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In the shadows: the perceived experiences of women principals in secondary schools

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In the Shadows: The Perceived Experiences of Women Principals in Secondary Schools

Lynette Ohanian

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Lynette Ohanian 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Lynette Ohanian certifies the approval of this dissertation

Courtney Malloy
Darline Robles
Kathy Stowe, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
This study utilized Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of human development to examine the
perceived influences in the distal and immediate environment of women principals in secondary
schools and how it supported or hindered their advancement. Participants were 10 women
principals at secondary schools who had been in their role for at least 3 years. Data were
gathered through interviews conducted on Zoom, and follow-up meetings were arranged with
four of the participants. The findings suggest that stereotypical gender roles support the
advancement of women principals in secondary schools. Systems and practices of school
districts serve as a support for women who want to advance to the principalship. These supports
can include leadership training and opportunities. Furthermore, women are faced with challenges
they must overcome in order to reach leadership in secondary school sites. When examining the
immediate environment of women principals, findings suggest that self-efficacy is a
characteristic that is necessary for women. Self-efficacy can play a critical role in effectively
leading schools. Additionally, participants discussed the power of mentorship when advancing to
leadership roles. With the support of mentors, the participants were able to reach their goals of
leading secondary school sites. Finally, findings suggest that women are challenged with the
balance of their work and home life. Recommendations for practice included the need for school
districts to support the development of women principals by providing leadership opportunities
through programs, training, and mentorship opportunities. In addition, to alleviate and help
women balance their work-home life, school districts need to create a culture of a harmonious
work-home balance. This study offers practitioners additional insight into the implications that
further study is needed to investigate the role of gender in the advancement of principals in
secondary schools.

v
Acknowledgments
Writing this dissertation has been an exciting process that allowed me to grow and learn
in ways I never imagined possible. I am grateful for the love and support of many people. First, I
would like to thank my wonderful husband, Fred, who never stopped believing in me. His
constant support and encouragement were why I never considered quitting or slowing down.
When times got tough, and the tears would roll down my face, his words of love brought clarity
and calm. I am forever grateful to have a husband who believes in my dreams more than I do. I
would also like to thank my son, Evan, for always putting a smile on my face and reminding me
of how much he loves me. Without the smiles, hugs, and kind words, I would have never been
able to reach this point in my life. Thank you for being such a loving boy and always cheering
for me. I will always be your biggest cheerleader as you reach for the stars and accomplish your
goals. Mommy loves you more than you will ever understand, and I am excited to see what the
future holds for you.
My father, Seroj, and mother, Areg, sacrificed their lives to give my siblings and me a
life they were not privileged to live. Leaving their home country to provide a life of education
and possibilities for their children is a gift I hold close to my heart. Everything I do is a product
of their unconditional love and motivation. My father instilled in me grit and determination. He
has taught me that quitting is never an option. When you fall, you simply get back up and move
on. My mother loved me more than any mother could love. She showered me with hugs, kisses,
smiles, and strength. She instilled in me the confidence to conquer my fears and dreams. I am a
strong woman today because a strong woman raised me. These characteristics of love, grit,
confidence, and determination have carried me through the past 3 years. I love you, Mama and
Papa. I would also like to acknowledge my siblings, Lala and Arin, who were my biggest

vi
cheerleaders. I am grateful for their constant support, love, and praise as I navigated my way
through this program. Finally, a special thanks to my best friend, Narineh, one of my biggest
supporters. The late-night power talks empowered me in ways unimaginable. Thank you, my
forever best friend.
I would like to thank Dr. Kathy Stowe, my chair, who provided me with support and
feedback for a successful dissertation. She pushed me to challenge myself and never give up on
improving. I would also like to thank Dr. Robles and Dr. Malloy for their wealth of knowledge in
this work. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Kyle Bruich, who planted the seed
in me to further my education and earn my doctorate. He saw talent in me that I did not see in
myself. I am thankful to Dr. Bruich for mentoring and encouraging me to be the best version of
myself. I would also like to thank Dr. Ben Wolf, who has been incredibly patient and supportive
in this process, making me laugh and making schedules work, even if this meant missing
important work events.
Because of these individuals, I have reached my dream of earning a doctorate degree
from the University of Southern California, and I will forever FIGHT ON!

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................v
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Introduction ...............................................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................................2
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................3
Research Questions ..............................................................................................................3
Importance of the Study .......................................................................................................4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .....................................................4
Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................5
Organization of the Study ....................................................................................................5
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ...........................................................................................7
History of Principalship and Women Principals ..................................................................7
Factors That Contribute to the Success of Women Principals .............................................9
Challenges Faced by Women in Principalship Roles at Secondary Schools .....................14
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................18
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................21
Chapter Three: Methodology .........................................................................................................22
Research Questions ............................................................................................................22
Overview of Design ...........................................................................................................22
The Researcher...................................................................................................................23
Data Sources ......................................................................................................................24

viii
Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................26
Credibility and Trustworthiness .........................................................................................28
Research Ethics ..................................................................................................................28
Chapter Four: Findings ..................................................................................................................30
Participants .........................................................................................................................30
Research Question 1: What Perceived Influences in the Distal Environment
Support or Hinder the Professional Advancement of Women Principals of
Secondary Schools? ...........................................................................................................34
Summary ............................................................................................................................52
Research Question 2: What Perceived Influences in the Immediate Environment
Support or Hinder the Professional Advancement of Women Principals of
Secondary Schools? ...........................................................................................................53
Summary ............................................................................................................................64
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations..........................................................................66
Discussion of Findings .......................................................................................................66
Recommendations for Practice ..........................................................................................69
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................................73
Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................................74
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................75
References ......................................................................................................................................77
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ....................................................................................................86
Introduction ........................................................................................................................86
Interview Questions ...........................................................................................................86
Appendix B: Invitation Email Template ........................................................................................88
Appendix C: Consent to Participation ...........................................................................................89
Purpose of Study ................................................................................................................89
Study Procedures ...............................................................................................................89

ix
Potential Risks ...................................................................................................................90
Potential Benefits ...............................................................................................................90
Compensation ....................................................................................................................90
Confidentiality ...................................................................................................................90
Participant Rights ...............................................................................................................91
Contact Information ...........................................................................................................91
Agreement to Participate in the Online Interview .............................................................91

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources 23
Table 2: Participant Demographics 31
Table 3: Findings: Research Question 1 35
Table 4: Findings: Research Question 2 53

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Ecological Factors of Women Principals at Secondary Schools 20
Figure 2: Model for Qualitative Data Analysis 27

1

Chapter One: Introduction
Women secondary school principals can provide a unique perspective on the changes and
developments necessary for a more gender-equitable and diverse future. Although the K–12
education field has historically been female-dominated, women continue to have limited access
to or advancement into leadership positions. Furthermore, as women seek to advance to
secondary school principalships, they face challenges and obstacles that hinder their
opportunities (Jang & Alexander, 2022). These challenges may vary from the gender-equitable
policies in organizations to meeting the needs of their home life. The result of these difficulties is
that while 54% of public-school principals are female, only 40% of middle school (Grades 6–8)
and 33% of high school (Grades 9–12) principals are female (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2018).
Background of the Problem
Women have made strides in leadership and served as notable and respected leaders who
brought change for an equitable future. Margaret Bancroft was a pioneering leader in special
education who led schools for children with special needs (Northcentral University, 2018). Mary
McLeod Bethune led a private school for African American girls and provided them with
opportunities for an educated future (Long, 2005). These women made significant contributions
to the country’s future. However, women’s current opportunities to advance to leadership are
more challenging, and they face obstacles in their professional growth. Those who strive to
advance to educational leadership regularly encounter these obstacles (Kafka, 2009).
For example, since the Civil Rights Act of 1964, women have fought for equal
opportunities in the workplace, but the challenges they face in reaching education leadership
positions reflect the act’s shortcomings (Aiken et al., 2013). These challenges occur via societal
2

gender expectations, imbalances in work and home lives, and the steps to reaching leadership
positions. These challenges result in the disproportionate rates of women principals in secondary
schools, which reflect an equity issue. In fact, historians have questioned if there have been any
implicit quotas on women and leadership positions (Johnson & Fournillier, 2021), as gender
roles have played a central role in their delayed professional advancement. Further, leadership
labyrinth barriers and uneven advancement paths (Ford, 2016) lead to women being concentrated
in lower-level leadership positions (Powell & Graves, 2004, as cited in Northouse, 2019).
Because the low rates of women leading secondary schools have been referred to as an
international issue (Coleman, 2010), their stories, support systems, and challenges need to be
explored and understood for the benefit of future leaders.
According to Grogan (2010), it is imperative to examine the experiences of women
serving as educational leaders and the gains from their trajectories. Though not all women have
equal opportunities to advance to leadership positions, it is important to understand how they
shape leadership in education (Grogan, 2010) and how these experiences can pave the way for
future women leaders in our educational organizations.
Statement of the Problem
Northouse (2019) described the gender gap that hinders women from reaching leadership
positions as a societal issue that needs attention. Historically, women have faced sexism and
challenges that denied them the easy progression of their male counterparts (Aiken et al., 2013;
Bodalina & Mestry, 2020). Hymowitz and Schellhardt (1986) used the term “glass ceiling” to
describe the obstacles women must overcome to have the same opportunities as their male
colleagues. These obstacles have also been referred to as a labyrinth, indicating women’s uneven
path toward upward progression (Eagly & Carli, 2018). As a result, women’s experiences rarely
3

follow a direct path to leadership positions. Instead, women take on a more traditional path and a
slower progression of various positions, prolonging the advancement to the principalship.
Pertinent to this study, women are prepared and qualified for secondary school
principalship, as evidenced by the fact that they outnumber men in almost all post-secondary
degree and school administration programs (Kruse & Krumm, 2016). Nonetheless, the number of
female school principals remains low, especially in secondary public schools (Martinez et al.,
2020). While 67% of elementary schools have female principals, only 32% of secondary schools
do (NEA, 2019). These lower rates might be due to challenges that hinder women’s advancement
(Shakeshaft, 2006), which is a topic that requires examination.
Purpose of the Study
Discovering women leaders’ experiences is important, as these might increase other
women’s aspirations for leadership roles. Toward that end, this study examines women
secondary school principals’ perceptions regarding the influences in their environments that
supported or hindered their professional advancement. This study fills a gap in the literature, as
limited studies focus on women’s lived experiences as they navigate toward secondary school
principalships. The participants’ immediate and distal environments were examined by
investigating these experiences. Understanding their stories might increase the visibility and
opportunities for future women leaders (Nakitende, 2019).
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide this study:
1. What perceived influences in the distal environment support or hinder the
professional advancement of women principals of secondary schools?
4

2. What perceived influences in the immediate environment support or hinder the
professional advancement of women principals of secondary schools?
Importance of the Study
Given the impact of gender and the challenges women experience, the call for change
becomes inevitable (Eckman, 2002). While much literature examines women’s experiences in
higher education, there is much less literature on women principals in secondary schools
(Shakeshaft, 2006). Thus, this study seeks to understand the participants’ perceptions regarding
the influences that supported or hindered their career paths. This study is significant because it
adds to the literature linking women’s achievement path with the challenges and supports they
faced through their advancement. This linkage contributes to the ongoing effort to dismantle
gendered inequities in education and level the path to women’s advancement into leadership.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Using Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological theory of human development as the
conceptual framework, this study examined the immediate and distal environments that
contributed to women’s efforts to reach secondary school principalships. In addition, this study
examined the interactions of Bronfenbrenner’s layers of proximal processes (microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem) to understand how they contributed to the
participants’ experiences. This qualitative study used interviews to understand what the
participants perceived as influences in their immediate and distal environments. Finally, these
influences were examined to determine how they contributed to or hindered the participants’
advancement.

5

Definition of Terms
Glass ceiling: A glass ceiling is a metaphor used to represent an invisible barrier that
prevents a given demographic (typically applied to women) from rising beyond a certain level in
a hierarchy (Hymowitz & Schellhardt, 1986).
Labyrinth: Indicating the uneven path of upward progression for women to executive
leadership positions. (Eagly & Carli, 2018).
Mentorship: Women role models who can (a) serve as career role models, (b) give them
career advice, (e) sponsor them within the organization, (d) advise on successfully balancing
career and home life, and (f) strategies for overcoming gendered and racial barriers (Hill &
Wheat, 2017).
Secondary schools: Schools that house students in Grades 6 to 12.
Self-efficacy: An individual’s belief in their own ability to produce certain results or goals
(Santovec, 2010).
Work-home balance: Having a measure of control over when, where, and how
individuals work. The work-home balance for women focuses on balancing family
responsibilities with work obligations (Rawal, 2021)
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides an overview of the study
and introduces the study’s context, including a definition of the terms used. Chapter Two
presents a literature review of women’s experiences in three areas: the history of principalship,
factors contributing to their success as principals, and the challenges they face as secondary
school principals. Chapter Three describes the methodology selected for this study and includes
the steps taken to select a population sample, the interview questions, and the processes for data
6

and analysis. Chapter Four is a report of the research findings. Finally, Chapter Five includes a
summary of findings, implications for practice, conclusions, and recommendations.

7

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Principalship has been viewed as one of the most influential positions in K–12
organizations. The role affects student achievement and teacher success (Starr, 2020). Though
women lead educational leadership programs and earn advanced degrees, a disproportionately
lower number serve as secondary school principals (Kruse & Krumm, 2016). The purpose of this
study is to examine the factors that women perceive as beneficial or hindering in their
advancement toward this role. The focus is on women principals, who are underrepresented in
secondary schools and outnumbered by their male counterparts.
This review will first examine the literature on the history of principalship and women
principals. Second, literature centered on characteristics of women principals will be explored.
Third, the chapter examines the challenges women experience when advancing to the
principalship. Finally, the chapter will conclude with an overview of Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological framework and the conceptual model to show the interactions between women’s
immediate and distal environment and their significance to the influences they perceive as
hindering or supporting their advancement.
History of Principalship and Women Principals
In the early 1920s, principals were viewed as students’ spiritual and academic leaders. In
the 1940s, principals were expected to allow stakeholders to be part of the decision-making
process (Kafka, 2009). During and after WWII, there were notions of a masculinity crisis in the
United States (Kafka, 2009). As men set out for war, women were left with the responsibility of
entering the workforce. Following WWII, the masculinity crisis was addressed with policies to
support men’s re-entry into the workforce with academic support. The GI Bill allowed male
8

veterans to enroll in college and graduate school to earn degrees in educational administration
(Kafka, 2009).
Prior to the GI Bill, female educators occupied school buildings, and the pipeline from
teacher to school principal gave way to women leaders (Murakami & Törnsen, 2017). After the
law’s implementation, Murakami and Törnsen (2017) argued that it supported twice as many
men as women earning master’s degrees in school administration, creating opportunities for male
veterans to advance to leadership positions. Kafka (2009) argued that the bill indirectly
disadvantaged women, and fewer women served as principals at that time (Perea, 2015). It was
not until the mid-1970s that their number increased. Nonetheless, in 1998, The National
Association of Elementary School Principals found that the typical principal was a middle-aged
White male who devoted most of his time to the school and the events held after school hours
(Helterbran & Rieg, 2004). The traditionally masculine traits expected of a principal, such as
being agentic and dominant (Weiner et al., 2019), led to the low numbers of women who
advanced to the principalship, specifically in secondary schools (Kafka, 2009).
Women principals were more common in elementary schools since these were considered
less complex settings (Kafka, 2009). Elementary schools are smaller and populated with young
students. Rousmaniere (2015) described the varying responsibilities of elementary and secondary
school principals, paving the way for gender expectations of each position. Elementary principals
were perceived as maternal, caring, and supportive of younger students (Harrison, 2014). As a
result, it became more acceptable for women to lead elementary schools than secondary ones
(Rousmaniere, 2015). However, women’s roles in society as caregivers and nurturing figures
created barriers to their professional advancement.
9

Further, Tallerico and Blount (2004) argued that societal expectations were a
disadvantage for women secondary school principals. Weiner et al. (2019) argued that gender
discrimination and leadership expectations are pervasive in education, making characteristics
like helpfulness, affection, and nurturing detrimental. The maternal characteristics of women
elementary school principals would extend to the care and education of students in the primary
grades, decreasing opportunities for them to advance as secondary principals (Coleman, 2005, as
cited in Martinez et al., 2020). Women qualified to serve in these roles but did not have
opportunities for advancement due to social perceptions about who was suited to lead secondary
schools (Kruse & Krumm, 2016).
Principals as instructional leaders emerged during the 1980s as the public became
interested in youth’s educational improvement (Kafka, 2009). Principals have always played an
essential role in the institutions they serve. Currently, their responsibilities focus on managing
and ensuring appropriate funding for programs to benefit students’ success. They supervise
teachers, adopt new curricula, provide professional development, oversee student discipline,
manage school programs’ budgets, and implement policies for equitable opportunities for all
students (Coelli & Green, 2012).
Factors That Contribute to the Success of Women Principals
Women principals have unique characteristics and leadership styles that contribute to
their success. Fregni (2021) offered insight into traits that affected women’s advancement into
leadership. Evidence indicates that women are aware of their immediate environment and the
factors contributing to reaching leadership positions (Fregni, 2021). Women were considered
caring, tolerant, and sympathetic, traits not perceived as strong leadership characteristics but
which are necessary to lead successful organizations (Bodalina & Mestry, 2020). Fregni (2021)
10

led a study of 65 women leaders who completed online surveys and profiles about their
personality traits. The themes were that they were straightforward in their communication style,
believed in risk-taking, took action when necessary, and were skilled at problem-solving (Fregni,
2021). These traits were frequently associated with a strong leader (Brower et al., 2019).
Santovec (2010) also suggested that women who show strength, ethics, and hard work are
successful leaders. Though these traits, often associated with masculinity, were downplayed by
women leaders (Fennell, 2008), their existence was a driver of their success. They also had
resilience, energy, and empathy, which led to their professional success (Fregni, 2021).
Women’s leadership styles and characteristics include facilitative approaches to
collaboration and person- and process-oriented leadership (Holmes & Stubbe, 2003, as cited in
Walker & Aritz, 2015). Principals who created capacity for collaboration at their schools were
the most successful (Kraft & Falken, 2020). Additionally, women in educational administration
were more often concerned with social justice, relationships, and bringing about change in
disadvantaged students’ lives (Shakeshaft, 2006). The leadership styles and characteristics of
successful women principals, generally associated with collaboration and teamwork, produced
high levels of success for students and staff (Shafer, 2018).
Democratic Leadership
Democratic leaders create the capacity for collaboration and lead teams in uniting for the
betterment of their organization. Further, scholars have recognized the impact of collaboration
and a shared leadership process where stakeholders participate in decision-making (Kramer &
Crespy, 2011). Leading with collaboration is a strong trait of women who lead successful schools
because they allow staff members to take on leadership roles (Shakeshaft, 2006). Eagly et al.
(1992) suggested that women principals are more likely to treat teachers and other stakeholders
11

as equals and create capacity for leadership among staff members, and Chase and Martin (2021)
described these characteristics as critical in successful school leadership.
Furthermore, Murakami and Törnsen (2017) argued that successful women secondary
principals practice democratic leadership with a strong focus on professionalism and ethical
behavior. They tend to adopt a democratic style of leadership where all stakeholders are part of
the school community (Eagly et al., 1992). Nakitende (2019) argued that women practice this
type of leadership because they often face resistance and judgment. Though democratic
leadership avoids resistance from subordinates, it creates collaborative and successful
organizations (Nakitende, 2019).
Establishing positive relationships is important for women leaders who believe in
collaboration with others (Yang, 2020). Women principals focus on relationships and
connections with staff and are more inclined to share power with team members to reach a
common goal (Brower et al., 2019). Fullan (2014) argued that a principal’s job is extremely
difficult. Therefore, it is important for principals to spend their time and energy developing
relational connections and building community. As women principals build capacity for
collaboration, the relationship among staff benefits. Relationships built between principals and
staff support their schools’ success and students’ achievement (Fullan, 2014).
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy, one’s perceptions of one’s capability, is critical for women leaders
(Santovec, 2010). Martinez et al. (2020) discussed self-efficacy as a common characteristic of
women in principalship. Women with high self-efficacy are less likely to be affected by
traditional female stereotypes (Santovec, 2010). Henningsen et al. (2021) recommended that
women who strive for leadership positions enhance their belief in themselves as successful
12

leaders. Internal barriers that keep women from applying for leadership roles result from low
self-efficacy (Martinez et al., 2020).
Martinez et al. (2020) concluded that despite the double standards for women to advance,
their lack of self-efficacy influenced their decision to apply for leadership positions. Men less
skilled and less experienced than women have higher levels of self-efficacy, take advantage of
opportunities and advance to principal positions (Santovec, 2010). Women’s lower self-efficacy
may contribute to their lower numbers as secondary school principals. Additionally, many who
rose to the principalship did so at elementary schools, where their maternal role extended to the
care and education of young students (Coleman, 2005, as cited in Martinez et al., 2020).
Martinez et al. concluded that this did not mean that their absence in the principalship was
women’s fault but a result of organizational shortcomings, disparities in hiring practices, and
women’s low self-efficacy.
Furthermore, Nakitende (2019) noted that women who advanced to leadership required a
sense of determination and commitment. One participant discussed her self-efficacy by planning
her career path and setting goals for her future. Her story demonstrated a high sense of self-
efficacy and the ability to make positive changes and help other women reach leadership
positions. Nakitende (2019) revealed that women leaders were intrinsically motivated to grow
professionally and develop into the leaders they desired to be.
Networks and Mentors
Official and unofficial networks are important for women’s advancement to secondary
principalship positions. Coleman (2010) argued that networking is one of the primary channels to
bridge the connections for promotion. This is even more relevant for women advancing to
positions as secondary school principals as they navigate the challenges of their professional
13

lives. Unlike the old-boys networks, all-women networking groups are considered less powerful
because they are comprised of women (Coleman, 2010). However, studies have shown that
women who network and are involved in mentorship can benefit from advancement and grow
professionally (Rawlings & Loeb, 2010).
Parylo et al. (2012) discussed the demands and responsibilities of principals and their
need for professional mentorship. Principal mentorship was crucial for principals’ preparation,
development, and retention. Formal and informal mentoring plays a central role in principal
advancement. In particular, women needed mentorship to acquire the leadership skills and
experiences that would enable them to claim the positions that would most likely benefit their
advancement (Ford, 2016). Principals who have mentors build a solid pipeline for advancement,
and mentors allow new principals to succeed with professional development support (Parylo et
al., 2012). In addition, finding networks and supportive mentors is a beneficial strategy for
novice and experienced principals.
Mentorship is key to women principals’ success (Weiner et al., 2019). Eckman (2002)
found that though women secondary school principals faced challenges, mentorship allowed
them to advance. Harrison (2014) also discussed the importance of same-gender mentorship.
Similarly, Eckman (2002) argued for the influence of networks and mentors of the same gender
on career advancement. Female mentors positively influence female principals and recognize the
benefits they achieve by cultivating relationships with females who support and encourage them
to advance. Women in educational administration found that having female mentors helps them
understand and implement their organization’s policies and processes (Flemming, 1991; Hill &
Ragland, 1995, as cited in Eckman, 2002). Parylo et al. (2012) suggested that women find female
mentors to help support their career development or their roles as secondary principals. Parylo et
14

al. (2012) discussed that the advancement of women to high school principalship is partly due to
their ties with female administrators. These administrators serve as mentors through the career
trajectory.
Contrary to Eckman’s (2002) findings, Kruse and Krumm (2016) discussed the
significance of female secondary principals connecting with male mentors and networks. The
lack of mentorship for women adds to the challenges of advancing to these positions (Kruse &
Krumm, 2016). However, females are most supported and find advancement opportunities
through the network of male administrators (Kruse & Krumm, 2016). Male administrators
dominate secondary school settings, and it is important for females to connect with male mentors
to advance professionally.
Challenges Faced by Women in Principalship Roles at Secondary Schools
Women face challenges in their personal and professional lives as they strive for
advancement. Northouse (2019) discussed gender egalitarianism as society’s expectations of
women in the home and workplace. Due to societal and cultural perspectives, women in
leadership must break barriers and continuously prove their ability to lead.
Work-Home Balance of Women Secondary School Principals
Maintaining a work-home balance is among the many obstacles women face in secondary
principalship roles. Rawal (2021) defined work-home balance as a life rhythm that allows for
combining professional work with maintaining personal obligations and responsibilities. Rawal
(2021) discussed the term “balance” as not necessarily an equal amount of time spent on
personal and professional life as a sustainable balance where a person maintains their well-being.
Specifically, when examining women principals, the need for work-home balance is significant
15

(Bodalina & Mestry, 2020). A female principal’s workload and home responsibilities cause
substantial stress and, when not balanced, reduce home and work success (Yang, 2020).
Due to the profession’s demands, more women serve as elementary school principals
rather than secondary school principals (Kruse & Krumm, 2016). Women make up 64% of
elementary school principals and 30% of secondary school principals. Secondary school
principalship demands are greater and require more time away from home, mainly due to
supervision of after-school activities. The challenges of a secondary principalship vary from long
hours during the workday to additional obligations during the evenings and weekends. These
factors contribute to the need for a healthy work-life balance (Kruse & Krumm, 2018).
In several studies on the work-home balance, women leaders found family support to be
the most important factor in the immediate environment. Yang’s (2020) study focused on factors
contributing to principals’ success and found that spousal support was significant in women’s
work-home balance. Eckman (2002) also discussed women principals’ spousal support. The
support of husbands, parents and other relatives is critical in their career development. In
Ekman’s study, one high school principal stated that her husband had to accommodate her as she
juggled the rigid schedule of the high school she led. Rawal (2021) examined the positive effects
and influence of family support on a work-home balance and its influence on women principals’
success. The balance of family support and work leads to better efficiency in all aspects of life
(Rawal, 2021). In addition, spousal support during long work hours and after-school supervision
is helpful for women principals (Eckman, 2002).
Motherhood and childbearing greatly influence women’s decisions to advance into
leadership (Henningsen et al., 2021). Kruse and Krumm (2016) argued that 68% of women
principals waited for their children to grow before advancing to their positions. This was mainly
16

because of the difficulty in balancing the personal responsibilities of motherhood and the duties
of a principalship (Menard & Tuell, 2006, as cited in Kruse & Krumm, 2016). From an early age,
women are often trained to prioritize family and children before their professional careers (Bay,
2019, as cited in Bodalina & Mestry, 2020). This includes sacrificing social events to meet the
needs of their families and their profession (Halpern & Cheung, 2011). The need to nurture their
children hinders women from advancing to principal positions (Kruse & Krumm, 2016).
Maternal guilt is another barrier, as women feel the profession might take time away from family
and mothering their children (Harrison, 2014).
Balancing professional and personal commitments is also a challenge. Eckman (2002)
discussed women’s struggle over role commitments between being a mother and a secondary
school principal. Eckman described the pressure these women feel when balancing their home
and professional lives. They had to make decisions about having a family and taking on certain
roles in society. Though challenging, Carli (2010) argued that women in leadership could be
married with children, have important family commitments, and succeed professionally.
Harrison (2014) added that they balance their lives with work and find ways to make it
successful. Similarly, Eckman (2002) described the perception of being a high school principal
as one who spends time with all children except one’s own, creating an imbalance between work
and home life.
The work-home balance is a theme in many studies of women principals. Bodalina and
Mestry (2020) discussed that women leaders often experience feelings of isolation. To mitigate
those feelings, several studies discussed collaboration and school staff support as strategies for
creating a work-home balance. For women to balance their work-home lives, they need a team at
school to support them. Yang (2020) revealed strategies and recommendations for policies that
17

support women principals. Yang argued that support staff is necessary for a healthy work-home
balance. Additionally, Barnett (1989) recommended having principals shadow and interview one
another throughout the year. This type of partnership decreases feelings of isolation and creates
an environment where leaders guide and support one another, creating more collaboration among
schools. These collaborative support systems significantly reduce the isolation principals feel at
their workplaces.
The Glass Ceiling
Women in the principalship face challenges that men in the same professional positions
do not necessarily experience. One of these is the glass ceiling, often referred to as an invisible
barrier to women’s advancement into leadership. Chase and Martin (2021) examined women’s
experiences in educational leadership and found that the glass ceiling was one of the hindrances
most participants experienced. Overall, women often refer to it as one of the major barriers to
their advancement (Ford, 2016)
Like the work-home balance, the glass ceiling also includes the familial duties of having
children and running a household while maintaining professional obligations. These obstacles
affected the opportunity for advancement, creating a glass ceiling for women. (Gregory, 2003, as
cited in Bodalina & Mestry, 2020). Another example of the glass ceiling is the societal
expectation of gender norms. Bodalina and Mestry (2020) argued that the mindset of many
individuals and organizations is think-manager, think male. Women are often compared to male
leaders and have to prove themselves as effective leaders. Eagly and Carli (2018) stated that
women leaders continuously struggle with the need to create a perception of having the ability to
lead effectively. Nakitende (2019) suggested that male behaviors and characteristics are often
used to assess and judge women and their leadership abilities (Nakitende, 2019).
18

Despite the glass ceiling, many women succeed and advance to leadership positions.
Nakitende (2019) examined strategies to help them succeed. Some recommendations included
having a strong sense of meaning and believing in one’s leadership capabilities. In addition,
mentoring other women inspires more female leaders to break the glass ceiling and create
opportunities for gender equality (Shakeshaft, 2006).
Conceptual Framework
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory will be used to examine the influences that women
secondary school principals perceive as affecting them. Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological
theory of human development views human development within the environment and
interactions within multiple processes (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). These environments are nested
within each other and often interact, supporting the developing individual.
The microsystem and the macrosystem (immediate environment) are the layers where
individuals are directly connected to other individuals. The microsystem is the layer in which the
individual connects to other individuals and where interpersonal roles and relationships develop
over time (Rosa & Tudge, 2013). The mesosystem is the layer comprising the interrelations
among two or more microsystems (Rosa & Tudge, 2013). The difference between the two
systems is that activities and roles occur in single settings or across multiple settings.
In these immediate environments (microsystem and mesosystem), women principals are
directly influenced by their work and home responsibilities, interactions within their families,
and the support of mentors. Within this environment, women secondary principals interact with
their immediate environment to find a balance, advance their careers, and succeed professionally.
The exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem are individuals’ distal environments
(Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The individual is not necessarily interrelated with these environments
19

but is significantly influenced by their existence. According to Vélez-Agosto et al. (2017), the
exosystem consists of settings that do not interact with the individual. However, the individual is
still affected by the events within this system. This includes an individual’s organizational
policies or the practices and culture of their institutions. The macrosystem includes the
individual’s cultural ideologies and beliefs (Mizokawa & Komiya, 2014) and the influences on
the person. The chronosystem was later added as one of the proximal processes by
Bronfenbrenner in his 1994 revision. The chronosystem analyzes the changes or consistencies in
a person’s environment over time (Vélez-Agosto et al., 2017). The chronosystem will not be
examined in this study.
In the distal environments of the exosystem and the macrosystem, female principals are
indirectly influenced by societal gender expectations, the challenges and boundaries society sets
for women, and historical leadership trends (Figure 1). Within these environments, these women
interact with their distal environment to navigate the path to success.

20

Figure 1
Ecological Factors of Women Principals at Secondary School

21

Conclusion
This study explored the influences that women secondary school principals perceive as
hindering or supporting their advancement. Chapter Two discussed relevant literature on the
history of principalship, the factors contributing to women principals’ success, and the
challenges women face when advancing to this role. A conceptual framework that utilizes
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model was introduced and will serve as an anchor for the study.
Chapter Three will discuss the study’s methodology design, data source, and collection methods,
in addition to ethics and my positionality.

22

Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter outlines the qualitative research design for this study, including the
methodology, sampling criteria, and interview protocols. Also included are my positionality, data
sources, and data collection procedures. This study examined influences in the immediate and
distal environment that women principals in secondary schools perceive as supporting or
hindering their professional advancement.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study.
1. What perceived influences in the immediate environment support or hinder the
professional advancement of women principals of secondary schools?
2. What perceived influences in the distal environment support or hinder the
professional advancement of women principals of secondary schools?
Overview of Design
A qualitative study was most appropriate for examining influences in the immediate and
distal environments. With a focus on understanding women principals’ experiences, this study
examined how the participants interpreted their stories and the meanings they attributed to their
experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Additionally, narrative inquiries rely on first-person
accounts and stories as data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Through a semi-structured, open-ended
interview approach, participants were asked to expand on their experiences (Patton, 2002) and
share a thorough account of immediate and distal environmental effects on their advancement to
the principalship.

23

Table 1
Data Sources
Research questions Interviews
What perceived influences in the immediate environment support or
hinder the professional advancement of women principals of
secondary schools?
X
What perceived influences in the distal environment support or
hinder the professional advancement of women principals of
secondary schools?
X

The Researcher
As a researcher, I acknowledge my identity as a woman and an assistant principal at a
secondary school site. Since this study was focused on women secondary school principals, I was
fully aware of my biases regarding what I believed made a strong woman leader. Additionally, I
have more than 15 years of experience in public education and 5 years of administrative
experience at the secondary level. Therefore, when interviewing participants, my positionality
and professional background made it easier for me to connect with participants and understand
their lived experiences.
Atkins and Duckworth (2019) argued that identifying and reflecting on biases helps a
researcher recognize and acknowledge when data are not interpreted ethically. My positionality
contributed to research bias (Maxwell, 2013) because of the similarities between the participants
and me. Therefore, I remembered to separate my personal experiences from the participants’
experiences. Lochmiller and Lester (2017) recommended taking steps to reduce potential bias
and errors in research. Practitioners or scholars could ignore or interpret data by applying their
24

own bias to the data interpretation. To prevent doing so, I had to be objective and examine the
truth without contamination of my bias as a secondary school administrator.
Data Sources
Semi-structured interviews will allow participants to share their perceptions of the
influences that supported or hindered their advancement. I used snowball sampling to find
participants who qualified for the study. As the aim was to examine the participants’ immediate
and distal environments, the interview questions were focused on their perceptions of the
influences in these environments. The conceptual framework guided the interview protocols.
Interviews
This study used semi-structured interview protocols with open-ended guiding questions
to collect rich and elaborate data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015) from women secondary school
principals. Allowing participants to elaborate helped with new findings and ideas not discussed
in the literature (Merriam, 2009). The research questions guided the interview protocols so that
the data reflected the participants’ perceptions.
Participants
Qualitative studies are usually non-random and include purposeful participant selection
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). All participants were women who served as principals at secondary
schools and had at least 3 years of experience. The participants were chosen based on the criteria
using snowball sampling. In addition, I contacted women principals at secondary schools within
my district and asked for referrals and recommendations for other participants. Though
qualitative studies should analyze data simultaneously with its collection (Merriam & Tisdell,
2015) to determine a saturation point, I interview 10 women secondary principals who work in
25

Los Angeles County. The ethnicities of the women included White, African American, Asian,
and Hispanic.
Instrumentation
Interview protocols guided participants to share their stories on the challenges and
supports they perceived as influential in their quest for leadership. I asked 15 questions, with
probes to follow-up questions, for further clarification (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The
introduction included questions that allowed participants to reflect on their positions in
educational organizations. The body of the interview consisted of four topics: the experience of
being a woman principal at a secondary school, the influences of societal expectations for
women, areas of support in the distal and immediate environment, and policies and practices of
school organizations that pertain to women advancing to the principalship.
Questions focused on experiences that most immediately impacted the interviewees’
development toward the secondary principalship to examine their immediate and distal
environments (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). It was important to examine the interrelations between
these systems (Mizokawa & Komiya, 2014) and their role in advancing or hindering the path to
the participants’ current positions. Bronfenbrenner (1977) focused on the overarching influences
that affect an individual, such as their values and changes in socio-historical circumstances. I
asked the participants to reflect on values that shaped their positions and determination to
advance to leadership in secondary schools.
Data Collection Procedures
I conducted field testing on non-participants using semi-structured interview protocols to
ensure insight into the effectiveness of the interview questions, time frames, and the flow of the
protocols. In addition, reflection and feedback were used to refine interview questions and
26

transitions. Each interview lasted approximately 45 minutes, depending on the participant’s
willingness to expand and further explain their perspectives and experiences.
Prior to conducting the interviews, I provided participants with consent and
confidentiality statements (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007) and an introductory letter stating the study’s
purpose. In addition, it was important to communicate that participation in the study was
voluntary. Finally, I conducted all interviews using an online platform, Zoom, and notified
participants that the interviews would be recorded.
I captured accurate data using notes, recordings, and transcriptions (Seidman, 2013).
When necessary, I made follow-up phone calls for clarification or further explanation of answers
(Patton, 2002). Finally, I analyzed the transcriptions for accuracy and sent each participant their
interview transcript for a member check. Validity can be ensured by having participants agree
with interview transcripts (Ravitch & Carl, 2016). Once the transcripts were approved, I began
data analysis.
Data Analysis
This study utilized a qualitative approach with data collected via interviews. The research
questions and conceptual framework guided the data analysis, and I interpreted the data for
patterns in what participants had experienced (Patton, 2002). Using Creswell’s (2014) six steps
for data analysis, I fully analyzed interviews to understand participants’ stories deeply.
Using Creswell’s (2014) model for qualitative data analysis (Figure 2), I began the initial
phase by preparing and organizing the data by breaking down stories into smaller parts. In Phase
2, I coded the transcribed data using two categories: the participants’ immediate and distal
environments. In the third phase, I analyzed the data and made notations for preliminary
interpretations. I reviewed the data several times and grouped them into categories or themes to
27

find meaning. Finally, I synthesized and summarized the data and identified the relationship
between the themes.

Figure 2
Model for Qualitative Data Analysis

Note. From Research and Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches
(4th ed.) by J. W. Creswell, 2014, SAGE Publications. Copyright 2014 by SAGE Publications.

28

Credibility and Trustworthiness
Atkins and Duckworth (2019) argued that reflecting and understanding our views in a
research study is important as it can influence findings and add credibility to our qualitative
research. Awareness of my personal beliefs and expectations created a better situation and
approach to an honest study. Reflexivity ensured I stayed free of personal bias and provided a
trustworthy and credible study (Atkins & Duckworth, 2019). As the research instrument, I kept
an open mind and accepted findings that may not have been what I expected. As a woman
assistant principal at a secondary school, it was easy for my bias to infiltrate the study.
Conducting member checks and ensuring accurate transcriptions significantly enhanced the
credibility of the research (National Research Council, 2002). All participants had the
opportunity to update and change their responses during member checks, ensuring a credible
story was shared. I ensured that my biases, disposition, and assumptions were not part of the
study by allowing participants to change their responses or elaborate on their answers.
Research Ethics
This study aims to produce valid and reliable data that provide insight into the stories and
experiences of women secondary school principals. Conducting ethical research was crucial, as I
followed all guidelines during the study (Merriam, 2009). I selected the participants using
snowball sampling (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017) and through professional and personal
networking. Since I had a direct or indirect relationship with participants, relational ethics was an
important consideration (Glesne, 2011). It was essential to treat the participants with respect and
professionalism (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). I allowed participants to decline to answer questions
they did not feel comfortable answering. I provided all participants with the right to privacy.
They consented, and I assigned them pseudonyms to protect their identities and positions
29

(Glesne, 2011). All data were protected throughout the study and appropriately disposed of
afterward. To further protect the participants, I strictly followed the guidelines provided by the
institutional review board. All participants’ rights and welfare were protected (Commissioner,
2019).
30

Chapter Four: Findings
This qualitative study aimed to explore the perceived influences in the distal and
immediate environments of women principals of secondary school, as well as the experiences
that supported or hindered their advancement to a principalship. The distal environment included
the societal systems the women lived within and the educational organizations in which they
were employed. The immediate environments included their direct relationships with themselves,
staff, families, and other individuals with whom participants were directly involved.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 participants to understand the
perceived influences in the distal and immediate environment that supported or hindered the
professional advancement of women principals at secondary schools. Each interview lasted
approximately 45 minutes, and follow-up meetings were conducted with four participants. All
interviews were conducted via Zoom. The following two research questions were used to guide
this study:
1. What perceived influences in the distal environment support or hinder the
professional advancement of women principals of secondary school?
2. What perceived influences in the immediate environment support or hinder the
professional advancement of women principals of secondary school?
Participants
The 10 participants in the study were principals of high schools or middle schools who
had served in their roles for at least 3 years. Table 2 indicates the participants involved in the
study and the relevant demographic characteristics related to the study. Pseudonyms have been
assigned to each participant and will be used in discussing the findings throughout this chapter.
31

Table 2
Participant Demographics
Participant Level Years of
experience
Race Promoted Married Children
Dr. Cade High
school
5 White Internally Yes 0
Ms. Garner Middle
school
4 White Internally Yes 2
Dr. Gorge High
school
13 White Externally Yes 1
Dr. Rena Middle
school
10 White Internally Yes 2
Ms. Spitaki Middle
school
5 White Externally Yes 2
Ms. Romero High
school
6 Hispanic Internally Yes 1
Ms. Dang High
school
4 Asian Externally No 1
Ms. Lopez Middle
school
8 Hispanic Internally Yes 2
Ms. Yeriko High
school
11 African
American
Externally Yes 1
Dr. Handi High
school
5 Hispanic Internally Yes 2

The participants were principals at secondary public schools in Southern California. Their
years of experience ranged from 4 years to 13 years. Six participants were principals at large
comprehensive high schools with over 1900 students, and four of the women were principals at
middle schools. Four participants held doctoral degrees, four participants were in the last year of
their doctoral program, and two of the women had master’s degrees. Of the 10 participants, six
women advanced to principalship within their own school district. Four of the women advanced
to a principalship role from a different school district than the one they were employed as
teachers or assistant principals.
32

Six of the 10 participants advanced to principalship within their own school districts after
progressing through various positions ranging from teachers on special assignments (TOSAs) to
assistant principals. All six women referred to their previous roles as a time when they felt they
established themselves as capable leaders and women who could show the advantages and skills
they had as women. Consequently, their advancement was due to these experiences and not only
their leadership skills, like their male counterparts
Overview of Participants
The 10 women principals had many similarities in their desires to lead successful lives
professionally and personally. Throughout the interview sessions, the 10 women discussed their
love for their job and the importance of being effective principals for the students and families
they serve. The following section provides an overview of each principal and briefly describes
each woman.
Dr. Cade has been a principal at a high school for 5 years, serving over 3,000 students.
She aims to continue leading the school with its rigorous academics and successful athletics
program. She aspires to reach the superintendency position before retirement.
A 4-year principal at a middle school, Ms. Garner continues to learn and discover her
ability to adapt and learn effective leadership skills. Dr. Garner often spoke about her lack of
experience, especially since her initial years as a principal was interrupted by the COVID-19
pandemic. Her children and her husband are critical factors in her life, and currently, she does
not have aspirations for advancement. However, she plans to continue leading the school and
creating opportunities for students to succeed academically and socially.
Dr. Gorge, a 13-year high school principal, is the most experienced principal in her
district. All other principals in the district have been in their roles for less than 5 years. She takes
33

great pride in her ability to lead a comprehensive high school for as long as she has. She is a new
mother and has realized how much time and effort it takes to be a secondary school principal and
be the type of mother she aspires to be. Her experience and reputation have allowed her to take
risks and create necessary change at her school site. She aims to lead the school for another 5
years before considering advancement to a district-level position.
Dr. Rena has been a principal for 10 years but has been at the middle school level for the
past 5 years. Dr. Rena has two children who attend school in the same district she serves. When
asked about her plans for advancement, she stated, “I never want to leave the school site.
Children are the reason why I came into education.” Though she has the education and
experience to advance to higher levels of administration, she plans to stay at her current site and
continue making changes to create opportunities for students to succeed.
In her fifth year of principalship at a middle school, Ms. Spitaki feels she has much to
learn before moving on to the next phase of her career. Her husband and daughters play a
significant role in her life, and she plans to continue to learn and be a present mother to her
children. In addition, Ms. Spitaki is focusing on finishing her doctorate degree and spending the
next few years practicing and implementing skills she has learned from her schooling.
Ms. Romero has been a high school principal for 6 years. She stated, “I don’t know the
next step for me. I love what I do now and want to continue doing it for a long time.” Ms.
Romero’s husband is a principal at a middle school, and they work together to find ways to help
their school communities be the best they can be.
Ms. Dang has been a high school principal for 4 years. Her expertise in special education
has brought about a passion for helping all students, regardless of their disabilities or differences.
Ms. Dang is the only woman secondary school principal in the district she serves, and she takes
34

great pride in being able to break the status quo. She has big dreams of becoming the
superintendent of a district in the next decade.
Ms. Lopez has been a principal for 8 years but has been at a middle school for 5 years.
She is a Mexican American immigrant who has witnessed poverty and hardship. Her vision for
her students is to create opportunities for them to succeed regardless of their socioeconomic
background. She serves a school with a high percentage of Latino students and has found her
passion in working with students and families to ensure their success. She works long hours,
even when she does not have to supervise after-school events. Her vision is to make her school
stand out in the district.
In her 11th year of principalship at a high school, Ms. Yeriko continues to learn and
create positive change in her school community. She is currently in school for her doctoral
degree. Throughout her schooling, she has learned about the importance of creating equitable
opportunities for her racially underrepresented faculty to find ways to take on leadership roles. In
addition, she wants her students to experience success and break through boundaries they may be
faced with.
Dr. Handi has been a high school principal for 4 years. She has a large family of four
children and finds ways to balance the demands of being a mother and a secondary school
principal. She is focused on raising her kids as she continues leading her school to become a
technology magnet high school.
Research Question 1: What Perceived Influences in the Distal Environment Support or
Hinder the Professional Advancement of Women Principals of Secondary Schools?
The three themes that emerged from the research questions were (a) stereotypical gender
roles helped support the advancement of women principals at secondary schools, (b) systems and
35

district practices supported the advancement of women principals in secondary schools, and
(3)Women are breaking the glass ceiling to advance to a secondary school principalship. Table 2
includes the overarching theme and key findings for Research Question 1.

Table 3
Findings: Research Question 1
Overarching theme Findings
Theme 1: Stereotypical gender roles helped
support the advancement of women
principals.
Women are seen as nurturers.
Women are valued for intentional listening
and making connections.
Adopting masculine traits was beneficial for
women principals.
Theme 2: Systems and district practices
supported the advancement of women
principals in secondary schools.

Women want their voices to matter and not be
deemed insignificant.
Theme 3: Women are breaking the glass
ceiling to advance to secondary school
principalship.
Growing leaders internally supported the
advancement of women to secondary school
principalship roles.
Women have to prove themselves as capable
leaders.
Waiting to be highly qualified before
advancing to secondary school
principalship.

36

Theme 1. Stereotypical Gender Roles Helped Support the Advancement of Women
Principals at Secondary Schools
Stereotypical gender expectations influence the distal environment of women. Eight of
the 10 participants discussed societal gender expectations as a positive influence in their
advancement to the principalship of a secondary school. Though they all identified different
aspects of their femininity as a benefit, they felt their womanly traits supported their
advancement to a principalship. When the majority of women had similar perspectives, these
experiences were identified as themes within Research Question 1. Each theme is organized into
subheadings to identify the women’s perceived influences of stereotypical roles in their distal
environment.
Women Are Seen As Nurturers
Often, society perceives women as nurturers, a characteristic not necessarily associated
with being a strong leader. In contrast, participants discussed their ability to be nurturing and
motherly as a factor in their advancement to a secondary school principalship. Dr. Gorge
addressed the significance of her role as a loving and caring principal. She explained how her
motherly instinct to care for her students and families supported her success as an effective
principal. Dr. Gorge stated, “I am motherly, so I will take care of this place and the people who
occupy these buildings. I will make sure we are a family and treat one another with respect like
family does.” Dr. Gorge feels these characteristics were taken into consideration when she was
applying for the position. The school was formerly challenged with a culture of mistrust and
disconnection between stakeholders. Thus, the values of being nurturing have created a positive
school culture and have supported student achievement since the arrival of Dr. Gorge. She stated,
“I believe in being kind, respecting others, and setting high standards for each student.” These
37

characteristics of being a woman have created a strong community and a sense of belonging at
Dr. Gorge’s school. Dr. Rena discussed similar experiences with her ability to care for her school
and students. She has been able to use her nurturing personality to connect with her students,
especially those who lack a motherly figure. Dr. Rena said, “I am very loving and affectionate,
and sometimes a hug or a high-five with a student can go a long way.” Dr. Rena believes her
student know they are cared for and, in return, feel safe and connected to the school.
Similarly, Ms. Yeriko discussed her nurturing traits as a factor in her advancement to her
current position. During a conversation with a parent, Ms. Yeriko was told:
Take it however you want, but I am glad a woman is in your seat because you have more
of an eye for nurture and care and how to approach the kids. My kids feel more connected
because a female is in the principal role.
Ms. Yeriko discussed that the parent was on her interview panel and may have supported
her during the hiring process. She explained, “It feels good to know that my families and
students know I care for them the way I do for my child. I am grateful that these traits are
considered a strength for a school leader.” Ms. Yeriko feels proud to use her motherly ways to
care for her students and create a sense of comfort for the families at her school.
Ms. Garner discussed her role as a mother and her ability to connect with parents and
continue to lead a school where students and staff feel loved and cared for. She explained that
often she can have conversations with parents and tell them, “I know how you feel because I am
a parent too.” Ms. Garner believes her parents appreciate her role as a mother of two middle
school students and know she understands the struggles of being a mother for that particular age
group. Likewise, Ms. Dang is a single mom and feels her position helped her connect with the
single mothers at her school. She said, “It is an advantage that I am a single mom. I am a mother
38

in the most non-traditional way, and it creates trust with mothers who are experiencing what I
went through.” Ms. Dang became a mother at a young age and felt she could share her story with
families. She stated, “My story has created a bridge between them and me. They know that I
understand the hardships of motherhood and support them in any way I can.” In addition, having
an adult child has allowed her to make different types of connections with her staff. She is able
to talk to her staff about parenting older children and the similar parenting styles they believe in.
She said, “It brings me closer to my staff and creates relationships and connections I may not
have been able to make had I not had this experience.”
Often, these stereotypical gender roles create barriers for women, especially during
professional advancement. However, feminine characteristics of being nurturing and motherly
supported the women in this study as they created connections with staff, students, and families.
Their ability to show love and care for their students created a culture of safety and connections.
Families appreciated having women serving as principals since they naturally cared for the
students and the school. Additionally, women are valued for intentionally listening and
connecting with students, staff, and families.
Women Are Valued for Intentional Listening and Making Connections
Stereotypical expectations of women being intentional listeners and creating solid
connections helped support the advancement of women principals. However, the women felt
their advancement was partly due to their ability to build bridges with others and establish strong
relationships with staff. For instance, while serving as the assistant principal of her current
school, Ms. Lopez believes she made connections and built relationships through her listening
skills. She shared, “Many people assumed I was a good listener since I am a woman. They
trusted me with their personal stories, and in return, I was able to connect with the staff and build
39

strong relationships.” Ms. Lopez believes these relationships may have influenced her
advancement from assistant principal to the principal role at her school.
Similarly, Ms. Romero discussed being a “good listener” as a characteristic expected of
her during her pathway to a principalship:
At some point in my career, being a good listener and a shoulder to cry on became my
role. As a result, I became known as a caring but effective leader. I wonder if this helped
me for advancement because this school needed someone with those qualities!
As a result, Ms. Romero believes her staff feels safe when they need to share their feelings and
opinions about their work environment and can continuously improve the school to be a better
place to work and to learn. Ms. Spitaki discussed her ability to lead with integrity and trust. She
said, “I think people trust me because I listen and build relationships. I do not take advantage of
knowing information about my staff, but I use it to understand their needs and ensure they feel
valued at work.” She believes these relationships are the leading factor in the improved school
culture and staff morale. She said, “I love building relationships. I think sometimes that is
perceived as more of a female thing because men may not always think that is important.” Ms.
Spitaki further discussed how she believes the success of her students is partly due to the
connections and trust she has established with all stakeholders.
Similarly, Dr. Cade feels proud of her femininity and is able to connect to others and
build positive relationships with her staff and families. She stated, “Sometimes it is important,
and you need the female voice when talking to families. Being a woman has helped me connect
to my community in many ways.” During a sexual harassment lawsuit, the district administration
commented on Dr. Cade’s gender. She was told, “Oh, thank God you are a woman and can listen
and understand the victim better.” Dr. Cade stated, “I see what he was saying, but shouldn’t
40

everyone listen and understand students and families? Dr. Cade reflected on how she stood up
for her community and took responsibility for what had happened at her school site. She has
dedicated herself to serving her students and discussing sexual harassment in ways that a male
principal may not have been able to do. Dr. Cade feels she has brought light to a dire situation.
Having emotional intelligence and the ability to establish strong connections between
staff and students was a common theme that the participants discussed. They believed these were
characteristics primarily associated with being a woman, which helped support their
advancement to their current roles. Though the participants felt proud of their feminine qualities,
there were instances where masculine traits benefited their leadership and supported their success
in their current positions.
Adopting Masculine Traits Was Beneficial for Women Principals
Eight of the 10 women in the study felt stereotypical gender characteristics helped
support their advancement to a principalship. However, women principals discussed adopting
masculine traits to lead their secondary schools effectively. Dr. Gorge shared her experience of
changing specific characteristics about herself. After a decade of serving in a principalship role,
she realized it was necessary to adopt traits similar to those of her male counterparts. “I knew I
had to change some of my womanly traits to have a voice at the table.” During meetings with
male administrators, she discovered internal characteristics that needed to be changed. She
stated, “Women have a reputation for using many words and going on and on about a topic. I
learned to say more without having to talk more.” Before meetings, Dr. Gorge began to jot down
talking points to help her stay on task and speak about only topics on her list. She stated, “I had
to do this to not stray from my thoughts and talk about my feelings. I had to get to the point of
what I was trying to say.” As a result, Dr. Gorge feels she has a seat at the table with her male
41

colleagues and can communicate her needs using direct and clear communication skills. Even
though talking about emotions and feelings served a purpose with students and families, it did
not always support successful communication during meetings with other administrators.
Ms. Dang spoke about adopting masculine traits to help support her leadership.
Specifically, she discussed her voice and the need to alter her tone and cadence when talking to
her staff during meetings. She stated, “I had to learn to be more direct with my needs. Instead of
asking questions, I have to declare what needs to be done.” In addition, Ms. Dang shared her
consistent practice of using a more profound and louder voice when speaking to staff and
parents. She shared, “As an Asian woman, I have to understand the perceived notions that come
with my positionality and be aware of how I am stereotyped.” She further discussed that
changing certain feminine and cultural qualities have made her a more successful principal at the
high school she serves. She stated, “It is almost like they take me more seriously, and they know
I mean business. I have made it a habit, and now when I want something done, I know how to do
it.”
Like Ms. Dang’s experience, Ms. Garner shared her perception of adopting traits similar
to her male colleagues. She discussed how male administrators are able to walk into a room,
answer questions, and confidently engage in conversations. She referred to this as “holding a
room.” When preparing for a principalship interview, she was told by her male administrator that
the district director thought she could not carry a room. “I was like, what the hell does that
mean? I can carry a room. So, that became the siren call in my head.” Ms. Garner realized she
had to adopt the same traits she had witnessed in the male administrators she had worked with.
She discussed learning to be confident, even if she did not know everything about the job she
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was applying for. Ms. Garner believes having the same confidence and learning to “hold a room”
was a factor in her advancement to a principalship.
Ms. Romero often found herself silenced by male administrators during meetings
regarding sports and California Interscholastic Federation (CIF), a governing body for high
school athletics. “I am a woman, so they assumed I did not know the CIF rules, and they often
made decisions for my school.” Though Ms. Romero had years of experience with athletics and
coaching sports teams, it was still assumed that she was not well informed. Ms. Romero shares,
“I had to change my ways of communication during these meetings. I had to insert my opinions
of what I felt was important during the CIF competitions.” These same habits had to be practiced
during staff meetings because the assumption was the same from her staff. Ms. Romero’s gender
did not equate to her being uninformed about athletics. Having conversations about sports as
often as possible became a habit Ms. Romero had to adopt. “This is what men do, talk a lot about
sports, and it is something I learned I had to do as well.” Ms. Romero shared that she never
realized how much she enjoyed talking about her school’s athletics until she was forced to do so.
The eight women took great pride in their feminine attributes and discussed these traits as
supports to their advancement. Once the participants reached their secondary school
principalship position, masculine traits were adopted to help support their leadership
experiences. Communication styles, including discussion content, voice, and tone, needed to be
altered by some participants. Learning to discuss and understand high school athletics with male
counterparts was a skill that needed to be adopted. These masculine traits were necessary to
effectively lead their schools and serve as secondary school principals.
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Theme 2: Systems and District Practices Supported the Advancement of Women Principals
in Secondary Schools
The women in this study felt their feminine characteristics helped their advancement to a
principalship. However, they also discussed the need for support in their distal environment. The
support from the district office was a significant factor in their advancement to their current
positions. Supporting women principals in secondary schools with the necessary resources and
systems can create an equitable environment and allow women to advance to leadership roles. In
addition, school district systems and practices can significantly benefit or hinder women’s
advancement in secondary school principalship roles.
Eight of the 10 participants discussed the significance of the district office’s support for
the advancement of women in secondary school principalship was discussed as a critical factor in
advancement. Though participants’ perspectives of support differed, they felt support was
necessary for women to succeed within a school district. When the majority of women had
similar experiences, themes were identified for Research Question 1. Each theme is organized
into subheadings to explain the women’s perceived influences on district supports within their
distal environment.
Women Want Their Voices to Matter and Not Be Deemed Insignificant
Participants discussed their need to be heard and not be deemed insignificant because of
their gender. For example, Dr. Gorge mentioned the difficulties of sharing her input with a room
full of male administrators when discussing athletics. However, her newly hired female
superintendent changed the district’s culture and allowed all administrators, regardless of gender,
to have a voice when making decisions. Dr. Gorge shared, “It has been so different since our new
superintendent came in. I feel heard and like what I say matters, and it is accounted for.” All
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administrators in Dr. Gorge’s district are given equal time to share ideas during meetings. In
addition, norms have been adopted and often referred back to during their meetings. Adopting
these practices has supported Dr. Gorge and other female administrators. In addition, Dr. Gorge
discussed the future of her district and the hope that these practices will continue to give way for
more women to share their opinions and expertise, especially those serving secondary schools.
Dr. Handi shared similar concerns regarding women and having a voice when making
decisions. The district she serves mostly consists of male administrators who have been
principals for over a decade. As a younger and newer female principal, Dr. Handi feels her voice
has been rarely heard. She states, “Sometimes I wondered if I were talking to myself.” Her lack
of input into the issues being discussed made her not only feel invisible but also created a
perspective that her voice did not matter as much as her male counterparts. She shared, “It has
been a constant battle to try to get the resources I feel are best for my school, and that is because
I do not get the same amount of time to voice my opinion.” The silencing of her voice has caused
shortcomings at her school and has affected the most important stakeholders, her students. If the
district, as an organization, created equitable opportunities and leadership opportunities for all
administrators, regardless of gender, this problem could be resolved. Organizations must have
systems and practices that help support all administrators, irrespective of age or gender.
Being heard and contributing to the decision-making process was essential to the
participants. Regardless of gender, the women found it crucial to include their expertise in any
decision made at the schools they lead. Participants felt district support and practices could
create an environment where women are given equal opportunities. In addition, participants
discuss the importance of districts that build the capacity for women to take on leadership roles.
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Growing Leaders Internally Supported the Advancement of Women to Secondary School
Principalship Roles
Participants discussed the power of building capacity within the district and creating
leadership opportunities for women. The women shared similar stories of how school districts
created the capacity for female teachers to take on roles that allowed them to advance to
leadership positions. Ms. Lopez shared district practices for creating leadership capacity for
women. Every year, the district offers leadership conferences for its teachers. With a high
number of female teachers in her district, women are able to take advantage of learning about
leadership and the possibility of advancement to principalship roles. Ms. Lopez feels these
opportunities allow women to discover their potential as leaders. She discussed how many of her
female colleagues identify these conferences as the first real experience where they considered
advancement to administration. Ms. Lopez shared, “Creating opportunities like this has been
important and valuable within my district. So many of the current female principals and assistant
principals took advantage of these conferences because it was encouraged by our district.” Ms.
Lopez was highly focused on the power of inspiring women leaders within the district to advance
to the next level of principalship. She stated, “It is a no-brainer. If you know you already have
incredible women at your sites, why is there a need to look elsewhere else?”
Likewise, Dr. Rena’s district formally operated an internal leadership program, bringing
together a cohort of teachers and offering leadership training and classes. Dr. Rena said, “We
need to grow our own administrators again. We have not done that in a long time, but almost all
the female administrators I know are a product of that program. It was so powerful.” Many
female teachers in Dr. Rena’s district were able to learn and understand strong leadership and
ways of beginning their advancement to administration. As a result, the program supported those
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female teachers to feel empowered and apply to leadership positions within the district. Dr. Rena
felt this was a great way to bring strong leaders out of the classrooms and grow them into
leaders.
Ms. Spitaki’s former district had a similar program called The Rookie Wrap, led by the
superintendent. She explained, “It was like an academy, open to assistant principals and teachers
interested in the advancement. They taught us about leadership and the different layers of
education.” She further explained that although it was a small district, many female teachers who
joined the academy learned and advanced to leadership positions in other districts when they felt
ready. “I may have found the confidence to apply through this program. I have not thought about
it until now.” Even though Ms. Spitaki’s former district was small, those opportunities were
available for all teachers to join and find the confidence and understanding to advance to the next
part of their careers. Similarly, Ms. Garner discussed the supports she feels are in place in her
district for women interested in advancement to a principalship. She compared the system to a
basketball team and the players on the bench. She said, “It is like a basketball team. They have
their main players, but they also have these individuals who have taken on leadership roles and
proven their leadership abilities. These women are waiting on the bench.” Once sitting principals
decide they are ready to move to the next chapter of their career, the district office looks at the
bench. It has a strong group of individuals, primarily women, who are ready to advance. She
explained that this practice has made it more likely for the district office to look within the
organization for their next possible principals. As a result, all the women principals are those
who were once waiting on “the bench” for advancement. The district chose its own women who
grew within the organization.
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Participants appreciated the opportunities for leadership that their district office offered.
These programs offered women a glimpse of the principalship and opened doors for career
advancement. The participants agreed that district supports or leadership opportunities paved the
way to their current role as principals. However, there were instances where the women felt a
lack of district support hindered their professional advancement.
Lack of Support
On the contrary, Ms. Dang shared her disappointment with the lack of efforts made by
her district to help support women who wish to advance. She said, “There is this idea of equality
here in my district, but they seem confused with that part. The idea revolves around everyone
getting a fair chance at advancement.” She further explained that the systems in place were the
leading factor in the inequality. The district office mainly comprises male administrators who
seem to promote male teachers and coaches. Though the opportunities to apply to principalship
positions are equal, the practices that go into place hinder women from advancing:
When your hiring panel is a group of men, mostly White, who are older and uphold the
status quo, it is difficult to have a chance at advancement. I still wonder how I made it to
where I am now.
Since her advancement, Ms. Dang has remained one of two female secondary school
administrators within her district.
Ms. Romero’s experience is similar in that the supports for women in leadership roles are
non-existent within her district. She explained, “It is something that is never talked about. It is a
moot point, and the idea is that it is equitable. However, in reality, we know it is not.” Ms.
Romero shared about a time she tried to discuss this concern with the only female assistant
superintendent in the district and was given the cold shoulder. She explained,
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I am a big proponent of female leaders and will do what I think is right. However, when I
tried having this conversation with the assistant superintendent, she quickly made clear
that I could not have these open and honest conversations.
Unfortunately, external male candidates have filled recent principalship opportunities in
her district. Her concern is that so many female candidates within her district qualified for the
position, but since systems for hiring internal candidates are lacking, these women lost a great
opportunity. Ms. Romero shared her plans to initiate conversations to bring about the change
necessary for more women to advance. She shared, “First, there need to be conversations about
the disproportionality of female leaders and our lack of system practices for women to advance.
Second, I must find the right people to help make these changes.”
Eight of 10 participants discussed their experiences with their district office and offered
insight on the effectiveness of the provided supports. Giving women the opportunity to have
their voices heard was crucial for the participants and their success as leaders. District practices
promoting equal opportunity for women created successful leaders who could lead effectively. In
addition, many participants felt their advancement was mainly a product of the district’s efforts
in offering leadership opportunities. Though programs and systems created opportunities for
women to advance to secondary school principalship, the lack of support also hindered
advancement.
Theme 3: Women Are Breaking the Glass Ceiling to Advance to a Secondary School
Principalship
Six of the 10 participants in this study discussed breaking the glass ceiling as part of their
experience in advancing to a secondary school principalship. Breaking the glass ceiling is the
idea that women must break through barriers and obstacles to reach the same goals as men. It is
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considered a glass ceiling because women can see the barriers that block them from the
advancements they strive for, yet they are unable to dismantle the inequities that exist in their
distal environments. Though participants’ perspectives on the glass ceiling differed, they felt
inequities existed during their path to advancement. When most women shared similar
experiences, themes were identified for Research Question 1. Each theme is organized into
subheadings to identify the women’s perceived influences of the glass ceiling in their distal
environment.
Women Have to Prove Themselves As Capable Leaders
Having to prove their ability as effective leaders was an obstacle that had to be overcome.
For example, when Dr. Cade supported her school with the sexual harassment lawsuit, she felt
immense pressure to prove herself capable of handling the situation. She shared, “I was a new
principal, and here I was having to prove to everyone that I would not only be able to lead a
school successfully but also lead the school through this lawsuit.” She further discussed the
pressure she felt as a woman principal:
I do not know if the same expectations would have been set if the principal was a man.
Nevertheless, at that point, I knew that my reputation was resting on whether or not I
would be able to control the situation.
The expectation was that she would be able to empathize with the female victim yet bring a
sense of safety and understanding to the community. District administrators often reminded her
of how grateful they were that she was a female principal. Still, Dr. Cade felt the outcome of the
lawsuit would determine the future of her career in ways that may not have done so for a male
principal.
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Dr. Rena also experienced the need to prove herself and her ability to lead her school. Dr.
Rena articulated, “You have no idea how often I have had to prove myself to families. When
they ask to see the principal, and I come out of my office, the look on their face says it all.”
Being a woman has had its share of hardships for Dr. Rena, even during the years before her
principalship. She added, “When I was the assistant principal, families always doubted me, and
they requested answers from the male principal. Yet, the same answer from the male principal
was perceived as acceptable.” She continued, “These are the barriers we, as women, have to
overcome and deal with.” Similarly, Ms. Lopez shared her experiences as an assistant principal.
She stated, “When I would make a decision, it was questioned by parents. The male principal
would reiterate my decision to parents, and it was easily accepted.” These barriers kept Ms.
Lopez in doubt of advancement. She continued, “After a while, it gets in your head, and you start
thinking, maybe this job is not for me.”
The need to prove themselves as capable leaders hindered the advancement of women
principals in secondary school. Often, participants felt families perceived them as less capable
than their male counterparts. Instances when families accepted the same information because of
the gender of the principal were discussed. Examples like such caused women to question their
abilities to lead. Establishing themselves as capable decision-makers and influential leaders has
been an obstacle the women principals continue to overcome. In addition to these barriers,
participants also discussed their own decision to wait to be highly qualified before advancing to a
principalship.
Waiting to Be Highly Qualified Before Advancing to Principalship
The hesitancy of applying for principalship positions was a common theme discussed by
three participants. Often, men are more likely to apply for highly qualified jobs without the
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proper qualifications. In contrast, women waited to be highly qualified to apply, resulting in the
disproportionality of women serving in principal positions. The patterns of gender inequities in
leadership roles are another example of the glass ceiling women must overcome.
Ms. Yeriko discussed how she first decided to apply for a principalship position. She had
served many years in the classroom and taken on several leadership roles before she felt ready
for advancement. She stated, “I see men who go straight from being a high school coach or
teacher to being an administrator. This does not happen for women.” Ms. Yeriko discussed the
same patterns of progression in the superintendency positions. She notices that women in her
district go through stages of progression and advancement. However, male candidates skipped
positions and were more likely to advance to the superintendency. Ms. Yeriko thinks the
patriarchal society we live in has created these structures and patterns for women. She stated, “I
believe most women wait until they are overqualified for a position before actually applying for
it, often making them too good for their job.” Similarly, Ms. Romero discussed her journey to
principalship as slow and steady. She stated, “I needed to be in every position before moving up.
Before becoming principal, I needed to get a full picture of every aspect of running a school.”
She compared her experience to her male colleagues, especially her district superintendent.
Though she had positive comments about his leadership, she discussed how his perseverance and
confidence to apply for such a high position was a big part of his advancement. She said, “He is
2 years younger than me and has significantly less experience. I think it is brave of him to have
applied for the position. I still do not think I am ready.” During the interview, Ms. Romero
paused and finally stated, “And this is how it is, society has always perceived men as more
capable, and at some point, it is internalized.”
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Dr. Rena’s experience advancing to secondary school principalship was very different
from the experience of her male colleagues. During her initial years as a principal, she was told
by her district administration that in order to advance to a secondary school, she must first learn
to lead an elementary school. She stated, “This was very different when it came to some men
starting their principalship.” She discussed several male administrators promoted to middle or
high school principalship without experience in elementary school. She shared, “It still upsets me
when I think about it. I am grateful for my elementary education, but it was unfair.” The
experience has allowed her to feel overqualified after her long years at an elementary school, but
she felt it was an unnecessary step in her career. She stated, “It was almost like I had to prove
myself to them to get to where I wanted to be.”
Waiting to be highly qualified before applying for a secondary school principalship was
discussed as a hindrance to attaining secondary principalship positions. The patterns of
progression to advance are perceived as necessary for women, as they take their time to be
highly qualified before applying for a principalship. Instead of skipping stages of their career, the
women discussed the importance of learning each position they hold. Though the women felt
proud of their progression patterns, they identified their need to wait as a hindrance to achieving
their current roles earlier in their careers.
Summary
Findings indicated that even though participants found their female characteristics of
being motherly and creating relationships supported their advancement, at times, they had to
adopt masculine traits to be more effective at their job. Additionally, having a voice equal to
those of male administrators was a factor in the success of women principals. Female
administrators feel empowered to succeed and grow when organizations create the capacity for
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women to take on leadership roles. Finally, findings indicated the idea of a glass ceiling as a
hindrance that remains in the distal environment of women. Having to prove themselves as
capable leaders is an obstacle women continue to face.
Research Question 2: What Perceived Influences in the Immediate Environment Support
or Hinder the Professional Advancement of Women Principals of Secondary Schools?
The three themes that emerged from the research questions were (a) Women in secondary
school principalship had high levels of self-efficacy and believed in their capability of achieving
goals, (b) mentorship played a crucial factor in their ability to advance to their current roles, and,
(c) women principals struggled to maintain work-home balance. Table 3 includes the
overarching theme and key findings for Research Question 2.

Table 4
Findings: Research Question 2
Overarching theme Findings
Theme 1: Women in secondary school
principalship had high levels of self-
efficacy and believed in their
capabilities of achieving goals.
Childhood experiences led women to self-efficacy in
adulthood.
Women are making decisions with confidence and
self-trust.
Feelings of self-doubt hinder advancement for
participants in the secondary school principalship.

Theme 2: Mentorship played a crucial
factor in the women’s ability to
advance to their current roles.

Women support one another as they advance to
secondary school principalship.
Mentors recognized the skills and talents of women
principals.

Theme 3: Women principals struggled
to maintain a work-home balance.

The challenges of being a mother and a secondary
school principal.
Setting boundaries is crucial in maintaining a work-
home balance.

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Theme 1: Women in Secondary School Principalship Had High Levels of Self-Efficacy and
Believed in Their Capability of Achieving Goals
Self-efficacy is the perceived notion of one’s capabilities and behaviors in achieving a
goal. Though self-efficacy was a characteristic they discovered under different circumstances,
participants discussed the importance of it in their daily professional lives. Within their
immediate environment, women principals learned to believe in their abilities and trust
themselves to become secondary school principals. Nine of the 10 women discussed the
importance of believing in themselves and their ability to make difficult decisions within their
organizations. Although the nine participants identified different aspects of their self-efficacy,
they all felt self-efficacy played a factor in their professional advancement. When the majority of
women had similar perspectives, these experiences were identified as themes within Research
Question 2. Each theme is organized into subheadings to explain the women’s perceived
influences of self-efficacy in their immediate environment.
Childhood Experiences Led Women to Self-Efficacy in Adulthood
Ms. Yeriko discussed her childhood experiences with her single mother and the high
expectations set for her. From early childhood, she had to learn to trust in herself and make
decisions that would set her up for success. She believes that these expectations ultimately
resulted in her ability to lead successfully. She stated, “I have always had an internal drive, and
as a young girl knew I had to fend for myself.” She continued to discuss her experiences of
creating opportunities to succeed in her personal and professional life. As an adult, Ms. Yeriko
believes those expectations taught her self-efficacy and confidence. Her mother’s expectations
led her to maintain high standards for herself and learn to establish strong characteristics of
relying on herself without the help of others. Growing up with those standards taught Ms. Yeriko
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to believe in the decisions she makes today as a successful high school principal. Ms. Lopez had
similar experiences as a child and considered those experiences of being self-efficacious to
support her career advancements to the principalship. Being the daughter of Mexican
immigrants, Ms. Lopez had to find the confidence to be her parents’ translator and advocate as
they learned the new systems in the United States. Ms. Lopez stated, “These experiences
prepared me for my job today. I learned to figure things out myself, and in return, I found the
confidence to be a strong woman.”
Both women believed their childhood experiences were the root cause of their ability to
believe in their hard work and decision-making skills. The remaining women who discussed self-
efficacy as a factor in their advancement also discussed its effect on their decision-making skills.
Women Are Making Decisions with Confidence and Self-Trust
Seven of the 10 participants did not discuss the origins of their self-efficacy. Still, they
perceived self-efficacy as a factor in their ability to advance and maintain their position as
secondary school principals. Ms. Romero discussed her ability to rely on her self-efficacy and
confidence when making decisions as a professional, wife, and mother. She explained that she
depends on those skills at her workplace, similar to the financial budgeting she manages at home.
She stated, “Just like my home, I have a lot of control over my budget at work. It can be scary,
but I have confidence in my ability to do it well.” Running a high school of over 3,000 students,
Ms. Romero is confident that the financial choices she makes for her school are the best for her
students. She continued, “I have learned that I must be confident in my judgment and carefully
plan every spending decision.” Similarly, Dr. Cade discussed her confidence to make the right
choices to reach goals. She stated, “I have to be confident and allow myself to think strategically
and plan programs to build what I believe is best for my students.” Though this confidence took
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time, Dr. Cade discussed the importance of relying on herself and believing she was the expert. It
has taken her years to confidently reach decisions and establish herself as the leader she is proud
to be. She believes that principals must execute behavior that conveys confidence and self-
efficacy. She concluded by stating, “It’s what your team wants to see in their leader, a strong,
self-assured, and self-reliant woman.”
Self-efficacious characteristics have supported Dr. Gorge and Ms. Spitaki in
implementing new systems within the schools they lead. When Dr. Gorge started her career as a
high school principal, she had to make decisions and create new systems for the success of her
students. Dr. Gorge discussed the difficulties she encountered when designing the master
schedule for her high school. The master schedule created unfair and inequitable practices, and
Dr. Gorge decided it was time to create a system to resolve the issue. She stated, “It took a lot of
guts and determination to implement these changes, and it was challenging. But, I knew it was
my responsibility to break the status quo.” She laughed as she explained the constant grit and
resilience she had to practice to make necessary changes. These changes have now created an
equitable and just system. The master schedule is now student-centered and driven by students’
interests, not based on staff preferences. Ms. Spitaki discussed a current situation she had been
challenged with. She has been working toward shortening the school lunch period from 48 to 35
minutes. The possible change has raised significant concerns, and pushback has become an issue
at her school site. Ms. Spitaki stated, “A 48 minutes lunch break has become a real issue. But, I
am convinced that changing it is the right thing to do, and I’m sticking to it.” Ms. Spitaki’s belief
that she will be successful in the decision she made for her staff shows tremendous amounts of
self-efficacy.
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Self-efficacy and confidence helped the women principals make decisions for their
schools and students. Creating a culture of improvement and change resulted from the women’s
high levels of self-efficacy. Though the decisions are based on the betterment of students,
confidence is required to make change possible. Participants believed self-efficacy was a factor
in leading a successful secondary school. Consequently, feelings of self-doubt hindered women’s
ability to be successful principals.
Feelings of Self-Doubt Hinder Advancement for Women in Secondary School Principalship
Feelings of self-doubt were discussed as a hindrance in the advancement to secondary
school principalship. For example, while serving as an assistant principal, Ms. Dang applied to at
least five principalship openings. Her feelings of uncertainty about herself created a barrier to
advancing. She explained, “When I was asked a question during interviews, my answers were
full of doubt and hesitation” It was not until she learned to believe in herself and her abilities that
she was able to attain principalship at a secondary school. Similarly, Dr. Rena believes that
dismantling self-doubt is critical to being a successful woman principal. She stated, “Sometimes
I knew what I needed to do to get a job done, yet I still doubted myself. The doubt created
discomfort and mistrust for those who I led.” Both women were convinced had they been more
confident earlier in their careers, advancement to their current position would have occurred
sooner.
Ms. Garner discussed the doubt she experienced when she succeeded a male principal at
the school site. She discussed feelings of doubt when teachers would say, “That is not what Mr.
Sansui would have made.” She questioned her decisions and contacted the former principal to
find out what he would have made. She stated, “He was such a big help, but after some time, I
realized that the doubt was hindering my ability to develop into the leader I wanted to be.” Ms.
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Garner learned to trust in her decision-making process and make choices she knew were
appropriate.
Feelings of uncertainty and self-doubt hindered women as they progressed and made their
way to the principalship role. Once principalship at a secondary school was attained, women
discussed the power of self-doubt and the hindrance it caused their profession. However, once
women found their confidence, they were able to succeed and find their way to be successful and
effective.
Theme 2: Mentorship Played a Crucial Factor in Women’s Ability to Advance to their
Current Roles
Nine of the 10 participants discussed mentorship as one of the leading factors in their
advancement to a secondary school principalship. The support and encouragement of mentors in
their immediate environment played a significant role in the participants’ lives and primarily
encouraged them to advance to principalship roles at secondary schools. The nine participants
discussed different types of mentoring, but all claimed it played a factor in their advancement.
When the majority of women had similar perspectives, these experiences were identified as
themes within Research Question 2. Each theme is organized into subheadings to explain the
women’s perceived influences of mentoring in their immediate environment.
Women Support One Another As They Advance to Secondary School Principalship
Participants discussed mentorship and explained that their mentors were groups of
women who celebrated and encouraged each other to advance. Ms. Lopez called her group of
women “The Bangles.” The Bangles were her professional mentors who all worked for the same
district and supported one another throughout their careers. Once one became a secondary school
principal, the other women naturally followed. They met often and shared ideas and practices to
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improve their leadership skills and apply themselves to challenges to help their chances of
success. Ms. Lopez explained, “We are each other’s biggest fans, and without their unconditional
support and guidance, I would have never made it to where I am today. I am grateful for each
Bangel.” Similarly, Dr. Rena discussed the two female mentors she met before becoming a
principal. She stated, “They were the ones who believed in me and pushed me to apply for
principal positions.” Their encouragement was why Dr. Rena decided she was ready to lead a
secondary school. The women continue to be mentored and encouraged to advance to higher
leadership positions.
Dr. Handi met her mentors at a professional networking program. She stated, “I joined
the group to meet women in the same field as me, but I never expected to make the connections I
have made.” She explained that the women who contributed to her advancement by helping her
with interview preparations, finding connections for jobs, and being available to support her in
times of need during work-related issues. Dr. Handi’s women mentors have become essential to
her life as she has made personal connections to them as life-long friends. Ms. Dang had similar
experiences with the women administrators she worked for before advancing to a principalship.
She stated, “The women I worked for previously are my mentors today.” Dr. Dang believes her
self-motivation and self-efficacy were a product of the mentors’ support through her
advancement from a teacher to a principal. Working for a district where all the high school
principals are men, Ms. Dang feels alone and continues to seek her mentor’s guidance. She
concluded her thoughts by stating, “Those women are my rock, especially when I desperately
needed support and advice as I advanced to a high school principal.”
Ms. Spitaki and Ms. Yeriko discussed being mentored by other women as a factor in their
advancement to principalship and other important milestones in their lives. The two women are
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in the process of earning their doctorate degrees in educational leadership, and they both
described their women mentors as individuals who were partly responsible for the decision to
return to school. For example, in earlier years, Ms. Yeriko’s mentor created leadership capacity
and opportunities for her. She stated, “She provided me opportunities to further my leadership
experience and take on roles that I was not necessarily comfortable with.” Through these
experiences, Ms. Yeriko learned her leadership ability and was championed to further her career.
Similarly, Ms. Spitaki’s mentor, who was a superintendent of a district, asked her to take on a
TOSA role, and it was this position that advanced her career. As a result, Ms. Spitaki learned the
importance of effectively leading a secondary school through her TOSA positions.
Women supported one another to advance in their professional careers. As mentors
created leadership opportunities, the women realized their potential to lead secondary schools.
The women offered one another support and encouragement, and they found themselves
succeeding and attaining their goals of becoming secondary school principals. The women felt
their bonds and relationships with their women mentors were a positive experience and were a
leading factor in their advancement.
Mentors Recognized the Skills and Talents of Women Principals
Mentorship from male administrators paved the way for Ms. Garner and Dr. Gorge. Both
women formally worked for male principals who recognized talent and leadership skills and
pursued them to advance their careers. Dr. Gorge stated, “Dr. Smith, the district’s
superintendent, saw something in me that I did not.” During her time as an assistant principal,
Dr. Gorge did not plan to move forward and apply for a principal position at the local high
school. However, the superintendent knew of an opening and asked Dr. Gorge to consider
applying. She continued, “I did not think I was completely ready for such a big job until that
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conversation. He gave me the wings I needed. If the superintendent asks you to apply, that means
something.” The recognition of her hard work and dedication was a factor in her advancement to
her current position.
Dr. Gorge was satisfied with her role as an assistant principal, but knowing her
superintendent believed she could lead a large comprehensive high school empowered her to
challenge herself and apply for the highly sought-after position within the district. Ms. Garner’s
experience is similar in that her male administrator of the Middle School recognized her
capability of leading the school. He knew he would leave the district soon and began preparing
her as the next principal. Ms. Garner stated, “Knowing he believed in me and had been slowly
grooming me to be the next principal gave me the extra confidence I needed.” Ms. Garner
worked with her mentor to prepare for the interview and gain the confidence she needed to do
well during the interview process. During the discussion on mentorship, Ms. Garner took a long
pause and smiled. She explained how greatly his guidance had shaped her leadership capabilities
and love for the job.
Participants’ perceptions of their mentors, both male and female, were highly positive.
The nine women all believed their mentors played a crucial factor in their ability to advance to
their current position. The mentors provided the participants with professional opportunities and
personal motivation to reach their goals.
Theme 3: Women Principals Struggled to Maintain Work-Home Balance
Maintaining work-home balance was a topic that was discussed throughout the interview
sessions. The participants’ perspectives of their advancement were interwoven with stories of
their experiences balancing work and home responsibilities. Seven of the 10 women discussed
their struggles to serve as secondary school principals and maintain their duties as wives and
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mothers. The seven participants discussed different aspects of balancing their work and home
lives and agreed it played a role in their advancement to the principalship. Each theme is
organized into subheadings to explain the women’s perceived influences of the work-home
balance in their immediate environment.
The Challenges of Being a Mother and a Secondary School Principal
Nine of the 10 participants were mothers to one or more children. Of the nine women,
five were mothers to children younger than 18. Seven of the 10 women discussed creating a
work-home balance that accommodated their children’s needs. For example, Dr. Handi and Dr.
Rena explained their need to create opportunities to spend time with their children. Dr. Rena
stated, “I have to make time for my two girls because if I do not, I may go on days without
giving them the proper attention they deserve.” After long days at work, Dr. Rena still manages
to cook dinner at least four times a week and have the time for meaningful conversations with
her kids. Similarly, Dr. Handi feels cooking dinner and sharing the time with her husband and
sons has allowed her to keep the focus on what is important. She stated, “It’s the only time I can
focus on my family and take time away from being a principal.” Both women share a love for
cooking and can disconnect from leading a school and focus their attention on what matters most
in their lives.
Ms. Romero discussed her fears of missing special moments in her child’s life because of
her profession. She explained, “Every event is written on my calendar, and the calendar now
dictates my life. I look at it constantly throughout the day. I’m fearful I will miss a baseball game
because of my hours at work.” Dr. Gorge also discussed the feeling of guilt. She must take time
away from work responsibilities to care for her 4-year-old daughter. She stated, “It’s hard. I’m
constantly adjusting my schedule to spend time with her.” Both women felt that being a
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secondary school principal requires a lot of sacrifice and planning to create meaningful time to
spend with their children. In addition, the after-school supervision of sports and events is a
hindrance to spending time with their children. Using their support staff, such as assistant
principals and athletic directors, helps with their work time. However, the demand for their
presence is required at certain events, and they are continually challenged with a balance of
work-home responsibilities.
Participants discussed the challenges of being a mother and a successful secondary school
principal. The fear of missing special moments from their children’s lives was a fear that the
women experienced in their current roles. Women had to create rigid schedules and timelines to
ensure they were present for their families. Being a secondary school principal requires a lot of
sacrifices, and many challenges are faced when balancing the home and work life. Therefore,
participants discovered setting boundaries is crucial to maintain a work-home balance.
Setting Boundaries is Crucial in Maintaining a Work-Home Balance
When discussing the importance of maintaining a work-home balance, participants
discussed their practice of turning off their work emails. Participants had strong feelings about
the negative impact of checking their email during the evenings and weekends. Dr. Cade
questioned her habit of checking emails by stating, “I have been having this conversation with
myself lately. Fifteen years ago, did people expect schools to respond to them during the
weekends or late at night? Why do we have those expectations now?” Though she understands
her role is to serve the community and answer parent concerns, she has recently learned to set
boundaries for herself after work hours. Dr. Cade concluded her thoughts by stating, “This is my
job, not my entire life.” Therefore, she has learned to create boundaries and stop checking work-
related emails during certain hours and days of the week.
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The same struggle exists for Ms. Garner and Ms. Spitaki, who discuss the negative
impact of checking emails when they are home with their families. Ms. Garner stated,
“Sometimes I find myself answering emails during dinner and bedtime and even when washing
up in the morning. It never stops.” Ms. Garner feels her role as a secondary school principal
requires her to spend extra time working from home and making sacrifices regarding a work-
home balance. Ms. Spitaki discussed her difficulties with not responding to emails during the
weekends. She stated, “I find myself answering emails on the weekends. I know I should not, but
I struggle with leaving it for Monday. I need to work on that.” Ms. Spitaki plans on easing into
this new habit by allowing herself to access her email only during certain weekend hours.
Maintaining a work-home balance was extremely important to the seven participants and
was crucial in their ability to lead a balanced personal and professional life. In addition, the
participants were challenged with maintaining their roles as mothers and wives while leading
secondary schools. Adopting practices and behaviors helped the women meet the demands of life
and work yet continue leading in their roles as secondary school principals.
Summary
Women in the study indicated their feminine characteristics supported their advancement
to secondary school principalship. Though adopting masculine traits helped the effectiveness of
their leadership roles, they valued their feminine attributes of being nurturing and having the
ability to make meaningful connections and build relationships. The participants also indicated
that the support from their school districts played a role in their professional advancement.
Hindrance was experienced when obstacles were presented, and the women had to break the
glass ceiling to reach their goals. Throughout their careers, the participants felt they faced
instances where they had to prove their abilities to lead and be effective principals.
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The three themes that emerged during data analysis to answer Research Question 2 were
(a) Women in secondary school principalship had high levels of self-efficacy and believed in
their capabilities of achieving goals, (b) mentorship played a crucial factor in women’s ability to
advance to their current roles, and (c) women principals struggled to maintain work-home
balance. Findings to Research Question 2 indicated that women could advance to principalship
and be successful leaders when they are confident in their decision-making skills. Often, self-
doubt is a barrier that hinders the path to advancement. In addition, findings reveal that women
are often mentored by other women leaders who recognize their skills and abilities. Though the
work-home balance is a challenge for secondary school principals, setting boundaries is
necessary to continue leading at secondary schools and enjoy their personal lives as mothers and
wives.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
Chapter Five describes, analyzes, and interprets findings based on previously discussed
literature. The significance of the findings is examined through the two research questions. First,
recommendations for practice are discussed with a focus on the distal and immediate
environments of the women principals at secondary schools. Next, action plans that can be
implemented based on the findings of this study are discussed. Limitations and delimitations are
considered in the conclusion of the research. Finally, recommendations for future research are
examined with a deeper analysis of how the environment plays a role in the advancement of
women principals at secondary schools. This study focused on discovering women leaders’
experiences, which might increase other women’s aspirations for leadership roles. The
participants’ immediate and distal environments were examined by investigating their
experiences. Understanding their stories might increase the visibility and opportunities for future
women leaders (Nakitende, 2019). The following research questions were used to guide this
study:
1. What perceived influences in the distal environment support or hinder the
professional advancement of women principals of secondary schools?
2. What perceived influences in the immediate environment support or hinder the
professional advancement of women principals of secondary schools?
Discussion of Findings
Study findings suggest that women’s distal and immediate environment is a factor in their
advancement to the secondary principalship. Using Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological theory of
human development as the conceptual framework, this study examined the immediate and distal
environments that contributed to women’s efforts to reach secondary school principalships. The
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interactions of Bronfenbrenner’s layers of proximal processes (microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, and macrosystem) were used to understand participants’ experiences. Six themes
emerged related to the study’s two research questions. This section presents a summary and
discussion of the study’s findings in relation to extant literature.
Qualitative data related to Research Question 1 produced three findings. The first finding
that emerged was centered on stereotypical gender roles as a support for the advancement of
women principals. Stereotypical female characteristics of being motherly and nurturing still exist
within our society, especially in educational leadership (Nakitende, 2019). Nevertheless, these
characteristics are often not perceived as traits associated with effective leadership (Weiner et al.,
2021).
In contrast, participants discussed their ability to be nurturing and motherly as a factor in
their advancement to a secondary principalship. According to Harrison (2014), leadership skills
gained by motherhood can be a powerful transition to the experience needed for leading schools.
Participants who were mothers felt their motherly skills helped support their role in a school full
of students and may have even been a leading factor in their ability to obtain the position of
secondary principalship. However, Brower et al. (2019) suggest that masculinity remains a
characteristic more frequently associated with successful leadership. Though participants took
great pride in their femininity, there were times they felt the need to adopt masculine traits. This
included times when participants had to change their tone when speaking or insert their opinions
to reach a decision with little collaboration.
Overall, the women in the study took great pride in their femininity and perceived their
gender as a support for their advancement. Being a woman was never perceived as a
disadvantage or an obstacle when compared to their male experience. Though the women
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discussed challenges in overcoming the stereotypical expectations within their distal
environment, they embraced their positionality as mothers, wives, and women who successfully
led secondary schools. The participants discussed feelings of pride and the benefits of being a
woman in their advancement to the principalship, yet explained the challenges they faced. It is
important to address the tensions that present themselves in the opposing perceptions of the
participants and the systems that create these tensions. Our society continues to dictate gender
roles in households and the workplace, creating unique challenges for women who want to
advance to leadership roles.
As capable and deserving as women are in advancing to a principalship, they are often
challenged by the societal systems and stereotypes that exist within their environment (Weiner et
al., 2021). Women strive to lead in schools, yet they witness male candidates skipping the
progression pathway and advancing to higher administrative roles, unlike many women
candidates. Understanding the stereotypes and systems within our distal and immediate
environment is crucial for the future of women leaders, specifically in education (Ford, 2016).
Findings suggest that women take great pride in their femininity and feel it was an advantage in
their advancement. However, these advantages are often only beneficial in an organization where
women have had the opportunity to prove their abilities to be skilled and capable leaders who
can move schools forward and, in addition, have the feminine characteristics of building
relationships, communicating effectively, taking care of others, and creating an environment that
is both rigorous for students and positive for the community.
Understanding the experiences of women striving for advancement in leadership is an
area that needs more focus. Women serving as principals in secondary schools remains
disproportionately low because of these contradictions that exist in our society (Nakitende,
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2019). The contradiction of women taking pride in their femininity yet facing the challenges of
being women who are striving for advancement is the essence of the problem. Our society
expects women to have the skills to be nurturing and loving, yet the existing systems do not
support women to advance at the same rate as their male counterparts (Henningsen et al., 2021).
Often, women are contending with what it means to be “feminine” in the workplace and
simultaneously try to find the work-home balance, prove their capabilities, find effective
mentorship, and lead secondary schools. As women contemplate and discover a progression path
regardless of the challenges they face, men advance to principalship without these obstacles, thus
creating the existing disproportionality (Martinez et al., 2021).
The perceived influences of women’s distal and immediate environment continue to be a
factor in the advancement to the secondary principalship. Tallerico and Blount (2004) discussed
the disproportionalities of women leading in secondary schools will continue to exist until
societal expectations and stereotypes of women are dismantled and deconstructed with equitable
systems. For example, if women leaders are expected to be nurturing and collaborative, the same
standards should apply to male administrators. Consequently, for equitable hiring systems to
exist, all candidates should be held to the same qualifications when advancing, regardless of the
societal stereotypes and expectations of gender.
Recommendations for Practice
Eight of the 10 participants discussed the significance of the district office’s support for
the advancement of women in secondary principalship. Districts providing programs and
leadership training produced female principals who led secondary schools. Several of the
districts addressed in the study implemented internal programs that allowed teachers to learn and
understand the responsibilities of school administrators. According to Nakitende (2019),
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institutions need to provide women with opportunities for career advancement by creating
accessible leadership prospects. These practices need to be examined to ensure that women
become successful and are able to attain leadership roles. With the implementation of leadership
programs, women interested in principalship will be able to learn and attain leadership roles that
ultimately lead to their advancement. These practices can result in gender equality and balance
the disproportionate number of women principals in secondary schools.
Recommendation 1: School Districts Support the Development of Women Principals by
Providing Leadership Opportunities Through Programs and Training
To address the need for more women principals at secondary schools, districts can
implement principalship pipelines. The pipeline can begin with administrators identifying
effective teachers with strong leadership skills. Often, teachers who possess these qualities are
those who volunteer to be advisors for clubs and activities and serve on committees that focus on
the betterment of the school. Encouraging these women educators to take on the responsibility of
serving as their department or grade level chairs or instructional leaders can begin creating
capacity for leadership opportunities. Principals can implement monthly meetings where the
leaders are brought together to discuss and collaborate on a plan to improve school-wide focuses
and plans on leadership opportunities for the individuals involved. As women educators are
provided with these opportunities, district offices should focus on providing them with rigorous
and effective professional development to further their capacity in leadership. In addition, for the
pipeline to continue successfully, districts must provide financial support for teachers to enroll in
graduate programs to attain the necessary leadership credentialing for advancement.
The pipeline can continue as district offices select candidates for assistant principal
positions from the pool of instructional leaders within their district. Once women teachers
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become assistant principals, they must continue receiving support and mentoring from their
principals or district administration. For the pipeline to progress successfully, assistant principals
need to be given opportunities where they can implement their skills as a school leader and learn
how to successfully lead a school, such as running staff meetings, evaluating teachers, creating
plans for academic improvement, and working with the principal on school budgets and future
endeavors.
The ultimate goal for the pipeline is to support candidates to lead schools and attain
principalship positions successfully. Extensive professional development must be implemented
for new principals as they continue to learn. In addition to professional development, mentoring
must continue for women principals. More experienced principals or district administration need
to support principals as they learn new ways of leading, facing challenges, and creating visions
to support the achievement of students. With the implementation of the pipeline, the women who
attained their advancement through the path will be expected to serve as mentors for those in the
pipeline’s progress. This steady transition or progression channel can create a system where
districts grow their women leaders and decrease the disproportionality of women serving as
principals in secondary schools.
Recommendation 2: School Districts Provide Mentorship Programs for Aspiring
Administrators
Nine of the 10 participants discussed mentorship as one of the leading factors in their
advancement to a secondary principalship. The support and encouragement of mentors in their
immediate environment played a significant role in the participants’ lives and primarily
encouraged them to advance to principalship roles at secondary schools. Women face more
challenges when finding effective mentorship and networking opportunities (Harrison, 2014).
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However, programs promoting mentorship can significantly benefit those aspiring to enter the
administration of secondary schools.
Part of the pipeline, as discussed above, can include a mentorship program in school
districts. Mentoring can be integral to principal preparation and is an excellent example of why
districts should adopt programs to help grow their own leaders (Parylo et al., 2012). Current
administrators can mentor aspiring teachers and create the relationship and networks necessary
for advancement. In addition, aspiring women teachers can utilize these relationships to learn the
skills necessary to succeed at the principalship level. Requiring current principals to mentor
teachers can serve for the betterment of both the principals and the mentees. Additionally,
secondary principals, especially women, need to continue being mentored. The same practice of
implementing mentors for aspiring principals must occur for current women principals.
Assigning district administrators to work with principals for support and encouragement can
support the advancement of women to higher levels of educational leadership.
Recommendation 3: School Districts Support in Creating a Culture of Work-Home
Balance
Women advancing to educational leadership are faced with addressing the challenges of
maintaining a work-home balance. Finding the time to lead a harmonious work and family life is
the most constraining challenge for women in leadership positions (Bodalina, 2020). Seven of
10 participants discussed their struggle to balance being a secondary principal and their duties as
wives and mothers. The findings of this study suggest that secondary principals need to work for
organizations that value, implement, and create policies for a healthy work and home balance.
Participants discussed the fear of missing special moments in their children’s lives
because of the demands of their profession. However, these fears can be rectified by providing
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flexibility in the schedule of secondary principals. Since principals spend so much time
supervising activities after work hours, district offices must implement protocols that allow
flexibility during work hours. The extended hours of after-school supervision need to be
considered when penalizing principals for leaving work for family affairs
School districts need to recognize that the work-home balance is a challenge and a
possible obstacle for women advancing to the principalship of secondary schools. Regarding the
administration of secondary schools, women need support to have equitable opportunities to
attain leadership positions and successfully serve in their roles. These supports can include
ensuring support staff, such as an adequate number of assistant principals and athletics directors,
to help with the supervision of after-school programs. Additionally, to support the pipeline of
growing internal principals. teachers seeking leadership positions can help support principals by
taking on leadership roles during after-school hours. With these practices in place, the
opportunities for women to advance to secondary school principalship can become more
equitable.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study had limitations and delimitations to consider. The study’s limitations were
beyond the researcher’s control. This study’s most notable limitation was the small sample,
which prohibited generalizing findings. Other limitations were the length of time to conduct this
study, individuals’ choice to participate, and the respondents’ truthfulness. Since participants had
some professional links to me as the researcher, the truthfulness of their responses may not be
verified. When participants were asked about district practices, there were instances where
participants were hesitant to discuss the shortcomings of their district or district leadership. The
hesitancy may have come from familiar social or professional networks related to the University
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of Southern California. Many of the Superintendents are graduates of USC, and participants may
have had reservations about providing truthful information. My bias in selecting participants and
determining who was a strong leader was a limitation. Additionally, Creswell (2009) argued that
the researcher’s presence might bias responses and create limitations to the study.
Delimitations are constraints of the study based on the researchers’ choices when
designing the study. In this study, the choice to study 10 women principals in secondary schools
working in Los Angeles County was a delimitation. In addition, the threshold of at least 3 years
of principalship experience for each participant was also a delimitation. Some participants had 3
to 5 years of principalship experience, but those years were interrupted by the COVID-19
pandemic. Though the pandemic provided principals with unique experiences, the 2 years of
shutdowns may have altered their experiences when compared to participants with more years in
the principalship position.
Recommendations for Future Research
Further research regarding societal expectations of gender roles when serving in
leadership positions is recommended. While this study provided a perspective on women
principals and the factors that hinder or support advancement, further research is needed to find
how gender plays a role in the advancement to the secondary principalship. Furthermore,
concerns regarding the intersection of gender and societal expectations need further examination.
For example, women are often expected to sacrifice their professional careers to meet the needs
of their children and family (Rawal, 2021). Yet, men are expected to meet the demands of their
profession and succeed in the workplace. Men are rarely burdened with the pressure of balancing
their work and home life. Society does not expect men in leadership positions to maintain a
healthy balance of work and home responsibilities.
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Though family seems to be the center focus of many women, it is imperative to examine
the mindset and expectations of society based on gender. Further investigation of gender roles
and the effects of the distal and immediate environment could add to the body of knowledge
describing the perceived influences of effective leadership in women. Expanding the knowledge
base through investigation of further contexts could serve to refine and reexamine gender
equality for principals serving in secondary schools.
In addition, recommendations for further research can include examining school district
practices on support for their women administrators. School districts have begun implementing
equitable practices for their students, focusing on providing adequate access to underrepresented
students. Leaders and educators recognize the centrality of race and students’ experiences
throughout their K–12 education. The ability to address these racial disparities have become
centerfold as educational organization responds to new practices and strategies to dismantle
inequitable structures and policies (Roegman et al., 2019). The same focus on equitable
opportunities must be implemented for hiring practices and gender equality. Creating policies
and practices for the advancement of underrepresented populations, such as women, needs to be
further examined to dismantle the disproportionality of women principals at secondary schools
(Johnson & Fournillier, 2021).
Conclusions
Women who are secondary school principals provide a unique perspective on the changes
and developments necessary for a more gender-equitable and diverse future. As women seek to
advance to secondary school principalship, they face challenges and obstacles that hinder their
opportunities (Jang & Alexander, 2022). This study examined the perceived influences in the
distal and immediate environment of women principals in secondary school and how it supports
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or hinders their advancement. As education focuses on providing more equitable opportunities
for underrepresented students, it is imperative that these same practices are implemented for
those serving as leaders in public education.
Throughout this study, the women participants took great pride in their gender and their
ability to advance to roles equal to their male counterparts. The participants broke through
obstacles, or the glass ceiling, to reach leadership positions within the organizations they served.
However, it is crucial to recognize that the grit and determination of women leaders are, at times,
useless when school districts do not implement proper policies and practices.
Furthermore, the distal and immediate environment plays a factor in the advancement of
women principals. Interestingly, societal gender roles of being motherly and nurturing,
characteristics usually not associated with effective leadership (Weiner et al., 2021), helped
women advance to secondary principalship roles. This finding suggests that the societal mindset
is evolving, and the perception of a woman’s role is developing into a more equitable identity.
Furthermore, women in this study discussed their self-efficacy as a factor in their immediate
environment that helped their professional advancement. Though barriers existed, the women
continued to strive and reach their goals. As women continue to take on leadership roles, the
disproportionality of women leaders in education and other fields may rise, paving the way to a
more equitable and just future for women.

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Thank you very much for agreeing to participate in my study. I truly appreciate the time
you are dedicating to answering my questions. The interview should take around an hour to
complete. Is this still okay with you?
Introduction
Before we begin, I want to remind you that the purpose of this study and address any
questions that you may have about participating in this interview. I am a student at USC and I am
conducting a study on the perceived influences in the immediate and distal environment that
support or hinder the professional advancement of women principals at secondary schools.
I want to assure you that I am strictly participating in this interview solely as the
researcher. This means that my questions are not meant to be evaluative in nature. My goal is to
understand your perspective.
Interview Questions
1. Can you share with me what influenced you to pursue a principal role? (RQ1, RQ2)
2. What values and societal characteristics associated with being a female, do you think
have supported or hindered your advancement to a principal position in a secondary
school? (RQ1)
3. Tell me about a time when you may have felt misogynistic values or opinions used
against you in your professional life? (RQ1)
4. What has your experience as a woman principal within the district leadership
environment been like? (RQ1)
5. How do you feel you have been perceived as a woman secondary principal by others?
(RQ1, RQ2)
87

6. What factors in your life helped support your role as a principal? (RQ1)
7. What factors in your life made the advancement to principalship more difficult?
(RQ1)
8. What advice would you share with a woman educator who is contemplating moving
into a principal position? (RQ2)
9. Can you recall a time you interacted with a staff member in a specific way because of
gender? What happened? How did it make you feel? What did you do as a result of
the interaction? (RQ2)
10. Explain any barriers, hurdles, or roadblocks that you had to deal with before
assuming the principalship or during the process of becoming a principal. (RQ1,
RQ2)
11. Explain any stereotyping or gendered conflicts you may have experienced in gaining
the position of principalship of high school. (RQ1)
12. What are your thoughts on the reasons for the low representation of women principals
in secondary schools? (RQ1)
13. What practices would you recommend for educational organizations to adopt in order
to increase female educators to secondary principalship roles? (RQ1, RQ2)
14. How do you think we can change hiring practices so that women have equal
opportunities of advancement?
15. Is there anything else that you would like to share regarding what we’ve spoken
about? (RQ1, RQ2)

88

Appendix B: Invitation Email Template
Dear [Name],
You are invited to participate in a study to examine the perceived influences in the distal
and immediate environments that support or hinder the professional advancement of women
principals in secondary schools. The study is being conducted by [Name] as part of their doctoral
dissertation. Your participation in the study is completely voluntary and participant identities
will not be known to the organization. The study includes an anonymous interview. If you are
interested in participating in this study, are a principal at a secondary school, and have been in
secondary principalship for are at least 3 years, please respond with your willingness to
participate.

Thank you,
Lynette Ohanian

89

Appendix C: Consent to Participation
Title of Study: In the Shadows: The Perceived Experiences of Women Principals in Secondary
Schools
Lynette Ohanian
USC Rossier School of Education
Lynetteo@usc.edu
Purpose of Study
You are being asked to take part in a research study. Before you decide to participate in
this study, it is important that you understand why the research is being done and what it will
involve. Please read the following information carefully. Please ask the researcher if there is
anything that is not clear or if you need more information.
This qualitative study aims to examine the perceived influences in the distal and
immediate environments that support or hinder the professional advancement of women
principals in secondary school.
Study Procedures
Women principals of secondary schools are invited to participate in a semi-structured
interview. Ten to 12 individuals will be chosen for the semi-structured interview. The interview
will take approximately 45 minutes to gather information on the supports and barriers to the
advancement of women principals in secondary schools. The interviews will take place via
Zoom. The interview will be recorded on Zoom, and the participant’s consent will be requested
at the onset of the interview.

90

Potential Risks
There are no identifiable risks associated with the research study. However, this study
will ask about the participants’ perspectives and experiences on the support and challenges in
advancing to the secondary principalship. Some questions could be sensitive, and some
participants may feel discomfort and privacy invasion.
Potential Benefits
This study aims to better understand the mechanisms that support or hinder career
advancement for women principals in secondary school. While we do not expect any direct
benefits to the participants, there will be benefits to the researchers, aspiring educators, current
leaders, and policymakers.
Compensation
There will be no compensation for participating in this study.
Confidentiality
The findings of this research may be published, and your responses will be anonymous.
The researcher will make every effort to preserve your confidentiality, including the following:
● No identifiable information about you, your school, or your district will be included
in the final dissertation report and any upcoming publications.
● All research materials will be stored in a password-protected computer that is only
accessible to the researcher and destroyed after the study is completed and the data
has been analyzed.
● Code names for participants will be used on all research notes and documents.

91

Participant Rights
Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. It is up to you to decide whether to
participate in this study. You can refuse to participate in the entire student or any part of the
study. You also have the right to skip any question you wish to answer. You will not waive any
rights if you choose not to participate, and there is no penalty for stopping your participation in
the study.
Contact Information
If you have questions at any time about this study, please contact Lynette Ohanian,
Lynette0@usc.edu, (818)517-0325.
Complaints about the research may be presented to Dr. Kathy Stowe,
kstowe@rossier.usc.edu, Professor and Dissertation Chair, Rossier School of Education EdD
program, University of Southern California.
For questions about participants’ rights or if you feel you have been harmed in any way
by your participation in this study, please contact the Institutional Review Board at irb@usc.edu
Agreement to Participate in the Online Interview
The participants who choose to participate in the survey will b invited to a 45-minute
semi-structured interview. The purpose of the interview will be specified and they will be
informed about the Zoom recording of the interview session. Your completion of the interview
indicates your willingness to participate. Please keep this document for your records.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study utilized Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of human development to examine the perceived influences in the distal and immediate environment of women principals in secondary schools and how it supported or hindered their advancement. Participants were 10 women principals at secondary schools who had been in their role for at least 3 years. Data were gathered through interviews conducted on Zoom, and follow-up meetings were arranged with four of the participants. The findings suggest that stereotypical gender roles support the advancement of women principals in secondary schools. Systems and practices of school districts serve as a support for women who want to advance to the principalship. These supports can include leadership training and opportunities. Furthermore, women are faced with challenges they must overcome in order to reach leadership in secondary school sites. When examining the immediate environment of women principals, findings suggest that self-efficacy is a characteristic that is necessary for women. Self-efficacy can play a critical role in effectively leading schools. Additionally, participants discussed the power of mentorship when advancing to leadership roles. With the support of mentors, the participants were able to reach their goals of leading secondary school sites. Finally, findings suggest that women are challenged with the balance of their work and home life. Recommendations for practice included the need for school districts to support the development of women principals by providing leadership opportunities through programs, training, and mentorship opportunities. In addition, to alleviate and help women balance their work-home life, school districts need to create a culture of a harmonious work-home balance. This study offers practitioners additional insight into the implications that further study is needed to investigate the role of gender in the advancement of principals in secondary schools.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ohanian, Lynette (author)

Core Title In the shadows: the perceived experiences of women principals in secondary schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 05/04/2023

Defense Date 05/04/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,glass ceiling,high school principals,OAI-PMH Harvest,principals,secondary principals,secondary schools,women principals,work home balance

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Malloy, Courtney (committee member), Robles, Darline (committee member)

Creator Email Lynetteo@usc.edu,LynetteOhanian@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113099686

Unique identifier UC113099686

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Legacy Identifier etd-OhanianLyn-11777

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Ohanian, Lynette

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230505-usctheses-batch-1037 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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