University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Tiny house in the desert: a study in indoor comfort using moveable insulation and thermal storage

(USC Thesis Other)

Tiny house in the desert: a study in indoor comfort using moveable insulation and thermal storage

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content TINY HOUSE IN THE DESERT: A study in indoor comfort using moveable insulation and thermal storage by Yuqing He A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE May 2023 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to dedicate this thesis to my 24th year of life, which was full of passion and courage, and especially to my golden student years. I am grateful for the opportunities and experiences that have come my way, and for the people who have been a part of my journey. I am deeply grateful to the University of Southern California for providing me with a world-class education and unforgettable experiences during my time as a graduate student in the Chase L. Leavitt Master of Building Science program at the USC School of Architecture. I extend my sincerest gratitude to all the professors who taught me and supported me throughout my academic journey. Your dedication, expertise, and passion for the field of architecture have inspired me to pursue my goals with confidence and determination. I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my thesis committee members, who have guided me through this challenging and rewarding journey. Firstly, I am very grateful to my thesis committee chair, Professor Douglas E. Noble, for giving me the opportunity to research this topic and for providing excellent direction and ideas for my research. Your love for our profession is beyond imagination, and you have influenced me to become a more optimistic and positive person. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Karen M. Kensek, my second committee member, for your invaluable guidance and advice throughout the process. I am grateful for the opportunity to serve as your teaching assistant, during which I have gained valuable knowledge and experience. The memories we shared, particularly those involving pineapples, will always hold a special place in my heart. I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to Professor Marc Schiler, my third committee member, for your invaluable assistance in addressing technical aspects and engaging in meaningful discussions. Your support has always been instrumental in overcoming the bottlenecks I encountered during the writing of my thesis. I would like to express my great appreciation to Professor Mic Patterson, my fourth committee member, for providing valuable comments and asking thought-provoking questions about my thesis. Your expertise and insights have greatly enriched my research. Lastly, special thanks to Professor Gideon Susman for your guidance in utilizing the IES VE software and providing insights on simulation techniques using the software. The impact of all the professors I am grateful to has been immeasurable, and I deeply appreciate all that you have done to help me become a better person, both academically and in life. Thank you again for your continued help, support and guidance. I would also like to extend my appreciation to my team members, Aditya Bahl and Archana Janardanan, for the invaluable contributions in completing this thesis. I am grateful for the teamwork and collaborative spirit that we shared throughout this tiny house project. iii I would like to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to my parents and family for their unwavering support and encouragement throughout my master's program. Your unwavering love and support provided me with the strength and confidence to face any challenge and helped me become the person I am today. I am grateful for the steadfast support and companionship of my classmates and friends throughout my academic journey, and I would like to express my sincere appreciation for all that you have done for me. Your presence and encouragement have been a constant source of motivation for me, helping me to stay focused and committed to my studies. I truly cherish the memories we have shared together and will always remember the good times we had. I feel blessed to have had the opportunity to meet such wonderful people during my studies, and I look forward to maintaining our friendships in the future. Thank you for being a part of my journey, and for making it a memorable one. I would like to take a moment to express my gratitude to every person I have encountered on my journey so far. Each one of you has played a significant role in shaping me into the person I am today. Your guidance, support, and encouragement have helped me improve, grow, and become a better person. Studying at USC has truly been an unforgettable experience, and I am grateful for the knowledge, skills and friendships I have gained during my time here. I am proud to be a part of the Trojan Family, and I will always cherish the memories and experiences that I have had at USC. Thank you, USC, for everything! Fight on! iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................................... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES .....................................................................................................................x ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... xxix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................1 1.1 Background and context of Joshua Tree National Park .....................................................1 1.1.1 Location of park ..........................................................................................................1 1.1.2 Climate ........................................................................................................................2 1.1.3 Visitors ........................................................................................................................4 1.1.4 Earthquake probability ................................................................................................6 1.2 Housing shortage at Joshua Tree National Park ................................................................6 1.2.1 Seasonal rangers ..........................................................................................................6 1.2.2 Seasonal rangers’ accommodation ..............................................................................7 1.2.3 Accommodation resources in nearby cities .................................................................8 1.3 Tiny house ..........................................................................................................................8 1.3.1 Advantages of a tiny house .........................................................................................8 1.3.2 Tiny house ...................................................................................................................9 1.3.3 A trend of living preference - tiny house movement .................................................12 1.3.4 Tiny house types .......................................................................................................14 1.3.4.1 Small and mobile tiny houses ............................................................................14 1.3.4.2 Small and permanent tiny houses ......................................................................17 1.4 Precast concrete ...............................................................................................................19 1.4.1 Advantages of precast concrete construction ............................................................20 1.4.2 Disadvantages of precast concrete ............................................................................21 1.4.3 Use of pre-cast concrete for thermal mass ................................................................22 1.4.4 Use of north wall as “cold battery” ...........................................................................23 1.5 Building orientation for energy efficiency .......................................................................26 1.6 Thermal comfort ..............................................................................................................28 1.7 Software tools ..................................................................................................................29 1.7.1 Grasshopper - Ladybug and Honeybee .....................................................................30 1.7.2 IES <virtual environment> .......................................................................................32 1.7.3 Opaque ......................................................................................................................33 1.8 Summary ..........................................................................................................................34 CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................36 v 2.1 Joshua Tree National Park ...............................................................................................36 2.2 Small Residences .............................................................................................................37 2.3 Concrete wall characteristics ...........................................................................................40 2.3.1 Prefabrication ............................................................................................................40 2.3.2 Thermal Mass ............................................................................................................41 2.3.3 Strategies ...................................................................................................................42 2.3.4 Use of Insulation .......................................................................................................43 2.3.5 Case Studies ..............................................................................................................45 2.4 Energy Efficiency and Thermal Comfort .........................................................................51 2.5 Software Simulation ........................................................................................................52 2.6 Summary ..........................................................................................................................53 CHAPTER 3 DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY ....................55 3.1 Collected as a team ..........................................................................................................56 3.2 Collected individually ......................................................................................................57 3.2.1 Climate ......................................................................................................................57 3.2.2 Comfort zone ............................................................................................................59 3.3 3D models ........................................................................................................................60 3.3.1 Climate Consultant ....................................................................................................61 3.3.2 Revit model ...............................................................................................................61 3.3.3 Rhino .........................................................................................................................62 3.3.4 OPAQUE ...................................................................................................................63 3.3.5 IES VE ......................................................................................................................64 3.3.6 Excel .........................................................................................................................80 3.4 Thermal lag ......................................................................................................................81 3.5 Dynamic insulation ..........................................................................................................81 3.6 Ventilation ........................................................................................................................83 3.7 Summary ..........................................................................................................................83 CHAPTER 4 SIMULATION & RESULTS ...............................................................................86 4.1 Climate .............................................................................................................................86 4.1.1 Climate Consultant ....................................................................................................86 4.1.2 Ladybug and Honeybee ............................................................................................95 4.2 Comfort zone .................................................................................................................109 4.3 3D models ......................................................................................................................109 4.3.1 Climate Consultant ..................................................................................................109 4.3.2 Revit model .............................................................................................................109 4.3.3 Rhino ....................................................................................................................... 110 4.3.4 OPAQUE - U value and R value .......................................................................... 113 4.3.5 IES VE ....................................................................................................................153 Test I – east and west windows always off ..................................................................154 Test II - east and west windows always on ..................................................................156 Test III - east and west windows (comfort zone 65°F -85°F) ......................................159 Test IV - east and west windows (ASHRAE comfort zone 67°F -82°F) .....................162 vi Summary of Test I, Test II, Test III, and Test IV .........................................................165 Test V – dynamic insulation (outside) (whole year) ....................................................167 Test VI – dynamic insulation (outside) ........................................................................171 Summary of Test V , Test VI-a, Test VI-b, Test VI-c, and Test VI-d ............................196 Test VII – static insulation (inside) ..............................................................................197 Summary of Test VII-e, Test VII-f, Test VII-g, Test VII-h, and Test VII-i .................. 211 Test VIII - Update Test VI and Test VII .......................................................................214 Summary of Test I to Test VIII ....................................................................................220 4.3.6 Excel .......................................................................................................................223 4.4 Thermal lag ....................................................................................................................223 4.5 Dynamic insulation ........................................................................................................231 4.6 Summary ........................................................................................................................242 4.6.1 Climate and Comfort ...............................................................................................242 4.6.2 3D Models ...............................................................................................................243 4.6.3 Thermal Lag ............................................................................................................244 4.6.4 Dynamic Insulation .................................................................................................245 4.6.5 Values for North Wall for Combined Building Model (Chapter 5) .........................245 CHAPTER 5 DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR COMBINED MODEL OF POCKET LODGE247 5.1 South Wall ......................................................................................................................247 5.2 North Wall ......................................................................................................................253 5.3 Roof ...............................................................................................................................257 5.4 East and west windows ..................................................................................................260 5.5 Combined model simulation result ................................................................................261 5.6 Proposed south wall as the hot battery ...........................................................................264 5.7 Proposed east and west glazed facade improvements ...................................................266 5.8 Summary ........................................................................................................................269 CHAPTER 6 BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE .......................................271 6.1 South wall as the hot battery ..........................................................................................271 Test 1 – dynamic insulation inside on + outside on .........................................................272 Test 2 – dynamic insulation inside on + outside off ........................................................273 Test 3 – dynamic insulation inside off + outside on ........................................................274 Test 4 – dynamic insulation inside off + outside off ........................................................275 Test 5 – dynamic insulation inside day on, night off + outside day off, night on ............276 Test 6 – dynamic insulation inside day off, night on + outside day on, night off ............277 Test 7 – dynamic insulation inside on + outside day on, night off ..................................278 Test 8 – dynamic insulation inside off + outside day on, night off ..................................279 Test 9 – dynamic insulation inside off + outside day off, night on ..................................280 Test 10 – dynamic insulation inside on + outside day off, night on ................................281 Test 11 – dynamic insulation inside day on, night off + outside on .................................282 Test 12 – dynamic insulation inside day on, night off + outside off ................................283 Test 13 – dynamic insulation inside day off, night on + outside off ................................284 Test 14 – dynamic insulation inside day off, night on + outside on.................................285 vii Test 15 – dynamic insulation inside optimization + outside optimization .......................286 Summary of Test 1 to Test 15...........................................................................................292 6.2 East and west glazed facade improvements ...................................................................293 Test 16 – dynamic insulation + no buffer space ...............................................................294 Test 17 – dynamic insulation + blinds .............................................................................294 Test 18 – dynamic insulation + blinds .............................................................................295 Summary of Test 16 to Test 18.........................................................................................296 6.3 Summary ........................................................................................................................297 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK ........................................................301 7.1 Background ....................................................................................................................301 7.1.1 Location ..................................................................................................................301 7.1.2 Choice of tiny house ...............................................................................................302 7.1.3 Precast concrete as a suitable material ....................................................................303 7.1.4 Thermal comfort simulation tools ...........................................................................306 7.1.5 Moveable insulation to help create a cold battery...................................................307 7.2 Methodology ..................................................................................................................308 7.3 Four studies ....................................................................................................................309 7.3.1 Study of first model ventilation using east/west walls ............................................309 7.3.2 Study of north wall: comfort hours and time lag .................................................... 311 Comfort hours ..............................................................................................................312 Time lag .......................................................................................................................316 7.3.3 Study of the combined model with all team components .......................................320 South wall ....................................................................................................................320 North Wall ....................................................................................................................323 Roof..............................................................................................................................325 Combined model ..........................................................................................................327 7.3.4 Study of the improved combined model .................................................................329 South wall as the hot battery ........................................................................................330 East and west glazed facade improvements .................................................................333 7.3.5 A comparison of the four models ............................................................................335 7.4 Future work ....................................................................................................................336 7.4.1 Improvements .........................................................................................................336 7.4.2 Future work .............................................................................................................337 7.5 Summary ........................................................................................................................339 References ............................................................................................................................340 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1. Joshua Tree visitation by year ································ ································ ·· 5 Table 1.2 Thermophysical properties of building materials ································ ··········· 22 Table 1.3 Software ································ ································ ··························· 29 Table 2.1. Joshua Tree home value ································ ································ ········ 38 Table 3.1 Opening category in IES VE ································ ································ ···· 69 Table 4.1 Summary of U value, R value, decrement factor, and time lag of concrete wall ······ 123 Table 4.2 U value, R value, decrement factor, and time lag of EPS ································ 135 Table 4.3 U value, R value, decrement factor, and time lag of XPS ································ 148 Table 4.4 Summary of all test air temperature interior space results································ 167 Table 4.5 Comparison of Test VI-a and Test VI-b ································ ····················· 180 Table 4.6 Summary of Test VI-a and Test VI-b (Mar. Apr., May, Sep., Oct., Nov.) ·············· 183 Table 4.7 Summary of all test air temperature interior space results································ 197 Table 4.8 Summary of Test VII-e air temperature interior space results ··························· 200 Table 4.9 Summary of Test VII-f air temperature interior space results ···························· 202 Table 4.10 Summary of Test VII-g air temperature interior space results ·························· 204 Table 4.11 Summary of Test VII-h air temperature interior space results ·························· 206 Table 4.12 Summary of Test VII-i air temperature interior space results ·························· 208 Table 4.13 Summary of Test VII-j air temperature interior space results ·························· 210 Table 4.14 Temperature summary of static insulation inside in cold month ······················· 211 Table 4.15 Temperature summary of static insulation inside from April 1 to April 13 ··········· 213 Table 4.16 Temperature summary of Test VII-e to j and combine with Test VII-d ··············· 213 Table 4.17 Dynamic insulation setting of Test k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s ······························· 216 ix Table 4.18 Summary of all month’s air temperature interior space results ························ 219 Table 4.19 Summary of all test air temperature interior space results ······························ 222 Table 4.20 Time lag of different side of insulation and thickness ································ ··· 231 Table 5.1 Summary of the south wall material and thickness ································ ········ 248 Table 5.2 Summary of the south wall outside and inside insulation annual profile ·············· 253 Table 5.3 Summary of the north wall material and thickness ································ ········ 254 Table 5.4 Summary of the north wall outside and inside insulation annual profile ··············· 256 Table 5.5 Summary of the roof material and thickness ································ ··············· 257 Table 5.6 Summary of the roof inside insulation annual profile ································ ····· 259 Table 6.1 Summary of the south wall external and internal dynamic insulation ·················· 272 Table 6.2 Summary of insulation of Test 1 to Test 14 ································ ················· 286 Table 6.3 Summary of thermal comfort hours of Test 1 to Test 14 ································ ·· 288 Table 6.4 Summary of the south wall external and internal dynamic insulation ·················· 290 Table 6.5 Summary of Test 1 to Test 15 air temperature interior space results ···················· 292 Table 6.6 Summary of Test 16 to Test 18 air temperature interior space results ·················· 296 Table 6.7 Summary of the south wall external and internal dynamic insulation ·················· 297 Table 6.8 Summary of Test 1 to Test 18 air temperature interior space results ···················· 299 Table 7.1 Summary of cold battery dynamic insulation profile ································ ····· 315 Table 7.2 Summary of the south wall outside and inside insulation annual profile ·············· 322 Table 7.3 Summary of the north wall outside and inside insulation annual profile ··············· 324 Table 7.4 Summary of the roof inside insulation annual profile ································ ····· 326 Table 7.5 Summary of the south wall external and internal dynamic insulation ·················· 332 Table 7.6 Summary of four studies air temperature interior space results ························· 336 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 The desert sky was painted at sunset ································ ·························· 2 Figure 1.2 To enjoy the stars, spend the night in the park ································ ··············· 2 Figure 1.3 Temperature history in 2022 in Joshua Tree National Park ································ 4 Figure 1.4 Hourly Temperature in 2022 in Joshua Tree National Park ································ 4 Figure 1.5 The Moon Dragon tiny house, in Olympia, Washington, designed by Zyl Vardos ···· 10 Figure 1.6 Dee’s Current House: The Kozy Kabin ································ ······················ 11 Figure 1.7 Custom Hummingbird Tiny House in the desert by Old Hippie Woodworking ······· 11 Figure 1.8 The first ‘tiny house’ evangelist, Henry David Thoreau ································ ··· 13 Figure 1.9 Tiny house on wheels ································ ································ ··········· 15 Figure 1.10 Tiny house on wheels in the desert ································ ·························· 15 Figure 1.11 Relocatable tiny houses ································ ································ ······· 16 Figure 1.12 Cube Tiny house ································ ································ ··············· 17 Figure 1.13 Modern Permanent Purpose Built Tiny House ································ ············ 19 Figure 1.14 Cold battery ································ ································ ····················· 24 Figure 1.15 Plan view of a room ································ ································ ··········· 25 Figure 1.16 Illustration of a Trombe wall ································ ································ · 26 Figure 1.17 Shapes of the buildings SF 1/1, SF 2/1, SF 1/2 ································ ··········· 27 Figure 1.18 Heating energy saving, depending on shape factor and orientation ···················· 28 Figure 1.19 Ladybug – Climate visualization and analysis ································ ············ 31 Figure 1.20 Honeybee – Building energy, daylight, comfort modeling ······························ 32 Figure 1.21 IES VE ································ ································ ·························· 33 Figure 1.22 Opaque 3.0 ································ ································ ······················ 34 xi Figure 1.23 The temperature profile of Opaque ································ ························· 34 Figure 2.1 Joshua Tree ································ ································ ······················· 36 Figure 2.2 Airbnb small housing near Joshua Tree ································ ······················ 39 Figure 2.3 A-Frames, Yurts and Little Metal Hutsin Joshua Tree ································ ····· 39 Figure 2.4 Micro-Compact House ································ ································ ········· 45 Figure 2.5 Grintovec Shelter ································ ································ ················ 46 Figure 2.6 Casa Tiny ································ ································ ························· 47 Figure 2.7 Inside of Casa Tiny ································ ································ ············· 48 Figure 2.8 Vale De Cambra ································ ································ ················· 49 Figure 2.9 Vale De Cambra Glass Wall ································ ································ ··· 49 Figure 2.10 Wagon stations ································ ································ ················· 50 Figure 2.11 Wagon stations ································ ································ ················· 50 Figure 3.1 Chapters 3 – 6 Organization ································ ································ ··· 55 Figure 3.2 Design Background and Simulation Methodology ································ ········· 55 Figure 3.3 Whole year sun path ································ ································ ············ 56 Figure 3.4 Views of Revit model ································ ································ ··········· 62 Figure 3.5 3D model and rendered in Revit ································ ······························ 62 Figure 3.6 Views of Rhino model ································ ································ ·········· 63 Figure 3.7 Grasshopper model ································ ································ ············· 63 Figure 3.8 OPAQUE sample model ································ ································ ······· 64 Figure 3.9 Shoe box without windows in IES VE ································ ······················· 65 Figure 3.10 Simple shoe box with east and west windows in IES VE ······························· 66 Figure 3.11 The north wall cold battery – dynamic insulation outside in IES VE ·················· 66 xii Figure 3.12 Looking at the east window wall – the north wall is the cold battery ·················· 67 Figure 3.13 MacroFlo opening types ································ ································ ······ 67 Figure 3.14 Opening category ································ ································ ·············· 68 Figure 3.15 Parallel hung windows ································ ································ ········ 68 Figure 3.16 Proportions option ································ ································ ············· 69 Figure 3.17 Always off (0%) and always on (100%)································ ···················· 70 Figure 3.18 Window conditions profile ································ ································ ··· 71 Figure 3.19 Ventilation formula ································ ································ ············ 71 Figure 3.20 Window conditions profile ································ ································ ··· 72 Figure 3.21 Ventilation formula ································ ································ ············ 72 Figure 3.22 Daily profile according to seasonal rangers’ work schedule ···························· 73 Figure 3.23 Annual profile - a. dynamic insulation outside (spring, summer, and fall) ············ 74 Figure 3.24 Annual profile - b. dynamic insulation outside (winter) ································ · 74 Figure 3.25 Annual profile - c. dynamic insulation (summer) ································ ········· 75 Figure 3.26 Annual profile - d. dynamic insulation outside optimization ···························· 75 Figure 3.27 East and West window Construction ································ ························ 76 Figure 3.28 Expanded polystyrene U value, R value and thickness ································ ·· 77 Figure 3.29 3 inches dynamic insulation outside construction ································ ········ 78 Figure 3.30 3 inches dynamic insulation inside construction ································ ·········· 78 Figure 3.31 3 inches dynamic insulation outside construction ································ ········ 79 Figure 3.32 2 inches dynamic insulation outside construction ································ ········ 79 Figure 3.33 2 inches dynamic insulation inside construction ································ ·········· 80 Figure 3.34 BTU calculation ································ ································ ··············· 80 xiii Figure 3.35 Heat Transfer Process across the (a) solid wall, (b) composite wall ··················· 82 Figure 3.36 Cold battery ································ ································ ····················· 82 Figure 3.37 Design Background and Simulation Methodology, Simulation and Results ·········· 85 Figure 4.1 Diagram of how chapter 3 methodology relates to chapter 4 simulation and results · 86 Figure 4.2 Temperature range ································ ································ ·············· 87 Figure 4.3 Monthly diurnal averages ································ ································ ······ 88 Figure 4.4 Sky cover range ································ ································ ················· 89 Figure 4.5 Daily time table plot ································ ································ ············ 90 Figure 4.6 Wind wheel ································ ································ ······················· 91 Figure 4.7 Wind velocity range ································ ································ ············· 92 Figure 4.8 Ground temperature ································ ································ ············· 92 Figure 4.9 dry bulb temperature and relative humidity ································ ················· 93 Figure 4.10 dry bulb temperature and dew point ································ ························ 94 Figure 4.11 Psychrometric chart ································ ································ ··········· 95 Figure 4.12 Design strategies ································ ································ ··············· 95 Figure 4.13 Ladybug - psychrometric chart ································ ······························ 96 Figure 4.14 Ladybug’s comfort zone ································ ································ ······ 97 Figure 4.15 Comfort zone + passive solar design ································ ······················· 97 Figure 4.16 Comfort zone + Passive solar design + capture internal heat ··························· 98 Figure 4.17 Comfort zone + passive solar design +capture internal heat + occupant use of fan · 99 Figure 4.18 PMV (Predicted Mean V ote) ································ ······························· 100 Figure 4.19 PMV -Sitting: shoes or sandals, walking shorts, trousers, coveralls, vest ··········· 101 Figure 4.20 PMV -Sleeping: socks or panty hose, walking shorts, coveralls, vest ··············· 102 xiv Figure 4.21 Sun analysis ································ ································ ·················· 103 Figure 4.22 Global horizontal radiation ································ ································ · 103 Figure 4.23 North wall direct sun hours ································ ································ 104 Figure 4.24 Sun analysis ································ ································ ·················· 104 Figure 4.25 Sun analysis ································ ································ ·················· 105 Figure 4.26 Sun analysis ································ ································ ·················· 105 Figure 4.27 March Equinox ································ ································ ··············· 105 Figure 4.28 June Solstice ································ ································ ·················· 106 Figure 4.29 September Equinox ································ ································ ·········· 106 Figure 4.30 December Solstice ································ ································ ··········· 107 Figure 4.31 Method of creating wind rose ································ ······························ 107 Figure 4.32 Monthly wind rose chart ································ ································ ···· 109 Figure 4.33 3D model in Revit ································ ································ ··········· 110 Figure 4.34 3D model rendering ································ ································ ········· 110 Figure 4.35 Rhino model of the preliminary tiny house ································ ·············· 111 Figure 4.36 Rhino model of the prefabrication unit ································ ··················· 111 Figure 4.37 Grasshopper script ································ ································ ··········· 112 Figure 4.38 Grasshopper model ································ ································ ·········· 112 Figure 4.39 Test 1 – Inside and outside air film and 3” concrete ································ ···· 114 Figure 4.40 Test 2 – Inside and outside air film and 4” concrete ································ ···· 114 Figure 4.41 Test 3 – Inside and outside air film and 5” concrete ································ ···· 115 Figure 4.42 Test 4 – Inside and outside air film and 6” concrete ································ ···· 115 Figure 4.43 Test 5 – Inside and outside air film and 7” concrete ································ ···· 116 xv Figure 4.44 Test 6 – Inside and outside air film and 8” concrete ································ ···· 116 Figure 4.45 Test 7 – Inside and outside air film and 9” concrete ································ ···· 117 Figure 4.46 Test 8 – Inside and outside air film and 10” concrete ································ ·· 117 Figure 4.47 Test 9 – Inside and outside air film and 11” concrete ································ ·· 118 Figure 4.48 Test 10 – Inside and outside air film and 12” concrete ································ · 118 Figure 4.49 Test 11 – Inside and outside air film and 13” concrete ································ · 119 Figure 4.50 Test 12 – Inside and outside air film and 14” concrete ································ · 119 Figure 4.51 Test 13 – Inside and outside air film and 15” concrete ································ · 120 Figure 4.52 Test 14 – Inside and outside air film and 16” concrete ································ · 120 Figure 4.53 Test 15 – Inside and outside air film and 17” concrete ································ · 121 Figure 4.54 Test 16 – Inside and outside air film and 18” concrete ································ · 121 Figure 4.55 Test 17 – Inside and outside air film and 19” concrete ································ · 122 Figure 4.56 Test 18 – Inside and outside air film and 20” concrete ································ · 122 Figure 4.57 Relationship of Test 1 to Test 18 U value and Time lag, in hours ···················· 126 Figure 4.58 Test 19 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” EPS (outside) ············ 127 Figure 4.59 Test 20 – Inside and outside air film 5” concrete, and 2” EPS (outside) ············ 128 Figure 4.60 Test 21 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” EPS (outside) ············ 128 Figure 4.61 Test 22 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” EPS (outside) ············ 129 Figure 4.62 Test 23 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” EPS (outside) ············ 129 Figure 4.63 Test 24 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” EPS (inside) ············· 130 Figure 4.64 Test 25 - Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 2” EPS (inside) ·············· 130 Figure 4.65 Test 26 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” EPS (inside) ··············· 131 Figure 4.66 Test 27 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” EPS (inside) ··············· 131 xvi Figure 4.67 Test 28 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” EPS (inside) ··············· 132 Figure 4.68 Test 29 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” EPS (both sides) ·········· 132 Figure 4.69 Test 30 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 2” EPS (both sides) ·········· 133 Figure 4.70 Test 31 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” EPS (both sides) ·········· 133 Figure 4.71 Test 32 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” EPS (both sides) ·········· 134 Figure 4.72 Test 33 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” EPS (both sides) ·········· 134 Figure 4.73 Relationship of Test 19 to Test 33 U value and Time lag, in hours ··················· 139 Figure 4.74 Test 34 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” XPS (outside) ··········· 140 Figure 4.75 Test 35 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 2” XPS (outside) ··········· 141 Figure 4.76 Test 36 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” XPS (outside) ··········· 141 Figure 4.77 Test 37 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” XPS (outside) ··········· 142 Figure 4.78 Test 38 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” XPS (outside) ··········· 142 Figure 4.79 Test 39 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” XPS (inside) ············· 143 Figure 4.80 Test 40 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 2” XPS (inside) ············· 143 Figure 4.81 Test 41 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” XPS (inside) ············· 144 Figure 4.82 Test 42 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” XPS (inside) ············· 144 Figure 4.83 Test 43 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” XPS (inside) ············· 145 Figure 4.84 Test 44 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” XPS (both sides) ·········· 145 Figure 4.85 Test 45 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 2” XPS (both sides) ·········· 146 Figure 4.86 Test 46 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” XPS (both sides) ·········· 146 Figure 4.87 Test 47 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” XPS (both sides) ·········· 147 Figure 4.88 Test 48 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” XPS (both sides) ·········· 147 Figure 4.89 Relationship of Test 34 to Test 48 U value and Time lag, in hours ··················· 152 xvii Figure 4.90 Always off (0%) ································ ································ ············· 154 Figure 4.91 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 155 Figure 4.92 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 155 Figure 4.93 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F ·········· 156 Figure 4.94 Always on (100%) ································ ································ ··········· 157 Figure 4.95 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 158 Figure 4.96 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 158 Figure 4.97 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F ·········· 159 Figure 4.98 Window conditions profile ································ ································ · 160 Figure 4.99 Ventilation formula ································ ································ ·········· 160 Figure 4.100 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ·············· 161 Figure 4.101 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ························· 161 Figure 4.102 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F ········· 162 Figure 4.103 Window conditions profile ································ ································ 163 Figure 4.104 Ventilation formula ································ ································ ········ 163 Figure 4.105 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ·············· 164 Figure 4.106 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ························· 164 Figure 4.107 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F ········· 165 Figure 4.108 Summary of Test I, Test II, Test III, and Test IV ································ ······ 166 Figure 4.109 Comparison of Test I, Test II, Test III, and Test IV ································ ··· 167 Figure 4.110 Daily Profile ································ ································ ················ 168 Figure 4.111 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F an 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 169 Figure 4.112 Air temperature – Interior space································ ·························· 169 xviii Figure 4.113 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F ········· 170 Figure 4.114 Comparison of Test I, Test II, Test III, Test IV , and Test V ··························· 170 Figure 4.115 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside ································ ·········· 171 Figure 4.116 Air temperature comparison with Test V and Test VI – a ···························· 172 Figure 4.117 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ·············· 173 Figure 4.118 Air temperature – Interior space································ ·························· 173 Figure 4.119 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F ········· 174 Figure 4.120 Winter (Dec. to Feb.) ································ ································ ······ 175 Figure 4.121 Spring (Mar. to May) ································ ································ ······ 175 Figure 4.122 Summer (Jun. to Aug.) ································ ································ ···· 175 Figure 4.123 Fall (Sep. to Nov.) ································ ································ ·········· 176 Figure 4.124 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside ································ ·········· 176 Figure 4.125 Air Comparison with Test V and Test VI – b ································ ··········· 177 Figure 4.126 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ·············· 177 Figure 4.127 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ························· 178 Figure 4.128 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F ········· 178 Figure 4.129 Winter (Dec. to Feb.) ································ ································ ······ 179 Figure 4.130 Spring (Mar. to May) ································ ································ ······ 179 Figure 4.131 Summer (Jun. to Aug.) ································ ································ ···· 179 Figure 4.132 Fall (Sep. to Nov.) ································ ································ ·········· 180 Figure 4.133 Test VI-a March ································ ································ ············ 181 Figure 4.134 Test VI-a April ································ ································ ·············· 181 Figure 4.135 Test VI-a May ································ ································ ··············· 181 xix Figure 4.136 Test VI-a Sep ································ ································ ················ 182 Figure 4.137 Test VI-a Oct ································ ································ ················ 182 Figure 4.138 Test VI-a Nov ································ ································ ··············· 182 Figure 4.139 Test VI-b March ································ ································ ············ 182 Figure 4.140 Test VI-b April ································ ································ ·············· 182 Figure 4.141 Test VI-b May ································ ································ ·············· 182 Figure 4.142 Test VI-b Sep ································ ································ ··············· 183 Figure 4.143 Test VI-b Oct ································ ································ ················ 183 Figure 4.144 Test VI-b Nov ································ ································ ··············· 183 Figure 4.145 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside ································ ·········· 184 Figure 4.146 Air Comparison with Test V and Test VI-c ································ ············· 185 Figure 4.147 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ·············· 186 Figure 4.148 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ························· 186 Figure 4.149 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F ········· 187 Figure 4.150 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside ································ ·········· 188 Figure 4.151 March open································ ································ ·················· 188 Figure 4.152 March close ································ ································ ················· 188 Figure 4.153 Comparison of March close and open ································ ··················· 189 Figure 4.154 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside ································ ·········· 190 Figure 4.155 April open ································ ································ ··················· 190 Figure 4.156 April close ································ ································ ··················· 190 Figure 4.157 Comparison of April close and open ································ ···················· 191 Figure 4.158 Open April 25 -31 ································ ································ ·········· 191 xx Figure 4.159 Open April 16 - 31, April 15 - 31, April 14 -31 ································ ········ 192 Figure 4.160 Open April 13 -31 ································ ································ ·········· 192 Figure 4.161 Open Nov. ································ ································ ··················· 192 Figure 4.162 Close Nov. ································ ································ ··················· 192 Figure 4.163 Comparison of November close and open ································ ·············· 193 Figure 4.164 Comparison of October close and open ································ ················· 194 Figure 4.165 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside ································ ·········· 195 Figure 4.166 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ·············· 195 Figure 4.167 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ························· 196 Figure 4.168 Summary of Test V , Test VI-a, Test VI-b, Test VI-c, Test VI-d ······················ 196 Figure 4.169 North wall constrction ································ ································ ····· 198 Figure 4.170 e Air temperature – Interior space – whole year ································ ······· 198 Figure 4.171 e Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb, Dec. ································ ··· 199 Figure 4.172 e Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. ································ ················ 199 Figure 4.173 e Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. ································ ··············· 199 Figure 4.174 e Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. ································ ··············· 199 Figure 4.175 e Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. ································ ················ 199 Figure 4.176 e Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. ································ ··············· 199 Figure 4.177 e Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. ································ ··············· 199 Figure 4.178 f Air temperature – Interior space - Whole year ································ ······· 200 Figure 4.179 f Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb., Dec. ································ ·· 201 Figure 4.180 f Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. ································ ················ 201 Figure 4.181 f Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. ································ ················ 201 xxi Figure 4.182 f Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. ································ ··············· 201 Figure 4.183 f Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. ································ ················ 201 Figure 4.184 f Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. ································ ··············· 201 Figure 4.185 f Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. ································ ··············· 202 Figure 4.186 g Air temperature – Interior space - Whole year ································ ······· 203 Figure 4.187 g Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb., Dec. ································ ·· 203 Figure 4.188 g Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. ································ ················ 203 Figure 4.189 g Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. ································ ··············· 203 Figure 4.190 g Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. ································ ··············· 203 Figure 4.191 g Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. ································ ··············· 203 Figure 4.192 g Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. ································ ··············· 204 Figure 4.193 g Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. ································ ··············· 204 Figure 4.194 h Air temperature – Interior space - Whole year ································ ······· 205 Figure 4.195 h Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb., Dec. ································ ·· 205 Figure 4.196 h Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. ································ ················ 205 Figure 4.197 h Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. ································ ··············· 205 Figure 4.198 h Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. ································ ··············· 205 Figure 4.199 h Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. ································ ··············· 206 Figure 4.200 h Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. ································ ··············· 206 Figure 4.201 h Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. ································ ··············· 206 Figure 4.202 i Air temperature – Interior space - Whole year ································ ······· 207 Figure 4.203 i Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb., Dec.································ ··· 207 Figure 4.204 i Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. ································ ················ 207 xxii Figure 4.205 i Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. ································ ················ 207 Figure 4.206 i Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. ································ ················ 207 Figure 4.207 i Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. ································ ················ 208 Figure 4.208 i Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. ································ ··············· 208 Figure 4.209 i Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. ································ ················ 208 Figure 4.210 j Air temperature – Interior space - Whole year ································ ······· 209 Figure 4.211 j Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb., Dec. ································ ··· 209 Figure 4.212 j Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. ································ ················ 209 Figure 4.213 j Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. ································ ················ 209 Figure 4.214 j Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. ································ ················ 210 Figure 4.215 j Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. ································ ················ 210 Figure 4.216 j Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. ································ ··············· 210 Figure 4.217 j Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. ································ ················ 210 Figure 4.218 Comparison of Test VII -e, f, g, h, i, j ································ ··················· 212 Figure 4.219 Daily Profile ································ ································ ················ 215 Figure 4.220 Test VIII k to t - 12 months of comfort hours ································ ·········· 217 Figure 4.221 Test VIII k to t - 12 months of comfort hours ································ ·········· 218 Figure 4.222 BTU calculation ································ ································ ············ 223 Figure 4.223 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall - 3.5h thermal lag ······················· 224 Figure 4.224 5” concrete with 2 inches insulation in outside ································ ········ 225 Figure 4.225 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 2” outside insulation - 6.1h ········· 225 Figure 4.226 5” concrete with 2” insulation in inside ································ ················· 226 Figure 4.227 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 2” inside insulation - 5.3h ··········· 226 xxiii Figure 4.228 5” concrete with 2” insulation in both side ································ ············· 227 Figure 4.229 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 2” both side insulation - 8.1h ······· 227 Figure 4.230 5” concrete with 3” insulation in outside ································ ··············· 228 Figure 4.231 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 3” outside insulation - 7.1h ········· 228 Figure 4.232 5” concrete with 3” insulation in inside ································ ················· 229 Figure 4.233 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 3” inside insulation - 6.2h ··········· 229 Figure 4.234 5” concrete with 3” insulation in both side ································ ············· 230 Figure 4.235 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 2” both side insulation - 9.9h ······· 230 Figure 4.236 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall ································ ···················· 232 Figure 4.237 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall ································ ······················ 233 Figure 4.238 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in inside ·················· 233 Figure 4.239 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in outside ················· 234 Figure 4.240 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in both side ··············· 234 Figure 4.241 Comparison of peak days (summer) for 5" concrete walls and 3" insulation ····· 235 Figure 4.242 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in inside ···················· 235 Figure 4.243 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in outside ··················· 236 Figure 4.244 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in both side ················· 236 Figure 4.245 Comparison of peak days (winter) for 5" concrete walls and 3" insulation ······· 237 Figure 4.246 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall with 2” insulation in inside ·················· 237 Figure 4.247 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall with 2” insulation in inside ···················· 238 Figure 4.248 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall with 2” insulation in outside ················· 238 Figure 4.249 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall with 2” insulation in outside ··················· 239 Figure 4.250 Comparison of peak day (summer) for 5” concrete walls and 2” insulation ······ 239 xxiv Figure 4.251 Comparison of peak days (winter) for 5” concrete walls and 2” insulation ······· 240 Figure 4.252 Comparison of peak days (summer) for 5” concrete walls and 2”/ 3” insulation · 241 Figure 4.253 Comparison of peak days (winter) for 5” concrete walls and 2”/ 3” insulation ··· 242 Figure 5.1 Diagram of chapter 5 data consolidation for combined model of pocket lodge ····· 247 Figure 5.2 South wall – outside insulation project construction ································ ····· 248 Figure 5.3 South wall – inside insulation project construction ································ ······ 248 Figure 5.4 South wall – outside insulation daily profile – 11 am to 5 pm ························· 249 Figure 5.5 South wall – outside insulation daily profile – 8 am to 6 pm ··························· 249 Figure 5.6 South wall – outside insulation daily profile – 11 pm to 4 am ························· 250 Figure 5.7 South wall – outside insulation daily profile – 10 pm to 9 am ························· 250 Figure 5.8 South wall – outside insulation annual profile ································ ············ 250 Figure 5.9 South wall – inside insulation daily profile – 9 pm to 8 am ···························· 251 Figure 5.10 South wall – inside insulation daily profile – 11 pm to 7 am ························· 251 Figure 5.11 South wall – inside insulation daily profile – 8 am to 12 pm ························· 252 Figure 5.12 South wall – inside insulation daily profile – 11 am to 6 pm ························· 252 Figure 5.13 South wall – inside insulation annual profile ································ ············ 252 Figure 5.14 North wall – outside insulation project construction ································ ··· 254 Figure 5.15 North wall – inside insulation project construction ································ ····· 254 Figure 5.16 North wall – outside insulation daily profile – 6 pm to 7 am ························· 255 Figure 5.17 North wall – outside insulation annual profile – 7 am to 6 pm ······················· 255 Figure 5.18 North wall – inside insulation daily profile ································ ·············· 256 Figure 5.19 North wall – inside insulation annual profile ································ ············ 256 Figure 5.20 Roof – inside insulation project construction ································ ············ 258 xxv Figure 5.21 Roof – inside insulation daily profile – 6 pm to 11 am ································ 258 Figure 5.22 Roof – inside insulation annual profile ································ ··················· 259 Figure 5.23 East and west windows construction································ ······················ 260 Figure 5.24 East and west buffer space - front view ································ ·················· 261 Figure 5.25 Louver detail ································ ································ ················· 261 Figure 5.26 Looking at the east window wall – final iteration of the combined model ·········· 262 Figure 5.27 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 263 Figure 5.28 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 263 Figure 5.29 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F ·········· 264 Figure 5.30 South wall as the hot battery daily profile – day close, night open ··················· 265 Figure 5.31 South wall as the hot battery daily profile – day open, night close ··················· 266 Figure 5.32 Internal shading device ································ ································ ····· 267 Figure 5.33 External shading device ································ ································ ···· 267 Figure 5.34 Proposed internal shading device ································ ························· 268 Figure 5.35 Improved combined model ································ ································ · 270 Figure 6.1 Diagram of chapter 6 data consolidation for combined model of pocket lodge ····· 271 Figure 6.2 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················· 273 Figure 6.3 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ···························· 273 Figure 6.4 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················· 274 Figure 6.5 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ···························· 274 Figure 6.6 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················· 275 Figure 6.7 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ···························· 275 Figure 6.8 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················· 276 xxvi Figure 6.9 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ···························· 276 Figure 6.10 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 277 Figure 6.11 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 277 Figure 6.12 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 278 Figure 6.13 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 278 Figure 6.14 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 279 Figure 6.15 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 279 Figure 6.16 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 280 Figure 6.17 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 280 Figure 6.18 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 281 Figure 6.19 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 281 Figure 6.20 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 282 Figure 6.21 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 282 Figure 6.22 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 283 Figure 6.23 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 283 Figure 6.24 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 284 Figure 6.25 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 284 Figure 6.26 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 285 Figure 6.27 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 285 Figure 6.28 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 286 Figure 6.29 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 286 Figure 6.30 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 291 Figure 6.31 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 292 xxvii Figure 6.32 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 294 Figure 6.33 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 294 Figure 6.34 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 295 Figure 6.35 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 295 Figure 6.36 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 296 Figure 6.37 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 296 Figure 7.1 Design Background and Simulation Methodology ································ ······· 305 Figure 7.2 Cold battery ································ ································ ···················· 308 Figure 7.3 Chapters 3 – 6 Organization ································ ································ · 309 Figure 7.4 Simple shoe box with east and west windows in IES VE ······························· 310 Figure 7.5 Window conditions profile ································ ································ ··· 310 Figure 7.6 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················· 311 Figure 7.7 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ···························· 311 Figure 7.8 Looking through the east window wall – the north wall is the cold battery ·········· 312 Figure 7.9 MacroFlo opening types ································ ································ ····· 313 Figure 7.10 The outside dynamic insulation daily profile ································ ············ 313 Figure 7.11 The inside dynamic insulation daily profile ································ ············· 314 Figure 7.12 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 316 Figure 7.13 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 316 Figure 7.14 OPAQUE sample model ································ ································ ···· 316 Figure 7.15 Relationship of Test 1 to Test 18 U value and Time lag, in hours ···················· 317 Figure 7.16 Relationship of expanded polystyrene (EPS) U value and Time lag, in hours······ 318 Figure 7.17 Relationship of extruded polystyrene (XPS)U value and Time lag, in hours ······· 319 xxviii Figure 7.18 South wall – outside insulation daily profile ································ ············ 320 Figure 7.19 South wall – outside insulation annual profile ································ ·········· 321 Figure 7.20 South wall – inside insulation daily profile ································ ·············· 321 Figure 7.21 South wall – inside insulation annual profile ································ ············ 322 Figure 7.22 North wall – outside and inside dynamic insulation daily profile ···················· 323 Figure 7.23 North wall – outside and inside dynamic insulation annual profile ·················· 324 Figure 7.24 Roof – inside insulation daily profile – 6 pm to 11 am ································ 325 Figure 7.25 Roof – inside insulation annual profile ································ ··················· 326 Figure 7.26 Looking at the east window wall – final iteration of the combined model ·········· 327 Figure 7.27 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 328 Figure 7.28 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 328 Figure 7.29 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F ·········· 329 Figure 7.30 Improved combined model ································ ································ · 330 Figure 7.31 South wall as the hot battery daily profile ································ ··············· 331 Figure 7.32 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 333 Figure 7.33 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 333 Figure 7.34 Proposed internal shading device ································ ························· 334 Figure 7.35 Range chart - Above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F ················ 334 Figure 7.36 Air temperature – Interior space ································ ··························· 334 Figure 7.37 First model ventilation, north wall, combined model, improved combined model 335 xxix ABSTRACT A tiny house for seasonal rangers was designed for the extreme climate and diurnal temperature fluctuations of Joshua Tree National Park. The challenging climate conditions resulted in an extensive investigation of the building envelope to act as a passive thermal storage system to naturally cool and heat the house. The north wall was designed as a “cold battery,” which uses a dynamic internal and external insulation system with a high-mass concrete wall to achieve coolth absorption at night as part of a thermal management system and to achieve indoor thermal comfort under extreme desert climates. A combination of opening an exterior insulation system at night to absorb coolth, closing the exterior insulation system when the temperature rises, and opening the interior insulation system to release coolth was attempted. The goal was to achieve a comfortable indoor temperature without the use of HV AC systems. Other student researchers were concurrently looking at other parts of the building. Several software programs were tested for their capabilities to simulate time lag in concrete and thermal storage including Opaque and IES VE. The design of the north wall was carried out for different conditions such as different modulating profiles, locations and thicknesses of insulation, and the data were collected and analyzed again. IES VE was able to successfully simulate the effects of moving interior and exterior insulation twice a day on different sides of a concrete wall. Additional simulations were carried out on the entire residence to study thermal comfort conditions, minimally for the months of the year rangers were present; natural ventilation proved to be a good strategy. KEYWORDS Precast Concrete, Thermal Comfort, Joshua Tree National Park, Dynamic Insulation/Movable Insulation xxx HYPOTHESIS There are times of the year when a north facing concrete wall with moveable insulation can be used as a thermal battery to help achieve thermal comfort in a small residence in Joshua Tree National Park. Ventilation can help in achieving thermal comfort. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES • To design a residence that is precast concrete using one mold, making it easy to manufacture, install, and transport without excessive labor costs and transportation. • To meet thermal comfort goals and achieve net zero energy through precast concrete walls. • To use the high-performance precast concrete north wall for overall thermal management based on diurnal temperature changes in the desert environment, absorbing cool air at night and releasing cool air at high daytime temperatures, ensuring indoor thermal comfort without the use of HV AC. 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the background and context of Joshua Tree National Park, the housing shortage at Joshua Tree National Park, tiny house, precast concrete, building orientation for energy efficiency, thermal comfort, and software tools. The overall intent is to understand how one can design a tiny house. Seasonal rangers at Joshua Tree National Park typically work for four to six months in the park, and therefore they only need modest housing. A small residence can be designed and fabricated and installed at Joshua Tree National Park to stay within the comfort range despite the extreme climate, even without HV AC. The climate is a sub-tropical desert, so it is particularly important to ensure the comfort of seasonal rangers indoors without the use of HVAC. To test the most feasible solution, IES VE and other programs are used to simulate various aspects of the building, the site, climate, sunlight, ventilation, interior temperature, thermal comfort, occupancy time, and thermal leg. Special attention is given to the idea that a north wall could be used as a cold battery to store coolth and release it to the interior during the hot summer months. 1.1 Background and context of Joshua Tree National Park This section describes the location of the park, climate, visitors, and earthquake probability. 1.1.1 Location of park In southeast California, there is a national park called Joshua Tree National Park, about 120 miles east of Los Angeles, 160 miles from Las Vegas, and 12 miles from Palm Springs, is close to Yucca Valley, Twentynine Palms, and Palm Springs (Kaiser, n.d.). With a total area of 795,156 acres, of which 585,000 acres are designated as wilderness, it takes up a large part of the Southern California desert. Park Boulevard and Pinto Basin Road are the only major roads that pass through the park. Along Park Boulevard, visitors can find the legendary Mojave Desert (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). 2 Figure 1.1 The desert sky was painted at sunset (Amelia Arvesen, n.d.) Figure 1.2 To enjoy the stars, spend the night in the park (Amelia Arvesen, n.d.) 1.1.2 Climate Joshua Tree National Park has an extreme climate and has become hotter and drier over the past century. Joshua Tree National Park has a subtropical desert environment with chilly winters, hot summers, and generally clear skies all year long. The average yearly temperature ranges from 35°F to 99°F, rarely falling below 28°F or exceeding 105°F (Joshua Tree National Park Climate, 3 Weather By Month, Average Temperature (California, United States) - Weather Spark, n.d.). Summer days can reach over 100°F (38°C) around noon, and despite being nighttime, temperatures in August and September remain in the range of 80°F (27°C), providing no relief from the heat. Even though winter nights can be chilly, winter days are usually mild and sunny, averaging around 50°F or 60°F (lower 10°C), but the nights can get chilly and are sometimes below freezing. There could occasionally be brief cold spells where the daily maximum temperature is below 50 °F (10 °C). In general, the ideal time of year for hiking is during the fall (When to Go in Joshua Tree National Park | Frommer’ s, n.d.). ASHRAE 55 - Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy outlines thermal comfort as “this mental condition that demonstrates contentment with the thermal environment and is evaluated by subjective evaluation”. To promote thermal comfort, the ASHRAE 55 suggest maintaining indoor temperatures between 68°F and 74°F during the winter and between 72°F and 80°F during the summer (Standard 55 – Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, n.d.). Most of the time the temperature in Joshua Tree National Park is outside the comfort zone (gray area), the daily average high (red line) and low (blue line) temperatures with significant diurnal temperature differences (Fig. 1.3). 4 Figure 1.3 Temperature history in 2022 in Joshua Tree National Park The hottest month is July, which has an average temperature of 89 °F, and the coldest month is December, with an average temperature of 49°F. The temperature ranges from 80°F to 100°F during the heating season and from 30°F to 50°F during the cooling season. The park receives only a small amount of rain each year, approximately 110 mm (4.4 in). Relatively, this national park has a longer period of summer than winter by 3.5 months. The year's day is on the horizontal axis, the hour of the day is on the vertical axis, and the color represents the average temperature for that hour and day (Fig. 1.4). Figure 1.4 Hourly Temperature in 2022 in Joshua Tree National Park 1.1.3 Visitors Some of the strangest and most surreal scenery in America can be found in Joshua Tree National Park, attracting thousands of visitors each year. The greatest visitation for visitors to Joshua Tree is spring when temperatures are reasonable and wildflowers are in bloom. Traditionally, the park's two busiest months are March and April (Joshua Tree National Park Recorded 2.4 Million Visitors in 2020, n.d.). There are at least 150,000 tourists per month between March and May. The fall season is also popular with around 100,000 people participating (When to Go in Joshua Tree 5 National Park | Frommer’ s, n.d.) (Table 1.1). Table 1.1. Joshua Tree visitation by year Year Visitors 2021 3,064,400 2020 2,399,542 2019 2,988,547 2018 2,942,382 2017 2,853,619 2016 2,505,286 2015 2,025,756 2014 1,589,904 2013 1,383,340 2012 1,396,117 2011 1,396,237 2010 1,434,976 2009 1,304,471 2008 1,392,446 2007 1,298,979 2006 1,256,421 2005 1,375,111 2004 1,243,659 6 2003 1,283,346 Joshua Tree National Park dropped from having more than 3 million visitors in 2019 and 2018 to having 2.40 million visitors in 2020 probably due to Coronavirus. Nevertheless, it was the tenth most popular national park. Following the general trend, Joshua Tree National Park needs more rangers and campgrounds because of the large number of visitors. Not only is there a shortage of visitor campgrounds, but Joshua Tree National Park rangers' accommodations are also facing significant challenges. 1.1.4 Earthquake probability In terms of earthquake risk, Joshua Tree with 10,259 earthquakes occurred since 1931, is at extremely high risk for earthquakes. In 1992, an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.3 occurred within 30 miles of Joshua Tree. In the next 50 years, there is a 99.25% chance of a major earthquake occurring within 50 kilometers of Joshua Tree, according to the USGS database (Joshua Tree, CA Earthquakes | Homefacts, n.d.). 1.2 Housing shortage at Joshua Tree National Park This section describes the housing shortage at Joshua Tree National Park, seasonal rangers, seasonal rangers’ accommodation, and accommodation resources in nearby cities. 1.2.1 Seasonal rangers Like nearly all national parks, Joshua Tree National Park employs seasonal rangers. Joshua Tree National Park staff are spread over a variety of departments, including visitor service, education and interpretation, administration, law enforcement, maintenance, resource management and science (Work With Us - Joshua Tree National Park (U.S. National Park Service), n.d.). With about 7 120 rangers on staff during the peak season, about 40 are seasonal rangers. Employees of the park perform seasonal or year-round work in the office or outdoors, behind the scenes, or directly with the public (Work With Us - Joshua Tree National Park (U.S. National Park Service), n.d.). Seasonal rangers in Joshua Tree National Park work for between four and six months each year. In general, there are two groups of people who become seasonal rangers. The first type is college students who are specializing in environmental studies, geology, biology, or any other branch of the natural sciences. The second type of people who works as a seasonal ranger in a national park is aiming for short-term employment. There are also retired people who volunteer their time. Joshua Tree National Park rangers work on teaching and helping visitors by leading guided walks, giving lectures, and hosting nighttime activities. For example, they may demonstrate how people, animals, and vegetation have adapted to survive in the desert and how geological processes have formed this arid environment (Ranger Programs - Joshua Tree National Park (U.S. National Park Service), n.d.). A good place to live is crucial for rangers to be able to rest and work more effectively. 1.2.2 Seasonal rangers’ accommodation Although seasonal rangers only need modest housing live in Joshua Tree National Park for about four to six months of the year, finding appropriate residences can be challenging for a variety of reasons. The first reason is that there is no lodging in Joshua Tree National Park (Kaiser, n.d.), and housing is not easily available in the three small cities near the park. These three cities nearby are Joshua Tree, Twentynine Palms, and Yucca Valley. The apartments in these three cities are not quite convenient to the park, and it can be eight miles or more to get from these cities to the entrance of the actual park and then more for actually getting to the appropriate location. The second reason is that a large number of people come to Joshua Tree National Park in the winter 8 are visitors who see it as a hobby, a vacation spot, or even as a major activity in retirement, so they plan to stay for an irregular period that might be difficult to find places to lease. An additional 12 small residence units (about 200 square feet) would be helpful for housing seasonal rangers. 1.2.3 Accommodation resources in nearby cities Joshua Tree, Twentynine Palms, and Yucca Valley are the three cities closest to the park. However, housing is not easily available in any of them due to the enormous number of tourists who fill many spaces. Furthermore, the average monthly cost of housing in nearby cities is relatively high, for instance, the average rent in Yucca Valley is $1,066 per month, Twentynine Trees $1,500 per month, Palm Desert $2,189 per month, Palm Springs $2,067 per month, Joshua costs $676 per month, and two bedroom units are more expensive, for example, cost $1,398 per month (Apartments For Rent in Joshua Tree, CA - 14 Apartments | Apartment Finder, n.d.). It would be convenient for the seasonal rangers to live closer to where they work in housing supplied by the park service. Sometimes seasonal rangers in national parks provide their own accommodations such as an RV or even a tent. 1.3 Tiny house This section describes what a tiny house is, the advantages of tiny houses, and a trend of living preference – tiny house movement, tiny house types, small and mobile tiny houses, and small and permanent tiny houses. 1.3.1 Advantages of a tiny house In the past few years, tiny houses have been promoted as a new, environmentally friendly housing solution. Smaller residences use fewer materials than larger ones, saving on embodied carbon and generally energy usage. Embodied carbon is the term used to describe the carbon dioxide (CO₂) 9 emissions that result from the whole lifecycle of a construction or infrastructure, including the manufacturing and transportation of building materials, construction practices, maintenance, demolition, waste transportation, and recycling. In other words, it represents the carbon footprint of a construction or infrastructure project before it goes into operation. According to recent data from the World Green Building Council, embodied carbon is becoming an increasingly significant portion of a building's overall carbon footprint (What Is Embodied Carbon? - CarbonCure, n.d.). Tiny houses have a smaller environmental impact compared to traditional homes. The energy use of small houses is reduced by 93%, greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by 86%, and the ecological footprint is reduced by 56%. Eighty-five percent of small homes operate with above- average energy efficiency. These environmental aspects all help to drive the development of the small house market, which is continuously growing by 7% annually (Jones et al., 2021). The smaller space is less damaging to the environment and easier to keep warm and cool. They also may cost less. Building them in the park is a more convenient location, could save on commuting, and perhaps the modest interior area and absence of clutter encourage simplicity and could foster mental clarity. 1.3.2 Tiny house The term "tiny home" refers to smaller transportable dwellings that are approximately the dimensions of one room - 8 feet wide by 10 to 20 feet long. Sometimes, anything smaller than 800 square feet is included in the definition (Anson, 2014). The majority of tiny homes built in the 1990s were transportable, measuring about 37 m 2 (400 ft 2 ), and had trailer bases (Shearer and Burton, 2018) (Fig. 1.5). 10 Figure 1.5 The Moon Dragon tiny house, in Olympia, Washington, designed by Zyl Vardos (Emily Nonko, n.d.) Tiny houses are solving a large number of housing crisis issues all around the world, as well as increasing recently in a few places in the United States. Insufficient urban space or the demand for more affordable housing in the high-priced real estate market are the usual causes of these issues (Ford and Gomez-Lanier, 2017). The high rates of unaffordable housing, low population densities, high levels of vacant land, the expectation of a "backyard" as part of the good life in the suburbs, and a planning system that limits land development are all thought to play a role in the prevalence of small houses. The real greatness of the small house lifestyle is its capacity to alter mindsets, particularly due to the influence of small spaces where individuals may forge stronger connections with nature (Kilman, 2016). One of the more intangible benefits of living in a small house is the constant interaction with the outdoors. The intimacy with nature is explored in the book The Big Tiny 11 through daily interactions with skylight (Williams, n.d.) (Figs. 1.6 and Fig. 1.7). Figure 1.6 Dee’ s Current House: The Kozy Kabin (Dee Williams Downsizes from Tiny to Tinier! - Tiny House Blog, n.d.) Figure 1.7 Custom Hummingbird Tiny House in the desert by Old Hippie Woodworking (Custom Tiny House on Wheels by Old Hippie Woodworking, n.d.) 12 Sustainability was defined as "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987 (Butlin and Browne, 1987). Tiny houses have been suggested as a range of housing challenges in a number of different scenarios due to their small size, relatively low cost of construction and maintenance, and (in many cases) portability (Ford & Gomez-Lanier, 2017). One potential energy source for a tiny house is solar energy. To provide enough power for two people, about 2kW of power is necessary per day (Jones et al., 2021). Less resource consumption by tiny houses equals less environmental impact. The power of a small house changes the ecological ethics of its inhabitants, making them aware of the importance of what they consume (Grassi et al., 2019). When used as transitional housing for seasonal rangers, guest homes, or an alternative to hotel accommodations for travelers, tiny houses appear to hold some promise. 1.3.3 A trend of living preference - tiny house movement The "tiny house movement" has gained increased public recognition in recent years. Tiny homes and the lifestyle they support have gained popularity over the past ten years, with the United States being one of the countries most affected by the trend (Shearer and Burton, 2018). It's critical to distinguish between tiny houses and the tiny house movement. In the United States, the trend towards smaller homes began as far back as the 1850s, as a counter- cultural response to conspicuous consumerism, a search for “freedom” and individualism, and a desire to live more simply (Shearer & Burton, 2018)(Anson, 2014). The tiny house movement, also referred to as the tiny life, encourages people to reduce their living spaces and footprint of 13 their lives. People join the movement for a variety of reasons, including a desire to improve their lives, personal freedom, affordability, and environmental concern (Bartlett, 2016). The simple living in small spaces was promoted by a social and architectural movement that gave rise to the tiny house movement (Anson, 2014). It combines both more mobile homes built on wheels and models built on foundations. The trend to smaller dwellings and the concept of the simple life in American culture was influenced by writers such as Henry David Thoreau's book Walden, “live deliberately, [and] to front only the essential facts of life” carries obvious resonance with the spirit of “simplify” in the tiny house movement (David Thoreau, n.d.) (Blake Whitford, n.d.) (Fig. 1.8). Figure 1.8 The first ‘tiny house’ evangelist, Henry David Thoreau (Is This the First Tiny House? | Apartment Therapy, n.d.). The publication of Lester Walker's book Tiny Houses: Or How to Get Away from It All (Walker, 1987), marks the beginning of the current tiny house movement. The post-war houses of the 1940s, 14 Frank Lloyd Wright with his The Natural House in the 1950s, and the environmental movement of the 1960s (Shearer & Burton, 2018) traced to Sara Susanka and Obolensky’s The Not So Big House: A Blueprint for the Way We Really Live (Anson, 2014) (Susanka and Obolensky, 1998). Before that, Shelter (Lloyd Kahn, 1990) was published in 1973 by Lloyd Kahn and Bob Easton to promote local construction methods and small-house designs from all over the world, and the artists Andrea Zittel and Allan Wexler separately pursued the idea of small living spaces beginning in the 1990s (Julie Lasky, n.d.) (Mangold and Zschau, 2019). The minimalist principle of "less is more" from the 20th century has also had an impact on the growth of the movement. The primary concept of the tiny house movement is that homeowners can reduce the environmental impact and increase affordability by reducing their spatial footprint (Ford and Gomez-Lanier, 2017). 1.3.4 Tiny house types This section describes small and mobile tiny houses and small and permanent tiny houses. 1.3.4.1 Small and mobile tiny houses This section describes tiny house on wheels, relocatable tiny houses, and converted fully mobile dwellings. Tiny house on wheels The majority of people associate the modern tiny house movement with tiny house on wheels. These houses have a variety of designs, but typically they are similar in construction to a standard house, the only difference being that they are on a trailer base. They are typically small and narrow to fit inside the permitted limits of the trailer. The maximum size and weight that can be transported varies from nation to country but can be up to 4.2 meters long, 3 tons or more in weight. Tiny 15 houses on wheels are entirely transportable and transporting them requires large and powerful towing vehicles, but since they are so heavy, they are not meant to be moved frequently. This movement is more advanced in the United States because they have the most professional tiny house builders, which may be built in one location or an industrial area and then moved to a permanent or semi-permanent location (Shearer and Burton, 2018) (Figs. 1.9 and 1.10). Figure 1.9 Tiny house on wheels (This Normal-Looking Tiny House on Wheels Has One Simply Incredible Feature | Loveproperty.Com, n.d.). Figure 1.10 Tiny house on wheels in the desert (Old Hippie – Fine Woodwork and 16 Tiny Homes, n.d.) Relocatable tiny houses Relocatable tiny houses can be any type of moveable dwelling including manufactured (prefabricated) homes, sheds, container houses, kit homes, site huts, or pop-up houses, etc. (Shearer and Burton, 2018). Unlike tiny houses on wheels, these are usually built as ready-made structures and are not subject to shipping regulations. They are moved infrequently, and if they must be moved, they require the use of large commercial vehicles. Depending on where the building came from, prices can be very different. Existing manufactured and kit homes precede the modern tiny house movement. They were typically positioned on land owned by tiny house residents or in specially designated zones (Fig. 1.11). Figure 1.11 Relocatable tiny houses (Cartwright, n.d.) Converted fully mobile dwelling 17 “Permanently” mobile tiny houses include caravans, boats, RVs, converted buses, and even tents. 1.3.4.2 Small and permanent tiny houses This section describes permanent purpose built tiny house, converted non-residential buildings, accessory dwelling units and tiny house villages. Permanent purpose built tiny house Permanent purpose-built tiny houses are a recurrent subject in the contemporary tiny house movement. They are typically constructed on the builder's property. Some are second homes built by homeowners for family living, additional living space or rental income. They are usually made of natural materials and are used as vacation homes or rural retreats. Others may be custom cabins, while very aesthetically pleasing, are usually architects' designs and costly to build (Fig. 1.12). Figure 1.12 Cube Tiny house (ModulSolution – Modular Homes for Living, Working and Relaxing – ModulSolution – Modular Homes for Living, Working and Relaxing, n.d.) Converted non-residential buildings 18 Typically, converted non-residential structures are immovable permanent buildings on a foundation. These structures, which can be attached to or detached from other properties, include converted sheds, garages, and barns. They typically lack the aesthetic appeal of other tiny houses. They are included in the typology because they are frequently used as "temporary" small homes. Accessory dwelling units Accessory dwelling units (ADUs) were made allowable in California in 1982 as suitable housing for seniors, college students, and low-income households (Ramsey-Musolf, 2018). An ADUs is a small dwelling unit on the site of a single family home. For seniors, ADUs can help seniors age in place, extending their independence, which enables homeowners the flexibility to share independent living spaces with family members and others. For students, ADUs are also suitable for college students who wish to obtain short-term accommodation with limited budget and possessions. They might also be used for temporary homes for the homeless. Tiny house villages Tiny houses can be grouped together in villages. These can be attached or detached, such as apartments in an apartment building for the community, townhouses or cottages, or even a group of movable small houses for a specific purpose, such as for the homeless. Since the land is permanent, and the homes often don't move until a legislative requirement dictates it, these are still regarded as permanent even if they include mobile tiny houses. They frequently share responsibilities, such as property upkeep, as well as facilities like communal kitchens, laundries, automobiles, and equipment. Tiny house villages can be found in small town centers to distant rural places. In most situations, there will be an overall principle that serves as a guiding principle, such as environmental sustainability, and social cohesion, or as a specific social focus, such as 19 providing refuge for the homeless (Fig. 1.13). Figure 1.13 Modern Permanent Purpose Built Tiny House (Lehrer Architect LA, n.d.) 1.4 Precast concrete Precast concrete is a type of construction in which concrete is poured into a reusable mold and allowed to cure. Typically, this location is a fabricator's work yard or some other place, not the construction site. The components are brought to the construction site and put into place. Precast concrete can be used to build structural components such as concrete walls, floors, and frames (Sheikh Anwarul Mahdi, n.d.). Two key challenges must be overcome while designing a tiny house in Joshua Tree National Park: the climate and earthquake risk. Prefabrication is an effective way to address these two issues. Precast concrete provides several benefits for the Joshua Tree National Park tiny house: thermal comfort, desert adaptation, seismic resistance, quality assurance, increased time efficiency, improved construction safety, durability, less construction wastage, neat working environments due to less clutter, and fire and water resistant (10 Benefits of Precast Concrete - BuilderSpace, n.d.). Saving time and money is important, and the quality of the work and working conditions can be better than in traditional cast-in-place concrete construction. Precast 20 systems and connections react well under seismic loads, according to the data currently available from previous earthquakes (Ghayeb et al., 2020). 1.4.1 Advantages of precast concrete construction Precast concrete construction can utilize integrated design, utilize materials effectively, and decrease construction waste, site disruption, and noise to contribute to sustainable practices (VanGeem, 2006). Construction time is saved by using precast concrete, and there is also less of a chance that the project will be delayed. Precast concrete construction does not require the storage of raw materials on the job site. It creates a safe working environment by lowering the need for conventional formwork and props, waste, labor, etc. (Sheikh Anwarul Mahdi, n.d.). Buildings made with precast concrete last longer and need less maintenance. Reduced surface gaps, resistance to the buildup of dust, and increased resistance to acid attack, corrosion, and impact are all benefits of high-density precast concrete (Sheikh Anwarul Mahdi, n.d.). Corrosion of the reinforcing steel caused by insufficient concrete cover is the most frequent cause of surface spalling of concrete in buildings. Because reinforcing and concrete are poured in a facility with more quality control than cast-in-place construction, precast concrete offers more resilience to this form of spalling (VanGeem, 2006). Precast concrete can be monitored for the important elements that affect building quality, such as curing, temperature, mix design, formwork, etc. (Sheikh Anwarul Mahdi, n.d.). Therefore, a higher-quality building can be done. Precast concrete is earthquake-resistant. If designed properly the ability of precast concrete framing systems to survive very large earthquakes have been demonstrated (VanGeem, 2006). Precast concrete is non-combustible, aids in fire prevention, and keeps the structure supported even during periods of extreme heat. A variety of color and texture combinations are possible since the structures are produced of prefabricated concrete in a regulated manufacturing setting. There is a 21 large variety of forms and sizes to pick from with smooth finishing, increasing the aesthetic value of the products (Sheikh Anwarul Mahdi, n.d.). 1.4.2 Disadvantages of precast concrete Precast members are typically heavy and massive, making it challenging to handle them without damaging them. Because the building site may be located far from the precast concrete facility, transportation is a concern. In that instance, trailers will need to be used to transport the precast members to the construction site (Sheikh Anwarul Mahdi, n.d.). Precast concrete's lower costs are frequently offset by the expense of transportation. Precast concrete must be handled with the utmost care and caution. Precast members are frequently handled using towers or portable cranes. Once built, precast concrete can be challenging to modify. It is challenging to change precast constructions, which is a limitation. For instance, removing structural precast concrete walls for remodeling will affect the building's overall stability. Assembling the precast parts is one of the most crucial phases in maintaining good structural behavior. To assure the intended behavior of a connection, it is necessary to supervise and properly complete connections between many structural parts. In addition, poor connections in precast concrete can result in water leaks and poor sound insulation (Sheikh Anwarul Mahdi, n.d.). The embodied carbon in concrete can have negative environmental impacts due to the significant carbon emissions generated during its production. However, the energy-intensive process of producing cement, a crucial component of concrete, results in considerable volumes of carbon emissions during the production of concrete. Studies show that the global carbon emissions (CO2) caused by concrete account for about 8% of those emissions (Abubakar et al., 2021). As a result, reducing the embodied carbon in concrete has become an important focus of the sustainable construction industry. 22 1.4.3 Use of pre-cast concrete for thermal mass The capacity to absorb, store and release heat is known as a material's thermal mass. Materials with thermal mass, such as water, earth, bricks, wood, rocks, steel, and concrete, serve as heat sources during chilly periods and heat sinks during hot periods. Materials with high thermal mass can absorb and hold heat before releasing it as needed. With minimal extreme energy consumption, high thermal mass materials keep indoor temperatures within comfortable limits. Among the variables affecting the behavior of thermal masses are density, thermal conductivity (K), thermal diffusivity (𝛼 ), and specific heat capacity (C) (Shafigh et al., 2018). Cement, water, and aggregates make up the majority of concrete. In comparison to all other building materials, including plastic, wood, and steel, concrete is utilized in construction materials twice as much. Buildings' energy consumption can be decreased by improving concrete's thermal behavior. Thermal diffusivity (𝛼 ), specific heat (C), and K-value, which is the ability of concrete to conduct heat (Tong, 2011), are indicators of the thermo-physical characteristics of concrete (Table 1.2). Table 1.2 Thermophysical properties of building materials (Oktay et al., 2016) Building Materials thermal conductivity k (W/m K) thermal diffusivity 𝛼 (m 2 /s) specific heat capacity C (kJ/kg K) Density 𝜌 (kg/m 3 ) Heat capacity 𝜌 c (kJ/m 3 K) Concrete 1.370 7.50 × 10 -7 0.880 2,076 1,826.88 Brick 0.690 5.20 × 10 -7 0.840 1,580 1,327.20 XPS 0.034 12.1 × 10 -7 1.280 22 281.60 23 EPS 0.038 14.0 × 10 -7 1.500 18 27.00 Plaster 0.700 2.99 × 10 -7 0.840 2,778 2,333.52 1.4.4 Use of north wall as “cold battery” For a small residence to maintain ideal interior conditions during the summer months, energy is used. With good design and choices of heating and cooling systems, one can lower the amount and cost of energy needed. A cold battery is a dynamic internal and external wall system formed by two layers of insulation, one outside and one inside a layer of concrete. A combination of opening the exterior insulation system at night to allow the concrete middle layer to absorb coolth, closing the exterior insulation system when the temperature rises, and opening the interior insulation system to release coolth from the concrete can help achieve a comfortable indoor temperature. It works similarly to a south- facing high mass wall for storing heat except the intent is to make the north wall cool by exposing it to cooler nighttime temperatures and transfer that coolth to the interior of the building when the interior temperature is too hot for comfort. The process can be reversed when heat is desired, such as during colder periods. The same principle of operation can be applied to the hot battery (Fig. 1.14). 24 Figure 1.14 Cold battery To keep the coolness traveling in the correct direction, insulation is used to block it from going the “wrong” way. The second law of thermodynamics is a physical law based on universal experience concerning heat and energy interconversions. Heat always transfers from hotter to cooler objects, unless energy in some form is supplied to reverse the direction of heat flow. The three mechanisms of heat transfer is conduction, convection, and radiation (Levenspiel, 1984). Thermal energy is transferred through direct contact in conduction. The movement of a liquid or gas causes thermal energy to be transferred by convection. The exchange of thermal energy through thermal emission is known as radiation. High indoor temperature and high outdoor temperature will replace the coolth stored in the north wall at night, in order to reduce the indoor temperature, using insulation materials to isolate the replacement of outside heat, high indoor temperature flows to the low- temperature north wall, and eventually achieve a lower indoor temperature and maintain a comfortable indoor temperature (Fig. 1.15). 25 Figure 1.15 Plan view of a room: Cold battery wall with insulation on both sides (not the usual state), insulation inside (allows coolth to hit outside wall), insulation outside (coolth then can move from wall to interior and not get heated outside), without insulation on both sides (not the usual state). This idea is based partially on a Trombe wall that is used for collecting heat and moving it to the interior of a cooler structure, the opposite of a cold battery. The Trombe-Michel houses (Trombe- wall) in the south of France popularized the thermal-storage wall concept. Concrete with a 60 cm thickness was used to build the wall. The wall may not have any vents or only have vents at the top and bottom. Thermocirculation of air is made possible by these vents. During the day, vents at the bottom allow inside cool air to enter the space between the glazing and the wall. As the sun warm up the building, air rises and escapes through the vents at the top of the walls, , returning it to the ceiling area (Hannover and Taha, n.d.) (Fig. 1.16). 26 Figure 1.16 Illustration of a Trombe wall (Hannover and Taha, n.d.) 1.5 Building orientation for energy efficiency There are several passive and semi-passive methods to help with energy efficiency including orientation on the site and building mass (with moveable shading and insulation). One method to improve energy efficiency is sitting a building in a proper orientation. In the northern hemisphere, the best orientation for gaining heat in the winter and reducing solar radiation in the summer is typically thought to be putting the long end of the building along the south (Pacheco et al., 2012). Mingfang also discovered that a building should be oriented toward the south for maximum solar heat gain in the winter and minimum solar heat gain in the summer (Mingfang, 2002). Buildings with a small ground plan were shown to be less sensitive to changes in orientation (Morrissey et al., 2011). The geometrical design of buildings is studied for summer solar management, and it is noted that a rectangular plan is the best building proportion for solar control (Aksoy and Inalli, 2006). The buildings with shape factors (the ratio of building length to building depth) 2/1 and 1/2 have more 27 advantage (Fig. 1.17). Figure 1.17 Shapes of the buildings SF 1/1, SF 2/1, SF 1/2 (Aksoy and Inalli, 2006) The relationship between building orientation and heat demand was researched (Aksoy and Inalli, 2006). Three models were employed for this, with varying shape factors (1/1, 1/2, and 2/1), as well as heating insulation on the façade. They rotated the structures 80 degrees, collecting data every 10 degrees. The study's findings indicate that the most favorable orientation angles are 0° and 80° with shape factors of 2/1 and 1/2, respectively (Fig. 1.18). 28 Figure 1.18 Heating energy saving, depending on shape factor and orientation (Aksoy and Inalli, 2006) 1.6 Thermal comfort The original idea of thermal comfort was created by Fanger (Fanger, 1970). He described it as "the human satisfaction with its thermal environment". The energy balance between the environment and the human body is the basis of his concept. Fanger determined that if the perspiration rate and mean skin temperature are within comfortable ranges, the person will feel comfortable. Ambient temperature, radiant temperature, humidity, and air movement are environmental factors that influence thermal comfort. Metabolic rate and clothing are behavioral factors (Fanger, 1970). Research shows that people can accept changes made naturally better (Dzyuban et al., 2019). Depending on the season or preceding days, expectations dictate how the surroundings should seem. The expectations are influenced by experience. Weather variations from day to day have an impact on recent experiences. Thermal comfort may be perceived differently depending on the exposure time. Short-term exposure to unpleasant circumstances is less likely to be interpreted negatively. When people sense that they have more control over their environment, they feel more at ease (Dzyuban et al., 2019). 29 Heat and cold, light, noise, landscape, water, flora, prestige, and other factors all contribute to defining diverse climatic, esthetic, and psychological comfort parameters. Another subjective experience that does not exist in and of itself is comfort. Only through discomfort can one understand it. This appreciation varies depending on social factors, and even within the same society individuals vary in their discomfort experience (Houda et al., 2015). The determination of the thermal comfort notion and the purpose of this work is to manage and develop the thermal comfort evaluation method through the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the numerous intervening parameters. Since thermal comfort is highly subjective, it is challenging to quantify. The measurements of four parameters—dry-bulb temperature, relative humidity, air speed, and radiant temperature—are typically regarded to be sufficient to describe thermal comfort. Depending on his or her physiology and state, each person perceives these sensations a little bit differently depending on the air temperature, humidity, radiant temperature, air velocity, metabolic rates, and garment levels. Ventilation systems are also crucial for improving indoor air quality and easing occupant discomfort (Ma et al., 2021). The solar incidence on a building's interior and its occupants has a big impact on how warm it feels inside, even in the winter. It can either result in desirable passive solar heating or unwelcome overheating (Huang and Zhai, 2020). 1.7 Software tools This section describes the software, including Grasshopper – Ladybug and Honeybee, IESVE, and Opaque (Table 1.3). Table 1.3 Software 30 Software Description Website Grasshopper: Ladybug Visualization and analysis of weather data, such as radiation analysis, shadow studies, view analysis, sun path, wind rose, psychrometric chart, etc. (Ladybug Tools | Food4Rhino, n.d.). https://www.food4rhino.com/en/a pp/ladybug- tools#:~:text=Ladybug%20allows %20you%20to%20visualize,shad ow%20studies%2C%20and%20v iew%20analysis. Grasshopper: Honeybee Validated simulation engines, including Energy Plus/Open Studio and Radiance (for daylighting and glare simulation) (Ladybug Tools | Food4Rhino, n.d.). https://www.food4rhino.com/en/a pp/ladybug- tools#:~:text=Ladybug%20allows %20you%20to%20visualize,shad ow%20studies%2C%20and%20v iew%20analysis. IES VE Building and system design, modeling, and BIM interoperability are all considered for the design and optimization of buildings. (IES Virtual Environment | The Leading Integrated Suite for Accurate Whole Building Performance Simulation, n.d.). https://www.iesve.com/software/v irtual-environment Opaque For opaque wall or roof surfaces, a U-value, Time Lag, and Decrement Factor calculator. OPAQUE 3 | Society of Building Science Educators (sbse.org) A major barrier to the use of energy simulation tools in the building design process for a “cold battery” is that no simulation programs have been found specifically for dynamic or moveable thermal insulation. 1.7.1 Grasshopper - Ladybug and Honeybee Ladybug and Honeybee are Grasshopper environmental plug-ins that assist designers in developing ecologically responsible architectural designs. Grasshopper Ladybug plugins can be 31 used to simulate the availability of solar resources. Use with Rhino's 3d modeling tools, Grasshopper is a graphical algorithm editor. The plug-in has been extensively used in the field of virtual modeling since it is a parametric modeler connected to a 3D rendering program. Ladybug, a plug-in for energy simulation, can run simulations based on geometry created in Rhino, Grasshopper, and the climate file Energy Plus Weather File (EPW) of the target region. It relies on various Energy Plus verified models to do this. (Freitas et al., 2020). In Grasshopper, Ladybug enables the visualization and analysis of weather data. This includes geometric studies like sun radiation analysis, shadow studies, and view analysis, as well as diagrams like the sun path, wind rose, comfort in psychrometric chart, etc. (Fig. 1.19). Figure 1.19 Ladybug – Climate visualization and analysis (Anthony Frausto-Robledo, n.d.) In Grasshopper, Honeybee connects Grasshopper3D to validated simulation engines, including EnergyPlus/OpenStudio for building energy, HV AC size, thermal comfort, and Radiance for daylighting and glare simulation. Honeybee uses climate information, such as epw files, to 32 simulate conditions in the zone, such as hourly outdoor air temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, etc. By using inputs such as equipment schedules or occupancy schedules, it can simulate the conditions within the zone and help determine thermal comfort (Fig. 1.20). Figure 1.20 Honeybee – Building energy, daylight, comfort modeling (Anthony Frausto-Robledo, n.d.) 1.7.2 IES <virtual environment> The Integrated Environment Solution - Virtual Environment (IES-VE) is one of the most used simulation programs. Building energy modeling predicts building energy consumption, CO2 emissions, peak demands, energy cost, and the production of renewable energy. For a variety of modeling tasks, including those involving heat, daylighting, insulation thickness, air conditioning load calculations, heat gain and loss, life cycle assessments, solar shading, and other factors, various simulation programs have been developed. Numerous programs, including Model-It, 33 Suncast, Apache, Radiance, and Vesta-Pro, are available for the software. These programs are employed for various simulation experiments. An extremely useful tool for designing energy- efficient buildings, the IES VE has a user-friendly interface. IES VE will be investigated as to its suitable for studying thermal lag and cold battery applications (Fig. 1.21). Figure 1.21 IES VE (IES VE - R2M Solution, n.d.) 1.7.3 Opaque The heat gain or loss through the surface can be calculated using Opaque, which calculates the U- value, time lag, and decrement factor for a wall or a roof with opaque surfaces made of a single or several layers. The user can create composite surfaces from a library of components, which are then presented in two or three dimensions. Additionally, 2-D plots of the outside and solar air temperatures, radiation variables, and heat gain and loss through the envelope may all be shown (Figs. 1.22 and 1.23). 34 Figure 1.22 Opaque 3.0: A calculator for U-value, Time Lag, and Decrement Factor opaque wall or roof surfaces (OP AQUE 3 | Society of Building Science Educators, n.d.) Figure 1.23 The temperature profile of Opaque 1.8 Summary This chapter describes the background and context of Joshua Tree National Park, the housing shortage at Joshua Tree National Park, tiny house, precast concrete, building orientation for energy 35 efficiency, thermal comfort, and software tools. Joshua Tree National Park has a large diurnal temperature difference that is a key consideration in designing for human comfort. The challenging climate conditions result in an extensive investigation of the site, and use Ladybug and Honeybee to learn more about Joshua Tree National Park's weather, sun path, wind rose, comfort zone, and other factors. Contemporary tiny houses are extremely energy efficient, some, without even the need for conventional heating and cooling systems, achieved without sacrificing comfort or architectural aesthetics, and extremely cost-effectively. These might be appropriate for seasonal park ranger residences. Precast concrete is a very reliable material in arid areas because it has a high thermal mass, as a lot of thermal energy is needed to change its temperature, which might also be useful for application at Joshua Tree NP. Sometimes it is difficult to find a simulation tool for uses that the developers did not anticipate. Dynamic insulation may be a good construction technique for a climate like Joshua Trees. However, more study needs to be accomplished on how simulation can be done to show that this idea works. A major barrier to the use of energy simulation tools in the building design process for a “cold battery” is that no simulation programs have been found specifically for dynamic or moveable thermal insulation. 36 CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW The chapter describes the Joshua Tree National Park, small residences, concrete wall characteristics, energy efficiency and thermal comfort, and software simulation. 2.1 Joshua Tree National Park The Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia) serves as the inspiration for the name of Joshua Tree National Park, is the largest species of Joshua tree in the world and a native of the Mojave Desert, where they are essential to the Mojave Desert ecosystem and supply food and habitat for native species (10 Facts about the Incredible Joshua Tree - the Environmentor, n.d.). One of America's strangest landscapes may be seen in Joshua Tree, which is located in Southern California on the dividing line between the Sonoran Desert and the Mojave Desert. Hills, plateaus, and canyons make up the diversified topography, which is occasionally rocky and other times sandy. There are also a few oases. Joshua Tree is a hiker's paradise in the desert. Rock climbers, rock celebrities, and fans of the desert go from all over the world to experience the park's twisted trees, towering rock formations, and unique geology (Fig. 2.1). Figure 2.1 Joshua Tree (Our Guide for What to Do in Joshua Tree | Condé Nast Traveler, n.d.) 37 Rising temperatures and protracted droughts in North American deserts may already have caused levels of aridity to exceed those during the medieval warming period (800 to 1200 AD) and have likely also exceeded the warming during that time (Sweet et al., 2019). As the effects of modern climate change worsen, severe droughts are projected to become more frequent. The Joshua tree has been widely predicted to disappear due to climate change in the area surrounding Joshua Tree National Park (JTNP) (Sweet et al., 2019). 2.2 Small Residences From an environmental perspective, housing is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In general, larger houses demand more resources during construction, operation, and maintenance. A large amount of non-renewable resources is used in the construction of buildings, including fossil fuels, hardwood timber, concrete, etc. Heating and cooling buildings also contribute to GHG emissions as well as increased household water use (Shearer & Burton, 2018). Therefore, decreasing the size and expense of homes can result in significant resource and energy savings. Living small is a concept that complements sustainable development. The tiny house has become a social campaign with the objectives to reduce costs, use fewer natural resources, and minimize energy consumption. According to the study, a small residence may reduce per capita GHG emissions by 70% throughout its lifetime when compared to a traditional house (Crawford & Stephan, 2020). People who live in tiny homes can significantly reduce their energy consumption, which has a tremendous influence on their environmental impact (Murillo & Bianchi, 2022). The High Desert may be experiencing a housing crisis that is much more severe than other regions of the state. The Joshua Tree region, like much of California, is currently experiencing high costs of renting. According to a recent review of Zillow's house value data by the San Francisco 38 Chronicle (Kellie Hwang, 2022), the three California ZIP codes that saw the biggest gains in property values during the pandemic were all located in the high desert. Joshua Tree came in second with a 69% rise, and Landers came in first with an 84% increase. Twentynine Palms came in third with a 63% increase (Table 2.1). Table 2.1. Joshua Tree home value City Zip Code Typical home value, 2022 Percent increase Landers 92285 $295,000 84.1% Joshua Tree 92252 $414,000 69.1% Twentynine Palms 92277 $248,000 63.3% 2018 92368 $268,000 62.7% There are not many amenities in Joshua Tree National Park. Although the park has 500 campsites, there are no rental cabins, yurts, or other structures available. Therefore, tourists must rent cabins or camp in Yucca Valley or Joshua Tree, which are close to the park's north entrance (Figs. 2.2 and 2.3). 39 Figure 2.2 Airbnb small housing near Joshua Tree (Carol Guttery, 2020) Figure 2.3 A-Frames, Yurts and Little Metal Hutsin Joshua Tree (Carol Guttery, 2020) 40 2.3 Concrete wall characteristics This section describes prefabrication, thermal mass, strategies, use of insulation and case studies. 2.3.1 Prefabrication Prefabrication has received a lot of attention in the worldwide construction sector due to the significant obstacles brought on by the increasing demand for construction, intense economic pressures, and increasingly serious environmental issues. Prefabrication is the use of individual prefabricated building components (such as a façade, stairway, or slab) or the complete assembly of prefabricated building modules in a construction project. Prefabrication in particular is frequently cited as a method of "cleaner production," which is "a concept that attempts to prevent the production of waste while improving efficiencies in the uses of energy, water, materials, and human capital" (Lu et al., 2018). Better weather control, quality assurance, enhanced worker monitoring, easier access to tools, and less material delivery are several benefits to prefabrication (CT Haas, 2002). Reductions in material waste, air and water pollution, dust and noise, and overall energy costs result in fewer environmental effects at the construction site (Lu & Yuan, 2013). Improved working conditions, and increased worker safety by decreased exposure to adverse weather, extreme temperatures, and ongoing or hazardous operations (Lu et al., 2018). There is also reduced need for on-site material storage and less material. There was very little published research on the temperature environment inside prefabricated houses. Using a one-dimensional unsteady heat transfer equation, Liang evaluated the variations of both the indoor air temperature and the internal surface temperature in prefabricated houses under natural ventilation conditions (Z. Liang, 2009) . According to the calculated results, polystyrene foam (EPS) boards used as roof materials demonstrated a good level of heat insulation. 41 2.3.2 Thermal Mass The capacity of a material to absorb and store heat from the surrounding air is known as thermal mass. Therefore, a house's thermal mass might result in energy savings. Concrete and brick, which have a higher density, require more energy to change their temperature, making them high thermal mass materials (Albayyaa et al., 2019). Concrete has a lot of thermal mass compared with wood construction. There are two main categories of thermal mass (TM): internal thermal mass, which includes things like furniture, and exterior thermal mass, which includes things like walls, roofs, and floors (Y . Li et al., 2016). Utilizing thermal mass can be beneficial in lowering overall energy consumption while preserving the users' thermal comfort levels (Alwetaishi et al., 2020). When the outside temperature rises quickly or during the hot summer in cooler places, thermal mass is most useful (Albayyaa et al., 2019). In most climates that require winter heating, Baggs suggested that flooring with high thermal mass, like a concrete slab on the ground, is preferable to raised flooring because of its greater thermal mass (D. Baggs, 2006). This happens as a result of the concrete slab's proximity to the ground. A buildings' energy consumption can be decreased by at least 7 to 22% by using enough thermal mass materials. According to their specific heat capacity or heat capacity per unit volume, the materials' thermal performance is assessed. However, heat capacity per unit area, which may be computed using Eq. (1), is favored in building applications (Shafigh et al., 2018). 𝐶 𝑎𝑟 = 𝐶 𝑣𝑜𝑙 ∗ 𝑋 (1) Car is the heat capacity per unit area, Cvol is the heat capacity per unit volume and X is the mass 42 thickness. Thermal comfort is strongly connected to thermal mass. When the thermal mass is used in buildings, 40% to 98% of thermal discomfort can be prevented. In fact, some of the published studies make the case that using thermal mass will help increase user thermal comfort levels rather than help lower energy demand (Alwetaishi et al., 2020). 2.3.3 Strategies A lot of work has recently been put into creating nearly zero-energy buildings. Residential net- zero energy building can be achieved in several ways, such as by lowering building energy demand (via improving building design and/or occupant behavior) or increasing renewable energy generation. Utilizing dynamic insulation in building envelopes is one of these strategies. A promising strategy that enables regulated variation in the rate of heat transfer through building envelopes over time is dynamic insulation (Fawaier & Bokor, 2022). The main purpose of dynamic insulation is to adapt the building envelope's transmissivity to the actual weather outside. It works in practically any type of weather. To reduce heat transfer between the inside of the building and the outside environment, thermal insulation improves the envelope's thermal resistance. Both traditional and dynamic building insulation technologies are available. By enhancing the thermal resistance of the building structure, both strategies seek to decrease thermal losses of the building envelope (roof, ground, and walls) (Zhao et al., 2013). Using a moving fluid, dynamic insulation can alter the thermal transmittance of a buildings envelop. In other terms, it is a type of insulation for buildings where heat is recovered by running fluid through the insulation (Fawaier & Bokor, 2022). According to conventional wisdom, an envelope with a higher constant thermal resistance will always use less energy and cost less to operate. However, several recent studies have criticized this 43 idea by showing that, beyond a certain threshold, increasing thermal resistance may increase annual energy consumption (Masoso & Grobler, 2008) (Pérez-Lombard et al., 2008). The efficiency of dynamic insulation is affected by several factors. Some of these concerns the design of buildings, such as the wintertime techniques of space heating. Some of the characteristics, such as material selection, window to wall ratio (WWR) and permeability, are directly related to the building's envelope. Others are fascinated by the physical phenomena that take place within the facades, such as the airflow velocity within the wall cavities and how heat from the room enters the interior surface of the wall. Since this technique is seen as a viable method for reducing building energy consumption, all these factors relating to dynamic insulation in buildings need to be explored more thoroughly (Fawaier & Bokor, 2022). 2.3.4 Use of Insulation Thermal insulation is an important part of wall construction for energy efficient buildings. Regardless of the weather, the type and price of the insulation material, or other economic factors, the thickness of the insulation layer is often fixed at a value between 2.5 and 7.5 cm (2.95 inches) (Al-Sanea et al., 2005). Al-Sanea conducted a numerical study of the dynamic thermal performance of insulated building walls with the same thermal mass using climate data from Riyadh and investigated a wall with three layers of insulation—three layers of 26 mm thick insulation—placed at the inner, middle, and outside of the wall—achieves the best overall performance. A wall with two layers of 39 mm thick insulation—placed at the middle and outside—comes in second, and discovered the time lag rises almost linearly with the thickness of the insulation (Al-Sanea & Zedan, 2011). Ozel analyzed the effect of the orientation and surface solar absorptivity of exterior walls on the optimum insulation thickness using an implicit finite-difference scheme (Ozel, 2011) (Ozel, 2012). 44 As a result, the optimum extruded polystyrene insulation thickness was discovered to be 5.5 cm for south-facing walls and 6 cm for north, east, and west-facing buildings. In comparison to other building materials, polystyrene foam, commonly referred to as EPS (expanded polystyrene) or XPS (extruded polystyrene), has a relatively low embodied carbon. The heat transmission load reduces with increasing insulation thickness applied to building exterior walls. With increasing insulation thickness, the price of insulating material rises linearly (Ozel, 2011). The researchers should thus decide on the appropriate insulating thickness by taking cost analysis into account. Daouas's analytical model is based on the CFFT (Complex Finite Fourier Transform) method (Daouas, 2011) (Daouas et al., 2010). Yumrutas first developed and applied this periodic approach for calculating heat transmission through multilayer walls and roofs (Yumrutaş et al., 2005). The CFFT method appears to be useful in that it enables calculations to be conducted out for a variety of multilayer wall and roof constructions, as well as for a variety of different climatic locations with different air temperatures and solar heat inputs. Fibrous, particle, film, sheet, or composites of these chemically or mechanically bound materials are all forms of thermal insulation (Fawaier & Bokor, 2022). The optimum insulation material would be one constructed of fire protection materials, which would be in line with safety and health concerns (Fawaier & Bokor, 2022). Using a higher thermal resistance at a certain season of the year would have a detrimental impact on the overall building consumption. Consequently, a method for managing the insulation of the building throughout the year would be to use a variable thermal resistance. The most important factor is the material's thermal performance because it depends on (thermal conductivity, material thickness, density, and operating range) in terms of thermal resistance, and it describes how the 45 insulating material functions in the thermal storage and thermal bridging processes. Airtightness and noise reduction are essential components. 2.3.5 Case Studies This section describes several tiny homes: the Micro-compact House, Grintovec Shelter, Casa Tiny, Vale De Cambra, and Wagon Stations. Case Study I: Micro-Compact House The Micro-Compact House was designed as an affordable, mobile, temporary, high quality house inspired by the scale and order of the classical Japanese teahouse. It was constructed for short-stay living accommodation for students, business people, sports and leisure use, and for people staying only the weekend, and typically between 86 and 161 square feet in size (Wotton et al., 2019) (Fig. 2.4). Figure 2.4 Micro-Compact House (Wotton et al., 2019) Case Study II: Grintovec Shelter The Grintovec Shelter is located 30 kilometers (miles) north of Slovenia's capital Ljubljana in the 46 Kamnik Alps. The location is a plateaued mountain 2,080 meters above sea level, which is a veritable architecture of extreme climates (Figure 2.5). Figure 2.5 Grintovec Shelter (Matheus Pereira, n.d.-b) The Shelter is a highly energy efficient non-heated building which measures 2 x 3 meters and 4.5 meters in height, and a total area of 150 square feet, built vertically on a simple concrete foundation and anchored to a solid rock floor, using aluminum in the load-bearing structure as it is lighter than steel. In order to keep the heat produced by a person's body inside the house, the exterior layer is constructed of aluminum insulated panels. The inner layer is made of perforated wood panels that let the body's moisture escape, keeping the inner layer consistently dry and warm. Upper floors are consistently warmer than lower floors as a result of the vertical interior design concept. Vertical windows provide mountain views with sufficient natural light and optimal visibility (Matheus Pereira, n.d.-b). Case Study III: Casa Tiny 47 Puerto Escondido, a small port city in the Mexican state of Oaxaca, is where Casa Tiny is located (Fig. 2.6). Figure 2.6 Casa Tiny (Beautiful Tiny Concrete House with a Minimalist Architecture, n.d.) The project was finished in late 2014, and the tiny concrete house is the realization of the collaborative dream of director Claudio Sodi and architect Aranza Arino, and total area of 280 square feet. The couple explains that after reading Henry David Thoreau's Walden, they were motivated to construct the tiny cabin for two (Fig. 2.7). 48 Figure 2.7 Inside of Casa Tiny (Beautiful Tiny Concrete House with a Minimalist Architecture, n.d.) The least amount of material possible was used in the design. Parota is a local wood, concrete is part of the local building technique, and the whole poured sloped roof was the biggest challenge. Access to the all-concrete bathroom is available from both inside the home and via a separate outside door (Beautiful Tiny Concrete House with a Minimalist Architecture, n.d.). Case Study IV: Vale De Cambra The studio used prefabricated elements and the demands for this project were clearly stated from the start: the construction had to be quick, affordable, and changeable over time. Speed of construction, flexibility of the space, and a good use of resources were the project's three main guiding principles. Precast concrete is the main structural component of the six cabins, and the living units are 45 m 2 (485 ft 2 ) in size. The entire structure is completely exposed and requires no additional finishing, which significantly reduces the materials, labor and creative work required during construction, with a positive impact on the environment. This method directly speeds up the construction process because all of its components are preprepared in the factory and easily put together on site while acting as structural, insulation, and cladding components (Matheus Pereira, n.d.-a) (Figs. 2.8 and 2.9). 49 Figure 2.8 Vale De Cambra Figure 2.9 Vale De Cambra Glass Wall Case Study V: Wagon Stations These tent-like structures at a campground close to Joshua Tree National Park seem like the perfect hideaway. The pods were constructed by US artist Andrea Zittel, whose work emphasizes sustainability and living independently (Annika Wittrok, n.d.) (Fig. 2.10). 50 Figure 2.10 Wagon stations (Annika Wittrok, n.d.) Twelve wagon stations, a shared outdoor kitchen, open-air showers, and composting toilets make up the encampment (Fig. 2.11). Figure 2.11 Wagon stations (Annika Wittrok, n.d.) 51 2.4 Energy Efficiency and Thermal Comfort This section describes energy efficiency and thermal comfort. Energy Efficiency The buildings sector and people's activities in buildings are responsible for approximately 31% of the global final energy demand. Recent advances in materials and know-how make new buildings that use 10–40% of the final heating and cooling energy of conventional new buildings cost- effective in all world regions and climate zones (Ürge-V orsatz et al., 2012). Ambient temperature, building characteristics, the functionality and scheduling of appliances (such as lighting, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems), the occupant activities, and other factors all affect how much energy is used by buildings (X. Li et al., 2019). The ambient temperature is one of the most crucial ones among them because it directly affects the operation of the cooling and heating systems and the energy consumption of the corresponding building, which makes up about half of all building energy consumption in the United States (Kyle et al., 2010). Ambient temperature is affected by both global and local climate change (X. Li et al., 2019). Operational energy (OE) and embodied energy (EE) are two categories for building EC (Shafigh et al., 2018). The energy needed to extract and transport materials, manufacture component parts, demolish buildings, and carry waste to landfills are all included in EE. In order to give people a comfortable indoor environment, energy is needed for lighting, heating, cooling, and ventilation. Thermal Comfort Humans spend about one-third of their lives in homes, and some even spend more than two-thirds of their time there, therefore the thermal environment of a home is significant. Regular exposure to unpleasant living conditions not only affects physical health but also lowers productivity and 52 levels of physical activity (Yang et al., 2022). As a result, there is disagreement on the topics of energy efficiency and thermal comfort in buildings. The thermo-physical characteristics of the building construction materials used have a significant impact on the energy needed for cooling and heating buildings as well as thermal comfort (Shafigh et al., 2018). In a study of naturally ventilated homes in China, it was found that those who went outside frequently had a thermally acceptable temperature range that was 6°C higher than those who went outside infrequently (Wang et al., 2010). By opening and closing doors, windows, and fan lights in 33 different buildings throughout Pakistan, Rijal et al. (Rijal et al., n.d.) discovered that indoor residents may achieve thermal comfort without using air conditioners. According to ASHRAE Standard 55-2017, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, the ideal temperature for thermal comfort is somewhere between 67 and 82 °F (ASHRAE and the American National Standards Institute, 2020). The comfort zone in the United States is between air temperatures of around 17° and 24°C (63° and 75°F) at a relative humidity of 70% and 19°C (67°F) at a relative humidity of 30%, yielding an effective temperature that is only a few degrees over 19°C (67°F). However, the restrictions change according on the time of year, being higher in the summer than the winter. 2.5 Software Simulation Architects and building engineers frequently utilize dynamic thermal simulation software to analyze a building's thermal and energy behaviors and to reach specific goals, such as reducing energy consumption, minimizing environmental effects, or enhancing the indoor thermal environment (Nguyen et al., 2014). Depending on the nature of the problem or the simulation software, the term "optimization" in 53 building performance simulation (BPS) may not always relate to finding the best affordable solution(s) to a particular problem (Nguyen et al., 2014). Optimization is the process of finding the least or greatest value of a function by choosing a number of variables and subjecting them to a number of constraints. With the exception of one variable, all inputs are held constant in this method in order to study how it affects design objectives. The combination of parametrically changing variables optimization approaches has been recognized as a workable methodology (Toutou et al., 2018). Building optimization studies have increased significantly over the past 20 years as a result of the building research community's considerable attention to the subject, and there is no evidence that this trend will change very shortly. Simulation-based optimization has become a useful method for achieving a number of demanding specifications for high-performance buildings, such as low- energy buildings, passive houses, green buildings, net-zero-energy buildings, zero-carbon buildings, etc. Tools like Grasshopper, IES Virtual Environment, and Climate Studio are used for parametric modeling in the design practice. The ability to add numerous plug-ins to parametric modeling may be a useful strategy to simplify comprehensive simulation support (Toutou et al., 2018). A commonly used plug-in for Grasshopper is Honeybee, which connects to Radiance, Energy Plus, and Open Studio. Grasshopper is used for the parametric modeling and creation of geometry, whereas Ladybug and Honeybee are in responsibility of BPS (Building Performance Standards). 2.6 Summary This chapter described the Joshua Tree National Park, small residences, concrete wall characteristics, energy efficiency and thermal comfort, and software simulation. After research on concrete, precast concrete was found to be the ideal material for arid climates 54 considering better weather control, quality assurance, easier access to tools, less material delivery, less material waste, air and water pollution, dust and noise, reduced labor, and overall energy costs, resulting in less environmental impact on the construction site. However, the concrete production process generates large amounts of carbon emissions, and the embedded carbon can have a negative impact on the environment. According to ASHRAE Standard 55-2017, the ideal temperature for thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy is between 67 and 82 °F for thermal comfort. These limits vary somewhat depending on the season and the local climate of the individual or group. The reason for using a larger thermal comfort zone for smaller houses is that the range of thermally acceptable temperatures for people who go outside frequently has been found to be 6 degrees higher than for people who go outside infrequently. Joshua Tree National Park's seasonal rangers are college students or people who work only for short periods of time, are willing to work in extreme weather conditions, and have a strong work ethic and perseverance, so their comfort zone will be between 65 and 88 degrees. The thickness of the insulation is usually fixed at a value between 2.5 and 7.5 cm. According to the calculations, polystyrene foam (EPS) panels used as roofing material exhibited good levels of insulation. In comparison to other building materials, polystyrene foam, commonly referred to as EPS (expanded polystyrene) or XPS (extruded polystyrene), has a relatively low embodied carbon. The optimum thickness of extruded polystyrene insulation was found to be 5.5 cm for walls facing south and 6 cm for buildings facing north, east and west. Parametric analysis can be used for finding the best options for specific buildings and locations. 55 CHAPTER 3 DESIGN BACKGROUND & SIMULATION METHODOLOGY This chapter describes the methods that will be used to conduct the design and analysis of the proposed pocket lodge residence. It will cover team works, basic considerations of climate and comfort zone, the development of a design and 3D models, concepts of thermal lag, and finally it will describe dynamic insulation and ventilation (Figs. 3.1 and 3.2). Figure 3.1 Chapters 3 – 6 Organization Figure 3.2 Design Background and Simulation Methodology 56 3.1 Collected as a team The section describes site and orientation, design development, material, and code compliance. Site and orientation The north wall does not receive much direct sunlight all year round, with only about 853 hours of direct sun hours. The north wall only gets sun in the early morning and late evening during the summer. The small house is oriented to enable the north wall to function as a cold battery more effectively. A cold battery is a dynamic internal and external wall system formed by two layers of insulation, one outside and one inside a layer of concrete. A combination of opening the exterior insulation system at night to allow the concrete middle layer to absorb coolth, closing the exterior insulation system when the temperature rises, and opening the interior insulation system to release cold from the concrete can help achieve a comfortable indoor temperature. It works similarly to a south-facing high mass wall for storing heat except the intent is to make the north wall cool by exposing it to cooler nighttime temperatures and transfer that coolth to the interior of the building when the interior temperature is too hot for comfort. The process can be reversed when heat is desired, such as during colder periods. The same principle of operation can be applied to the hot battery on the South wall in the winter. (Fig. 3.3). Figure 3.3 Whole year sun path 57 Design development For the purpose of storing nighttime cool and allowing for a 10 to 12 hours’ time lag, the concrete for the north wall should be between 14 and 18 inches thick, see section 4.3.3. However, the weight would make transportation challenging. Material The use of precast concrete provides several benefits for the Joshua Tree National Park tiny house: thermal comfort, desert adaptation, seismic resistance, quality assurance, utilization of materials effectively, increased time efficiency, less maintenance, improved construction safety, durability, decreased construction waste, less site disruption, water resistant, and non-combustibility. Precast concrete is also stable in periods of extreme heat and has a variety of color and texture combinations possible. Code compliance According to ASHRAE Standard 55-2017, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, the ideal temperature for thermal comfort is somewhere between 67 and 82 °F (ASHRAE and the American National Standards Institute, 2020). The International Building Code specifies that the residence walls' R-value be R11. 3.2 Collected individually The section describes the climate and comfort zone. 3.2.1 Climate The small residence will be designed for a location in southern California, USA at Joshua Tree National Park. It will be located in a subtropical desert climate that is dry and mainly clear all year long, with hot summers and winter temperatures that can drop below freezing at night. Rarely 58 dropping below 28°F or going over 105°F, the average monthly temperature is between 49°F and 91°F. A daily maximum temperature of 91°F is typical during the hot season, which runs from June 5 to September 18. A daily maximum temperature below 66°F is typical during the cool season, which runs from November 20 to February 26. In Joshua Tree National Park, the evening temperatures drop significantly when there is no cloud cover, especially in the summer. The temperature drop at night is significantly more moderate in winter when there is cloud cover. Therefore, by utilizing the significant variation in temperature, especially during the summer, the cold battery could be effectively realized. Hot days and cold nights are also very important for the north wall of a small residence, especially in the summer, if there is enough cool air at night, which can be used to cool the small residence during the high temperatures of midday in summer. Joshua Tree National Park has a hot, dry climate with high solar gain conditions that are ideal for high thermal mass buildings. Data for temperatures are taken from the Climate Consultant record for Twenty Palms, California, USA (34.3° North, 116.17° West), including temperature range, monthly diurnal averages, sky cover range, daily time table plot, wind wheel, wind velocity range, ground temperature, dry bulb temperature and relative humidity, dry bulb temperature and dew point, and psychrometric chart. This data is demonstrated and explained in Chapter 4.1.1. To achieve energy efficiency while maintaining a comfortable indoor temperature, it is crucial to understand how to measure the building's thermal efficiency. The thermal performance of a building is influenced by several variables, such as design elements (such as orientation and wall thickness), material properties (such as thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity), weather information (such as temperature, humidity, radiation, and wind speed), and building operation information (internal gain, air exchange, etc.). The Ladybug and Honeybee plugins for 59 Grasshopper are used to simulate various weather conditions, based on weather data from Twentynine Palms, including wind speed, the wind rose from January to December, sun path, sun hours, month/daily/hourly dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, etc. This data is demonstrated and explained in section 4.1.2. 3.2.2 Comfort zone The section describes determining acceptable comfort zone and checking acceptable comfort zone. Determining acceptable comfort zone Determining Acceptable Comfort zones are areas bounded by curves of effective temperature and relative humidity. In the United States, the comfort zone with normal ventilation lies between air temperatures of about 63°F and 75°F at a relative humidity of 70%, and 67°F at a relative humidity of 30% (Comfort Zone - Glossary of Meteorology, n.d.). For thermal comfort, the temperature should range between approximately 67 to 82 °F, according to ASHRAE Standard 55-2017, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy (Standard 55 – Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, n.d.). Checking acceptable comfort zone One design goal is to keep the interior space within the comfort range for as many hours and days as possible throughout the year. However, these residences are somewhat unique in their purpose in that they are designed for “seasonal” park rangers. Seasonal rangers in Joshua Tree National Park typically work for four to six months of the year. In general, seasonal rangers are college students or people who work only for short periods. They may be willing to work in more extreme weather conditions. Seasonal rangers typically do not spend the day at home because they are out working during the day. As a result, the temperature in the room must primarily be maintained during the time they are expected to be at the residence, such as when they are sleeping. The range 60 of acceptable comfort zones can be expanded by occupant behavior, suggesting that seasonal rangers wear more clothing or an extra blanket in the winter and a small fan in the summer, depending on the inside temperature. For the purposes of the analysis, comfort zone will be expanded for this special group of occupants and will be set to allow temperatures between 65°F and 85°F in the interior. A passive design will be tested especially looking to see if comfort can be maintained during the hottest hours of the summer and the coldest hours of the winter. 3.3 3D models There are some assumptions that are being made dealing with the overall materials, siting, and dimensions of the residence. The walls of the small residence will be constructed using precast concrete with dynamic insulation. There are glass walls and buffer spaces on the east and west sides, the roof has photovoltaic panels attached on top, and the floor is made of precast concrete. No neighboring buildings next to the small house affect its thermal performance. In addition, there is an intention to have no mechanical HV AC system installed in the small residence if possible. The overall dimensions were proscribed by the limitations of transportation and the need to deliver the completed house as a finished unit that can be set into place in one day. This meant that the unit would need to be fully prefabricated and the transportation dimensions would govern. The small residence was determined to have the dimensions of 28 feet (L) × 8 feet (W) × 9 feet (H). Five models (and one non-model, just a location) were developed for different types of simulations. There was no model for Climate Consultant (just a location) but the other software programs required building models: Revit, Rhino, OPAQUE, IES VE, and Excel. Some of them are for part of a building (the north wall) and some for an entire building (a simplification of the tiny residence and later some for the proposed tiny residence). 61 1. Climate Consultant does not need a model, just a location. 2. The Revit model is a full model of the simplified building. It is used for modeling the 3D aspects of the building to visualize the building's appearance. 3. The Rhino model is a full model of the building. It is used for simulating two environmental analysis plugins (Ladybug and Honeybee) for Grasshopper for Rhino. Grasshopper's parametric interface and Rhino's geometry are combined with EnergyPlus's open-source weather (the Twentynine Palms epw weather file) by Ladybug to produce site-specific climate analysis visualizations and diagrams. 4. The OPAQUE model is a partial model, consisting of a single or multiple layer, used to simulate the thermal lag, U value, R value, decrement factor, and calculating the heat gain or loss through the surface of the south wall. 5. The IES VE model is a full model of the simplified building. It is used to simulate the dynamic insulation system and thermal comfort hours of the cold battery. Different dynamic insulation scenarios are designed in the model to derive the maximum number of thermal comfort hours throughout the year and to determine the effectiveness of the cold battery. 6. The Excel model is a partial calculation model designed to obtain the thermal mass of the wall and the amount of heat stored in the south wall. 3.3.1 Climate Consultant Climate Consultant does not need a model, just a location. It will use the Twentynine Palms epw weather file. 3.3.2 Revit model 62 The Revit model is a model of the entire building. It is used for modeling the 3D aspects of the building to visualize the building's appearance (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5). Figure 3.4 Views of Revit model Figure 3.5 3D model and rendered in Revit 3.3.3 Rhino Rhino was used to establish a model to be used with Grasshopper for Honeybee and Ladybug (Fig. 3.6 and 3.7). 63 Figure 3.6 Views of Rhino model Figure 3.7 Grasshopper model 3.3.4 OPAQUE OPAQUE was used to determine U-values, R-values, decrement factors, and time lag. This is important because thermal conductivity and heat capacity are the two main factors that define a material's thermal performance. U value and R value Massive walls, such as brick, concrete block, or monolithic concrete walls, have a behavior that is extremely time-dependent and cannot be effectively modeled in hourly building energy programs by a simple R-value, even though this is how it is most frequently done (Kośny & Kossecka, 2002). In OPAQUE, different tests will be conducted: 1. Concrete of different thicknesses, including 3”, 4”, 5”, 6”, 7”, 8”, 9”, 10”, 11”, 12”, 13”, 14”, 15”, 16”, 17”, 18”, 19”, and 20”. 2. Various expanded polystyrene (EPS) thicknesses, including 1", 2", 3", 4", and 5", and their placement in various positions on a 5" concrete wall, including outside, 64 inside, and on both sides. 3. Various extruded polystyrene (XPS) thicknesses, including 1", 2", 3", 4", and 5", and their placement in various positions on a 5" concrete wall, including outside, inside, and on both sides (Figs. 3.8). Figure 3.8 OP AQUE sample model 3.3.5 IES VE MacroFlo is a tool in IES VE for analyzing natural ventilation and infiltration in structures. The MacroFlo view, which belongs to the Thermal category of the Virtual Environment, provides tools for setting up the input data for the MacroFlo bulk air flow simulation program. The building's bulk air movement, which is influenced by pressures caused by wind and buoyancy, is calculated using a zonal airflow model. The simulation itself is run from the Apache view. The configuration of the air flow parameters of the building's openings (windows, doors, and holes) constitutes the preparation of MacroFlo input data in the MacroFlo view. Building elements such as walls, ceilings, floors, or windows are a component of the building. In IES VE, building elements are divided into categories, such as "external walls," "internal glazing," etc. Only the categories "Exterior Glazing," 65 "Interior Glazing," and "Doors" are essential in the MacroFlo view. The elements in these categories are called openings. Data can be supplied to them so that MacroFlo can simulate airflow through them (Overview, n.d.). Step I: Create a shoe box without window with the same dimensions as the 3D model (Fig. 3.9). Figure 3.9 Shoe box without windows in IES VE Step II: The east and west openings are established in ModelIT (Fig. 3.10). 66 Figure 3.10 Simple shoe box with east and west windows in IES VE Step III: The north wall cold battery – dynamic insulation outside is established in ModelIT (Fig. 3.11). Figure 3.11 The north wall cold battery – dynamic insulation outside in IES VE Step IV: The north wall cold battery – dynamic insulation inside is established in ModelIT (Fig. 3.12). 67 Figure 3.12 Looking at the east window wall – the north wall is the cold battery Step V: Modify the parameters of the openings by the MacroFlo opening types, including exposure type, opening category, openable area, max angle open, proportions, equivalent orifice area, and degree of opening (modulating profile) (Fig. 3.13). Figure 3.13 MacroFlo opening types 1. One of the appropriate pivoting opening types, including window/door - side hung, window - center hung, window - top hung, window - bottom hung, and parallel hung windows/flaps, window – sash, sliding / roller door, louvre, grille, duct, and acoustic duct can be used to input windows and doors that open by pivoting (Fig. 3.14). 68 Figure 3.14 Opening category 2. Openable area is the area of the window or door's pivoting element, expressed as a percentage of the opening's overall plane area in the model. In order to account for window frames and other immovable window elements, the value should often be less than 100%. However, since the position of the window frame and immovable window elements are already predicted when the window is built inside the model, it is set to 100% here (Fig. 3.15). Figure 3.15 Parallel hung windows 3. The maximum angle at which a window or door can open in degrees is known as the max 69 angle open. Lower values lead to a decreased discharge coefficient and equivalent area since there is less flow space available. On the other hand, higher values result in a larger discharge coefficient and equivalent area since there is more flow space available (Table 3.1). Table 3.1 Opening category in IES VE Opening Category Min Angle (°) Max Angle (°) Window / Door – Side Hung 10 90 Window – Centre Hung 15 90 Window – Top Hung 10 90 Window – Bottom hung 10 90 Parallel hung windows/flaps 15 90 4. Proportions are the ratio of window/door length to window/door height. The options are length/height = 1, length/height = 2, and length/height >2. The equivalent orifice area will change if this parameter is changed since it impacts the discharge coefficient for the window (Fig. 3.16). Figure 3.16 Proportions option 70 5. The equivalent orifice area % represents the actual sharp edge orifice area as a percentage of the gross physical opening drawn in the model through which air will pass at an identical flow rate, under an identical pressure difference, to the opening in question (MacroFlo Opening Types, n.d.). This is calculated based on the values selected for the specified opening type (window/door - side hung, window - center hung, window - top hung, window - BTM hung, and parallel hung windows/flaps, window – sash, sliding / roller door, louvre, grille, duct, and acoustic duct). 6. The degree of opening is based on the formula or profile. (1) Setting the MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile to always off (0%) and always on (100%) (Fig. 3.17). Figure 3.17 Always off (0%) and always on (100%) (2) Setting the formula of the east and west window opening conditions: If the room air temperature is greater than equal to 85°F and outside air temperature is less than the room temperature, or if room air temperature is less than or equal to 65°F and outside air 71 temperature is a greater air temperature. If either of these conditions is satisfied, the windows on the west and east sides will open at the same time (Fig. 3.18). Figure 3.18 Window conditions profile Formula: (ta>=85) & (to<ta) | (ta<=65) & (to>ta) (Fig. 3.19). Figure 3.19 Ventilation formula (3) Update the formula of the east and west window opening condition according to ASHREA comfort zone (67°F to 82°F). If the room air temperature is greater than equal to 82°F and outside air temperature is less than room air temperature, or if room air temperature is less than or equal to 67°F and outside air temperature is greater than room air temperature. If either of these conditions is satisfied, the windows on the west and east sides will open at 72 the same time (Fig. 3.20). Figure 3.20 Window conditions profile Formula: (ta>=82) & (to<ta) | (ta<=67) & (to>ta) (Fig. 3.21). Figure 3.21 Ventilation formula (4) Setting outside dynamic insulation that opens or closes according to the profile of the seasonal ranger’s daily schedule: Seasonal rangers usually work from 8 am to 5 pm. Setting the daily opening time from 6 pm to 7 am, and closing from 7 am to 6 pm, which means the dynamic insulation will open during the night, and close during the day. 1 means open and 0 means closed. Then, the daily profile is applied to weekly profile and annual profile. 73 Therefore, the outside insulation will open from 6 pm to 7 am, and close from 7 am to 6 pm the whole year. Using the ASHREA standard formula to run the east and west windows to get the whole year’s results (Fig. 3.22). Figure 3.22 Daily profile according to seasonal rangers’ work schedule (5) To determine when it is most advantageous to operate the outside dynamic insulation: To get the results, first ensure that all season dates and four tests will be simulated, a. dynamic insulation outside (spring, summer, and fall), b. dynamic insulation outside (winter), c. dynamic insulation (summer), d. dynamic insulation outside optimization (Figs. 3.23 to 3.26). Winter Dec. 21 - Mar. 20 Spring Mar. 21 - Jun. 20 Summer Jun. 21 - Sep. 21 Fall Sep. 22 - Dec. 20 74 Figure 3.23 Annual profile - a. dynamic insulation outside (spring, summer, and fall) Figure 3.24 Annual profile - b. dynamic insulation outside (winter) 75 Figure 3.25 Annual profile - c. dynamic insulation (summer) Figure 3.26 Annual profile - d. dynamic insulation outside optimization (6) To determine when it is most advantageous to operate the inside dynamic insulation: To get the results, six tests will be simulated, f. 3 inches static both side insulation, g. 3 inches static inside insulation, h. 3 inches static outside insulation, i. 2 inches static both side insulation, j. 2 inches static inside insulation, and k. 2 inches static outside insulation. 76 Step VI: The default window parameters are used when simulating openings on the west and east sides. In the angular dependence, there are four setting, including fresnel, explicit, constant, LBNL, and "Fresnel" is set because it showed the greatest promise of the four settings in test runs (Fig. 3.27). Figure 3.27 East and West window Construction Step VII: Modify the U-value, R-value (red line) and SHGC (blue line) of the glass according to the U-value and R-value of the insulation material, including Expanded polystyrene (EPS) 3 inches and 2 inches (Figs. 3.28 to 3.33). Specific heat capacity: 0.334 Btu/lb·°F Conductivity: 0.243 Btu·in/h·ft 2 ·°F Density: 1.561 lb/ft 3 Vapor resistance: 0.292 77 Convection coefficient: 0.000 Btu/h·ft 2 ·°F Thickness: 0.167 ft (2 inches), Resistance: 8.242 ft 2 ·h·°F/Btu Thickness: 0.250 ft (3 inches), Resistance: 12.362 ft 2 ·h·°F/Btu Figure 3.28 Expanded polystyrene U value, R value and thickness 78 Figure 3.29 3 inches dynamic insulation outside construction Figure 3.30 3 inches dynamic insulation inside construction 79 Figure 3.31 3 inches dynamic insulation outside construction Figure 3.32 2 inches dynamic insulation outside construction 80 Figure 3.33 2 inches dynamic insulation inside construction 3.3.6 Excel BTU calculation of concrete wall to obtain how much heat the wall can store (Fig. 3.34). 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑚 ∆𝑇 Volume (ft 3 ) = length (ft) × height (ft)× thickness (ft) Mass (m) = volume × density Heat capacity = c × m ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 Figure 3.34 BTU calculation 81 3.4 Thermal lag The U-value, time lag, and decrement factor of a wall composed of single or multiple layers are calculated by OPAQUE. The position and thickness of the insulation have a significant impact on the decrement factor and time lag (Asan, 1998). The calculations were first performed for a 5-inch- thick concrete wall, then outside insulation, inside insulation, and both sides insulation were alternately set as variables to calculate the thermal time lag and the heat gain or heat loss of that surface. In regions that have significant fluctuation, time lag is particularly crucial for building design. The low nighttime temperatures will reach the internal surfaces around midday, cooling the interior room, if materials with a thermal lag of 10–12 hours are utilized carefully. Similar to the above, the interior room temperature will become warmer late at night when the high daytime temperatures reach the internal surfaces (Time Lag and Decrement Factor, n.d.). The thickness of the concrete wall was analyzed in OPAQUE to obtain the 10 to 12 hours thermal lag for the material. 3.5 Dynamic insulation The solar gain, indoor temperature, outside temperature, the thermophysical characteristics of the material, and exposed surface area are only a few of the factors that affect the heat transfer rate and direction through the building envelope. Density, thermal conductivity, heat capacity, thermal resistance, thermal transmittance, and surface characteristics are among the thermophysical properties of a material that influence the rate of heat transfer. The material thickness impacts the wall's capacity to store heat. Additionally, the orientation of the wall can affect heat gain and loss through the wall and it is important to consider when designing an energy-efficient building envelope. The heat transfer process through the building wall is complex as well as dynamic that occurs through conduction, convection, and radiation (Jannat et al., 2020) (Figs. 3.35 and 3.36). 82 Figure 3.35 Heat Transfer Process across the (a) solid wall, (b) composite wall (Jannat et al., 2020) Figure 3.36 Cold battery To determine which side of the insulation performs better, the first test will be to verify non- dynamically insulated walls in the simple building model using IES VE to determine which method resulted in better performance of the north wall: 83 (a) setting the insulation outside of the north wall, (b) setting the insulation inside of the north wall, (c) setting the insulation both side of the north wall, (d) no insulation both sides of the north wall. The main parameters of the insulation simulation are divided into three different sections, including the different thicknesses of the north wall insulation, adding outside and inside insulation to test the insulation open and close, and the U value and R-value of the insulation. Therefore, the tests compare dynamic insulation on the exterior and interior of the north wall to simulate various scenarios with: (a) the exterior on and insulation off, (b) the exterior off and insulation on, (c) both on, (d) both off. Then, the energy consumption of the multiple configurations will be compared. 3.6 Ventilation To determine the wind direction and whether there is sufficient wind velocity to satisfy the criteria for natural ventilation, the climate file for Twentynine Palms is used by the Climate Consultant. Then, using the IESVE model, see 3.3.5, openings are created on the west and east sides of the small house, and the profile and formula are set to achieve the maximum amount of interior comfort that ventilation can provide. 3.7 Summary This chapter described the methodology of collected as a team and collected individually. For 84 collected as a team part, the chapter described the site and orientation, design development, material, and code compliance. For collected individually, the chapter described the methods that will be used to conduct the design and analysis of the proposed small residence. It covered basic considerations of climate and comfort zone, the development of a design and 3D model, concepts of thermal mass and thermal lag, dynamic insulations strategies and ventilation. In consideration of the unique geographic region and the unique occupants (seasonal rangers), the thermal comfort zone is set between 65°F and 85°F. To obtain the greatest number of comfort hours with only changing the north wall, numerous simulation sets will be run on the proposed small residence's north wall. Initially there will be no model for Climate Consultant (just a location) plus five digital models created for simulation purposes: Revit, Rhino, OPAQUE, IES VE, and Excel. Some of them are for part of a building (the north wall) and some for an entire building (a simplification of the tiny residence, and later some for the proposed tiny residence). The Revit, Rhino and IES VE models are of the entire building. OPAQUE and Excel model are partial models focusing on the north wall. Discussions of climate, comfort zone, the simulation 3D models, thermal mass, thermal lag, and dynamic insulation will be continued in Chapter 4 (Fig. 3.37). 85 Figure 3.37 Design Background and Simulation Methodology, Simulation and Results 86 CHAPTER 4 SIMULATION & RESULTS This chapter describes the results of the methods that were used to conduct the design and analysis of the proposed pocket lodge residence. It covers basic considerations of climate and comfort, the development of a design and 3D models, concepts of thermal mass and thermal lag, and finally it will describe dynamic insulation (Fig. 4.1). Figure 4.1 Diagram of how chapter 3 methodology relates to chapter 4 simulation and results 4.1 Climate This section describes the Climate Consultant and Ladybug and Honeybee. 4.1.1 Climate Consultant Climate Consultant produces temperature range, monthly diurnal averages, sky cover range, daily 87 time table plot, wind wheel, wind velocity range, ground temperature, dry bulb temperature and relative humidity, dry bulb temperature and dew point, and psychrometric chart for Joshua Tree National Park. The comfort zone is shown by the gray area, which varies depending on the ambient temperature. The comfort zone will generally increase when the outside temperature goes up during the winter and decrease when the outside temperature drops in the summer. The highest average temperatures are in June, July, and August. The lowest average temperature is in December, January, and February. The graph demonstrates that most of the time it is outside of the comfortable range (gray area). As a result, using the cold battery in conjunction with movable insulation to cool the interior room temperature down during the summer may be one method to achieve this (Fig 4.2). Figure 4.2 Temperature range The monthly diurnal averages graph displays the diurnal (24-hour) average data for each hour of each month for each month of the year. The grey area is the standard human comfort zone, the upper red curve is the mean dry bulb temperature, and the lower red curve is the mean wet bulb temperature which takes the humidity into account, by measuring the effects of evaporation. The 88 humidity decreases as the difference between the wet and dry bulb temperature curves increases. Global horizontal radiation is represented by green, direct normal radiation by yellow, and diffuse radiation by blue, all in Btu/sq. ft. Higher diffuse radiation typically indicates increased cloud cover, which will reduce direct normal radiation, and this will result in a decrease in global horizontal radiation. Global horizontal radiation is the sum of diffuse radiation from the entire sky vault plus direct normal radiation from the sun times the cosine of its angle of incidence to the ground. This is important because thermal lag effects are seen since the peak of dry bulb temperature (upper red points) occurs a few hours after the peak of direct normal radiation (lower red points) (Fig. 4.3). Figure 4.3 Monthly diurnal averages In the absence of clouds in a location with low humidity, the temperature can drop quickly at night, because there are no clouds in the sky to trap heat during clear nights, and radiant heat can leave the atmosphere of Earth. This is the reason why nights without clouds may be much cooler than nights with clear skies. Comparing the nighttime hours of the small residence in Joshua Tree National Park, the temperature drops sharply at night in summer because there is no cloud cover, while in winter the temperature drop is significantly more moderate at night with cloud cover. 89 Clouds can have quite the opposite effect on cloudy weather because they can block heat from entering the atmosphere, driving temperatures down. When there are many clouds during the day in winter, the daytime temperature will be lower than no clouds, and when there are many clouds during the day in summer, the temperature will be higher than with clouds. This means when summertime comes, the temperature will be lower at night due to the absence of clouds. The cold battery of the north wall will use mechanism to harvest the cooler temperature during the summer nighttime by opening the outside insulation system, and in the summer when the temperature rises during the day, it will close the outside insulation system and open the internal insulation system to release the coolth (Fig. 4.4). Figure 4.4 Sky cover range Winter days are nearly always cold, averaging around 50°F or 60°F. There are days in the summer when it can be extremely hot and some days that are moderately hot (between 81°F and 100°F). There are times when it is too cold at night and still warm during the day, so it may be possible to use night time cooling during the day. In the summer, there is still some coolth at night and morning, which can be observed in the daily timetable plot, especially between 8 pm and 6 am. This means 90 that the cold battery can take advantage of the low temperatures between 0 am and 7 am in the summer and use the time lag to cool the small residence during the high temperatures of midday in the summer (Fig. 4.5). Figure 4.5 Daily time table plot The percentage of hours when the wind comes from each direction is displayed in the outermost ring (brown). On the next (blue) ring the height and color of the radial bars show the average temperature of the wind coming from each direction (light blue is in the comfort zone). The following ring represents average humidity (light green is considered comfortable). The winds' minimum, average, and maximum speeds are shown in the three triangles in the inner circle. This means that the fastest winds at Twentynine Palms come from the northwest and southwest (in Twentynine Palms, the direction of the wind in monthly mode is at 270 to 320 degrees) and can reach 15 miles per hour, so windows should be opened in the northwest and southwest directions (Fig. 4.6). 91 Figure 4.6 Wind wheel Wind velocity is measured at 2 meters above ground. It is an indicator of air ventilation that directly affects how comfortable it is to be outside in the heat. Overall the wind velocity is between 0 mph and 22 mph, and the average wind speed is 5-10 mph per month, which is enough for natural ventilation for some of the time; a small fan might be needed for other times. According to ASHRAE 55 for thermal comfort guidelines, the standard advises that air speeds appropriate for indoor spaces should not exceed 0.2 m/s or 0.447 mph. The acceptable temperature is also considered by ASHRAE when air velocity is elevated. The highest permitted elevated airspeed is 1.5 m/s or 3.579 mph. (Standard 55 – Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, n.d.). This means that the small residence could use the wind for ventilation of the room and solve the hot interior temperature and increase human thermal comfort in a good way, and the wind velocity satisfies the need for natural ventilation (Fig. 4.7). 92 Figure 4.7 Wind velocity range The temperature deep underground is typically higher than the outside ambient temperature in the winter. The temperature at the surface will be warmer in the summer than it will be deep underground. However, Joshua Tree National Park prohibits digging and thus it is not possible to take advantage of this thermal condition (Fig. 4.8). Figure 4.8 Ground temperature (Yellow represents 1.64 inches underground, fluorescent green represents 6.56 inches underground, and green represents 13.12 inches underground) 93 The relative humidity is the ratio of the current absolute moisture content to the highest possible moisture content at that temperature. Dry bulb temperature behavior is almost exactly the inverse of relative humidity. According to the ASHRAE standards, the relative humidity (RH) should range from 30 to 60%. Lower than 30% may induce upper respiratory irritation, dry skin, dry burning eyes, and static electricity. Above 60% might promote the growth of mold. The graphs show that: Summer months: 18% < relative humidity <40% (approximate values), Winter months: 20% < relative humidity < 65% (approximate values). From February to December, the relative humidity is below than ASHRAE standard, and in January, the relative humidity is above than ASHRAE standard (Fig. 4.9). Figure 4.9 dry bulb temperature and relative humidity Relative humidity and dew point are related. The greater the temperature divided by the dew point difference, the less water there is in the air and the more water it can hold at that temperature. According to the ASHRAE standards, dew point temperatures must be maintained at or above 62.2 °F (16.8 °C) for systems intended to control humidity. This means that the dew point 94 temperature in Twentynine Palms does not exceed ASHRAE standards (Fig. 4.10). Figure 4.10 dry bulb temperature and dew point The number of hours and the percentage of time that fall within each strategy range are displayed in the effective design strategies. It shows that 20% of the time each year (1,748 hours) is in the Twentynine Palms comfort range. The best design strategy is internal heat gain which accounts for 25.3% of the hours (2,217 hours). The next most strategy is two-stage evaporative cooling which accounts for 21.6% of the hours (1,893 hours). High thermal mass strategy accounts for 8.8% of the hours (771 hours), and adaptive comfort ventilation accounts for 16.6% of the hours (1,454 hours). This means that high thermal mass and ventilation are effective methods for increasing the hours of interior thermal comfort (Figs. 4.11 and 4.12). 95 Figure 4.11 Psychrometric chart Figure 4.12 Design strategies 4.1.2 Ladybug and Honeybee Two environmental analysis plugins (Ladybug and Honeybee) exist for Grasshopper for Rhino. Grasshopper's parametric interface and Rhino's geometry are combined with EnergyPlus's open- 96 source weather data (Twentynine Palms epw file) by Ladybug to produce site-specific climate analysis visualizations and diagrams. The Ladybug charts display temperature exclusively and overlook humidity, leading to the disagreement with Climate Consultant regarding the higher humidity (Fig. 4.13). Figure 4.13 Ladybug - psychrometric chart 1. The middle red line area represents the comfort zone for indoor temperature throughout the year without any improvement, and it is only 10% of the year (Fig. 4.14). 97 Figure 4.14 Ladybug’ s comfort zone 2. The middle red line area represents whole year comfort zone and passive solar heating design (33.6%), which can increase the indoor temperature, so uncomfortably cold zone can be considerably reduced by adopting passive solar heating design (Fig. 4.15). Figure 4.15 Comfort zone + passive solar design 98 3. The middle red line area represents whole year comfort zone, passive solar heating design, and capture internal heat (50.7%). Internal heat gains are a direct reflection of the heat produced by a building's programmatic use. Building internal heat gains are often classified into three categories: heat from the inhabitants, heat from electrical appliances and equipment, electric light's heat. Capturing internal heat gains can further reduce uncomfortable coldness. The small house has only one person, a few lights and maybe a computer, so there is not much internal gain. Because of the small space, the internal gains still help in winter, but hurt in summer (Fig. 4.16). Figure 4.16 Comfort zone + Passive solar design + capture internal heat 4. The middle red line area represents whole year comfort zone, passive solar heating design, capture internal heat, and occupant use of fan (62%), which eliminates some of the uncomfortable hot hours (Fig. 4.17). 99 Figure 4.17 Comfort zone + passive solar design +capture internal heat + occupant use of fan 5. Predicted Mean V ote (PMV) model, created by P.O. Fanger, is the specific human energy balance model utilized by the psychrometric chart. In comfort surveys, the PMV scale— which ranges from cold (-3) to hot (+3)—is employed. The following is shown by each scale's integer value: -3: Cold, -2: Cool, -1: Slightly Cool, 0: Neutral, +1: Slightly Warm, +2: Warm, and +3: Hot. The comfort polygon on the psychrometric chart corresponds to the range of comfort, which is commonly regarded as a PMV between -1 and +1. The middle red line area represents whole year predicted mean vote (7%). Simulate the value of clothes is important because during the summertime, the need for air conditioning would decrease if individuals dressed in cooler clothing, and during the winter time, additional clothing increases thermal insulation (Fig. 4.18). 100 Figure 4.18 PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) The human body can adjust to its surroundings up to a point, but once that point is reached, the body's responses are seen as uncomfortable. Fanger's theory and climate chamber tests developed that an individual's metabolic rate, clothing insulation, and environment could all be taken into account when determining their level of thermal comfort. Clo was used to measure the insulation of clothing. Seasonal rangers who live in small residence will have different thermal comfort when they wear different clothes. When seasonal rangers return home, they spend most of the time sitting or sleeping, and if they wear shoes or sandals, walking shorts, trousers, coveralls, vest while sitting in the room, the PMV goes up 16% (Fig. 4.19). 101 Figure 4.19 PMV -Sitting: shoes or sandals, walking shorts, trousers, coveralls, vest 6. The primary function of the small residence is to provide shelter for the seasonal rangers, and sleeping time comfort is extremely important to them. If seasonal rangers wear socks or panty hose, walking shorts, coveralls, vest while sleeping in the room, the PMV takes 102 up 8.5% (Fig. 4.20). Figure 4.20 PMV -Sleeping: socks or panty hose, walking shorts, coveralls, vest When solar radiation strikes an exterior wall surface throughout the day, some of it is released into the environment while the rest is absorbed and conducted across the material. The interior surface of the wall then exchanges heat with the room air and other surfaces through convection and radiation. These heat transmission methods control the indoor air temperature, which consequently affects the level of thermal comfort. The solar radiation simulation by Ladybug shows that the north wall receives the least solar radiation (Fig. 4.21). 103 Figure 4.21 Sun analysis In Twentynine Palms, the availability of solar radiation was estimated and most of the time, the north-facing areas received little radiation, but the roof and the south-facing areas received more radiation (Fig. 4.22). Figure 4.22 Global horizontal radiation 104 For the direct sun hours for small residence, the north wall received 853 hours, the south wall received 3,566 hours, and the roof received 4,419 hours (Figs. 4.23 to 4.26). Figure 4.23 North wall direct sun hours Figure 4.24 Sun analysis 105 Figure 4.25 Sun analysis Figure 4.26 Sun analysis The blue color indicates less direct solar radiation is received, the pink color indicates more direct solar radiation is received, and the number on each grid indicates the hours of the day that direct solar radiation is received. These grids show the March equinox, June solstice, September equinox, and December solstice, respectively, from which it can be seen that the north side receives the least direct solar radiation (Figs. 4.27 to 4.30). Figure 4.27 March Equinox 106 Figure 4.28 June Solstice Figure 4.29 September Equinox 107 Figure 4.30 December Solstice Twentynine Palms’ wind is mainly concentrated in the southwest and northwest, using natural ventilation is a good way to cool down the small residence in summer (Figs. 4.31 and 4.32). Figure 4.31 Method of creating wind rose 108 109 Figure 4.32 Monthly wind rose chart 4.2 Comfort zone The thermal comfort zone of the small residence is expanded due to the unique occupancy type and is set to included temperatures between 65°F and 85°F in the interior. 4.3 3D models This section describes Climate Consultant (just a location) + five digital models that were created. Some of them are for part of a building (the north wall) and some for an entire building (a simplification of the tiny residence, and later some for the proposed tiny residence). The Revit, Rhino and IES VE models are of the entire building. OPAQUE and Excel model are partial models focusing on the north wall. 4.3.1 Climate Consultant Climate Consultant does not need a model, just a location. It will use the Twentynine Palms epw weather file. 4.3.2 Revit model The Revit model is a full model of the building. It is used for modeling the 3D aspects of the 110 building to visualize the building's appearance (Figs. 4.33 and 4.34). Figure 4.33 3D model in Revit Figure 4.34 3D model rendering 4.3.3 Rhino The small residence was determined to have the dimensions of 28 feet (L) × 8 feet (W) × 9 feet (H). On the east and west sides of the proposed building, windows are placed to allow for cross- ventilation. Buffer spaces sheltered from direct sunlight are provided on the east and west sides to reduce the amount of direct solar heat entering the building (Fig. 4.35). 111 Figure 4.35 Rhino model of the preliminary tiny house The building is composed of seven tubular precast modules. Each small precast concrete panel was measured at 8 feet (L) × 8 feet (W) × 5 inches (T) (Fig. 4.36). Figure 4.36 Rhino model of the prefabrication unit 112 Rhino was used to establish a model to be used with Grasshopper for Honeybee and Ladybug (Figs. 4.37 and 4.38). Figure 4.37 Grasshopper script Figure 4.38 Grasshopper model 113 4.3.4 OPAQUE - U value and R value This section describes the concrete, expanded polystyrene (EPS), and extruded Polystyrene (XPS) and how the U and R values were calculated. In regions that have significant fluctuation, time lag is particularly crucial for building design. The low nighttime temperatures will reach the internal surfaces around midday, cooling the interior room, if materials with a thermal lag of 10 to 12 hours are utilized carefully. Similar to the above, the interior room temperature will become warmer late at night when the high daytime temperatures reach the internal surfaces. A. concrete OPAQUE was used to simulate concrete of different thicknesses, including 3”, 4”, 5”, 6”, 7”, 8”, 9”, 10”, 11”, 12”, 13”, 14”, 15”, 16”, 17”, 18”, 19”, and 20”, as well as considering inside air film and outside air film, in order to calculate U-values, R-values, decrement factors, and time lags. The thickness of the concrete has a positive correlation with the time lag. The time lag rises along with the thickness of the concrete. When the concrete wall thickness is between 14 and 18 inches, the time lag reaches the interval of 10 to 12 hours. Instead, the time lag starts to decrease when the concrete thickness exceeds 18 inches. Time Lag sign (±) shift because the minus sign to emphasize that it was a lag (delay) (Figs 4.39 to 4.56). 114 Figure 4.39 Test 1 – Inside and outside air film and 3” concrete Figure 4.40 Test 2 – Inside and outside air film and 4” concrete 115 Figure 4.41 Test 3 – Inside and outside air film and 5” concrete Figure 4.42 Test 4 – Inside and outside air film and 6” concrete 116 Figure 4.43 Test 5 – Inside and outside air film and 7” concrete Figure 4.44 Test 6 – Inside and outside air film and 8” concrete 117 Figure 4.45 Test 7 – Inside and outside air film and 9” concrete Figure 4.46 Test 8 – Inside and outside air film and 10” concrete 118 Figure 4.47 Test 9 – Inside and outside air film and 11” concrete Figure 4.48 Test 10 – Inside and outside air film and 12” concrete 119 Figure 4.49 Test 11 – Inside and outside air film and 13” concrete Figure 4.50 Test 12 – Inside and outside air film and 14” concrete 120 Figure 4.51 Test 13 – Inside and outside air film and 15” concrete Figure 4.52 Test 14 – Inside and outside air film and 16” concrete 121 Figure 4.53 Test 15 – Inside and outside air film and 17” concrete Figure 4.54 Test 16 – Inside and outside air film and 18” concrete 122 Figure 4.55 Test 17 – Inside and outside air film and 19” concrete Figure 4.56 Test 18 – Inside and outside air film and 20” concrete 123 The relationship between the thickness of concrete walls and the time lag was analyzed in OPAQUE. The time lag rises with increasing concrete thickness. When the thickness of the concrete wall was between 14 and 18 inches, the time lag reached an interval of 10 to 12 hours. Instead, the time lag starts to decrease when the concrete thickness exceeds 18 inches (Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.57). Table 4.1 Summary of U value, R value, decrement factor, and time lag of concrete wall Test Component U value R value Decrement factor Time lag Inside air film 1.471 0.68 1.0 0.0 Outside air film 4 0.25 1.0 0.0 Test 1 Inside air film 0.807 1.24 0.91 1.93 3” concrete Outside air film Test 2 Inside air film 0.745 1.34 0.84 2.7 4” concrete Outside air film Test 3 Inside air film 0.692 1.44 0.77 3.48 5” concrete Outside air film Test 4 Inside air film 0.646 1.55 0.68 4.25 124 6” concrete Outside air film Test 5 Inside air film 0.606 1.65 0.61 5.0 7” concrete Outside air film Test 6 Inside air film 0.57 1.75 0.53 5.73 8” concrete Outside air film Test 7 Inside air film 0.539 1.86 0.47 6.45 9” concrete Outside air film Test 8 Inside air film 0.51 1.96 0.41 7.16 10” concrete Outside air film Test 9 Inside air film 0.485 2.06 0.36 7.87 11” concrete Outside air film Test 10 Inside air film 0.462 2.17 0.31 8.58 12” concrete Outside air film Test 11 Inside air film 0.441 2.27 0.27 9.28 13” concrete 125 Outside air film Test 12 Inside air film 0.422 2.37 0.23 9.98 14” concrete Outside air film Test 13 Inside air film 0.404 2.47 0.20 10.69 15” concrete Outside air film Test 14 Inside air film 0.388 2.58 0.18 11.4 16” concrete Outside air film Test 15 Inside air film 0.373 2.68 0.15 11.9 17” concrete Outside air film Test 16 Inside air film 0.359 2.78 0.13 11.19 18” concrete Outside air film Test 17 Inside air film 0.346 2.89 0.11 10.48 19” concrete Outside air film Test 18 Inside air film 0.334 2.99 0.1 9.77 20” concrete Outside air film 126 Figure 4.57 Relationship of Test 1 to Test 18 U value and Time lag, in hours The 5" north wall is a good option for wall weight calculations for both structural and transportation considerations. This is because the dimension of the north wall panel was configured to have the maximum dimensions for semi-trailer transportation within the maximum weight for crane lifting. That constraint overrides the perfect wall thickness for thermal considerations. Therefore, the U value and R value calculations from test 3 (5" concrete wall) will be used. 127 B. Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) OPAQUE was used to simulate different thicknesses of expanded polystyrene (EPS), including 1", 2", 3", 4", and 5", and their placement in various positions on a 5" concrete wall, including outside, inside, and on both sides, to calculate U-values, R-values, decrement factors, and time lags. Comparing the time lag for different locations where the EPS is placed, the time lag ranking for EPS insulation: both sides > outside insulation > inside insulation (Figs 4.58 to 4.72). Figure 4.58 Test 19 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” EPS (outside) 128 Figure 4.59 Test 20 – Inside and outside air film 5” concrete, and 2” EPS (outside) Figure 4.60 Test 21 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” EPS (outside) 129 Figure 4.61 Test 22 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” EPS (outside) Figure 4.62 Test 23 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” EPS (outside) 130 Figure 4.63 Test 24 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” EPS (inside) Figure 4.64 Test 25 - Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 2” EPS (inside) 131 Figure 4.65 Test 26 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” EPS (inside) Figure 4.66 Test 27 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” EPS (inside) 132 Figure 4.67 Test 28 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” EPS (inside) Figure 4.68 Test 29 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” EPS (both sides) 133 Figure 4.69 Test 30 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 2” EPS (both sides) Figure 4.70 Test 31 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” EPS (both sides) 134 Figure 4.71 Test 32 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” EPS (both sides) Figure 4.72 Test 33 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” EPS (both sides) 135 In Joshua Tree National Park, which has significant fluctuations, the time lag is particularly critical for north wall design. If the material has a thermal lag of 10-12 hours, the lower nighttime temperatures will reach the interior surfaces around noon and cool the interior rooms. Like the above, the interior room temperature will become warmer late at night when the high daytime temperatures reach the interior surface. Comparing the time lag for different locations where the EPS is placed, the time lag ranking for EPS insulation: both sides > outside insulation > inside insulation. The best thermal performance is obtained when the insulation is placed on both sides of the wall. When comparing EPS insulation installed outside or inside, the time lag of insulation placed outside is always greater than that placed inside for the same size. When the insulation thickness increases, the time lag hours also increase. The north wall can have a thermal lag of 7.82 hours with EPS insulation on both sides (5 inches), 6.07 hours with EPS insulation only on the exterior (5 inches), and 4.99 hours with EPS insulation only on the inside (5 inches) (Table 4.2 and Fig. 4.73). Table 4.2 U value, R value, decrement factor, and time lag of EPS Test Component U value R value Decrement factor Time lag Inside air film 1.471 0.68 1.0 0.0 Outside air film 4 0.25 1.0 0.0 Test 19 Inside air film 0.198 5.05 0.4 5.42 1” EPS (outside) 136 5” concrete Outside air film Test 20 Inside air film 0.115 8.66 0.36 5.62 2” EPS (outside) 5” concrete Outside air film Test 21 Inside air film 0.081 12.27 0.35 5.76 3” EPS (outside) 5” concrete Outside air film Test 22 Inside air film 0.063 15.88 0.34 5.9 4” EPS (outside) 5” concrete Outside air film Test 23 Inside air film 0.051 19.49 0.34 6.07 5” EPS (outside) 5” concrete Outside air film Test 24 Inside air film 0.198 5.05 0.61 4.37 5” concrete 1” EPS (inside) Outside air film 137 Test 25 Inside air film 0.115 8.66 0.59 4.54 5” concrete 2” EPS (inside) Outside air film Test 26 Inside air film 0.081 12.27 0.58 4.67 5” concrete 3” EPS (inside) Outside air film Test 27 Inside air film 0.063 15.88 0.57 4.82 5” concrete 4” EPS (inside) Outside air film Test 28 Inside air film 0.051 19.49 0.57 4.99 5” concrete 5” EPS (inside) Outside air film Test 29 Inside air film 0.115 8.66 0.14 6.55 1” EPS (outside) 5” concrete 1” EPS (inside) Outside air film Test 30 Inside air film 0.063 15.88 0.08 6.93 138 2” EPS (outside) 5” concrete 2” EPS (inside) Outside air film Test 31 Inside air film 0.043 23.1 0.05 7.2 3” EPS (outside) 5” concrete 3” EPS (inside) Outside air film Test 32 Inside air film 0.033 30.32 0.04 7.49 4” EPS (outside) 5” concrete 4” EPS (inside) Outside air film Test 33 Inside air film 0.027 37.54 0.03 7.82 5” EPS (outside) 5” concrete 5” EPS (inside) Outside air film 139 Figure 4.73 Relationship of Test 19 to Test 33 U value and Time lag, in hours C. Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) OPAQUE was used to simulate different thicknesses of extruded polystyrene (XPS), including 1", 2", 3", 4", and 5", and their placement in various positions on a 5" concrete wall, including outside, inside, and on both sides, to calculate U-values, R-values, decrement factors, and time lags. Comparing the time lag for different locations where the XPS is placed, the time lag ranking for 140 XPS insulation: both sides > outside insulation > inside insulation. When EPS and XPS are compared, it is found that XPS has a longer average thermal lag time than EPS, indicating that XPS is a more effective thermal lag solution (Figs 4.74 to 4.88). Figure 4.74 Test 34 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” XPS (outside) 141 Figure 4.75 Test 35 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 2” XPS (outside) Figure 4.76 Test 36 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” XPS (outside) 142 Figure 4.77 Test 37 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” XPS (outside) Figure 4.78 Test 38 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” XPS (outside) 143 Figure 4.79 Test 39 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” XPS (inside) Figure 4.80 Test 40 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 2” XPS (inside) 144 Figure 4.81 Test 41 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” XPS (inside) Figure 4.82 Test 42 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” XPS (inside) 145 Figure 4.83 Test 43 – Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” XPS (inside) Figure 4.84 Test 44 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 1” XPS (both sides) 146 Figure 4.85 Test 45 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 2” XPS (both sides) Figure 4.86 Test 46 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 3” XPS (both sides) 147 Figure 4.87 Test 47 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 4” XPS (both sides) Figure 4.88 Test 48 Inside and outside air film, 5” concrete, and 5” XPS (both sides) 148 Comparing the time lag for different locations where the XPS is placed, the time lag ranking for XPS insulation: both sides > outside insulation > inside insulation. When XPS insulation is installed on the outside in comparison to the inside, the time lag is always greater on the outside than the inside. When the insulation thickness increases, the time lag hours also increase. The north wall can have a thermal lag of 9.47 hours with XPS insulation on both sides (5 inches), 6.89 hours with XPS insulation only on the exterior (5 inches), and 5.84 hours with XPS insulation only on the inside (5 inches) (Table 4.3 and Fig. 4.89). Table 4.3 U value, R value, decrement factor, and time lag of XPS Test Component U value R value Decrement factor Time lag Inside air film 1.471 0.68 1.0 0.0 Outside air film 4 0.25 1.0 0.0 Test 34 Inside air film 0.18 5.56 0.39 5.49 1” XPS (outside) 5” concrete Outside air film Test 35 Inside air film 0.103 9.67 0.36 5.78 2” XPS (outside) 5” concrete Outside air film Test 36 Inside air film 0.073 13.79 0.35 6.07 149 3” XPS (outside) 5” concrete Outside air film Test 37 Inside air film 0.056 17.9 0.34 6.44 4” XPS (outside) 5” concrete Outside air film Test 38 Inside air film 0.045 22.02 0.33 6.89 5” XPS (outside) 5” concrete Outside air film Test 39 Inside air film 0.18 5.56 0.61 4.44 5” concrete 1” XPS (inside) Outside air film Test 40 Inside air film 0.103 9.67 0.58 4.71 5” concrete 2” XPS (inside) Outside air film Test 41 Inside air film 0.073 13.79 0.57 5.01 5” concrete 3” XPS (inside) 150 Outside air film Test 42 Inside air film 0.056 17.9 0.56 5.38 5” concrete 4” XPS (inside) Outside air film Test 43 Inside air film 0.045 22.02 0.55 5.84 5” concrete 5” XPS (inside) Outside air film Test 44 Inside air film 0.103 9.67 0.13 6.69 1” XPS (outside) 5” concrete 1” XPS (inside) Outside air film Test 45 Inside air film 0.056 17.9 0.07 7.25 2” XPS (outside) 5” concrete 2” XPS (inside) Outside air film Test 46 Inside air film 0.038 26.13 0.04 7.84 3” XPS (outside) 5” concrete 151 3” XPS (inside) Outside air film Test 47 Inside air film 0.029 34.36 0.03 8.58 4” XPS (outside) 5” concrete 4” XPS (inside) Outside air film Test 48 Inside air film 0.023 42.59 0.03 9.47 5” XPS (outside) 5” concrete 5” XPS (inside) Outside air film 152 Figure 4.89 Relationship of Test 34 to Test 48 U value and Time lag, in hours D. Summary A (Test 1 to Test 18) included several different thicknesses of the concrete, including 3”, 4”, 5”, 6”, 7”, 8”, 9”, 10”, 11”, 12”, 13”, 14”, 15”, 16”, 17”, 18”, 19”, and 20”, as well as considering inside air film and outside air film. B (Test 19 to Test 33) is different thicknesses and locations of expanded polystyrene (EPS) inside, including 1", 2", 3", 4”, and 5". C (Test 34 to Test 48) is 153 different thicknesses and locations of expanded polystyrene (EPS) both sides, including 1", 2", 3", 4”, and 5”. The 5" north wall is a good option for wall weight calculations for both structural and transportation considerations. This is because the dimension of the north wall panel was configured to have the maximum dimensions for semi-trailer transportation within the maximum weight for crane lifting. Therefore, the U value and R value calculations of the different insulation were conducted using a 5" concrete wall, and further studies should consider lightweight concrete. For both EPS and XPS, when compared to thermal lag hours, insulation put on both sides performs better than insulation placed outside and inside, and insulation placed outside performs better than insulation placed inside. Compare B and C, when both materials are the same thickness and position, XPS always has more thermal lag hours than EPS. Therefore, using XPS is more beneficial for the time lag of the north wall if only that factor is considered. 4.3.5 IES VE This section describes seven tests: Test I – east and west windows always off, Test II - east and west windows always on, Test III - east and west windows (comfort zone 65°F -85°F), Test IV - east and west windows (ASHRAE comfort zone 67°F -82°F), Test V – dynamic insulation (outside) seasonal rangers’ schedule, Test VI – dynamic insulation (outside), Test VII – static insulation (inside), Test VIII – update Test VI and Test VII. 154 Test I – east and west windows always off The window opening condition for Test I is that all windows are closed all year round. There are 3,846 hours below 65°F, 2,211 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 2,703 hours above 85°F throughout the year if the windows are closed all year round. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to always off (Fig. 4.90). Figure 4.90 Always off (0%) The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 3,846 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 2,211 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 2,703 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F (Figs. 4.91 and 4.92). 155 Figure 4.91 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 4.92 Air temperature – Interior space The red line is the indoor space air temperature throughout the year and the blue line is the outdoor dry bulb temperature throughout the year. It is obvious that throughout the summer months, the indoor space air temperature is higher than the outdoor dry bulb temperature, which is above 85°F almost all summer. the comfortable time between 65°F and 85°F occurs only in the spring and fall. Almost the whole summer is above 85°F and the indoor space air temperature is even higher than the outdoor dry bulb temperature. Therefore, it is crucial to address the overheated hours (Fig. 4.93). 156 Figure 4.93 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F Test II - east and west windows always on The window opening condition for Test II is that all windows are opened all year round. There are 4,234 hours below 65°F, 2,506 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 2,020 hours above 85°F throughout the year if the windows are opened all year round. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile is set to always on (Fig. 4.94). 157 Figure 4.94 Always on (100%) The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 4,234 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 2,506 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 2,020 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F (Figs. 4.95 and 4.96). 158 Figure 4.95 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 4.96 Air temperature – Interior space The red line is the indoor space air temperature throughout the year and the blue line is the outdoor dry bulb temperature throughout the year. It can be clearly seen that the whole year indoor space air temperature overlaps with the outdoor dry bulb temperature, so the indoor temperature is approximately same as the outdoor temperature (Fig. 4.97). 159 Figure 4.97 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F Test III - east and west windows (comfort zone 65°F -85°F) The window opening condition for Test III is that if the room air temperature is greater than equal to 85°F and outside air temperature is less than the room temperature, or if room air temperature is less than or equal to 65°F and outside air temperature is greater temperature air. If either of these conditions is satisfied, the windows on the west and east sides will open at the same time (Fig. 4.98). 160 Figure 4.98 Window conditions profile Formula: (ta>=85) & (to<ta) | (ta<=65) & (to>ta) (Fig. 4.99). Figure 4.99 Ventilation formula The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 3,808 hours below 65°F, 2,808 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 2,144 hours above 85°F throughout the year , if the indoor air temperature is greater than or equal to 82°F and the outdoor air temperature, is lower than the indoor air temperature, or if the indoor air temperature is lower than or equal to 67°F and the outdoor air temperature is higher than the indoor air temperature when the windows are open (Figs. 4.100 and 4.101). 161 Figure 4.100 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 4.101 Air temperature – Interior space The red line is the indoor space air temperature throughout the year and the blue line is the outdoor dry bulb temperature throughout the year. It can be clearly seen that the indoor temperature is not higher than the outdoor temperature and the comfort time in winter is increased (Fig. 4.102). 162 Figure 4.102 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F Test IV - east and west windows (ASHRAE comfort zone 67°F -82°F) The window opening condition for Test IV is that if the room air temperature is greater than equal to 82°F and outside air temperature is less than room air temperature, or if room air temperature is less than or equal to 67°F and outside air temperature is greater than room air temperature. If either of these conditions is satisfied, the windows on the west and east sides will open at the same time (Fig. 4.103). 163 Figure 4.103 Window conditions profile Formula: (ta>=82) & (to<ta) | (ta<=67) & (to>ta) (Fig. 4.104). Figure 4.104 Ventilation formula The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 3,795 hours below 65°F, 2,941 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 2,024 hours above 85°F throughout the year if the indoor air temperature is greater than or equal to 82°F and the outdoor air temperature is lower than the indoor air temperature, or if the indoor air temperature is lower than or equal to 67°F and the outdoor air temperature is higher than the indoor air temperature when the windows are open (Figs. 4.105 and 4.106). 164 Figure 4.105 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 4.106 Air temperature – Interior space The red line is the indoor space air temperature throughout the year and the blue line is the outdoor dry bulb temperature throughout the year. It can be clearly seen that more thermal comfort hours during the summertime (Fig. 4.107). 165 Figure 4.107 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F Summary of Test I, Test II, Test III, and Test IV These tests compare the thermal comfort hours of Test I, Test II, Test III, and Test IV , the hours ranking is Test IV > Test III >Test II > Test I. Therefore, the east and west windows will open if the room air temperature is greater than equal to 82°F and outside air temperature is less than room air temperature, or if room air temperature is less than or equal to 67°F and outside air temperature is greater than room air temperature. If either of these conditions is satisfied, the windows on the west and east sides will open at the same time. According to Test I to Test IV , underheated hours (below 85°F) occupy the largest portion of the year, and the numerous underheated hours cannot 166 be addressed by ventilation alone (Figs. 4.108 and 4.109 and Table 4.4). Figure 4.108 Summary of Test I, Test II, Test III, and Test IV 167 Figure 4.109 Comparison of Test I, Test II, Test III, and Test IV Table 4.4 Summary of all test air temperature interior space results ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F Test I 3846.0 2211.0 2703.0 Test II 4234.0 2506.0 2020.0 Test III 3808.0 2808.0 2144.0 Test IV 3795.0 2941.0 2024.0 Test V – dynamic insulation (outside) (whole year) Test V is that outside dynamic insulation that opens or closes according to the profile. Setting the day profile as the seasonal ranger’s daily schedule. Seasonal rangers usually work from 8 am to 5 pm. The daily opening time is set from 6 pm to 7 am, and closing from 7 am to 6 pm, which means the dynamic insulation will open during the night, and close during the day. 1 means open and 0 means 168 closed. Then, apply daily profile to weekly profile and annual profile. Therefore, the outside insulation will open from 6 pm to 7 am, and close from 7 am to 6 pm the whole year. Using the Test IV formula to run the east and west windows to get the whole year’s results (Fig. 4.110). Figure 4.110 Daily Profile The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 2,080 hours below 65°F, 3,973 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,979 hours above 85°F throughout the year if the dynamic insulation opens from 6 pm to 7 am, and closing from 7 am to 6 pm, and combine Test IV east and west wall approach (Figs. 4.111 and 4.112). 169 Figure 4.111 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F an 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 4.112 Air temperature – Interior space The red line is the indoor space air temperature throughout the year and the blue line is the outdoor dry bulb temperature throughout the year. It can be clearly seen that was an increase of 1,032 thermal comfort hours throughout the year when the dynamic insulation outside combines with the ventilation of east and west windows (Figs. 4.113 and 4.114). 170 Figure 4.113 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F Figure 4.114 Comparison of Test I, Test II, Test III, Test IV , and Test V 171 Test VI – dynamic insulation (outside) The purpose of Test VI is to determine when it is most advantageous to operate the outside dynamic insulation. To get the results, it is necessary to first ensure that all season dates and these tests were simulated, a. dynamic insulation outside (spring, summer, and fall), b. dynamic insulation outside (winter), c. dynamic insulation (summer), d. dynamic insulation outside optimization. Winter Dec. 21 - Mar. 20 Spring Mar. 21 - Jun. 20 Summer Jun. 21 - Sep. 21 Fall Sep. 22 - Dec. 20 a. Dynamic insulation outside (spring, summer, and fall) When dynamic insulation is not used during the winter, temperatures rise noticeably, as shown by a comparison between Test V (dynamic insulation outside the operation of the entire year) and Test VI-a (dynamic insulation outside the operation of spring, summer, and fall only) (Figs. 4.115 and 4.116). Figure 4.115 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside 172 Figure 4.116 Air temperature comparison with Test V and Test VI – a There are 2,566 hours below 65°F, 4,215 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,979 hours above 85°F throughout the year. When dynamic insulation is not used in winter, the temperature rises significantly. Therefore, the outside dynamic insulation system should be turned off during the winter season (Figs. 4.117 to 4.119). Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 Temperature ( 癋 ) Date: Wed 01/Jan to Wed 31/D ec Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ dynamic ins ulation outs ide s pring s ummer fall.aps ) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ OUT night open day clos e whole year.aps ) 173 Figure 4.117 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 4.118 Air temperature – Interior space 174 Figure 4.119 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F One can compare the underheated hours, comfort hours and overheated hours of winter, spring, summer and fall (Figs. 4.120 to 4.123). 175 Figure 4.120 Winter (Dec. to Feb.) Figure 4.121 Spring (Mar. to May) Figure 4.122 Summer (Jun. to Aug.) 176 Figure 4.123 Fall (Sep. to Nov.) b. Dynamic insulation outside (winter) This test is the dynamic insulation (outside) only conducted in winter (Fig. 4.124 and 4.125). Figure 4.124 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside 177 Figure 4.125 Air Comparison with Test V and Test VI – b There are 2,436 hours below 65°F, 4,299 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 2,025 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Figs. 4.126 to 4.128). Figure 4.126 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 Temperature ( 癋 ) Date: Wed 01/Jan to Wed 31/Dec Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ dynamic ins ulation outs ide winter.aps ) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ OUT night open day clos e whole year.aps ) 178 Figure 4.127 Air temperature – Interior space Figure 4.128 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F Compare the underheated hours, comfort hours and overheated hours of winter, spring, summer and fall (Figs. 4.129 to 4.132). 179 Figure 4.129 Winter (Dec. to Feb.) Figure 4.130 Spring (Mar. to May) Figure 4.131 Summer (Jun. to Aug.) 180 Figure 4.132 Fall (Sep. to Nov.) Test VI-a is dynamic insulation that operates in the spring, summer, and fall, while Test VI-b is dynamic insulation that operates only in the winter (Table 4.5). Table 4.5 Comparison of Test VI-a and Test VI-b Test Season ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F Test VI-a Winter (Dec. - Feb.) 1813.0 347.0 0.0 Spring (Mar. – May.) 323.0 1654.0 231.0 Summer (Jun. – Aug.) 0.0 724.0 1484.0 Fall (Sep. – Nov.) 430.0 1490.0 264.0 Test VI-b Winter (Dec. - Feb.) 1974.0 186.0 0.0 Spring (Mar. – May.) 278.0 1672.0 258.0 Summer (Jun. – Aug.) 0.0 719.0 1489.0 Fall (Sep. – Nov.) 184.0 1722.0 278.0 The result of comparing Test VI-a and Test VI-b is that the the dynamic insulation must be closed 181 during the winter because it reduces thermal comfort when it is open outside. The dynamic insulation should be closed in the early spring and opened in the late spring. Because when the dynamic insulation is closed, the comfort hours reduce when it is below 65°F and rises when it is above 85°F. When dynamic insulation is turned off in the summer, even for just five hours, the hours of comfort zone decrease.The dynamic insulation should be opened in the early fall and closed in the late fall since the comfort hours decreases below 65°F and increases above 85°F when the dynamic insulation is closed in the fall. In order to obtain external dynamic insulation operations date, the underheated hours, comfort hours and overheated hours in March, April, May, October, November was collected (Figs. 4.133 to 4.144). Figure 4.133 Test VI-a March Figure 4.134 Test VI-a April Figure 4.135 Test VI-a May 182 Figure 4.136 Test VI-a Sep Figure 4.137 Test VI-a Oct Figure 4.138 Test VI-a Nov Figure 4.139 Test VI-b March Figure 4.140 Test VI-b April Figure 4.141 Test VI-b May 183 Figure 4.142 Test VI-b Sep Figure 4.143 Test VI-b Oct Figure 4.144 Test VI-b Nov The dynamic insulation outside should operate in the months of May, September, and October. The opening and closing hours for March, April, and November are uncertain, thus continuing testing (Table 4.6). Table 4.6 Summary of Test VI-a and Test VI-b (Mar. Apr., May, Sep., Oct., Nov.) March April May Sep. Oct. Nov. ≤ 65°F a open 176.0 147.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 430.0 b close 248.0 30.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 184.0 > 65°F to ≤ 85°F a open 568.0 548.0 538.0 469.0 731.0 290.0 b close 496.0 652.0 524.0 462.0 724.0 536.0 > 85°F a open 0.0 25.0 206.0 251.0 13.0 0.0 184 b close 0.0 38.0 220.0 258.0 20.0 0.0 c. Dynamic insulation outside (summer) This test is the dynamic insulation (outside) only conducted in summer (Fig. 4.145 and 4.146). Figure 4.145 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside 185 Figure 4.146 Air Comparison with Test V and Test VI-c There are 2,201 hours below 65°F, 4,544 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 2,015 hours above 85°F throughout the year. This validates that more hours of thermal comfort would be available if the dynamic insulation outside operated only in the summer and was turned off in the winter, spring and fall (Figs. 4.147 to 4.149). Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Temperature ( 癋 ) Date: Wed 01/Jan to Wed 31/Dec Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ dynamic ins ulation outs ide s ummer.aps ) Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) 186 Figure 4.147 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 4.148 Air temperature – Interior space 187 Figure 4.149 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F d. Dynamic insulation outside (optimization) The purpose of Test VI-d is to determine which day is most advantageous to operate and close the outside dynamic insulation. Test-d only focus on three months, March, April, and November. (1) March The MacroFlo annual profile is set to only operate in March (Fig. 4.150). 188 Figure 4.150 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside Compare the dynamic insulation outside that was operated in March to the dynamic insulation outside not operated in March (Figs. 4.151 and 4.152). Figure 4.151 March open Figure 4.152 March close 189 The temperature of dynamic insulation outside closed in March is always higher than open in March, and not above 85℉. Therefore, dynamic insulation (outside) should be closed in March (Fig. 4.153). Figure 4.153 Comparison of March close and open (2) April The MacroFlo annual profile is set to only operate in March (Fig. 4.154). 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 01 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 Temperature ( 癋 ) Date: Sat 01/Mar to Mon 31/Mar Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ dynamic ins ulation March.aps ) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ North OFF.aps ) 190 Figure 4.154 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside Compare the dynamic insulation outside that was operated in March to the dynamic insulation outside not operated in March (Figs. 4.155 and 4.156). Figure 4.155 April open Figure 4.156 April close 191 The thermal comfort time of closed outdoor dynamic insulation in April is greater than the thermal comfort time of open outdoor dynamic insulation in April. But it not always higher than the dynamic insulation oepn in April (Fig. 4.157). Figure 4.157 Comparison of April close and open Test on the dynamic insulation outside open from April 25 to 31, from April 16 to 31, April 15 to 31, April 14 to 31, and April 13 to 31 (Figs. 4.158 to 4.160). Figure 4.158 Open April 25 -31 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 Temperature ( 癋 ) Date: Tue 01/Apr to Wed 30/Apr Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ dynamic ins ulation April.aps ) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ North OFF.aps ) 192 Figure 4.159 Open April 16 - 31, April 15 - 31, April 14 -31 Figure 4.160 Open April 13 -31 Therefore, the dynamic insulation ( outside ) should be closed on April 13 and open on April 14. (3) November Setting the MacroFlo annual profile only operate in November (Fig. 4.161 and 4.162). Figure 4.161 Open Nov. Figure 4.162 Close Nov. The temperature of dynamic insulation outside closed in November is always higher than open in March, and not above 85℉. Therefore, dynamic insulation (outside) should be closed in November (Fig. 4.163). 193 Figure 4.163 Comparison of November close and open To verify which day of October should closed dynamic insulation, a comparison was made for the dynamic insulation outside that was operated in October to the dynamic insulation outside not operated in October (Fig. 4.164). 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 Temperature ( 癋 ) Date: Sat 01/Nov to Sun 30/Nov Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ dynamic ins ulation Nov.aps ) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ North OFF.aps ) 194 Figure 4.164 Comparison of October close and open Therefore, the dynamic insulation (outside) should be open until October 31 and close on November 1. (4) Final The outside dynamic insulation's final iteration is open from April 14 to October 31 and closed from November 1 to April 13 (Fig. 4.165). 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 01 90 88 86 84 82 80 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 Temperature ( 癋 ) Date: Wed 01/Oct to Fri 31/Oct Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ dynamic ins ulation Oct.aps ) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ North OFF.aps ) 195 Figure 4.165 Annual profile of dynamic insulation outside There are 2,216 hours below 65°F, 4,565 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,979 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Figs. 4.166 to 4.167). Figure 4.166 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F 196 Figure 4.167 Air temperature – Interior space Summary of Test V , Test VI-a, Test VI-b, Test VI-c, and Test VI-d When comparing the thermal comfort hours of Test V , Test VI-a, Test VI-b, Test VI-c, and Test VI- d, the hours ranking is Test VI-d > Test VI-c > Test VI-b > Test VI-a > Test V . Therefore, the outside dynamic insulation's final iteration should open from April 14 to October 31 and closed from November 1 to April 13, and combine with east and west windows operation (Test IV) (Fig. 4.168 and Table 4.7). Figure 4.168 Summary of Test V , Test VI-a, Test VI-b, Test VI-c, Test VI-d 197 Table 4.7 Summary of all test air temperature interior space results Test ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F Test V 2808.0 3973.0 1979.0 Test VI - a 2566.0 4215.0 1979.0 Test VI - b 2436.0 4299.0 2025.0 Test VI - c 2201.0 4544.0 2015.0 Test VI – d 2216.0 4565.0 1979.0 Test VII – static insulation (inside) According to results of 4.6, during the wintertime, the thermal performance ranking of the insulation layer position is insulation inside > both sides > insulation outside. During the summertime, the thermal performance ranking of the insulation layer position is insulation outside > both sides > insulation inside. Therefore, during the summertime using outside dynamic insulation, during the wintertime, using static inside insulation. Six sets of experiments were conducted to obtain the correct location and thickness of the insulation throughout the year except from April 14 to October 31. e. 3 inches static both side insulation Changing the north wall construction to be 3” insulation outside + 5” concrete + 3” insulation inside and running the simulation to get the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December (Fig. 4.169). 198 Figure 4.169 North wall constrction The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 2,826 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 3,964 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 1,970 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F (Figs. 4.170). Figure 4.170 e Air temperature – Interior space – whole year Checking the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F (Figs. 4.171 to 4.177) (Table 4.8). 199 Figure 4.171 e Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb, Dec. Figure 4.172 e Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. Figure 4.173 e Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. Figure 4.174 e Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. Figure 4.175 e Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. Figure 4.176 e Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. Figure 4.177 e Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. 200 Table 4.8 Summary of Test VII-e air temperature interior space results Jan Feb Mar April Nov Dec <= 65.00 e 725.0 540.0 263.0 161.0 408.0 729.0 >65.00 to <=85.00 e 19.0 132.0 481.0 533.0 312.0 15.0 > 85.00 e 0.0 0.0 0.0 26.0 0.0 0.0 f. 3 inches static inside insulation Changing the north wall construction to be 5” concrete + 3” insulation inside and running the simulation to get the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December. The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 2,912 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 3,877 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 1,971 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F (Figs. 4.178). Figure 4.178 f Air temperature – Interior space - Whole year 201 Checking the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F (Figs. 4.179 to 4.185) (Table 4.9). Figure 4.179 f Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb., Dec. Figure 4.180 f Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. Figure 4.181 f Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. Figure 4.182 f Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. Figure 4.183 f Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. Figure 4.184 f Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. 202 Figure 4.185 f Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. Table 4.9 Summary of Test VII-f air temperature interior space results Jan Feb Mar April Nov Dec <= 65.00 f 726.0 534.0 272.0 184.0 457.0 729.0 >65.00 to <=85.00 f 18.0 138.0 472.0 507.0 263.0 15.0 > 85.00 f 0.0 0.0 0.0 29.0 0.0 0.0 g. 3 inches static outside insulation Changing the north wall construction to be 3” insulation outside + 5” concrete and running the simulation to get the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December. The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 2,887 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 3,962 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 1,911 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F (Figs. 4.186). 203 Figure 4.186 g Air temperature – Interior space - Whole year Checking the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F (Figs. 4.187 to 4.193) (Table 4.10). Figure 4.187 g Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb., Dec. Figure 4.188 g Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. Figure 4.189 g Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. Figure 4.190 g Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. Figure 4.191 g Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. 204 Figure 4.192 g Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. Figure 4.193 g Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. Table 4.10 Summary of Test VII-g air temperature interior space results Jan Feb Mar April Nov Dec <= 65.00 g 728.0 561.0 260.0 158.0 450.0 730.0 >65.00 to <=85.00 g 16.0 111.0 484.0 556.0 270.0 14.0 > 85.00 g 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 h. 2 inches static both side insulation Changing the north wall construction to be 2” insulation outside + 5” concrete + 2” insulation inside to get the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December. The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 2,794 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 3,992 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 1,974 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the 205 year when it above 85°F (Figs. 4.194). Figure 4.194 h Air temperature – Interior space - Whole year Checking the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F (Figs. 4.195 to 4.201) (Table 4.11). Figure 4.195 h Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb., Dec. Figure 4.196 h Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. Figure 4.197 h Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. Figure 4.198 h Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. 206 Figure 4.199 h Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. Figure 4.200 h Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. Figure 4.201 h Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. Table 4.11 Summary of Test VII-h air temperature interior space results Jan Feb Mar April Nov Dec <= 65.00 h 724.0 524.0 258.0 163.0 396.0 729.0 >65.00 to <=85.00 h 20.0 148.0 486.0 527.0 324.0 15.0 > 85.00 h 0.0 0.0 0.0 30.0 0.0 0.0 i. 2 inches static inside insulation Changing the north wall construction to be 5” concrete + 2” insulation inside to get the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December. The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 2,871 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 207 3,940 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 1,949 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F (Figs. 4.202). Figure 4.202 i Air temperature – Interior space - Whole year Checking the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F (Figs. 4.203 to 4.209) (Table 4.12). Figure 4.203 i Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb., Dec. Figure 4.204 i Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. Figure 4.205 i Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. Figure 4.206 i Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. 208 Figure 4.207 i Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. Figure 4.208 i Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. Figure 4.209 i Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. Table 4.12 Summary of Test VII-i air temperature interior space results Jan Feb Mar April Nov Dec <= 65.00 i 727.0 537.0 261.0 173.0 443.0 730.0 >65.00 to <=85.00 i 17.0 135.0 483.0 527.0 277.0 14.0 > 85.00 i 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 j. 2 inches static outside insulation Changing the north wall construction to be 2” insulation outside + 5” concrete to get the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December. The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of 209 three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 2,923 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 3,926 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 1,911 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F (Figs. 4.210). Figure 4.210 j Air temperature – Interior space - Whole year Checking the temperature range of January, February, March, April, November, and December: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F (Figs. 4.211 to 4.217) (Table 4.13). Figure 4.211 j Air temperature – Interior space - Jan., Feb., Dec. Figure 4.212 j Air temperature – Interior space - Jan. Figure 4.213 j Air temperature – Interior space - Feb. 210 Figure 4.214 j Air temperature – Interior space - Mar. Figure 4.215 j Air temperature – Interior space - Apr. Figure 4.216 j Air temperature – Interior space - Nov. Figure 4.217 j Air temperature – Interior space - Dec. Table 4.13 Summary of Test VII-j air temperature interior space results Jan Feb Mar April Nov Dec <= 65.00 j 727.0 569.0 264.0 165.0 468.0 730.0 >65.00 to <=85.00 j 17.0 103.0 480.0 549.0 252.0 14.0 > 85.00 j 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 211 Summary of Test VII-e, Test VII-f, Test VII-g, Test VII-h, and Test VII-i Compare the thermal comfort hours of Test VII-e, f, g, h, i, j, in January, February, March, April, November, December, h has the most comfort hours. The comfort hour in December, e, f, h is same, 15 hours. Therefore, comparing the comfort zones of all months, h (2” insulation outside + 5” concrete + 2” insulation inside) is best option (Table 4.14). Table 4.14 Temperature summary of static insulation inside in cold month Jan Feb Mar April Nov Dec <= 65.00 e 725.0 540.0 263.0 161.0 408.0 729.0 f 726.0 534.0 272.0 184.0 457.0 729.0 g 728.0 561.0 260.0 158.0 450.0 730.0 h 724.0 524.0 258.0 163.0 396.0 729.0 i 727.0 537.0 261.0 173.0 443.0 730.0 j 727.0 569.0 264.0 165.0 468.0 730.0 >65.00 to <=85.00 e 19.0 132.0 481.0 533.0 312.0 15.0 f 18.0 138.0 472.0 507.0 263.0 15.0 g 16.0 111.0 484.0 556.0 270.0 14.0 h 20.0 148.0 486.0 527.0 324.0 15.0 i 17.0 135.0 483.0 527.0 277.0 14.0 j 17.0 103.0 480.0 549.0 252.0 14.0 > 85.00 e 0.0 0.0 0.0 26.0 0.0 0.0 f 0.0 0.0 0.0 29.0 0.0 0.0 212 g 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 h 0.0 0.0 0.0 30.0 0.0 0.0 i 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 j 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 Because the dynamic insulation outside will start from April 14, compare the comfort hours from April 1 to April 13, e (3” insulation outside + 5” concrete + 3” insulation inside) and h (2” insulation outside + 5” concrete + 2” insulation inside) almost same (Fig. 4.218 Table 4.15). Figure 4.218 Comparison of Test VII -e, f, g, h, i, j 213 Table 4.15 Temperature summary of static insulation inside from April 1 to April 13 ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F e 151.0 161.0 0.0 f 167.0 145.0 0.0 g 153.0 159.0 0.0 h 152.0 160.0 0.0 i 163.0 149.0 0.0 j 158.0 154.0 0.0 For Test VI-d, from April 14 to April 30 (408 hours), there are 5 hours are underheated hours, 378 hours in the thermal comfort range, and 25 hours are overheated hours. From May 1 to October 31 (4,416 hours), there are 0 hours are underheated hours, 2,462 hours in the thermal comfort range, and 1,954 hours are overheated hours. Therefore, for Test VI-d between April 14 to Oct 31, there are 5 hours are underheated hours, 2,840 hours in the thermal comfort range, and 1,979 hours are overheated hours. The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. Test VII-h has the highest comfort hours. There are 2,788 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 3,993 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 1,979 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F (Table 4.16). Table 4.16 Temperature summary of Test VII-e to j and combine with Test VII-d 214 ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F e + d 2821 3960 1979 f + d 2890 3891 1979 g + d 2887 3894 1979 h + d 2788 3993 1979 i + d 2866 3915 1979 j + d 2921 3860 1979 However, even though Test VII-h had the best results among all tests VII, the comfort hours in wintertime results were unsatisfactory compared to Test VI. Test VIII - Update Test VI and Test VII Continue simulating dynamic insulation both inside and outside because Test VII static insulation (inside), is ineffective throughout the winter. The daily opening time is set from 7 am to 6 pm, and closing from 6 pm to 7 am, which means the inside dynamic insulation will open during the day, and close during the night. 1 means open and 0 means closed. Then, apply daily profile to weekly profile and annual profile. Using the Test IV formula to run the east and west windows to get the whole year’s results (Fig. 4.219). 215 Figure 4.219 Daily Profile To get the better results of north wall, nine more test was simulated, including k. dynamic insulation (outside) operating as time profile + dynamic insulation (inside) always off, l. dynamic insulation (outside) always off + dynamic insulation (inside) operating as time profile, m. dynamic insulation (outside) always on + dynamic insulation (inside) operating as time profile, n. dynamic insulation (outside) operating as time profile + dynamic insulation (inside) always on, o. dynamic insulation (outside) always off + dynamic insulation (inside) always on, p. dynamic insulation (outside) always on + dynamic insulation (inside) always off, q. dynamic insulation (outside) operating as time profile + dynamic insulation (inside) operating as time profile, r. dynamic insulation (outside) always on + dynamic insulation (inside) always on, s. dynamic insulation (outside) always off + dynamic insulation (inside) always off, t. Test VI-d. Always off is same as Test I, time profile is same as Test V , always on is same as Test II, and the east and west windows operation is same a Test IV (Table 4.17). 216 Table 4.17 Dynamic insulation setting of Test k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s Dynamic insulation Always off Time profile Always on k Outside - √ - Inside √ - - l Outside √ - - Inside - √ - m Outside - - √ Inside - √ - n Outside - √ - Inside - - √ o Outside √ - - Inside - - √ p Outside - - √ Inside √ - - q Outside - √ - Inside - √ - r Outside - - √ Inside - - √ s Outside √ - - Inside √ - - t Outside - √ - Inside - - - 217 Comparing the 12 months of comfort hours, the filled color is the maximum comfort hours during the ten tests (the filled color represents the maximum comfort hours among all tests) (Fig. 4.215). Figure 4.220 Test VIII k to t - 12 months of comfort hours 218 According to Test VI – dynamic insulation (outside) simulation results, dynamic insulation outside should operate from April 14 to October 31, therefore, the red line is the dynamic insulation final choice (the red line represents the final option) (Fig. 4.216). Figure 4.221 Test VIII k to t - 12 months of comfort hours 219 Therefore, to get more comfort hours all year round, in January and December, the dynamic outside insulation should be closed, and the dynamic inside insulation should be opened during the day and closed at night according to the seasonal ranger schedule. In the months of February, March, April and November, dynamic outside insulation should always be closed, and dynamic inside insulation should always be open. From May to September, the dynamic outside insulation should be open during the night and closed during the day, and the inside dynamic insulation should be always open. There are 2,261 hours below 65°F, 4,653 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,846 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Table 4.18). Table 4.18 Summary of all month’s air temperature interior space results Outside Inside ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F January Off Profile 683.0 61.0 0.0 February Off On 374.0 298.0 0.0 March Off On 176.0 568.0 0.0 April Off On 35.0 660.0 25.0 May Profile On 8.0 559.0 177.0 June Profile On 0.0 353.0 367.0 July Profile On 0.0 175.0 569.0 August Profile On 0.0 233.0 511.0 September Profile On 0.0 508.0 212.0 October Profile On 0.0 743.0 1.0 220 November Off On 165.0 555.0 0.0 December Off Profile 722.0 22.0 0.0 Summary of Test I to Test VIII Test I: When the windows are closed throughout the year, the annual comfort hours are 2,211 hours. Test II: When the windows are open throughout the year, the annual comfort hours are 2,506. So, it is more comfortable to open the windows than to close them. When windows are open year-round (Test II) versus when they are closed year-round (Test I), there are 388 more cold hours in the winter and 683 fewer hot hours in the summer. Test III: If room air temperature is greater than or equal to 85°F and outside air temperature is less than room air temperature, or if room air temperature is less than or equal to 65°F and outside air temperature is greater than room air temperature, the east and west windows will be open. There are 2,808 comfort hours. Test IV: If room air temperature is greater than or equal to 82°F and outside air temperature is less than room air temperature, or if room air temperature is less than or equal to 67°F and outside air temperature is greater than room air temperature, the east and west windows will be open. There are 2,941 comfort hours. Therefore, opening windows within the thermal comfort range specified by ASHRAE (67°F to 82°F) is better than the set thermal comfort range for small residence (65°F to 85°F). According to Test I to Test IV , underheated hours (below 85°F) occupy the largest portion of the year, and the numerous underheated hours cannot be addressed by ventilation alone. Test V: The north wall outside dynamic insulation that opens or closes according to the seasonal 221 ranger’s daily schedule (seasonal rangers usually work from 8 am to 5 pm). So, the daily opening time from 6 pm to 7 am, and closing from 7 am to 6 pm. There are 3,973 comfort hours. Test VI: To determine when it is most advantageous to operate the outside dynamic insulation, the experiment was divided into seasonal tests, including a. dynamic insulation outside (spring, summer, and fall), b. dynamic insulation outside (winter), c. dynamic insulation (summer), d. dynamic insulation outside (optimization). Test VI-d is the outside dynamic insulation's final iteration, and it should open from April 14 to October 31 and closed from November 1 to April 13 and combine with east and west windows operation. Test VI-a has 4,215 comfort hours, Test VI-b has 4,299 comfort hours, Test VI-c has 4.544 comfort hours, and Test VI-d has 4,565 comfort hours. Test VII: When comparing the thermal comfort hours of Test VII-e, f, g, h, i, j, in January, February, March, April, November, December, h has the most comfort hours. The comfort hour in December, e, f, h is same, 15 hours. Therefore, comparing the comfort zones of all months, h (2” insulation outside + 5” concrete + 2” insulation inside) is best option. However, even though Test VII-h had the best results among all tests VII, the comfort hours in wintertime results were unsatisfactory compared to Test VI. Test VIII: In January and December, the dynamic outside insulation should be closed, and the dynamic inside insulation should be opened during the day and closed at night according to the seasonal ranger schedule. In the months of February, March, April and November, dynamic outside insulation should always be closed, and dynamic inside insulation should always be open. From May to September, the dynamic outside insulation should be open during the night and closed during the day, and the inside dynamic insulation 222 should be always open. There are 2,261 hours below 65°F, 4,653 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,846 hours above 85°F throughout the year. Compare Test I to Test VIII, the north wall cold battery with dynamic insulation combine with the ventilation of the east and west windows was an effective way to increase the comfort hours (Table 4.19). Table 4.19 Summary of all test air temperature interior space results ≤ 65°F heating hours > 65°F to ≤ 85°F comfortable hours > 85°F cooling hours Test I 3846.0 2211.0 2703.0 Test II 4234.0 2506.0 2020.0 Test III 3808.0 2808.0 2144.0 Test IV 3795.0 2941.0 2024.0 Test V 2808.0 3973.0 1979.0 Test VI - a 2566.0 4215.0 1979.0 Test VI - b 2436.0 4299.0 2025.0 Test VI - c 2201.0 4544.0 2015.0 Test VI – d 2216.0 4565.0 1979.0 Test VII - e 2788 3993.0 1979.0 Test VII - f 2821 3960 1979 Test VII - g 2890 3891 1979 223 Test VII - h 2887 3894 1979 Test VII - i 2788 3993 1979 Test VII - j 2866 3915 1979 Test VIII 2261.0 4653.0 1846.0 4.3.6 Excel BTU (British thermal unit) calculation of concrete wall to obtain how much heat the wall can store. The BTU for north wall of the small residence is 8 Btu/ft 2 ·°F. According to ASHRAE Standard 90.1, a mass wall is characterized by a heat capacity that exceeds either 7 Btu/ft 2 ·°F (45.2 kJ/m 2 .K) or 5 Btu/ft 2 ·°F (32.2 kJ/m 2 .K), but only if the material unit weight of the wall is not greater than 120 lb/ft³ (1,922 kg/m³). This criterion helps to clarify that the majority of lightweight concrete masonry walls are classified as mass walls within the context of the Standard. The unit weight of lightweight concrete is 90 to 115 lb / ft³, while the normal weight concrete is 140 to 150 lb/ft³. Therefore, the use of lightweight concrete can be considered in the future (Fig. 4.222). Figure 4.222 BTU calculation 4.4 Thermal lag This section describes the time lag and heat loss of different thickness and locations of 2 inches and 3 inches insulation for 5 inches concrete in OPAQUE. Because in regions that have significant fluctuation temperature, time lag is particularly crucial for 224 building design. The low nighttime temperatures will reach the internal surfaces around midday, cooling the interior room, if materials with a thermal lag of 10–12 hours are utilized carefully. Similar to the above, the interior room temperature will become warmer late at night when the high daytime temperatures reach the internal surfaces (Figs. 4.223 to 4.235). Figure 4.223 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall - 3.5h thermal lag 225 Figure 4.224 5” concrete with 2 inches insulation in outside Figure 4.225 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 2” outside insulation - 6.1h 226 Figure 4.226 5” concrete with 2” insulation in inside Figure 4.227 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 2” inside insulation - 5.3h 227 Figure 4.228 5” concrete with 2” insulation in both side Figure 4.229 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 2” both side insulation - 8.1h 228 Figure 4.230 5” concrete with 3” insulation in outside Figure 4.231 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 3” outside insulation - 7.1h 229 Figure 4.232 5” concrete with 3” insulation in inside Figure 4.233 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 3” inside insulation - 6.2h 230 Figure 4.234 5” concrete with 3” insulation in both side Figure 4.235 Heat gain and heat loss - 5” concrete wall + 2” both side insulation - 9.9h 231 By comparing the effect of the location of 2 inches of insulation and the location of 3 inches of insulation on the time lag of the concrete wall, the results show that the thermal performance of 3 inches insulation is always better than 2 inches insulation. The time lag for both sides of the insulation is greater than that of the single side insulation. The time lag is the shortest when the concrete wall has no insulation. Comparing the outside side insulation with the inside insulation, the time lag of the outside insulation is longer than the time lag of the inside insulation. According to the previous findings, it is concluded that the time lag of both sides of the insulation > outside insulation > inside insulation > no insulation (Table 4.20). Table 4.20 Time lag of different side of insulation and thickness Outside Insulation (inch) Concrete wall (inch) Inside Insulation (inch) Thermal Time Lag (hour) Test 1 - 5 - 3.5 Test 2 2 5 - 6.1 Test 3 - 5 2 5.3 Test 4 2 5 2 8.1 Test 5 3 5 - 7.1 Test 6 - 5 3 6.2 Test 7 3 5 3 9.9 4.5 Dynamic insulation The main parameters of the IES VE dynamic insulation simulation are divided into three different parts, including different thicknesses of the north wall, joining the insulation of the exterior or 232 interior, testing the effect on the indoor temperature in different open and closed states of the internal and external insulation, and the U and R values of the insulation. In order to study the dynamic insulation, the static insulation is first tested (Figs. 4.236 to 4.251). Figure 4.236 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 Temperature ( 癋 ) Dry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Sun 13/Jul for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete.aps ) 233 Figure 4.237 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall Figure 4.238 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in inside 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Temperature ( 癋 ) Dry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Wed 10/Dec for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete.aps ) 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 Temperature ( 癋 ) Dry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Sun 13/Jul for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+ins ide ins ulation 3.aps ) 234 Figure 4.239 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in outside Figure 4.240 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in both side 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 Temperature ( 癋 ) Dry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Sun 13/Jul for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+outs ide ins ulation 3.aps ) 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 Temperature ( 癋 ) Dry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Sun 13/Jul for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+boths ide ins ulation 3.aps ) 235 Figure 4.241 Comparison of peak days (summer) for 5" concrete walls and 3" insulation in different locations Figure 4.242 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in inside 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 Temperature ( 癋 ) Dry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Sun 13/Jul for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+ins ide ins ulation 3.aps ) Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+outs ide ins ulation 3.aps ) Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+boths ide ins ulation 3.aps ) 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Temperature ( 癋 ) Dry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Wed 10/Dec for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+ins ide ins ulation 3.aps ) 236 Figure 4.243 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in outside Figure 4.244 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall with 3” insulation in both side 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Temperature ( 癋 ) Dry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Wed 10/Dec for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+outs ide ins ulation 3.aps ) 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Temperature ( 癋 ) D ry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Wed 10/D ec for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+boths ide ins ulation 3.aps ) 237 Figure 4.245 Comparison of peak days (winter) for 5" concrete walls and 3" insulation in different locations Figure 4.246 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall with 2” insulation in inside 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Temperature ( 癋 ) D ry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Wed 10/D ec for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+ins ide ins ulation 3.aps ) Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+outs ide ins ulation 3.aps ) Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+boths ide ins ulation 3.aps ) 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 Temperature ( 癋 ) D ry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Sun 13/Jul for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+ins ide ins ulation 2.aps ) 238 Figure 4.247 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall with 2” insulation in inside Figure 4.248 Peak day (summer) 5” concrete wall with 2” insulation in outside 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Temperature ( 癋 ) D ry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Wed 10/D ec for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+ins ide ins ulation 2.aps ) 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 Temperature ( 癋 ) D ry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Sun 13/Jul for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+outs ide ins ulation 2.aps ) 239 Figure 4.249 Peak day (winter) 5” concrete wall with 2” insulation in outside Figure 4.250 Comparison of peak day (summer) for 5” concrete walls and 2” insulation in inside and outside 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Temperature ( 癋 ) D ry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Wed 10/D ec for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+outs ide ins ulation 2.aps ) 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 Temperature ( 癋 ) D ry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Sun 13/Jul for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+ins ide ins ulation 2.aps ) Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+outs ide ins ulation 2.aps ) 240 Figure 4.251 Comparison of peak days (winter) for 5” concrete walls and 2” insulation in inside and outside The findings indicated that the position of the insulation had a small impact on the daily total transmission load, with the advantage of insulation placed inside during the winter and outside during the summer. In winter, the effect of insulation placed inside and on both sides is basically the same, and placed inside or on both sides is significantly better than insulation placed outdoors. Since the seasonal rangers stay in the room mainly from 5 pm to 8 am, during this time, the insulation layer placed indoors is slightly better than the insulation layer placed on both sides. Therefore, in winter, the thermal performance ranking of the insulation layer position is insulation inside > both sides > insulation outside. In summer, the effect of insulation placed outside is very significant, considering the ranger's time indoors, so insulation placed on both sides is slightly better than insulation placed inside. 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Temperature ( 癋 ) D ry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Wed 10/D ec for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+ins ide ins ulation 2.aps ) Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+outs ide ins ulation 2.aps ) 241 Therefore, in summer, the thermal performance ranking of the insulation layer position is insulation outside > both sides > insulation inside (Figs. 4.252 and 4.253). Figure 4.252 Comparison of peak days (summer) for 5” concrete walls and 2”/ 3” insulation in inside 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 Temperature ( 癋 ) D ry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Sun 13/Jul for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+outs ide ins ulation 3.aps ) Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+outs ide ins ulation 2.aps ) 242 Figure 4.253 Comparison of peak days (winter) for 5” concrete walls and 2”/ 3” insulation in inside In the summer, 2 inches of outside insulation is slightly more effective than 3 inches of outside insulation. In winter, 2 inches of outside insulation works better than 3 inches of outside insulation. Therefore, 2 inches of insulation is better than 3 inches of exterior wall insulation. 4.6 Summary This chapter covered basic considerations of climate and comfort, the development of a design and 3D models, concepts of thermal mass and thermal lag, and dynamic insulation. Analysis was also accomplished to determine the values for the combined building model. 4.6.1 Climate and Comfort In Joshua Tree National Park, most of the time it is outside of the comfortable range, the highest average temperatures are in June, July, and August, and the lowest average temperature is in 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 Temperature ( 癋 ) D ry-bulb temperature peaks (+) on Wed 10/D ec for Model Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+ins ide ins ulation 3.aps ) Dry-bulb temperature? (TW ENTYNINE-PALMS_690150_CZ2010.epw) Air temperature?Interior Space (YQ NW 5 inches concrete+ins ide ins ulation 2.aps ) 243 December, January, and February. Comparing the nighttime hours of the small residence in Joshua Tree National Park, the temperature drops sharply at night in summer because there is no cloud cover, while in winter the temperature drop is significantly more moderate at night with cloud cover. The cold battery of the north wall will use the summer night time to open the outside insulation system at night to absorb the cold, and in the summer when the temperature rises during the day, it will close the outside insulation system and open the internal insulation system to release the cold. In the summer, there is still some coolth at night and morning, especially between 8 pm and 6 am. This means that the cold battery can take advantage of the low temperatures between 0 am and 7 am in the summer and use the time lag to cool the small residence during the high temperatures of midday in the summer. The thermal comfort zone of this small residence is expanded due to the unique occupancy type and is set to included temperatures between 65°F and 85°F in the interior. 4.6.2 3D Models The small residence was determined to have the dimensions of 28 feet (L) × 8 feet (W) × 9 feet (H). On the eastern and western faces of the proposed building, windows are placed to allow for cross-ventilation. Buffer spaces sheltered from direct sunlight are provided on the east and west sides to reduce the amount of direct solar heat entering the building. The 5" north wall is a good option for wall weight calculations for both structural and transportation considerations. This is because the dimension of the north wall panel was configured to have the maximum dimensions for semi-trailer transportation within the maximum weight for crane lifting. Therefore, the U value and R value calculations of the different insulation were conducted using a 5" concrete wall, and further studies should consider lightweight concrete. 244 4.6.3 Thermal Lag In Joshua Tree National Park that has significant fluctuation, time lag is particularly crucial for building design. The low nighttime temperatures will reach the internal surfaces around midday, cooling the interior room, if materials with a thermal lag of 10–12 hours are utilized carefully, and the interior room temperature will become warmer late at night when the high daytime temperatures reach the internal surfaces. The time lag for both sides of the insulation is greater than that of the single side insulation. The time lag is the shortest when the concrete wall has no insulation. Comparing the outside side insulation with the inside insulation, the time lag of the outside insulation is longer than the time lag of the inside insulation. Therefore, the time lag of both sides of the insulation > outside insulation > inside insulation > no insulation. By comparing the effect of the location of 2 inches of insulation and the location of 3 inches of insulation on the time lag of the concrete wall, the results show that the thermal performance of 3 inches insulation is always better than 2 inches insulation. The position of the insulation had a small impact on the daily total transmission load, with the advantage of insulation placed inside during the winter and outside during the summer. In winter, the effect of insulation placed inside and on both sides is basically the same, and placed inside or on both sides is significantly better than insulation placed outdoors. Since the seasonal rangers stay in the room mainly from 5 pm to 8 am, during this time, the insulation layer placed indoors is slightly better than the insulation layer placed on both sides. Therefore, in winter, the thermal performance ranking of the insulation layer position is insulation inside > both sides > insulation outside. In summer, the effect of insulation placed outside is very significant, considering the ranger's time indoors, so insulation placed on both sides is slightly better than insulation placed 245 inside. Therefore, in summer, the thermal performance ranking of the insulation layer position is insulation outside > both sides > insulation inside. 4.6.4 Dynamic Insulation The position of the insulation had a small impact on the daily total transmission load, with the advantage of insulation placed inside during the winter and outside during the summer. In winter, the effect of insulation placed inside and on both sides is basically the same, and placed inside or on both sides is significantly better than insulation placed outdoors. Since the seasonal rangers stay in the room mainly from 5 pm to 8 am, during this time, the insulation layer placed indoors is slightly better than the insulation layer placed on both sides. Therefore, in winter, the thermal performance ranking of the insulation layer position is insulation inside > both sides > insulation outside. In summer, the effect of insulation placed outside is very significant, considering the ranger's time indoors, so insulation placed on both sides is slightly better than insulation placed inside. Therefore, in summer, the thermal performance ranking of the insulation layer position is insulation outside > both sides > insulation inside. Comparing 2 inches insulation with 3 inches insulation, in the summer, 2 inches of outside insulation is slightly more effective than 3 inches of outside insulation. In winter, 2 inches of outside insulation works better than 3 inches of outside insulation. Therefore, 2 inches of insulation is better than 3 inches of exterior wall insulation. 4.6.5 Values for North Wall for Combined Building Model (Chapter 5) The east and west window opening condition is that if the room air temperature is greater than equal to 82°F and outside air temperature is less than room air temperature, or if room air 246 temperature is less than or equal to 67°F and outside air temperature is greater than room air temperature. If either of these conditions is satisfied, the windows on the west and east sides will open at the same time. The day profile of the outside dynamic insulation is set according to the daily schedule of the seasonal rangers (from 8 am to 5 pm). The outside insulation will be on from 6 pm to 7am and off from 7 am to 6 pm, which means the dynamic insulation will open during the night, and close during the day. The inside dynamic insulation daily opening time is set from 7 am to 6 pm, and closing from 6 pm to 7 am, which means the inside dynamic insulation will open during the day, and close during the night. To get more comfort hours all year round, in January and December, the dynamic outside insulation should be closed, and the dynamic inside insulation should be opened during the day and closed at night according to the seasonal ranger schedule. In the months of February, March, April and November, dynamic outside insulation should always be closed, and dynamic inside insulation should always be open. From May to September, the dynamic outside insulation should be open during the night and closed during the day, and the inside dynamic insulation should be always open. There are 2,261 hours below 65°F, 4,653 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,846 hours above 85°F throughout the year. 247 CHAPTER 5 DATA CONSOLIDATION FOR COMBINED MODEL OF POCKET LODGE This chapter describes the south wall, north wall, roof, east and west windows, combined model simulation result, proposed south wall as the hot battery, and proposed east and west glazed façade improvements (Fig. 5.1). Figure 5.1 Diagram of chapter 5 data consolidation for combined model of pocket lodge 5.1 South Wall This section describes the results of the south wall analysis separately from the other façade components of the Pocket Lodge, including wall thickness, insulation thickness, insulation material, insulation position, and dynamic insulation profiles. The south wall of the small residence is composed of 8 inches of concrete wall and 3 inches of expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation for both the interior and exterior (Table 5.1 and Figs. 5.2 and 5.3). 248 Table 5.1 Summary of the south wall material and thickness Material Thickness Concrete 8 inches EPS 3 inches for both sides Figure 5.2 South wall – outside insulation project construction Figure 5.3 South wall – inside insulation project construction 249 The interior and exterior insulation are movable. For the analysis, there are four potential conditions: 1) both interior and exterior insulation is in place, 2) both the interior and exterior insulation are moved away from the concrete wall, 3) the interior insulation is in place and the exterior is moved away, and 4) the interior insulation is moved away and the exterior insulation is in place. A schedule has been created indicating the most likely good times to place and remove the insulation. For the following study, the outside insulation of the south wall opening time is 11 am to 5 pm in winter, 8 am to 6 pm in spring, 11 pm to 4 am in summer, 10 pm to 9 am in fall. In the figures below, 1 means open and 0 means closed (Figs. 5.4 to 5.8). Figure 5.4 South wall – outside insulation daily profile – 11 am to 5 pm Figure 5.5 South wall – outside insulation daily profile – 8 am to 6 pm 250 Figure 5.6 South wall – outside insulation daily profile – 11 pm to 4 am Figure 5.7 South wall – outside insulation daily profile – 10 pm to 9 am Figure 5.8 South wall – outside insulation annual profile 251 For the same study, the schedule for the inside insulation of the south wall opening time is set at 9 pm to 8 am in winter, 11 pm to 7 am in spring, 8 am to 12 pm in summer, 11 am to 6 pm in fall (Figs. 5.9 to 5.13). Figure 5.9 South wall – inside insulation daily profile – 9 pm to 8 am Figure 5.10 South wall – inside insulation daily profile – 11 pm to 7 am 252 Figure 5.11 South wall – inside insulation daily profile – 8 am to 12 pm Figure 5.12 South wall – inside insulation daily profile – 11 am to 6 pm Figure 5.13 South wall – inside insulation annual profile 253 Combining outside and inside insulation, the south wall's insulation system is able to be opened or closed at various periods of the year (Table 5.2). Table 5.2 Summary of the south wall outside and inside insulation annual profile Season Month Outside insulation Inside insulation Winter December 11 am - 5 pm 9 pm – 8 am January 11 am - 5 pm 9 pm – 8 am February 11 am - 5 pm 9 pm – 8 am Spring March 8 am - 6 pm 11 pm – 7 am April 8 am - 6 pm 11 pm – 7 am May 8 am - 6 pm 11 pm – 7 am Summer June 11 pm – 4 am 8 am - 12 pm July 11 pm – 4 am 8 am - 12 pm August 11 pm – 4 am 8 am - 12 pm Fall September 10 pm – 9 am 11 am - 6 pm October 10 pm – 9 am 11 am - 6 pm November 10 pm – 9 am 11 am - 6 pm 5.2 North Wall This section describes the north wall results, including wall thickness, insulation thickness, insulation material, insulation position, and dynamic insulation profiles. The north wall of the small residence is composed of a 5 inches concrete wall and 3 inches expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation for the interior and exterior (Table 5.3 and Figs. 5.14 and 254 5.15). Table 5.3 Summary of the north wall material and thickness Material Thickness Concrete 5 inches EPS 3 inches for both sides Figure 5.14 North wall – outside insulation project construction Figure 5.15 North wall – inside insulation project construction 255 For the north wall, the daily outside insulation opening time is from 6 pm to 7 am, the daily inside insulation opening time is from 7 am to 6 pm. 1 means open and 0 means closed (Figs. 5.16 to 5.19). Figure 5.16 North wall – outside insulation daily profile – 6 pm to 7 am Figure 5.17 North wall – outside insulation annual profile – 7 am to 6 pm 256 Figure 5.18 North wall – inside insulation daily profile Figure 5.19 North wall – inside insulation annual profile Combining outside and inside insulation, the north wall's insulation system is able to be opened or closed at various periods of the year. “Off” means total close (0%), and “On” means total open (100%) (Table 5.4). Table 5.4 Summary of the north wall outside and inside insulation annual profile Season Month Outside insulation Inside insulation 257 Winter December Off Inside profile (7 am – 6 pm) January Off Inside profile (7 am – 6 pm) February Off On Spring March Off On April Off On May Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On Summer June Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On July Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On August Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On Fall September Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On October Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On November Off On 5.3 Roof This section describes the roof results, including wall thickness, insulation thickness, insulation material, insulation position, and dynamic insulation profiles. The roof of the small residence is composed of a 5 inches concrete wall and 3 inches of expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation for the interior (Table 5.5 and Fig. 5.20). Table 5.5 Summary of the roof material and thickness Material Thickness Concrete 5 inches EPS 3 inches for inside 258 Figure 5.20 Roof – inside insulation project construction The inside insulation of the north wall opening time is off in winter, on from 6 pm to 11 am in spring, off in summer, and on in fall. “Off” means total close (0%), and “On” means total open (100%). 1 means open and 0 means closed (Figs. 5.21 and 5.22). The best results are obtained with a fresnel lens setting, but the “constant” setting is similar. Figure 5.21 Roof – inside insulation daily profile – 6 pm to 11 am 259 Figure 5.22 Roof – inside insulation annual profile The roof's insulation system is able to be opened or closed at various periods of the year (Table 5.6). Table 5.6 Summary of the roof inside insulation annual profile Season Month Inside insulation Winter December Off January Off February Off Spring March 6 pm - 11 am April 6 pm - 11 am May 6 pm - 11 am Summer June Off July Off August Off 260 Fall September On October On November On 5.4 East and west windows This section describes the east and west windows’ material and buffer space. The window material is set using the IES VE default setting (Fig. 5.23). Figure 5.23 East and west windows construction The combined model is combined with buffer spaces that have slightly better building energy performance and stabilize air temperature (Figs. 5.24 and 5.25). 261 Figure 5.24 East and west buffer space - front view Figure 5.25 Louver detail 5.5 Combined model simulation result This section describes the combined model simulation results. The south wall, north wall, roof and east and west windows are all included in the final iteration of the combined model that the team collected. The profiles for roof and south wall are all derived from the best results of team members' simulations (Fig. 5.26). 262 Figure 5.26 Looking at the east window wall – final iteration of the combined model The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 4,003 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 2,883 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 1,874 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F (Figs. 5.27 to 5.29). 263 Figure 5.27 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 5.28 Air temperature – Interior space 264 Figure 5.29 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F 5.6 Proposed south wall as the hot battery This section describes the proposed south wall as the hot battery. In the combined model, there are 4,003 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 2,883 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 1,874 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F. Underheated hours account for almost half of the year, so it was proposed to use the south wall as a hot battery to achieve more comfort hours. A hot battery is a dynamic internal and external wall system formed by two layers of insulation, one outside and one inside a layer of concrete with the intention to capture and store daytime heat 265 to be used for thermal comfort in the cooler nighttime. A combination of opening the exterior insulation system to absorb heat when the temperature rises and closing the exterior insulation system when the temperature fall, and opening or closing the interior insulation system to release or block hot to achieve a comfortable indoor temperature is what a hot battery is. It is a high mass wall for storing heat to make the wall hot by exposing it to hotter daytime temperatures and transfer that hot to the interior of the building when the interior temperature is too cold for comfort. The pocket lodge has a special occupancy type. Seasonal rangers are typically not in the pocket lodge during the day. They are outside in the park doing various kinds of work. According to the daily schedule of the seasonal ranger, two profiles are set for the hot battery of the south wall. One profile is set to open from 6 pm to 7 am, and closed from 7 am to 6 pm, which means the dynamic insulation will open during the night, and close during the day. Another profile is set open from 7 am to 6 pm, and closing from 6 pm to 7 am, which means the inside dynamic insulation will open during the day, and close during the night (Figs. 5.30 and 5.31). Figure 5.30 South wall as the hot battery daily profile – day close, night open 266 Figure 5.31 South wall as the hot battery daily profile – day open, night close 5.7 Proposed east and west glazed facade improvements This section describes the proposed east and west glazed façade improvements. The comfort time of the combined model was not as expected, so it was proposed to use east and west windows to achieve more comfort hours by having them open and close to achieve better ventilation. The pocket lodge has a long and thin overall geometry. The two small facades face east and west respectively. These facades are glazed and are partially shielded from direct sunlight due to the overhangs and extended wall elements. For these glazed facades, additional shading devices of three types (internal, exterior, and local) can be incorporated. Two different types of shading devices can be used, internal: curtains, blinds, external: shutters, louvres (Figs. 5.32 and 5.33). 267 Figure 5.32 Internal shading device Figure 5.33 External shading device (1) Device: When evaluating the device's performance, there is no distinction in this study between blinds and curtains of internal shading, and no distinction between shutters and louvres of external shading. (2) Control: The status (raised or lowered) of the shading device is determined by the parameters in this group. The shading device runs in discrete mode when disabled. 268 The shading device has two positions it can take in this mode: totally lowered and fully raised. In this mode, no intermediate state is allowed. (3) Continuously variable: The shading device functions in this mode when it is enabled. The shade device can be in any position between fully raised and totally lowered in this mode. Evaluation of the operation profile determines the status. Conditions for raising and lowering the shade device are not applicable in this mode. External shading devices are not used because IES VE does not show the location of external shading devices and whether there is an air gap between the glass wall and the blinds. The internal shading device is conducted (Fig. 5.34): Figure 5.34 Proposed internal shading device (1) Operation profile always on. (2) Unit is changed to IP. (3) Nighttime resistance is according to the 3 inches insulation value. 269 1 / Night resistance = 0.0757. Night resistance is 13.21. (4) Daytime resistance is between 1.0 to 2.0, means U value of glass. 2.0 is double pane window, 1.0 is single pane window. (5) Shading coefficient is according to the U value of clear glass, with from 0.8 to 0.85. (6) Short wave radiant fraction is according to the U value of low E glass with the film. 0.3 is a reasonable number. 5.8 Summary This chapter described the south wall, north wall, roof, east and west windows, combined model simulation result, proposed south wall as the hot battery, and proposed east and west glazed façade improvements. When the best results of the north wall simulation were combined with the best results of the south wall and roof simulated by other team members, the comfort hours of the combined model were not as good as expected. The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 4,003 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. There are 2,883 hours in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. There are 1,874 overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F. Therefore, making several proposed changes, including the south wall as hot battery and removing the buffer space and adding internal shading device of east and west windows is the next step to improve the indoor comfort of small residence (Fig. 5.35). 270 Figure 5.35 Improved combined model 271 CHAPTER 6 BUILDING SIMULATION FOR POCKET LODGE This chapter describes the south wall as the hot battery, east and west glazed façade improvements (Fig. 6.1). Figure 6.1 Diagram of chapter 6 data consolidation for combined model of pocket lodge 6.1 South wall as the hot battery This section describes different simulations of south wall to test it as a hot battery. To get more comfort hours throughout the year, the south wall dynamic insulation opening condition is that in January, the south wall inside dynamic insulation should be closed during the daytime and opened at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year (Test 13). In the months of February, March, April, and November, the inside dynamic insulation should be always opened and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year (Test 2). In the months of May, September, and October, the inside dynamic insulation should be always opened, and the outside dynamic insulation should be closed at night and opened during the daytime all year (Test 10). From June to August, the inside dynamic insulation should be opened during the daytime and closed at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always open all year (Test 11). In December, the inside dynamic insulation should be opened during the daytime and closed at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year round 272 (Test 12). There are 1,344 hours below 65°F, 5,543 hours between 65°F and 85°F (accounting for 63% of the year), and 1,873 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Table 6.1). Table 6.1 Summary of the south wall external and internal dynamic insulation Test Outside Inside January Test 13 On Day off, night on February Test 2 Off On March Test 2 Off On April Test 2 Off On May Test 10 Day off, night on On June Test 11 On Day on, night off July Test 11 On Day on, night off August Test 11 On Day on, night off September Test 10 Day off, night on On October Test 10 Day off, night on On November Test 2 Off On December Test 12 Off Day on, night off Test 1 – dynamic insulation inside on + outside on The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 1 is that the inside and outside dynamic insulation is opened all year round. There are 2,579 hours below 65°F, 4,333 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,848 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to always on (Figs. 6.2 and 6.3). 273 Figure 6.2 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.3 Air temperature – Interior space Test 2 – dynamic insulation inside on + outside off The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 2 is that the dynamic insulation inside is opened and the outside is closed all year round. There are 1,359 hours below 65°F, 5,474 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,927 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to always on for the inside dynamic insulation, and always off for the outside dynamic insulation (Figs. 6.4 and 6.5). 274 Figure 6.4 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.5 Air temperature – Interior space Test 3 – dynamic insulation inside off + outside on The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 3 is that the dynamic insulation inside is closed, and the outside is open all year round. There are 2,497 hours below 65°F, 4,393 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,870 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to always on for the outside dynamic insulation, and always off for the inside dynamic insulation (Figs. 6.6 and 6.7). 275 Figure 6.6 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.7 Air temperature – Interior space Test 4 – dynamic insulation inside off + outside off The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 4 is that the dynamic insulation inside and the outside is closed all year round. There are 1,514 hours below 65°F, 5,275 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,971 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to always off for the inside and outside dynamic insulation (Figs. 6.8 and 6.9). 276 Figure 6.8 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.9 Air temperature – Interior space Test 5 – dynamic insulation inside day on, night off + outside day off, night on The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 5 is that the dynamic insulation inside is day open and night close, and the outside is day closed and night open all year round. There are 2,381 hours below 65°F, 4,504 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,875 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to on during the day and off at night for the inside dynamic insulation, and set the outside dynamic insulation off during the day and on at night (Figs. 6.10 and 6.11). 277 Figure 6.10 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.11 Air temperature – Interior space Test 6 – dynamic insulation inside day off, night on + outside day on, night off The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 6 is that the dynamic insulation inside is day close and night open, and the outside is day open and night close all year round. There are 2,151 hours below 65°F, 4,719 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,890 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to off during the day and on at for the inside dynamic insulation, and the outside dynamic insulation is set to on during the day and off at night (Figs. 6.12 and 6.13). 278 Figure 6.12 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.13 Air temperature – Interior space Test 7 – dynamic insulation inside on + outside day on, night off The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 7 is that the dynamic insulation inside is always open, and the outside is day open and night close all year round. There are 2,127 hours below 65°F, 4,753 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,880 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to always on for the inside dynamic insulation, and the outside dynamic insulation is set to on during the day and off at night (Figs. 6.14 and 6.15). 279 Figure 6.14 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.15 Air temperature – Interior space Test 8 – dynamic insulation inside off + outside day on, night off The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 8 is that the dynamic insulation inside is always close, and the outside is day open and night close all year round. There are 2,173 hours below 65°F, 4,683 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,904 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to always off for the inside dynamic insulation, and the outside dynamic insulation is set to on during the day and off at night (Figs. 6.16 and 6.17). 280 Figure 6.16 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.17 Air temperature – Interior space Test 9 – dynamic insulation inside off + outside day off, night on The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 9 is that the dynamic insulation inside is always close, and the outside is day close and night open all year round. There are 2,375 hours below 65°F, 4,503 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,882 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to always off for the inside dynamic insulation, and the outside dynamic insulation is set to off during the day and on at night (Figs. 6.18 and 6.19). 281 Figure 6.18 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.19 Air temperature – Interior space Test 10 – dynamic insulation inside on + outside day off, night on The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 10 is that the dynamic insulation inside is always open, and the outside is day close and night open all year round. There are 2,394 hours below 65°F, 4,501 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,865 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to always on for the inside dynamic insulation, and the outside dynamic insulation is set to off during the day and on at night (Figs. 6.20 and 6.21). 282 Figure 6.20 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.21 Air temperature – Interior space Test 11 – dynamic insulation inside day on, night off + outside on The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 11 is that the dynamic insulation inside is day open and night close, and the outside is always open all year round. There are 2,534 hours below 65°F, 4,363 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,863 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to on during the day and off at night for the inside dynamic insulation, and the outside dynamic insulation is set to always on (Figs. 6.22 and 6.23). 283 Figure 6.22 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.23 Air temperature – Interior space Test 12 – dynamic insulation inside day on, night off + outside off The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 12 is that the dynamic insulation inside is day open and night close, and the outside is always close all year round. There are 1,432 hours below 65°F, 5,363 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,965 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to on during the day and off at night for the inside dynamic insulation, and the outside dynamic insulation is set to always off (Figs. 6.24 and 6.25). 284 Figure 6.24 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.25 Air temperature – Interior space Test 13 – dynamic insulation inside day off, night on + outside off The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 13 is that the dynamic insulation inside is day close and night open, and the outside is always close all year round. There are 1,387 hours below 65°F, 5,434 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,939 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to off during the day and on at night for the inside dynamic insulation, and the outside dynamic insulation is set to always off (Figs. 6.26 and 6.27). 285 Figure 6.26 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.27 Air temperature – Interior space Test 14 – dynamic insulation inside day off, night on + outside on The south wall dynamic insulation opening condition for Test 14 is that the dynamic insulation inside is day close and night open, and the outside is always open all year round. There are 2,561 hours below 65°F, 4,336 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,863 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The MacroFlo daily profile, week profile, and annual profile are set to off during the day and on at night for the inside dynamic insulation, and the outside dynamic insulation is set to always on (Figs. 6.28 and 6.29). 286 Figure 6.28 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.29 Air temperature – Interior space Test 15 – dynamic insulation inside optimization + outside optimization Compare the dynamic insulation and thermal comfort hours of Test 1 to Test 14 (Table 6.2 and 6.3). Table 6.2 Summary of insulation of Test 1 to Test 14 Dynamic insulation Always off Time profile Always on Test 1 Outside - - √ 287 Inside - - √ Test 2 Outside √ - - Inside - - √ Test 3 Outside - - √ Inside √ - - Test 4 Outside √ - - Inside √ - - Test 5 Outside - √ - Inside - √ - Test 6 Outside - √ - Inside - √ - Test 7 Outside - √ - Inside - - √ Test 8 Outside - √ - Inside √ - - Test 9 Outside - √ - Inside √ - - Test 10 Outside - √ - Inside - - √ Test 11 Outside - - √ Inside - √ - Test 12 Outside √ - - 288 Inside - √ - Test 13 Outside √ - - Inside - √ - Test 14 Outside - - √ Inside - √ - Table 6.3 Summary of thermal comfort hours of Test 1 to Test 14 Test Jan. Feb. Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec <= 65 1 704 493 236 121 5 5 0 0 0 0 294 726 2 464 193 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 638 3 703 464 234 91 5 5 0 0 0 0 273 727 4 526 221 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 657 5 693 430 203 74 0 0 0 0 0 0 254 727 6 670 385 188 48 0 0 0 0 0 0 145 715 7 667 380 186 47 0 0 0 0 0 0 139 708 8 672 387 187 45 0 0 0 0 0 0 165 717 9 694 432 203 68 1 0 0 0 0 0 250 727 10 693 430 212 75 0 0 0 0 0 0 257 727 11 704 478 237 107 5 0 0 0 0 0 277 726 12 507 200 44 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 631 13 457 204 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 653 14 703 485 236 109 5 0 0 0 0 0 296 727 289 > 65 to <= 85 1 40 179 508 598 568 346 171 227 510 742 426 18 2 280 479 715 706 555 329 170 228 481 740 685 106 3 41 208 510 628 560 342 172 229 497 742 447 17 4 218 451 694 699 547 328 170 226 467 728 660 87 5 51 242 541 645 567 336 171 229 497 742 466 17 6 74 287 556 667 562 337 172 226 492 742 575 29 7 77 292 558 672 565 336 171 227 497 741 581 36 8 72 285 557 668 559 334 172 227 485 742 555 27 9 50 240 541 649 563 338 172 229 492 742 470 17 10 51 242 532 644 571 340 171 227 501 742 463 17 11 40 194 507 612 564 342 172 229 500 742 443 18 12 237 472 700 701 549 330 169 227 463 732 670 113 13 287 468 711 702 554 332 171 224 477 737 680 91 14 41 187 508 610 565 342 172 227 501 742 424 17 > 85 1 0 0 0 1 171 374 573 517 210 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 14 189 391 574 516 239 4 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 179 378 572 515 223 2 0 0 4 0 0 0 21 197 392 574 518 253 16 0 0 5 0 0 0 1 177 384 573 515 223 2 0 0 6 0 0 0 5 182 383 572 518 228 2 0 0 7 0 0 1 179 384 573 517 223 3 0 0 0 8 0 0 7 185 386 572 517 235 2 0 0 0 290 9 0 0 3 180 382 572 515 228 2 0 0 0 10 0 0 1 173 380 573 517 219 2 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 1 175 378 572 515 220 2 0 0 12 0 0 0 19 195 390 575 517 257 12 0 0 13 0 0 0 18 190 388 573 520 243 7 0 0 14 0 0 0 1 174 378 572 517 219 2 0 0 Therefore, according to the results of Test 1 to Test 14, to get more comfort hours throughout the year, the south wall dynamic insulation opening condition is that in January, the south wall inside dynamic insulation should be closed during the daytime and opened at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year (Test 13). In the months of February, March, April, and November, the inside dynamic insulation should be always opened and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year (Test 2). In the months of May, September, and October, the inside dynamic insulation should be always opened, and the outside dynamic insulation should be closed at night and opened during the daytime all year (Test 10). From June to August, the inside dynamic insulation should be opened during the daytime and closed at night and the outside dynamic insulation should be always opened all year (Test 11). In December, the inside dynamic insulation should be opened during the daytime and closed at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year round (Test 12). There are 1,344 hours below 65°F, 5,543 hours between 65°F and 85°F (accounting for 63% of the year), and 1,873 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Table 6.4 and Figs. 6.30 and 6.31). Table 6.4 Summary of the south wall external and internal dynamic insulation 291 Test Outside Inside January Test 13 On Day off, night on February Test 2 Off On March Test 2 Off On April Test 2 Off On May Test 10 Day off, night on On June Test 11 On Day on, night off July Test 11 On Day on, night off August Test 11 On Day on, night off September Test 10 Day off, night on On October Test 10 Day off, night on On November Test 2 Off On December Test 12 Off Day on, night off Figure 6.30 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F 292 Figure 6.31 Air temperature – Interior space Summary of Test 1 to Test 15 When comparing the thermal comfort hours of Test 1 to Test 15, the south wall dynamic insulation's final iteration should be the following: in January, the south wall inside dynamic insulation should be closed during the daytime and opened at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year (Test 13). In the months of February, March, April, and November, the inside dynamic insulation should be always opened and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year (Test 2). In the months of May, September, and October, the inside dynamic insulation should be always opened, and the outside dynamic insulation should be closed at night and opened during the daytime all year (Test 10). From June to August, the inside dynamic insulation should be opened during the daytime and closed at night and the outside dynamic insulation should be always opened all year (Test 11). In December, the inside dynamic insulation should be opened during the daytime and closed at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year round (Test 12), and combine with east and west windows operation (Test IV) and north wall as the cold battery (Test VIII) (Table 6.5). Table 6.5 Summary of Test 1 to Test 15 air temperature interior space results Test ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F Test 1 2579.0 4333.0 1848.0 Test 2 1359.0 5474.0 1927.0 293 Test 3 2497.0 4393.0 1870.0 Test 4 1514.0 5275.0 1971.0 Test 5 2381.0 4504.0 1875.0 Test 6 2151.0 4719.0 1890.0 Test 7 2127.0 4753.0 1880.0 Test 8 2173.0 4683.0 1904.0 Test 9 2375.0 4503.0 1882.0 Test 10 2394.0 4501.0 1865.0 Test 11 2534.0 4363.0 1863.0 Test 12 1432.0 5363.0 1965.0 Test 13 1387.0 5434.0 1939.0 Test 14 2561.0 4336.0 1863.0 Test 15 1344.0 5543.0 1873.0 6.2 East and west glazed facade improvements This section describes different simulations of east and west window improvements. The first test removed the buffer space on the east and west sides of the small residence, greatly reducing underheat hours throughout the year. When the daytime resistance is 1.0 (single pane window) of the blinds for the interior of east and west glass walls, there are 790 hours below 65°F, 6,087 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,883 hours above 85°F throughout the year. When the daytime resistance is 2.0 (double pane window) of the blinds for the interior of east and west glass walls, there are 753 hours below 65°F, 6,137 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,870 hours above 85°F throughout the year. 294 Test 16 – dynamic insulation + no buffer space The first test Removed the buffer space on the east and west sides of the small residence, greatly reducing underheat hours throughout the year. There are 1,311 hours below 65°F, 5,556 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,893 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Figs. 6.32 and 6.33). Figure 6.32 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.33 Air temperature – Interior space Test 17 – dynamic insulation + blinds The addition of blinds to the interior of east and west glass walls reduced more of the underheated time. When the daytime resistance is 1.0 (single pane window) of the blinds for the interior of east and west glass walls, there are 790 hours below 65°F, 6,087 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,883 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Figs. 6.34 and 6.35). 295 Figure 6.34 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.35 Air temperature – Interior space Test 18 – dynamic insulation + blinds When the daytime resistance is 2.0 (double pane window) of the blinds for the interior of east and west glass walls, there are 753 hours below 65°F, 6,137 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,870 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Figs. 6.36 and 6.37). 296 Figure 6.36 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 6.37 Air temperature – Interior space Summary of Test 16 to Test 18 Removed the buffer space on the east and west sides of the small residence, greatly reducing underheated hours throughout the year. When the daytime resistance is 1.0 (single pane window) of the blinds for the interior of east and west glass walls, there are 790 hours below 65°F, 6,087 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,883 hours above 85°F throughout the year. When the daytime resistance is 2.0 (double pane window) of the blinds for the interior of east and west glass walls, there are 753 hours below 65°F, 6,137 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,870 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Table 6.6). Table 6.6 Summary of Test 16 to Test 18 air temperature interior space results Test ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F Test 16 1311.0 5556.0 1893.0 297 Test 17 790.0 6087.0 1883.0 Test 18 753.0 6137.0 1870.0 6.3 Summary This chapter described the south wall as the hot battery, east and west glazed façade improvements. Using the south wall as a hot battery is a good way to improve indoor comfort hours, especially to solve the problem of underheated hours. The south wall dynamic insulation's final iteration should be the following: in January, the south wall inside dynamic insulation should be closed during the daytime and opened at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year (Test 13). In the months of February, March, April, and November, the inside dynamic insulation should be always opened and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year (Test 2). In the months of May, September, and October, the inside dynamic insulation should be always opened, and the outside dynamic insulation should be closed at night and opened during the daytime all year (Test 10). From June to August, the inside dynamic insulation should be opened during the daytime and closed at night and the outside dynamic insulation should be always opened all year (Test 11). In December, the inside dynamic insulation should be opened during the daytime and closed at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year round (Test 12), and combine with east and west windows operation (Test IV) and north wall as the cold battery (Test VIII) (Table 6.7). Table 6.7 Summary of the south wall external and internal dynamic insulation Month Test Outside Inside January Test 13 On Day off, night on 298 February Test 2 Off On March Test 2 Off On April Test 2 Off On May Test 10 Day off, night on On June Test 11 On Day on, night off July Test 11 On Day on, night off August Test 11 On Day on, night off September Test 10 Day off, night on On October Test 10 Day off, night on On November Test 2 Off On December Test 12 Off Day on, night off Removing the buffer space and adding blinds indoors is a feasible way to increase indoor comfort hours. Removing the buffer space on the east and west sides of the small residence, greatly reducing underheat hours throughout the year, and there are 5,556 hours between 65°F and 85°F, with 63% of the year. When the daytime resistance is 1.0 (single pane window) of the blinds for the interior of east and west glass walls, there are 790 hours below 65°F, 6,087 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,883 hours above 85°F throughout the year. When the daytime resistance is 2.0 (double pane window) of the blinds for the interior of east and west glass walls, there are 753 hours below 65°F, 6,137 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,870 hours above 85°F throughout the year. The east and west blinds are set to on. This means that the blinds follow the profile that was set for them, which in this case is always on (Table 6.8). 299 Table 6.8 Summary of Test 1 to Test 18 air temperature interior space results Test ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F Test 1 2579.0 4333.0 1848.0 Test 2 1359.0 5474.0 1927.0 Test 3 2497.0 4393.0 1870.0 Test 4 1514.0 5275.0 1971.0 Test 5 2381.0 4504.0 1875.0 Test 6 2151.0 4719.0 1890.0 Test 7 2127.0 4753.0 1880.0 Test 8 2173.0 4683.0 1904.0 Test 9 2375.0 4503.0 1882.0 Test 10 2394.0 4501.0 1865.0 Test 11 2534.0 4363.0 1863.0 Test 12 1432.0 5363.0 1965.0 Test 13 1387.0 5434.0 1939.0 Test 14 2561.0 4336.0 1863.0 Test 15 1344.0 5543.0 1873.0 Test 16 1311.0 5556.0 1893.0 Test 17 790.0 6087.0 1883.0 Test 18 753.0 6137.0 1870.0 In conclusion, the use of the south wall as a hot battery, removal of the buffer area, and installation 300 of inside blinds on the east and west sides are all ways to address the issue of year-round underheated hours in small residences. The south wall is used as hot battery, mainly to solve the problem of underheated hours throughout the year. A hot battery is a dynamic internal and external wall system formed by two layers of insulation, one outside and one inside a layer of concrete with the intention to capture and store daytime heat to be used for thermal comfort in the cooler nighttime. When the south wall is used as a hot battery, there are 1,344 hours below 65°F, 5,543 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,873 hours above 85°F throughout the year. When the buffer spaces on the east and west sides are removed and interior blinds are installed, there are 753 hours below 65°F, 6,137 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,870 hours above 85°F throughout the year. 301 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK This chapter describes the background, methodology, four studies, and future work. It discusses the major results from the simulations and the best results for the pocket lodge design iterations. 7.1 Background This section describes the location of the project, choice of tiny house, precast concrete as a suitable material, thermal comfort simulation tools, and moveable insulation to help create a cold battery. 7.1.1 Location In southeast California, there is a national park called Joshua Tree National Park, about 120 miles east of Los Angeles, 160 miles from Las Vegas, and 12 miles from Palm Springs, and close to Yucca Valley, Twentynine Palms, and Palm Springs. With a total area of 795,156 acres, of which 585,000 acres are designated as wilderness, it takes up a large part of the Southern California desert. The climate in Joshua Tree National Park is extreme, with hot summers and cold winters. The park has become hotter and drier over the past century, with temperatures ranging from 35°F to 99°F on average annually. Summer days can reach over 100°F, and winter nights can be chilly, sometimes below freezing. The park receives little rain annually, approximately 4.3 inches (110 mm), and has a longer period of summer than winter by 3.5 months. To promote thermal comfort, maintaining indoor temperatures between 68°F and 74°F during the winter and between 72°F and 80°F during the summer is suggested. The Joshua Tree National Park is a popular tourist destination in America, known for its surreal and strange scenery. Thousands of visitors come the park every year, especially in the spring when the wildflowers are in bloom. The busiest months for the park are traditionally March and April, 302 with at least 150,000 tourists per month between March and May, while the fall season is also popular with around 100,000 visitors. The park ranked as the tenth most popular national park. With the increasing number of visitors, the park needs more rangers and campgrounds to accommodate them. Currently, there is a shortage of visitor campgrounds, and the accommodations for Joshua Tree National Park rangers are also not adequate for the needs of the ranger team. The Joshua Tree National Park employs seasonal rangers who usually only work in the park for four to six months of the year. These rangers are typically college students specializing in natural sciences or those seeking short-term employment. The rangers' duties include leading guided walks, giving lectures, and hosting nighttime activities for visitors. They work in various departments, including visitor service, education, and interpretation, administration, law enforcement, maintenance, resource management, and science. A good place to live is essential for rangers to rest and work more effectively. 7.1.2 Choice of tiny house Seasonal rangers face difficulties finding appropriate housing in Joshua Tree National Park due to the lack of lodging in the park and limited housing options in the nearby cities of Joshua Tree, Twentynine Palms, and Yucca Valley. Additionally, many visitors to the park in the winter months make it challenging to find available housing for a short-term lease. The lack of amenities in Joshua Tree National Park means tourists must rent cabins or camp in nearby towns. An additional 12 small residence units (about 200 square feet) would be helpful for housing seasonal rangers. It would be convenient for the seasonal rangers to live closer to where they work in housing supplied by the park service. Sometimes seasonal rangers in national parks provide their own accommodations such as an RV or even a tent. 303 The term "tiny home" refers to smaller transportable dwellings that are approximately the dimensions of one room - 8 feet wide by 10 to 20 feet long. Sometimes, anything smaller than 800 square feet is included in the definition. The tiny house movement, which encourages people to downsize their living spaces and the footprint of their lives, has gained popularity in the United States over the past decade. The trend towards smaller dwellings can be traced back to the 1850s, as a counter-cultural response to conspicuous consumerism and a desire for simplicity and individualism. The primary concept of the movement is to reduce the environmental impact and increase affordability by reducing spatial footprint. Tiny houses have been promoted as a new, environmentally friendly housing solution. Tiny houses are solving a large number of housing crisis issues all around the world, especially in places with insufficient urban space or a high-priced real estate market. Sustainability is also a benefit of tiny houses, as they have a relatively low cost of construction and maintenance, smaller residences use fewer materials than larger ones, saving on embodied carbon and generally energy usage, so it has a significantly smaller environmental impact compared to traditional homes. They consume less energy, produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions, and have a smaller ecological footprint. Living small, such as in tiny homes, can reduce per capita GHG emissions by up to 70% throughout its lifetime compared to a traditional house. The small house market is growing continuously by 7% annually due to these environmental benefits. Additionally, smaller spaces are easier to keep warm and cool. Building them in the park is a more convenient location, could save on commuting, and perhaps the modest interior area and absence of clutter encourage simplicity and could foster mental clarity. 7.1.3 Precast concrete as a suitable material 304 Precast concrete is a type of construction in which concrete is poured into a reusable mold and allowed to cure. Typically, this location is a fabricator's work yard or some other place, not the construction site. The components are brought to the construction site and put into place. In the context of designing a tiny house in Joshua Tree National Park, precast concrete is an effective solution to address climate and earthquake risk. Precast concrete provides benefits such as thermal comfort, desert adaptation, seismic resistance, quality assurance, increased time efficiency, improved construction safety, durability, less construction wastage, neat working environments, and fire and water resistance. Precast systems and connections react well under seismic loads, according to available data. Precast concrete construction provides several benefits, such as saving time and money, improved quality, durability, seismic resistance, and fire and water resistance. However, precast members are heavy and challenging to modify, and transportation costs may offset the lower costs of precast concrete. Poor connections can result in water leaks and poor sound insulation. Additionally, the embodied carbon in concrete can have negative environmental impacts due to significant carbon emissions generated during its production. For fabrication and transportation reasons, the small residence was determined to have the dimensions of 28 feet (L) × 8 feet (W) × 9 feet (H). On the eastern and western faces of the proposed building, windows are placed to allow for cross-ventilation. Buffer spaces sheltered from direct sunlight are provided on the east and west sides to reduce the amount of direct solar heat entering the building (Fig. 7.1). 305 Figure 7.1 Design Background and Simulation Methodology Although it is heavy, the 5" thick concrete north wall meets the requirements for wall weight calculations for both structural and transportation considerations while being thick enough to hold considerable thermal storage. This is because the dimension of the north wall panel was configured to have the maximum dimensions for semi-trailer transportation within the maximum weight for crane lifting. Therefore, the U value and R value calculations of the different insulation were conducted using a 5" concrete wall. Future studies could consider examining lightweight concrete as a possible alternative to compare thermal storage capabilities with regular concrete. It is possible that lightweight concrete might still meet the thermal needs while reducing the weight of the house for transportation reasons. The capacity to absorb, store and release heat is known as a material's thermal mass. Materials with relatively high thermal mass, such as concrete, serve as heat sources during chilly periods and heat sinks during hot periods. The consumption of energy of a building can be decreased with the use of materials with high thermal mass, and concrete with a high specific heat capacity and low thermal conductivity is recommended for construction. 306 The use of energy to maintain comfortable indoor temperatures in small residences during summer months can be reduced through good design and choice of heating and cooling systems. A cold battery is a dynamic wall system with two layers of insulation and a layer of concrete that can help achieve comfortable indoor temperatures by absorbing coolth at night and releasing it when the interior temperature rises. Insulation is used to prevent the coolth from moving in the wrong direction. The proper orientation of a building can significantly improves its energy efficiency, with the long end of the building typically placed along the south to capture the maximum solar heat in the winter and minimize it in the summer. 7.1.4 Thermal comfort simulation tools Thermal comfort is defined as the human satisfaction with their thermal environment, based on the energy balance between the environment and the human body. Factors such as ambient temperature, radiant temperature, humidity, and air movement, as well as behavioral factors like metabolic rate and clothing, influence thermal comfort. People's expectations and experiences also affect how they perceive thermal comfort. Other subjective factors, such as esthetic and psychological comfort, also play a role in defining comfort. Quantifying thermal comfort is challenging, but dry-bulb temperature, relative humidity, air speed, and radiant temperature are typically used as measurements. Ventilation systems can also improve indoor air quality and occupant comfort. The solar incidence on a building's interior and its occupants can also impact how warm it feels inside. Various software tools can be used in building design and simulation. Grasshopper plugins Ladybug and Honeybee allow designers to simulate solar resources and building energy, HV AC size, and thermal comfort using validated simulation engines such as EnergyPlus/OpenStudio and 307 Radiance. IES Virtual Environment is a widely used simulation program for building energy modeling, while Opaque calculates U-value, time lag, and decrement factor for opaque surfaces. However, there is currently no simulation program specifically designed for dynamic or moveable thermal insulation in building design. 7.1.5 Moveable insulation to help create a cold battery Insulation is an important component of building envelopes that is designed to minimize heat transfer between the interior and exterior of a building. It is used to reduce heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer, leading to lower energy consumption and improved thermal comfort. There are several types of insulation available, including batts and rolls, blown-in, foam board, and spray foam. Batts and rolls are made of fiberglass, mineral wool, or cotton and are easy to install, but they may leave gaps if not fitted properly. Blown-in insulation is made of cellulose, fiberglass, or mineral wool and is ideal for hard-to-reach areas and often requires further construction to create the cavity to hold the loose wool. Foam board insulation is made of polystyrene or polyurethane and is suitable for walls and roofs. Spray foam insulation is a type of polyurethane foam that expands when sprayed and is effective in sealing gaps and cracks. The properties of insulation are determined by their R-value, which is a measure of their thermal resistance. The higher the R-value, the better the insulation’s performance. Insulation materials also have other properties such as fire resistance, water resistance, and environmental impact. Insulation can have several benefits for buildings, including reduced energy consumption, improved thermal comfort, and noise reduction. However, improper installation or inadequate insulation can lead to thermal bridging, which can reduce its effectiveness. Therefore, it is crucial to choose the appropriate type of insulation and ensure proper installation for optimal performance. A cold battery is a dynamic wall system with two layers of insulation and a layer of concrete that 308 can help achieve comfortable indoor temperatures by absorbing “coolth” at night and releasing it when the interior temperature rises. Insulation is used to prevent the coolth from moving in the wrong direction (Fig. 7.2). Figure 7.2 Cold battery 7.2 Methodology The methodology was divided into two parts: team collection and individual collection. The green section is specifically the north wall study, which mainly includes climate, comfort zone, 3D model, thermal mass, thermal lag and dynamic insulation. The red and blue sections are team members' studies on the south wall and roof. After finishing the simulation and results of each section, consolidating the data, and then creating the pocket lodge combined model for further study, including south wall hot battery and the east-west glass wall. Unfortunately, when the best results from each individual were combined, the team simulation's results are not better than those from each individual, indicating the methodology's inefficiency. A new methodology should be considered for the future, for example one might split up the research into areas and phenomena 309 of examination for the whole building rather than physical portions (Fig. 7.3). Figure 7.3 Chapters 3 – 6 Organization 7.3 Four studies This section describes the use of the east west walls for ventilation, the north wall as a thermal battery, the combined model with all team components, the improved combined model, and a comparison of the four models. 7.3.1 Study of first model ventilation using east/west walls MacroFlo is a tool in IES VE for analyzing natural ventilation and infiltration in structures. The IES VE model is set in ModelIT, see 3.3.5, openings are created on the west and east sides of the small house, and the profile and formula are set to achieve the maximum amount of interior comfort that ventilation can provide (Fig. 7.4). 310 Figure 7.4 Simple shoe box with east and west windows in IES VE The optimal window opening condition is that if the room air temperature is greater than equal to 82°F and outside air temperature is less than room air temperature, or if room air temperature is less than or equal to 67°F and outside air temperature is greater than room air temperature. If either of these conditions is satisfied, the windows on the west and east windows will open at the same time (Fig. 7.5). Figure 7.5 Window conditions profile Formula: (ta>=82) & (to<ta) | (ta<=67) & (to>ta). 311 The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. For the combined case, there are 3,795 hours below 65°F, 2,941 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 2,024 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Figs.7.6 and 7.7). Figure 7.6 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 7.7 Air temperature – Interior space 7.3.2 Study of north wall: comfort hours and time lag This section describes the comfort hours and time lag of north wall. 312 Comfort hours The north wall cold battery, dynamic insulation (outside) and dynamic insulation (inside), are established in ModelIT in IES VE, see 3.3.5, openings are created on external and internal dynamic insulation (Fig. 7.8). Figure 7.8 Looking through the east window wall – the north wall is the cold battery The open size was modified in the MacroFlo opening types, including exposure type, opening category, openable area, max angle open, proportions, equivalent orifice area, and degree of opening (modulating profile) (Fig. 7.9). 313 Figure 7.9 MacroFlo opening types (1) The outside dynamic insulation opens or closes according to the profile. The day profile was set to the seasonal ranger’s daily schedule. Seasonal rangers usually work from 8 am to 5 pm. Therefore, the daily opening time is set from 6 pm to 07 am, and closing from 07 am 6 pm, which means the dynamic insulation will open during the night, and close during the day. 1 means open, and 0 means closed. Then, the daily profile was applied to the weekly profile and the annual profile (Fig. 7.10). Figure 7.10 The outside dynamic insulation daily profile 314 (2) The inside dynamic insulation opens or closes according to the profile. The day profile was set to the seasonal ranger’s daily schedule. Seasonal rangers usually work from 8 am to 5 pm. Therefore, the daily opening time is set from 7 am to 06 pm, and closing from 06 pm to 07 am, which means the inside dynamic insulation will open during the day, and close during the night. 1 means open, and 0 means closed. Then, the daily profile was applied to weekly profile and annual profile (Fig. 7.11). Figure 7.11 The inside dynamic insulation daily profile (3) To achieve comfort hours all year round, in January and December, the dynamic outside insulation should be closed, and the dynamic inside insulation should be opened during the day and closed at night according to the seasonal ranger schedule. In the months of February, March, April and November, dynamic outside insulation should always be closed, and dynamic inside insulation should always be open. From May to September, the dynamic outside insulation should be open during the night and closed during the day, and the inside dynamic insulation should be always open. There are 2,261 hours below 65°F, 4,653 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,846 hours above 85°F throughout the year. 315 There are 2,261 hours below 65°F, 4,653 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,846 hours above 85°F throughout the year. This is a significant improvement (Table 7.1 and Fig. 7.12 and 7.13). Table 7.1 Summary of cold battery dynamic insulation profile Month Outside Inside January Off Profile February Off On March Off On April Off On May Profile On June Profile On July Profile On August Profile On September Profile On October Profile On November Off On December Off Profile 316 Figure 7.12 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 7.13 Air temperature – Interior space Time lag OPAQUE was used to determine U-values, R-values, decrement factors, and time lag (Fig. 7.14). Figure 7.14 OP AQUE sample model 317 (1) In regions that have significant fluctuation temperature, time lag is particularly crucial for building design. The low nighttime temperatures will reach the internal surfaces around midday, cooling the interior room, if materials with a thermal lag of 10 to 12 hours are utilized carefully. Similar to the above, the interior room temperature will become warmer late at night when the high daytime temperatures reach the internal surfaces. The thickness of the concrete has a positive correlation with the time lag. The time lag rises along with the thickness of the concrete. When the concrete wall thickness is between 14 and 18 inches, the time lag reaches the interval of 10 to 12 hours. Instead, the time lag starts to decrease when the concrete thickness exceeds 18 inches (Fig. 7.15). Figure 7.15 Relationship of Test 1 to Test 18 U value and Time lag, in hours (2) The different thicknesses of expanded polystyrene (EPS) is tested, including 1", 2", 3", 4", and 5", and their placement in various positions on a 5" concrete wall, including outside, 318 inside, and on both sides, to calculate U-values, R-values, decrement factors, and time lags. Comparing the time lag for different locations where the EPS is placed, the time lag ranking for EPS insulation: both sides > outside insulation > inside insulation. The best thermal performance is obtained when the insulation is placed on both sides of the wall. When comparing EPS insulation installed outside or inside, the time lag of insulation placed outside is always greater than that placed inside for the same size. When the insulation thickness increases, the time lag hours also increase. The north wall can have a thermal lag of 7.82 hours with EPS insulation on both sides (5 inches), 6.07 hours with EPS insulation only on the exterior (5 inches), and 4.99 hours with EPS insulation only on the inside (5 inches) (Fig. 7.16). Figure 7.16 Relationship of expanded polystyrene (EPS) U value and Time lag, in hours (3) The different thicknesses of extruded polystyrene (XPS) were tested, including 1”, 2”, 3”, 319 4”, and 5”, and their placement in various positions on a 5” concrete wall, including outside, inside, and both sides, to calculate U-values, R-values, decrement factors, and time lags. Comparing the time lag for different locations where the XPS is placed, the time lag ranking for XPS insulation: both sides > outside insulation > inside insulation. When XPS insulation is installed on the outside in comparison to the inside, the time lag is always greater on the outside than the inside. When the insulation thickness increases, the time lag hours also increase. The north wall can have a thermal lag of 9.47 hours with XPS insulation on both sides (5 inches), 6.89 hours with XPS insulation only on the exterior (5 inches), and 5.84 hours with XPS insulation only on the inside (5 inches) (Fig. 7.17). Figure 7.17 Relationship of extruded polystyrene (XPS)U value and Time lag, in hours Therefore, 3 inches of expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation was elected for both the interior and exterior. 320 7.3.3 Study of the combined model with all team components This section describes south wall, north wall, roof, and combined model. The combined model with all team components is created in IES VE. South wall The south wall of the small residence is composed of 8 inches of concrete wall and 3 inches of expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation for both the interior and exterior. The interior and exterior insulation of south wall is movable. For the analysis, there are four potential conditions: 1) both interior and exterior insulation is in place, 2) both the interior and exterior insulation are moved away from the concrete wall, 3) the interior insulation is in place and the exterior is moved away, and 4) the interior insulation is moved away and the exterior insulation is in place. A schedule has been created indicating the most likely good times to place and remove the insulation. For the following study, the outside insulation of the south wall opening time is 11 am to 5 pm in winter, 8 am to 6 pm in spring, 11 pm to 4 am in summer, 10 pm to 9 am in fall. In the figures below, 1 means open and 0 means closed (Figs. 7.18 and 7.19). Figure 7.18 South wall – outside insulation daily profile – 11 am to 5 pm, 8 am to 6 pm, 11 pm to 4 am, 10 pm to 9 am 321 Figure 7.19 South wall – outside insulation annual profile For the same study, the schedule for the inside insulation of the south wall opening time is set at 9 pm to 8 am in winter, 11 pm to 7 am in spring, 8 am to 12 pm in summer, 11 am to 6 pm in fall (Figs. 7.20 and 7.21). Figure 7.20 South wall – inside insulation daily profile – 9 pm to 8 am, 11 pm to 7 am, 8 am to 12 pm, 11 am to 6 pm 322 Figure 7.21 South wall – inside insulation annual profile Combining outside and inside insulation, the south wall's insulation system is able to be opened or closed at various periods of the year (Table 7.2). Table 7.2 Summary of the south wall outside and inside insulation annual profile Season Month Outside insulation Inside insulation Winter December 11 am - 5 pm 9 pm – 8 am January 11 am - 5 pm 9 pm – 8 am February 11 am - 5 pm 9 pm – 8 am Spring March 8 am - 6 pm 11 pm – 7 am April 8 am - 6 pm 11 pm – 7 am May 8 am - 6 pm 11 pm – 7 am Summer June 11 pm – 4 am 8 am - 12 pm July 11 pm – 4 am 8 am - 12 pm August 11 pm – 4 am 8 am - 12 pm 323 Fall September 10 pm – 9 am 11 am - 6 pm October 10 pm – 9 am 11 am - 6 pm November 10 pm – 9 am 11 am - 6 pm North Wall The north wall of the small residence is composed of a 5 inches concrete wall and 3 inches of expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation for the interior and exterior. For the north wall, the daily outside insulation opening time is from 6 pm to 7 am, the daily inside insulation opening time is from 7 am to 6 pm. 1 means open and 0 means closed (Figs. 7.22 and 7.23). Figure 7.22 North wall – outside and inside dynamic insulation daily profile 324 Figure 7.23 North wall – outside and inside dynamic insulation annual profile Combining outside and inside insulation, the north wall's insulation system is able to be opened or closed at various periods of the year. “Off” means total close (0%), and “On” means total open (100%) (Table 7.3). Table 7.3 Summary of the north wall outside and inside insulation annual profile Season Month Outside insulation Inside insulation Winter December Off Inside profile (7 am – 6 pm) January Off Inside profile (7 am – 6 pm) February Off On Spring March Off On April Off On May Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On Summer June Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On July Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On 325 August Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On Fall September Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On October Outside profile (6 pm - 7 am) On November Off On Roof The roof of the small residence is composed of a 5 inches concrete wall and 3 inches of expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation for the interior. The inside insulation of the north wall opening time is off in winter, 6 pm to 11 am in spring, off in summer, and on in fall. “Off” means total close (0%), and “On” means total open (100%). 1 means open and 0 means closed (Figs. 7.24 and 7.25). Figure 7.24 Roof – inside insulation daily profile – 6 pm to 11 am 326 Figure 7.25 Roof – inside insulation annual profile The roof's insulation system is able to be opened or closed at various periods of the year (Table 7.4). Table 7.4 Summary of the roof inside insulation annual profile Season Month Inside insulation Winter December Off January Off February Off Spring March 6 pm - 11 am April 6 pm - 11 am May 6 pm - 11 am Summer June Off July Off 327 August Off Fall September On October On November On Combined model The south wall, north wall, roof and east and west windows are all included in the final iteration of the combined model that the team collected. The profiles for roof and south wall are all derived from the best results of team members' simulations (Fig. 7.26). Figure 7.26 Looking at the east window wall – final iteration of the combined model The number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) was divided into three parts using a range chart of three zones: above 65°F, between 65°F and 85°F, and below 85°F. There are 4,003 hours are underheated hours, referring to the time throughout the year when it was below 65°F. 2,883 hours 328 in the thermal comfort range, referring to the hours throughout the year when it between 65°F and 85°F. 1,874 hours are overheated hours, referring to the hours throughout the year when it above 85°F (Figs. 7.27 to 7.29). Figure 7.27 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 7.28 Air temperature – Interior space 329 Figure 7.29 Room air temperature and dry bulb temperature between 65°F and 85°F 7.3.4 Study of the improved combined model This section describes south wall as the hot battery and east and west glazed facade improvements. The improved combined model with all team components was created in IES VE (Fig. 7.30). 330 Figure 7.30 Improved combined model South wall as the hot battery The pocket lodge has a special occupancy type. Seasonal rangers are typically not in the pocket lodge during the day. They are outside in the park doing various kinds of work. According to the daily schedule of the seasonal ranger, two profiles are set for the hot battery of the south wall. One profile is set to open from 6 pm to 7 am, and closed from 7 am to 6 pm, which means the dynamic insulation will open during the night, and close during the day. Another profile is set open from 7 am to 6 pm, and closing from 6 pm to 7 am, which means the inside dynamic insulation will open during the day, and close during the night (Figs. 7.31). 331 Figure 7.31 South wall as the hot battery daily profile – day close, night open / day open, night close To get more comfort hours throughout the year, the south wall dynamic insulation opening condition is that in January, the south wall inside dynamic insulation should be closed during the daytime and opened at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year. In the months of February, March, April, and November, the inside dynamic insulation should be always opened and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year. In the months of May, September, and October, the inside dynamic insulation should be always opened, and the outside dynamic insulation should be closed at night and opened during the daytime all year. From June to August, the inside dynamic insulation should be opened during the daytime and closed at night and the outside dynamic insulation should be always opened all year. In December, the inside dynamic insulation should be opened during the daytime and closed at night, and the outside dynamic insulation should be always closed all year round (Table 7.5). 332 Table 7.5 Summary of the south wall external and internal dynamic insulation Month Test Outside Inside January Test 13 On Day off, night on February Test 2 Off On March Test 2 Off On April Test 2 Off On May Test 10 Day off, night on On June Test 11 On Day on, night off July Test 11 On Day on, night off August Test 11 On Day on, night off September Test 10 Day off, night on On October Test 10 Day off, night on On November Test 2 Off On December Test 12 Off Day on, night off There are 1,344 hours below 65°F, 5,543 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,873 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Figs. 7.32 and 7.33). 333 Figure 7.32 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 7.33 Air temperature – Interior space East and west glazed facade improvements The pocket lodge is rectangular in shape. The two smaller facades face east and west respectively. These facades are glazed and are partially shielded from direct sunlight due to the overhangs and extended wall elements. For these glazed facades, additional shading devices of three types (internal, exterior, and local) can be incorporated. Removing the buffer space and adding blinds indoors is a feasible way to increase indoor comfort hours. Removing the buffer space on the east and west sides of the small residence, greatly reducing underheat hours throughout the year. There are 753 hours below 65°F, 6,137 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,870 hours above 85°F throughout the year (Fig. 7.34 to 7.36). 334 Figure 7.34 Proposed internal shading device Figure 7.35 Range chart - Above 65°F , between 65°F and 85°F , and below 85°F Figure 7.36 Air temperature – Interior space 335 7.3.5 A comparison of the four models Comparing the first model ventilation, north wall, combined model of all teammates’ components, and improved combined model, it is clear that the improved combined model has the most comfort hours throughout the year, accounting for 70%. The north wall model came in second place, taking up 53% of the comfort hours for the year. The first model ventilation came in third, accounting for 34% of the yearly comfort hours. The least number of comfort hours throughout the year is combined model with all team components, accounting for only 33% (Figs. 7.37 and Table 7.6). Figure 7.37 First model ventilation, north wall, combined model, improved combined model 336 Table 7.6 Summary of four studies air temperature interior space results ≤ 65°F > 65°F to ≤ 85°F > 85°F First model ventilation 3795.0 2941.0 2024.0 North wall 2261.0 4653.0 1846.0 Combined model 4003.0 2883.0 1874.0 Improved combined model 753.0 6137.0 1870.0 7.4 Future work The section describes improvements and future work. 7.4.1 Improvements To improve the results of the study, three areas could have been more thoroughly explored: methodology, visualization, more expertise on IES VE, and real fabrication of precast concrete components. 1. The methodology of this study has flaws and needs to be revisited. 2. It would be valuable to learn the simulation of IES VE software better and create a test of the thermal lag in the IES VE and to get the result of whether IES VE calculates thermal lag during simulation. For simulation, it would be better to try to do more simulations about thermal comfort and use more different software to simulate it, as well as try nonlinear finite element analysis (FEA) software, such as CFD (Computational fluid dynamics), ABAQUS, etc. On the simulation results obtained, programming methods can be designed to combine with the simulation results to produce better visualization results. 3. Fabrication of a test sample could provide much more information on how the north wall could work especially since the software used could not provide some data that could have 337 been useful. Building part of the wall with exterior and interior sensors would provide more data about heat flow with the installed sensors inside the north wall of precast concrete to monitor the temperature change of each inch of concrete. According to the climate data change the temperature of the left side of the hot box, collect the room temperature in the right side of the box, such as the surface of the wall, the middle of the box, the upper part of the box, the lower part of the box, the farthest location of the wall in the box, and continue to collect data for 24 hours. The obtained data could be used to improve the performance features of the north wall cold battery. One could expand this physical test by Prefabricating a prototype of a small concrete house to verify its thermal properties, e.g., time lag. Sensors are placed in different locations in the room, such as corners, walls, near windows, near the roof, near the floor, etc., to collect data from the entire building and compare them. 7.4.2 Future work There are nine other suggestions for larger projects that could be done: 1. Create a software tool to calculate thermal transfer from cool night air to high-mass concrete. It might be valuable to write a cold storage battery software program to calculate the cold absorbed by the wall. If further research is done on the basis of this program, different building materials, especially phase change materials, can be set up and combined to form a wall consisting of a single or multiple layer to come up with what kind of building materials are more compatible with the requirements. 2. Create a thermal lag analysis program that considers the solar, weather data, location, the U-value of the material, and the decrement factor, without setting a fixed room temperature, and finally by calculating the time lag results and getting a graph of the change in the time 338 lag. 3. Use virtual reality to design a small house simulation experience, including documenting and showing the thermal battery conditions and air temperature conditions at different times, as well as through the west and east of the glass wall can see outside Joshua Tree National Park, which is to better simulate the experience of a seasonal ranger living in a small resident. 4. Design a thermal comfort experiment for people living in the small resident to better collect thermal information. With this successful experience, other designers can build on this foundation and explore other types of small house buildings with thermal performance in different environments in the future, such as extremely hot or cold climates. 5. Explore how a thermal battery will be used in different weather, locations and conditions, such as putting a thermal battery wall in a park where people can rest on the wall. Putting a thermal battery in different places will allow people to have more experiences, such as a hot wall in a cold place and a cold wall in a hot place, people can have more experiences in public spaces. 6. Finish the design of a moveable insulation system for the walls, construct the cold battery, and evaluate its performance. 7. Finish the architectural design of the tiny house. Adding kitchens and toilets to existing small houses to meet the needs of residents and increase living space, but still remain within the limitations of the small house size. 8. Design a new material that can replace concrete and is more environmentally friendly, cheaper, requires no maintenance but will last as long or longer. 9. Design a wall that can change the color of the wall depending on the temperature and will 339 have the park's logo on it, as well as design a dynamic insulation layer that can change color at different temperatures. Maybe the wall can predict the weather and automatically change the wall color according to the next day's weather conditions. 7.5 Summary This chapter described the background, methodology, four studies, and future work. It discusses the major results from the simulations and the best results for the pocket lodge design iterations. Using a north side cold battery, south side hot battery, blinds for the interior of east and west glass walls, and ventilation, the final results are 753 hours below 65°F, 6,137 hours between 65°F and 85°F, and 1,870 hours above 85°F throughout the year. PVs will be considered for supplying electricity to fill the heating and cooling gap. Overall, passive methods were very successful for the design of a tiny house for seasonal rangers at Joshua Tree National Park. 340 References 10 Benefits of Precast Concrete - BuilderSpace. (n.d.). Retrieved September 18, 2022, from https://www.builderspace.com/benefits-of-precast-concrete 10 facts about the incredible Joshua Tree - the environmentor. (n.d.). Retrieved September 18, 2022, from https://blog.tentree.com/10-facts-about-the-incredible-joshua-tree/ Abubakar, A., Mohammed, A., & Samson, D. (2021). Assessment of Embodied Energy and Carbon IV Oxide Emission of Concrete Containing Corncob Ash. International Journal of Sustainable and Green Energy, 10(2), 76–84. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijrse.20211002.15 Aksoy, U. T., & Inalli, M. (2006). Impacts of some building passive design parameters on heating demand for a cold region. Building and Environment, 41(12), 1742–1754. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BUILDENV .2005.07.011 Al-Sanea, S. A., & Zedan, M. F. (2011). Improving thermal performance of building walls by optimizing insulation layer distribution and thickness for same thermal mass. Applied Energy, 88(9), 3113–3124. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APENERGY .2011.02.036 Al-Sanea, S. A., Zedan, M. F., & Al-Ajlan, S. A. (2005). Effect of electricity tariff on the optimum insulation-thickness in building walls as determined by a dynamic heat-transfer model. Applied Energy, 82(4), 313–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APENERGY .2004.10.014 Albayyaa, H., Hagare, D., & Saha, S. (2019). Energy conservation in residential buildings by incorporating Passive Solar and Energy Efficiency Design Strategies and higher thermal mass. Energy and Buildings, 182, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENBUILD.2018.09.036 Alwetaishi, M., Balabel, A., Abdelhafiz, A., Issa, U., Sharaky, I., Shamseldin, A., Al-Surf, M., Al- Harthi, M., & Gadi, M. (2020). User Thermal Comfort in Historic Buildings: Evaluation of the Potential of Thermal Mass, Orientation, Evaporative Cooling and Ventilation. Sustainability 2020, Vol. 12, Page 9672, 12(22), 9672. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12229672 Amelia Arvesen. (n.d.). Complete Guide to Joshua Tree National Park | Via. Retrieved November 17, 2022, from https://mwg.aaa.com/via/national-parks/joshua-tree-national-park-guide Annika Wittrok. (n.d.). California Desert Camping Pods - IGNANT. Retrieved December 4, 2022, from https://www.ignant.com/2016/09/15/california-desert-camping-pods/ Anson, A. (2014). “The world is my backyard”: Romanticization, thoreauvian rhetoric, and constructive confrontation in the tiny house movement. Research in Urban Sociology, 14, 289– 313. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1047-004220140000014013/FULL/EPUB Anthony Frausto-Robledo. (n.d.). INSIDER: Ladybug Tools Aim to Take Environmental Analysis to Wider Audience. Retrieved December 2, 2022, from https://architosh.com/2020/03/insider- ladybug-tools-aim-to-take-environmental-analysis-to-wider-audience/ Apartments For Rent in Joshua Tree, CA - 14 Apartments | Apartment Finder. (n.d.). Retrieved 341 September 18, 2022, from https://www.apartmentfinder.com/California/Joshua-Tree-Apartments Asan, H. (1998). Effects of wall’s insulation thickness and position on time lag and decrement factor. Energy and Buildings, 28(3), 299–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(98)00030-9 ASHRAE and the American National Standards Institute. (2020). Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy5-2017. www.ashrae.org Bartlett, J. (2016). Big City, Tiny House. Beautiful Tiny Concrete House with a Minimalist Architecture. (n.d.). Retrieved September 10, 2022, from https://homeworlddesign.com/beautiful-tiny-concrete-house-with-a-minimalist- architecture/ Blake Whitford. (n.d.). Full History of The Tiny House Movement - Coze Living. Retrieved November 14, 2022, from https://cozeliving.com/tiny-house-movement/ Butlin, J., & Browne, N. (1987). Cite this paper Related papers Global environment al change and mechanisms for nort h-sout h resource t ransfers Neil Adger A Communit arian Green Space Bet ween Market and Polit ical Rhet oric About Environment al Law. Our Common Future. By World Commission on Environment and Development. Carol Guttery. (2020, November 23). 13 Joshua Tree Cabin Rentals: Cute, Quirky and Colorful. https://californiacrossings.com/joshua-tree-cabin-rentals/ Cartwright, D. (n.d.). Where you can buy renovated, removable homes for a steal - realestate.com.au. Retrieved November 17, 2022, from https://www.realestate.com.au/news/where-you-can-buy-renovated-removable-homes-for-a-steal/ Comfort zone - Glossary of Meteorology. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2022, from https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Comfort_zone Crawford, R. H., & Stephan, A. (2020). Tiny house, tiny footprint? The potential for tiny houses to reduce residential greenhouse gas emissions. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 588(2), 022073. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/588/2/022073 CT Haas, W. F. (2002). Preliminary research on prefabrication, pre-assembly, modularization and off-site fabrication in construction. Construction Industry Institute. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Preliminary Research on Prefabrication%2C Pre-assembly%2C Modularization%2C and Off-site Fabrication in Construction&publication_year=2002&author=Construction Industry Institute (CII) Custom Tiny House on Wheels by Old Hippie Woodworking. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2022, from https://tinyhousetalk.com/custom-tiny-house-on-wheels-by-old-hippie-woodworking/ D. Baggs, N. M. (2006). Thermal mass in building design BDP environment design guide. R. Aust. Inst. Archit. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26148285 342 Daouas, N. (2011). A study on optimum insulation thickness in walls and energy savings in Tunisian buildings based on analytical calculation of cooling and heating transmission loads. Applied Energy, 88(1), 156–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APENERGY .2010.07.030 Daouas, N., Hassen, Z., & Aissia, H. Ben. (2010). Analytical periodic solution for the study of thermal performance and optimum insulation thickness of building walls in Tunisia. Applied Thermal Engineering, 30(4), 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APPLTHERMALENG.2009.09.009 David Thoreau, H. (n.d.). Walden or, Life in the Woods. Retrieved September 1, 2022, from http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/ThoWald.html Dee Williams Downsizes from Tiny to Tinier! - Tiny House Blog. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2022, from https://tinyhouseblog.com/yourstory/dee-williams-downsizes-from-tiny-to-tinier/ Dzyuban, Y ., Redman, C., Coseo, P., & Hondula, D. (2019). Exploring the Relationship between Design and Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Hot and Dry Climate. Emily Nonko. (n.d.). A tiny house movement timeline - Curbed. Retrieved September 7, 2022, from https://archive.curbed.com/2017/7/19/15974554/tiny-house-timeline Fanger, P. O. (1970). Thermal comfort. Analysis and applications in environmental engineering. Thermal Comfort. Analysis and Applications in Environmental Engineering. Fawaier, M., & Bokor, B. (2022). Dynamic insulation systems of building envelopes: A review. Energy and Buildings, 270, 112268. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENBUILD.2022.112268 Ford, J., & Gomez-Lanier, L. (2017). Are Tiny Homes Here to Stay? A Review of Literature on the Tiny House Movement. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 45(4), 394–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/FCSR.12205 Freitas, J. de S., Cronemberger, J., Soares, R. M., & Amorim, C. N. D. (2020). Modeling and assessing BIPV envelopes using parametric Rhinoceros plugins Grasshopper and Ladybug. Renewable Energy, 160, 1468–1479. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RENENE.2020.05.137 Ghayeb, H. H., Razak, H. A., & Ramli Sulong, N. H. (2020). Performance of dowel beam-to- column connections for precast concrete systems under seismic loads: A review. Construction and Building Materials, 237, 117582. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2019.117582 Grassi, G., Lupica Spagnolo, S., & Paoletti, I. (2019). Fabrication and durability testing of a 3D printed façade for desert climates. Additive Manufacturing, 28, 439–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADDMA.2019.05.023 Hannover, U., & Taha, A. (n.d.). I T G INSTITUT FÜR TECHNIK IN GARTENBAU UND LANDWIRTSCHAFT Simulation Model of Energy Fluxes in Passive Solar Greenhouses with a Concrete North-Wall. Houda, M., Djamel, A., & Fayçal, L. (2015). An Assessment of Thermal Comfort and Users’ 343 “Perceptions” in Office Buildings - Case of Arid Areas with Hot and Dry Climate -. Energy Procedia, 74, 243–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYPRO.2015.07.589 Huang, L., & Zhai, Z. (John). (2020). Critical review and quantitative evaluation of indoor thermal comfort indices and models incorporating solar radiation effects. Energy and Buildings, 224, 110204. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENBUILD.2020.110204 IES VE - R2M Solution. (n.d.). Retrieved December 2, 2022, from https://www.r2msolution.com/services/innovative-products/ies-ve/ IES Virtual Environment | The Leading Integrated Suite for Accurate Whole Building Performance Simulation. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2022, from https://www.iesve.com/software/virtual- environment Is This the First Tiny House? | Apartment Therapy. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2022, from https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/first-tiny-house-henry-david-thoreau-255479 Jannat, N., Hussien, A., Abdullah, B., & Cotgrave, A. (2020). A Comparative Simulation Study of the Thermal Performances of the Building Envelope Wall Materials in the Tropics. Sustainability 2020, Vol. 12, Page 4892, 12(12), 4892. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12124892 Jones, A., Paddy, S., Bugni, V ., Gross, C., & Smith, S. (2021). Sustainable Tiny Home Final Design Review Sponsor. Joshua Tree, CA Earthquakes | Homefacts. (n.d.). Retrieved November 5, 2022, from https://www.homefacts.com/earthquakes/California/San-Bernardino-County/Joshua-Tree.html Joshua Tree National Park Climate, Weather By Month, Average Temperature (California, United States) - Weather Spark. (n.d.). Retrieved November 5, 2022, from https://weatherspark.com/y/150301/Average-Weather-in-Joshua-Tree-National-Park-California- United-States-Year-Round joshua tree national park recorded 2.4 million visitors in 2020. (n.d.). Retrieved January 25, 2023, from https://www.nps.gov/jotr/learn/news/2-4-million-visitors-2020.htm Julie Lasky. (n.d.). The Surprising Origins of the Tiny House Phenomenon - Curbed. Retrieved September 1, 2022, from https://archive.curbed.com/2016/7/13/12162832/tiny-house-history- hermits Kaiser, J. (n.d.). Joshua Tree : the complete guide : Joshua Tree National Park. Kellie Hwang. (2022, February 28). The California ZIP codes where home prices rose the most in the pandemic. https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/California-real-estate-home-prices- ZIP-codes-16951655.php Kilman, C. (2016). Small House, Big Impact: The Effect of Tiny Houses on Community and Environment. Undergraduate Journal of Humanistic Studies • Winter, 2. http://tinyhousecommunity.com/faq.htm. 344 Kośny, J., & Kossecka, E. (2002). Multi-dimensional heat transfer through complex building envelope assemblies in hourly energy simulation programs. Energy and Buildings, 34(5), 445–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(01)00122-0 Kyle, P., Clarke, L., Rong, F., & Smith, S. J. (2010). Climate Policy and the Long-Term Evolution of the U.S. Buildings Sector. The Energy Journal, 31(2), 145–172. https://doi.org/10.5547/ISSN0195-6574-EJ-VOL31-NO2-6 Ladybug Tools | Food4Rhino. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2022, from https://www.food4rhino.com/en/app/ladybug-tools Lehrer Architect LA. (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2022, from https://www.lehrerarchitects.com/project/chandler-tiny-home/ Levenspiel, O. (1984). The Three Mechanisms of Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation. 161–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6907-7_9 Li, X., Zhou, Y ., Yu, S., Jia, G., Li, H., & Li, W. (2019). Urban heat island impacts on building energy consumption: A review of approaches and findings. Energy, 174, 407–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENERGY .2019.02.183 Li, Y ., Chi, J., & Yam, W. (2016). Designing Thermal Mass in Naturally Ventilated Buildings. Http://Dx.Doi.Org/10.1080/14733315.2004.11683675, 2(4), 313–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733315.2004.11683675 Lloyd Kahn, B. E. (1990). Shelter. 176. Lu, W., Chen, K., Xue, F., & Pan, W. (2018). Searching for an optimal level of prefabrication in construction: An analytical framework. Journal of Cleaner Production, 201, 236–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2018.07.319 Lu, W., & Yuan, H. (2013). Investigating waste reduction potential in the upstream processes of offshore prefabrication construction. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 28, 804–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2013.08.048 Ma, N., Aviv, D., Guo, H., & Braham, W. W. (2021). Measuring the right factors: A review of variables and models for thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 135, 110436. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2020.110436 MacroFlo Opening Types. (n.d.). Retrieved February 18, 2023, from https://help.iesve.com/ve2022/macroflo_opening_types.htm?ms=EQAAZAAAAAAAAAAAAA AABgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAEBUGBAFABA%3D%3D&q=TWFjcm9mbG8%3D&st=Mg%3D%3D&sct=NTU5LjQ1 NzA5MjI4NTE1NjI%3D&mw=MjQw Mangold, S., & Zschau, T. (2019). In Search of the “Good Life”: The Appeal of the Tiny House Lifestyle in the USA. Social Sciences 2019, Vol. 8, Page 26, 8(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/SOCSCI8010026 345 Masoso, O. T., & Grobler, L. J. (2008). A new and innovative look at anti-insulation behaviour in building energy consumption. Energy and Buildings, 40(10), 1889–1894. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENBUILD.2008.04.013 Matheus Pereira. (n.d.-a). 1000m2 Prefabricated Housing / SUMMARY | ArchDaily. Retrieved December 4, 2022, from https://www.archdaily.com/938539/1000m2-prefabricated-housing- summary?ad_medium=gallery Matheus Pereira. (n.d.-b). Bivouac Under Grintovec Shelter / Miha Kajzelj architect | ArchDaily. Retrieved September 10, 2022, from https://www.archdaily.com/955217/bivouac-under- grintovec-shelter-miha-kajzelj-architect Mingfang, T. (2002). Solar control for buildings. Building and Environment, 37(7), 659–664. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(01)00063-4 ModulSolution – Modular homes for living, working and relaxing – ModulSolution – Modular homes for living, working and relaxing. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2022, from http://modulsolution.com/en/modular-projects/ Morrissey, J., Moore, T., & Horne, R. E. (2011). Affordable passive solar design in a temperate climate: An experiment in residential building orientation. Renewable Energy, 36(2), 568–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RENENE.2010.08.013 Murillo, C., & Bianchi, C. (2022). The experience and well-being outcomes of tiny house owners in Latin America. Https://Doi.Org/10.1080/02673037.2022.2091116, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2022.2091116 Nguyen, A. T., Reiter, S., & Rigo, P. (2014). A review on simulation-based optimization methods applied to building performance analysis. Applied Energy, 113, 1043–1058. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APENERGY .2013.08.061 Oktay, H., Argunhan, Z., Yumrutaş, R., … M. I.-M. J. of, & 2016, undefined. (2016). An investigation of the influence of thermophysical properties of multilayer walls and roofs on the dynamic thermal characteristics. Dergipark.Org.Tr, 2(1), 48–54. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/muglajsci/issue/25592/269972 old hippie – fine woodwork and tiny homes. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2022, from http://oldhippieww.com/ OP AQUE 3 | Society of Building Science Educators. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2023, from https://www.sbse.org/resources/opaque Our Guide for What to Do in Joshua Tree | Condé Nast Traveler. (n.d.). Retrieved April 11, 2023, from https://www.cntraveler.com/story/guide-to-joshua-tree Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved February 18, 2023, from https://help.iesve.com/ve2022/overview_9.htm?ms=EQAAZAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABgAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAEBU 346 GBAFABA%3D%3D&q=TWFjcm9mbG8%3D&st=Mg%3D%3D&sct=NTU5LjQ1NzA5MjI4 NTE1NjI%3D&mw=MjQw Ozel, M. (2011). Effect of wall orientation on the optimum insulation thickness by using a dynamic method. Applied Energy, 88(7), 2429–2435. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APENERGY .2011.01.049 Ozel, M. (2012). The influence of exterior surface solar absorptivity on thermal characteristics and optimum insulation thickness. Renewable Energy, 39(1), 347–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RENENE.2011.08.039 Pacheco, R., Ordóñez, J., & Martínez, G. (2012). Energy efficient design of building: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(6), 3559–3573. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2012.03.045 Pérez-Lombard, L., Ortiz, J., & Pout, C. (2008). A review on buildings energy consumption information. Energy and Buildings, 40(3), 394–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENBUILD.2007.03.007 Ramsey-Musolf, D. (2018). Accessory Dwelling Units as Low-Income Housing: California’s Faustian Bargain. Urban Science 2018, Vol. 2, Page 89, 2(3), 89. https://doi.org/10.3390/URBANSCI2030089 Ranger Programs - Joshua Tree National Park (U.S. National Park Service). (n.d.). Retrieved September 18, 2022, from https://www.nps.gov/jotr/planyourvisit/programs.htm Rijal, H. B., Tuohy, P., Humphreys, M. A., Nicol, J. F., Samuel, A., Raja, I. A., & Clarke, J. (n.d.). Development of adaptive algorithms for the operation of windows, fans, and doors to predict thermal comfort and energy use in Pakistani buildings. Shafigh, P., Asadi, I., & Mahyuddin, N. B. (2018). Concrete as a thermal mass material for building applications - A review. Journal of Building Engineering, 19, 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JOBE.2018.04.021 Shearer, H., & Burton, P. (2018). Towards a Typology of Tiny Houses. Https://Doi.Org/10.1080/14036096.2018.1487879, 36(3), 298–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/14036096.2018.1487879 Sheikh Anwarul Mahdi. (n.d.). 12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Precast Concrete - Civil Engineering. Retrieved November 14, 2022, from https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering- materials/concrete/232-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-precast-concrete Standard 55 – Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy. (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2022, from https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/bookstore/standard-55- thermal-environmental-conditions-for-human-occupancy Susanka, S., & Obolensky, K. (1998). The not so big house : a blueprint for the way we really live. 199. 347 Sweet, L. C., Green, T., Heintz, J. G. C., Frakes, N., Graver, N., Rangitsch, J. S., Rodgers, J. E., Heacox, S., & Barrows, C. W. (2019). Congruence between future distribution models and empirical data for an iconic species at Joshua Tree National Park. Ecosphere, 10(6), e02763. https://doi.org/10.1002/ECS2.2763 This normal-looking tiny house on wheels has one simply incredible feature | loveproperty.com. (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2022, from https://www.loveproperty.com/gallerylist/83757/this- normal-looking-tiny-house-on-wheels-has-one-simply-incredible-feature Time Lag and Decrement Factor. (n.d.). Retrieved March 7, 2023, from https://www.new- learn.info/packages/clear/thermal/buildings/building_fabric/properties/time_lag.html Tong, X. C. (2011). Characterization Methodologies of Thermal Management Materials. Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics, 30, 59–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7759- 5_2/TABLES/5 Toutou, A., Fikry, M., & Mohamed, W. (2018). The parametric based optimization framework daylighting and energy performance in residential buildings in hot arid zone. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 57(4), 3595–3608. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AEJ.2018.04.006 Ürge-V orsatz, D., Eyre, N., Graham, P., Harvey, D., Hertwich, E., Jiang, Y ., Kornevall, C., Majumdar, M., McMahon, J. E., Mirasgedis, S., Murakami, S., Novikova, A., Janda, K., Masera, O., McNeil, M., Petrichenko, K., Herrero, S. T., & Jochem, E. (2012). Energy End-Use: Buildings. Global Energy Assessment (GEA), 649–760. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511793677.016 VanGeem, M. (2006). Achieving sustainability with precast concrete. PCI Journal, 51(1). https://doi.org/10.15554/PCIJ.01012006.42.61 Walker, L. (1987). Tiny Houses: or How to Get Away From It All. 220. Wang, Z., Zhang, L., Zhao, J., & He, Y . (2010). Thermal comfort for naturally ventilated residential buildings in Harbin. Energy and Buildings, 42(12), 2406–2415. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENBUILD.2010.08.010 What is Embodied Carbon? - CarbonCure. (n.d.). Retrieved April 12, 2023, from https://www.carboncure.com/concrete-corner/what-is-embodied-carbon/ When to Go in Joshua Tree National Park | Frommer’ s. (n.d.). Retrieved September 18, 2022, from https://www.frommers.com/destinations/joshua-tree-national-park/planning-a-trip/when-to-go Williams, D. (Builder). (n.d.). The big tiny : a built-it-myself memoir. 288. Work With Us - Joshua Tree National Park (U.S. National Park Service). (n.d.). Retrieved September 18, 2022, from https://www.nps.gov/jotr/getinvolved/workwithus.htm Wotton, J., Skates, H., & Shutter, L. (2019). Tiny House – when size matters. Https://Doi.Org/10.1080/07293682.2019.1634112, 55(3–4), 209–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/07293682.2019.1634112 348 Yang, Z., Zhang, W., Qin, M., & Liu, H. (2022). Comparative study of indoor thermal environment and human thermal comfort in residential buildings among cities, towns, and rural areas in arid regions of China. Energy and Buildings, 273, 112373. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENBUILD.2022.112373 Yumrutaş, R., Ünsal, M., & Kanoǧlu, M. (2005). Periodic solution of transient heat flow through multilayer walls and flat roofs by complex finite Fourier transform technique. Building and Environment, 40(8), 1117–1125. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BUILDENV .2004.09.005 Z. Liang, X. Z. (2009). Computation of thermal environment of light weight steel temporary house under natural ventilation condition. New Build Mater. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Computation of thermal environment of light weight steel temporary house under natural ventilation condition&publication_year=2009&author=Z. Liang&author=X. Zhang Zhao, L., Zhang, J. L., & Liang, R. B. (2013). Development of an energy monitoring system for large public buildings. Energy and Buildings, 66, 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENBUILD.2013.07.007

Abstract (if available)

Abstract A tiny house for seasonal rangers was designed for the extreme climate and diurnal temperature fluctuations of Joshua Tree National Park. The challenging climate conditions resulted in an extensive investigation of the building envelope to act as a passive thermal storage system to naturally cool and heat the house. The north wall was designed as a “cold battery,” which uses a dynamic internal and external insulation system with a high-mass concrete wall to achieve coolth absorption at night as part of a thermal management system and to achieve indoor thermal comfort under extreme desert climates. A combination of opening an exterior insulation system at night to absorb coolth, closing the exterior insulation system when the temperature rises, and opening the interior insulation system to release coolth was attempted. The goal was to achieve a comfortable indoor temperature without the use of HVAC systems. Other student researchers were concurrently looking at other parts of the building. Several software programs were tested for their capabilities to simulate time lag in concrete and thermal storage including Opaque and IES VE. The design of the north wall was carried out for different conditions such as different modulating profiles, locations and thicknesses of insulation, and the data were collected and analyzed again. IES VE was able to successfully simulate the effects of moving interior and exterior insulation twice a day on different sides of a concrete wall. Additional simulations were carried out on the entire residence to study thermal comfort conditions, minimally for the months of the year rangers were present; natural ventilation proved to be a good strategy.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

A high-performance SuperWall: designed for a small residence at Joshua Tree National Park

PDF

Thermal performance of a precast roof assembly: achieving comfort using dynamic insulation and photovoltaics in an extreme climate designed for a small residence at Joshua Tree National Park

PDF

Enhancing thermal comfort: air temperature control based on human facial skin temperature

PDF

Solar thermal cooling and heating: a year-round thermal comfort strategy using a hybrid solar absorption chiller and hydronic heating scheme

PDF

Developing environmental controls using a data-driven approach for enhancing environmental comfort and energy performance

PDF

Developing a data-driven model of overall thermal sensation based on the use of human physiological information in a built environment

PDF

Improving thermal comfort in residential spaces in the wet tropical climate zones of India using passive cooling techniques: a study using computational design methods

PDF

Night flushing and thermal mass: maximizing natural ventilation for energy conservation through architectural features

PDF

Enhancing thermal comfort: data-driven approach to control air temperature based on facial skin temperature

PDF

Exploration for the prediction of thermal comfort & sensation with application of building HVAC automation

PDF

Pre-cast concrete envelopes in hot-humid climates: examining envelopes to reduce cooling load and electrical consumption

PDF

Real-time simulation-based feedback on carbon impacts for user-engaged temperature management

PDF

Occupant-aware energy management: energy saving and comfort outcomes achievable through application of cooling setpoint adjustments

PDF

Dynamic shading and glazing technologies: improve energy, visual, and thermal performance

PDF

Visualizing thermal data in a building information model

PDF

Natural ventilation in tall buildings: development of design guidelines based on climate and building height

PDF

Double skin façades performance: effects on daylight and visual comfort in office spaces

PDF

Environmentally responsive buildings: multi-objective optimization workflow for daylight and thermal quality

PDF

Airflow investigation of fabric membrane forms: a fluid dynamic analysis for thermal comfort

PDF

Exterior glare simulation: understanding solar convergence from concave facades using heat maps

Asset Metadata

Creator He, Yuqing (author)

Core Title Tiny house in the desert: a study in indoor comfort using moveable insulation and thermal storage

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Building Science

Degree Program Building Science

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 04/27/2023

Defense Date 03/31/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag dynamic insulation/movable insulation,Joshua Tree National Park,OAI-PMH Harvest,precast concrete,thermal comfort

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Noble, Douglas E. (committee chair), Kensek, Karen M. (committee member), Patterson, Mic (committee member), Schiler, Marc (committee member)

Creator Email 2863069634@qq.com,yuqinghe@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113089109

Unique identifier UC113089109

Identifier etd-HeYuqing-11723.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-HeYuqing-11723

Document Type Thesis

Format theses (aat)

Rights He, Yuqing

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230427-usctheses-batch-1032 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu