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Why can’t I see myself in my school? Hiring and retaining ethnically diverse leadership in public schools
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Why can’t I see myself in my school? Hiring and retaining ethnically diverse leadership in public schools
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Content
Copyright 2023 Shannon D. Wyatt
Why can’t I see myself in my school?
Hiring and retaining ethnically diverse leadership in public schools
by
Shannon D. Wyatt
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2023
© Copyright by Shannon D. Wyatt 2023
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Shannon D. Wyatt certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Dr. David Cash, Committee Chair
Dr. Gregory Franklin
Dr. John Garcia
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023
i
Abstract
There is an urgent need for K-12 school districts in the United States to hire, support, and
retain school principals that reflect the students in the schools they serve. One of the most
important investments we make in public education is to ensure that we have well-qualified,
caring, and dedicated principals in every school. Our principal force should be excellent, but
excellence alone will not be enough. If we are to increase opportunities for students and address
the inequities that exist in our schools for the most marginalized students, it is critical that we
develop a leadership force that is also diverse and reflects the students in the schools they serve.
The number of students of color that walk through our urban public school doors increases each
year, and they need to see role models that can connect students to the world outside of the
schoolhouse and the opportunities that exist for them.
Reviewing all indicators of academic achievement, educational attainment, and school
success, students of color are consistently ranked at the bottom (Skiba et al., 2008). With very
few exceptions, these dismal patterns exist in urban and rural school districts throughout the
United States. The disproportionately poor outcomes of students of color within the United
States have been consistent for the past 40 years (Skiba et al., 2008). One of the many methods
than can be implemented to address this gap is to implement research-based practices, strategies,
and policies in the recruitment, hiring, and retention of principals of color. This is because
students of color who have leaders of color in their schools and classrooms are statistically more
likely to graduate from high school, have higher test scores, and are more likely to be accepted to
college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). The following research highlights examples of the barriers to
ii
recruiting, hiring and retaining leaders of color in public schools in Southern California, and
methods to overcoming those barriers in an aim to improve schools for administrator, teachers
and students alike.
iii
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to the two people who make me want to get up and face this
crazy world every day: my children Taylor and Blake. Taylor, thank you for filling my soul,
being my sounding board and for showing me what hard work and determination look like. You
inspire me daily. You have always believed in me despite my inability to properly place
commas. Blake, thank you for filling my heart, giving me both levity and strength and for
showing me that chances are worth taking. Your spirit always lifts me up. Thank you both for
telling me that I could do this, and for being by my side every step of the way. Thank you for
guiding me along my path of equity and social justice. “Cause were the three best friends that
anyone ever had.”
To “my posse”, Kelly, Robin, Brooke and Lori, my four dearest friends, thank you for
being there for me. For making me laugh and letting me cry. I am very lucky to have you in my
life.
To my family, thank you for your love and support along this journey.
And finally, to Adam, thank you for understanding why the light is always on and I am
typing at three in the morning and smiling when you see that I have fallen asleep by eight at
night. I will forever be grateful that you were by my side during this crazy time.
iv
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. David Cash for his continuous support throughout the entire
doctoral journey. As a professor your words were inspirational and as a dissertation chair your
guidance and support were instrumental in achieving this goal. Thank you to committee
members Dr. John Garcia and Dr. Gregory Franklin for your time and support.
To my colleagues, co-authors, and now life-long friends Michael Romero and Kim
Sheehan thank you. I will forever be grateful that we decided to collaborate on this project
together.
To the professors who have inspired me over the years I will be forever grateful. Dr.
Michael Escalante, Dr. David Cash, Dr. Rudy Castruita, Dr. Bradley Ermeling, Dr. Maria Ott.
Dr. Julie Marsh, Dr. Erin Craig, and Dr. Brianna Hinga, thank you for inspiring me every day to
be a more equitable and just leader.
v
Table of Contents
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... i
Dedication ................................................................................................................................................ iii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... iv
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................ x
Preface....................................................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter One: Overview of The Study ................................................................................................. 1
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ........................................................................................................................... 2
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................................... 3
Data Collection and Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 5
Research Questions.................................................................................................................................................................................5
Significance of the Study .................................................................................................................................. 6
Limitations ............................................................................................................................................................ 7
Delimitations ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................................................ 7
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................................................ 9
Chapter Two: Review Of The Literature......................................................................................... 11
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................................................ 11
Critical Race Theory in Education ............................................................................................................. 13
Historical Perspective ......................................................................................................................................................................... 13
vi
Contemporary Perspective .............................................................................................................................................................. 14
Interest Convergence ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Effect of Leaders of Color on Students of Color .................................................................................... 15
Principal Effect on Academic Achievement ........................................................................................... 17
Principal Effect on Diversifying the Workforce ................................................................................... 18
Underrepresentation of Leaders of Color .............................................................................................. 19
Underrepresentation of Teachers of Color............................................................................................ 20
Recruitment and Hiring Practices ............................................................................................................ 21
Building Administrator Pipelines ............................................................................................................. 22
Implicit Bias and Racism in Hiring Practices ........................................................................................ 23
Support and Retention .................................................................................................................................. 27
Job Satisfaction and the Risk of Attrition ............................................................................................... 27
Strategies for Retaining and Supporting Principals of Color .......................................................... 28
Barriers and Policies...................................................................................................................................... 28
Chapter Three: Methodology ............................................................................................................. 30
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 30
Purpose of Study and Statement of the Problem ................................................................................. 30
Population Sample .......................................................................................................................................... 32
Qualitative Instrumentation ....................................................................................................................... 33
Data Collection Procedures ......................................................................................................................... 35
vii
Data Collection ................................................................................................................................................. 35
Data Analysis..................................................................................................................................................... 35
Validity, Reliability and Positionality ...................................................................................................... 37
Field Testing ...................................................................................................................................................... 38
Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................................................. 38
Summary............................................................................................................................................................. 38
Chapter Four: Research Results And Findings............................................................................. 40
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 40
Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................................................................... 40
Coding of Data ................................................................................................................................................... 41
Presentation of Findings .............................................................................................................................. 41
Descriptive Characteristics ......................................................................................................................... 42
Interview Data ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 42
Demographics of Participating School Districts .................................................................................................................... 42
Interview Participants ........................................................................................................................................................................ 44
Research Question 1....................................................................................................................................... 45
Racism, Macro- and Microaggressions, and Bias in Hiring and Recruiting Practices .......................................... 46
Lack of Candidates of Color .............................................................................................................................................................. 48
Students of Color not Having a Sense of Belonging in School ......................................................................................... 49
Summary of Findings for Research Question #1 ................................................................................................................... 51
Research Question #2 .................................................................................................................................... 51
Creating a Culture of Inclusiveness .............................................................................................................................................. 52
Building a Pathway for Leaders of Color ................................................................................................................................... 53
viii
A Sense of Belonging in Elementary School for Students of Color ................................................................................ 54
Summary of Findings for Research Question #2 ................................................................................................................... 57
Research Question #3 .................................................................................................................................... 58
Mentorships............................................................................................................................................................................................. 59
Explicit, Intentional Plans for Equity are Essential .............................................................................................................. 60
Summary of Finding for Research Question #3 ..................................................................................................................... 62
Chapter 5: Summary ............................................................................................................................ 64
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................................ 64
Purpose of the study ...................................................................................................................................... 64
Discussion of Findings ................................................................................................................................... 65
Research Question One ...................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Research Question Two ..................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Research Question Three .................................................................................................................................................................. 68
Implications for practice .............................................................................................................................. 69
Limitations ......................................................................................................................................................... 73
Future Research ............................................................................................................................................... 73
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 74
References ............................................................................................................................................... 76
Appendix I ................................................................................................................................................ 88
Appendix II .............................................................................................................................................. 89
Appendix III ............................................................................................................................................. 91
Appendix IV ............................................................................................................................................. 93
ix
Table of Figures
Table 1: Research Question Matrix .............................................................................................. 34
Table 2: Participating School Districts' Student Demographic Data ............................................ 43
Table 3: Participant Demographic Data ........................................................................................ 44
Table 4: Demographics of Interview Participants ........................................................................ 45
x
Abbreviations
BIPOC Black, Indigenous and People of Color
CAASA California Association of African American Superintendents and
Administrators
CALPADS California Longitudinal Pupil Achievement Data System
CRT Critical Race Theory
IEP Individualized Education Plan
IRB Institutional Review Board
NCES National Center for Education Statistics
xi
Preface
Some of the chapters of this dissertation were co-authored and identified as such. While
jointly authored dissertations are not the norm of most doctoral programs, a collaborative effort
reflects real-world practices. Therefore, to meet their objective of developing highly skilled
practitioners equipped to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School and the USC
Rossier School of Education have permitted our inquiry team to carry out this shared venture.
This dissertation is part of a collaborative project with two other doctoral candidates,
Kimberly Sheehan and Michael Romero. We three doctoral students met with nine urban school
districts intending to help identify and resolve Why can’t I see myself in my school?: Hiring and
Retaining Ethnically Diverse Leadership and Staff in Public Schools. However, dissecting and
resolving the problem was too extensive for a single dissertation. As a result, the three
dissertations produced by our inquiry team collectively address the needs for hiring and retaining
ethnically diverse leadership and staff in public schools (see Romero, 2023, and Sheehan, 2023).
1
Chapter One: Overview of The Study
Introduction
One of the most important investments we make in public education is to ensure that we
have well-qualified, caring, and dedicated principals in every school. Our principal force should
be excellent, but excellence alone will not be enough. If we are to increase opportunities for
students and address the inequities that exist in our schools for the most marginalized, it is
critical that we develop a leadership force that is also diverse, and which reflects the students in
the schools they serve. While the proportion of the student body made up of children of color has
increased in urban school districts year over year, the proportion of leaders of color in those
same schools has not increased, despite evidence that students of color who have leaders of color
in their schools and classrooms are statistically more likely to graduate from high school, have
higher test scores, and to be accepted to college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). The systemic lack of
leaders of color in school may contribute significantly to the achievement gap between students
of color and their white peers; subsequently, increasing the diversity of school leadership may
play a role in improving the educational outcomes of all students.
Reviewing all indicators of academic achievement, educational attainment, and school
success, students of color have consistently been the victims of an achievement gap for the past
40 years (Skiba et al., 2008). With very few exceptions, these dismal patterns exist in school
districts, regardless of location, throughout the United States. There is a need to address this gap
by identifying research-based practices, strategies, and policies in the recruitment, hiring, and
retention of principals of color that improve academic outcomes for students of color.
2
This study analyzes what administrators in K-12 districts in Southern California perceive
as barriers to equitable hiring and retainment strategies. It also explores what policies, practices,
and strategies are in place, according to principals of color, to help support and retain leaders of
color in these same districts. In its analysis, this research utilizes a Critical Race Theory (CRT)
lens to investigate how structural and institutional racism plays a role in current inequities.
This chapter was jointly written by the authors listed, reflecting the team approach to this
project. The authors are listed alphabetically, reflecting the equal amount of work by all those
listed. In order to maintain the confidentiality of participants, this dissertation uses pseudonyms
to refer to the school, district, and community.
Background of the Problem
In February of 1946, nine years before the landmark Brown v. the Board of Education
(1954) Supreme Court case, U.S. 9th District Court Judge Paul J. McCormick ruled in favor of
Gonzalvo Mendez and his family, upholding their right to go to the school they were zoned for
and not the school designated for Mexican students in the Westminster School District (Mendez
et al v. Westminster School District of Orange County, 1947). The court ruled that separate
schools for Mexican American children in Orange County, California was unconstitutional; this
was the first time a court had ruled the practice of separating students by ethnic descent was
unconstitutional. Although the Mendez decision did not garner national attention, it paved the
way for many others to advocate for their right to equal educational opportunities. Most notably,
in May 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. the Board of
Education of Topeka, Kansas to end racial segregation in schools. The decision’s message
3
reflected that of Mendez v. Westminster– separate schools were inherently unequal. The
purported aim of these decisions was to foster equality in education by integrating schools;
unfortunately school districts experienced unintended consequences (Orfield, 1983). As school
integration was implemented across the United States, a new inequity presented itself. Children
of color were now being moved to previously all-white schools, but their Black and Brown
teachers and principals were not coming with them. More white teachers were hired to
accommodate increased school populations, but for the first time, students of color did not see
themselves reflected in the role models around them.
While the racial and ethnic make-up of the student body has diversified in the years since
Brown, the same cannot be said for the diversity of the teaching and administrative staff. From
the implementation of desegregation policies, the education system has seen a slow but
consistent increase in the proportion of public-school students of color; however the racial and
ethnic makeup of teaching and administrative staff has not followed such a trend (National
Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2018 and Boser, 2011). Research has indicated that this
inequity may have a substantial and tangible effect on student outcomes and the achievement gap
(Skiba et al., 2008). Students of color who have leaders of color in their classrooms and schools
are statistically more likely to graduate from high school, have higher test scores, and to be
accepted to college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). African American students account for over
seventeen percent of the total K-12 student population in schools nationwide, yet only eight
percent of teachers and ten percent of principals are from similar backgrounds (Boser, 2011).
Statement of the Problem
There are disproportionately few leaders of color in K-12 schools, which has a tangible
effect of the achievement gap. In 2002, 40% of students nationwide were students of color and
4
by 2018 that percentage had grown to 53%. In that same time span, the proportion of leaders of
color has only grown from 11% to 22%. Over half of the student population is now students of
color yet less than one quarter of the leadership is (NCES, 2018).
Moreover, several factors, including culturally biased discipline practices and low
socioeconomic status, appear to contribute to the persistence of this problem (Skiba et al., 2008).
The disproportionately poor outcomes of students of color within the United States have been
consistent for the past 40 years. There is a need to address this gap by identifying research-based
strategies in the hiring, support, and retention of principals of color that improve academic
outcomes for students of color—a strategy proven to have a positive effect (Grissom, J. A., et. al
2021).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine, through the lens of Critical Race Theory (CRT),
what district administrators report as barriers to equitable hiring and retention of leaders and
principals of color and, according to principals of color, what policies, practices, and strategies
are in place to help support these same leaders.
This research investigated school principals’ and district administrators’ perceptions and
practices and shed light on successful strategies for recruiting, hiring, and retaining principals.
These strategies were then connected to CRT ideologies. This study also investigated what
district administrators report as perceived barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of principals
and, according to principals, what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to help support
and retain school principals of color.
5
The results of this study highlight the effective hiring, support, and retainment practices
in K-12 Districts in Southern California used to ensure that principals of color were assigned to
schools to support students of color.
Data Collection and Analysis
In qualitative research, data is collected from various sources and in a multiplicity of
ways that enable the researcher to make sense of a complex phenomenon (Patton, 2002). For this
study, data was collected from two central sources, principal and district administrator
interviews. Nine K-6 principals and six district administrators from three K-12 Districts in
Southern California were selected to participate in the study.
Interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data on the research questions. The data
were analyzed using a thematic approach, where themes, categories, and patterns were identified
to answer the guiding research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Analysis of the qualitative
data collected in the study highlighted several key findings. Principal and district administrator
perceptions gathered from this study aligned with the Critical Race Theory, which encouraged
district administrators to use highly effective strategies in the hiring, support, and retention of a
group of principals that reflected the demographics of the students they served.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. According to district administrators, what are the barriers (if any) to hiring and retaining
leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
6
2. According to district administrators, what policies, practices, and strategies (if any) are in
place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring leaders of
color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
3. According to school administrators, what are the policies, practices, and strategies used to
ensure support and retention of leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
Significance of the Study
Reviewing all indicators of academic achievement, educational attainment, and school
success, African-American students are consistently ranked at the bottom (Schott, 2010). With
very few exceptions, these dismal patterns exist in urban and rural school districts throughout the
United States. Students of color continue to receive disproportionate disciplinary consequences
while on campus; African American students are three to seven times more likely to receive
suspensions for disciplinary infractions or to be referred for special education services for
disruptive behaviors than non-African American students (Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003;
Skiba et al., 2008). Research in the field demonstrates that Black students who are constantly
reprimanded for disciplinary infractions become less motivated to achieve academic success in
school (Gregory et al., 2010).
This study is significant because it critically analyzed and identified effective strategies to
recruit, hire, support, and retain principals of color serving students of color in their schools.
Students of color who have leaders of color in their schools and classrooms are statistically more
likely to graduate from high school, have higher test scores, and are more likely to be accepted to
7
college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). Therefore, these strategies can be implemented to make school
more equitable for administrators and students alike.
Limitations
This study focused on effective district strategies to effectively hire, support, and retain
principals of color in K-12 school districts in Southern California. This limited its
representativeness because it did not include information from districts that worked with students
of color outside Southern California schools.
Delimitations
A delimitation of this study was the geographic boundaries. Principals and district
administrators who participated in this study worked in schools in K-12 Districts in Southern
California.
Definition of Terms
The following terms were used throughout the study:
• The Achievement Gap: Observed, persistent disparities in measures of educational
performance among subgroups of U.S. students, especially groups defined by
socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and gender (Haycock, K. 2001).
• Administrator Pipelines: Districtwide strategies to develop a large, ongoing supply of
effective school leaders. The administrator pipeline should include strategies to recruit,
hire, evaluate and support cohorts of promising talented teacher leaders, assistant
principals, and principals, and should include preservice preparation opportunities and
on-the-job induction, evaluation, and support (Gates, et al., 2019).
8
• Critical Race Theory (CRT)- A theoretical framework that examines society and culture
related to race, power, and law. It proposes that laws and policies have supported white
supremacy over time. CRT argues that schools that serve poor students of color are
unlikely to have equal access to resources (Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. 1998).
• Cultural Mismatch: The cultural differences and lack of cultural synchronization between
teachers and students can lead to devastating learning experiences for ethnically diverse
students (Antó n, 1999; Cho & Reich, 2008; Monroe & Obidah, 2004).
• Culturally Responsive Teacher: A teacher able to recognize the need to modify their
knowledge and training through the use of variations in teaching modalities while paying
attention to classroom contexts and individual student needs (Gay, 2002; Irvine et al.,
2001; Ladson-Billings, 1995).
• Diversity: The range of identities that exist in a group of people. Common identity
categories referenced when discussing diversity include race, class, gender, religion, and
sexual orientation. Diversity represents a broad range of ideas and initiatives to create
learning environments that are safe, inclusive, and equitable for as many identities as
possible (Shaw, E.J., 2005).
• Equity: Educational equity means that each student receives what they need to develop to
their full academic and social potential. This means that no matter what a student’s
background, language, race, economic profile, gender, learning capability, each student
can get the support and resources they need to achieve their educational goals (Foster, F.
et al., 2021).
9
• Ethnic Matching: The process of matching the race of a student to that of a teacher or
principal.
• Implicit Bias: A form of bias that occurs automatically and unintentionally, that
nevertheless affects judgements, decisions, and behaviors (Sanchez, J. E., et al., 2009).
• Inclusion: A state of being valued, respected, and supported. It is about focusing on the
needs of every individual and ensuring the right conditions are in place for each person to
achieve their full potential (Romansky, L. et al. 2021).
• Leader of Color: Any individual who holds a site level or district level administrative
position who is a race other than White.
• Teacher of Color: Teachers who are a race other than White.
Organization of the Study
This study was organized into five chapters. The first chapter introduced the study and
included a statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, and the research questions that
guided the research. The second chapter contains a literature review that focuses on exploring
effective practices for hiring, supporting, and retaining principals that a district can use to
improve the academic achievements of students of color in their urban classrooms. The third
chapter introduces the methodology used for this study, including data collection, protocols, and
the rationale for this study. The fourth chapter discusses the results and outcomes of this study.
The fifth chapter serves as the study's conclusion; it includes the implications of this study and
recommendations for further research.
10
11
Chapter Two: Review Of The Literature
The objective of this literature review is to synthesize and apply a body of knowledge and
research regarding the recruiting, hiring, and retaining principals of color in K-12 educational
institutions. More specifically, the aim is to summarize previously identified barriers that inhibit
equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color and highlight any strategies, policies, or
practices that are in place to help ensure the retention of these leaders.
The literature review was approached through multiple phases, including by initially
reviewing the literature related to the underrepresentation of leaders of color in K-12 public
schools. Next recruitment and hiring practice trends were studied, with an emphasis on
reviewing the implicit bias of such strategies. In parallel, literature was also reviewed on support
and retention of leaders of color, including the factors that lead to persons of color seeking and
accepting administrative positions and the reasons that they continue to work in K-12 education.
Additionally, literature was reviewed on the effect of leaders and teachers of color on students of
color. Specific emphasis was placed on the academic and social-emotional effect on same-race
teachers and leaders of color on students to highlight the importance of recruiting, hiring, and
retaining leaders of color on student success. Finally, barriers and policy implications were
researched.
Theoretical Framework
The conceptual framework for this study is based on the Critical Race Theory (CRT). CRT is
a theoretical framework that examines society and culture related to race, power, and law. It
proposes that laws and policies have supported white supremacy over time. CRT argues that
despite the mandate for educational standards, schools that serve poor students of color are
unlikely to have equal access to resources (Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. 1995). Those
12
who are CRT scholars identify the following tenets as hallmarks of CRT (Delgado & Sefanic,
2012):
● Belief that racism is normal, not aberrant, in US society;
● interest convergence or material determinism;
● race as a social construction;
● intersectionality and anti-essentialism; and
● voice or counter-narrative.
The first tenet of CRT is that racism is not random, but rather a normal order of things in
U.S. society. For the second tenet, Dr. Derrick Bell--who is considered the father of CRT--argues
that White people will seek racial justice only to the extent that there is something in it for them.
In other words, interest convergence is about alignment, not altruism. The third tenet, race as a
social construction, states that race is a structure that has constructed and reconstructed through
world history, from the enormous historical shift represented by the rise of Europe, the founding
of modern nation-states and empires and empires, the “Conquista,” the onset of African slavery,
and the subjugation of much of Asia (Winant, 2001). The fourth tenet of intersectionality and
anti-essentialism states that we see things as black or white, east, or west, rich, or poor, right or
left. When we talk about the complexities of real life, we recognize that we each represent
multiple identities – race, class, gender, sexuality, ability, and religion. However, since race has
been such a hot spot in society, we always believe that our challenges stem solely from racial
injustice. The final CRT tenet of voice or counter-narrative is about the importance of
storytelling to illustrate and underscore broad legal principles regarding race and racial/social
justice (Calmore, 1995).
13
Over the last few decades, CRT has gained substantial momentum as a tool for researchers to
look at many different aspects of K-12 education, including and not limited to representation.
CRT is a framework used to theorize, examine, and challenge the ways race and racism
implicitly and explicitly impact social structures, practices, and discourses (Yosso, 2004).
Leadership is rooted in social justice and is critical to the fundamental principles of
contemporary education (Witherspoon & Mitchell, 2009). Therefore, CRT was applied in this
study to examine the influence racism has had in shaping policies and social practices in hiring in
the K-12 educational system.
Critical Race Theory in Education
Over the last few decades, Critical Race Theory (CRT) has gained substantial momentum
as a tool for researchers to look at many different aspects of K-12 education, inclusive of but not
limited to representation. Grounded in the pioneering work of previous researchers (Ladson-
Billings & Tate, 1995, Solarzano, 1998, Ladson-Billings, 2005, Dixon & Rousseau, 2005, Tate,
2005) researchers use CRT as a lens to help analyze the experiences of historically marginalized
populations across the K-12 educational landscape. Scholars who study CRT in education look at
how policies and practices in K-12 education contribute to persistent racial inequalities in
education and advocate for ways to change them.
Historical Perspective
As described by Crenshaw et al. (1995), CRT embraces a movement of left scholars
whose works challenged the ways in which race and racial power are constructed and
represented in American legal culture and more generally in American society as whole. Walker
and Byas (2003) remark that the work of Black educators is historically and culturally
significant. A tradition of excellence in Black school leadership and an agenda for the education
14
of Black individuals dates to the 1860s. Education was one of the few vocations open to middle-
class Black people in the pre-Brown era, and, because of their profession, Black principals
served as models of “servant leadership.” The Brown decision was intended to remedy the
inequities of segregated schooling; however, desegregation had a devastating impact on the
closed structure of Black education and thus the professional lives of thousands of Black
principals. In the decade following the landmark Brown v. Board decision, an estimated 90% of
Black principals across eleven southern states lost their jobs. Fultz (2004) found many instances
of discriminatory firings and demotions of Black principals. For example, of the 467 districts that
were observed in his research, 34 districts dismissed their Black principals, and 60 percent had
been demoted. In his book Ethical Ambition (2002), Dr. Derrick Bell emphasizes the underlying
tendencies that hinder progress in the advancement of relationships, racial and otherwise. In
particular, he notes the absence of truthfulness and a shortage of courage as two primary
impediments. He states (2002):
Telling the truth can be hard and even painful work, but lying, keeping the
truth secret, is far more painful. When we think lying isn’t hard and painful,
it’s rarely because it’s become easy and pleasant; more likely it’s because we
have put up a wall between ourselves and our awareness of our captivity.
Contemporary Perspective
Yosso (2004) points out that CRT shifted the research lens away from a deficit view of
communities of color as places full of cultural poverty and disadvantages, and instead focuses on
the array of cultural knowledge, skills, and abilities possessed by socially marginalized groups
that often go unrecognized. Yosso (2004) asserts the following,
15
This CRT approach to education involves a commitment to develop schools that
acknowledge the multiple strengths of Communities of Color in order to serve a
larger purpose of struggle toward social justice.
Interest Convergence
In describing the flaws of the Brown vs Board of Education decision, Bell (2008) argues
that the interest convergence is as follows:
The interest of blacks in achieving racial equality will be accommodated only
when that interest converges with the interest of whites in policymaking
positions. This convergence is far more important for gaining relief than the
degree of harm suffered by blacks, or the character of proof offered to prove that
harm (p.6). And even when the interest convergence results in an effective racial
remedy, that remedy will be abrogated at the point that policy makers fear the
remedial policy is threatening the superior social status of whites (p. 69).
Bell (1980) contends that the decision in Brown to break with the court's long-
held position on these issues cannot be understood without some consideration of the
decision’s value to White people and the value of the economic and political advances at
home and abroad that would follow the abandonment of segregation. Also, there were
White people who realized that the South could make the transition from a rural,
plantation society to the sunbelt with all the potential and profit only when it ended its
struggle to remain divided by segregation.
Effect of Leaders of Color on Students of Color
The achievement gap persists. After decades of research, reform, policy, programs, and
intervention, the disparities in achievement between White students and students of color
16
remains present. Recently, the lens has shifted from policy and programs to people--human
capital. Initially focused on the value of authentic relationships with students, now there is a real
call to action for a more diverse teaching and leadership force. Teachers of color positively affect
students of color, but research is now telling us that there is a need for leaders of color. Leaders
of color hire more teachers of color, and teachers of color are more likely to stay and feel
accomplished if they work for leaders of color. Bartanen and Grissom (2021) assert that:
exploiting variation from principal and teacher transitions over long administrative
data panels from Missouri and Tennessee, estimate the effects of principal race on the
racial composition of a school’s teachers. Evidence from the two states is strikingly
similar. Principals increase the proportion of same-race teachers in the school by 1.9–
2.3 percentage points, on average. Both increased hiring and increased retention of
same-race teachers explain this compositional change. Further, leveraging
longitudinal student-level data from Tennessee, I find that having a same-race
principal improves math achievement but that this effect largely operates through
avenues other than the racial composition of the teaching staff.
Students of color who have leaders of color in their classrooms and schools are statistically
more likely to graduate from high school, have higher test scores, and are more likely to be
accepted to college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). Eddy and Easton-Brooks (2011) focused on the
long-term contributions of African American student–teacher ethnic matching to mathematical
test scores of 1,200 African American students from the Early Childhood Longitudinal
Kindergarten through fifth grade. Egalite et al. (2015) found academic benefits when students
and teachers share the same race or ethnicity because such teachers can serve as role models,
mentors, advocates, or cultural translators.
17
Research shows additional positive effects of same-race principals on teachers and
students of color. Some of these positive effects include lower suspension rates, fewer requests
for special education assessment for students of color, and equitable hiring of teachers of color
(Easton-Brooks, 2014). However, the principal workforce remains overwhelmingly White. Using
Critical Race Theory (CRT) as a lens, this review of the literature will examine the positive
effect of leaders of color on teachers and students of color.
Principal Effect on Academic Achievement
For over a half century, researchers and educators have been grappling with, and coming up
with proposed solutions to close, the achievement gap. Most have been met with little success.
Research points to the importance of students of color having teachers and leaders who look like
them, who come from similar backgrounds or share similar stories. Students of color who have a
teacher or leader of color at some time during their K-12 journey experience significantly better
academic and social-emotional outcomes (Carver-Thomas, 2018). Principals most influence
student learning by fostering strong learning climates that are defined as safe and supportive,
with high, consistent, and clear expectations for students, and by supporting teacher leadership
around school-wide goals. Allensworth et al., (2018); Grissom et al., (2021) found that students
learn substantially more in both math and reading in schools with more effective principals.
Principals also have effects on students beyond achievement as measured by standardized tests.
They have documented impact on other student outcomes (e.g., attendance and discipline) that
are important for students’ long-term outcomes. Almost 60 percent of a school’s influence on
student achievement is attributable to teacher and principal effectiveness, and principals alone
account for 25 percent (Marzano, R.J., 2005).
18
Brockmeier et al., (2013) found that principal tenure was a significant predictor across subject
areas tested in elementary schools. As the length of the principal’s tenure at a school increased,
the schools mean scale scores increased.
In 2021, The Wallace Foundation published an updated version of their landmark 2004
literature review on how leadership effects learning. They found that replacing a below average
school principal with an above average school principal gains an additional three months of
learning in reading and mathematics for the average student. These effects are nearly as large as
teacher effectiveness (Hanushek & Rivkin, 2010), which found that replacing a below average
teacher with an above average teacher gained four months of learning in reading and math for the
average student. Because the principal’s effectiveness is felt by more students, it is larger in
scope.
Principal Effect on Diversifying the Workforce
The retention of teachers is heavily influenced by their teaching conditions, with
administrative support playing a crucial role. Recent research has highlighted the importance of
administrative support in retaining teachers of color (Carver-Thomas, 2018). A national analysis
of data collected between 1999 and 2011 revealed that teachers of color in schools where over
90% of teaching staff were White were more likely to switch schools than their White colleagues
when they perceived a lack of administrative support. However when they received strong
support from school administrators, their retention rates were comparable to those of White
teachers. School leaders who provide strong support may be addressing some of the challenges
that teachers of color face when they are the minority among their professional peers.
In their 2021 work, Bartanen and Grissom estimate the effect of principal race on the racial
composition of a school’s teachers. They found evidence from the two states, Missouri and
19
Tennessee, strikingly similar. Findings asserted that principals increase the proportion of same-
race teachers in the school by 1.9–2.3 percentage points, on average. Engel et al. (2018) found
that principals have had greater influence over hiring teachers over the past 25 years, that can
empower them to hire a more diverse teaching workforce. At the same time, the research
suggested that local teacher labor market dynamics can contribute the inequitable sorting of
teachers across schools. Hopper et al. (2021) used federal survey data to demonstrate that Black
teachers were 10 percentage points more likely to leave the classroom within the first five years
than the average teacher, and that attrition was highest in their fourth year, when most schools
are no longer thinking of retention support. The researchers found that teachers were more likely
to stay in the classroom long-term when the principal’s behavior towards the staff was supportive
and encouraging, when the principal knew what kind of school they wanted and communicated it
to the staff, and when staff members were recognized for a job well done.
Underrepresentation of Leaders of Color
While the Mendez and Brown decisions had many positive outcomes for students, such as
higher high school graduation rates and greater college enrollment, the effects of the decisions on
teachers and leaders of color were far reaching (Murran et al., 2020). The focus of these cases
was the integration of schools, not the integration of educators. As a result, many educators of
color were fired, demoted, or reassigned, and faced unfair hiring practices when trying to obtain
other positions (Fultz, 2004; McCray et.al., 2007). In the decades following Brown, resistance to
desegregation continued to be high. In many places desegregation resulted in the removal of
Black teachers and administrators from predominantly Black public schools and the loss of
positions of authority of many Black educators (Green, 2004). However, in those same decades
the diversity of the student population of public schools increased dramatically. According to the
20
National Center for Education Statistics, as of the 2017-2018 school year, approximately 79% of
public school teachers were White, while only seven percent were African American and nine
percent Hispanic. The situation is starker for school administrators, with only eleven percent of
principals and five percent of superintendents identifying as people of color. This lack of
diversity at the highest levels of school leadership has significant implications for the
experiences of students of color as well as for the broader idea of achieving educational equity in
the United States.
Even as the role of school principal has changed significantly, from building manager to
coach and aspirational leader, one thing remains the same: school leaders are predominately
White. Anderson (2016) and Hartlep & Baylor (2016) state that although they agree that the lack
of diversity in leadership is one of the biggest issues facing education, the push for more
educational leaders of color needs to be more nuanced than what is currently being advocated for
in mainstream educational institutions. They identify programs like Concordia University’s
Southeast Asian Teacher (SEAT) Program and Clemson University’s Call Me MISTER
(Mentors Instructing Students Toward Effective Role Models) as exemplar programs in wherein
people of color can be “mentored and promoted to positions of leadership in more socially just
and inclusive ways” (pp. 100).
Underrepresentation of Teachers of Color
The greatest source of potential principals of color are teachers of color. Several studies
have reported the major factors that affect the retention of teachers of color include teacher
background, dissatisfaction with school environment, schools with discipline problems,
collaboration with colleagues, and interactions of social class and race as reasons teachers left
the classroom (Achestein et. Al.; 2010, Bristol and Mentor, 2018; Farinde-Wu & Fitchett, 2016).
21
Turnover rates for new teachers are skyrocketing and the rates for teachers of color are higher
than White teachers (Achinstein et. Al., 2010). To support the retention of teachers of color,
research suggests more administrative support, higher salaries, and more opportunities for
professional advancement.(Farinde & Lewis, 2016).
Studies have shown that Black teachers who are highly qualified possess a unique
advantage due to their understanding of their students’ home and community life (Easton
Brooks, 2013; Milner, 2006). The ability of Black teachers to connect the curriculum with
culture can be attributed to their content knowledge, pedagogical training, and shared cultural
identity with their students (Villegas, Strom & Lucas, 2012). This may improve the educational
experiences and academic outcomes for Black students. Additionally, Black teachers have higher
retention rates in high-needs, culturally diverse urban schools compared to White teachers
(Scafidi, Sjoquist & Stienbrickner, 2007), suggesting a greater dedication to teaching Black
students (Dixson & Dingus, 2008).
Recruitment and Hiring Practices
African American students account for over 17% of the total K-12 student population in schools
across the nation, yet only 8% of teachers and 10% of principals are from similarly diverse
backgrounds (Boser, 2011). Therefore, it is critical that Districts have specific and well-
implemented plans to recruit and hire administrators of color. Dedicated staff must be assigned
to focus on the specific actions that allow for a welcoming and streamlined hiring process, with
hiring incentives. Recruitment targets that are aggressive, measured, and time bound must also
be established. Teacher pipelines must exist beginning in high school and continued with local
universities and colleges.
22
Building Administrator Pipelines
The administrator pipeline, which are district wide strategies to develop a large, ongoing
supply of effective leaders, should include strategies to recruit, hire, evaluate, and support
cohorts of promising talented teacher leaders, assistant principals, and principals, and should
include preservice preparation opportunities and on-the-job induction, evaluation, and support
(Gates, et al., 2019).
In the National Conference of State Legislatures forum on Preparing a Pipeline of
Effective Principals (2012), it was found that an importance needed to be placed on the state
legislature's responsibility for establishing a comprehensive framework to identify, prepare,
evaluate, and support principals. Through state policy, legislatures can support districts in how
they recruit, hire, and retain a pool of aspiring principals. The state’s role in building the pipeline
of effective principals would greatly assist districts with promising policies to foster a steady
supply of school leaders, particularly leaders of color.
An example of states’ efforts to target principal recruitment, selection, and retention is
Arkansas’ S.B. 46 (2003) that created the Master Principal Program, a voluntary three-phase
program that provides bonuses to participating principals who achieve master principal
designation. Master principals receive $9,000 annually for five years, while those serving full-
time in “high need” schools receive $25,000 annually for five years. Another example is
Oregon’s H.B. 3619a (2010) that established the career preparation and development task force
to identify the strengths of, needs for, and gaps in practices and procedures used to recruit and
retain teachers and administrators.
In addition, the research suggests that principal pipeline preparation programs should be
more focused on improvement of instruction, closely tied to the needs of the district, and provide
23
more residency-based experiences that provide opportunities for aspiring principals to experience
leadership firsthand from proven sitting principals. The curriculum of these preparation programs
should link theory with practice, and should combine the coursework on instructional leadership
and the ability to change school culture and improve teacher effectiveness. These leadership
preparation programs should not end when new principals are hired but should continue with
high-quality mentoring and career-long growth opportunities (National Conference of State
Legislatures forum on Preparing a Pipeline of Effective Principals 2012).
The Wallace Foundation’s 2017 report on Building Principal Pipelines (Grissom et. al.,
2021) brings together research found to be important in shaping the following effective school
leadership pipeline strategies: standards that spell out what principals need to know and do and
that drive all principals’ trainings and support; pre-service training that equips participants with
the knowledge and skills they will need; and supports that serve to help new principals in
becoming strong instructional leaders. In building administrator pipelines, it is important to
recognize that the hiring leaders of color without “seeing” race runs counter to notions of the
centrality of racism in U.S. institutions (Delgagdo, 2000; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995).
The research also found that it is good practice for districts to establish partnerships with
local universities to assist in the recruitment and selection of potential candidates, and in the
continued development of acting school leaders throughout their career. Another promising
practice for districts to implement is the enactment of school-based residencies that combine
coursework and opportunities for meaningful mentoring (Gates, et al., 2019).
Implicit Bias and Racism in Hiring Practices
Research has shown that some districts may take a slower, traditional route of requiring
aspiring administrators to teach for a certain number of years, then take on assignments outside
24
of the classroom for several more years, before having the opportunity to apply for an entry level
school administration position such as assistant principal. Other districts feel that this traditional
approach, based on an age bias, could reduce the pool of aspiring school leaders that do not want
to wait as long to becoming a school leader, and will search out districts that do not take this
traditional slower approach.
As Tallerico (2000) refers to, connecting to CRT, the “prior relevant experience” selection
criterion are the professional norms that exist for prior experience in positions in which women
and people of color are underrepresented, that contribute to the predominance of White males in
educational administration. In the area of hiring, placement, and promotion, dominant White
America deploys what Marger (2012) describes:
As techniques of dominance and subordination to promote and confirm prejudices and
discrimination. This prejudice is often reinforced within the presence of racial
stratification with negative assumptions about place, status, and attributes of members
of the minority group.
Research shows that more women report experiencing age discrimination in their workplace
than men, especially in male-dominated professions. This type of discrimination can affect job
retention and satisfaction. (Parker, 2018).
As mentioned in “Actively Addressing Unconscious Bias in Recruiting” (Carnahan,
2020), it is important for districts to ensure they write inclusive job descriptions, so a
diverse range of candidates enter the application pool and that they standardize the
interview process, so each candidate answers the same questions and performs the same
work test. “Employment policies and practices do not exist in a vacuum, they operate in a
society whose racial divisions overlap those of class and structure” (Weis & Fine, 1993
25
pp24). For many years, discussion about individual or institutional racism or other forms of
racialized inequalities in public schooling have been transient. The practice is to mute the
conversation and participate in a color blind narrative (Gooden, 2012).
Role District Plays in Recruiting and Hiring
Although more teachers of color are being recruited across the nation, the pace of
increase is slow and attrition rates are high. Recruiting more teachers of color will eventually
strengthen the bench of potential principals of color. Carver-Thomas (2018) shares that
increasing the number of teachers of color requires intentional preparation, and that hiring and
providing ongoing support to candidates of color with such intention can build a diverse and
stable workforce. The study further reveals that districts can implement their Grow Your Own
programs that recruit teacher candidates from nontraditional populations (e.g., high school
students, paraprofessionals), as well as offering comprehensive induction programs to support
teachers of color in their first years of teaching to provide ongoing professional learning
opportunities for school leaders to develop the skills to support teachers effectively.
Superville, D. R., (2021) shares that research continues to show the benefits of educators
of color on all students and the positive effects of same-race principals on students and teachers
of color, including more Black students in advanced courses, higher math scores, and the hiring
of more Black teachers. Still, while 54 percent of students in public schools nationwide are
nonwhite, nearly 80 percent of principals are white. Superville’s (2021) research gives an
example of districts, such as Winston-Salem/Forsyth County in North Carolina, that have
adopted racial equity policies that list recruiting and retaining an effective diverse workforce
among their goals. This district works with historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs)
26
in the state to train a pipeline of equity-centered teachers and leaders for the school system and
provide professional development for current district leaders.
A study conducted by Hancock and Scherff (2010) revealed that school climate can be a
deterrent for early career teachers and contribute to higher attrition rates. Walker, Goings and
Wilkerson (2019) postulate that for schools and districts to create healthy school climates for
Black male preservice teachers, school administrators should be present. Walker, Goings and
Wilkerson (2019) explained that:
The “presence” of a positive school administrator, providing a word of
encouragement, a kind, gentle, and patient listening ear, or serving as a sounding
board to solve problems can help create a healthy ecosystem capable of supporting
Black male preservice teachers.
Use of Incentives to Recruit and Hire Leaders of Color
It is well known that recruiting and hiring more teachers of color will eventually
strengthen the bench of potential principals of color. Carver-Thomas (2018) shares that an
effective strategy to recruit and hire more in-demand Black candidates of color may be to hire
earlier in the year. Districts can offer monetary incentives for teachers to announce their
resignation and transfer intentions in early spring so that they can recruit new hires earlier in the
season. In addition, districts can offer comprehensive induction to support teachers of color in
their first years of teaching. Further, being matched with a veteran mentor teacher and can also
include classroom assistance, time to collaborate with other teachers, and coaching support.
Feng and Sass (2015) refer to Florida’s Critical Teacher Shortage Program and the positive
effects that providing subsidies to teachers who took coursework that could lead to certification
27
in a designated shortage area had. In addition, the program offered retention bonuses to teachers
in designated shortage areas in a single year. Beng, et al. (2020) argue that the strongest
recruitment evidence suggests that targeted money can encourage people into teaching but does
not necessarily keep them in the teaching profession. The money needs to be large enough to
compensate for the disadvantages of working in certain schools and areas, and competitive
enough to offset the opportunity costs of not being in more lucrative occupations. Their research
found that continuing professional development and early career support could be promising
approaches for retaining teachers in the profession.
Support and Retention
The recruitment and hiring of teachers and principals of color is critical. Still, we must
also focus our efforts on how well they are supported throughout their careers and ultimately
retained. Sutcher et al.,(2016) point out that by reducing attrition by half could virtually
eliminate teaching shortages.
Job Satisfaction and the Risk of Attrition
Ingersoll and May (2011) found that organizational conditions, like faculty decision-
making influence and teacher autonomy, have a more significant impact on job satisfaction for
teachers of color than for White teachers, and that factors like student demographics, including
rates of low socioeconomic status or population of minority students, did not influence turnover
of teachers of color. When studying job satisfaction of administrators of color, White et al.
(2011) identified how factors like student demographics, school climate, parent support, and
school location influenced the job satisfaction of principals of color.
28
Strategies for Retaining and Supporting Principals of Color
Cheung & Gong (2022) argue that educational institutions must do more than hire leaders
of color. In their case study of the Leaders of Color Network they found that the key elements
needed to reduce attrition were to reduce racial and professional isolation, promote collective
sense making, and develop coalitions. They also identify a need for “systematic strategies that
uplift, empower and amplify the needs of diverse leaders” (pp. 112). Brown (2021) states that it
is not enough to only appoint people of color as principals; it is equally important to provide
support to enable principals of color to excel in their jobs. This support can be in the form of
professional learning and development, mentorship from peers, and guidance in navigating
chaotic job that the principalship sometimes can be.
Rodela and Rodriguez Mojica (2020) remind us that when new leaders of color, in
particular Latinx leaders, enter White dominated administrative spaces, their visions of equity
sometimes conflict with district initiatives. They call for more research on how to support and
sustain leaders of color as they work to upend the systems of injustice that prevailed during their
own educational experiences.
Barriers and Policies
Effective school leaders of color can greatly impact school improvement and successful
learning for all students. Furthermore, carefully planned educational leadership programs must
be implemented to provide highly qualified school leaders from under-represented groups access
to these programs. It is safe to say that there are not enough principals of color, and the
enrollment of prospective principal of color candidates in educational leadership preparation
programs must become a priority. As the need to recruit candidates for principalship continues,
specific barriers also continue to serve as challenges for the educational system. Research by
29
Vegas et. al. (2001) found that many students of color reach tenth grade without strong academic
skills, which prevents them from graduating from high school and preparing for college. An
extensive review of literature on minority teacher recruitment, development, and retention
highlighted the educational pipeline as a major barrier to increasing minorities in education
(Torres, Santos, Peck, & Cortes, 2004). Those minority students that do make it to college and
pursue teaching careers and could strive for the principalship still face several barriers. Quiocho
and Rios (2001) share some of the barriers that are connected to teacher certification that include
testing and admission into teacher education programs, lack of promotion opportunities, and
failure of others to recognize their leadership skills. Inadequate salaries also constitute a critical
barrier. Minority students entering college are attracted to business, science, or math degrees that
can lead to more lucrative jobs in the future (Torres et al. 2004). In addition, many minority
students who have become teachers have not advanced into leadership positions. Principals are
uniquely positioned to affect the racial composition of the teachers at a school site.
Bloom and Erlandson (2003) discuss approaches that can be used for education
leadership preparation programs to recruit and retain minority graduate students. They discuss
barriers contributing to low incidents of minority principals and minority principal candidates,
and recommendations for creating pathways for under-represented minorities to enter school
leadership preparation programs.
30
Chapter Three: Methodology
Introduction
This chapter describes the problem statement, the purpose of the study, and the research
questions that steered the study. This chapter also includes an overview of the study's design and
a description of the instrumentation, methodology for data collection and analysis, and the
precautions used to address ethical considerations. Finally, this chapter ends with a summary of
the research design and a preview of the following chapters.
Purpose of Study and Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of the Critical Race Theory
(CRT), what district administrators report as barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of
principals, and according to principals, what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to help
support and retain principals.
The results of this study highlight the effective hiring, support, and retainment practices
that districts in Southern California use to ensure that principals of color were hired and assigned
to schools to support students of color. Scholarly research demonstrates a need for K-12 public
school systems to hire and retain more principals and teachers of color. According to the
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), as of 2018, fifty-three percent of the students in
K-12 public schools are students of color; however, teachers of color make up just twenty-one
percent of the teaching force ,and principals of color twenty-two percent of principals in the
United States. According to the California Department of Education, in 2021, 79% of California
students were students of color while only forty percent of teachers were teachers of color.
31
(California Longitudinal Pupil Achievement Data System [CALPADS], 2021). The racial
interaction between principals and students can influence student performance by employing
practices that improve the academic achievement of students of color (Easton-Brooks, 2014;
Barton & Grissom, 2021). Research continues to demonstrate that students of color perform at
lower proficiency and receive high rates of suspension when compared to those of their White
peers (Smith 2010).
Moreover, several factors, including culturally biased discipline practices and low
socioeconomic status, appear to contribute to the persistence of this problem (Skiba et al., 2008).
The disproportionate student outcomes of students of color within the United States have been
consistent for the past 40 years (Smith 2010). There is a need to address this gap by identifying
research-based strategies in the hiring, support, and retention of principals of color that improve
academic outcomes for students of color.
A comprehensive review of the literature provided justifications for researching the barriers
to hiring and retaining leaders of color and the effective use of strategies to recruit, hire, support,
and retain principals of color serving students of color in their schools. Students who have
leaders of color in their schools and classrooms are statistically more likely to graduate from
high school, have higher test scores, and be accepted to college (Easton-Brooks, 2014).
Therefore, the following questions guided this study:
1. According to District Administrators, what are the barriers to hiring and retaining leaders
of color in school districts in Southern California?
2. According to District Administrators, what policies, practices, and strategies (if any) are
in place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders
of color in school districts in Southern California?
32
3. According to Elementary Administrators, what are the policies, practices, and strategies
used to ensure the support and retention of leaders of color in school districts in Southern
California?
Population Sample
The participants in this research study were selected from three urban school districts
within Southern California. Through the lens of CRT, this study focused on examining the
barriers that exist to hiring and retaining leaders of color and the effective policies, practices, and
strategies used to ensure the support and retention of leaders of color in the school districts. Data,
tasks, and collection were divided to gather the information that identified and compared
recurring themes, patterns, and relationships in elementary, middle, and high schools (Patton,
2002).
The participant group consisted of one superintendent, one district administrator that
oversees human resources, and three elementary school principals from each district, for a total
of fifteen participants. Participants were interviewed to better understand their perceptions on the
barriers to hiring and retaining leaders of color and what policies, practices, and strategies are in
place to overcome those barriers to ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color.
By acquiring respondent data from interviews, the researchers were able to bring to light the
effective policies, practices, and strategies used to ensure the hiring, support, and retention of
leaders of color.
The research was led ethically, and all participants were informed via email and during
the interview protocols that participation in the interview was optional and informed that all
33
responses would remain confidential and protected from recognition by potential readers
(Glense, 2011).
Qualitative Instrumentation
This study utilized a qualitative instrumentation approach. All interview questions
included in the process were connected to the research questions (Table 1). Qualitative face-to-
face interview procedures were conducted to understand district administrator and principal
perspectives (Maxwell, 2013). According to Malloy, interviews are a common source of data in
descriptive and interpretive studies and have become prominently used in educational research
(Tierney & Dillard, 2002). The qualitative interview for Superintendents and Human Resource
Personnel consisted of two questions that focused on background information and included nine
open-ended questions aligned with the three guiding research questions. The qualitative
interview for principals consisted of two questions that focused on background information and
included seven open-ended questions aligned with the three guiding research questions. Each
interview lasted approximately 60 minutes, and informed consent before conducting the
interviews explained that participation in the study was voluntary (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
34
Table 1: Research Question Matrix
According to District
Administrators, what are the
barriers to hiring and
retaining leaders of color in
school districts in
Southern California?
According to District
Administrators, what policies,
practices, and strategies (if
any) are in place to overcome
the barriers and ensure
equitable recruitment and
hiring of leaders of color in
school districts in Southern
California?
According to Elementary
Administrators of color, what
are the policies, practices, and
strategies used to ensure the
support and retention of
leaders of color in school
districts in Southern
California?
In your perspective as a leader
in the district, describe how
diversity, equity and inclusion
initiatives are implemented
throughout the system?
In your perspective as a leader
in the district, describe how
diversity, equity and inclusion
initiatives are implemented
throughout the system?
Did any direct experience
motivate you to go into
education?
What is the organizational
strategy that drives the district’s
selection of leaders?
What is the organizational
strategy that drives the district’s
selection of leaders?
Did you have a teacher or leader
of the same race in your K-12
experience? If yes, did they have
a significant impact on your
journey?
What are the leaders' significant
knowledge skills and abilities
that you look for when hiring?
How does your district evaluate
non-traditional professional
experiences in the hiring
process?
What are the leaders' significant
knowledge skills and abilities
that you look for when hiring?
How does your district evaluate
non-traditional professional
experiences in the hiring
process?
In your experience, does your
district earnestly work to recruit
leaders of color?
What actions have you utilized
to retain your most talented
leaders?
What actions have you utilized
to retain your most talented
leaders?
What activity and initiatives at
the district level has encouraged
you to stay for so long?
What are some barriers that you
have encountered when actively
seeking candidates of color?
What are some barriers that you
have encountered when actively
seeking candidates of color?
What role does mentorship play
in education? Have you been
mentored by other leaders?
What are some barriers that you
have encountered when actively
seeking candidates of color?
What are some barriers that you
have encountered when actively
seeking candidates of color?
Does race factor into your
educational experience? How
has race and ethnicity effected
your professional career
regardless of position?
What are the 2 to 3 ideas you
have that could impact diversity,
equity, and inclusion
recruitment?
What are the 2 to 3 ideas you
have that could impact diversity,
equity, and inclusion
recruitment?
In your experience what
barriers have you seen that keep
people of color from going into
the education system? Do you
have any suggestions to
eliminate them?
35
Data Collection Procedures
An Institutional Review Board (IRB) application was submitted to the University of
Southern California to confirm that the researchers followed ethical guidelines for participants in
the study. Approval to conduct the study was obtained by connecting with superintendents of
School Districts A, B, and C, at which time interviewers shared information about the study
procedures and research questions. Upon receiving the superintendents’ approvals, a list of
district administrative staff and principal emails was supplied to begin the selection process for
interview participants.
Data Collection
Interviews were conducted with nine elementary school principals from the participating
school districts. In addition, six district administrators were also interviewed from the three
participating school districts. All fifteen elementary school principals and district administrators
agreed to participate in an online interview to explore the barriers to hiring and retaining leaders
of color and what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to overcome the barriers and
ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color. Informed consent was given before
conducting each interview. The use of informed consent ensured that all participants understood
the nature of the research and the risks and provided transparency related to the interviews
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data Analysis
This study utilized a qualitative data approach. Interview data gathered from the
participants was analyzed using a multi-layered data analysis process, multiple data sources, and
36
data collection methods to identify trends and patterns (Miles et al., 2014). Triangulation of data
was used to increase the quality and trustworthiness of the study, as it ensured that data were not
collected using a single artifact, method, or source (Patton, 2015). A coding process was used to
sort and categorize the data (Lichtman, 2013). This process led to the identification of emergent
trends, which assisted with understanding perceptions towards the barriers to hiring and retaining
leaders of color, and what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to overcome the barriers
and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color. The body of literature was
compared to the research findings to further confirm the significance of this research study.
Triangulating the data from each point on the triangle (superintendent, Human Resources
administrator, and elementary school principals) ensured that a different point of view was
analyzed on the identification of barriers in hiring leaders of color, and on the identified
practices, policies and strategies that were used to overcome the barriers. This produced a robust
set of data that came from the district administrators and principals, as they each held a different,
but important experience in the hiring process for their district. The triangulation of data helped
to identify barriers that were strong enough, and present enough to be seen by leaders in different
areas of the hiring chain, not just being unique to one position.
Data analysis aims to make sense of the data and consolidate, reduce, and interpret the
information (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016). The face-to-face interview data was interpreted and
coded. The coding process included sorting, separating, and categorizing data. Each transcript
was analyzed to identify themes using open and priori codes responsive to the research questions
(Lichtman, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
37
Validity, Reliability and Positionality
As I reflected on the subject and setting that I studied, I drew on Milner’s (2007)
framework and paid particular attention to the seen, unseen, and unforeseen dangers. I
interviewed Superintendents, Human Resource personnel, and site principals. My interviews
took place in three districts. Two of these districts I was completely unfamiliar with. The third
district I used in my study was the district where I am employed. This posed a unique and
completely seen danger. I was hired in the summer of 2021. The school I was hired at is a Title 1
school, the lowest performing and poorest in the district. I know that the Superintendent’s
intention and wish was to hire a person of color, preferably Spanish speaking. But she hired me,
a White English speaking woman. The irony that I will be questioning her on the barriers of
hiring leaders of color will not be lost, but this study values her insight equally.
Perhaps more influential than power, I believe my positionality as a White person played
a more significant factor. Milner (2007) asks us to move through four distinct phases when
conducting research: researching the self, researching the self in relation to others, engaging
reflection and representation, and shifting from self to system. I am a White woman crafting
questions that I ask people of color. I am also a White woman who has benefited from this
system that I work in. When crafting and asking the research questions I am actually asking both
of the following: “How can I make it harder for myself?”; “How can we have a system that
makes it harder for people who look like me to succeed?” The participants may also perceive me
as someone who has benefited from my positionality. I do, however, believe that the
underrepresentation of people of color in education is a systemic problem. I was cautious in my
38
analysis of the data that my positionality did not influence my interpretation of the interview
responses.
Field Testing
Interview questions were field tested. The twelve interview questions were discussed
with two district administrators and one site level principal, who are individuals with expert
knowledge of the research topic. These individuals provided feedback on the appropriateness of
the questions, the flow of the interview and the repetitiveness of some of the questions. This
feedback helped to refine the questions and create a more comprehensive instrument.
Ethical Considerations
Focus was placed on various ethical concerns when conducting the study, and Patton’s
(2002) ethical issue checklist was used. Multiple data sources were used to increase credibility in
qualitative research (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016). A clear explanation of the purpose of the study
and a request for permission to record the interview were provided to all participants at the
beginning of the data collection process. All participant responses remained confidential, and
researchers protected participants’ personal information and all district information by using
pseudonyms to ensure confidentiality (Glense, 2011). Informed consent was obtained from the
participants before conducting interviews.
Summary
This chapter outlined the study’s statement of the problem, research questions, sample
and population, instrumentation, data collection procedures, data analysis process, and the
precautions used to address ethical considerations. The research questions of this study shaped
39
the use of a mixed-methods approach, which included quantitative and qualitative data collection
methods. Chapter four will present an analysis of the data collection process and the significant
findings that surfaced as a result of this study.
40
Chapter Four: Research Results And Findings
Introduction
This chapter presents an analysis of the data collected to understand the barriers to
recruitment, hiring and retention of school leaders and district administrators of color. The data is
analyzed through the lens of Critical Race Theory (CRT) as proposed by Ladson-Billings and
Tate (1995). The study examines the perceptions and practices of district administrators and their
perceived barriers to equitable hiring and retention of leaders of color. Additionally, this study
examines what leaders of color perceive as the barriers to recruitment, hiring, and retention of
leaders of color and what policies, practices, and strategies helped them overcome these barriers.
The following results and findings from this study provide valuable insight and considerations
for current school system leaders seeking to hire, support, and retain school principals that reflect
the students in the schools they serve.
Purpose of the Study
This study aimed to examine the barriers to equitable recruitment, hiring, and retention of
school principals of color from the perspective of CRT. It also strived to identify successful
strategies for recruiting, hiring, and retaining site administrators of color in urban school districts
in Southern California. This study utilizes the interview responses of superintendents, district
administrators and principals to gain their understanding and perceptions to policies and
practices in these areas, with a focus on understanding the challenges faced by school leaders of
color and the policies, practices and strategies that have helped to overcome these barriers. The
41
study’s results highlight the effective practices used by K-12 districts to support and retain
principals and district administrators of color, in order to better serve students of color.
Coding of Data
The data analysis process used to interpret the qualitative data was multi-layered, in order
to increase understanding as it related to the research question. The goal of the data analysis was
to make sense of the data to consolidate, reduce, and interpret the information (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). To begin this process, each interview was transcribed and listened to a second
time for accuracy. Next, each question on the interview instrument used to collect data was
aligned to one or more of this study’s research questions (see
42
Table 1). Maxwell’s (2013) strategies for qualitative data analysis were employed in
identifying specific passages relevant to the three research questions and to this study’s
conceptual framework. Using an analytical coding method (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), and as
recommended by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014), the data aligned to each research
question was analyzed further for themes, sub-themes, and patterns supported by the literature
that emerged across participants. Although trends were detected after reviewing the data the first
time, the data were evaluated again to identify additional themes and commonalities (Miles, et
al., 2014). This process was used to further classify more emergent themes that were used to
describe the findings, make assertions, and make connections to the research questions (Bogdan
& Biklen, 2007; Harding, 2013).
Presentation of Findings
The presentation of findings in this chapter begins with a description and analysis of the
interview results collected during the study. Next provided is an analysis of the recurring themes
and findings as they relate to the research questions.
Descriptive Characteristics
Interview Data
The participants in this research study were selected from three urban school districts within Los
Angeles and Orange Counties. Using the Critical Race Theory (CRT) lens, this study focused on
examining what district administrators report as barriers to equitable recruitment, hiring, and
retaining of principals of color, and, according to principals of color, what policies, practices,
and strategies are in place to help support and retain them. Moreover, this study investigated
43
school principals' and district administrators' perceptions and practices and shed light on
successful strategies for recruiting, hiring, and retaining principals.
Demographics of Participating School Districts
As of the 2021-2022 school year, school district A served students in Transitional
Kindergarten through eighth grade and consisted of five elementary schools and two junior high
schools. The district had a total enrollment of 4,085 students. Seventy six percent of students
qualified as socioeconomically disadvantaged thirty-five percent were English Learners
(California Dashboard).
In the 2020-2021 school year, School District B served students in Transitional
Kindergarten through twelfth grade and was comprised of twenty-two elementary schools, three
middle schools, three high schools, and a continuation high school. The district had a total
enrollment of 24,390 students. Approximately 32.5 % of the students who attended School
District B qualified for free or reduced-price meals. Additionally, 18.7% of students were
English Learners.
In the 2020-2021 school year, School District C served students in Transitional
Kindergarten through twelfth grade and was comprised of 19 elementary schools, five middle
schools, and five high schools. The district had a total enrollment of 24,104 students. More than
85% of the students who attended School District C qualified for free or reduced-price meals and
24.7% were English Learners. Table 2 contains the student demographic data for School District
A, School District B, and School District C.
Table 2: Participating School Districts' Student Demographic Data
Percentage of Student Population
School District A School District B School District C
Race/Ethnicity N = 4,805 N = 24,390 N = 24,104
African American 3.6 1.1 8.2
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American Indian 0.1 0.1 0.2
Asian 16.1 8.8 0.6
Filipino 4.4 3.4 0.5
Hispanic or Latino 66.8 38.2 86.3
Pacific Islander 0.5 0.2 0.2
White 5.1 39.0 2.7
Two or More Races 2.5 7.7 1.2
Note: Adapted from California Dashboard, 2022, Demographics.
The first step in obtaining approval to conduct the study was to contact the
superintendents in each district; A, B, & C, and request permission to conduct the study in their
districts. Once granted permission, a list of possible participants who matched the criteria of the
study was requested, including someone in the Human Resources department who was directly
responsible for recruiting and hiring principals, and at least three site principals who identified as
non-white and who had been a site principal for at least one year. After obtaining this list, the
potential participants were sent an introductory email (Appx I) and their participation was
requested. Once permission was granted and to make sure that the research was done in an
ethical manner, all participants were informed that if there were any questions they did not wish
to answer, they could indicated so at the time of the interview. They also were informed that that
could end the interview at any time. They were advised that the interview would be recorded and
then transcribed and coded and that all of their responses, including identifying characteristics,
would remain confidential and protected from recognition by future readers (Glense, 2011).
Interview Participants
Three California school districts were selected for this study: a small school district in
central Orange County, a medium size district in San Bernardino County, and a medium size
district in south Orange County. All three superintendents were interviewed along with three
senior level representatives from the Human Resource department who were directly responsible
for recruitment and hiring of site principals. Additionally, nine elementary principals who
45
identified as non-white were interviewed. All participated in an interview online with the aim of
gaining a greater understanding, through a lens of Critical Race Theory, what district
administrators say are the barriers to equitable recruitment, hiring, and retention of principals of
color and what policies, procedures and strategies are in place to help support and retain
principals. Participants also received an overview of the study, which provided transparency and
pertinent information related to the interview (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Table 3 and Table 4
describe the demographic data of the interview respondents. To ensure confidentiality, this study
uses pseudonyms to protect the identity of the interview respondents.
Table 3: Participant Demographic Data
School District A School District B School District C
Gender Count
Male 2 3 4
Female 3 2 1
Leadership Experience Count
0-5 1 2 2
6-10 3 1 2
11+ 1 2 1
Residence Count
Within District 2 4 3
Outside District 3 1 2
Table 4: Demographics of Interview Participants
Participant Pseudonym Gender Title Race/Ethnicity
A Male Superintendent Hispanic
B Male Chief Personnel Officer Caucasian
C Female Principal Hispanic/Latino
D Female Principal
African
American
E Female Principal Hispanic
F Female Superintendent Caucasian
G Male
Assistant Superintendent of Human
Resources
African
American
H Male Principal Hispanic/Latino
I Male Principal Asian
J Female Principal
African
American
K Male Superintendent Hispanic/Native
46
L Male Director of Human Resources Persian
M Male Principal Hispanic/Latino
N Female Principal Filipino/a
O Male Principal Hispanic/Latino
Research Question 1
According to District Administrators, what are the barriers (if any) to hiring and retaining
leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
In researching the barriers to hiring and retaining leaders of color in K-12 districts in
Southern California, three themes emerged. First, that the historically dominant White culture
still exists in recruitment and hiring, and that districts need to make a sustained and intentional
effort to eliminate bias and discrimination. A second theme that emerged was the lack of
applicants of color when recruiting for administrative positions. Finally, because students of
color are less likely to find a sense of identity and belonging on campus than their White peers,
they are statistically less likely to pursue careers as educators and administrators, reinforcing the
lack of student to staff identity representation.
Racism, Macro- and Microaggressions, and Bias in Hiring and Recruiting Practices
In analyzing the barriers that exist to recruiting and hiring leaders of color in K-12
districts in Southern California, it became clear that candidates of color are still being denied
access to administrative positions. While racial prejudice in hiring practices among all industries
is still prevalent, there is significant evidence that techniques to promote and confirm prejudices
and discrimination are specifically institutional to educational hiring practices (Marger, 2012).
Three of this study’s participants–one African American individual, one Persian individual, and
one Hispanic/Latino—individually reported that they had encountered racism in the recruitment
process for their positions merely on the basis of their names. Participant D, who identifies as
47
African American, recalled that she was advised more than one time to modify her first name to
conform to Western standards.
“When I first started applying for administrative positions I was not successful in gaining
interviews. One day when sitting in the staff lounge I was talking about my lack of
success and a ‘well-meaning’ colleague of mine suggested that I drop the [first two
letters] in my first name. I sat there silent but to my surprise two other White colleagues
fully supported the idea.”
Participant H, who identifies as Hispanic/Latino, felt that blatant racism was so pervasive in the
screening processes that he altered his identity to gain access to the interview room.
"My first name is [redacted to maintain anonymity of respondent]. Which is a
traditionally Hispanic name. When I first started applying for administrative positions I
filled out my application with my first and last name, but got very few responses. A
sitting assistant superintendent in the district I was working in suggested I use my middle
name, a traditionally Caucasian name, as my first name instead. Naturally I was furious
but wanted a job. So I changed it and immediately got five interview offers. In fact, in
one district, I submitted one application with my Hispanic name and one with my
Caucasian middle name, all the rest of the information was identical. I only got an
interview request for the Caucasian application.”
Participant L shared that because of his Middle Eastern heritage, his path to an administrative
position was often blocked, especially in the post-9/11 atmosphere when he began his career.
When he was finally appointed to a position after many attempts, he later learned that it was not
a unanimous decision.
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"I applied at a district and then was hired as an [assistant principal]. A few years later I
remember the superintendent telling me that when he was recommending me and sharing
my name with the school board that one of the board members, because of my Middle
Eastern background, asked the superintendent if it was ‘safe to hire this guy with the way
he looks and the way his name is spelled/pronounced’.”
Participant L’s brown skin and Middle eEstern appearance immediately racialized him and
placed him outside of the hegemonic White male principal identity (Solomon et al., 2005).
The experiences of these respondents provides evidence of how the White dominant culture uses
microaggressions to marginalize candidates of color (Solomon et al., 2005; Yang, 2021).
Michelson, Smith and Oliver (in Weis & Fine, 1993) argue that “employment policies and
practices do not exist in a vacuum…; [but] they operate in a society whose racial divisions
overlap those of class and income,” (pp. 24). This means that structures and hierarchies in
workplaces often reflect the broader social inequalities based on race, class, and income (Weis
and Fine, 1993, pp. 24). However it is important to note that increasing diversity and
representation of school principals and administrators, who are representative of the wider
community populations they serve, has been highlighted as a necessary step towards achieving a
more equitable and effective operation (Hunte, 2010; Tallerico, 2000). Research has also shown
that a diverse workforce at all levels of the organization is linked to improved organizational
performance and effectiveness (Deitch et al., 2003; Hunte 2010; Tallerico, 2000).
Lack of Candidates of Color
This research further identified that screening and hiring is a double edged sword. There
are districts that are actively trying to recruit leaders of color but feel hindered by their inability
49
to see demographic identifiers when reviewing applications. Participant F, a Superintendent,
recalled,
“In a recent search for an elementary school principal my ideal candidate would have
been a person of color, specifically of a Hispanic background, who spoke Spanish. After
paper screening we landed on ten candidates to interview, five of which I thought would
have been Hispanic just from their name. On interview day it turned out that only two
were Hispanic, the other three had married names that were Hispanic in origin.”
Participant B, a director, shared that he employs an attitude of “colorblindness” when hiring
(Gooden, 2012). However five of the six superintendents and directors interviewed in this study
agreed that above all they want the best candidate, or the best “fit”. Participant G, a director,
responded,
“Ultimately we are looking for the best fit. Districts have their own culture but moreover
schools definitely do. We are looking for someone who will be able to work with the staff
and the community and who has the correct temperament to institute change where
needed. In a perfect world if there were two candidates that were exactly equal in our
wants and needs and then ethnically matched the majority of the student body, we would
choose that candidate. But if the candidates are even a little unmatched, we will choose
the best candidate.”
Most respondents agreed that there is a need for leaders of color, especially Black male
leaders. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, the percentage of principals
who identify as Black has not changed in an eight year period, remaining at 11% from the 1999-
2000 school year to the 2017-2018 school year. Participant G states,
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“The majority of the time, I am the only Black man in the room. In elementary school
there were no Black men, and I mean none. Not even a part of the classified staff. I don’t
recall any Black men in middle school. I had one Black teacher in high school, my
science teacher in 11th grade. That continued through my career. I was the only Black
man at the middle school I taught at, the only Black [assistant principal] and Principal in
both of the districts I served. Now in my first appointment to a district level position there
were two of us.But now in my current position I am again the only Black male.”
Many scholars agree the beginning of the decline in Black leadership was the historic
Brown v Board of Education Supreme Court decision (Murran et al., 2021; Peters, 2020). While
the Brown decision is touted as marking the end of de jure ‘separate but equal’ idea purported in
Plessy v. Ferguson, promoting the idea of a more equal and fair educational system (Walker
2009, 2015), the reality is that the decision also led to the closing of Black schools and the
displacement or firing of Black educators (Murran et al., 2021, Peters, 2020).
Students of Color not Having a Sense of Belonging in School
Further investigation regarding additional barriers to recruitment and hiring of leaders of
color reveals that, for many students of color, elementary school is not a comfortable place.
Although many elementary schools try to impress an image of inclusiveness, most students, by
the time they enter middle school, have experienced subtle messages from their White teachers
or administrators regarding college and their expectations (Welton & Martinez). Participant I
explains how elementary school can be a difficult environment for students of color.
“If you don’t like elementary school, why would you want to go back and work there?
Or lead there? Many students of color feel out of place when entering elementary
school. It is a very White place. Most if not all of the teachers are White. Office staff
51
is White. If you add on top of that an inability to understand English then wow, it must
feel like a very frustrating and scary experience.”
Participant J explains,
“I distinctly remember my third grade teacher discouraging me from becoming a teacher.
She said, ‘Honey, you are such a fast runner! Don’t you think that you do something that
you can use your speed? What about a police officer? You would be really good at
chasing down the bad guys!’ When I continued to plead that I wanted to be a teacher, my
teacher finally conceded a little saying, “Well I guess you could teach PE.”
Candidates of color also reported that they knew that academic expectations were lower for them
in elementary school than expectations for White students. Participant M explains,
“Our teacher was handing back writing assignments. She handed me mine, filled with red
ink marks. Looked at me and said, ‘I know that you tried really hard and you did the best
that you could.’ Then she handed the paper to the White girl sitting next to me. I
remember vividly that it only had two red marks. The teacher said to the White student,
‘Come meet me back at the back table and we will fix these two small mistakes so that
you can have a perfect writing paper’.”
When White teachers continuously hold lower expectations for their students of color,
based on false stereotypes about students' capabilities, the effect is a negative impact on the
student’s self-worth, and thus their college and career aspirations (Milner, 2013; Solorzono
1997).
Another finding was that students of color rarely see anyone that looks like them in a
teaching position until they enter middle or high school. Of the fifteen participants interviewed,
only two indicated that they had a teacher of the same gender and race in elementary school.
52
Nine reported that every elementary teacher they had was a White woman. Three reported
having male principals while another candidate indicated that he had a male teacher but not of
the same race.
Summary of Findings for Research Question #1
Eliminating bias and racism in the recruitment and hiring practices is crucial for creating
a diverse and inclusive workforce that can best serve the needs of all students. Bias and racism in
recruitment and hiring can occur at many levels. Findings also suggest that racial identity with
lived experiences and encounters in public school directly correlates to seeking and obtaining
employment as teachers and administrators in public schools in Southern California. While the
participants were of various ethno-racial identities, all agreed the serious barriers still exist when
trying to recruit and hire leaders of color.
Research Question #2
According to district administrators, what policies, practices, and strategies (if any) are in place
to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color is K-12
districts in Southern California?
In researching the policies, practices, and strategies that are in place to overcome barriers
to equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color, three overarching themes emerged. First,
districts need to diligently work on creating a culture of inclusiveness. Next, efforts need to be
made to build a pathway for leaders of color. And finally, elementary schools need to create an
environment that ensures that every child feels a sense of belonging.
Creating a Culture of Inclusiveness
In this study, all participants identified that their districts are intentionally implementing
policies and strategies to promote workplaces that are free from biases and discrimination. It also
53
became clear that there are a variety in ideologies regarding the continuum of cultural
proficiency, where districts are currently along this continuum, and where they want to be.
Participant N recalls how shocking it was when he moved from his former district to his new
one:
“There was this weird perception that we were doing the work, tough equity work. Our
superintendent gave everyone in management and all site principals a copy of ‘The
Trouble with Black Boys’ by Dr. Pedro Noguera. I really thought we were going to have
deep conversations and analyze what changes we needed to make. But it didn’t take root
and turned into her just reading a couple quotes at each leadership meeting. But in my
new place it is completely opposite. We take the time to look at practices in our school
and ask if they are culturally inclusive.”
To create environments of inclusiveness, district administrators and site administrators need to
ensure that they do not remain silent when witnessing acts of microaggressions. Participant C,
who is Hispanic told of an incident during an Individualized Education Plan IEP meeting:
“We were waiting for a parent to arrive, a Hispanic parent. A Caucasian special education
teacher was questioning where she was, saying that she just saw her. The principal
remarked that she may be in the bathroom and we would just wait a few minutes. The
special education teacher then said, ‘I bet she is at Taco Loco.’ When the principal
looked at her weirdly, she said, ‘You know, maybe she got hungry and went to The Taco
Loco.’ I was so mad. Not Panda Express that is right down the street? Not TK Burger that
is next door? In fact there is not a restaurant that I know of called Taco Loco!”
Bettina Love in her book We Want to Do More Than Survive: Abolitionist Teacher and
Pursuit of Educational Freedom states, “We cannot create a new educational system at all with a
54
lack of understanding of what cripples our system” (pp. 185). Combating racism and
microaggressions in education institutions is crucial for creating and inclusive and equitable
learning environment for all students. Racism in the form of microaggressions can cause
significant harm to students of color, impacting their mental health, academic success, and sense
of belonging. Findings from this study show that students of color who experience racism in
elementary school are far less likely to choose education as a career.
Building a Pathway for Leaders of Color
Additionally, it was discovered that districts are intentionally seeking to create pathways
for teachers of color to enter their district with the hope that it will ultimately lead to more
leaders of color. It was revealed that districts need to intentionally develop strategies to support
and develop promising teacher leaders.
Participant G states that partnerships with universities are essential to recruiting and
hiring teachers of color. For without teachers of color there is a very small pool of potential
leaders of color, especially at the site level.
“When I first took the position as superintendent here leadership was almost all white.
This included the board of education, all but one of the district level administrative
positions and all site principals. It became evident that we needed a pathway for people of
color to obtain leadership positions, especially because our student demographic is so
diverse. To begin I knew I needed quality teachers of color. So I went to the local
universities and developed partnerships with their credentialing programs. A specific goal
of the partnership was for the universities to enhance their efforts to attract people of
color to the teaching profession and on our side, we would provide student teaching
opportunities with guaranteed employment at the end.”
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Participant J, a Human Resources director talked about the efforts to establish
connections with universities.
“The trouble I am finding now in my new district is that the demographics of the
university students closest to us is not as diverse as I would like. So I am reaching out to
a farther radius. Then you encounter the problem of distance. Will student teachers and
university employees agree to drive this far for their placement?”
Partnerships between public schools and universities can help to address the critical
shortage of diverse teachers and leaders in K-12 schools. By collaborating to attract, prepare, and
support individuals of color in these roles, public schools and universities can work together to
address the imbalance in the workforce and create a more equitable and culturally responsive
learning environment (Sanchez et el., 2008)
A Sense of Belonging in Elementary School for Students of Color
In researching the policies, practices, and strategies that are in place in Southern
California districts to overcome the barriers to recruitment and hiring of leaders of color, it
became evident that a connection to adults and a sustained sense of belonging was one of the
main reasons the participants of color decided on a career in education.
However, it was discovered that if students form genuine relationships with adults on
campus, their perceptions about the institution are very different. Participant C explained that
having a teacher who created a genuine connection with her turned around her attitude about
elementary school.
“I remember when I learned I was being placed in Mrs. Martin’s class in third grade. I
was nervous because I heard she was mean. But it ended up being the best year for me.
She talked to me about me, about my family. She didn’t seem disappointed when I
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didn’t understand things, she was just patient with me. And being a Black girl, many of
my previous teachers were not patient with my outgoing and exuberant personality…at
least that is how they labeled me.”
Students of color may feel out of place in elementary school due to a lack of cultural
representation and inclusiveness in the curriculum and school environment. This can lead to
feelings of marginalization and disconnection, as students do not see themselves reflected in
the materials they are learning or in the relationships they are building. (Easton Brooks 2013,
Milner, 2006).
It became evident that students of color that could see themselves reflected in a staff
member, they felt more connected and had a deeper sense of belonging in school.
Participant M explained that having a male teacher in 4th grade was the single most important
factor leading him to a career in education.
“He was so cool. Kind of a nerd but a cool nerd. We did all sorts of science
experiments and activities. I can remember thinking…. I want to be just like him.”
Interestingly eight of the nine men that I interviewed had a strong connection to a male
teachers in elementary school, which they concluded contributed directly to their want to lead
an elementary school. Having a teacher of color can provide students of color with positive
role models and mentors who can support their academic success (Dee, 2014; Easton Brooks,
2011). These teachers can provide guidance and support to help students navigate the
challenges they may face, such as implicit bias and discrimination (Hartlep & Baylor, 2013).
Having teachers of color can also help create a more culturally responsive and inclusive school
environment, which can positively affect all students, not just those with similar backgrounds
and experiences (Egalite et al., 2015). Ultimately, having teachers and leaders of color can
57
play a crucial role in promoting equity and justice in education, helping all students reach their
full potential. When asked, Participant A explained the connection,
“I think I liked the people that worked in schools. We talk about people that we
look like, we relate to, right? In second grade was the first time I ever had anybody that
was brown or of brown color. Mrs. Christensen was Latina, she spoke Spanish and
loved my family. She was just great and she was a connection because she looked like
my parents and myself.”
He goes on to explain that although he believes it is imperative that students of color
see themselves in the elementary school that they attend, ultimately a genuine connection is
more important.
“A person that had just as much impact if not more was my…fifth and sixth
grade teacher. I got to loop with two years in a row with him. He was an ex-
professional Angel baseball player who was originally a PE teacher. When Prop 13
came around he lost his job as a PE teacher and became an elementary school teacher.
He didn’t look like me, but he was a man and we made a connection through sports,
we had the same interests. He continues to be my lifelong friend now.”
One positive impact of the COVID-19 pandemic was the intense focus on the social-
emotional well-being of students. Districts are earnestly investing in social-emotional learning
programs to help support students in elementary school. All three of the school districts in the
study are using an adopted social emotional curriculum and making it a requirement to teach.
Participant H explains,
“We now include social emotional data into our discussions about student achievement.
A definite trend we see is that students of color have a lower sense of belonging and
58
lower self-efficacy than their White peers. Those are the two areas we are targeting in our
goals this year.”
However these programs do not collect data in grades TK-2. Research shows that by the
time a child is eight years old, they have formed a lifelong learning opinion about who they are
as a learner, where they fit in the hierarchy of the classroom, and how they feel about school and
educational institutions (Rosenthal, 1968). Supporting young learners and fostering a sense of
belonging is critical for academic and social emotional development, especially for students of
color (Marrun et al., 2021). When students of color feel like they are a part of a supportive
community, they are more likely to be engaged in their learning and feel confident in their
abilities (Renich & Reich 2021).
Summary of Findings for Research Question #2
Public schools need to build a culture of inclusiveness for employees of color to attract
and retain a diverse workforce and improve the education and academic success of students of
color. A culture of inclusiveness means creating a welcoming and supportive environment where
all employees, regardless of race, feel valued and respected. Additionally, attracting and
retaining a diverse workforce can help ensure that the perspectives and experiences of all
students are represented in the school community. Another important finding is that it is essential
to build pathways for leaders of color. Building pathways for leaders of color in K-12 education
is crucial to addressing the ongoing underrepresentation of leaders of color in schools and
ensuring that all students have access to diverse and culturally responsive leadership (Anderson,
M. 2016; Hartlep, N. D. et al., 2016; Sanchez, J et al., 2008). A final key finding is that it is
pivotal to improve the sense of belonging for students of color in elementary schools. A sense of
belonging is crucial for students of color in elementary school as it can have a positive impact on
59
their academic achievement, social-emotional well-being, and overall success in school. When
students feel a sense of belonging in their school community, they are more likely to engage in
the learning process and feel connected to their peers and teachers. This can lead to improved
academic outcomes, such as higher test scores and graduation rates (Easten Brooks, 2013).
Additionally, a sense of belonging can also foster a sense of self-worth and self-esteem, which
can be especially important for students of color who may face additional challenges and biases.
Research Question #3
According to School Administrators, what are the policies, practices, and strategies used to
ensure support and retention of leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
In researching the strategies used to ensure support and retention of leaders of color, two
themes emerged. First, employees of color who had support in the form of mentors were far
more likely to enjoy their job, and subsequently, more likely to stay longer. A second theme that
emerged was that districts need to have an intentional action plan for equity.
Mentorships
In researching the policies, practices, and strategies (if any) that are in place to ensure
support and retention of principals of color, it was identified that principals that had a devoted
mentor that they genuinely connected with were more likely to remain in their position.
Participant D reflects,
“After spending nine years as a teacher I got my first break as a principal in a different
district. It was a weird dynamic there. But I was paired up with a Black principal. To be
honest I think they did that because we were the only Black female principals in the
district but I don’t care ‘cause I got lucky. She is the reason I am still in this job. Those
60
first couple years were hard but she answered every question I had. She helped me to
understand curriculum and be a better evaluator. I still call her probably once a week.”
Participant E echoed the importance of having someone to consult with, free of judgment
or evaluation. In her career she has moved from being a new administrator and seeking advice
and counsel from others, to the role of being a mentor for new administrators. She touts the value
of having a coach to develop skills inherent to good leadership.
Mentors also helped in eliminating the feeling of isolation and can be so dominant for the
elementary school principal. Participant J described her journey.
“I began my administrative career as an [assistant principal] in a high school. In that
position there were always at least two other administrators to talk to. You just walked
down the hallway and there was someone. I mean, not just about work stuff. We talked
about our spouses and our kids, and yes, the important school decisions too. After three
years I moved into an elementary principal position, and it didn’t take very long for me to
feel alone.”
Participant O also reflected on the isolation felt in the role of an elementary school
leader. She described the difficulty of making important decisions by herself. It wasn’t until she
reached out to a colleague and a relationship bloomed, that she felt less anxious about her role.
Participant K talked about the importance of developing cohorts of leaders and providing time
for collaboration.
“The first thing we do with a new administrator is to make sure that they are part of the
group chat. Sounds silly but when a new administrator sees that even experienced
administrators have questions, feelings of inadequacy subside. We also match them with
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a mentor. But we make sure that they know that they can reach out to anyone. Sometimes
the person who we feel is the best fit for a mentor is not.”
Mentorships are essential for leaders as they provide critical support, guidance, and
professional development opportunities. New principals, particularly those from
underrepresented groups, face unique challenges and obstacles and having a mentor can help
them navigate these difficulties and succeed in their roles (Browne-Ferrigno, T., & Muth, R.,
2008).
Participant G also reported that having support and mentors outside the district in the
form of connections through professional organizations is critical to his success and longevity in
administration. He is a member of the California Association of African American
Superintendents and Administrators and states that the collections that he has made through this
organization are some of his biggest supports and essential for his success.
Explicit, Intentional Plans for Equity are Essential
A final finding in researching strategies, policies, and practices in place to ensure the
retention of leaders of color was that district need to develop and implement plans for equity
work. Participant F reflected on her decision to make equity work front and center of her five
year plan.
“The gap between our White students and our students of color academically continued
to be an issue in my third year as superintendent. We had done some work with culturally
responsive teaching, but I knew that we needed to go deeper. We needed to sit in an
uncomfortable place and really examine our policies and practices to create a positive
environment for all students. Last year we started with management. We brought in an
expert, and she led us through a series of workshops that led to some important
62
organizational changes. This year we are working with school leadership, next year with
all staff.”
Intentionality and authentic work are sometimes hard but necessary. Participant F also
shared that she knew that their work would be difficult, but she also knew that if it wasn't done
there was a real possibility that talented leaders of color would flee to other districts where they
feel a more authentic and inclusive climate. Participant B shared that if districts do not have
equity as their core practice and belief and there is not a culture of promoting the well-being of
all staff members and students, it is very difficult to retain leaders of color. Of the fifteen
participants interviewed, nine identify as persons of color. Of those nine, five left a job because
they didn’t feel there was a sincere and authentic focus on diversity and inclusion. Participant O
shared,
“There became a point when I just dreaded going to work. I loved my school, my staff,
and students, but I felt a disconnect with the work we were doing on the leadership level.
We had an equity focus and had guest speakers come in and lead us [the administrative
leadership team] through workshops. But that work didn’t transfer. Like we talked about
ways that we were being culturally destructive or culturally blind, like having kids pay
for parking spaces and yearbooks. But it was just talk, nothing changed”
Words without action in equity work can have a devastating effect and cause leaders of
color to flee the environment. Participant H reflected that he is secretly attempting to find
employment in another, more inclusive school district at this very moment.
Summary of Finding for Research Question #3
An exhaustive review of the interview data found that the role of mentorship in retaining
principals of color in K-12 education is critical to addressing the ongoing underrepresentation of
63
leaders of color in schools (Bloom & Erlandson, 2003; Cheung & Gong, 2020). Data still
indicates that while people of color make up a significant portion of the student population in
public schools, they are underrepresented in leadership roles such as principals and
superintendents. This disparity has significant implications for the education and academic
success of students of color (Dee, 2004). Mentorships can play a key role in addressing this issue
by providing support and guidance to aspiring and current principals of color (Brown-Ferrigno &
Muth, 2008). Mentorships can also play a key role in helping with the feeling of isolation and
underrepresentation that many leaders of color feel in their roles. By connecting with other
leaders that have similar experiences and backgrounds, leaders of color can gain a sense of
belonging and community, which can be crucial for their personal and professional well-being
(Allen, et el., 1995). Additionally, mentorships can be designed to be culturally responsive,
which can have a positive impact on the cultural competency of institutions. Another key finding
was that public school districts need to have a plan for equity. Organizations need to address the
systemic barriers and disparities that prevent certain groups from reaching their full potential.
Without a plan for equity, schools may inadvertently perpetuate these disparities, leaving some
individuals at a disadvantage.
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Chapter 5: Summary
Chapter five provides a summary of the study, including the purpose of the study,
research questions, and discussions of findings. It concludes with study limitations, implications
for practice and recommendations for further study.
Statement of the Problem
There are disproportionately few leaders of color in K-12 schools, which has a tangible
effect of the achievement gap. In 2002, 40% of students nationwide were students of color and
by 2018 that percentage had grown to 53%. In that same time span, the proportion of leaders of
color have only grown from 11% to 22%. Over half of the student body population in public
schools across the nation are now students of color yet less than one quarter of the leadership is.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of Critical Race Theory, what
district administrators report as barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of principals and,
according to principals of color, what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to help
support and retain them. This research investigated school principals' and district administrators'
perceptions and practices and shed light on successful strategies for recruiting, hiring, and
retaining principals of color. This study also investigated what district administrators report as
perceived barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of principals of color and what policies,
practices, and strategies are in place to help support and retain school principals of color.
Chapter 4 started with an explanation of the methodology in which the qualitative data
was gathered and coded (Merriam & Tisdell, 2018) and then detailed the descriptive
characteristics of the interview participants. Next, the data that was collected from the interviews
65
was sorted and aligned to the research questions that guided this study. As detailed in Chapter 4,
dominant themes emerged concluding that districts need to eliminate bias and racisms in hiring
practices, build pathways for leaders of color, work to ensure young students of color feel a
strong sense of belonging in elementary school, create a culture of inclusiveness, provide
mentorships for leaders of color, and have explicit intentional plans for diversity equity and
inclusion. The study focused on three guiding questions:
1. According to District Administrators, what are the barriers (if any) to hiring and
retaining leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
2. According to District Administrators, what policies, practices, and strategies (if any) are
in place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring leaders of
color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
3. According to School Administrators, what are the policies, practices, and strategies used
to ensure support and retention of leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern
California?
Discussion of Findings
Research Question One
Research question one inquired, According to District Administrators, what are the barriers (if
any) to hiring and retaining leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
Qualitative data of district administrator interviews for Research Question One
illuminated three findings. First, that districts must eliminate bias and racism in their recruiting
and hiring practices. This discovery aligns with Smith’s (2016) research, which emphasized the
importance of having a more extensive policy discussion and investigation into the lasting
66
consequences of racialized and biased hiring practices in education—specifically, the practices
that impact the recruitment, hiring and retention of school principals. Smith concluded that
failing to address these issues perpetuated unjust racial distribution of individuals in the upper
ranks of educational administration. This, in turn, deprives students, schools, and school districts
of the valuable skills and expertise that professionals of color can bring to the field. Interview
respondents from district administrators found that doors are still being closed on talented
candidates of color. Additionally, respondents urged an overhaul of recruitment and hiring
practices to eliminate unconscious bias and discrimination.
The second finding from research question one is that there is not a large pool of
candidates of color to choose from. Statistics show that as the public school population continues
to grow more diverse, but the percentage of non-white school leaders has remained relatively
stagnant (NCES). The underrepresentation of principals of color has a long and complex history.
As detailed in Murran et. al (2020) and Tillman (2004), the Brown decision was a pinnacle
moment that unintentionally led to the systematic displacement of Black educators, a key
consideration in the investigation into the lack of educational leaders of color.
The third finding was that students of color do not feel a sense of belonging in elementary
school which leads to significantly fewer people of color seeking employment in these
institutions. Eleven of the twelve leaders of color interviewed for this study indicated that they
felt uncomfortable in elementary school, many of them even going so far as to say they hated
elementary school. Feelings of isolation and unworthiness were common. As Soumah et. Al.
(2013) found in their research, a sense of belonging was a key concern for students of color.
Emphasizing that their racial, ethnic, and cultural identity was not valued by others. Their
research also found that students of color rarely find a sense of empowerment in school.
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Research Question Two
Research question two asked, According to District Administrators, what policies, practices, and
strategies (if any) are in place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and
hiring leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
Qualitative data for this research question produced three findings. The first finding that
emerged was that districts need to have a strong culture of inclusiveness to attract leaders of
color. Districts need to value diversity and actively work to create a welcoming environment for
all staff members, regardless of their race or ethnicity. Public schools that prioritize inclusiveness
send a clear message that all members of their organization are valued, and their contributions
are essential to the success of the school, will be more successful in their equity endeavors.
Inclusiveness is especially important in public schools because education is a field that has
historically been dominated by White individuals. This lack of diversity has perpetuated
structural barriers and biases that have made it difficult for people of color to advance in their
careers in education (Hartlep et. at., 2016). By creating a culture of inclusiveness, public school
districts can demonstrate their commitment to promoting equity and diversity in education.
The second finding was that districts need to intentionally build pathways for leaders of
color to enter the administrative field. All Superintendents and human resource personnel
interviewed for this study echoed the need to build pathways to attract, develop, and recruit
young leaders of color. Two of the human resources administrators interviewed stated that
developing relationships with diverse universities is key to finding candidates of color. Sanchez,
Thornton & Usinger (2008) emphasized that the preparation of more principal candidates who
represent and reflect the culture and diversity of public schools is the first step in having a
diverse workforce that can have a greater impact for all learners.
68
The final finding that emerged was that districts need to work on the social emotional
well-being of students of color in hopes of it leading to a better feeling about school and a want
to return as a career to inspire students. Research has shown that students of color are more likely
to experience poverty, family stress, and other challenges that can affect their social-emotional
well-being (Crutchfield et.al., 2022). Additionally, students of color are more likely to
experience microaggressions, discrimination, or encounter other beliefs that can have a negative
effect on their social emotional well-being and academic performance. By promoting the social
emotional health of students of color in elementary school, educators can create a more equitable
learning environment where students of color leave with a positive experience in elementary
school.
Research Question Three
Research question three inquired, According to School Administrators, what are the policies,
practices, and strategies used to ensure support and retention of leaders of color in K-12
Districts in Southern California?
Qualitative data gathered from respondents for this question produced two findings. The
first finding that emerged was that mentorships are key to retaining a diverse and strong
administrative leadership team. New site leaders need coaching and emotional support especially
at the elementary level where there is often only one site administrator. This is consistent with
the work of the Principal Leadership Institute at the University of California, Berkeley. The
institute works with Bay Area districts to develop leaders, particularly of color, to serve the most
marginalized communities. One issue that they are dedicated to is the retention and support of
district administrators. In 2018 they launched the Leaders of Color Network (LOCN) to support
the retention and efficacy of site leaders (Cheung & Gong, 2020). Participants D, E, H, J, M, &
69
O all reinforced through their responses that mentorships were key to their longevity in their
positions.
The second finding that emerged in relation to question three was that districts need to
have intentional and comprehensive plans for equity and inclusion and that the plan is evident to
all stakeholders. This finding is consistent with the work of Arriaga (2015) that states that
districts need to have a critical examination of the unintentional or intentional practices that
districts engage in that marginalize students, staff, and communities. She continues that these
examinations must lead to change to align diversity, access, and inclusion with the school
district's primary function of leadership. Participant F stated that in building her five year plan
with the cabinet and the Board, it was critical that the district develop a plan for equity, social
justice, and inclusion. She continued that she would take a top down approach and start with the
executive cabinet, then move to administration, then school leadership, and finally the entire
staff. Although she knew it would take longer, she needed to make sure that everyone understood
the commitment that the district was undertaking. Participant A also echoed the importance of
having a culturally proficient staff, stating that everyone from the board of education to the
crossing guard needs to be engaged and committed to the work.
Implications for practice
This study hopes to provide practical implications for K-12 school districts, especially in
the elementary school setting. Its purpose is to expand the existing literature by investigating the
barriers to recruiting and retaining leaders of color and the policies, practices, and strategies in
place to overcome these barriers and guarantee the equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of
color in K-12 districts in Southern California. The study’s results revealed three key themes that
offer guidance to educational practitioners at the school and district levels and provide valuable
70
information for school principals and district administrators on ways to recruit, hire, and retain
leaders of color. The policies, practices, and strategies identified in the research can aid school
sites and districts in overcoming the barriers to recruiting, hiring, and retaining leaders of color.
The first study theme suggests that school districts in Southern California need to
eliminate bias and racism in hiring and recruitment practices and create environments that are
culturally inclusive. Findings suggest that districts free from biases in the recruitment and
selection process have a more diverse and inclusive workforce. This finding is consistent with
Smith (2016), which details the devastating social and economic costs of maintaining racism
within the individual, institutional, and cultural level in hiring and promotion of K-12 leaders of
color. The first step in eliminating bias and racism in the recruitment and hiring process in public
schools is to prioritize diversity and inclusivity as an essential value in the organization. This
means creating a culture of inclusivity within the organization that values diversity in all its
forms, including race, ethnicity, gender, religion, sexual orientation, and physical ability. Schools
should establish clear diversity goals and make sure the hiring process is aligned to these goals.
As Tallerico (2000) suggests, school boards and superintendents should balance committees that
screen and interview applicants by gender, race, and ethnicity. Also, interview questions should
be analyzed for implicit bias. Interview responses from participants in this study revealed that
making sure that diversity, equity, and inclusion were a part of their mission and vision
statements was an essential first step in the process. They also reported that those statements
needed to be developed collectively, with varying stakeholders. Additionally, participants
reported that it is essential to make diversity, equity, and inclusion a core value in their district
and a part of the Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP). Next, districts need to have
intentional plans for equity work. Candidates that feel and see genuine work being done to create
71
opportunities and access for students and staff of color are more likely to seek employment with
these organizations and remain with them for extended periods of time. Interview participants
stated that just naming your desire to be equitable and including it in your mission and core
values is not enough. Participant A described his process of working with the Board of
Education with the goal of creating a more inclusive, socially-just organization. A plan for
professional development for all staff members was put in place which included culturally
relevant teaching strategies and implicit bias training. Multiple participants reported the
possibility of adding an administrative level position as many surrounding school districts have
done. This person would oversee providing strategic leadership and administrative oversight for
researching, developing, implementing, and maintain successful practices that support a climate
that values and prioritized diversity equity and inclusion. It was also noted that diversity, equity,
and inclusion work needs to be intentional at the site level. Participant H spike to the explicit
work done at his school regarding social justice. He introduced the social justice standard to his
staff and together they worked diligently to incorporate them throughout the curriculum.
The second study finding was that elementary schools need to be a more inclusive place
for students of color, increasing the odds that those students of color will return as teachers and
eventually leaders of color. One key strategy to help with a sense of belonging is to intentionally
hire teachers and principals of color in elementary schools. This is consistent with the work of
Easton Brooks (2014) and Eddy & Easton Brooks (2011) which call for pairing students of color
with teachers of the same race. This research showed that this practice had a positive effect and
long-term impact on the academic experience of students of color. Having a connection with
someone of color who is better equipped to understand and address the unique challenges that
students of color face creates a more culturally responsive environment. Additionally, having
72
role models who have achieved success in their field can inspire students of color to set
ambitious goals and pursue their dreams, even in the face of adversity.
Another effective strategy is to monitor students’ sense of belonging. This can be done by
conducting regular surveys to assess how comfortable they feel in their learning environment.
The data collected from these surveys can be used to identify areas of improvement and to
develop targeted interventions to address students’ concerns. More specifically, districts can use
tools such as the Healthy Kids Survey or the Panorama Survey to understand how students are
feeling on multiple measures such as self-efficacy and self-management. Participants from two
of the districts surveyed indicated that social emotional survey data is a key part of the data that
is analyzed when setting goals for students, classes, schools, and the district as a whole. Several
participants use the data from these surveys, coupled with discipline data, to target specific
behavioral interventions and create counseling groups. One participant noted that from the data
received from the survey, his leadership team identified self-efficacy as a need for his students
and has worked with his staff to include lessons on agency into the daily routines. Multiple
participants noted that they use weekly check-ins provided by the survey platforms, and that the
results of these check-ins guide their daily restorative practices.
The third study finding was that districts need to build pathways to identify, cultivate,
recruit and hire teachers and leaders of color and to provide mentorship to those leaders
throughout their careers. Respondents talked about the importance of developing partnerships
with universities to help districts seek out and identify possible candidates of color. Participant B
spoke of the strong partnership his district has with three local universities. He meets with them
four times a year to identify strong student teaching candidates and places them appropriately in
his schools for field work. Successful completion of the fieldwork almost always leads to
73
employment in the school district, which in turn is good for the university's recruitment.
Participant G stated that strong partnerships with universities were essential for growing a
talented pool of young teachers who will possibly become leaders in the organization.
Participants in the study also reported that it was important to identify possible future leaders of
color within the organization and provide them the coaching and support needed to move into
administrative positions.
Limitations
This study had some limitations. First this study was conducted in urban school districts
in Southern California. This presents an issue of representativeness because it does not include
suburban or rural school districts or school districts outside of Southern California. Also this
study interviewed only six district administrators and nine principals of color. A higher
participation rate would have resulted in a larger sample size and perhaps a richer and more
informative data set. Because of the relatively low participation rate, the survey responses were
more susceptible to potential bias.
Future Research
This study’s literature review underscored the critical nature of the many obstacles to fair
hiring practices and the retention of leaders of color in K-12 public schools. It highlights the
necessity of adopting policies, strategies and practices that facilitate and support the recruitment,
hiring and retention of these leaders. To accomplish this, this study advocates for more research
into district leadership plans that promote diversity, equity and inclusion. To address the research
gap, this study recommends further investigation into three key areas related to the study’s
central theme.
74
First, to enhance the understanding of strategies and resources that districts use to
cultivate equitable, diverse, and inclusive school communities, it is recommended that further
research explore the role of district leadership in the creation and implementation of professional
development plans and opportunities for all staff.
The second recommendation for future research is to investigate ways to gauge the social
emotional well-being of our youngest learners. Studies show that the social emotional health of
students has a direct correlation to academic success and social wellness, however the survey
instruments that are currently being used are only designed for students in grades three and
above. Developing a survey instrument for our youngest learners is imperative to identifying
needs early and implementing interventions.
The third recommendation for future research is to investigate successful collaborations
with outside agencies to promote education as a career for people of color. Establishing and
maintaining relationships between public school districts and universities is critical to promoting
diversity in school leadership. Collaborating with universities can aid in the cultivation of
candidates of color, who are historically underrepresented in leadership positions.
Finally, research should continue around mentorships for principals, focusing specifically
on the elementary school level.
Conclusion
This research adds to the current body of knowledge by investigating methods for
overcoming the barriers to recruiting, hiring, and retaining leaders of color in K-12 public
schools. Using a CRT lens (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Solarzano, 1998; Ladson-Billings,
2005; Dixon & Rousseau, 2005; Tate, 2005) this study explores the implementation of policies,
practices, and strategies aimed at supporting and retaining leaders of color, with the ultimate goal
75
of benefiting students of color. The data revealed that an equitable and culturally diverse and
responsive environment is essential for supporting leaders, teachers, and ultimately students of
all races and ethnicities. When districts have a plan in place more equitable outcomes occur. The
data also revealed that mentorship is key to the success and retention of leaders in elementary
school, which is a very solitary environment for leaders. And finally, the data revealed that we
need to do more for our youngest learners of color to create a sense of belonging and is school in
hopes that they will come back to school as a career.
76
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Appendix I
Introductory email
My name is Shannon Wyatt, and I am a Doctorate of Education student at the University of Southern California. As
you are aware, I am researching equitable hiring practices, specifically hiring and retaining ethnically diverse
leadership in public schools. I am particularly interested in these main areas: (1) District administrators' perceptions
of the barriers to hiring and retaining leaders of color in K-12 education. (2) District administrators’ perceptions of
the practices and policies that are in place to overcome the barriers to ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of
leaders of color in K-12 education. (3) The perceptions of school principals who identify as non-white on the
procedures, policies and strategies that are in place to ensure report and retention of leaders of color.
You have previously expressed interest in agreeing to have your district participate in this study. This email is to
confirm your participation in this study. Upon receipt of confirmation of your district’s participation and use of
your district’s emailing system, I request the contact information for the following employees: 1) one [1] Human
Resources employee that has a direct responsibility for recuriitng and hiring site principals; 2) at least three [3] site
principles who identify as being persons of color or non-white, and have been a school site principal within the last
school year; and 3) the district superintendent. Upon receipt of the contact information requested, I will send a letter
of participation to each contact.
Participation in this study by all participants in your district is voluntary. Participants do not have to answer any
questions they do not want to answer. If at any time they do not want to continue with the interview, they may
decline. Your and other participants’ time and involvement is profoundly appreciated. The entire interview will take
approximately one hour. To maintain the essence of the participant's words for the research, I will record the
information. At any time participants may request to see or hear the information I collect.
I appreciate the time and attention you have dedicated to this study. Please do not hesitate to reach out via phone or
email at 714-273-3014 or sdwyatt@usc.edu if you have any questions or concerns.
Best,
Shannon Wyatt, MEd
PhD Candidate, Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
89
Appendix II
Protocols:
Introduction:
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set aside
to answer my questions. As I mentioned when we last spoke, the interview should take about an
hour, does that still work for you?
Before we get started, I want to remind you about this study, the overview for which was
provided to you in the Study Information Sheet, and answer any questions you might have about
participating in this interview. I am a student at USC and am conducting a study on equitable
hiring practices, specifically hiring and retaining leaders of color. I am particularly interested in
understanding the barriers that currently exist to both hiring and retaining leaders of color, and
what strategies and policies are in place in your district to overcome these barriers. . I am talking
to two other superintendents to learn more about this. I am also going to interview individuals
from human resources departments from these same districts. Additionally, I will be conducting
a focus group consisting of 10 site leaders of color to gain insight into their path to leadership
and why they continue their journey.
I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher today. What this means is
that the nature of my questions is not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments on how
you are running your district. My goal is to understand your perspective.
Before we get started I would like to ask you have any questions. I have brought a recorder with
me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. The recording is solely for
my purposes to best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone outside the
90
research team. I would also like your permission to quote you directly, understanding that your
identity will remain anonymous. May I have your permission to record our conversation?
91
Appendix III
QUESTIONS FOR SUPERINTENDENTS AND HUMAN RESOURCE PERSONNEL
1. First, tell me about your background in education. (Q:Background)
a. How did you become interested in the field of education?
b. How long have you worked in the field?
c. What roles or positions have you held?
2. When did you become interested in district/school leadership? (Q:Background)
a. Is there a person in your career that encouraged you to pursue a career in
leadership?
b. What was the most challenging barrier you faced in becoming a leader?
c. What would have made your decision to become a leader easier?
3. In your perspective as a leader in the district, describe how diversity, equity and inclusion
initiatives are implemented throughout the system? (Not specifically for hiring and
retention). (CF: Practices, Q: Interpretive)
4. Does your district’s administration (site leaders and district admin) reflect the
demographics of the district’s student body? If yes, why do you think that is? If not,
why do you think that is?
5. What are the leaders' significant knowledge skills and abilities that you look for when
hiring? (CF: Hiring Administration Q: Interpretive)
a. How does your district evaluate non-traditional professional experiences in the
hiring process?
6. What actions have you utilized to retain your most talented leaders? (CF: Strategies, Q:
Practices?
7. What are some barriers that you have encountered when actively seeking candidates of
color?
8. What diversity policies have been implemented successfully at the district level and how
do you measure that success? (CF: Policies Q: Interpretive
9. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you have that could impact diversity, equity, and inclusion
recruitment? (CF: Strategies Q: Interpretive)
92
10. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you have that could impact diversity, equity, and inclusion
hiring? (CF: Strategies Q: Interpretive)
11. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you have that could impact diversity, equity, and inclusion
retention? (CF: Strategies Q: Interpretive)
Closing Question:
What other insight would you like to share about our conversation about Equitable, Recruitment,
Hiring, and Retention Practices of Leaders of Color today that I might not have covered, if any?
93
Appendix IV
QUESTIONS FOR SITE PRINCIPALS
First, tell me about your background in education. (Q:Background)
a. How did you become interested in the field of education?
b. How long have you worked in the field?
c. What roles or positions have you held?
2. When did you become interested in district/school leadership? (Q:Background)
a. Is there a person in your career that encouraged you to pursue a career in
leadership?
b. What was the most challenging barrier you faced in becoming a leader?
c. What would have made your decision to become a leader easier?
3. Did any direct experience motivate you to go into education? (Q: Background)
4. Did you have a teacher or leader of the same race in your K-12 experience? If yes, did
they have a significant impact on your journey? (Q: Background)
5. In your experience, does your district earnestly work to recruit leaders of color? (CF:
Practices Q: Interpretive)
6. What role does mentorship play in education? Have you been mentored by other leaders?
(CF: Practices, Background, Q Background)
7. What activity and initiatives at the district level has encouraged you to stay for so long?
(CF Practices, Background Q: Background)
8. Does race factor into your educational experience? How has race and ethnicity effected
your professional career regardless of position?( Q: Background)
9. In your experience what barriers have you seen that keep people of color from going
into the education system? Do you have any suggestions to eliminate them? (Q:
Background)
Closing Question:
What other insight would you like to share about our conversation about Equitable, Recruitment,
Hiring, and Retention Practices of Leaders of Color today that I might not have covered, if any?
94
Closing Comments:
Thank you so much for sharing your thoughts with me today! I appreciate your time and
willingness to share. At this point we have concluded the structured portion of this interview,
however if you have any additional perspective regarding the topic we have shared we will be
happy to discuss. Everything that you have shared is beneficial for my study. If I find myself
with a follow-up question, can I contact you, and if so, is email ok? Again, thank you for
participating in my study.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
There is an urgent need for K-12 school districts in the United States to hire, support, and retain school principals that reflect the students in the schools they serve. One of the most important investments we make in public education is to ensure that we have well-qualified, caring, and dedicated principals in every school. Our principal force should be excellent, but excellence alone will not be enough. If we are to increase opportunities for students and address the inequities that exist in our schools for the most marginalized students, it is critical that we develop a leadership force that is also diverse and reflects the students in the schools they serve. The number of students of color that walk through our urban public school doors increases each year, and they need to see role models that can connect students to the world outside of the schoolhouse and the opportunities that exist for them.
Reviewing all indicators of academic achievement, educational attainment, and school success, students of color are consistently ranked at the bottom (Skiba et al., 2008). With very few exceptions, these dismal patterns exist in urban and rural school districts throughout the United States. The disproportionately poor outcomes of students of color within the United States have been consistent for the past 40 years (Skiba et al., 2008). One of the many methods than can be implemented to address this gap is to implement research-based practices, strategies, and policies in the recruitment, hiring, and retention of principals of color. This is because students of color who have leaders of color in their schools and classrooms are statistically more likely to graduate from high school, have higher test scores, and are more likely to be accepted to college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). The following research highlights examples of the barriers to recruiting, hiring and retaining leaders of color in public schools in Southern California, and methods to overcoming those barriers in an aim to improve schools for administrators, teachers and students alike.
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Wyatt, Shannon Danette
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Why can’t I see myself in my school? Hiring and retaining ethnically diverse leadership in public schools
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Publication Date
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cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
desegregation
equity: education
ethnic diversity
hiring
implicit bias
principals
retaining