue to the concrete but to the mold as well. Plywood mold agents are used to prevent such scenarios and achieve a stain-free concrete finish (Erdem, 2023). 3.1.5 Code Compliance Understanding transportation and installation process of the module was crucial and directed several characteristics of the design specially to determine the dimensions and weight needed to be achieved without requiring any permit. The route and distance that would be allowed for transporting such a heavy structure from construction site to the job site. Following are the by-laws applied to the module have been extracted from the California Residential codes 2021 (IRC 2021) and are stated below (California Residential Code 2022 Based on the International Residential Code 2021 (IRC 2021), 2021): 8.1 9.1 6.9 8.1 39 • Minimum Area: Habitable rooms shall have a floor area of not less that 70 square feet. • Minimum Dimensions: Any habitable room shall not be less than 7 feet in any horizontal dimensions. • Minimum Height: Habitable space, hallways and portions of basements containing these spaces shall have a ceiling height of not less than 7 feet. • Means of Egress: The means of egress shall provide a continuous and unobstructed path of vertical and horizontal egress travel from all portions of the dwelling. • Egress Door: Not less than one egress door shall be provided for each dwelling unit. The egress door shall be side-hinged and shall provide a clear width of not less than 32 inches. Further, Title 24 is used to extract energy related by-laws and are mentioned below (Energy Code Ace - Reference Ace 2022 Tool, 2022): • Solar Zone Area: For buildings with a roof area less than 10,000 sq ft should have a solar zone total area requires a minimum of 80 sq ft that is free of any obstruction. • Building Envelope Insulation for Climate Zone 14 (Fig 3.9) Fig 3.9: Insulation Table (Energy Code Ace - Reference Ace 2022 Tool, 2022) 3.2 Data Collection: Collected Individually for Roof of The Pocket Lodge The following data represents research done and the simulations conducted specifically to design the smart roof feature of the pocket lodge (Fig 3.10). 40 Fig 3.10: Methodology Diagram Focusing on Chapter 3 Individual Work 3.2.1 Solar Radiation Analysis Solar analysis is done to understand how all the surfaces exposed to the environment respond to the sun movement. Calculating solar radiance of each façade assisted in making the decision for placement of solar panels to generate adequate energy. Solar analysis is studied by first creating a 3D geometry on Rhinoceros 3D and then using the ladybug plug-in on the grasshopper software within rhino. A Grasshopper script was developed that first required the user to select a site. Due to unavailability of Joshua Tree National Park weather file, Twentynine Palms weather file that is adjacent to the site and similar climate was used to achieve the desired result. The scripts further places the module on the selected site and provides an output of incident radiation on each surface exposed to the virtual environment allowing the user to compare the facades with each other (Fig 3.11). DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY MATERIAL MOLD & PREFABICATION CODE COMPLIANCE − Precast concrete − Insulation material − Shading louvers − Glass and frame − Mold material − Mold design − Prefabrication techniques − California Building Code − California Energy Code SITE & ORIENTATION − Sun position − Shade − Placement on site DESIGN DEVELOPMENT − Area/Dimension − Form development − Structure − Weight calculations (Excel) − Finishes (Texture) COLLECTED AS A TEAM COLLECTED INDIVIDUALLY DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE SOUTH WALL FINAL ITERATION COLLECTED AS A TEAM Chapter 3 Chapter 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS LIGHTING DESIGN − Glass & Frame − Dynamic Insulation for roof − Buffer Space + Folding Plates − Ventilation − Heating & Cooling days − Heat Capacity PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS − Orientation & Placement − Excel (Calculate daily requirement) − Battery Calculations GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Design Concept − Glare Analysis − Daylight Analysis − Shade Analysis − Lighting Fixture Selection − Design & Placement − Installation Process Aditya A. Bahl Chapter 6 NORTH WALL ROOF – Wall thickness – Connection details – Insulation thickness – Insulation material – Insulation Position – Dynamic Insulation Profiles – Overall joinery details – PV Panels placement & orientation – Folding Panel design – Thermal Analysis of roof – Thermal Lag in IESVE – Structural Analysis – Lighting Design Analysis SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Placement of PV Panels − Months with highest DB Temp SIMULATION & RESULTS Thermal Comfort/Ventilation Prototype Joinery Prototype Mould Design Dynamic Insulation Movement BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Ladybug, Grasshopper PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS Chapter 4 − PV Watts − Microsoft Excel GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Climate Studio THERMAL ANALYSIS − IESVE LIGHTING DESIGN − AGI Thermal Comfort/Ventilation − Ventilation Operation Dynamic Insulation Movement − Insulation Operation – Wall thickness – Outside & Inside Insulation thickness – Insulation position – Insulation material – Dynamic insulation profile – Static insulation Work by Aditya A. Bahl Work by Archana Janardanan Work by Yuqing He Work done as a group COLLECTED DESIGN BACKGROUND 41 Fig 3.11: Honeybee Simulation for Incident Radiation on each surface. Further, another script was developed using the same site and 3D model to derive the sun movement around the site (Fig 3.12). This script helps in understanding the movement of the sun in relation with the module. Moreover, the sun path simulation also helps the user to derive the months during which the site experiences its highest dry bulb temperature. Fig 3.12: Sun Movement in relation to the site. 3.2.2 Photovoltaic Panels To begin the photovoltaic panel calculations, research was conducted deriving the type of panels and battery that would be suitable for the site and project. Monocrystalline PV panels were preferred due to their high efficiency, long lasting ability, and proven performance. However, their cost of installation was noted to be high. For calculating the placement and orientation, an online tool known as PV Watts calculator is used. The online tool provides the user with an output stating its monthly, number of panels required, and annual AC energy generated. The tool first requests the user for the site locations. Once selected, the user inputs the data regarding the total area of solar panels, type of panels, size of DC system n kilowatts, array type, system loss percentage and most essentially the azimuth and tilt angles the panels would be placed in. Azimuth refers to the angle solar panels are facing. It is measured from north as 0-degree angle and measured in clockwise direction. Tilt angles refers to the angle the solar panels would be racked at. Generally, the tilt angle should be equal to the site angle (Natasha, 2021). Once all these values are inserted, the online tool generates a table consisting of the annual AC energy generated in Kilowatt hour and monthly solar radiation experienced and monthly AC energy. To acquire the most optimum azimuth and tilt angle, the software was run multiple times. An excel file was generated and the results derived from numerous iterations on PV Watt Calculator were inserted to acquire and compare the AC energy generated per day. Another excel file was generated to derive the amount of energy that would be needed by the rangers to fulfill their basic needs (Fig 3.13). These number were assumed and added up to achieve the required amount of energy per day. Both these steps were performed numerous times to achieve more accurate results. 42 Fig 3.13: Total Electricity generated for the rangers on site. Once the placement, orientation and the energy generated are derived, research is conducted deriving the manufacturer of PV panels and calculating whether their product can generate the required electricity and understanding the cost of purchasing and installing the product (Fig 3.14). Fig 3.14: Brands of Monocrystalline PV panels Finally, the appropriate battery is selected that is required for storing the electricity generated throughout the day. Lithium-ion batteries are used due to their ability to hold more solar energy and requiring no maintenance. Battery size is derived through manual calculations. The equation requires energy generated per month, number of panels and battery type. The goal of this simulation is to derive the azimuth and tilt angle of the panels at which the PV panels would generate maximum amount of energy and is shown in the following chapter (Section 4.2.2). 3.2.3 Glare, Dynamic Shading and Daylighting Analysis Glare, daylighting, and shading simulations were conducted to test different geometric patterns on the folding panels attached to the shorter ends of the roof with the aim to provide adequate daylight, shade and prevent glare (Fig 3.15). Climate Studio was used. Several iterations were developed, tested and their results were compared with each other in the upcoming chapter (Section 4.2.3). 43 Fig 3.15: Several Iterations were tested on Climate Studio Software The first step for this simulation was to develop a built mass and assign a separate layer for each surface composed of different materials (Fig 3.16). The next step was to apply the materials in Climate Studio. The space on which the simulation is needed to be conducted was selected. And the final step is to run the plug-in. Fig 3.16: Built Mass developed on Rhino 3D. A glare analysis will be conducted (Fig 3.17). The software divides the integral space into several points and analysis the glare experienced 360 degrees around each point. An output is then generated with a plan of the internal space with the points and amount of glare that would be experience if a person was standing at that point. Further, a table is generated expressing the level of disturbance experienced at each point due to glare throughout the year. The value deciding the level of disturbance can be set manually. The goal of this analysis is to achieve a certain geometry on the folding panels that would prevent any glare experienced within the interior space throughout the year. Fig 3.17: Glare analysis in Climate Studio 44 Shading analysis is conducted next. It follows the space steps as glare analysis before providing the user with the output. The results presented by the software in a plan illustrating average lux on the same points as above. It provides the sDA 300 i.e., sufficient daylight autonomy and pointing out the spaces that would experience more than 300 lux (Fig 3.18). Further, it provides annual sunlight exposure (ASE) mapping the areas in the internal space that are exposed to 1000 lux for more than 250 hours per year. Daylight 2 0 credits 26.7% sDA 6.7% ASE 702 avg lux - blinds open No dynamic shading has been modeled because: 0 50% Daylight Autonomy (300 lux) · 1 LEED v4.1 Daylight Option 1 Daylight 2 · 45 Fig 3.18: Output Report from Climate Studio. At last, daylighting analysis is also conducted following the same principles as above and using the same points (Fig 3.19). The software generates a plan with median lux at each point illustrating the median amount of daylight the space would experience. Fig 3.19: Daylighting Analysis from Climate Studio 46 3.2.4 Thermal Analysis Thermal calculations were conducted based on the objective of achieving a comfortable indoor temperature between 65 degrees to 85 degrees Fahrenheit. Several simulations were conducted to achieve the above goal. These simulations are conducted to test different passive strategies proposed while designing the pocket lodge. Its conducted using the IES VE software. The software requires the user to input the internal gains, select site, develop a 3D built mass and add the proposed material. The geometry is developed in the ‘ModelIt’ section within the software which allows the user to select the space where the calculations are performed and further place or design the shading devices attached to the module (Fig 3.20). Fig 3.20: General View of Built Mass in ModelIt Section of IES VE. Once the built mass is ready, the user can start setting up the site conditions, orientation, addition of materials and create the profiles required to be generated for the calculations. Site can be selected by clicking on the default location written at the bottom right of the ModelIt window. A window labelled as Aplocate pops up where the site is selected by clicking on the wizard button within the ‘Location & Site Data’ column of the window (Fig 3.21). For the IES VE simulation, ‘Twentynine palms, California’ weather file was used, having similar weather condition to the Joshua Tree National Park site. Other features such as daylight saving time, ground reflectance, wind exposure, etc could also be adjusted within the Aplocate window. 47 Fig 3.21: Aplocate Window on IES VE Solar shading analysis can be achieved on IES VE by selecting SunCast on the left side of the window and then clicking on the Solar Shading Calculations (Fig 3.22). Further, by going on ‘Model Viewer II’ on the top right of the screen, an solar path animation could be achieved to understand the relationship between the built mass and the sun for the selected time period (Fig 3.23). Fig 3.22: Solar Shading Calculation on IES VE 48 Fig 3.23: View of Built Mass on Model Viewer II On completing solar shading calculation, the next step is to assignment construction materials to the model developed. Below the SunCast icon on the left hand side of the screen, Apache icon is selected. The whole module is selected by dragging the mouse from left to right and Assign Construction icon on the top toolbar is selected (Fig 3.24). A window opens that allows the user to select the walls, roof, external glazing and exposed floor designed within the software. Fig 3.24: Assignment Construction Window on IES VE 49 In case, a newer wall is to be designed or an existing wall is to be edited, APcdb button within the assign construction window is selected. The component that is to be edited or created can be developed here by clicking on the ID of the desired component. Other materials can be added by selecting system materials (Fig 3.25). The software automatically provides the U- value, R Value, thermal mass and the total thickness of the sandwich designed that can be manipulated based on the materials selected. Fig 3.25: Edit or creating a new wall component on IES VE Further, to achieve accurate results, the model requires the internal gains from lighting, occupancy and equipment to be considered for the calculations. The ventilation strategy defining the opening and closing of operable windows further helps in detailing the model to achieve more accurate internal air temperature. Once the building is assignment with materials, integral gains and ventilation profile, different iterations of pocket lodge are developed. Internal Gains & Profile Development The first step after setting the site from the software library is to set daily, weekly, and annual internal gain profile. These profiles allow the user to create timeline depicting the period internal gains are considered for the result. Internal gains are set for occupancy, lighting, and equipment within the space. The software requests for the maximum sensible and latent gain for occupancy and max power consumption for the devices (Fig 3.26). Fig 3.26: Internal Gains inserted to perform Thermal Calculations. 50 Further, within apache, by selecting ‘Apache profile database manager’, daily/weekly/annual profiles are created and set for occupancy, lighting, and equipment (Computer) based on when a person would be present in the interior space and when the devices would be in use and would be radiating heat (Fig 3.27). Fig 3.27: Daily Occupancy Profile The X-axis illustrates the time of the day and Y-axis depicts whether the occupant is present within the room (Value =1) or not (Value =0). Similarly, daily profiles are created for lighting, computer, and ventilation (Fig 3.28 & Fig 3.29). Fig 3.28: Daily Lighting Profile Fig 3.29: Daily Computer Profile 51 Further, for ventilation two daily profiles were created, one being for winters and other for summers (Fig 3.30). The values were inserted based on when the windows would be 100% open, 50% open or completely closed depending upon the thermal comfort. Fig 3.30 Daily Summer Ventilation Profile During summer, windows would remain shut (Value = 0) from 12:00 AM to 8:30AM. From 8:30 AM to 11:00 AM windows would be 50% open (Value = 0.5) and 11:00 AM onwards, windows would be completely open (Value = 1) until 5:00 PM. From 5:00 PM to 7:00 PM windows would be 50% open (Value = 0.5) and would remain shut (Value = 0) until next morning (Fig 3.29). Similarly, adequate time frame was developed for winters (Fig 3.31). Fig 3.31: Daily Winter Ventilation Profile At last, for ventilation an annual profile is developed which contains of each month consisting of either ‘Daily Summer Ventilation Profile’ or ‘Daily Winter Ventilation Profile’ (Fig 3.32). 52 Fig 3.32: Annual Ventilation Profile Ventilation Next step is to apply natural ventilation into the module. Below ‘Apache’ icon, ‘MacroFlo’ icon is selected and on the top toolbar, ‘Edit selection set opening types’ is clicked. The ‘Assign Opening Types’ pops up where external glazing could be designed based on ventilation (Fig 3.33). Fig 3.33: Assign Opening Types Window on IES VE By selecting opening types within the ‘assign opening types’ of window, external glazing could be edited. Exposure type, opening category, openable area % and crack flow could be edited here (Fig 3.34). Degree of opening is set to annual ventilation profile created above. 53 Fig 3.34: MacroFlow Opening Types of window on IES VE. Thermal Iterations and Results Once all the above principles have been set and applied to the module, within ‘Apache’ section on IES VE, the apacheSim (Dynamic Simulation) icon at the bottom of the screen is selected (Fig 3.35). By clicking on ‘Simulate’ button within the window, the software collaborates all the input data applied and automatically open VistaPro section of IES VE where the results can be acquired (Fig 3.36). Fig 3.35: Apache Simulation window on IES VE 54 Fig 3.36: ‘VistaPro’ Window on IES VE 3.2.5 Lighting Design Agi32 is a simulation tool used to calculate precise photometric predictions and is used as the tool for lighting design of the pocket lodge. allows the user to set the placement and orientation of the luminaire and provides an output as footcandles achieved at specific points. The first step is to build the geometry of the space where luminaires are placed. This is done by selecting the room/object icon under the model toolkit column (Fig 3.37). Fig 3.37: User Interface of AGi 32 The geometry is built by selecting any of the icons in ‘add room’ row and objects by selecting the icons within ‘add objects’ row (Fig 3.38). Once the geometry is created, the user can begin the process of selecting luminaires and inserting them into the software. The user must find an 55 ‘.ies’ file to import the fixture into the software. An ies is a file type that allows user to import a lighting fixture into Agi 32 with realistic characteristics. Fig 3.38: Adding rooms and objects to perform simulations on Agi 32. The luminaire is imported by selecting the luminaire icon under model toolkit column (Fig 3.39). Fig 3.39: Adding luminaire to Agi 32 model. The define bottom is selected under the luminaire row and a window pops up (Fig 3.40). Browse/recent button is selected which directs the user to the desktop browsing window from where the user can select and import the ‘.ies’ file (Fig 3.41). Within the define luminaire window, the total LLF i.e., light loss factor is reduced to 0.85 from 1 to consider an inefficiency factor within the calculations. 56 Fig 3.40: Define Luminaire Window on Agi 32. Fig 3.41: Window pop-up on selecting Browse/Recent on AGi 32. The lighting fixture is then added to the software library. It can be selected and placed by going back to the model tool kit and selecting the luminaire button (Fig. 3.42). The fixture is selected under the label row and its mounting height, tilt, roll, spin angle can be adjusted. Once the placement is confirmed, the fixture is placed in the plan view. The placement can further be modified by selecting the desired option under modify. An essential tool that helps in placing of the fixture, is the photometric web tool. It allows the user to see the direction at which the lighting fixture illuminates the light in (Fig 3.43 & 3.44). 57 Fig 3.42: Editing and placing Lighting Fixture on AGi 32. Fig 3.43: Photometric web tool on AGi 32. 58 Fig 3.44: Output of Photometric Web Tool. At last, to view the result in footcandles, the calculate button is selected (Fig. 4.45). Several iterations can be developed by changing the type of luminaires, their placement, and orientations. However, note that the software might crash several times while simulating the result. Thus, it is crucial to remember to save the file before selecting calculate button. Fig 4.45: Calculate Results on Agi 32. 3.3 Summary Methodology defines each stage collected as a team- site orientation, design development, material, mold and fabrication and code compliance. Moreover, it illustructs the procedure for individual data collected- solar radiation analysis, photovoltaic panels, glare and daylight analysis, thermal analysis and lighting design. Chapter 3 provided the reader with a brief understanding of the data collected by the whole pocket lodge’ team and then further dives deeper into the research gathered for roofing system 59 of the residence. It depicts the methodology for selecting the orientation, designing the module with respect to the by-laws, deciding what materials are applied and proposes the design of the mold. Chapter 3 also provided a step by step understanding of the software and online tools used to achieve the desired design of the lodge. Starting with the placement and orientation of the PV panels. Developing the design for the folding panels preventing glare and allowing adequate sunlight within and lastly steps to perform thermal analysis using IES VE software. At last, the user interface on Agi 32 is explained. The process starts by creating a geometry of the desired space and adding the furniture. Moreover, the steps taken to add and place a lighting fixtures are illustrated. Chapter 4 shows the specific use of the software programs on the base case pocket lodge with a special emphasis on the roof and east / west walls. Chapter 5 will include an updated pocket lodge and Chapters 6 and 7 will describe the process of improving the performance of the entire pocket lodge. 60 4 CHAPTER 4: SIMULATION & RESULTS This chapters begins with illustrating the site, orientation, design development, materials used, mold material and fabrication. Further, it dives deeper into different iterations developed for individual collected design background- solar radiation analysis, photovoltaic panels, glare and daylight analysis, thermal analysis and lighting design. Chapter 4 illustrates the several iterations generated and results achieved by performing all the above-mentioned simulations (Fig 4.1). It discusses all the iterations and their learnings while concluding the selected design. Difficulties were experienced to achieve the required weight of module for ease in transport. Chapter 4 shows the specific use of the software programs described in Chapter 3 on the base case pocket lodge with a special emphasis on the roof and east / west walls (Fig 4.2). Fig 4.1: Methodology Diagram for chapter 3-6. DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY MATERIAL MOLD & PREFABICATION CODE COMPLIANCE − Precast concrete − Insulation material − Shading louvers − Glass and frame − Mold material − Mold design − Prefabrication techniques − California Building Code − California Energy Code SITE & ORIENTATION − Sun position − Shade − Placement on site DESIGN DEVELOPMENT − Area/Dimension − Form development − Structure − Weight calculations (Excel) − Finishes (Texture) COLLECTED AS A TEAM COLLECTED INDIVIDUALLY DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE SOUTH WALL FINAL ITERATION COLLECTED AS A TEAM Chapter 3 Chapter 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS LIGHTING DESIGN − Glass & Frame − Dynamic Insulation for roof − Buffer Space + Folding Plates − Ventilation − Heating & Cooling days − Heat Capacity PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS − Orientation & Placement − Excel (Calculate daily requirement) − Battery Calculations GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Design Concept − Glare Analysis − Daylight Analysis − Shade Analysis − Lighting Fixture Selection − Design & Placement − Installation Process Aditya A. Bahl Chapter 6 NORTH WALL ROOF – Wall thickness – Connection details – Insulation thickness – Insulation material – Insulation Position – Dynamic Insulation Profiles – Overall joinery details – PV Panels placement & orientation – Folding Panel design – Insulation position – Insulation thickness – Thermal Analysis of dynamic insulation on roof – Thermal Lag in IESVE – Lighting Design Analysis SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Placement of PV Panels − Months with highest DB Temp SIMULATION & RESULTS Thermal Comfort/Ventilation Prototype Composite Prototype Mould Design Dynamic Insulation Movement BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS • Ladybug, Grasshopper − Incident radiation on each surface. PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS Chapter 4 • PV Watts − Orientation & Placement − AC energy generated − Number of panels GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS • Climate Studio − Glare disturbing percentage − Lux achieved at each zone THERMAL ANALYSIS • IESVE − Testing external material − Addition of shading components & code compliance − Natural Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation on roof − Thermal lag test LIGHTING DESIGN • AGI32 − Test different fixtures − Tilt & rolling angle Base Case Overall Model − Material − Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation Movement − Base Model of Pocket Lodge Proposed Overall Model − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on South − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on North − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on Roof – Wall thickness – Outside & Inside Insulation thickness – Insulation position – Insulation material – Dynamic insulation profile – Static insulation Work by Aditya A. Bahl Work by Archana Janardanan Work by Yuqing He Work done as a group COLLECTED DESIGN BACKGROUND Addition of Mechanical System − Heating & Cooling load iteration 16.0 − Heating & Cooling load tent structure − Compare heating & cooling loads Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge 61 Fig 4.2: Methodology diagram focusing on chapter 4. 4.1 Simulation & Results: Collected design background. Chapter 4 illustrates the iterations generated through the data gathered and the conclusion established through various simulation first as a team and then individually. Further, these iterations reflect the data collected previously and has the information applied within its calculations. Simulations were performed to achieve the exact placement and orientation of the PV panels and geometric design of the folding panels to prevent glare and allow adequate daylight. Most essentially, numerous design concepts were implied to achieve thermal comfort within the pocket lodge. 4.1.1 Site & Orientation The pocket lodge is designed to be modular. The strategies implied allows the module to respond to the worst conditions experienced at Joshua Tree National Park. A flat site is considered for the module consisting of no adjacent objects such as trees or rocks casting shadow on the lodge. For the concept proposed, the module should have an east-west orientation i.e., have its longer sides facing south and north direction respectively. Further, all walls are composed of different dimension with the south façade being the thickest (Fig 4.3). DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY MATERIAL MOLD & PREFABICATION CODE COMPLIANCE − Precast concrete − Insulation material − Shading louvers − Glass and frame − Mold material − Mold design − Prefabrication techniques − California Building Code − California Energy Code SITE & ORIENTATION − Sun position − Shade − Placement on site DESIGN DEVELOPMENT − Area/Dimension − Form development − Structure − Weight calculations (Excel) − Finishes (Texture) COLLECTED AS A TEAM COLLECTED INDIVIDUALLY DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE SOUTH WALL FINAL ITERATION COLLECTED AS A TEAM Chapter 3 Chapter 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS LIGHTING DESIGN − Glass & Frame − Dynamic Insulation for roof − Buffer Space + Folding Plates − Ventilation − Heating & Cooling days − Heat Capacity PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS − Orientation & Placement − Excel (Calculate daily requirement) − Battery Calculations GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Design Concept − Glare Analysis − Daylight Analysis − Shade Analysis − Lighting Fixture Selection − Design & Placement − Installation Process Aditya A. Bahl Chapter 6 NORTH WALL ROOF – Wall thickness – Connection details – Insulation thickness – Insulation material – Insulation Position – Dynamic Insulation Profiles – Overall joinery details – PV Panels placement & orientation – Folding Panel design – Insulation position – Insulation thickness – Thermal Analysis of dynamic insulation on roof – Thermal Lag in IESVE – Lighting Design Analysis SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Placement of PV Panels − Months with highest DB Temp SIMULATION & RESULTS Thermal Comfort/Ventilation Prototype Composite Prototype Mould Design Dynamic Insulation Movement BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS • Ladybug, Grasshopper − Incident radiation on each surface. PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS Chapter 4 • PV Watts − Orientation & Placement − AC energy generated − Number of panels GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS • Climate Studio − Glare disturbing percentage − Lux achieved at each zone THERMAL ANALYSIS • IESVE − Testing external material − Addition of shading components & code compliance − Natural Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation on roof − Thermal lag test LIGHTING DESIGN • AGI32 − Test different fixtures − Tilt & rolling angle Base Case Overall Model − Material − Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation Movement − Base Model of Pocket Lodge Proposed Overall Model − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on South − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on North − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on Roof – Wall thickness – Outside & Inside Insulation thickness – Insulation position – Insulation material – Dynamic insulation profile – Static insulation Work by Aditya A. Bahl Work by Archana Janardanan Work by Yuqing He Work done as a group COLLECTED DESIGN BACKGROUND Addition of Mechanical System − Heating & Cooling load iteration 16.0 − Heating & Cooling load tent structure − Compare heating & cooling loads Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge 62 Fig 4.3: Site and Orientation of the base case pocket lodge. 4.1.2 Design Development Several factors dictated the built mass and design of the pocket lodge. Weight and dimension limitations were considered while transporting the lodge to the desired site. The module while being transported would require having its folding panels on east and west sides to be enclosed. Enclosed panels allow the module to have its longest length while transportation to be 28’, that can be easily transported on the flatbed trailer. However, with its wings on shorter ends open, longest span of 46 feet, height of 9 feet and width of 8.5 feet is achieved. The total internal area achieved is 150 square feet (Fig 4.4). Fig 4.4: Final area dimensioning of the Pocket Lodge. Through the Microsoft Excel document developed (mentioned in 3.1.2), different iterations were generated tested different thickness of concrete within the pocket lodge. Several iterations of different wall thicknesses were developed to achieve the required weight (Fig 4.5): 150 Sq Ft 63 Fig 4.5: Weight Calculation of Concrete Components The first iteration includes using 30 feet as the length of walls, base and roof components achieving a total weight above the objective. Next iterations the length is reduced to 28 feet. The third, fourth and fifth iterations depicts the thickness of each component being changed and achieving 69,104 lbs. as the estimate weight of the concrete components. Using the dimensions and the weight of the fifth iteration (Fig 4.4) and refining these by adding weights of foldable panels, insulation materials, PV panels and furniture achieved a more precise result (Fig 4.6). Fig 4.6: Total Estimate Weight Calculations Placing seven photovoltaic panels on the roof and assuming the 300 lbs. of furniture a total approximate weight of 78,200 lbs. is achieved. The dimension of the pocket lodge has been derived with the aim to achieve the required weight category. The final weight of the pocket 64 lodge is approximately 78,200 lbs, allowing the module to be transported on a flatbed trailer without any requirement of additional highway permits. The total estimated weight of pocket lodge is noted to be 78,200 lbs and 80,000 lbs are allowed to be transported as per California Oversize Permits. Achieving this weight allows the module to be transported without requiring any additional permits. 4.1.3 Material The ratio of the high strength concrete mix is set to standards and to achieve easy flow of concrete slurry, self-consolidating mix is used. The American Concrete Institute defined high strength concrete as a concrete mix that achieves a compressing strength greater than 6000 psi (PCA, n.d.). Compressive strength refers to resistance of concrete sample to applied pressure (PCA, n.d.). This self-consolidating mix consists of added advantages, preventing generation of any air pockets and in most scenarios, it doesn’t require usage of any vibrators. Concrete Mix: • Portland cement: 750 lbs./yard • Sand: 1250 lbs./yard • Water: 36 gallons • Aggregates: 1600 lbs. Insulating Material: Polystyrene is the insulated material considered and tested within the simulations to obtain the proposed objective. Foldable Panels: Since the component requires to be manually operated by the seasonal rangers, the panels are fins are required to be composed of material much lighter and requiring low annual maintenance. One such material with such characteristics, has a low cost and is not susceptible moisture and water is vinyl (An Introduction to Vinyl, 2023). 4.1.4 Mold & Prefabrication Having plywood as the mold material is sufficient due to its ability to hold multiple pours, it consists of low cost and the board size available in market are 4’x8’ and 4’x10’ (Curtis Lumber & Plywood, 2019). These dimensions are suitable for the dimensions of the pocket lodge module that is to be casted repeatedly. ¾ inches thick plywood is considered to increase the longevity of the formwork usage. The size of the mold is derived from the dimensions of the tube (Fig 4.7). Fig 4.7: Mold design of the Pocket Lodge. 65 4.1.5 Code Compliance The data collected for code compliance were applied to the simulations performed. There are some instances such as iteration 1.0 that might not have the by-laws applied to the design, however, the final iteration would consider the laws implemented (Fig 4.8). Fig 4.8: Insulation Table (Energy Code Ace - Reference Ace 2022 Tool, 2022) 4.2 Data Collection: Collected Individually for Roof of the pocket lodge The following sections discuss the results of simulations conducted specifically to design the smart roof feature of the pocket lodge: solar analysis, photovoltaic panels calculations, glare, shading, daylighting, and thermal analysis. 4.2.1 Solar Radiation Analysis The roof has an incident radiation of 2096 kWh/m2 (Fig. 4.9). The PV panels are placed on the roof due to it experiencing the highest incident radiation as compared to the four walls of the unit. 66 Fig 4.9: Incident Radiation on the roof of ‘The Pocket Lodge’ The east wall (experiencing 1242.62 kWh/m2) and north façade (experiencing 386.56 kWh/m2), whereas the west wall (experiencing 1412.63 kWh/m2) and south envelope (experiencing 1583.64 kWh/m2) of the lodge (Fig 4.10). The simulation is conducted to determine the placement of PV panels that would generate sufficient energy for the lodge. Fig 4.10: Incident Radiation on the walls of ‘The Pocket Lodge’ Further, another simulation is conducted in grasshopper, illustrating the movement of the sun around the site and points out the months that would experience the highest dry bulb temperature on site. June, July, and August are noted to be the months that would experience the highest dry-bulb temperature (Fig 4.11). The incident radiations allow us to decide based on which surface the PV panels are going to be place. The surface with the highest incident radiation would be exposed to more sun light, leading to generating higher amount of energy. The highest dry bulbs were derived to understand the hottest day at site. Higher temperature tends to reduce the output efficiency of the solar panels by 10-15% (World Economic Forum, 2022). 67 Fig 4.11: Sun Path Diagram at Twentynine Palms 4.2.2 Photovoltaic Panels This simulation involves calculation of number of PV panels that would adequately generate electricity for the seasonal rangers, their tilt and azimuth angle and the size of battery required for storage. First step was to assume the total amount of energy that is required to be generated for the rangers (Fig 4.12). Fig 4.12: Total electricity generated for the rangers on site. Monocrystalline PV panels are selected due to their high efficiency, performance, and longevity even though they consist of a higher installation cost as compared to other types. Moving forwards, simulation iterations was conducted comparing weight, price and area of different panels selecting the ‘Phono Solar’ to be the most suitable brand (Fig 4.13). 68 Fig 4.13: Brands of Monocrystalline PV panels Further, photovoltaic panel calculations are conducted through an online tool known as PV Watts Calculator. The website request for basic input like the location, the area of PV panels (decides DC system size), type of module, type of array, tilt, and azimuth degree. Azimuth angle refers to the angle solar panels face and is calculated in clockwise order with north as zero degree (Natasha, 2021). Tilt angle is the angle at which the PV panels sits on (Natasha, 2021). As a result, it provides the annual and monthly AC energy generated and the solar radiation experienced in each month. The online tools guided towards understanding the most suitable azimuth and the tilt degree for Joshua Tree National Park. The simulation started out with setting the tilt angle as 60 degree and kept on reducing the angle while the annual AC energy generated increased. The most sufficient tilt angle for the proposed site is 32 or 33 degrees. Going below 32 results a decrease in the annual AC energy generated. Moving forward, same strategy to achieve the azimuth angle and the most suitable angle was noted to be between 175-181 (Fig 4.14). Fig 4.14: Simulation test on PV Watts Website For the above calculations, roof mounted standard module types are considered, assuming a system loss of 14.08% Invertor efficiency was noted to be 96%. As a result, AC energy generated at the proposed characteristic is 10.05 kWh per day and the amount required is 9.5 kWh per day (Fig 4.12). The final step was to understand the size of the off-grid battery installed. Lithium-ion battery is proposed to be installed due to their characteristics of requiring no maintenance and capability of hold more solar energy. A website called ‘unbound solar’ is used to conduct the following calculations (Unbound solar, 2021): 69 From PV Watt Calculator, Max. Energy generated in a month = 340 kWh Avg. energy generated per day = 10.8 kWh Lithium Battery Size = 10.8 x 1.2 (80% depth of discharge) x 1.05 (Inefficiency Factor) = 13.608 kWh Amp Hours = for 12V Battery = 13.608/12 = 1134-amp hours = for 24V Battery = 13.608/24 = 567-amp hours = for 48V Battery = 13.608/48 = 283.5-amp hours A 12V battery is sufficient for the project due to lower cost (Leading Edge, 2016). The battery would be placed in the south-east buffer space as it would remain protected from the harsh conditions offered by the desert and would not radiate heat into the interiors. The south-east corner would be shaded for majority of the day and would prevent the battery from losing its efficiency from extreme temperatures on site. To conclude, seven phono solar monocrystalline panels at the tilt angle of 32-33 degrees and azimuth angle between 175-181 degrees would generate a minimum of 10.05 kWh/day. The pocket lodge would require 9.5 kWh/day, an extra 0.5 kWh/day to be generated. A lithium-ion 12V battery would be placed on the southeast buffer space of the residence delivering 1134- amp in an hour. 4.2.3 Glare Dynamic Shading and Daylight Analysis Simulations were conducted to test different geometric patterns on the folding panels attached to the shorter ends of the roof with the aim to provide adequate daylight, shade and prevent glare. In Climate Studio, four iterations were developed, and their results were compared with each other. The first iteration used simple storefront windows on the east and west façade without any shading components or buffer space (Fig 4.15 A&B). Fig 4.15 A: Iteration 1.0 for Glare Analysis 70 Fig 4.15 B: Iteration 1.0 for Shading and Daylighting Analysis Iteration 1.0 resulted in the interior space to experience high amount of glare and daylight from east and west directions. Further, the interior space results to be in desperate need of shading components. To conclude, iteration 1.0 failed to achieve the desired objective of the roof i.e., prevent glare to enter the interior spaces and provide access to natural daylight of 100-300 mean lux. (VELUX, n.d) Iteration 2.0 consist of buffer spaces and plain flat foldable panels on the two shorter ends of the pocket lodge (Fig 4.16 A & B). 71 Fig 4.16 A: Iteration 2.0 for Glare Analysis Fig 4.16 B: Iteration 2.0 for Shading and Daylighting Analysis The simulation for this iteration is conducted to test the software itself. There is no geometry or opening on the foldable panels. This results in no glare or daylight entering the inner space of the module. The output depicts need of no shading devices and the software showing correct results. However, iteration 2.0 failed to achieve the desired objective of the roof. It prevents glare to enter the interior spaces but doesn’t provide access to natural daylight of 100-300 mean lux. For iteration 3.0, multiple circular opening of a radius of 3 inches are proposed in a symmetric order with buffer spaces (Fig 4.17 A& B). The interior spaces achieved a comfortable environment experiencing zero glare; however, the design doesn’t allow adequate daylight to 72 enter increase the users dependance on artificial lighting. The buffer spaces however experienced sufficient lighting on the east and west end. Fig 4.17 A: Iteration 3.0 for Glare Analysis Fig 4.17 B: Iteration 3.0 for Shading and Daylighting Analysis To conclude iteration 3.0 failed to achieve the desired objective of the roof. It prevents glare to enter the interior spaces successfully but provides no access to natural daylight. 73 Iteration 4.0 consist of buffer spaces and vertical louvres rotated at an angle of 45 degree (Fig 4.18 A & B). Iteration 4.0 consists of the selected design for the pocket lodge at Joshua Tree National Park. Vertical louvres prevent harsh glare from entering the interior spaces and can only be experienced while standing in the buffer spaces, looking directly outside through the openings tilted at 45 degrees. Further, it allows sufficient daylight to enter the interior space as compared to iteration 3.0, reducing the users dependance on artificial lighting during the day. Fig 4.18 A: Iteration 4.0 for Glare Analysis Fig 4.18 B: Iteration 4.0 for Shading and Daylighting Analysis 74 To conclude, iteration 4.0 achieved the best result as compared to other iterations and is selected for the folding panel design. It successfully prevents glare to enter the interior spaces, however it provides access to natural daylight of 96 mean lux including buffer space and 20 mean lux excluding buffer space. At last, all iterations are compared with each other and iteration 4.0 is taken forward (fig 4.19). Fig 4.19: Results of Glare and Daylighting Analysis conduct on Climate Studio. 4.2.4 Thermal Analysis: Testing external materials. The results on IES VE can be viewed within ‘VistaPro’ section found on the column on the left-hand side of the screen. The building is selected to inform the software the desired are of which the results are being extracted. Select the desired topic which are required to be extracted (Fig 4.20). Fig 4.20: Selecting heading for the results on Vistapro. There are sixteen iterations including the base model in total. Each iteration adds a passive strategy, by-laws, or changes material of the module. The internal temperature and external dry bulb temperatures are noted. This allows us to determine the impact of each strategy on the internal space and compare it with the temperature of the external space. The objective is to achieve temperature fluctuation to be within the range of 65–85-degree F without use of HVAC systems. The base model (Polyester + low performing glass) is assumed to be composed of polyester with clear float glass in its openings. The material is used to produce camping tents and the 75 simulation tests the material within the same geometry developed for the pocket lodge. IES VE did not include polyester within its material library. However, another material with the same U-value and R-value of that of polyester is inserted to all exterior facades through the software’s material library (Fig 4.21). Fig 4.21: Selecting polyester material on IES VE. The result of each iteration is extracted by comparing the internal temperature (displayed in red) with the dry bulb temperature (displayed in blue) at Joshua Tree National Park (Fig 4.20). The X-axis depicts the months throughout the year whereas the Y-axis illustrates the temperature. Further, the blue line shows the dry bulb temperature of Joshua Tree National Park, and the red lines represent the interior space temperature. The interior temperature results to be fluctuating between 148-degree F and as low as 28.32-degree F (Fig 4.22). Fig 4.22: Base model Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 1.0 (Copper + low performing glass) Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 76 Iteration 1.0 consist of its external walls composed of copper with clean float glass on its openings. All metals were test within the IES VE material library. However, copper comprised of the lowest R Value (0.0005 h ft2 F/ btu) and highest U-value (1.2812 Btu/h ft2 F) as compared to other metals within the material library (Fig 4.23). Fig 4.23: Iteration 1.0 with copper on all its exterior surface. The interior temperature results to be fluctuating between 142-degree F and as low as 23.52- degree F throughout the year (Fig 4.24). The results seem to have improved by replacing polyester with copper. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Fig 4.24: Iteration 1.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 2.0 (4” timber low thermal mass + low performing glass) Iteration 2.0 is composed of 4-inch-thick timber, and the east and west façade composed of storefront with a single pane clear glass. The temperature fluctuation is noted to go as high as 138-degree F and as low as 32.08-degree F throughout the year (Fig 4.25). The results seem to Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 77 have improved by replacing copper with timber. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Fig 4.25: Iteration 2.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 3.0 (4” concrete walls + low performing glass) The next iteration is composed of 4 inches thick concrete with the same single pane clear glass used in the base model. The highest temperature is noted to be 146-degree F and the lower temperature is 25.78-degree F (Fig 4.26). The temperature fluctuation increases on both ends mainly as the heat is being trapped into the interior space and no dumping method is proposed. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Fig 4.26: Iteration 3.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Comfort Zone (65-85 F) Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 78 Iteration 4.0 (4” concrete wall + Operable low performing glass) In iteration 4.0, profiles created for ventilation are activated allowing circulation of wind through the interior space and dumping heat as per requirement. Moreover, double pane insulated glasses are added to the storefront on east and west façades. The temperature fluctuation was noted to be between 123.4-degree F in mid-august and 26-degree F in December (Fig 4.27). The results seem to have improved by adding operable windows. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Fig 4.27: Iteration 4.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 5.0 (6” Concrete wall + operable DGU system) Moving forward, the next iterations have its concrete thickness changed as per the weight table mentioned in the above (Fig 4.3). Thicker concrete is noted to has better ability in storing and dumping heat due to which the highest temperature noted is 116.4-degree F in mid-august and 35.85-degree F in December (Fig 4.28). The results seem to have improved by increasing the thickness of the concrete. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 79 Fig 4.28: Iteration 5.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature 4.2.5 Thermal Analysis: Addition of shading components and code compliance. The following iterations consist of addition of buffer spaces, shading components on east, west and south façade. It even consists of iterations that has the exterior envelope composed of R values and U values as per code. Iteration 6.0 (6” concrete walls + DGU system + Buffer) Iteration 6.0 includes addition of the 4 inches wide buffer spaces with the foldable panels on east and west façade and the canopy on the south façade. The interior temperature is noted to be highest in mid-august going up to 112-degree F and lowest in December reaching 36.52- degree F (Fig 4.29). The results seem to have improved by the addition of buffer spaces on east and west ends. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 80 Fig 4.29: Iteration 6.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 7.0 (8” South Concrete Wall + DGU System + Buffer fins + Code Compliance) Further, the next iteration comprises of the required R-values as per the by-laws mentioned i.e., R38 for roof, R8 for walls and U-factor of 0.3 for the glass as per the by-laws mentioned previously, achieving a temperature fluctuation between 108-degree F and 37.17-degree F (Fig 4.28). The R-values for roof, wall, and floor were manipulated within IES VE as follows: • Roof has an R-value of 50 (minimum 38 required as per codes) • Floor has an R value of 20 (minimum 8 required as per codes) • Wall has an R value of 30 (minimum 8 required as per codes) The results seem to have improved by increasing the thickness of the south concrete wall from 6 inches to 8 inches. Notice that the dry bulb temperature is almost equal to the interior temperature due to addition of the proposed strategies (Fig 4.30). However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 81 Fig 4.30: Iteration 7.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature 4.2.6 Thermal Analysis: Ventilation Strategy The following section explores different iterations developed to test the natural ventilation. The ventilation strategy refers to the time the operable windows on east and west facades would open and close. Iteration 8.0 (Natural Ventilation profile set with formula): Iteration 8.0 consist of tests and compares several profiles created for improving natural ventilation. In iteration 4.0, the operable windows were direct to open and close based upon the time mentioned within the profile. Iteration 8.0 uses a formula directing the window to operate based on the exterior temperature at JTNP. “Formula Iteration 8.0: ta>to & ta>75 (Instructed by Professor Gideon Susman)” In the above formula, ‘ta’ refer to the temperature within the interior space and ‘to’ refers to the dry-bulb temperature on site. The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 75-degree F, the windows must open (Fig 4.31). Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 82 Fig 4.31: Adding ventilation formula to IES VE profiles. Iteration 8.0 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 102.43 degree F and 43.68 degree F (Fig 4.32). Fig 4.32: Iteration 8.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature The output improves by addition of the above mentioned formula on IES VE profiles. The interior temperature of the two profile, with formula and in iteration 7.0 are compared on august 21 st deriving using the formula for the openings achieves better results (Fig 4.33). The red line in the diagram depicts the internal temperature achieved by iteration 8.0 and the blue illustrates interior temperature achieved in iteration 7.0 However, this iteration still fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 83 Fig 4.33: Comparing internal temperature of Iteration 7.0 and iteration 8.0. Iteration 8.1 (Natural ventilation profile formula manipulated): The ventilation formula used in iteration 8.0 is further manipulated in the following iterations to further test the formula. The following formula was used to derive the results of iteration 8.1. “Formula Iteration 8.1: ta>to & ta>70” The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 70-degree F, the windows must open (Fig 4.34). Fig 4.34: Formula added for Iteration 8.1 on IES VE. Iteration 8.1 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 103.33 degree F and 43.57 degree F (Fig 4.35). The result has deteriorated as compared to iteration 8.0. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 84 Fig 4.35: Iteration 8.1 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 8.2 (Natural ventilation profile formula manipulated): Further, in iteration 8.2, the following formula was used to derive the results. “Formula Iteration 8.2: ta>to & ta>65” The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 65-degree F, the windows must open (Fig 4.36). Fig 4.36: Formula added for Iteration 8.2 on IES VE. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 85 Iteration 8.2 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 103.33 degree F and 43.57 degree F (Fig 4.37). The result are exactly same as iteration 8.1 after changing the formula. Fig 4.37: Iteration 8.2 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 8.3 (Natural ventilation profile formula manipulated): In iteration 8.3, the following formula was used to derive the results. “Formula Iteration 8.3: ta>to & ta>80” The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 80-degree F, the windows must open (Fig 4.38). Fig 4.38: Formula added for Iteration 8.3 on IES VE. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 86 Iteration 8.3 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 103.33 degree F and 43.57 degree F (Fig 4.39). The result are exactly same as iteration 8.1 and iteration 8.2 after changing the formula. Fig 4.39: Iteration 8.3 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 8.4 (Natural ventilation profile formula manipulated): In the next iteration, iteration 8.4, the following formula was used to derive the results. “Formula Iteration 8.4: ta>to & ta>74” The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 74-degree F, the windows must open (Fig 4.40). Fig 4.40: Formula added for Iteration 8.4 on IES VE. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 87 Iteration 8.4 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 103.33 degree F and 43.57 degree F (Fig 4.41). The result are exactly same as iteration 8.1 and iteration 8.2 after changing the formula. Fig 4.41: Iteration 8.4 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 8.5 (Natural ventilation profile formula manipulated): In iteration 8.5, the following formula was used to derive the results. “Formula Iteration 8.5: ta>to & ta>76” The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 76-degree F, the windows must open (Fig 4.42). Fig 4.42: Formula added for Iteration 8.5 on IES VE. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 88 Iteration 8.5 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 103.33 degree F and 43.57 degree F (Fig 4.43). The result are exactly same as iteration 8.1 and iteration 8.2 after changing the formula. Fig 4.43: Iteration 8.5 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 8.6 (Natural ventilation profile formula manipulated): Moving forward, iteration 8.6 uses the following formula was used to derive the results. “Formula Iteration 8.6: ta>to” The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside the windows must open (Fig 4.44). Fig 4.44: Formula added for Iteration 8.6 on IES VE. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 89 Iteration 8.6 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 103.33 degree F and 19.49 degree F (Fig 4.45). The result has worsened as compared to all of the above iterations. Fig 4.45: Iteration 8.6 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Iteration 8.7 (Natural ventilation profile formula manipulated): In iteration 8.7, the following formula was used to derive the results. “Formula Iteration 8.7: ta<to & ta<76” The formula states if the temperature inside is lesser than temperature outside and the temperature inside is lesser than 76-degree F, the windows must open (Fig 4.46). Fig 4.46: Formula added for Iteration 8.7 on IES VE. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 90 Iteration 8.7 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 110.96 degree F and 44.56 degree F (Fig 4.47). The result has worsened even further as compared to iteration 8.6. Fig 4.47: Iteration 8.7 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature In contrast, the interior temperature of all iteration are compared with each other on 21 st august (Fig 4.48). The yellow line depicts the internal temperature achieved in iteration 7.0, sky blue is for iteration 8.0, pink is for iteration 8.1, black is for iteration 8.2, green is for iteration 8.3, royal blue is for iteration 8.4 and red is for iteration 8.5. Iteration 8.0 achieves the most suitable result and is carried forward to further simulations. Fig 4.48: Comparing all ventilation profiles with and without formula Comfort Zone (65-85 F) Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 91 4.2.7 Thermal Analysis: Dynamic Insulation on roof. The section explore the addition of interior dynamic insulation on the roof. Different iterations are explored testing the movement of dynamic insulation based upon time and temperature. Iteration 9.0 (Testing dynamic insulation on roof of pocket lodge) For this iteration, the model from iteration 3.0 is used and further modified. It is composed of 4 inch thick concrete and low performing glass. The IES VE software doesn’t have any command that would make the concept of dynamic simulation to be included within the calculations. However, the profiles set for the window openings can be manipulated to function as dynamic insulation. First, an additional room is added on top of the model on modelit with a gap of 0.5 inches in- between (Fig 4.49). Due to the gap being so tiny, the software assumes both spaces functioning as one. Further, an window opening is added to the bottom of the new room created. Fig 4.49: Dynamic insulation on modelit tool By selecting the new room created and going to assign constructions, material could be added to this window. The software doesn’t allow use to insert insulating materials on the new opening but rather just allows you to select the type of glass. However, the U-value and R- value can be manipulated and made to mimic the characteristics of an insulating material (Fig 4.50). Argon was also added in-between the glass panels to increase the R-value of insulation. Fig 4.50: Adding material to dynamic insulation through assign construction tool 92 Next step is to generate the profile for this dynamic insulation (Fig 4.51). The user requires to command the software regarding when would the dynamic insulation would be active and unactive. The following formula was applied to the profile set: “Formula Iteration 8.7: ta<to & ta<75” The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 75-degree F, the dynamic panels must be not present on the roof. Fig 4.51: Profile generated for Dynamic insulation In iteration 3.0, the highest temperature was noted to be 146-degree F and the lower temperature is 25.78-degree F. Adding the concept of dynamic insulation, the highest temperature was noted to be 115.59-degree F and the lower temperature is 24.57-degree F (Fig 4.52). The iteration doesn’t consist of any buffer space, natural ventilation system, appropriate R values. The result of iteration 9.0 is achieved by simply adding dynamic insulation to it. Fig 4.52: Iteration 9.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 93 Iteration 9.1 (Dynamic Insulation profile formula manipulated): The dynamic insulation formula used in iteration 9.0 is further manipulated in the following iterations to further test the formula. The following formula was used to derive the results of iteration 9.1. “Formula Iteration 9.1: ta>to & ta>70” The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 70-degree F, the dynamic panels must be not present on the roof (Fig 4.53). Fig 4.53: Formula added for Iteration 9.1 on IES VE. Iteration 9.1 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 112.57 degree F and 24.53 degree F (Fig 4.54). The results by adding the new formula has improved with the highest temperature reducing by 3 degree F. The results seem to have improved by the addition of dynamic insulation on the wall. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85- degree F range. Fig 4.54: Iteration 9.1 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 94 Iteration 9.2 (Dynamic Insulation profile formula manipulated further): The following formula was used to derive the results of iteration 9.2. “Formula Iteration 9.2: ta>to & ta>65” The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 65-degree F, the dynamic panels must be not present on the roof. (Fig 4.55). Fig 4.55: Formula added for Iteration 9.2 on IES VE. Iteration 9.2 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 112.57 degree F and 24.52 degree F (Fig 4.56). The results by adding the new formula is noted to be same as iteration 9.1. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Fig 4.56: Iteration 9.2 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 95 Iteration 9.3 (Dynamic Insulation profile formula manipulated further): The following formula was used to derive the results of iteration 9.3. “Formula Iteration 9.3: ta>to & ta>80” The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 80-degree F, the dynamic panels must be not present on the roof. (Fig 4.57). Fig 4.57: Formula added for Iteration 9.3 on IES VE. Iteration 9.3 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 112.57 degree F and 24.52 degree F (Fig 4.58). The results by adding the new formula is noted to be same as iteration 9.1 and 9.2. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Fig 4.58: Iteration 9.3 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 96 In contrast, Iteration 9.1 achieves the most suitable result and is carried forward to further simulations. This formula might be manipulated further in upcoming chapters. Iteration 10 (Combing all selected iterations = iteration 7.0 + iteration 8.0 + iteration 9.0): For this iteration, the model from iteration 7.0 consisting of buffer space, appropriate R values on exterior surfaces and openings is combined with the formula used for ventilation in iteration 8.0 and formula used for dynamic insulation in iteration 9.1 (Fig 4.59). Fig 4.59: Combing iterations 7.0, 8.0 and 9.1 on IES VE The natural ventilation formula that was used to create the profile in iteration 8.0 is applied to iteration 10 (Fig 4.60). Fig 4.60: Ventilation profile of Iteration 10 The dynamic insulation formula that was used to create the profile in iteration 9.1 is applied to iteration 10 (Fig 4.61). 97 Fig 4.61: Dynamic insulation profile of Iteration 10 Iteration 10 is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 102.53 degree F and 52.73 degree F (Fig 4.62). The results by combing the above mentioned iterations seems to have improved. As compared to iteration 8.0, the highest temperature has increase by 1 degree F, but note that the lowest temperature has also increased by 7 degree. However, this iteration stills fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Fig 4.62: Iteration 10 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature However, the iteration above is not suitable to be shared with the group members of the pocket lodge team. There are two insulating panels in the interiors moving independently. These two panels are being shared by three surfaces and to prevent overlap of dynamic insulation, it is Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 98 required to determine the time when the panels needs to be resting under roof. At last, all results are compared with each other (Fig 4.63). Fig 4.63: Results of Thermal Analysis on IES VE 4.2.8 Thermal Analysis: Testing thermal lag on IES VE Another simulation is conducted to test whether the results from IES VE shown in chapter 4 consider thermal lag within its calculations. The test consist of a simple procedure. The internal temperature of two model on IES VE are compared with each other. One model is composed of a low thermal mass material and the other with high thermal mass material. The first model has its roof, south, north and base composed of timber which was also used for iteration 2.0 (Fig 4.64). The second model has its exterior surfaces and base composed of concrete, same as iteration 7.0 from above (Fig 4.65). the comparative analysis was performed on a 24 hour period on 21 st August to critically analyse the thermal lag. 99 Fig 4.64: Iteration 2.0 interior and exterior temperature on 21 st August Fig 4.65: Iteration 7.0 interior and exterior temperature on 21 st August Comparing the results of the two models proposed, it is concluded that IES VE software considers thermal lag for its calculations. The output obtained illustrates that in the model composed of timber, the internal temperature at 6:00 AM experiences a sharp rise in temperature. Whereas, in the model composed of concrete, the internal temperature plateaus from 7:00 AM to 9:00 AM and then experiences a rise. This is because of the high thermal mass experiencing thermal lag prevent the internal temperature from instantly rising. 4.2.9 Lighting Design On AGi 32, to view the result in footcandles, the calculate button is selected. Several iterations have been developed by changing the type of luminaires, their placement, and orientations. To begin the process of lighting design, internal plans with furniture of the pocket ledge were developed (Fig 4.66). Comfort Zone (65-85 F) Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 100 Fig 4.66: Interior plan of pocket lodge. The best is placed on the north-west edge of the lodge, facing the west window. This would prevent the ranger from getting disturbed by the early morning sun rising from east. Further, the bed is placed adjacent to the operable window for the user to enjoy the natural ventilation when required. For the dynamic insulation panels to move freely, the lighting fixtures are placed on the east and west corners adjacent to the openings (Fig 4.67). A working desk is placed on the south-east corner of the lodge. The desk would require the highest amount of footcandle as compared to any other zone within the space. Thus, it is placed directly below the lighting fixture. Fig 4.67: Lighting fixture and dynamic insulation placement Once the layout is confirmed, the next step would be selecting the lighting fixtures and finding their ‘.ies’ files. The LED fixtures are selected to test iterations of pocket lodge and have an operating temperature between -40-degree F and 1040-degree F. The fixture would lose its efficiency in case it experiences temperature beyond operating range. The objective of this simulation is to test several LED fixtures and achieve 10-20 footcandles in all spaces and 50 footcandles at the working desk space. Iteration 1.0 (Edge 2): Iteration 1.0 comprises of Edge 2 surface mounted LED fixture by axis lighting. It consists of 250 lm/ft and 80 CRI (Color range index). It’s placed at a mounting height of 8 feet and achieves an average of 4 footcandles throughout the zone (Fig 4.68). This iteration doesn’t achieve the goal of having 10-20 footcandles throughout the space. 6.6 4 2 1.6 2 4 0.5 18 1.0 4 2 1.6 2 4 0.5 18 1.0 101 Fig 4.68: Iteration 1.0 lighting design on Agi32. Iteration 2.0 (Edge 2 + higher lumen/ft): Iteration 2.0 comprises of the same LED fixture by axis lighting. However, it consists of 1000lm/ft and 90 CRI. It’s placed at a mounting height of 8 feet and achieves an average of 16.49 footcandles throughout the zone. Within the study desk zone, it experiences between 16- 20 footcandles which is not sufficient for the user (Fig 4.69). This iteration does achieve the goal of having 10-20 footcandles throughout the space but doesn’t have 50 footcandles at the working desk zone. Fig 4.69: Iteration 2.0 lighting design on AGi 32 Iteration 3.0 (Edge 2 + higher lumen/ft + mounting height 9ft): Iteration 3.0 comprises of the same LED fixture by axis lighting. It consists of 1000lm/ft and 90 CRI. However, it’s placed at a mounting height of 9 feet and achieves an average of 15.30 footcandles throughout the zone. Within the study desk zone, it experiences between 16-20 102 footcandles which is not sufficient for the user (Fig 4.70). Notice how better results are achieved by having mounting height as 8 feet. Fig 4.70: Iteration 3.0 lighting design on Agi32. Iteration 4.0 (Stripled Linear LED by Beghelli): Iteration 4.0 comprises of the 4 ft wide stripled LED fixture by Beghelli. It consists of 3355 lumens and 80 CRI. It’s placed at a mounting height of 8 feet and achieves an average of 18.98 footcandles throughout the zone. Within the study desk zone, it experiences between 17-26 footcandles which is not sufficient for the user (Fig 4.71). Fig 4.71: Iteration 4.0 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 5.0 (Stripled Linear LED by Beghelli): Iteration 5.0 comprises of the 8 ft wide stripled LED fixture by Beghelli. It consists of 3355 lumens and 80 CRI. It’s placed at a mounting height of 8 feet and achieves an average of 23.71 103 footcandles throughout the zone. Within the study desk zone, it experiences between 21-34 footcandles which is not as sufficient for the user (Fig 4.72). On the west end, the footcandles experienced go beyond 20 footcandles. Further, fitting 8ft fixture is not possible within the lodge. Fig 4.72: Iteration 5.0 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 6.0 (Box min LED by axis lighting): Iteration 6.0 comprises of the 4 ft wide box min LED fixture by axis lighting. It consists of 1000 lm/ft and 80 CRI. It’s placed at a mounting height of 8 feet and achieves an average of 12.73 footcandles throughout the zone. Within the study desk zone, it experiences between 14- 16 footcandles which is not as sufficient for the user (Fig 4.73). This iteration does achieve the goal of having 10-20 footcandles throughout the space but doesn’t have 50 footcandles at the working desk zone. Fig 4.73: Iteration 6.0 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 7.0 (Bean Square 2 LED by axis lighting): Iteration 7.0 comprises of the 4 ft wide bean square 2 LED fixture by axis lighting. It consists of 1000 lm/ft and 80 CRI. It’s placed at a mounting height of 8 feet and achieves an average of 104 23 footcandles throughout the zone. Within the study desk zone, it experiences between 20-40 footcandles which is not as sufficient for the user (Fig 4.74). This iteration does not achieve the goal of having 10-20 footcandles throughout the space and will not be considered for the design of the roof. Fig 4.74: Iteration 7.0 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 7.1 (one of the bean square 2 LED is tilted at 20 degrees): Iteration 7.1 comprises of the same bean square 2 LED fixture by axis lighting used in iteration 7.0. It consists of 1000 lm/ft and 80 CRI. However, it’s placed at a mounting height of 8 feet and the fixture on the east is tilted 20 degrees towards the interior space (Fig 4.75). This iteration does achieve the goal of having 10-20 footcandles throughout the space but doesn’t produce efficient lighting at the working space. Iteration 7.1 will not be considered for the design of the roof. Fig 4.75: Iteration 7.1 lighting design on AGi32. 105 Iteration 7.2 (Both bean square 2 LED tilted at 20 and 160 degrees): Iteration 7.2 comprises of the same bean square 2 LED fixture by axis lighting used in iteration 7.0. It consists of 1000 lm/ft and 80 CRI. However, the fixture on the east is tilted 20 degrees and the one in the west is tilted 160 degrees towards the interior space (Fig 4.76). This iteration does achieve the goal of having 10-20 footcandles throughout the space but doesn’t produce efficient lighting at the working space. However, it is noted to be very close to the objective. Iteration 7.2 will not be considered for the design of the roof. Fig 4.76: Iteration 7.2 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 7.3 (Both bean square 2 LED tilted at 30 degrees): Iteration 7.3 comprises of the same bean square 2 LED fixture by axis lighting used in iteration 7.0. However, the fixture on the east is tilted 30 degrees towards the interior space (Fig 4.77). This iteration doesn’t achieve the goal of having footcandles within the range of 10-20 throughout the space, it goes beyond 20 footcandles at several zones. Iteration 7.3 will not be considered for the design of the roof. Fig 4.77: Iteration 7.3 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 7.4 (Both bean square 2 LED tilted at 45 degrees): Iteration 7.4 comprises of the same bean square 2 LED fixture by axis lighting used in iteration 7.0. However, the fixture on the east is tilted 45 degrees towards the interior space (Fig 4.78). 106 This iteration doesn’t achieve the goal of having footcandles within the range of 10-20 throughout the space, it goes beyond 20 footcandles at several zones. Iteration 7.4 will not be considered for the design of the roof. Fig 4.78: Iteration 7.4 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 7.5 (Both bean square 2 LED tilted at 20 and 160 degrees): Iteration 7.5 comprises of the same bean square 2 LED fixture by axis lighting used in iteration 7.0. However, the fixture on the east is tilted 25 degrees towards the interior space (Fig 4.79). This iteration doesn’t achieve the goal of having footcandles within the range of 10-20 throughout the space, it goes beyond 20 footcandles at several zones. Iteration 7.5 will not be considered for the design of the roof. Fig 4.79: Iteration 7.5 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 8.0 (Bean 2 LED by axis lighting): Iteration 8.0 comprises of bean 2 LED fixture by axis lighting. It’s placed at a mounting height of 8 feet and achieves an average of 15.85 footcandles throughout the space. Within the study desk zone, it experiences between 14-25 footcandles which is not as sufficient for the user (Fig 4.80). This iteration doesn’t achieve the goal of having footcandles within the range of 10-20 107 throughout the space, it goes beyond 20 footcandles at several zones. Iteration 8.0 will not be considered for the design of the roof. Fig 4.80: Iteration 8.0 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 9.0 (Prime LED surface mount by axis lighting): Iteration 9.0 comprises of prime LED surface mount fixture by axis lighting. It’s placed at a mounting height of 8 feet and achieves an average of 128.17 footcandles throughout the space (Fig 4.81). This iteration doesn’t achieve the goal of having footcandles within the range of 10- 20 throughout the space, it goes beyond 20 footcandles at several zones. Iteration 9.0 will not be considered for the design of the roof. Fig 4.81: Iteration 9.0 lighting design on AGi32. 108 Iteration 10.0 (Air LED by axis lighting): Iteration 10.0 comprises of air LED surface mount fixture by axis lighting. It’s placed at a mounting height of 8 feet and achieves an average of 13.40 footcandles throughout the space (Fig 4.82). The iteration does achieve the goal of having footcandles within the range of 10-20 throughout the space but is not sufficient for the working space. Iteration 10.0 will not be considered for the design of the roof. Fig 4.82: Iteration 10.0 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 11.0 (Uses both Bean Square 2 and Air LED): Iteration 11.0 uses both bean square 2 and air LED light fixtures by axis lighting. Bean square 2 is placed towards the east tilted at 20 degrees towards the interior space and air led is placed at the west end of the pocket lodge. Both fixtures are placed at a mounting height of 8 feet (Fig 4.83). The iteration results in achieving footcandles within the range of 10-20 throughout the space. Further, the working space receives footcandles within the range of 30-48. This iteration is modified further. Fig 4.83: Iteration 11.0 lighting design on AGi32. 109 Iteration 11.1 (Uses both Bean Square 2 tilted and rolled and Air LED): Iteration 11.1 uses both bean square 2 and air LED light fixtures by axis lighting. Bean square 2 is placed towards the east tilted at 20 degrees towards the interior space and rolled 5 degrees towards working desk. Air led is placed at the west end of the pocket lodge. Both fixtures are placed at a mounting height of 8 feet (Fig 4.84). The iteration results in achieving footcandles within the range of 10-20 throughout the space. This iteration is modified further. Fig 4.84: Iteration 11.1 lighting design on AGi32. Iteration 11.2 (Uses both Bean Square 2 tilted and rolled and Air LED): Iteration 11.2 uses both bean square 2 and air LED light fixtures by axis lighting. Bean square 2 is placed towards the east tilted at 20 degrees towards the interior space and rolled 10 degrees towards working desk. Air led is placed at the west end of the pocket lodge. Both fixtures are placed at a mounting height of 8 feet (Fig 4.85). Fig 4.85: Iteration 11.2 lighting design on AGi32. The iteration results in achieving footcandles within the range of 10-20 throughout the space. Further, the iteration didn’t achieve 50 footcandles throughout the working space but is the most efficient and close to the objective as compared to the other iterations. Therefore, iteration 11.2 lighting design would be applied to the design of the roof. The results of the Agi 32 simulations have all be compared with each other (Fig 4.86). 110 Fig 4.86: Results of Lighting Design Simulation on Agi 32. Joinery Details for proposed lighting fixture Furthermore, joinery details of both these fixtures have been explored. The roof would require two threaded rods functioning as anchors. These rods are connected to the screw present with the fixtures (Fig 4.87). A spacer and cap are installed on both screws to hold the fixture against the roof. Fig 4.87: Connecting lighting fixture to the roof (axislighting, 2023). The dimensions of both fixtures were studied to make sure the fixture adjust efficiency with the dynamic insulation (Fig 4.88 & Fig 4.89). Fig 4.88: Cross-section of Air LED (axislighting, 2023). 111 Fig 4.89: Cross-section of Bean Square 2 LED (axislighting, 2023). 4.3 Summary This chapters begins with illustrating the site, orientation, design development, materials used, mold material and fabrication. Further, it dives deeper into different iterations developed for individual collected design background- solar radiation analysis, photovoltaic panels, glare and daylight analysis, thermal analysis and lighting design. Different software simulations are conducted using Microsoft Excel, Ladybug in Grasshopper, PV Watts, Rhino 3d model, climate studio, IES VE and AGi32 to achieve the proposed objectives. The following results were extracted and would be used in further chapter: 1. Dimensions were selected based on making the process of transportation simpler and reducing the cost of construction while following the California codes. The internal space has an area of 150 sq ft with the longer length being 20 feet and the width being 7.5 feet. The buffer space consists of the same width and are 4 feet long in length on east and west sides. The folding panel is 9 feet long and 8.5 feet wide and caps the buffer space on east and west ends. 2. In contrast, the estimate weight considering all components of the pocket lodge is 78,204 lbs with the south wall 8 inches thick and the north, roof and base 5 inches thick. 3. The context was analyzed, and the module consists of an east-west orientation, with its longer walls facing north and south. All simulations are conducted considering east- west orientation. 4. The roof experiences an incident radiation of 2096 kWh/m2. The PV panels are placed on the roof due to it consisting of the highest incident radiation as compared to the four walls of the unit. The east wall (experiencing 1242.6 kWh/m2) and north façade (experiencing 386.6 kWh/m2), whereas the west wall (experiencing 1412.63kWh/m2) and south envelope (experiencing 1583.6 kWh/m2) of the lodge. 112 5. Seven phono solar monocrystalline panels at the tilt angle of 32-33 degrees and azimuth angle between 175-181 degrees would generate 10.05 kWh/day. However, the rangers would require 9.5 kWh/day. 6. Vertical fins rotated at 45 degrees toward north would be attached to the folding panels preventing any glare to enter the unit and allowing an average of 23 lux of daylighting into the interior space. 7. Through the ventilation study, the following formula from iteration 8.0 is finalized: “ta>to & ta>75 (Instructed by Professor Gideon Susman)” Where ta refers to the internal temperature and to refers to dry bulb temperature. It is the most suitable formula based on the simulations with other formula performed. 8. The internal temperature after applying the buffer space, folding panels, operable windows, double pane windows, concrete walls with u value and r value as per code is noted to be within 103-degree F and 50-degree F. 9. Iteration 11.2 would be used for the lighting design of the pocket lodge. The iteration results in achieving footcandles within the range of 10-20 throughout the space. Further, the iteration achieved an average of 40 footcandles at the working zone. The next chapter focuses on consolidating the background data collected for all three pocket lodge components – roof, south and north wall. The following results are shared with the other researchers on the team to achieve the base model of the pocket lodge. 1. The thickness of the concrete in the roof shared would be 5 inches achieving a R value of 38 (h.ft2.F)/btu and U value of 0.02 btu/ (h.ft2.F). The interior dynamic insulation would be 2-3 inches thick consisting of the R value of 13 (h.ft2.F)/btu and U value of 0.07 btu/ (h.ft2.F). The exterior surface of the roof is coated with cool roof heat reflective paint that has an SRI value of 122 and solar reflectance of 0.95. 2. The requirement of the interior dynamic insulations that is shared by the three components- roof, north and south wall are discussed among the teammates. The roof requires it to be continuously active during winter and summer season. During spring it requires to be active during daylight from 11 AM to 6 PM. The fall season doesn’t require the dynamic insulation on the interior to be active on the roof. 3. Through the ventilation study, the following formula from iteration 8.0 is finalized with formula: “ta>to & ta>75 (Instructed by Professor Gideon Susman)”. Where ta refers to the internal temperature and to refers to dry bulb temperature. It is the most suitable formula based on the simulations with other formula performed. 4. The internal temperature achieved on applying the buffer space, folding panels, operable windows (Iteration 8.0), triple pane windows, concrete walls with u value and r value as per code is noted to be within 103-degree F and 50-degree F. The calculations conducted in chapter 5 considers the above-mentioned number and refines them further. 113 5 CHAPTER 5: DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE Data consolidation for the base model of pocket lodge provides the final iteration collected as the team, the thermal comfort/ ventilation parameters, prototype composites, prototype mold design and dynamic insulation movement (Fig 5.1). Fig 5.1: Methodology Diagram for chapter 3-6. Chapter 5 combines all the background design data of roof, north wall, and south wall. It focuses on collaborating all the finalized iterations from the simulation performed on all three components, leading to development of base model of pocket lodge (Fig 5.2). The results would provide an output of how the three components would function together and determine the internal temperature achieved by the base model of the pocket lodge. DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY MATERIAL MOLD & PREFABICATION CODE COMPLIANCE − Precast concrete − Insulation material − Shading louvers − Glass and frame − Mold material − Mold design − Prefabrication techniques − California Building Code − California Energy Code SITE & ORIENTATION − Sun position − Shade − Placement on site DESIGN DEVELOPMENT − Area/Dimension − Form development − Structure − Weight calculations (Excel) − Finishes (Texture) COLLECTED AS A TEAM COLLECTED INDIVIDUALLY DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE SOUTH WALL FINAL ITERATION COLLECTED AS A TEAM Chapter 3 Chapter 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS LIGHTING DESIGN − Glass & Frame − Dynamic Insulation for roof − Buffer Space + Folding Plates − Ventilation − Heating & Cooling days − Heat Capacity PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS − Orientation & Placement − Excel (Calculate daily requirement) − Battery Calculations GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Design Concept − Glare Analysis − Daylight Analysis − Shade Analysis − Lighting Fixture Selection − Design & Placement − Installation Process Aditya A. Bahl Chapter 6 NORTH WALL ROOF – Wall thickness – Connection details – Insulation thickness – Insulation material – Insulation Position – Dynamic Insulation Profiles – Overall joinery details – PV Panels placement & orientation – Folding Panel design – Insulation position – Insulation thickness – Thermal Analysis of dynamic insulation on roof – Thermal Lag in IESVE – Lighting Design Analysis SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Placement of PV Panels − Months with highest DB Temp SIMULATION & RESULTS Thermal Comfort/Ventilation Prototype Composite Prototype Mould Design Dynamic Insulation Movement BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS • Ladybug, Grasshopper − Incident radiation on each surface. PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS Chapter 4 • PV Watts − Orientation & Placement − AC energy generated − Number of panels GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS • Climate Studio − Glare disturbing percentage − Lux achieved at each zone THERMAL ANALYSIS • IESVE − Testing external material − Addition of shading components & code compliance − Natural Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation on roof − Thermal lag test LIGHTING DESIGN • AGI32 − Test different fixtures − Tilt & rolling angle Base Case Overall Model − Material − Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation Movement − Base Model of Pocket Lodge Proposed Overall Model − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on South − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on North − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on Roof – Wall thickness – Outside & Inside Insulation thickness – Insulation position – Insulation material – Dynamic insulation profile – Static insulation Work by Aditya A. Bahl Work by Archana Janardanan Work by Yuqing He Work done as a group COLLECTED DESIGN BACKGROUND Addition of Mechanical System − Heating & Cooling load iteration 16.0 − Heating & Cooling load tent structure − Compare heating & cooling loads Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge 114 Fig 5.2: Methodology diagram focusing on chapter 5. 5.1 Final Iteration collected at a team. The section begins by explaining the design of the roof, south wall, and the north wall. It highlights the iteration selected after performing the simulation on each component individually. Moreover, the collaboration of all three components helps in understanding the functioning of roof and the two walls together and study its impact on the internal temperature (Fig 5.3). Combining all three generates a base model for the pocket lodge, and this model would be modified further. DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY MATERIAL MOLD & PREFABICATION CODE COMPLIANCE − Precast concrete − Insulation material − Shading louvers − Glass and frame − Mold material − Mold design − Prefabrication techniques − California Building Code − California Energy Code SITE & ORIENTATION − Sun position − Shade − Placement on site DESIGN DEVELOPMENT − Area/Dimension − Form development − Structure − Weight calculations (Excel) − Finishes (Texture) COLLECTED AS A TEAM COLLECTED INDIVIDUALLY DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE SOUTH WALL FINAL ITERATION COLLECTED AS A TEAM Chapter 3 Chapter 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS LIGHTING DESIGN − Glass & Frame − Dynamic Insulation for roof − Buffer Space + Folding Plates − Ventilation − Heating & Cooling days − Heat Capacity PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS − Orientation & Placement − Excel (Calculate daily requirement) − Battery Calculations GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Design Concept − Glare Analysis − Daylight Analysis − Shade Analysis − Lighting Fixture Selection − Design & Placement − Installation Process Aditya A. Bahl Chapter 6 NORTH WALL ROOF – Wall thickness – Connection details – Insulation thickness – Insulation material – Insulation Position – Dynamic Insulation Profiles – Overall joinery details – PV Panels placement & orientation – Folding Panel design – Insulation position – Insulation thickness – Thermal Analysis of dynamic insulation on roof – Thermal Lag in IESVE – Lighting Design Analysis SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Placement of PV Panels − Months with highest DB Temp SIMULATION & RESULTS Thermal Comfort/Ventilation Prototype Composite Prototype Mould Design Dynamic Insulation Movement BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS • Ladybug, Grasshopper − Incident radiation on each surface. PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS Chapter 4 • PV Watts − Orientation & Placement − AC energy generated − Number of panels GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS • Climate Studio − Glare disturbing percentage − Lux achieved at each zone THERMAL ANALYSIS • IESVE − Testing external material − Addition of shading components & code compliance − Natural Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation on roof − Thermal lag test LIGHTING DESIGN • AGI32 − Test different fixtures − Tilt & rolling angle Base Case Overall Model − Material − Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation Movement − Base Model of Pocket Lodge Proposed Overall Model − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on South − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on North − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on Roof – Wall thickness – Outside & Inside Insulation thickness – Insulation position – Insulation material – Dynamic insulation profile – Static insulation Work by Aditya A. Bahl Work by Archana Janardanan Work by Yuqing He Work done as a group COLLECTED DESIGN BACKGROUND Addition of Mechanical System − Heating & Cooling load iteration 16.0 − Heating & Cooling load tent structure − Compare heating & cooling loads Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge 115 Fig 5.3: Exploded Isometric diagram of the pocket lodge. 5.1.1 South Wall (By Archana Janardanan) The south wall is responsible for controlling the heat transfer through its exterior and interior dynamic insulation. The dynamic insulation inside and outside moves according to the profile set in relation to the exterior temperature. Further, the study of south wall explores the design of the south horizontal canopy. The dynamic movement of this canopy allows the wall to function as both, thermal battery, and a canopy. Characteristics of South Wall of Pocket Lodge: • Wall Thickness: 8 inches • Insulation Material: Expanded Polystyrene • Insulation Thickness: 3 Inch (Approx.) • Insulation Position: Interior and Exterior • Dynamic Insulation Profile: The time when the south wall won’t require interior dynamic insulation is noted (Fig 5.4). The south wall consists of dynamic insulation on both, outside as well as inside surfaces of the wall. This characteristic allows the wall to function as a thermal battery. For example, when the sun is strongest, the exterior panel would be open, and the interior shut. This allows the concrete to store heat within its thickness and prevent is from being realized to the interiors. Once the sun sets, both insulations are shut with the thermal battery charged. Further, when the lodge becomes cooler, the interior panel opens and releases all the collected heat into the interior space. 116 Fig 5.4: Annual dynamic insulation profile of south wall 5.1.2 North Wall (By Yuqing He) The north wall is responsible for controlling the heat transfer through its exterior and interior dynamic insulation. Characteristics of North Wall of Pocket Lodge: • Wall Thickness: 5 inches • Insulation Material: Expanded Polystyrene • Insulation Thickness: 3 Inch (Approx.) • Insulation Position: Exterior & Interior • Dynamic Insulation Profile: The time when the north wall won’t require interior dynamic insulation is noted (Fig 5.4). The north wall consists of dynamic insulation on both, outside as well as inside surfaces of the wall and functions as a thermal battery as well. As compared to the south thermal battery, the north battery focuses on storing cooling air within the thickness of concrete. This air collected is gradually passed on into the interior space when required. Note: Off continuously refers to having the panels active on the component throughout the month. On continuously refers to not having the panel active during that month (Fig 5.5 & 5.6). Fig 5.5: Annual dynamic insulation profile of north wall 117 Fig 5.6: Profile for inside and outside dynamic insulation on north wall 5.1.3 Roof (By Aditya A. Bahl) The roof has enough square footage to generate an adequate amount of electricity through solar panels. It is also responsible for assisting the walls by preventing heat from impacting the internal temperatures. The roof consists of its exterior surface cladded with reflective material. Moreover, the design of the roof comprises of two extensions on the east and west that are capable of folding to prevent glare and provide adequate daylight to the interior space (see section 5.3). The roof would experience the highest incident radiation (2096 kWh/m2) as compared to the exterior walls and will have the solar panels placed on it. Seven phono solar monocrystalline panels at the tilt angle of 32-33 degrees and azimuth angle between 175-181 degrees would generate 10.05 kWh/day. However, the rangers would require 9.5 kWh/day. Vertical fins rotated at 45 degrees toward north would be attached to the folding panels preventing any glare to enter the unit and allowing an average of 23 lux of daylighting into the interior space. The internal temperature after applying the buffer space, folding panels, operable windows, double pane windows, concrete walls with u value and r value as per code is noted to be within 103- degree F and 50-degree F. Iteration 11.2 would be used for the lighting design of the pocket lodge. The iteration results in achieving footcandles within the range of 10-20 throughout the space. Further, the iteration didn’t achieve 50 footcandles throughout the working space but is the most efficient and close to the objective as compared to the other iterations. Characteristics of roof of Pocket Lodge: • Wall Thickness: 5 inches • Insulation Material: Expanded Polystyrene • Insulation Thickness: 3 Inch (Approx.) • Insulation Position: Only Interior • Dynamic Insulation Profile: The time when the roof won’t require interior dynamic insulation is noted (Fig 5.7). 118 Fig 5.7: Annual dynamic insulation profile of roof 5.2 Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation For natural ventilation and the profile dictating the opening and closing of operable windows was derived in iteration 8.0 within the thermal comfort section of chapter 4 (Fig 5.8). Iteration 8.0 uses the following formula directing the window to operate based on the exterior temperature at JTNP: Fig 5.8: Adding ventilation formula to IESVE profiles. “Formula Iteration 8.0: ta>to & ta>75 (Instructed by Professor Gideon Susman)” 119 In the above formula, ‘ta’ refer to the temperature within the interior space and ‘to’ refers to the dry-bulb temperature on site. The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 75-degree F, the windows must open. 5.3 Prototype Composite The pocket lodge module consists of two extensions on its exterior envelope that provide the module with shade and adequate daylight. The first type of extension functions as both, a horizontal shading device and an exterior dynamic insulation on the south façade. The panel doubles up as a cantilevered roof in its open position and acts as an insulation when laid flat against the wall. When folded, the canopy extends up to 6 feet and covers the entire wall when laid flat (Fig 5.9 and 5.10). Fig 5.9: Angle and length of south insulation canopy Fig 5.10: Movement of exterior dynamic insulation on south façade. Second type of extensions are attached to the east and west buffer space. The panels function as vertical louvres/fins cutting down direct heat gain and preventing glare. The vertical fins are operable and can be placed at multiple angles based on user needs. There are two types of designs proposed for this type of overhang. The first design involves having the panel to open and close vertically and the individual fins are operated based on user requirements (Fig 5.11). The second detail involves sliding of the vertical louvres and rotating them to the appropriate angle (Fig 5.12). 120 Fig 5.11: Option 1 - Vertical opening of louvres. Fig 5.12: Option 2 – Sliding of louvres. 5.4 Prototype Mold Having plywood as the mold material is sufficient due to its ability to hold multiple pours, it consists of low cost and the board size available in market are 4’x8’ and 4’x10’ (Curtis Lumber & Plywood, 2019). These dimensions are suitable for the dimensions of the pocket lodge module that is to be casted repeatedly. ¾ inches thick plywood is considered to increase the longevity of the formwork usage. The size of the mold is derived from the dimensions of the tube (Fig 5.13). Fig 5.13: Mold design of the Pocket Lodge. 121 The length of the tube mold would be 4 feet, outside width of roof and base would be 8.1 x 4 feet and inside 6.9 x 4 feet. The length of outside north and south wall mold would be 9.1 x 4 feet and inside is 8.1 x 4 feet (Fig 5.14). Fig 5.14: Mold Design and dimensions for The Pocket Lodge 5.5 Dynamic Insulation Movement The dynamic insulation movement refers to the requirement of interior dynamic insulation by each component. It illustrates the season and the time when the insulation would be active or inactive on the roof, south and the north wall. The base model of pocket lodge would consist of two interior dynamic insulation of length 18 feet. Therefore, at a certain time one of the three components wouldn’t have dynamic insulation panel active, or it would consist of both panels to be on one component. This step collaborates the individual data collected by each team member and determines instances when all components would require dynamic insulation to be active at a specific period (Fig 5.15). This scenario is not possible, due to the pocket lodge consisting of only two interior dynamic insulation panels divided among the three components. The cross refers to the panels at open positioning meaning that they would not be present under the component during the mentioned time. The tick refers to the components being active and present under the roof or adjacent to the walls. 8.1 9.1 6.9 8.1 122 Fig 5.15: Combined annual dynamic insulation profile of all components In the summer, only the roof and south wall would require interior dynamic insulation. Both panels would be active on roof during the day and at night, one panel from the roof would slide and shift to the south wall. In the spring, only the roof and south wall require dynamic insulation. Both surfaces would get one panel each. In fall, only the south wall requires insulation. Both interior dynamic insulation panels would rest on the south wall during the day. The winter season consists of an overlap with all three components- roof, north and south wall requiring internal dynamic insulation during the day. This condition isn’t possible as the three components share two interior dynamic insulation panels among them. A study determining which component would be least impacted with the insulation inactive is required to be conducted in chapter 6 (Section 6.2). 5.6 Summary This chapter illustrates the data consolidated for the base model of pocket lodge and provides the thermal comfort/ ventilation parameters, prototype composites, prototype mold design and dynamic insulation movement. Chapter 5 collaborates all the data collected for the individual components – roof, south wall, and north wall. The background research on north and south wall were conducted by ranger team members and have been shared within the chapter. The thickness of the roof, north wall and base is set at 5 inches of concrete and the south wall is 8 inches thick. All insulation panels are 3 inches thick and the formula (ta > to & ta > 75) is used to guide the operable windows. Further, after assembling of all the components, the design, and dimensions for the final base model of pocket lodge are revised. The mold and the assembly of the components as illustrated in the previous chapters are being carried forward for the simulations in chapter 6. Dynamic insulation movement of all three components have been compared. Noting spring season to experience an overlap of data and would be studied further in the following chapter. The module produced within chapter 5 is known as the base model of the pocket lodge. 123 6 CHAPTER 6: BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE Building simulation for pocket lodge illustrates the base case overall model, proposed overall model, addition of mechanical system and photovoltaic panel: the pocket lodge (Fig 6.1). Fig 6.1: Methodology Diagram for chapter 3-6. Chapter 6 focuses first developing the base model of pocket lodge achieved by combing all the three components- roof, north and south wall (Fig 6.2). Further, this base model is further modified by changing its dynamic insulation movement and results are noted. Fig 6.2: Methodology Diagram for chapter 6 6.1 Base Case Overall Model The base model of pocket lodge comprises of the final iterations selected from the simulations performed in chapter 4 and the data consolidated from other team members in chapter 5. DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY MATERIAL MOLD & PREFABICATION CODE COMPLIANCE − Precast concrete − Insulation material − Shading louvers − Glass and frame − Mold material − Mold design − Prefabrication techniques − California Building Code − California Energy Code SITE & ORIENTATION − Sun position − Shade − Placement on site DESIGN DEVELOPMENT − Area/Dimension − Form development − Structure − Weight calculations (Excel) − Finishes (Texture) COLLECTED AS A TEAM COLLECTED INDIVIDUALLY DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE SOUTH WALL FINAL ITERATION COLLECTED AS A TEAM Chapter 3 Chapter 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS LIGHTING DESIGN − Glass & Frame − Dynamic Insulation for roof − Buffer Space + Folding Plates − Ventilation − Heating & Cooling days − Heat Capacity PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS − Orientation & Placement − Excel (Calculate daily requirement) − Battery Calculations GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Design Concept − Glare Analysis − Daylight Analysis − Shade Analysis − Lighting Fixture Selection − Design & Placement − Installation Process Aditya A. Bahl Chapter 6 NORTH WALL ROOF – Wall thickness – Connection details – Insulation thickness – Insulation material – Insulation Position – Dynamic Insulation Profiles – Overall joinery details – PV Panels placement & orientation – Folding Panel design – Insulation position – Insulation thickness – Thermal Analysis of dynamic insulation on roof – Thermal Lag in IESVE – Lighting Design Analysis SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Placement of PV Panels − Months with highest DB Temp SIMULATION & RESULTS Thermal Comfort/Ventilation Prototype Composite Prototype Mould Design Dynamic Insulation Movement BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS • Ladybug, Grasshopper − Incident radiation on each surface. PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS Chapter 4 • PV Watts − Orientation & Placement − AC energy generated − Number of panels GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS • Climate Studio − Glare disturbing percentage − Lux achieved at each zone THERMAL ANALYSIS • IESVE − Testing external material − Addition of shading components & code compliance − Natural Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation on roof − Thermal lag test LIGHTING DESIGN • AGI32 − Test different fixtures − Tilt & rolling angle Base Case Overall Model − Material − Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation Movement − Base Model of Pocket Lodge Proposed Overall Model − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on South − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on North − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on Roof – Wall thickness – Outside & Inside Insulation thickness – Insulation position – Insulation material – Dynamic insulation profile – Static insulation Work by Aditya A. Bahl Work by Archana Janardanan Work by Yuqing He Work done as a group COLLECTED DESIGN BACKGROUND Addition of Mechanical System − Heating & Cooling load iteration 16.0 − Heating & Cooling load tent structure − Compare heating & cooling loads Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY MATERIAL MOLD & PREFABICATION CODE COMPLIANCE − Precast concrete − Insulation material − Shading louvers − Glass and frame − Mold material − Mold design − Prefabrication techniques − California Building Code − California Energy Code SITE & ORIENTATION − Sun position − Shade − Placement on site DESIGN DEVELOPMENT − Area/Dimension − Form development − Structure − Weight calculations (Excel) − Finishes (Texture) COLLECTED AS A TEAM COLLECTED INDIVIDUALLY DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE SOUTH WALL FINAL ITERATION COLLECTED AS A TEAM Chapter 3 Chapter 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS LIGHTING DESIGN − Glass & Frame − Dynamic Insulation for roof − Buffer Space + Folding Plates − Ventilation − Heating & Cooling days − Heat Capacity PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS − Orientation & Placement − Excel (Calculate daily requirement) − Battery Calculations GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Design Concept − Glare Analysis − Daylight Analysis − Shade Analysis − Lighting Fixture Selection − Design & Placement − Installation Process Aditya A. Bahl Chapter 6 NORTH WALL ROOF – Wall thickness – Connection details – Insulation thickness – Insulation material – Insulation Position – Dynamic Insulation Profiles – Overall joinery details – PV Panels placement & orientation – Folding Panel design – Insulation position – Insulation thickness – Thermal Analysis of dynamic insulation on roof – Thermal Lag in IESVE – Lighting Design Analysis SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Placement of PV Panels − Months with highest DB Temp SIMULATION & RESULTS Thermal Comfort/Ventilation Prototype Composite Prototype Mould Design Dynamic Insulation Movement BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS • Ladybug, Grasshopper − Incident radiation on each surface. PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS Chapter 4 • PV Watts − Orientation & Placement − AC energy generated − Number of panels GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS • Climate Studio − Glare disturbing percentage − Lux achieved at each zone THERMAL ANALYSIS • IESVE − Testing external material − Addition of shading components & code compliance − Natural Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation on roof − Thermal lag test LIGHTING DESIGN • AGI32 − Test different fixtures − Tilt & rolling angle Base Case Overall Model − Material − Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation Movement − Base Model of Pocket Lodge Proposed Overall Model − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on South − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on North − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on Roof – Wall thickness – Outside & Inside Insulation thickness – Insulation position – Insulation material – Dynamic insulation profile – Static insulation Work by Aditya A. Bahl Work by Archana Janardanan Work by Yuqing He Work done as a group COLLECTED DESIGN BACKGROUND Addition of Mechanical System − Heating & Cooling load iteration 16.0 − Heating & Cooling load tent structure − Compare heating & cooling loads Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge 124 6.1.1 Material The roof, base, north and south walls are all composed of concrete. The roof, base and north wall comprise a thickness of 5 inches whereas north wall is 8 inches. The ratio of the high strength concrete mix is set to standards and to achieve easy flow of concrete slurry, self- consolidating mix is used. Concrete Mix: • Portland cement: 750 lbs./yard • Sand: 1250 lbs./yard • Water: 36 gallons • Aggregates: 1600 lbs. Further, the east and west facades are composed of triple pane glass with krypton gas in between the glass panels and the frame made of vinyl. Polystyrene is the insulated material considered and tested within the simulations to obtain the proposed objective. The south and east walls consist of 3 inches of polyester functioning as their exterior dynamic insulation. The interior consists of two layers of 3 inches polyester and can be shifted across the longer walls and roof. The R values achieved by the dynamic insulation is R13 and U value is 0.07. Moreover, the folding panels attached on east and west edge of the roof and are composed of vinyl as well. Vinyl is a lightweight material, requiring low maintenance and has a low cost. Further, this material is not susceptible to moisture and water (An Introduction to Vinyl, 2023). 6.1.2 Thermal Comfort/Ventilation For the ventilation strategy, the formula tested in chapter 4 iteration 8.0 is used for the base model of pocket lodge (Section 4.2.6). Several iterations were developed, however, iteration 8.0 achieved the most appropriate result. “Formula Iteration 8.0: ta>to & ta>75” In the above formula, ‘ta’ refer to the temperature within the interior space and ‘to’ refers to the dry-bulb temperature on site. The formula states if the temperature inside is greater than temperature outside and the temperature inside is greater than 75-degree F, the windows must open (Fig 6.3). 125 Fig 6.3: Adding ventilation formula to IESVE profiles. The result through the above formula is noted to have its interior temperature fluctuating between the range of 102.43 degree F and 43.68 degree F (Fig 6.4). Fig 6.4: Iteration 8.0 Interior and Dry Bulb Temperature Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 126 6.1.3 Dynamic Insulation Movement. The dynamic insulation movement refers to the requirement of interior dynamic insulation by each component. It illustrates the season and the time when the insulation would be active or inactive on the roof, south and the north wall. The base model of pocket lodge would consist of two interior dynamic insulation of length 18 feet. Therefore, at a certain time one of the three components wouldn’t have dynamic insulation panel active or it would consist of both panels to be on one component. This step collaborates the individual data collected by each team member and determines instances when all components would require dynamic insulation to be active at a specific period (Fig 6.5). This scenario is not possible, due to the pocket lodge consisting of only two interior dynamic insulation panels divided among the three components. The cross refers to the panels at open positioning meaning that they would not be present under the component during the mentioned time. The tick refers to the components being active and present under the roof or adjacent to the walls. Fig 6.5: Combined annual dynamic insulation profile of all components The summer, only the roof and south wall would require interior dynamic insulation. Both panels would be active on roof during the day and at night, one panel from the roof would slide and shift to the south wall. In the spring, only roof and south wall require dynamic insulation. Both surfaces would get one panel each. In fall, only the south wall requires insulation. Both interior dynamic insulation panels would rest on the south wall during the day. The winter experiences an overlap requiring the internal dynamic insulation at Joshua Tree National Park. All three components need the insulation to be active during the day and roof during nighttime as well. This scenario is not possible as three walls are sharing two insulating panels and is further explored within this chapter. 6.1.4 Base Model of Pocket Lodge The base model of the pocket lodge is derived in steps. First, the dynamic insulation with its profile is added to the roof. South exterior and interior dynamic insulation are both simulated within the software. At last, the north wall is added as well leading to the development of the base model of pocket lodge. 127 Addition of Interior dynamic insulation on roof: Iteration 11.0 The dynamic insulation in the interiors is active under the roof in the morning at 11 AM and remains active until 6 PM in the evening. Off continuously refers to having the panels active on the component throughout the month. On continuously refers to not having the panel active during that month (Fig 6.6). Fig 6.6: Annual dynamic insulation profile of roof The interior temperature is noted to be highest in mid-august going up to 103.51-degree F and lowest in December reaching 52.8 -degree F (Fig 6.7). However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Fig 6.7: Internal and dry bulb temperature with dynamic insulation only on the roof. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 128 The number of hours within and outside the comfort zone of 65–85-degree Fahrenheit are noted (Fig 6.8). This iteration achieves 4839 hours within comfort zone out of 8760 hours in a year. Fig 6.8: Number of hours within comfort range with dynamic insulation only on roof. Addition of dynamic insulation on roof and to both interior and exterior surfaces of South Wall: Iteration 12.0 The next step is to add the movable insulation on the south wall. The south wall consists of dynamic insulation on both, outside as well as inside surfaces of the wall. This characteristic allows the wall to function as a thermal battery. The dynamic insulation is required by the south wall in all seasons at different timings (Fig 6.9). Fig 6.9: Annual dynamic insulation profile of south wall The interior temperature is noted to be highest in mid-august going up to 105.58-degree F and lowest in December reaching 48.51 -degree F (Fig 6.10). The results seem to have deteriorated by the addition of south dynamic insulation. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. 129 Fig 6.10: Internal and dry bulb temperature with dynamic insulation of Iteration 12.0 The number of hours within and outside the comfort zone of 65–85-degree Fahrenheit are noted (Fig 6.11). This iteration achieves 4095 hours within comfort zone out of 8760 hours in a year. Fig 6.11: Number of hours with dynamic insulation on roof and south wall. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 130 Addition of dynamic insulation on roof and to both interior and exterior surfaces of south wall and north wall: Iteration 13.0 Combing all three components- roof, south and north wall would achieve the base model of the pocket lodge (Fig 6.12). Fig 6.12: Base Model of The Pocket Lodge on IESVE The north wall is responsible for controlling the heat transfer through its exterior and interior dynamic insulation and functions as a thermal battery as well. The exterior dynamic insulation is active on the north wall during the months of May to October from 7 AM to 6PM. The north wall requires interior insulation only in January and December from 7 AM to 6 PM (Fig 6.13). Fig 6.13: Annual dynamic insulation profile of north wall The interior temperature is noted to be highest in mid-august going up to 106.28-degree F and lowest in December reaching 50.92 -degree F (Fig 6.14). The lowest temperature has improved by the addition of north dynamic insulation. However, this iteration fails to achieve the 131 objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Fig 6.14: Internal and dry bulb temperature with dynamic insulation of Iteration 13.0 The number of hours within and outside the comfort zone of 65–85-degree Fahrenheit are noted (Fig 6.15). This iteration achieves 4889 hours within comfort zone out of 8760 hours in a year. Fig 6.15: Number of hours within comfort range with dynamic insulation on all three components. 6.2 Proposed Overall Model The base model of the pocket lodge achieves a temperature fluctuation between 106-52-degree Fahrenheit throughout the year without the use of HVAC systems. However, as mentioned in Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 132 the previous chapter, an overlap within the interior dynamic insulation timings was noted in the winter season. The following iterations focuses on modifying the base model by testing which of the three components would benefit from having the dynamic insulation on them. 6.2.1 Remove Interior Dynamic Insulation from South Wall Profile in Winter Season. Iteration 14.0 For this iteration, within the profile setup section, the south wall has its winter months (December, January, February) set as continuously on (Fig 6.16). This refers to the interior dynamic insulation panel would not be aligned against the south wall in winter season. Fig 6.16: Proposed Interior dynamic insulation movement on South Wall The temperature fluctuation is noted to go as high as 106.28-degree F and as low as 50.92- degree F throughout the year (Fig 6.17). The results don’t experience any improvement but rather remain the same as the base model of pocket lodge. Although, there is no overlap of interior dynamic panel within this iteration. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. 133 Fig 6.17: Internal and dry bulb temperature of Iteration 14.0 The number of hours within and outside the comfort zone of 65–85-degree Fahrenheit are noted to be same as iteration 13.0 (Fig 6.18). This iteration achieves 4889 hours within comfort zone out of 8760 hours in a year. Fig 6.18: Number of hours within comfort range in Iteration 14.0 Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 134 6.2.2 Remove Interior Dynamic Insulation from North Wall Profile in Winter Season. Iteration 15.0 For this iteration, within the profile setup section, the north wall has its winter months (December, January, February) set as continuously on (Fig 6.19). This refers to the dynamic insulation panel to not be active along the north wall in winter season. Fig 6.19: Proposed Interior dynamic insulation movement on North Wall The temperature fluctuation is noted to go as high as 106.28-degree F and as low as 50.92- degree F throughout the year (Fig 6.20). The results don’t experience any improvement but rather remain the same as iteration 14.0. Although, there is no overlap of interior dynamic panel within this iteration. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. Fig 6.20: Internal and dry bulb temperature of Iteration 15.0 Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 135 The number of hours within and outside the comfort zone of 65–85-degree Fahrenheit are noted to be same as iteration 14.0 (Fig 6.21). This iteration achieves 4889 hours within comfort zone out of 8760 hours in a year. Fig 6.21: Number of hours within comfort range in Iteration 15.0 6.2.3 Remove Interior Dynamic Insulation from Roof Profile in Winter Season. Iteration 16.0 For this iteration, within the profile setup section, the roof has its winter months (December, January, February) set as continuously on (Fig 6.22). This refers to the dynamic insulation panel to not be active under the roof in winter season. Fig 6.22: Proposed Interior dynamic insulation movement on Roof. The temperature fluctuation is noted to go as high as 106.3-degree F and as low as 50.9-degree F throughout the year (Fig 6.23). The results don’t experience any improvement but rather remain the same as iteration 15.0. Although, there is no overlap of interior dynamic panel within this iteration. However, this iteration fails to achieve the objective of the roof i.e., to assist the walls and have the interior temperature fluctuate within 65-85-degree F range. 136 Fig 6.23: Internal and dry bulb temperature of Iteration 16.0 The number of hours within and outside the comfort zone of 65–85-degree Fahrenheit are noted to be same as iteration 14.0 and 15.0 (Fig 6.24). This iteration achieves 4889 hours within comfort zone out of 8760 hours in a year. Fig 6.24: Number of hours within comfort range in Iteration 16.0 Iteration 14.0, 15.0 and 16.0 are conducted to prevent an overlap of interior dynamic insulation panels and understand the most suitable results that can be achieved with the three facades sharing two dynamic insulating panels. However, it is noted that the result is not affected by prevent the overlap and the module would achieve ethe same output as the base model of pocket lodge in iteration 13.0. Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 137 6.3 Addition of mechanical system to pocket lodge. From the above iterations, it is noted that the proposed overall model is unable to reach the objective of pocket lodge. The lodge fails to achieve interior temperature fluctuate within 65- 85-degree F range throughout the year. The temperature fluctuation is noted to go as high as 106.3-degree F and as low as 50.9-degree F and achieves 4889 hours within comfort zone out of 8760 hours in a year. However, to achieve the desired goal an open loop heat pump with a coefficient of performance (COP) of 4 is proposed (Fig 6.25). A heat pump with COP of 4 or 4:1 refers to every 1 unit of electrical input power put into the heat pump provides 4 units of heat output power (Adams, n.d.). Fig 6.25: Types of Heat Pumps are their COP achieved (Langer, 2023). A heat pump is considered as a heating and cooling system installed outside the house. It cools a home like a central air conditioner but is also capable of providing heat to the space (Carrier, n.d). During winter season, heat pump pulls the heat from the cool exterior air and transports it into interior spaces. During summer season, it pulls the heat out from the interior space to achieve a cooler indoor temperature. Electricity is used to power the system and heat is transferred using refrigerants (Carrier, n.d). Further, to achieve additional efficiency, an electric heat strip is added to the indoor fan coil. Heat pumps are more environmentally friendly as compared to traditional HVAC systems as they don’t burn fossil fuel and achieve a comfortable temperature (Carrier, n.d). Carrier’s Infinity 24 heat pump (Model number: 25VNA4) would be a suitable option of heat pump for the pocket lodge (Carrier, n.d). This step compares the cooling and heating load used to achieve annual internal temperature within the range of 65–85-degree Fahrenheit. Loads of the iteration 16.0, proposed overall model and base model composed of polyester are determined and the difference is noted. 6.3.1 Calculating Heating and Cooling Loads of iteration 16.0 To identify heating and cooling loads of the module, there are set points proposed for the software to understand the required temperature of the space (Fig 6.26). Whenever the space goes below 67-degree Fahrenheit, the space would be heated and above 83-degree Fahrenheit the space is required to be cooled. 138 Fig 6.26: Proposing set points for the mechanical system on IES VE. To confirm that the setpoints proposed are being identified by the software, the internal and dry-bulb temperatures are extracted. The temperature fluctuation is noted to go as high as 85- degree F and as low as 65-degree F throughout the year (Fig 6.27). Furthermore, this iteration successes to achieve the objective i.e., to achieve the interior temperature fluctuation within 65-85-degree F range but with mechanical system. Fig 6.27: Internal and dry bulb temperature of iteration 16.0 with mechanical system Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 139 The number of hours within the comfort zone of 65–85-degree Fahrenheit are noted (Fig 6.28). This iteration achieves all the 8760 hours within comfort zone in a year. Fig 6.28: Number of hours within comfort range in Iteration 16.0 The next step is to extract the cooling and heating loads to achieve internal temperatures within the range of 65–85-degree Fahrenheit (Fig 6.29 & Fig 6.30). While extract heating loads, it is essential to have the internal gains are switched off to achieve the worst-case scenario. Fig 6.29: Cooling loads of proposed overall model with mechanical system. 140 Fig 6.30: Heating loads of proposed overall model with mechanical system. In contrast, the module would require to be cooled during the mouths of April, May, June, July, August, September, October and November, and heating is required in the months of January, February, March, April, May, November, and December. This data is extracted and imported into Microsoft Excel to perform further calculations (Fig 6.31). Fig 6.31: Data extracted from IES VE into Microsoft Excel. The cooling and heating loads throughout the year and added individually. These numbers are them divided by the COP of heat pump (i.e., 4) to achieve the total energy required within the 141 above-mentioned months to have the internal temperatures fluctuate between the range of 65- 85-degree Fahrenheit. • Cooling Load: Sum of all cooling loads: 2977313 btu/h Total Annual Energy required by the heat pump: 2977313/4 = 744328.3 btu/h Total Annual Energy required for cooling in kbtu/h: 744.3283 kbtu/h. Total Annual Energy required for cooling in kWh: 218 kWh. Cost for generating total energy: 65.4 Dollars/year (Assuming rate of electricity is 30 cents per kWh) • Heating Load: Sum of all heating loads: 1992946 btu/h Total Annual Energy required by the heat pump: 1992946/4 = 498236.5 btu/h Total Annual Energy required for heating in kbtu/h: 498.2365 kbtu/h. Total Annual Energy required for heating in kWh: 146.21 kWh. Cost for generating total energy: 43.86 Dollars/year (Assuming rate of electricity is 30 cents per kWh) • Total load for Heat Pump per year: 218 + 146.21 kWh = 364.21 kWh 6.3.2 Calculating Heating and Cooling Loads of base model composed of polyester. For calculating the cooling and heating loads of this iterations, the same process is conducted using the base model composed of polyester. The internal and dry-bulb temperatures were extracted to confirm IES VE considers the set points (Fig 6.32). Fig 6.32: Internal and dry bulb temperature of tent structure with mechanical system Comfort Zone (65-85 F) 142 The temperature fluctuation is noted to go as high as 89-degree F and as low as 63-degree F throughout the year. Further, it is noted even after setting the set points same as previous iteration, the module consists of 6445 hours within the comfort zone (Fig 6.33). Fig 6.33: Number of hours in tent structure with mechanical system. Further, cooling and loading loads of the module are extract from IES VE and imported into Microsoft Excel (Fig 6.34 & 6.35). Fig 6.34: Cooling loads of tent structure with mechanical system. 143 Fig 6.35: Heating loads of tent structure with mechanical system. Note that the heating and cooling loads of the tent structure are much higher as compared to the loads of the proposed overall model. • Cooling Load: Sum of all cooling loads: 23379146 btu/h Total Annual Energy required by the heat pump: 23379146/4 = 5844787 btu/h Total Annual Energy required for cooling in kbtu/h: 5844.78 kbtu/h. Total Annual Energy required for cooling in kWh: 1712.66 kWh. Cost for generating total energy: 513.798 Dollars/year (Assuming rate of electricity is 30 cents per kWh) • Heating Load: Sum of all heating loads: 17081997 btu/h Total Annual Energy required by the heat pump: 17081997/4 = 4270499 btu/h Total Annual Energy required for heating in kbtu/h: 4270.49 kbtu/h. Total Annual Energy required for heating in kWh: 1251.17 kWh. Cost for generating total energy: 375.35 Dollars/year (Assuming rate of electricity is 30 cents per kWh) • Total load for Heat Pump per year: 1712.66 kWh + 1251.17 kWh = 2963.83 kWh 6.3.3 Comparison of cooling and heating loads of Iteration 16.0 and Tent Structure From the calculations performed above, the following results are extracted: 144 • The cooling load of the proposed overall model (Iteration 16.0) with mechanical system is much lower as compared to the cooling load of tent structure. This is majorly due to all the passive strategies proposed within the pocket lodge. A difference of 1494.66 kWh per year is noted. • The heating load of the proposed overall model with mechanical system is much lower as well, when compared to the cooling load of tent structure. A difference of 1104.96 kWh per year is noted. To further compare the two results, an energy use index graph is developed. The cooling load, heating loads, lighting gain and equipment gain of the module are extracted from IES VE and imported into Microsoft Excel (Fig 6.36 & 6.37). Fig 6.36: Energy Use Index of Iteration 16.0 Fig 6.37: Energy Use Index of Tent Structure On comparing the EUI of iteration16.0 and the tent structure, it is noted that EUI of iteration 16.0 is lower. A reduction of 75.6% in EUI is achieved. Further, the lighting gains and the equipment gains remain the same as design in the model. The reduction of EUI is achieved by proposing passive strategies, shading components, material selection, thermal template design and the concept of dynamic insulation. Iteration 16.0 is known as the Pocket Lodge as it experiences a reduction of cooling and heating loads by 87% as compared to tent structure. The pocket lodge achieves 4889 hours within 65-85 degrees Fahrenheit in a year while the tent structure achieves only 2357 hours. 20.7 85.04 145 6.4 Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge This simulation involves calculation of number of PV panels that would generate electricity for the podge lodge. Phono Solar monocrystalline PV panels are placed on the roof. The tilt and azimuth angle would remail the same (Section 4.2.2). The number of panels and the size of the battery calculations are required to be modified. The same procedure is followed to calculate the required deliverables. The first step was to determine the total amount of energy that is required to be generated for the pocket lodge (Fig 6.38). As per calculations, it is assumed with the cooling, heating, lighting, and equipment load the pocket lodge would require a total of 10.511 kWh per day. Fig 6.38: Total Electricity required for The Pocket Lodge. The photovoltaic panel calculations are conducted through PV Watts Calculator. The website request for basic input like the location, the area of PV panels (decides DC system size), type of module, type of array, tilt, and azimuth degree. The azimuth angle is set to be 178 degrees and the tilt angle is 32 degrees. Roof mounted standard module types are considered, assuming a system loss of 14.08%. Invertor efficiency was noted to be 96%. As a result, AC energy generated at the proposed characteristic was 10.05 kWh per day and the new amount after addition of heat pump is 10.0511 kWh per day. Since the required and generated amount of electricity are close, the pocket lodge would consist of eight panels to accommodate the load of heat pump. Eight solar panels have a DC system size of 2.1 kW and would generate 4058 kWh/year and 11.11 kWh/day (Fig 3.39). Fig 3.39: Total Electricity generated at Pocket Lodge 146 The final step was to understand the size of the off-grid battery installed. Lithium-ion battery is proposed to be installed as before. Their characteristics require no maintenance and capability of hold more solar energy. From PV Watt Calculator, Max. Energy generated in a month = 374 kWh (March) Avg. energy generated per day = 12.06 kWh Lithium Battery Size = 12.06 kWh x 1.2 (80% depth of discharge) x 1.05 (Inefficiency Factor) = 15.195 kWh Amp Hours = for 12V Battery = 15195 (Wh)/12 = 1266.25-amp hours = for 24V Battery = 15195 (Wh) /24 = 633.12-amp hours = for 48V Battery = 15195 (Wh) /48 = 316.56-amp hours To conclude, eight phono solar monocrystalline panels at the tilt angle of 33 degrees and azimuth angle between 178 degrees would generate a minimum of 11.11 kWh/day. The pocket lodge would require 10.05 kWh/day, an extra 1.06 kWh/day will be generated. A lithium-ion 12V battery would be placed on the southeast buffer space of the residence delivering 1266.25- amp in an hour. Dakota Lithium 12V 1200AH 15 KWH LIFE04 solar battery bank would be placed on the southeast buffer space. It is design to be used as an off-grid storage system (Dakota Lithium, 2023). The battery would last 3000-5000 charge cycles. It consists of an operating temperature with -20-to-120-degree Fahrenheit. A lithium compatible solar charge controller is recommended as it increases the performance of the battery bank (Dakota Lithium, 2023). The battery can handle cell balancing, low and high voltage cut off, high temperature protection for increased performance and longer life (Dakota Lithium, 2023). Dakota lithium takes 6 months Dakota lithium battery to self-discharge (Jay, 2022). To calculate the size of the inverter a general rule of thumb in followed. The rule states to match the inverter size with the solar panel wattage (Renogy UK. 2021). In the case of proposed overall model of pocket lodge, 11.11 kWh are required to be generated per day, therefore, the module would require a 11000-watt inverter. The Megarevo American ESS Split-phase inverter (Model number: R8KLNA) would help the pocket lodge to achieve its objectives. It consists of a size of 12kW of max power (Megarevo, 2023). 6.5 Summary Building simulation for pocket lodge illustrates the base case overall model, proposed overall model, addition of mechanical system and photovoltaic panel: the pocket lodge. Chapter 6 described the building simulation for pocket lodge. It showed the consolidated data collected and proposed the base case overall model for the final simulations. The base case is further modified to the proposed overall model with addition of mechanical system and the refined PV, battery, and inverter calculations. Iteration 16.0 is the most appropriate design proposal for the pocket lodge based on the studies completed; it experiences 4889 hours within a year in the comfort zone. A 75.6% reduction in 147 EUI and 87% reduction in the pocket lodges cooling and heating loads as compared to the tent structure. The base model of pocket lodge achieves an interior temperature between 106.3-degree F and 50.9-degree F throughout the year. This iteration achieves 4889 hours within comfort zone out of 8760 hours in a year. The proposed overall model of pocket lodge achieves an interior temperature between 106.3- degree F and 50.9 -degree F throughout the year as well with the same number of hours as base model of pocket lodge within comfort zone. A cooling load of 218 kWh and a heating load of 146.21 is noted in Iteration 16.0. A cooling load of 1712.66 kWh and a heating load of 1251.17 is noted in the tent structure. Iteration 16.0 is known as the Pocket Lodge, and it experiences a reduction of cooling and heating loads by 87% as compared to tent structure. On comparing the EUI of iteration 16.0 and the tent structure, it is noted that EUI of iteration 16.0 is lower. A reduction of 75.6% in EUI is achieved. Eight phono solar monocrystalline panels at the tilt angle of 33 degrees and azimuth angle between 178 degrees would generate a minimum of 11.11 kWh/day. The pocket lodge would require 10.05 kWh/day, an extra 1.06 kWh/day will be generated. A lithium-ion 12V battery would be placed on the southeast buffer space of the residence delivering 1266.25-amp in an hour. (Dakota Lithium 12V 1200AH 15 KWH LIFE04 solar battery). 148 7 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK This chapter provides a brief overview regarding crucial background research, methodology adapted to provide the output, the simulations and iterations developed, and the results comparing these iterations and achieve the design of the pocket lodge (Fig 7.1). Fig 7.1: The Pocket Lodge at Joshua Tree National Park 7.1 Overview The methodology includes individual studies, team consolidation, and further individual simulations (Fig 7.2). Design decisions made by the entire pocket lodge team was combined (south wall and north wall) were further used to conduct software simulations. Fig 7.2: Methodology Diagram for chapters 1-6 DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY MATERIAL MOLD & PREFABICATION CODE COMPLIANCE − Precast concrete − Insulation material − Shading louvers − Glass and frame − Mold material − Mold design − Prefabrication techniques − California Building Code − California Energy Code SITE & ORIENTATION − Sun position − Shade − Placement on site DESIGN DEVELOPMENT − Area/Dimension − Form development − Structure − Weight calculations (Excel) − Finishes (Texture) COLLECTED AS A TEAM COLLECTED INDIVIDUALLY DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR BASE MODEL OF POCKET LODGE SOUTH WALL FINAL ITERATION COLLECTED AS A TEAM Chapter 3 Chapter 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS LIGHTING DESIGN − Glass & Frame − Dynamic Insulation for roof − Buffer Space + Folding Plates − Ventilation − Heating & Cooling days − Heat Capacity PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS − Orientation & Placement − Excel (Calculate daily requirement) − Battery Calculations GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS − Design Concept − Glare Analysis − Daylight Analysis − Shade Analysis − Lighting Fixture Selection − Design & Placement − Installation Process Aditya A. Bahl Chapter 6 NORTH WALL ROOF – Wall thickness – Connection details – Insulation thickness – Insulation material – Insulation Position – Dynamic Insulation Profiles – Overall joinery details – PV Panels placement & orientation – Folding Panel design – Insulation position – Insulation thickness – Thermal Analysis of dynamic insulation on roof – Thermal Lag in IESVE – Lighting Design Analysis SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS − Placement of PV Panels − Months with highest DB Temp SIMULATION & RESULTS Thermal Comfort/Ventilation Prototype Composite Prototype Mould Design Dynamic Insulation Movement BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE SOLAR RADIATION ANALYSIS • Ladybug, Grasshopper − Incident radiation on each surface. PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS Chapter 4 • PV Watts − Orientation & Placement − AC energy generated − Number of panels GLARE & DAYLIGHT ANALYSIS • Climate Studio − Glare disturbing percentage − Lux achieved at each zone THERMAL ANALYSIS • IESVE − Testing external material − Addition of shading components & code compliance − Natural Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation on roof − Thermal lag test LIGHTING DESIGN • AGI32 − Test different fixtures − Tilt & rolling angle Base Case Overall Model − Material − Thermal Comfort/ Ventilation − Dynamic Insulation Movement − Base Model of Pocket Lodge Proposed Overall Model − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on South − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on North − Remove Int. Dyn Insulation on Roof – Wall thickness – Outside & Inside Insulation thickness – Insulation position – Insulation material – Dynamic insulation profile – Static insulation Work by Aditya A. Bahl Work by Archana Janardanan Work by Yuqing He Work done as a group COLLECTED DESIGN BACKGROUND Addition of Mechanical System − Heating & Cooling load iteration 16.0 − Heating & Cooling load tent structure − Compare heating & cooling loads Photovoltaic Panel: The Pocket Lodge 149 Background studies on Joshua Tree National Park, precast concrete, glass material, shading components, and ventilation were explored to derive design principles of the pocket lodge. Several simulations were conducted using software’s such as PV Watts, Ladybug, Rhinoceros 3D, Climate Studio, IES VE and AGi 32. The pocket lodge generates 11.11 kWh/day through roof mounted PV panels while requiring 10.5 kWh/day and achieves 4889 hours within comfort range of 65–85-degree Fahrenheit. The module has an east-west orientation with its longer walls facing north and south. The roof experiences the highest incident radiation (2096 kWh/m2) as compared to the exterior walls and will have the solar panels placed on it. Site analysis was conducted to understand several thermal advantages that are naturally offered by the context and could be implied to the built mass on. The south wall is composed of 8- inch-thick concrete while the roof, north and base of the module are 5-inch-thick. Furthermore, buffer spaces and operable windows are added to the east and west façade of the lodge. The site is assumed to consist of no contextual components that would cast shadow on the residence. Construction in a hot arid climate is difficult and the site is in a distant location, so therefore the module is proposed to be prefabricated. Moreover, existing roofing systems in arid climate are analyzed and their strategies are used to develop the design of the pocket lodge roof. The roof consists of a reflective material on its exterior surface and holds eight PV panels casting shadow and generating 11.11 kWh/day at 33 degrees tilt and 178 degrees azimuth angle. Through the ventilation study, ta>to & ta>75 formula from iteration 8.0 is finalized. It is the most suitable formula based on the simulations with other formula performed. The internal temperature after applying the buffer space, folding panels, operable windows, double pane windows, concrete walls with U value and R value as per code is noted to be within 103-degree F and 50-degree F. Iteration 11.2 7.2 Comparison of Resultant Models There were five models created, each made better for thermal comfort through multiple iterative simulations (Fig. 7.3): 1. Tent Structure 2. Original Model (Dynamic Insulation only on Roof) 3. Combined Base Model of the Pocket Lodge 4. Overall Proposed Model of the Pocket Lodge 5. Overall Proposed Model of the Pocket Lodge with Heat pump 150 Fig 7.3: Comparing results of all five models The comparison of resultant model briefly explains the characteristics and the conclusions of original model (Iteration 11.0), the base model of pocket lodge combining all three components (Fig 7.4), the proposed overall model (the pocket lodge) and compares the final pocket lodge model with the tent structure. Fig 7.4: Exploded Isometric View of the Overall Proposed Model of The Pocket Lodge 151 7.2.1 Tent Structure The tent structure is composed of polyester, material used to compose camping tents. The structure consists of 2-inch thickness having a R value of 2. The built mass includes no buffer space, foldable panels and uses non operable clear float glass at its openings (Fig 7.5). Fig 7.5: Result and parameters of Tent Structure The highest interior temperature experienced was 148-degree F and lowest is 28.32-degree F. Moreover, 2357 hours were noted to be within the comfort range. A cooling load of 1712.66 kWh and a heating load of 1251.17 is noted in the tent structure to achieve temperatures between 90-degree Fahrenheit and 50-degree Fahrenheit. 7.2.2 Original Model (Dynamic Insulation only on Roof) The original model is composed of concrete and uses 3-inches thick polystyrene for its interior dynamic insulation. The south wall is 8 inches thick while the roof, base and the north wall is taken to be 5 inches due to weight restrictions. The built mass includes buffer space and foldable panels with vertical fins rotated at 45 degrees towards north (Fig 7.6). Fig 7.6: Result and parameters of Original Model or Iteration 11.0 7.2.3 Combined Base Model of the Pocket Lodge The base model of the pocket lodge is composed of concrete and uses 3-inches thick polyester for its interior dynamic insulation. The south wall is 8 inches thick while the roof, base and the north wall is taken to be 5 inches due to weight restrictions. The built mass includes buffer space and foldable panels with vertical fins rotated at 45 degrees towards north (Fig 7.7). Further, the model includes all thermal batteries on the north and south wall and internal dynamic insulation on the roof. Fig 7.7: Result and parameters of The Base Model of Pocket Lodge or Iteration 13.0 The base model of pocket lodge achieves an interior temperature between 106.28-degree F and 50.92 -degree F throughout the year. This iteration achieves 4889 hours within comfort zone out of 8760 hours in a year. 152 7.2.4 Overall Proposed Model of the Pocket Lodge (Iteration 16.0) The overall proposed model of the pocket lodge is composed of same parameters as iteration 13.0. However, an overlap of the interior dynamic insulation was noted, and the profile was further modified to prevent the issue (Fig 7.8). Fig 7.8: Result and parameters of The Overall Proposed Model of Pocket Lodge or Iteration 16.0 The highest interior temperature experienced was 106.28-degree F and lowest is 50.92-degree F. Moreover, 4889 hours were noted to be within the comfort range same as iteration 13.0. A cooling load of 218 kWh and a heating load of 146.21 is noted. On comparing iteration 16.0 with the tent structure, an 87% reducing in cooling and heating loads is noted and a reduction in 75.6% in EUI is achieved. Iteration 16.0 is known as The Pocket Lodge. Eight phono solar monocrystalline panels at the tilt angle of 33 degrees and azimuth angle between 178 degrees would generate a minimum of 11.11 kWh/day support all appliances and a heat pump. The pocket lodge would require 10.05 kWh/day, an extra 1.06 kWh/day will be generated. A lithium-ion 12V battery would be placed on the southeast buffer space of the residence delivering 1266.25-amp in an hour. 7.2.5 Overall Proposed Model of Pocket Lodge with Heat Pump The overall proposed model of the pocket lodge is composed of concrete and uses 3-inches thick polyester for its interior dynamic insulation. The south wall is 8 inches thick while the roof, base and the north wall is taken to be 5 inches due to weight restrictions. The built mass includes buffer space and foldable panels with vertical fins rotated at 45 degrees towards north (Fig 7.9). The model includes all thermal batteries on the north and south wall and internal dynamic insulation on the roof. Further, the iteration consists of a heat pump with a coefficient of performance of 4. Fig 7.9: Result and parameters of The Final Model of Pocket Lodge The highest interior temperature experienced was 85-degree F and lowest is 65-degree F. 8760 hours were noted to be within the comfort range. In contrast, the pocket lodge achieves a temperature fluctuation throughout the year between 106.28-degree F and 50.92-degree F without any HVAC system and with all the dynamic insulations active. It achieves the desired goal of having temperatures within 65–85-degree F throughout the year with addition of a heat pump (Fig 7.10). 153 ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F Tent Structure 3041.0 2357.0 3362.0 Original Model 1872.0 4839.0 2049.0 Combined Base model of the Pocket Lodge 1800.0 4889.0 2071.0 Overall Proposed Model of the Pocket Lodge 1800 4889.0 2071.0 Overall Proposed Model with Heat Pump 0 8760 0 Fig 7.10 Summary of five studies air temperature interior space results 7.3 Other Research Findings Apart from the thermal calculations, several other calculations and simulations were conducted: weight calculations, PV calculations, lighting design, glare, and daylighting calculations. 7.3.1 Weight Calculations The transportation of the module without any special permit from the California highway authority requires the weight of the module to be under 80,000 lbs. Several thicknesses of the walls, roof and base were tested and are selected based on the weight restriction and its thermal characteristics. The south wall was derived to be 8 inches thick whereas the roof, north wall and the base is 5 inches thick. Further, weight of other components such as PV panels, insulations, furniture are added, and the pocket lodge is estimated to weigh 78204 lbs (Fig 7.11). Fig 7.11: Total Estimate Weight Calculations 7.3.2 PV Calculations The roofing system takes on the responsibility of generating electricity through the PV panels placed on it. A ladybug script is first developed that compares the incident radiation on each surface of the lodge. The roof experiences the highest incident radiation (2096 kWh/m2) as 154 compared to the exterior walls. Eight phono solar monocrystalline panels at the tilt angle of 32- 33 degrees and azimuth angle between 175-181 degrees would generate 11.11 kWh/day whereas only 10.5 kWh/day is required (Fig 7.12). Fig 7.12: Photovoltaic Panel Placement 7.3.3 Lighting Design The lighting design analysis aims to achieve two objectives. The first is to achieve 10–20- footcandles throughout the space and second is to achieve 50 footcandles at the working zone. Bean Square 2 placed at the east end and Air LED placed at the west end of the lodge achieves the desired objective (Fig. 7.13). Fig 7.13: Results of Lighting Design Simulation on Agi 32. 7.3.4 Glare & Daylighting The glare and daylight analysis are conducted to prevent any direct sunlight entering the interior space while allowing daylight. Different geometries on the folding panels are proposed and compared with each other. The final iteration successfully prevents glare from entering the 155 interior spaces, however it provides access to natural daylight of 96 mean lux including buffer space and 20 mean lux excluding buffer space (Fig 7.14). Fig 7.14: Results of Glare and Daylighting Analysis conduct on Climate Studio. 7.4 Future Work Future work is broken down into three categories: design improvement, more simulations, casting the pocket lodge. 7.4.1 Design Improvement Other design objectives should be considered by applying design improvements. • An updated module that consists of drainage system and the built mass functions as restrooms, kitchen, common area and laundry room could be examined. The existing module focuses on the living spaces within the residence where a person could work and rest. Having the module functioning as a restroom or kitchen would require plumbing pipes and source of water. • A simulation focusing on reducing the weight of pocket lodge could be conducted. The pocket lodge module currently weighs 78500 lbs including the concrete wall, insulations, PV Panels, furniture, etc. Whereas the allowable weight for transport on highways in California is 80000 lbs. • More exploration needs to be done on the transportations and installation procedure. One could explore the consolidation of individual prefabricated components, the method to lift the combined composite and place on the flatbed trailer and on the site, and how elements might be attached to the pocket lodge on site. • The procedure of connecting the pocket lodge appliances to the energy generated by the photovoltaic panels should be explored. The PV panels would have cables connecting them with the battery, inverter, outputs, etc. The procedure and mold design for having the wires run through walls could be studied. • Have a roofing design consisting of both interior and exterior dynamic insulation strategy with a design accommodating the PV Panels as well. Currently, the roof consists of a white reflective layer at the top with solar panels and the dynamic insulation panel are present within the interiors only. To have the roof function as hot thermal battery, a flexible insulation on its exterior surface could be installed. Further, testing and comparing the results of the roof with hot thermal battery on the south and north façade. • Testing the impact of different reflective layers and different paint colors on the exterior surface of the roof would help clarify the roof thermal loads, by comparing their SRI values 156 and noting their impact on thermal comfort in the interior space. This might involve conducting a physical survey, comparing different blocks of concrete with different colors and exposing them to the sun. • The base component of the pocket lodge could be designed to help in assisting the walls and roof in achieving thermal comfort. Analyze the volume and thermal mass required by the floor to improve the thermal conditions within the interior space. Explore different floor finishes, foundations with PCI values and insulation techniques that would be suitable for the usage. Investigate the impact on energy efficiency due to the addition of a smart base. Compare different design strategies such as bermed, semi-bermed, lifted within the given context. Study the foundations with the capability of using geothermal energy in achieving thermal comfort. 7.4.2 More Simulations Several potential future objectives are proposed that can be derived by performing more simulations. • The thermal analysis has been conducted on IESVE. The software didn’t consider the concept of thermal battery and had to be manipulated to function as a dynamic insulation. Another software should be tested that allows the user to apply the idea of the thermal battery into the module. Comparing the numbers would help in reassuring the proposed result and make the thesis defense stronger. • A new software could be developed that incorporates the idea of using walls as thermal batteries, both for storing heat and coolth. A tool could be developed that could calculate an annual/monthly/daily internal temperature fluctuation and allows the user to set times when the insulation is active or inactive. It could consist of features that first allow the user to design the geometry and movement of the dynamic insulation. The tool could also be used to calculate thermal lag, reflectivity, solar radiation, compare interior and exterior temperature, SRI values, incorporate the impact of mechanical and natural ventilation. it could help for researchers to understand the relationship of different materials, movable insulations, and their natural characteristics to different site conditions. • A future test could calculate the number of days the module experiences thermal comfort having a larger interior area. The dimensions for the pocket lodge were selected based on the lengths and weight allowed to be transported on a flatbed trailer without any permits and additional cost. A greater area and volume would allow more air to circulate within the building and the interior would require longer time to heat up during the day and cool down during the night keep the rangers within the comfort range for longer duration. • The structural load of the module could be tested using strand 7. The pocket lodge is cast in a tube system with post-tensioned steel cables holding the individual modules together. This allows the lodge to enhance its performance handling seismic loads. The structural integrity of this strategy could be studied using the strand 7 software and other iterations could be explored as well. • Calculating the number of days that would have the necessity to use the mechanical systems to achieve thermal comfort should be done in further detail. Studying the amount of additional electricity that would be required to be generated. The study would in 157 understanding the reduction of our dependency on HVAC systems and adapt the passive strategies used at a larger scale. • One should explore the impact of different sizes of windows could enhance the ventilation analysis, such as by testing openings with different window to wall ratios and the size of inlet and outlets for ventilation. Enhancing natural ventilation would have a major impact of the thermal temperature within the interiors and modifying the windows would assist in reducing temperature. • A study could be done to examine the alternative for where the thermal battery could be installed. For example, having dynamic insulation feature applied on an outdoor park bench. The seating in cold regions could store the heat during the days and provide warm heat when a user sits. • The battery calculations for the photovoltaic panels have been derived through online research to get an estimate value regarding the size of the battery. These calculations could be refined using other sources and by consulting a photovoltaic panel expert. Getting more accurate results might help in choosing a battery type with lower cost and gradually reduce the total cost of construction. • The vertical fins on the east and west façade are proposed to prevent direct solar glare while allowing adequate daylighting into the interior space of the lodge. Blinds could test as an alternative to replace the design of vertical fins. However, the vertical louvers help in reducing the highest temperature and in achieving thermal comfort. The study could highlight the impact of these fins on thermal comfort within the space and explore more parameters where the fins might function better than having blinds on the openings. • Tests could be done on different context conditions and arranging them from most to least preferable for achieving thermal comfort through the year, for example, test the module receiving shade from a tree or a rock, impact of having a pond next to the site, placing the module within the valley, etc. The modular unit currently is designed with the aim to achieve thermal comfort placed on any site at Joshua Tree National Park. Listing down different site conditions with the park that would help increase the number of hours where thermal comfort is achieved. 7.4.3 Casting the Pocket Lodge One potential important next step could be studying the fabrication and manufacturing of the pocket lodge module. Building the physical model and comparing the results to the calculations and simulations performed would help confirm the methodology. Placing sensors within a real scale physical module consisting of all the features could help in examining different iterations with more accurate results. Further, comparing these results of the simulations to better understand the validity of the numbers currently achieved within this paper. Generating a fully functioning wiring diagram of the photovoltaic panels and connections with individual components could help in explore more obstacles and refining the design to perform better. It would help in understanding the functioning and efficiency of the panels to a greater level. Similarly, developing the wiring required for lighting fixtures or power outputs could assist in achieving an improved and more realistic design. 158 7.5 Summary This chapter provided a brief overview regarding crucial background research, methodology adapted to provide the output, the simulations and iterations developed, and the results comparing these iterations and achieve the design of the pocket lodge. The best result without the use of a mechanical system was noted in iteration 16.0 for the pocket lodge. At total of 4889 hours were noted to be within the comfort range in this iteration. The highest interior temperature experienced was 106.28-degree F and lowest is 50.92-degree F. Fig 7.15: Result of Overall Proposed Model of the Pocket Lodge There was an 87% reduction in cooling and heating loads from a tent on the site to the final model and a reduction of 75.6% in EUI was achieved. 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Abstract (if available)

Abstract A roof canopy system was designed for a small residence (a “pocket lodge”) for the seasonal rangers at Joshua National Park. The lodge was developed to respond to the human comfort needs of the rangers, with the roof canopy helping the building respond to the extreme climate of the park. The pocket lodge is made of precast concrete with the design of south and north walls as thermal batteries storing solar energy within as heat or cool night air. The concept can manage heating and cooling loads based on user requirements reducing the dependence on HVAC systems. Apart from generating sufficient electricity through the photovoltaic panels on top of the module, the roofing system assists the four walls in achieving thermal comfort. It provides adequate shading, daylight and prevents glare from entering the interiors. It consists of foldable panels on the west and east end and a horizontally extended canopy providing shade to the south-facing wall. Moreover, it also obtains the responsibility of dumping heat when required by following the methods of dynamic insulation and ventilation. The residence is intended to be cast using a single formwork. PV Watts, an online tool, is used for understanding the placement and orientation of PV panels. Climate Studio software is used for comparing different design strategies used to avoid glare while providing adequate daylight. IES Virtual Environment is used to study different iterations to enhance ventilation on the east and west walls and achieve thermal comfort by exploring passive strategies and materiality.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bahl, Aditya Anoop (author)

Core Title Thermal performance of a precast roof assembly: achieving comfort using dynamic insulation and photovoltaics in an extreme climate designed for a small residence at Joshua Tree National Park

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Building Science

Degree Program Building Science

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 05/08/2023

Defense Date 05/07/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag arid climates,azimuth and tilt angle,dynamic insulation,Joshua Tree National Park,OAI-PMH Harvest,precast concrete,smart roof,thermal battery,thermal mass,ventilation

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Noble, Douglas (committee chair), Kensek, Karen (committee member), Tankha, Sanjeev (committee member)

Creator Email aabahl@usc.edu,adityaabahl11@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113102881

Unique identifier UC113102881

Identifier etd-BahlAditya-11799.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-BahlAditya-11799

Document Type Thesis

Format theses (aat)

Rights Bahl, Aditya Anoop

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230508-usctheses-batch-1039 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu